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diff --git a/44606-8.txt b/44606-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..00a4206 --- /dev/null +++ b/44606-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1559 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Wood Engraving by R. John Beedham + + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no +restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: Wood Engraving + +Author: R. John Beedham + +Release Date: January 6, 2014 [Ebook #44606] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO 8859-1 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WOOD ENGRAVING*** + + + + + + WOOD ENGRAVING + + + By R. JOHN BEEDHAM + WITH INTRODUCTION AND APPENDIX + BY ERIC GILL + + [] + + +FABER AND FABER LIMITED +24 RUSSELL SQUARE +LONDON. 1921 + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +INTRODUCTION TO SECOND EDITION +WOOD-ENGRAVING PAST AND PRESENT +WOOD ENGRAVING +THE WOOD +DRAWING +ENGRAVING +PROOF TAKING +PREPARING BLOCK FOR PRINTER +PLUGGING +APPENDIX + + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + +Wood-cut from The Decameron, Venice, 1492. Re-engraved by R. J. Beedham. +By permission of The Shakespeare Head Press +Alphabet, by Reynolds Stone _(By permission of Burns, Gates & Washbourne, +Ltd.)_ +_From_ Forrest Reid's Apostate, by Reynolds Stone _(By permission of Faber +& Faber, Ltd.)_ +Winter, from a sketch by Verrall, by R. J. Beedham +Strawberry Picking, by Claire Leighton _(By permission of Victor +Gollancz)_ +March, by Mrs. G. Raverat +"Miss Jenkyns reading Rasselas," by Joan Hassall _(By permission of George +G. Harrap & Co., Ltd.)_ +The Cottage, by Robert Gibbings + + + + + +INTRODUCTION TO SECOND EDITION + + +This book is not a treatise upon the _art_ of wood-engraving. It is simply +a description of the tools and materials required by a beginner and the +method of using them. It is not intended to assist anyone to become a +commercial engraver, for that trade requires a long and specialized +training. It is intended rather for those who have occasion or opportunity +or inclination to make illustrations or ornaments for books and who are +revolted by the degradation to which the art of formal drawing has been +brought by photographic "process" reproduction. + +The "line" block and the "half-tone" have one clear claim to usefulness: +viz. when an exact facsimile is required. It is doubtful, however, whether +process reproduction would have been developed very far if its use had +been confined to those occasions, and those only, when exact facsimile was +of vital importance. Process reproduction owes its success to its +commercial possibilities more than to its real merits, for, in spite of +the frequently reiterated boast of those engaged in business that nothing +can be a commercial success that does not "supply a want," by photographic +reproduction a speed and cheapness have been obtained which have seduced +both artists and the public. A "want" has certainly been supplied, but it +is a want of quantity rather than of quality, and, as in all cases where +quantitative ideas are the motive force, quality has inevitably +deteriorated so that book production has become a mere business and with +no criterion save that of a commercial success. + +It is of course impossible to stem the tide of commercial degradation +until Poverty, Chastity, and Obedience take the place of Riches, Pleasure, +and _Laisser-faire_ as personal and national ideals. Such a change of +heart cannot occur merely as the result of economic or social or +philosophical propaganda; the matter is more fundamental than that. The +modern world is founded upon a denial of absolute values, a denial of +religion, a denial of God; upon such denials nothing can be built. +Goodness becomes what the police will allow or can enforce. Beauty becomes +what pleases the senses and Truth becomes what will pay. + +Meanwhile it is possible for any individual that wills to do so to go out +into the wilderness and to live and work in a manner more in harmony with +the nature of man and the will of God. For it is in accord neither with +the will of God nor the nature of man that any one should love himself +more than his neighbour or his neighbour more than God. The present state +of affairs is an unnatural and abnormal thing. It is a disease. And any +one can by the grace of God cure at least himself and put his own affairs +in order. + +In the domain of art the remedy is the same as in any other. The thing +good in itself must be found and loved. Relative values must give place to +absolute, the lovely and lovable to the beautiful. "Does it pay?" is not +the question. Is it good in itself?--That is the important thing. And the +more you apply that standard to your own work and to that of others, the +more you will find the necessity of personal responsibility. + +But personal responsibility for work done is, from the point of view of +commercial success, actually an evil! Make men responsible for their work +and not merely for doing what they are told; make their own consciences +their masters and the whole of our modern factory system will come +tumbling down like a house of cards. For the factory system is a servile +system in which personal responsibility is denied and of no factory +article may you say: this is the work of such an one--he made it. In the +matter of drawing and illustration and engraving, degradation is +inevitable when one man draws, another touches up the drawing, another +photographs, another touches up the negative, another prints it on the +metal, another etches, another touches up the etching, another routs it, +another mounts it, another proves it and another keeps the accounts and to +crown all, another takes the profits. This excessive sub-division is +inevitable where profit making is the motive power. It is, however, the +artist and the workman who are to be blamed, not the man of business. (The +man of business does his job very well. Certainly he has no right to be +ruler, as he is at present, but it is _our_ fault for allowing him to +rule.) And as good men must precede good law, and not _vice versa,_ so the +individual must revolt against the evil system and not wait until the many +are prepared to revolt with him. Wood-engraving and wood-cutting have