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diff --git a/old/44624-h/44624-h.htm b/old/44624-h/44624-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9276133 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44624-h/44624-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,19009 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Sweden, by Victor Nilsson. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + + h1,h2,h3 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; +} + +p { + margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; +} + +.p2 {margin-top: 2em;} + +hr { + width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; +} + +hr.chap {width: 65%} + +ul.index { list-style-type: none; } +li.indx { margin-top: .5em; } +li.isub1 {text-indent: 1em;} + +.index h3 { + text-align: left; + margin-left: 2em; +} + +table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; +} + +td { vertical-align: bottom; } + +.tdr {text-align: right;} +.tdp { + text-align: right; + padding-left: 2em; +} + +td p { + margin-top: 0em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: 0em; +} + +.hanging { + margin-left: 2em; + text-indent: -2em; +} + +.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; +} /* page numbers */ + +.center {text-align: center;} + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + +.u {text-decoration: underline;} + +.caption { + font-weight: bold; + text-align: center; +} + +/* Footnotes */ +.footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + +.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + +.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + +.fnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: small; + text-decoration: + none; +} + +/* Poetry */ +.poem { + display: inline-block; + text-align: left; +} + +.poem br {display: none;} + +.poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + +/* Transcriber's notes */ +.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; + color: black; + font-size:smaller; + padding:0.5em; + margin-bottom:5em; + font-family:sans-serif, serif; } + .poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + +.small { font-size: small; } +.smaller { font-size: smaller; } + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Sweden, by Victor Nilsson + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Sweden + +Author: Victor Nilsson + +Release Date: January 8, 2014 [EBook #44624] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SWEDEN *** + + + + +Produced by Ann Jury, Paul Clark and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + + + + + +</pre> + +<div class="transnote"> +<p>Transcriber's Note:</p> + +<p>Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as +possible. Some changes have been made. They are listed at the end of +the text.</p> +</div> + +<h1>Sweden</h1> + +<div class="center"> +<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="396" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<div class="center p2"> +<img src="images/frontispiece.png" width="389" height="600" alt="" /> +<p class="caption">GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS</p> +</div> + +<div class="center p2"> +<img id="coverpage" src="images/titlepage.jpg" width="365" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Copyright 1899<br /> +By PETER FENELON COLLIER</span> +</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a><br /><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a><br /><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="SWEDEN" id="SWEDEN">SWEDEN</a></h2> + +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a></h2> + +<table summary="contents"> +<tr><td> </td><td class="tdr small">PAGE</td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</a></td><td class="tdp">5</td></tr> + +<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a></h3> +<p class="hanging">SWEDEN IN PREHISTORIC AND EARLY HISTORIC TIMES—ARCHÆOLOGICAL +FINDS AND CLASSICAL TESTIMONY</p></td> +<td class="tdp">11</td></tr> + +<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a></h3> +<p class="hanging">DAWN OF SWEDISH HISTORY—HEIMSKRINGLA AND YNGLINGATAL</p></td> +<td class="tdp">33</td></tr> + +<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a></h3> +<p class="hanging">THE VIKING AGE—ANSGAR, THE APOSTLE OF SWEDEN</p></td> +<td class="tdp">44</td></tr> + +<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a></h3> +<p class="hanging">EARLY CHRISTIAN ERA—STENKIL’S LINE AND INTERCHANGING +DYNASTIES</p></td> +<td class="tdp">64</td></tr> + +<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a></h3> +<p class="hanging">THE MEDIÆVAL STATE—THE FOLKUNG DYNASTY</p></td> +<td class="tdp">80</td></tr> + +<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a></h3> +<p class="hanging">UNIONISM VERSUS PATRIOTISM—MARGARET, ENGELBREKT AND +CHARLES KNUTSSON</p></td> +<td class="tdp">100</td></tr> + +<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a></h3> +<p class="hanging">UNIONISM VERSUS PATRIOTISM—UNCROWNED KINGS OF THE STURE +FAMILIES</p></td> +<td class="tdp">115</td></tr> + +<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a></h3> +<p class="hanging">REVOLUTION AND REFORMATION—GUSTAVUS VASA</p></td> +<td class="tdp">130</td></tr> + +<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a></h3> +<p class="hanging">REFORMATION AND REACTION—THE SONS OF GUSTAVUS I.</p></td> +<td class="tdp">161</td></tr> + +<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a></h3> +<p class="hanging">PERIOD OF POLITICAL GRANDEUR—GUSTAVUS II. ADOLPHUS</p></td> +<td class="tdp">192<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span></td></tr> + +<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</a></h3> +<p class="hanging">PERIOD OF POLITICAL GRANDEUR—QUEEN CHRISTINE</p></td> +<td class="tdp">220</td></tr> + +<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</a></h3> +<p class="hanging">PERIOD OF POLITICAL GRANDEUR—CHARLES X. AND CHARLES XI.</p></td> +<td class="tdp">242</td></tr> + +<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</a></h3> +<p class="hanging">PERIOD OF POLITICAL GRANDEUR—CHARLES XII.</p></td> +<td class="tdp">268</td></tr> + +<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV</a></h3> +<p class="hanging">PERIOD OF LIBERTY—THE ARISTOCRATIC REPUBLIC</p></td> +<td class="tdp">310</td></tr> + +<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV</a></h3> +<p class="hanging">GUSTAVIAN PERIOD—GUSTAVUS III. AND GUSTAVUS IV. ADOLPHUS</p></td> +<td class="tdp">343</td></tr> + +<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI</a></h3> +<p class="hanging">THE CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY—CHARLES XIII. AND THE EARLY +BERNADOTTES</p></td> +<td class="tdp">365</td></tr> + +<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII</a></h3> +<p class="hanging">PARLIAMENTARY REFORM—CHARLES XV.</p></td> +<td class="tdp">391</td></tr> + +<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII</a></h3> +<p class="hanging">PROGRESS AND PROSPERITY—OSCAR II.</p></td> +<td class="tdp">414</td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</a></h2> + +<p>The kingdom of Sweden occupies the eastern and larger +part of the Scandinavian peninsula, covering an area of one +hundred and seventy thousand six hundred and sixty square +miles, with a population of somewhat more than five millions. +Sweden is of nearly the same width, from east to +west, throughout her whole length. If the country were +divided into four equal parts, the southernmost part would +correspond to the district of Gothaland, the next to the district +of Svealand, consisting of most of what is north of the +lakes Venar and Vetter and what is south of the Dal River, +while the two remaining parts together would make up the +district of Norrland. Gothaland, in ancient times called +<i>Sunnanskogs</i> (South of the Woods), consists of the old +provinces Scania, Bleking, Smaland and East Gothland +by the Baltic, Halland and Bohuslæn by the North Sea, +and West Gothland of the interior. Svealand, or <i>Nordanskogs</i>, +consists of the provinces Sœdermanland and Upland +by the Baltic, south and north of Lake Mælar, respectively, +Dal, Vermland and Dalecarlia on the Norwegian frontier, +and Nerike and Westmanland of the interior. Norrland +consists of the provinces of Gestrikland, Helsingland, Medelpad, +Angermanland and Westerbotten by the Gulf of +Bothnia, a branch of the Baltic, and Herjedal, Jemtland +and the Lapmark on the Norwegian frontier. A great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> +number of islands form part of the kingdom, of which the +two largest, Gothland and Œland, are situated in the Baltic. +One-twelfth of the area, or as much as the whole +state of Denmark, consists of water.