gone +out of general use not because photographic process reproduction is +better, or even because it is cheaper and quicker, but simply because +larger profits can be made by employing many persons under a system of +divided labour than by working in a small workshop and putting the quality +of the work before the quantity of the output. The consumer or customer is +flattered and his grosser appetites appealed to. The merchant does not ask +himself what good thing he can supply but what he can supply at a good +profit. The whole trouble is that the responsibility for the making of +things is not in the hands of the workman but in those of the man of +business--and this is hell. + +The advantage of wood-engraving then is that it does away with several +sets of middle men and places responsibility upon the shoulders of the +workman. The workman who draws, engraves and prints his own blocks is +master of the situation. He can blame nobody but himself if his work goes +wrong. Whether it goes right or wrong depends upon his notions of right +and wrong. The first thing is that he should be free to satisfy his own +conscience and not be a mere tool in the hands of another. Liber est causa +sui, servus autem ordinatur ad alium (i.e. The freeman is responsible to +himself--but for the slave someone else is responsible. Saint Thomas +Aquinas, _Summa Theologica)._ + +Another advantage of wood-engraving is that it forces upon the workman +some respect for the thing in itself and makes it impossible for him to +place a merely relative value upon the art of drawing. Mere likeness to +nature is much more easily achieved by drawing, whether in line or wash, +upon paper. The graver and the wood both of them make their own demands +and make mere imitation of nature almost impossible. The workman is +compelled to consider his work primarily as an engraving and only +secondarily as a representation. This is a good thing, for a work of art +is primarily a thing of Beauty in itself and not a representation of +something else, however beautiful that other thing may be. This the public +does not understand. Hence the absurdity of allowing the public to be +supplied by persons who are not workmen and who have no knowledge of the +implications of good workmanship but are simply men of business out to +supply whatever is most profitable to themselves. + +He who would be an engraver must therefore start with a clear +understanding that there is "no money in it"; though if he be patient and +devoted he may make a living or a part of a living by it. Further, he must +be prepared to start with the wood and the graver and his sense of what is +beautiful in itself and not strain after effects. He should take it for +granted that a zig-zag pattern such as a child would engrave is better +than the most expert imitation of a sunset. In fact he must be pre pared +to begin at the beginning and to put the first things first. + + E. G. + + + + + + +WOOD-ENGRAVING PAST AND PRESENT + + +Although Mr. Eric Gill in his introduction has explained that this book is +not a treatise on the art of wood-engraving, I feel constrained to add a +chapter to the present edition of the work, chiefly on the past and modern +styles of wood engraving; also to give some information to the younger +craftsmen, some of whom, having lived only in an age of photo-mechanical +reproduction, are quite unaware of the important part that wood engraving +has had in the past for the purposes of book-illustration. + +It is a very old craft, older than book-printing from type. It quickly +became the chief means of decorating and illustrating books, and continued +to be so until the invention of photographic processes, which, for general +purposes have supplanted it. Some of the old blocks, cut in simple +outline, fit the printed page in a most admirable manner; in their +particular style they have not been surpassed. An example of this is the +re-cut from _The Decameron_ 1492 on page 47. These early blocks were all +cut on the long grain of the wood, a method that continued until it was +discovered that the end grain was a better medium for cutting of fine +lines for shading or outline. + +It is a disputed point whether artists like Dürer or Holbein engraved +their own work. It was probably left to the expert to cut in faithful +facsimile the drawings done by the artist on wood. With a few notable +exceptions, this method of the division of labour, the artist being one +person and the engraver another, continued until wood-engraving was +supplanted by process. For reproductive purposes it was a natural +division. After that a completely new style of engraving, that of the +present day, came into being. + +Thomas Bewick was one of the great exceptions to this division of artist +and engraver. Not only did he engrave his own drawings, but he evolved a +completely new style. He abandoned elaborate cross hatching, and for the +most part cut in the most direct and simple way. Nevertheless, for +ordinary reproductive purposes the artist and engraver continued to be +different persons; the artist continued to draw on the wood, filling the +shading with a wash of Indian ink and finishing by means of pen or pencil +lines, or perhaps using the pen alone, but whether drawn by pen or pencil +the engraver faithfully reproduced it, line by line. This necessitated +great skill on the part of the engraver, for the merest thickening or +thinning of the lines altered the effect of the drawing. But sometimes the +drawing was done by wash only, in which case the engraver kept as nearly +as he could to the shade or tone of the original without the aid of +cross-hatching. + +This continued until photography made itself felt. It is remarkable that a +vast industry, of which the cinema is the latest development, should have +arisen as the result of the discovery that certain substances changed +their colour and character in the presence of light. It first greatly +influenced wood-engraving and finally ousted it as a means of +reproduction. Photographers found a way of photographing on to the wood +not only drawings but other photographs, and the engraver had to adjust +his style to the new medium, for to cut direct from a photograph was very +different from cutting facsimile from a drawing. The black lines of +cross-hatching disappeared and