</p> + +<p>Sweden is politically united with Norway and ruled by +the same king, these united kingdoms forming the largest +realm in Europe next to Russia, Sweden herself ranking +as the sixth in size.</p> + +<p>Sweden is a country which offers striking varieties in +scenery and conditions. In the southernmost province of +Scania, an ancient home of culture, the nightingale and the +stork dwell in the fertile plains, and the walnut, mulberry +and chestnut trees render ripening fruit. Central Sweden +is a wooded plateau, rich in rocky hills and inland seas. +Although barren lands occupy large areas, these parts are +characterized by a loveliness and picturesqueness which +are still more pronounced in the northern provinces along +the coast. Only in the inner mountainous regions of Norrland +is the scenery of real grandeur where the white-capped +giants appear in vast groups, or in isolated peaks of six +thousand to seven thousand feet in altitude, where a hundred +glaciers with glacier rivers, moraines and erosions +cover a surface almost as large as the glaciers of Tyrol, +and where, in the turbulent course of mighty rivers, are +formed tremendous waterfalls, one of them, The Hare’s +Leap, being the largest in Europe.</p> + +<p>Geologically considered, Sweden is situated around the +centre of the ancient Scandinavian land-ice, and in the +greater part of the country only two of the geological +series, the oldest and the youngest, are represented. Thus +the uneven, undulating surface of the Archæan rocks, on +which almost the whole country is firmly set, is in general<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> +covered with quaternary deposits of gravel and clay. The +mountains are rich in iron ore, the streams and lakes in +fish, the woods in game, but the soil, itself of a good quality, +unfortunately rich in stones. This last-mentioned circumstance, +together with the rather severe climate, which +yet is a good deal milder than might be expected, especially +in the southern and western parts of the country, makes +agriculture, which is the most important industry, profitable +only on the extensive plains of Scania, Upland and +West and East Gothland. Still barley and rye are cultivated +within the Polar Circle, ripening in remarkably +short time under the nocturnal light of the Midsummer +sun. Dense forests cover Sweden in the very +same latitude in which Greenland is clad by eternal +ice. The short summers are of a surpassing loveliness. +In Norrland there is a Swedish <i>læn</i>, or governmental +district, of the size of the State of Ohio, on +which, between the 5th of June and the 11th of July, the +sun never sets. If the earth was perfectly plain and even +one would be able to see the sun above the horizon continually +during this period. But these northerly regions are +very mountainous, and consequently you will have to climb +a high peak in order to see the wonderful sight of a sun +which stands still when it should set, and which marks +the difference between night and day only by a rolling +motion in the horizon. There is no country in the world +where so many places for such observation are reached +so easily as in Sweden. One may travel the whole distance +from the southernmost point of the country to the very base +of a mountain, Gellivara, Sweden’s Klondike, from which +the midnight sun can be seen for thirty-seven nights in +succession. But although the sun itself is visible only from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> +the mountain peaks above the Polar Circle, the nocturnal +light steeps the whole realm in midsummer-night’s dreams +of magic colors and reflections.</p> + +<p>The Swedish people are of Teutonic stock and have +lived in the land they still inhabit for at least four thousand +years, during this entire period not having assimilated +other nationalities, or at least to no extent worth mentioning, +so that the Swedish nation is of an origin far purer +than any other at present existing.</p> + +<p>The kingdom of Sweden is the most ancient of the states +still extant in Europe, for all historical monuments prove +that the Swedes have kept to about their present territory, +perfectly independent of foreign nations, probably for a long +time divided into lesser communities, but for the past twelve +hundred years united in one single realm. The languages +spoken in the Scandinavian North belong to the Teutonic +family of Indo-European languages, and seem to have been +one and almost homogeneous up to the time of the Viking +Age (about 700-1060), when various dialects commence to +be distinguished. The old uniform language has been +preserved in Northern loanwords in the Finnish and Lap +languages and in about one hundred of the oldest Runic inscriptions. +The early Old Swedish, from the Viking Age to +somewhat later than 1200, did not differ much from the +Old Norse (the Old Norwegian and Old Icelandic), while +the difference from the Old Danish was almost imperceptible. +The sources for the study of this language period are +about two thousand later Runic inscriptions and nearly one +hundred Old Swedish loanwords, almost all proper names, +in the Russian language. The classical period of Old Swedish +falls between 1200 and about 1350. Its most important +monuments are the provincial laws and a manuscript collec<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>tion +of saintly legends, called Codex Bureanus. The language +of this period offers a number of dialects, of which +only one, the Gutnic, is strictly defined. In the next period +of Old Swedish, from 1350 to the Reformation, a universal +language for the whole country is distinguished. The so-called +Oxenstiern manuscripts and Codex Bildstenianus are +the chief sources of our knowledge of this language period, +mostly of religious contents. Modern Swedish dates from +the Reformation, its later period being counted from the +publication of the state law in 1734. The Swedish language +seems to be based chiefly upon the dialect of Sœdermanland, +with influences from other dialects. Among the Scandinavian +languages, Swedish ranks next to the Icelandic in point +of purity, and is the foremost of them all in point of beauty.</p> + +<p>The Swedes are a hardworking, industrious and intelligent +race, not fully conscious of their own rich endowment +and slow to push their individual claims. In moments of +danger and distress, this people give evidence of an active +heroism, which offers a great contrast to their usual quiet +and peaceful demeanor. The Swedish nation is endowed +with an unusual inventive power, which has placed it in +the first rank of scientific research, having produced a quota +of initiative spirits, as originators, founders and innovators +of sciences, which is considerably larger than that of any +other modern country, in proportion to the population. The +national temperament is, like the soil, composed of extremes. +With the serene quiet and almost sullen tranquillity goes a +patience of extraordinary endurance which, when it gives +in, surprises by the passion which takes its place. To the +melancholy trait in the Swedish character is contrasted a +great desire for the pleasures of life and exuberant animal +spirits. Under a quiet surface, the Swede conceals a rapid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +comprehension and an almost morbid sensitiveness, sometimes +causing people of other nationalities to judge him +slow of intellect or perfidious, when he is only slow of action +or indisposed to show his feelings. The most valuable +inheritance from his ancestors is his moral courage, while +the ancient Northern trait of self-restraint is often carried +to an extreme. Akin to both is his dignity. He possesses +great musical and improvisatorial gifts which complete his +lyric-rhetorical temperament.</p> + +<p>There are some 6,000 Laplanders and some 20,000 Finns +living in the furthest North, and foreigners to the number +of about 20,000 dwell in Sweden, mostly Norwegians, Finns +and Danes. More than 99 per cent of the population consists +of native Swedes, and 99.9 per cent belong to the +Lutheran state church or the Protestant denominations.</p> + +<p>The principal towns are Stockholm, the capital, with +300,000 inhabitants, enchantingly beautiful in situation, on +the mainland and islands at the outlet of Lake Mælar into +the Baltic; Gothenburg, with 120,000 inhabitants, the chief +commercial centre, at the mouth of the Gotha River, by +the North Sea; Malmœ, with 60,000 inhabitants, in Scania, +by the Sound. The university towns of Upsala, in Upland, +and Lund, in Scania, have 25,000 and 17,000 inhabitants, +respectively.