white lines took their place. Whenever +possible a white line was cut and cross-hatching, where it was necessary, +consisted of white lines crossing each other. Not only so but a method of +cutting short white lines or dots, known generally as stippling, came to +be used. Reproductive engraving speeded up and became a miracle of skill. +The use of stipple reached its outstanding development in the work of the +American, Timothy Cole. In his engravings of the Old Masters he got +amazing effects of atmosphere by means of stippling alone. + +The same photographic influence made itself felt amongst the commercial +engravers of machinery. The black outlines of the machine became altered +to white lines whenever possible, and as in the pictorial field, the style +became completely altered. Here let me say that the engraving of machinery +for commercial catalogues is one of the most exacting forms of engraving +that I know. As a means of showing the object perfectly it holds its own +to the present day. There are a rapidly dwindling few who still manage to +get a living from it. + +The great skill of the reproductive engraver was amazing. On the staff of +some of the periodicals, where speed joined to excellence of cutting was +essential, there were engravers who could cut a good portrait in two +hours, and this in the style just described, line upon line in the +perfectly free precision of the time. But this skill of the old +reproductive engraver, skill largely for its own sake I fear, made more +easy his undoing. Individuality became partly lost in the skill of +technique. It sometimes seemed as if he were imitating his great +competitor, the process block. The Americans were, I think, great +offenders in this. Though a most lovely craft, wood-engraving, just before +it was superseded by process, had not within it sufficient originality and +power to hold its own. It was largely reproductive only: the real artist +was too often left out. Process developed rapidly as the more effective +way of reproducing originals of one sort or another, and the reproductive +engraver was bereft of his craft. The output of engravings had been +enormous. Some of the old-established printing and publishing firms +cherish their old wood blocks: they belong to the furniture of the past. +Others sold their blocks to the boxwood merchant, not by the block but by +the ton! + +The period just preceding the influence of photography was one, in the +writer's opinion, when reproductive engraving reached its highest level +for book illustration. The engravings of this period, if properly printed, +appeal for the quality of their softness, their skill, and a sweetness of +effect seldom accomplished by the modern style. In many of the volumes of +this period are wood-engravings unequalled in their fidelity to the +objects shown, and that have a beauty not surpassed by modern or any other +engraving. But the days when they were engraved are long since past. We +wait again for their revival, which I believe will come, for it is too +good a thing to be entirely lost. But it cannot come as it came before: +that never happens. The difference will be that the artist will do his own +engraving. There are engravers of the present time, who, almost +unconsciously, are doing work much in the style of this period. + +The modern revival of wood-engraving, which came just after the war, is +quite different in style from any that preceded it. The artist and +engraver are now one, as they should be where original work is to be done, +and every exponent of the craft expresses his or her own individuality. +The technique of the old school was swept completely away. "Start +engraving with an axe" was an exhortation overheard, and some of the +earliest examples, with their masses of unrelieved black, rather look as +if they had been engraved by that implement. Design is the outstanding +quality of the present style. Twenty years has brought command of the +engraving tool and now most excellent work is produced with the +originality of the artist-craftsman upon it. The early crudeness having +gone, the modern engraver brings to the printed page a decoration +outstanding in effect. Amongst the mass of process reproduction is the +Wood-engraver, engraving his own designs, thereby expressing an +originality which will most certainly mark the present age of +book-production as something well worth examination. It is therefore +essential that the modern engraver design his own engravings and he will +select the kind of tools which will best express his own individuality, +for it is this individuality of the artist which alone amongst all its +competitors will keep alive Wood-engraving as a vital craft. + + + + + +WOOD ENGRAVING + + +Ten engraving tools are as many as will be required for ordinary purposes. +The beginner can start with five, but labour is often saved by having a +sufficient number. They should be about 3½ inches in length, according to +the size of the worker's hand, and when held in correct position the point +of the tool should not extend beyond the end of the thumb more than half +an inch. In practice the greatest freedom is obtained when the point +extends but little beyond the thumb, but as some allowance must be made +for repeated sharpening away on the oilstone, the half-inch extension is +recommended. When purchased they are generally much longer, 6 inches, but +this length is much too great to allow the tool to be used with ease. The +makers will generally grind them down to the required length for the +purchaser, an ink mark or piece of stamp paper stuck to the tool +indicating exactly the amount to be taken off. One side of the handle is +flat, and the tool, as it enters the handle, is slightly curved upwards. +This is to allow for free passage of the hand and tool over the surface of +the wood, and though tools may be without this upward curve they lose +freedom of action by being so. + + [Fig. 1] + + Fig. 1 + + + [Fig. 2] + + Fig. 2 + + +Of the ten tools, six will be known as tint-tools, three as spit-sticks, +one as scauper. The tint-tools cut lines of uniform width from extreme +fineness (No. 1) to much greater width (No. 6). They are used for tinting, +that is, cutting a series of lines to produce a tint or shade; for +outlining, especially lettering; and for scauping. The numbers used here +are for descriptive convenience only. When ordering, the actual width of +cut required should be given, otherwise the purchaser may receive +something very different from what was expected. + + [Fig. 3] + + Fig. 3 + + +The spit-sticks (Nos. 1 to 3) are tools by which the cut can be easily +broadened by gradually pressing the point deeper into the wood. By keeping +to one depth they can also be used in the same manner as tint-rounded +sides and cut through the wood with smooth ease. Instead of spit-sticks, +tools known as gravers are often used. They are flat-sided, as tint-tools +are, but the spread is much greater. The cut made is the same as that made +with spit-sticks but a much greater spread is possible. The finest is +known as the lozenge graver, the broadest as the square graver. They are +used in the same manner as spit-sticks and often preferred to them, but +they lack the smooth ease of cutting which is the special feature of +spit-sticks. + + [Fig. 4] + + Fig. 4 + + +The scauper, the tool of greatest width, is used for clearing away the +wood round the engraving. It is desirable that the belly part of this tool +should be sufficiently rounded: a point too square will not cut through +the wood easily. An extra tool with a square point, about the size of the +largest tint-tool, may be found useful for taking out corners. + + [Fig. 5] + + Fig. 5 + + +A good selection for the beginner starting with five tools only would be +two spit-sticks (1 & 3, Fig. 3), two tint tools (4 & 6, Fig. 2), and one +scauper. + +It must be clearly borne in mind that the style or character of the work +is greatly influenced by the shape of the point used. The craftsman will +be able, after a little time, to select the shape of tool which best suits +his work. Once a tool is made up, and found to be good, to alter it is not +desirable. To convert it to its old form is not easy. Rather keep an old +one to experiment with, if needful, and never chance the spoiling of a +proved tool. + +For those who find a difficulty in buying tools and who wish perhaps to +have them made locally, a good plan is to buy one good tool, and have +others made to this model by the blacksmith, carpenter or other handy man. +Old files can be successfully turned into quite good engraving tools. The +point to remember is that the belly or point part of the tool be evenly +shaped on both sides. If this is not attended to, the tool will always +have a tendency to cut too much in one direction, or spring out of the +wood. + + [Fig. 6] + + Fig. 6 + + +A gouge, to be used as a chisel, that is, with a mallet, is used to carve +away all wood round the engraving, so as to leave only the engraving in +relief. This is always necessary when the printing is done direct from the +wood block. It is not necessary when taking hand-proofs. A flat tool or +small chisel is useful for lowering edges which fade into white, for +preparing small plugs and for trimming straight edges. + + [Fig. 7] + + Fig. 7 + + + [Fig. 8] + + Fig. 8 + + +The sandbag (Fig. 7) is made of two circular pieces of leather sewn +together and filled with fine sand. The sand is poured in just before +completing the last stitches. Any other durable substance can be used +instead of leather. On this solid yet easy base the block held by the left +hand can be turned about at will. It should be not less than five inches +across. To have it smaller may mean difficulty when engraving large +blocks. A magnifying glass is not recommended unless the eyesight is +defective. When there is defective vision it is safer and better to use a +glass and avoid strain, so it must be included as a probably necessary +thing. A double lens should be used, and should be large enough to cover a +block of 2 or 3 inches. The stand (Fig. 8) allows the lens to be turned +away, raised or lowered at will. A watchmaker's glass can be used (for one +eye only) held in position over the eye by a piece of string round the +head. It provides only a small field of view. + + [Fig. 9] + + Fig. 9 + + +Fig. 9 shows a globe filled with water, to be used at night to concentrate +the light on to the work. The light of the lamp is directly behind the +globe. A bull's-eye lens can be used as a substitute and is equally good. +It is well to shield away by brown paper fixed to the top of the globe, or +other means, all light that does not fall on the block. It is most +unrestful to look up from work into the direct glare of a lamp; to work +without a globe or bull's-eye with artificial light produces great +eye-strain and bad work. Good light is essential at all times. + + [Fig. 10] + + Fig. 10 + + +Fig. 10 shows the roller and slab used for inking the engraving when +taking a proof. A leather roller is best but difficult to make; +composition is generally used. An old method, the method of Caxton and +quite good, is to use a dabber. The ink is dabbed on instead of rolled on. +It can be easily made, a covering of thin leather filled with rags for +padding, which must be quite firm, being all that is required (Fig. 11). + + [Fig. 11] + + Fig. 11 + + + [Fig. 12] + + Fig. 12 + + +The burnisher (Fig. 12) is used for rubbing the proof off after inking the +block. Steel is best, but bone will do, or the back of a teaspoon, using +the bowl as a handle. + +A supply of boxwood, proofing ink, an oilstone for sharpening tools and +some paper for taking proofs will be necessary. The paper must be thin +(India paper being the best) as it is very difficult to take a proof on +thick paper. + +The table or the bench where the work is to be done must always be firm. +The craftsman should not be unduly bending over the work, but should be as +upright as possible, the height of bench and chair being adjusted to +enable the worker to see the engraving without either eye-strain or +rounding of the back and shoulders. Be comfortable when at work. + +See that the tools are sharp before commencing work. If sharp the point +will always grip or "bite" when loosely "run" across the wood; if blunt it +will slide over. Always use a spare piece of boxwood when testing tools. +The face of the tool only must be sharpened (see Fig. 1). On no account +must the sharpening be done from the underneath or belly part of the tool. +Avoid bearing too much on the point; it is a quick method of