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="HISTORY_OF_SWEDEN" id="HISTORY_OF_SWEDEN">HISTORY OF SWEDEN</a></h2> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a><br /> +<span class="smaller"><i>Sweden in Prehistoric and Early Historic Times—Archæological +Finds and Classical Testimony</i></span></h2> + +<p>The Swedes, although the oldest and most unmixed +race in Europe, realized very late the necessity of +writing chronicles or reviews of historic events. +Thus the names of heroes and kings of the remotest past +are helplessly forgotten, and lost also the history of its +earliest religion and institutions.</p> + +<p>But Mother Earth has carefully preserved most of what +has been deposited in her bosom, and has repaid diligent +research with trustworthy and irrefutable accounts of the +age and various degrees of civilization of the race which +inhabited Sweden in prehistoric times. Thus it has been +proved that Sweden, like most other countries, has had a +Stone Age, a Bronze Age, and an Iron Age. But there is +absolutely no evidence to prove the now antiquated theories +of various immigrations into Sweden by different races on +different stages of civilization. On the contrary, the graves +from the remotest times, through all successive periods, +prove by the form of the skulls of those buried in them that +Sweden has, through all ages, been inhabited by the same +dolichocephalic, or long-headed, race which constitutes the +overwhelming majority of her people to-day.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p> + +<p>Sweden, physically considered, is not of as high antiquity +as some countries of Europe. Yet it has been +inhabited during the last four thousand years, at least. +In the quaternary period the Scandinavian peninsula was +a centre of a glacial movement which spread its disastrous +influences over Western Russia, Northern Germany and +Holland. In that period no vegetable or animal life was +possible in Sweden. From the fact that the earliest stone +celts found in Sweden and Denmark are not polished, archæologists +were led to suppose that the Stone Age of the +North was contemporaneous with the Palæolithic civilization +in Western Europe. But this standpoint has been +found untenable, because it has later become evident that +the fauna surrounding the earliest inhabitants of the +Northern countries was ours and not a quaternary one.</p> + +<p>The oldest types of finds of <i>the Stone Age</i> in the North +have been discovered in the refuse-heaps on the Danish +coast. These refuse-heaps, consisting of stone implements, +shells, bones, etc., do not occur in Sweden, but the implements +characteristic of them are found scattered over some +parts of the southernmost Swedish province of Scania. The +shape of these earliest finds is exactly the same as of those +of the later Stone Age, the only difference being that the +former are not polished. But there are transitions between +the classes, and the act of polishing must be regarded as an +important phase of progress.</p> + +<p>The Stone Age of Sweden is quite remarkable. If the +remains of the earlier period are scanty, the finds from the +later one are all the more numerous. With the exception +of Denmark and a part of North Germany, there is no European +country which can boast of such rich and beautiful +relics from the later Stone Age as the southern part of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> +Sweden. The finds in the other countries mentioned are +almost exactly like those of Sweden from the Stone and the +Bronze Ages, both as far as implements and skulls are concerned, +proving them to have been settled by the same race.</p> + +<p>The weapons and implements from the Stone Age consist +of axes, daggers, spearheads, arrowheads, saws, and +knives of flint; axes, gauges, handmills of stone; fishhooks +and arrowheads of bone; earthenware, etc., etc. The graves +of this period are dolmens, passage-graves, and stone cists, +the last mentioned either uncovered or covered with a barrow. +The different forms of burial places seem to indicate +four successive stages of the period. Through their existence +it becomes probable that the inhabitants of Sweden +during the Stone Age had fixed dwelling places.</p> + +<p>A dolmen is a grave-chamber of which the walls are +formed of large, thick stones set up edgewise, covered with +one huge block of stone as a roof, all the stones being rough +outside and smooth inside. The passage-graves are built +in the same way, but are larger and distinguished by a long +covered passage leading to it. These graves are surrounded +by a low barrow, upon the top of which the huge roof-stones +were originally visible. Dolmens and passage-graves occur +in Sweden in considerable numbers along the coast of +Scania, on the plains of West Gothland and in Bohuslæn, +more sparsely in other parts of West Gothland and in Halland, +with stray cases of graves of a similar construction +in Nerike and Western Sœdermanland. It is important to +note the regions in which these graves have been found, for +they must be identical with the parts of the earliest settlements. +Such graves are also very common in Denmark, +while only one has been found in Norway.</p> + +<p>The stone cists resemble very much the chamber of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> +passage-grave. They are larger and four-sided, and built +of somewhat thinner stones. Stone cists standing partly +visible above the barrow constitute a form peculiar to +Sweden, occurring in great numbers in West Gothland, +Bohuslæn, Dalsland and Southwestern Vermland, while +the covered stone cists appear in the same provinces and +in Nerike, East Gothland, Smaland, Bleking and the Island +of Gothland.</p> + +<p>During the Stone Age the bodies were buried unburned, +in a recumbent or sitting position. By the side of the dead +body was usually placed a weapon, a tool, or some ornaments, +sometimes also earthenware vessels, now filled only +with earth. These vessels may once have contained food. +The elaborate graves seem to indicate a belief in a future +life. The food, if any such was placed by the side of the +dead, would not necessarily point to the fact that such a +future life was imagined merely as a continuation of earth +life. The heathen Scandinavians of a later age believed +that the dead remained for some time in their burial place +before reaching their ultimate destination. For their possible +wants during this intermediate state food was left +with the dead body.</p> + +<p>The total number of relics of stone found in Sweden is +64,000. Of these only 4,000 belong to Svealand and Norrland, +while of all the rest found in Gothaland 45,000 belong +to Scania alone.</p> + +<p>In a much later age the Scandinavians were regarded +as pure barbarians. For this reason it is important to observe +that graves from the Stone Age show that the Swedes +in that remote period had several domesticated animals, +the dog, horse, ox, swine, sheep, and, perhaps, also the +goat. Hence they were certainly a pastoral people, not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +living exclusively by hunting and fishing. But whether +they practiced agriculture cannot be decided in the present +state of our knowledge. The fact that the very oldest +graves are found in the most fertile districts of Southern +Sweden seems to speak in favor of the supposition that +agriculture was known and appreciated.</p> + +<p>Of metals, even of gold, the people of the late Stone +Age were entirely ignorant, also of the art of writing. +Hence no monuments of their language will ever be found. +Still it is highly probable that the Teutonic ancestors of the +Swedes began to settle in the land from the beginning of +the Stone Age.</p> + +<p>It is true that some skulls, very much like those of the +Laps, have also been found in the graves of the Stone Age; +but it must be borne in mind that these burial places, impressive +through their size and the amount of work and +mechanical skill necessary for their erection, can be believed +to have been originally intended only for kings or chieftains, +and their families. It was probably a custom, as +in later heathen times, to bury with such distinguished +people a number of slaves, dead or alive. The presence of +skulls of a non-Scandinavian type can thus be explained, +without the necessity of accepting the theory of an early +mixture of two races.