sharpening, +but the angle of the face will gradually become more upright and the tool +will not cut through the wood easily. An angle of 45° is about right. +Sharpen by rubbing the face of the tool up and down the length of the +oilstone. Any lubricating oil will serve for the stone. + + + + + +THE WOOD + + +The wood used is boxwood and where fineness of work is desired no other +wood is suitable. Dark marks sometimes indicate inferior quality; white +marks are always bad and should be avoided. Many other kinds of wood have +been tried for engraving without success, especially for work of a +moderately fine character. For large work, such as are termed posters, +sycamore and pine are principally used. + +The method of producing these large blocks is called cutting. Knives, "V" +tools and gouges, instead of gravers are used, and the long grain of the +wood is the printing surface of these; whereas that which is accepted as +engraving proper is always on the end grain of the boxwood. This being the +only really reliable wood for wood engraving, and the engraver's staple +material, it deserves more than a passing notice. + +Turkey produces the finest boxwood though many good samples come from the +Crimea and the Caucasus. + +The best and most valuable wood is of very slow growth, hard and heavy, +and of a very fine and close texture. The wood is sent over in logs. +Careful judgment is required in its selection when sent into the market. +It must be thoroughly seasoned before being used by the engraver as new +wood retains its moisture for a long time, is most liable to split and +warp, and is very susceptible to changes of temperature. + +The measurement of the logs is from 7 to 12 inches in diameter and the +first process of blockmaking is to cut these logs into slices crosswise +about 1 inch in thickness. They are then placed singly in racks for many +months to season, and during this time sharp cracks are heard which denote +that the slices of wood are drying and splitting from the core. Owing to +this splitting, only blocks of small size can be obtained from one piece; +where larger blocks are required and also for the sake of economising +wood, it is necessary to join pieces together. The best and strongest way +is to groove and tongue them together. The sides of the pieces must be +planed true, the grooves cut and the tongues (of some hard wood) glued +into the grooves with very thin glue. They are then pressed very tightly +together with clamps and left to dry. Another way is simply to glue the +pieces together without the groove and tongue. In an even temperature they +hold together quite well, and if the block is for temporary use, little +danger need be apprehended of the joint's opening. Always use very thin +glue thinly applied. The block has now to be planed down to about 7/8 of +an inch thickness, which is the height of type, scraped with a steel +scraper until perfectly level and smooth and finished off with the finest +sand or emery paper. + + + + + +DRAWING + + +The highly-polished surface of the wood will not take the pencil or brush +unless prepared, and the best medium for this is flake-white and finely +ground brickdust in equal proportions. An amount sufficient to cover a +threepenny piece is enough for a block of 6 inches by 4 inches; add one or +more drops of water, and rub thinly and evenly with the fingers until it +starts to dry. + +Chinese white may be used in the place of flakewhite. It can be used +without the brick-dust and applied to the wood by the fingers as before or +spread evenly by means of a soft flat brush passing by direct strokes over +the surface. This method will be quite effective, but will not give such +an even appearance as the brick-dust and white. + +Indian and Chinese ink rubbed up in water and a fine camel hair brush are +used for drawing, or a pencil may be used. The best is one of medium +hardness. Too soft a pencil rubs out easily and soon gives a dirty +appearance to the drawing; one too hard is liable to bruise the wood. + +All drawing on the wood must be reversed. Even in cases where this is not +necessary it is well to remember that the print from the engraving will be +a reverse of the drawing. Make reversing a habit. Much annoyance may thus +be avoided, for it is easy to produce an awkward absurdity, which, though +not apparent to other people, spoils one's own enjoyment of the work. All +lettering must be reversed. A view of the drawing in a mirror before +commencing to engrave will reveal any incorrectness in reversing. + +The engraver is to remember that the production is to be an engraving and +not a drawing; that it is to have the character of an engraving--an +engraving manifest and not an imitation of another drawing, half-tone, or +any other process. Let the dependence be on the engraving tools rather +than the pencil. As far as possible draw direct on to the wood. If this, +by the nature of the subject, is impossible, it may be necessary to trace +on to the wood. + +Trace the subject firmly with a soft pencil and by waxing the sides of the +block fix the tracing tightly over it, face down. Affix one side first in +correct position, rubbing the paper on to the waxed side by means of a +tool handle or other suitable instrument, and stretch the tracing tightly +over until fixed in similar manner to the opposite side. In the absence of +beeswax, soap will do, but it is not nearly so effective, or, failing +both, the paper can be folded to the back of the block in such manner that +movement of the tracing is impossible. Being assured that there will be no +movement of the paper, trace again on to the wood by means of a hard +pencil, or preferably, a steel point. If either of these is too sharp or +pressed on too heavily, it will scratch or bruise the wood. By detaching +the paper from one side the work can be examined without fear of movement, +care being taken to fix again before continuing to trace. Only a very +faint line must be expected and this is all that is required. + +Another method is to scrape some red chalk finely on to a separate piece +of paper (not too large, as it can be used over and over again) and rub it +well on until the paper is evenly reddened. Place the reddened surface +next the wood underneath the tracing--it need not be fixed--and proceed to +trace as