</p> + +<p>In the northern part of Sweden have been found relics +of stone, usually of slate, which do not appear to have +belonged to the people of the dolmens or passage-graves. +They bear a close resemblance to those found in Finland +and in other countries inhabited by Laps, Finns and peoples +related to them. This seems to prove that these so-called +Arctic stone implements are relics of the Laps and +belong to the time when this people was still ignorant of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> +the use of metal. Judging from the number of relics +found on the coast, from Westerbotten to Gestrikland, and +in Dalecarlia, the Laps dwelt also in somewhat more southerly +parts of Sweden than at the present day. So far south +as in the middle provinces, no Arctic stone relics have been +found, still less in any of the southern provinces. This +seems to indicate that the Laps and the Swedes did not +dwell in the same parts of the country during the Stone +Age, and their intercourse, if any, must have been of a +very accidental and casual nature.</p> + +<p>That the Stone Age lasted a very long time in the +North is proved by the fact that it reached a far higher +development there than anywhere else in Europe. The +best authorities think that it must have ended rather +before than after 1500 <span class="small">B.C.</span>, or 3,500 years before our +time.</p> + +<p><i>The Bronze Age</i> followed upon the Stone Age. Flint +exists in Sweden and was easily found. There are also +copper mines, but their working is of comparatively modern +date. The copper of the Bronze Age must have been +brought from abroad, and tin, necessary for the production +of bronze, is foreign to Scandinavia. The knowledge of +the working of any metal proves an immense progress. +Yet there are strong grounds for the opinion that the beginning +of the Bronze Age in Sweden was not connected +with any great immigration of a new race, but that the +inhabitants learned the art of working bronze by intercourse +with other nations. The resemblance of the graves +during the last part of the Stone Age and the early part +of the Bronze Age points most strongly to such a conclusion. +From Asia the knowledge of bronze, and the higher +civilization dependent on it, had gradually spread itself<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> +over the continent of Europe, in a northerly and northwesterly +direction, until it reached the coasts of the Baltic.</p> + +<p>The Bronze Age of Sweden began about 1500 <span class="small">B.C.</span>, and +lasted for a thousand years, or until the beginning of the +fifth century before Christ. The period has been divided +into an Earlier and a Later Bronze Age, a division which +has been questioned as to its absolute correctness. The +works from the former are decorated with fine spiral ornaments +and zigzag lines. The graves generally contain remains +of unburned bodies. The antiquities of the Earlier +Bronze Age, almost without an exception, appear to be of +native workmanship. They are distinguished by artistic +forms and point to a highly developed taste in the working +of bronze. They generally surpass in this respect the +relics of the Bronze Age found in almost all other European +countries. The works belonging to the Later Bronze +Age are characterized by a very different taste and style +of ornamentation, though even they are often the result +of great skill. The spiral ornaments are no longer predominant, +but the ends of rings, knife-handles, and the +like, are often rolled up in spiral volutes.</p> + +<p>During this period the dead were always burned. Buttons, +sword-hilts, and other works of bronze were sometimes +decorated with pieces of amber and resin inlaid. +Objects are also often found overlaid with thin plates of +gold.</p> + +<p>Remarkable are the rock-carvings from this period. +The Swedes of the Bronze Age understood, by a kind of +picture-writing, how to preserve the memory of important +events, although an alphabet of any kind was unknown. +The rock-carvings have been found abundantly in Bohuslæn +(formerly a part of West Gothland) and East Goth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>land, +but also occur in Scania and other parts of Sweden. +At the time of the arrival of Cortez in Mexico the Aztecs +were exactly on the same standpoint. In spite of their +high civilization, they were in the Bronze Age and possessed +a picture-writing, but were not acquainted with +an alphabet. In Sweden, as in Mexico, there certainly +once existed an oral tradition necessary for its interpretation, +which, now lost, leaves little hope for their present +or future explanation. Yet they throw considerable light +on Swedish civilization during this remote period. Thus +they show that horses were already used for riding and +driving. Cattle are represented. In pairs these are harnessed +to a plow, which is being driven by a man. +Boats are depicted, generally very large ones, without +masts, but with thirty pairs of oars or more. They are +usually unlike at the two ends, sometimes adorned with +an animal’s head in the high and narrow stem, sometimes +with a similar decoration also in the stern.</p> + +<p>The rock-carvings tell us nothing of the dwellings or +the dress of the Swedes in the Bronze Age. All the instruments +and tools necessary for the construction of wooden +houses existed and appear to have been in use. The material +was ever abundantly supplied by the Swedish forests, +but it was not strong enough to withstand the influence +of time. All the more surprising it is that articles of dress +from such a remote period as the Earlier Bronze Age, 1000 +<span class="small">B.C.</span>, should have been preserved to our time. Still such +is the case, thanks to a combination of exceptionally favorable +circumstances. These garments are of wool of a very +simple substance; some have been worn by men, others +by women. The man’s dress consisted of an unbrimmed +cap of thick woven wool, a wide circular mantle, a kind<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> +of tunic, kept together with a woollen belt, and some narrow +strips of wool which probably covered the legs. In a +man’s grave was found a shawl of wool with fringes. The +woman’s dress consisted then, as it does now, chiefly of +two garments, a jacket with sleeves and a long robe, the +latter held together with a belt of wool, ending in ornamental +tassels. Large mantles, of mixed wool and cow +hair, were used as wraps. The women wore splendid +bronze ornaments, such as finger-rings, bracelets, torques +and brooches. From the finds it becomes apparent that +many women in those days carried weapons, a dagger +often being found at the side of the body.</p> + +<p>Besides swords and axes of beautiful workmanship, fishhooks, +sickles and the different parts of harness have been +found; also vessels of gold or bronze, evidently used for +temple service. The Swedes of the Bronze Age were not +acquainted with the art of forging the heated metal, but +they possessed much technical skill in the art of casting. +When the implement was taken out of the mold it was +dipped in cold water, and very often the surface was ornamented +by means of punches made of bronze. Their good +taste was as highly developed as their skill. That the work +was done in the North is proven by numerous finds of the +very molds in which weapons and agricultural implements +were cast. During the Stone Age only Gothaland and parts +of Svealand were inhabited. The finds of the Bronze Age +prove that the limits of the population were about the same +during this period. The southern provinces continued to +be the more thickly settled. Twenty times as many finds +have been made in the soil of Scania as in the rest of the +country. Norrland was hardly settled to any extent until +the Iron Age, and has offered comparatively few finds from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> +the Bronze Age, the total of which for the whole of Sweden +amounts to about 4,000.</p> + +<p><i>The Iron Age</i> followed upon the Bronze Age. It lasts +to this very day, we ourselves still living in the Iron Age; +but the term is generally applied to that part of the period +which commences with the close of the Bronze Age, and +ends with the fall of heathendom. During the Iron Age, +the Swedes first became acquainted with iron, silver, brass, +lead, glass, stamped coins from foreign lands, and learned +how to solder and gild metal. Archæologists have divided +the period into two main parts, the Earlier and the Later +Iron Age, both with subdivisions. The Earlier Iron Age +includes the time from the fifth century <span class="small">B.C.</span> to about +the beginning of the fifth century <span class="small">A.D.</span> The first half +of the Earlier Iron Age is characterized by swords with +both blades and sheaths made of iron, thin crescent-shaped +knives, brooches of iron, collars, and decorative plates overlaid +with bronze. The graves resemble those from the end +of the Bronze Age, containing burned bones in urns, or laid +together in a heap. This circumstance makes it more than +probable that the first introduction of iron in the North was +not connected with any immigration of a new people. The +finds of the earliest Iron Age are not very rich, but they +prove that the people who have left them behind had been +subjected to a very strong influence from the Gallic tribes +living close to the south of the Teutonic area of population. +Then came the second half of the Earlier Iron Age, characterized +by a strong Roman influence. It commences with +the extension of the Roman empire toward the North, about +the beginning of the Christian era, and winds up with the +beginning of the fifth century, when Teutonic migrations +and invasions put an end to the power of Rome. In the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> +hostile or friendly relations between Romans and Teutons +the Swedes were not involved. But by the peaceful ways +of commerce the influence of Rome penetrated to the people +of the North. Great numbers of Roman coins have +been found in Sweden, and also vessels of bronze and glass, +weapons, etc., as well as works of art, all turned out of +workshops in Rome or its provinces. Out of about 4,760 +Roman coins of this time found in Sweden, no less than +4,000 were found in the remarkable Island of Gothland, in +the southern half of the Baltic, 90 in the neighboring island +of Œland, 650 in Scania, but only 23 on the mainland of +Sweden, excluding Scania. About 250 were found in +Bornholm, 600 in Denmark, but only 3 in Norway. It +becomes evident from these finds that there existed a regular +traffic over the Baltic, through Germany, between +the Island of Gothland and the Roman provinces, from +the epoch of the Marcomannic war down to the time of +Septimius Severus. Similar finds have been made on the +southern shore of the Baltic, showing that the traffic +came from the southeast, along the valleys of the Vistula +and the Oder.</p> + +<p>One of the most important discoveries of this period was +the art of writing, which the inhabitants of the North seem +to have acquired soon after the beginning of the Christian +era. The earliest alphabetic symbols in Sweden, and the +only ones used there during the whole of heathen times, were +<i>runes</i>. These were probably invented a little before the +Christian era by a South Teutonic tribe, in imitation of the +Roman writing which the Teutons received from one of the +Celtic tribes living just to the north of the Alps. The Roman +characters were adapted for the use of inscriptions in +stone and wood, the curves being changed into straight<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +lines. The Runic characters, in use among all Teutonic +tribes, were twenty-four in number; these older runes +were, by the Scandinavians, later simplified and reduced +to sixteen. There is a number of inscriptions in older runes +in Sweden, dating from about 300 to 500 <span class="small">A.D.</span> They are +found chiefly on stones and gold bracteates, also in England, +France, Germany, Wallachia and the west of Russia. +All belong to about the same date, and are of Teutonic +origin. The early Runic inscriptions do not contain any +accounts of historically known persons or events. Yet they +are of the greatest historical importance, for they show that +during the Earlier Iron Age, in the fourth and fifth centuries, +the language of Sweden, and consequently also the +people, were Teutonic. These inscriptions in Sweden and +neighboring countries give samples of the earliest known +form of the Northern language, which is considerably +different from its descendants, the Old Swedish, Danish, +Norwegian and Icelandic, but very much resembling the +language spoken by the Goths on the Danube during +the same period.</p> + +<p>The Later Iron Age commences with the fifth century +and stretches to the beginning of the eighth century <span class="small">A.D.</span> +When Italy had been overrun by the “barbarians,” the +centre of the old civilization shifted to Byzantium, and +there are many traces of an active intercourse with the +capital of the Byzantine rule in the finds made in Swedish +soil. Most of these finds consist of gold coins of the fifth +century, the majority of them having been found in the +islands of Œland and Gothland. The stream of gold coming +from Byzantium must have been quite considerable, +having its source in the tribute which many of the Byzantine +emperors had to pay to the Goths on the Danube.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> +They are the very same emperors whose names appear on +the coins found in Sweden. The great number of costly +and beautiful ornaments of gold found in Sweden, and dating +from this period, must have been made out of Roman +and Byzantine coins, melted down. One of the largest +hoards of gold ever found in Europe was discovered in +the Swedish province of Sœdermanland. Its weight was +twenty-seven pounds, and it contained several ornaments +of consummate workmanship.</p> + +<p>Remarkable are the graves from this period, discovered +in the province of Upland. They are barrows containing +the more or less mouldering remains of a large boat in +which the dead man has been buried unburned with his +weapons, horses, and other domestic animals. The swords +found in these graves are of iron with hilts of beautiful +designs in gilded or enamelled bronze. The shields and +helmets are often of elaborate workmanship. Unlike the +swords, which mostly, or perhaps always, are of foreign, +generally of Celtic make, these ornaments and weapons are +of domestic origin.</p> + +<p>It appears, from the many beautiful and artistic finds in +Swedish soil, as if the inhabitants have benefited by their +situation, aside and outside of the rest of the world. Continual +migrations subjected the tribes of the continent to +repeated changes and to a never-ceasing series of new and +heterogeneous impressions. The tribes of the North remained +on the same spot, and their whole development +was slower but more consistent. The foreign influences +penetrated slowly and gradually, without crushing the old +civilization. The industrial arts blossomed not so often in +the North as in the South, but steadier, giving a clearer +expression of the national traditions and peculiarities.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> +These circumstances make the study of Northern antiquities +of absorbing interest.</p> + +<p>Before the end of this period, not only Gothaland and +Svealand, but also the coast of Norrland, as far north as +the province of Medelpad, were inhabited. As a whole, the +first part of the Later Iron Age forms a transition between +the Earlier Iron Age and the Viking Age, the archæological +finds of which we must leave aside to take up the threads +of the earliest history. The Viking Age is exceedingly rich +in stones with inscriptions in the later runes, some of these +inscriptions being quite lengthy, and containing strophes +of alliterative verse in Old Swedish.</p> + +<p>Before entering into an account of early Swedish history, +let us gather what information the classical writers of history +have to give in regard to the countries of the North, or +rather whatever of such information that has been preserved +to our day.</p> + +<p>The Scandinavian countries are for the first time mentioned +by the historians of antiquity in an account of a +journey which Pyteas from Massilia (the present Marseille) +made through Northern Europe, about 300 <span class="small">B.C.</span> He visited +Britain, and there heard of a great country, Thule, situated +six days’ journey to the north, and verging on the +Arctic Sea. The inhabitants in Thule were an agricultural +people who gathered their harvest into big houses for +threshing, on account of the very few sunny days and the +plentiful rain in their regions. From corn and honey they +prepared a beverage (probably the mead). By Thule is +no doubt meant the Scandinavian peninsula, or rather the +western coast of it. Pyteas also tells of the land of amber, +or the southern shores of the Baltic, where the <i>guttones</i> are +dwelling. As the northern and southern shores of the Bal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>tic +from the very earliest period seem to have been inhabited +by the same race which has shared the same development +and civilization, there is every reason to recognize the name +<i>guttones</i> as identical with the one given to the inhabitants +of the Swedish Gothaland and Island of Gothland.