before. This method will produce a faint red line and will be +useful when, as sometimes happens, the subject is to be reversed in the +final print. + +These faint outlines must be made stronger, the drawing completed, by +means of camel hair brush and Indian ink or by pencil. Any shading can be +put into the drawing by means of these, always remembering that it is to +be finally expressed in terms of the engraving tool. To draw on the wood +is awkward without some support; a piece of wood as high as the block will +be necessary on which to rest the hand. + + + + + +ENGRAVING + + + [Fig. 13] + + Fig. 13 + + +The tool has to be held in such a way that none of the fingers nor the +thumb is underneath it. The handle rests in the lower part of the hand, +the fourth finger in the groove of the inner part of the handle and the +third finger by its side; these two fingers touch the handle and keep it +in position within the hand. Following the third and fourth, the two +forefingers rest on the outer side of the blade while the thumb, extending +beyond the fingers almost to the point, is on the inside. The thumb is the +only part of the right hand that touches the block. The fingers touch each +other in natural order: there need be no space between any. The tool +should be laid flat upon the table, and may be taken up in one movement +(Fig. 14). Seen from below it should then show as Fig. 15. Held in this +way the tool will pass flat over the wood without any obstruction from any +part of the fingers or hand. + + [Fig. 14] + + Fig. 14 + + + [Fig. 15] + + Fig. 15 + + +The block is held on the sandbag by the left hand, generally towards the +corners, which allows the greatest freedom for turning. When cutting +straight lines the block is held stationary, the tool-hand cutting +forward; when cutting curves the block is turned round, the tool-hand +remaining in one position. There is no hard rule in this, the hands acting +flexibly for each other, but it can be seen at once when engraving that a +circle cannot be cut unless the block is turned round in precise ratio to +the cuts of the tool, while to cut a straight line the wood cannot advance +to the tool's point. + +Engrave the lines one under the other, not one above the other; for +circles it is much more easy to start the cut at the top than to start +underneath, though to be able to start underneath is sometimes useful. The +flat part of the handle should be just above the surface of the wood in +cutting lines or tints, but this does not apply to all work; the angle at +which tools are held must be determined by the shapes to be taken out. Do +not attempt to cut a long line with one cut, but with a succession of +short ones, and do not cut too deeply, or the line or wood on which the +belly of the tool presses will be bruised and will print broken instead of +clean and definite. If the tool be sharp the wood will chip out crisply at +each cut; the lines should be cut out, not pushed or pressed out. Blunt +tools are more responsible for slips than anything else except perhaps a +disturbed mind. + +Should there be any danger of rubbing the drawing during engraving, cover +the block with a piece of thin paper after the manner of a tracing, first +making a small hole where work is to commence. + +The craftsman is advised to practise by engraving something definite, +something that can be used. Aimless cutting and digging about on bits of +wood leads nowhere, for it is a very simple matter to cut a line that need +not be cut in any particular place, whereas to cut the lines exactly to +the subject, to produce something that is required is not only getting +experience, but the result is known at once in success or failure. + + [Fig. 16] + + Fig. 16 + + + [Fig. 17] + + Fig. 17 + + +Roughly speaking there are four different kinds of engraving, of which any +variations and combinations can be made. The first and most natural is to +cut white lines on black, and in many cases the subject will be +sufficiently expressed without further work; Fig. 16 is cut in this way. +Fig. 17 shows the background tinted or shaded, that is, lines cut one +under the other. Fig. 18 is the black letter cleared (scauped) away +leaving it white, while Fig. 19 shows all wood cleared away except +outlines. Bold simple lettering is an excellent subject to begin with. See +that the corners are joined cleanly: little jagged bits left in look +slovenly and print in a dirty manner. + + [Fig. 18] + + Fig. 18 + + + [Fig. 19] + + Fig. 19 + + + [Fig. 20] + + Fig. 20 + + +The larger tint-tools and scaupers are used for scauping or clearing, that +is, for clearing a wide line round the work and cutting away all wood not +wanted. While doing this it is essential to protect the surrounding work +from the belly of the tool by a thin piece of card (Fig. 20). It must be +thin yet of sufficient substance to withstand the pressure of the tool, +for the work is done by levering out the wood as well as cutting it. Card +soon wears out. A thin piece of hard wood or bone will do well if smoothed +and bevelled off a little on the edge to be used under the tool. The +thickness should be about that of a penny. When scauping start the cut a +little away from the work gradually approaching until the tool has cleared +away all unnecessary wood. Smaller pieces must of course be taken away by +the smaller tools. It is a good plan to extend the first finger of the +left hand over the block until it presses against the end of the thumb of +the tool hand. This position gives great control and prevents much +slipping. + + [Fig. 21] + + Fig. 21 + + + [Fig. 22] + + Fig. 22 + + + [Fig. 23] + + Fig. 23 + + +With the scauper clear a line round the work a little more than its own +width. This is sufficiently wide to enable a proof to be taken. If all the +wood is taken away it is almost impossible to proof some subjects (thin +lettering, for instance) without a hand-press, for this wood supports the +roller and burnisher and gives protection to the work while proofing. + +Where a light tint shades into white as in a sky or light parts of a dress +it is necessary to lower the edges in some way before cutting, otherwise +the hard edge is apt to catch the ink and cause a smudgy objectionable +line instead of running cleanly into the white. To avoid this, lower or +scrape the hard