</p> + +<p>Several centuries pass without any notice of Scandinavia +in the classical literature. In the still preserved manuscripts +of the geographical work by Pomponius Mela, written in the +middle of the first century <span class="small">A.D.</span>, is found a reference to +Codania, a large and fertile island inhabited by Teutons. +Codania is likely some scribe’s misspelling of Scandinavia</p> + +<p>Pliny the Elder, who himself visited the shores of the +Baltic in the first century after Christ, is the first to mention +plainly the name of Scandinavia. He says that he +has received advices of immense islands “recently discovered +from Germany.” The most famous of the many +islands situated in the Codanian Bay was Scandinavia, of +as yet unexplored size; the known parts were inhabited by +a people called <i>hilleviones</i>, who gave it the name of another +world. When he speaks of the British isles, Pliny again +gives notice of islands, situated opposite Britain in the +Teutonic Sea, without suspecting their identity with Scandinavia. +He mentions Scandia, Nerigon, the largest of +them all, and Thule. Scandia and Scandinavia are only +different forms of the same name, denoting the southernmost +part of the peninsula, and is yet preserved in the name +of the province of Scania. Nerigon stands for Norway, +the northern part of which is mentioned as an island by +the name Thule. It is not surprising to find the classical +writers ignorant of the fact that Scandinavia was not a +group of large islands, but one great peninsula, as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> +northern parts were as yet uninhabited and their physical +connection with Finland and Russia unknown.</p> + +<p>Tacitus is the first who mentions the Swedish name. +In his work “Germania,” of such great importance for the +knowledge of the ancient Teutons, their conditions and +institutions, and written about 100 years after Christ, the +Baltic is described as an open sea called the Suevian Sea, +shut out from the west by the Danish mainland of Jutland, +by the Romans called the Cimbric Peninsula. The eastern +shore is the country of amber. The Swedes are by Tacitus +called Suiones, and he speaks of them thus:</p> + +<p>“Next occur the communities of the Suiones, seated in +the very sea, who, besides their strength in men and arms, +also possess a naval force. The form of their vessels differs +from ours in having a prow at each end, so that they are +always ready to advance. They make no use of sails, nor +have they regular benches of oars at the sides: they row, +as is practiced in some rivers, without order, sometimes +on one side, sometimes on the other, as occasion requires. +These people honor wealth; for which reason they are subject +to monarchial government, without any limitations +or precarious conditions of allegiance. Nor are arms allowed +to be kept promiscuously, as among the other Teutonic +nations: but are committed to the charge of a keeper, +and he, too, a slave. The pretext is that the sea defends +them from any sudden incursions, and men unemployed, +with arms in their hands, readily become licentious. In +fact, it is for the king’s interest not to intrust a noble, a +freeman, or even an emancipated slave, with the custody +of arms.”</p> + +<p>These remarks by Tacitus, in all their brevity, are of +great importance. Boats, exactly corresponding to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> +description as given, have been found in Swedish graves +of this period, and that they were used for river traffic, to +bring the gold and products of Rome and Byzantium up +the Vistula and Oder, is evident. The great opulence +in dress and temple service of which the archæological +finds bear witness, and of which later writers also speak +as characteristic of the Swedes, is a proof of the wealth +that at all times has attended naval dominion. Thus far +all the statements being fully corroborated, one cannot but +place great importance upon those that follow. The Roman +historian tells us that, on account of the honor which +the Swedes held for wealth, they were subject to a monarchial +government, without any limitations; that is, the +crown was hereditary, not elective. This coincides in every +way with Swedish conditions of political affairs, such as +we know them from later times. The important conclusions +to be gathered from the statements of Tacitus, are +that the Swedes already at the dawn of the Christian era +held the political supremacy in the Scandinavian peninsula, +or at least in its eastern and southern parts, and that the +various lesser communities stood in allegiance to the hereditary +king of the Sviar (Svear), or Swedes in a limited +sense, the inhabitants of Svealand.</p> + +<p>The psychological conclusions made by Tacitus, on the +basis of his own statements, hold good of the Swedes of +to-day as well as of those of 2,000 years ago. They still +honor wealth and a monarchial government and consider +the sea their best defence against foreign foes.</p> + +<p>Ptolemy, the Alexandrine geographer of the second +century after Christ, speaks of the Scandinavian islands, +situated east of the Cimbrian peninsula. The fourth and +most easterly of these is the one originally called Scandeia.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> +He enumerates six tribes which inhabit it, the names being +unrecognizable, except the one of Gutai, Gauts or Goths, +by him for the first time mentioned as dwelling in Scandinavia.</p> + +<p>To this information, gathered from classical authors, +nothing is added for the next four hundred years in regard +to the countries of the North. Only in the sixth century, +when Rome has succumbed before the Gothic invasions, +and the Teutonic tribes have divided between themselves +the provinces of the West Roman empire, new information +about Sweden is given by a Byzantine author, Prokopios, +a contemporary of emperor Justinian. He mentions Scandinavia +by the name Thule, and says he bases his statements +upon information obtained from people “who come +from there.”</p> + +<p>Prokopios says that in the immense island of Thule, +in the northern part of which the midnight sun can be +seen, thirteen large tribes occupy its inhabitable parts, +each tribe having its own king. One of the largest tribes +is the Gauts (the Gœtar, or the inhabitants of Swedish +Gothaland). These tribes very much resemble the people +of southern Europe, with the exception of the Skee Finns, +who dress in skins and live from the chase.</p> + +<p>Prokopios tells a remarkable story about an immigration +to Sweden of Herulians, a Teutonic tribe closely connected +to the Goths on the Danube. In the beginning +of the sixth century, it happened that the Herulians, after +an unsuccessful war with the Longobardians, were divided +into two branches, of which the one received land from the +emperor Anastasius south of the Danube, while the other +made a resolve to seek a home in the Scandinavian peninsula. +When they had passed the Slavs, they came to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> +uninhabited regions, whence they continued to the country +of the Varinians, and later to that of the Danes. The +Danes granted them a free passage and the use of ships, +in which they crossed to the island of Thule. Here the +Herulians went to the Gauts and were well received by +them. Some decades later the Herulians in South Europe +were in want of a king. They resolved to send messengers +to their kinsmen who had settled in Sweden, hoping that +some descendant of their old royal family might be found +there who was willing to assume the dignity of king among +them. The messengers returned with two brothers who +belonged to the ancient family of rulers, and these were +escorted by two hundred young Herulians from Sweden. +That this immigration really took place there is no doubt. +The district of Sweden where these kinsmen of the Goths +settled was early distinguished from the surrounding ones, +inhabited by the Gauts of Sweden, through the peculiarities +of its laws and customs, of which some survived into +the commencement of the nineteenth century. This district +forms the southern part of the province of Smaland, called +Værend, its inhabitants Virdar, and the adjoining province +of Bleking.</p> + +<p>The Gothic historian Jordanes, or Jornandes, called +Master Ardan, who was a contemporary of Prokopios, has +taken upon himself to explain the reason of the strange +resolve of the Herulians to seek a home in Sweden. He +speaks of the traditions of the East Goths, which tell of their +descent from the people of the North. Similar traditions +also have existed among the West Goths, Longobardians, +Gepidæ, Burgundians, Herulians, Franks, Saxons, Swabians +and Alemannians. Thus Jordanes: “In the North +there is a great ocean, and in this ocean there is a large<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +island called Scandza, out of whose loins our race burst +forth like a swarm of bees and spread over Europe.” The +island of Scandza, he says, has been <i>officina gentium</i>, +<i>vagina nationum</i>—the source of races, the mother of nations. +And thence also the Goths have emigrated.</p> + +<p>Material is lacking to prove the historical truth of the +Teutonic traditions which point to Scandinavia as the cradle +of the Teutonic tribes. But Jordanes, the first historian of +Teutonic birth who speaks of Scandinavia, stands at the +cradle of Swedish history, and, as a modern historian has +expressed it, his shadow throws an umbrage across the +whole field of Swedish historical research. The mistake, +based upon Jordanes’ history, of identifying the Swedish +Gauts with the Goths has caused a great deal of mischief +and ridiculous chauvinism, Gothic and Swedish history and +royal lines being mixed up or put in connection with each +other.</p> + +<p>In leaving aside the Teutonic traditions of the island +of Scandza, or Scania, as the cradle of the race, let us +quote a remark by Tacitus which seems to point to the +conclusion that such traditions were current already in +the first century of the Christian era: “I should think +that the Teutons themselves are aborigines, and not at +all mixed through immigrations or connections with non-Teutonic +tribes. For those desiring to change homes did +not in early times come by land, but in ships across the +boundless and, so to speak, hostile ocean—a sea seldom +visited by ships from the Roman world.”</p> + +<p>The Old English poem of Beowulf must also be mentioned +among the sources which throw light on early Swedish +history. Whether the Geátas of Beowulf are identical +with the Jutes of Denmark, or with the Gauts of Sweden,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> +is a much disputed question. Although, phonetically, the +Old English name Geátas corresponds to the Old Swedish +<i>Gautar</i>, it seems most plausible to suppose that by this +term is meant the Jutes, and not the inhabitants of Swedish +West or East Gothland. This accepted, the poem does +not contain much about the Swedes. But the information, +therein given, of the Swedish kings is of great value, because +it renders the service of a firm chronological support +to the facts gathered from another source. This source, +of vastly greater importance, is the Ynglinga Saga, or rather +the poem around which it is spun, in Heimskringla, +of which more in the next chapter.</p> + +<p>The first information of the religion practiced by the +inhabitants of Scandinavia is given by Prokopios, who says +that they worshipped many gods and spirits of the sky, +air, earth, sea, and also some who were supposed to dwell +in springs and rivers. Offerings were constantly made, +the chief ones being of human beings, for which the first +prisoner made in a war was destined. This sacrifice was +made to “Mars,” who was the highest god. The statements +of Prokopios without doubt are correct. The Scandinavian +war-god who corresponds to the Mars of classical +mythology was Tyr. Odin, originally the ruler of the +wind, became the highest god during the Viking Age. +He is an aristocratic god, the god of the select few, whose +cult succeeded that of Tyr as the cult of the latter had +succeeded that of Thor, the thunderer, as the highest god. +The idea of a supreme God was probably unknown until +the contact with Christianity, or at least not common. +Thor, the peasant god, is probably the oldest of the gods +of Teutonic mythology, the representative of stern power +and law-bound order. Thor was the most popular god<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> +of the Swedes, to judge from the great number of ancient +Swedish proper names of which his forms a part. Besides +Thor, Odin and Frey were the most honored. All the +other gods and goddesses mentioned in Old Norse literature +were probably known, but few of them much worshipped +in Sweden.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a><br /> +<span class="smaller"><i>Dawn of Swedish History—Heimskringla and +Ynglingatal</i></span></h2> + +<p>Snorre Sturleson, the great historian and poet +of Iceland, of the earlier half of the thirteenth century, +is considered to be the author of the history of +the kings of Norway which, after the first words of the +first chapter, has been called Heimskringla. As an introduction +to the work he has put the saga of the Yngling +kings of Sweden, of whom many of the Norwegian kings +were supposed to be descendants. The Ynglinga Saga is +a paraphrase to the much older song of Ynglingatal, a +poem composed by the Norwegian poet Thiodulf of Hvin +(who lived in the latter part of the ninth century) in praise +of the supposed Swedish ancestors of the Norwegian king +Ragnvald. The Ynglings were probably not identical with +the kings of Upsala, who were of the race of the Skilfings, +but of South Swedish or Danish origin. It is either out +of ignorance, or out of sagacity, that the poet selected the +Upsala rulers as originators of the Norwegian line of kings, +but he has been unfortunate in the choice of a name for +the dynasty. The poem itself is a trustworthy historical +document, at least as far as the times are concerned which +come comparatively close to the time of its own composition, +the first part containing many traits of a mythical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> +character. The saga spun around it is far from trustworthy. +Of the poem evidently the first, or first few, +strophes are missing, but the “historian” supplies the vacuum +with stories of the gods Odin, Niord and Frey, whom +he, according to the ideas of his time, changes from gods +into historic kings, the first who ruled Svithiod (Sweden). +Among learned men in Snorre’s day there was a craze for +tracing the pedigree of all nations of any renown back to +some of the heroes of ancient Troy. Snorre serves us a +saga of Odin’s migration from Troy which, besides being +confuse, would appear only ridiculous, if it had not wielded +about as highly disastrous an influence upon correct conceptions +of Swedish history as the work by Jordanes. This +migration saga is found in a still more elaborate form in +an introduction to Snorre’s Edda, and is responsible for +the erroneous opinion held by earlier Swedish historians, +that the Swedes had migrated from Asia under the leadership +of a chief who called himself Odin, and that the +Swedes and the Gauts were, if not of different origin, at +least of a habitation of differing age in their present locations.</p> + +<p>Based upon the information found in Ynglinga Saga +we will give a review of the history of the early kings of +Sweden, although the first dozen, and more, of these kings +are of a doubtful “historic” character. At the dawn of +history, Sweden was, like most other countries of Northern +Europe, divided into petty communities, each ruled +by a king. These communities seem to have been nearly +identical with the “lands” or later provinces into which +Sweden is yet divided, although the administrative divisions +are different. In spite of the fact that it is about 1,200 +years since these communities were united into one single<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> +realm, the inhabitants preserve to this day their respective +peculiarities of customs and language.</p> + +<p>The most important among the chieftains of Sweden +was, since time immemorial, the king of Upsala, who conducted +the sacrifices and temple service at Upsala, the +oldest and most celebrated place of heathen worship in +the Scandinavian North. Originally, he had under his +rule only one-third of the present province of Upland, the +chief settlement of the Sviar, or Swedes in a limited sense. +The Upsala kings belonged to the ancient royal race of +Skilfings (or “Ynglings,” according to Snorre), who traced +their origin from the gods. The founder of the dynasty +as accepted by Thiodulf and others was <i>Yngve</i>, who is +said to have built the great temple at Upsala, moving +thither the capital from the older Sigtuna and contributing +to the temple all his lands and riches. Yngve’s son +was <i>Fiolner</i>. King Fiolner was drowned by accident in +a huge vessel full of mead, during a visit paid to King +Frode in Denmark.