edge into the scauping taking care not to damage the +surrounding wood. It can be done by the sharp edge of spitstick or +tint-tool, or the edge can first be lowered by a flat scauper and then +scraped smoothly into the scauping by the sharp edge of the engraving +tool. The Section Fig. 24 shows the sharp edge lowered into the scauping. + + [Fig. 24] + + Fig. 24 + + +The depth of the clearing indicated in the Section is exaggerated for +purposes of clarity. If the scauping is too deep bruising of the sides is +likely; if too shallow the print will pick up the ink from the ridges at +the bottom of the scauping which have touched the ink roller. + + + + + +PROOF TAKING + + +Place a little printer's ink on a slab (which can be of stone, slate, or +even glass) and spread it out thinly with a knife, then roll until +distributed evenly and thinly. Avoid rolling out too much ink at once; +more can be added easily, but to take away means cleaning the whole with +turpentine and rag, or scraping with a knife. If a dabber be used, beat +the ink, which is placed more in the centre of the slab, until quite even. +The amount to roll or dab on to the block will be discovered quite easily +after a trial or two--too much ink will blur the work; too little will +print grey. Place the paper on the inked block without slurring it, and on +the paper drop a thin piece of card--a postcard will do--hold down by the +left hand and rub on the top of the card with the burnisher until an +impression is taken. The print can be examined from time to time by +lifting a corner, holding the remaining paper down firmly with the left +hand on the card. More burnishing must be applied to those parts which +have not taken the ink. If the engraved lines be fine, light pressure must +be given to the burnisher lest the lines be bruised, whereas if the parts +are black heavier pressure must be given. A little oil rubbed on one side +of the card--the side on which the burnisher is to be applied--then rubbed +off again, will allow the burnisher to slide over with ease and prevent +sticking; while if the burnisher is applied without the card, bruising is +liable to occur to fine lines. India paper is excellent on which to take +proofs by hand. Other kinds can be used if free from ridges and not too +thick. The thicker the paper the greater will be the difficulty in getting +a print, for the ink does not stick it to the block, as is the case with +thin paper, and any examination of the print nearly always moves the paper +out of position and "doubling" is the result. + +This first print is often called the "overlay." It shows not only the +engraving but all the surrounding wood and pieces between that have been +too large to be cut away by a scauper. To take a proof of the engraving +only, these black pieces on the overlay must be cut out cleanly with a +sharp knife or the point of a tint-tool, and, after inking the block +again, these pieces are placed on their corresponding parts on the wood. +They are thus blocked out--overlayed--by the pieces of paper cut from the +first print. Place fresh paper on the block and proof as before, greater +care however is necessary to prevent "doubling." Where plenty of black is +in the engraving the process is simple, but if the subject is of thin +lines, such as fine lettering, it is a somewhat delicate operation. In +this case the less it is examined whilst the proof is being taken the +better. + +During the process of engraving, in order to see exactly what has been +done so far, one may wish to take a proof. But the inking of the block +would obliterate that part of the drawing which has not yet been engraved. +Instead, therefore, of taking a proof with ink the following method will +be found convenient:--Press some _precipitated chalk_(obtainable at any +chemist's) into the engraved part and wipe the surface clean with the palm +of the hand thus leaving the chalk in the hollows and incisions only. The +block will then appear exactly as in a print (only not reversed), i.e. the +surface of the wood will show dark against the white chalk. + + + + + +PREPARING BLOCK FOR PRINTER + + + [Fig. 25] + + Fig. 25 + + +If the block is to be sent to the printer all unnecessary wood has to be +taken away, and if there are large surfaces this is best done by gouge and +mallet. First saw the block square to within ¼ of an inch of work, then +fix it in a vice or clamp to a bench. Use the gouge as a chisel, never +forgetting to have the cutting edge pointing towards centre of block. If +used towards the edges pieces of wood will suddenly chip away and the last +stroke of the mallet will, perhaps, ruin the work, though an experience of +this kind is seldom repeated. The block will have to be turned about in +the vice to enable the gouging to be made towards the centre and care must +be taken to hold the gouge high enough just to clear the work and so +prevent bruising. The wood must be taken away deeply. If cut too shallow, +the ridges formed by the gouge will pick up the ink from the roller which +ink again will be picked up by the paper whilst proofing. Any edges or +small pieces that the gouge cannot clear away must be trimmed off with the +scauper, the card being used to protect the work. + +[Wood-cut from The Decameron, Venice, 1492. Re-engraved by R. J. Beedham. + By permission of The Shakespeare Head Press] + + Wood-cut from The Decameron, Venice, 1492. Re-engraved by R. J. Beedham. + By permission of The Shakespeare Head Press + + + + + +PLUGGING + + +If some small mistake has arisen such as a deep bruise, false cut, slip, +etc., it can be made good by plugging, that is, by the insertion of a new +piece of wood where the mistake has occurred. This requires skill and +care, for the new piece of wood must fit in exactly, otherwise a white +line will show all round it. For very small plugs the simplest method of +making a hole is to get a carpenter's nail, round or square type, +according to the shape of the plug required, file the sides to the right +size and flatten the bottom, finally getting the edges and bottom sharp +and smooth on the oil-stone. Drive this into the wood, about 1/16 to 1/8 +of an inch according to the size of the plug. Take the nail out again by a +straight pull to avoid bruising the sides, and if the nail has been +properly shaped, a clean hole with sharp edges will be the result. Into +this hole insert a piece of boxwood, trimmed to exact size by means of a +flat tool or chisel, then gently hammer with a piece of wood until the +bottom of the hole is felt. To dip the end of the plug into thin glue or +gum before insertion will help to keep it fast, but small plugs accurately +trimmed will hold without glue. For larger plugs glue must be used. + + [Fig. 26] + + Fig. 26 + + +Through a thin piece of card cut a hole large enough to allow the head of +the plug to protrude, place it in the block to protect the engraving, then +cut off the projecting head close to the card with a fine saw. By means of +the scauper and card, always cutting towards the centre, lower the +remaining projection until nearly level with surrounding surface, and +finish off with the chisel laid flat on the block. An excellent tool with +which to get the plug level is a fine tint-tool laid on its side and used +as a chisel, chisel or tint-tool being used in a slicing movement and not +driven. + +Two or three plugging nails, made ready and kept for the purpose, will be +all that are required for smaller plugs. The holes can also be made by +drills such as are used for fretwork. Larger plugs must be scauped or +chiselled out, taking care that the sides go straight down and that the +edges are without a bruise. The larger the plug, the deeper must be the +hole, the depth for large plugs being half-way through the block. Plugs on +the extreme edge of the block require more care but the difficulties can +nearly always be overcome by a little ingenuity. A drop of water placed on +a bruise will often bring it to the surface again. Hot water is still more +effective, while, if the bruising is deep and general, steaming the whole +surface is the best method though it makes the wood rotten and +disagreeable to cut on afterwards. + + + + + + +APPENDIX + + +The beginner should commence with patterns and pictures of white lines on +black. The normal development of this first method is the silhouette with +white lines upon it. Having attained skill with gravers and scaupers he +may proceed to engrave patterns and pictures of black lines on white, +first in plain outline, and then, last of all, he may attempt the +modelling and elaboration of the general surface. + + + + + NOTE ON WOOD-CUTS + + +The method of wood-engraving which is described in this book is distinct +from that known properly as "wood-cutting". The "woodcut" is done with a +knife on the long grain of the wood instead of the end grain. It is +necessarily done on soft wood and is therefore less suitable for use in +conjunction with type in a printing press, except for large work. But the +wood-engraver should certainly practise the art of wood-cutting also and +for the purpose he will require, in addition to some planks of pear wood +or a similar fine-grained wood, a knife and several wood-carver's chisels +and gouges--the first for cutting lines and edges and the latter for +cutting away the background. The knife (Fig. 27) is the most important of +these tools and the best form is like a very fine carpenter's chisel with +a small handle, such as can be grasped in the fingers, a short blade about +one inch long, three-eighths of an inch wide and as thin as that of a +pen-knife, with the cutting end ground at an angle of about 30° with the +upper edge. + +It is held very much as a pen is held for writing and, of course, the cut +is made always in the direction which does not burr the grain of the wood +just as a skewer is sharpened by cutting towards and not away from its +point. + +Although in connection with the printing press the wood-cut has not the +same usefulness as the wood-engraving on account of the soft wood +necessarily used and the impossibility of doing the finest work with the +same degree of precision, nevertheless, as an independent art that of +wood-cutting is on an equality with any other, and, in one respect, the +fact that only soft wood can be used is an advantage; for such wood, pine +or pear, is more easy to get than a hard foreign wood like the Turkish +box-wood. The wood-cutter may therefore go into his own back garden for +his material and is independent of the foreign merchant. The difficulty of +the wood-engraver in this matter is, however, not quite insuperable, for, +if properly seasoned and prepared, holly or blackthorn are quite good for +end grain work and, though not as hard as boxwood, make a very fair +substitute. + + + + + +[Alphabet, by Reynolds Stone. (By permission of Burns, Gates & Washbourne, + Ltd.)] + +Alphabet, by Reynolds Stone _(By permission of Burns, Gates & Washbourne, + Ltd.)_ + + +[From Forrest Reid's Apostate, by Reynolds Stone (By permission of Faber & + Faber, Ltd.) ] + +_From_ Forrest Reid's Apostate, by Reynolds Stone _(By permission of Faber + & Faber, Ltd.)_ + + + [Winter, from a sketch by Verrall, by R. J. Beedham ] + + Winter, from a sketch by Verrall, by R. J. Beedham + + +[Strawberry Picking, by Claire Leighton (By permission of Victor Gollancz) + ] + + Strawberry Picking, by Claire Leighton _(By permission of Victor + Gollancz)_ + + + [March, by Mrs. G. Raverat ] + + March, by Mrs. G. Raverat + + +["Miss Jenkyns reading Rasselas," by Joan Hassal. (By permission of George + G. Harrap & Co., Ltd.) ] + +"Miss Jenkyns reading Rasselas," by Joan Hassall _(By permission of George + G. Harrap & Co., Ltd.)_ + + + [The Cottage, by Robert Gibbings ] + + The Cottage, by Robert Gibbings + + + [John Dickinson and Company advertisement ] + [Spicers Ltd. advertisement ] + + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WOOD ENGRAVING*** + + + +CREDITS + + +January 6, 2014 + + Project Gutenberg edition 10 + Martin Schub + + + +A WORD FROM PROJECT GUTENBERG + + +This file should be named 44606-8.txt or 44606-8.zip. + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + + + http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/4/6/0/44606/ + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one -- the old editions will be +renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no one +owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and +you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission +and without paying copyright royalties. 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