</p> + +<p>His son <i>Sveigder</i> disappeared during a journey which +he made in order to find Odin, the old. Both the names +Fiolner and Sveigder appear to be mythical. Sveigder’s +son <i>Vanlande</i> was a great warrior. He is said once to +have taken up his winter abode in Finland, which, together +with several archæological finds, point to an early intercourse +between Sweden and Finland. <i>Visbur</i> succeeded +his father Vanlande, marrying the daughter of Aude (the +Rich), whom he afterward left and took another wife, +bringing on himself a curse by so doing. Visbur’s sons +fell unexpectedly over him, burning him in his house. +<i>Domalde</i>, his son, succeeded him. During a great famine +in Svithiod he was offered to the gods in order to obtain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> +good seasons. Domalde’s son and grandson, <i>Domar</i> and +<i>Dygve</i>, both reigned and died in peace. <i>Dag</i>, the son of +Dygve, was so wise a man that he understood the language +of birds. <i>Agne</i>, the son of Dag, was the ruler after him. +One summer he invaded Finland with his army. When +the Finns gathered there was a great battle, in which +Agne gained victory, subduing all Finland. The daughter +of a conquered chief, Skialf, was carried back to Sweden +as his bride. But after a drinking feast, Agne was hanged +in a tree by Skialf and her men. The place where this +happened was called Agnefit, and is said to be identical +with the site of Stockholm, the later capital of the country. +<i>Alrek</i> and <i>Eric</i> became kings after the death of their +father Agne. They got into a dispute one day while out +walking. Having no weapons, they assailed and killed +each other with their horses’ bridles. Their successors, +<i>Yngve</i> and <i>Alf</i>, the sons of Alrek, shared a similar fate, +killing each other in the royal hall by the high-seat. After +them <i>Hugleik</i>, the son of Alf, became king of the Swedes. +On the Fyrisvols, the plains by the river Fyris in Upland, +Hugleik was killed in battle against a famous sea-king +Hake, who subdued the country and became king of +Svithiod. The saga mentions that this Hake was a +brother of Hagbard, whose love for the king’s daughter, +Signe, cost him his life. This love story is one of the +most famous in the North and much spoken of in saga +and song. The spot where Hagbard was hanged in a tree +is still pointed out. When Hake had ruled as king for +three years, <i>Jorund</i> and <i>Eric</i>, the sons of Yngve, returned +with warships and warriors. They had grown up and +become famous by conquering the king Gudlaug, of the +Haleygians in Norway, whom they had met in Denmark.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> +Now they met King Hake and his army at the Fyrisvols. +In the battle, Eric was killed and Jorund fled to his ship. +But King Hake was himself so grievously wounded that +he ordered a warship to be loaded with his dead men and +their weapons, and himself to be placed upon it. The sails +were hoisted and the ship set on fire, and out it flew, with +the dying king on board, between the skerries to the sea. +Jorund now became king in Upsala. When he was one +summer marauding in Jutland, he met a son of King Gudlaug, +in the battle with whom he was overpowered, captured +and hanged.</p> + +<p>King <i>Aune</i> or <i>Ane</i> was the son of Jorund. He was a +wise man who made great sacrifices to the gods. Being +no warrior he lived quietly at home. Twice he fled from +Upsala, on account of Danish invasions, remaining in West +Gothland twenty-five years each time, and holding sway +at Upsala for an equally long time between his periods of +exile. He lived to become 110 years of age. The secret +of his longevity was that he sacrificed one of his sons to +Odin every tenth year, and was granted in return a decade +of prolonged life. When about to sacrifice his tenth son, +the people interfered, and he died from old age. The last +ten years of his life he was very feeble, drinking out of a +horn like an infant. He was buried in a mound at Upsala.</p> + +<p>King <i>Egil</i> was the son of Ane, and, like his father, no +warrior. Under his reign and that of his son, king <i>Ottar</i>, +Sweden suffered a good deal of trouble from Denmark. +The Danish king Frode had helped Egil against the revolt +of one of his subjects, and demanded from his son a +scat, or tribute, in return. Ottar fell in battle against the +jarls of Frode. Both he and his son <i>Audils</i>, who ruled +Svithiod after him, are mentioned in Beowulf as Ôhthere<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> +and his son Eadgils of the royal Swedish line of the Scylfingas +(Skilfings). This fact gives to Swedish history its +first reliable date. The Danish king Hugleik, a contemporary +of King Ottar, died in 515 <span class="small">A.D.</span>, which renders with +a certainty Ottar’s reign as falling in the first part of the +sixth century. Audils ruled for a long time and often went +on viking expeditions to Saxonland, Denmark and Norway. +In Saxonland, Audils captured the household of King Geirthiof, +among whom was a remarkably beautiful girl, called +Yrsa. The king married her, but she was afterward taken +to Denmark by King Helge of Leire after a successful plundering +expedition in Svithiod. Helge had a son by her, +Rolf Krake, but Yrsa returned to her first husband, after +being told by Queen Alof, the wife of Geirthiof, that Helge +was her father and Alof her mother. When Rolf Krake +later became king his men once helped King Audils in one +of his expeditions in Norway. King Rolf’s men did not +receive the compensation promised them, and Rolf came +to Upsala to demand it for them. King Rolf was warned +by his mother Yrsa that Audils was not well disposed, and +he and his men made in haste for their ships. King Audils +and his men started out in their pursuit. Then Rolf took a +horn filled with gold, a recent gift of his mother, emptying +its contents on the plain. Audils and his men stopped to +pick up the gold, and Rolf thus made his escape. Rolf +Krake is one of the most famous of Danish heroes. In the +poetic language of the Old Northern literature, gold is often +called “the seed of the Fyrisvols” or “Rolf Krake’s seed.” +As King Audils once rode around the hall at a sacrifice his +horse stumbled and fell, and the king was killed.</p> + +<p><i>Eystein</i>, the son of Audils, ruled after him and was +succeeded by his son <i>Yngvar</i>. Eystein was never able to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> +defend his people against the Danes, while Yngvar was a +successful warrior, both at home and abroad. But one +summer when he was fighting in Esthonia he was killed +by the Esthonians. He was buried in a mound close to +the seashore.</p> + +<p><i>Anund</i> was Yngvar’s son and successor. He went to +Esthonia to avenge his father, ravaging the country and +returning with great booty. In his time there were fruitful +seasons in Svithiod. On this account, and because he made +many roads, cleared the woods and cultivated the new land, +he became one of the most popular of early Swedish kings. +He was called <i>Brœt-Anund</i>, viz., Anund Roadmaker.</p> + +<p><i>Ingiald</i>, the son of Anund, became king in Upsala after +his father. He was the most remarkable of all the Ynglings +(Skilfings), for, through violence and cunning, he +united all the communities of Sweden into one realm. +When his father died, the king at Upsala was certainly +the supremely powerful ruler in Svithiod, but not the only +one, for there were many district-kings who were to a great +extent independent. There were not only kings in East +Gothland, Sœdermanland, and Nerike, but in Upland there +were, besides the Upsala king, also kings in each of the +three “lands” into which this province was formerly +divided; viz., Tiundaland, Attundaland, and Fiedrundaland. +Ingiald ordered a great feast to celebrate the fact +that he had come to the throne after his father, and invited +seven other kings, all of whom were present, except Granmar, +king of Sœdermanland. When the Brage-bowl, on +which promises were made, was carried in, King Ingiald +made a solemn vow to enlarge his dominions by one-half, +toward all the four corners of the world, or die. In the +evening Ingiald set fire to the hall, and all the six royal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> +guests perished with their followers. Ingiald took possession +of all the dominions belonging to the unfortunate +kings. In the next year he surrounded the hall in +which King Granmar found himself at the time, killing +him and taking his land in possession. “It was a common +saying,” Snorre tells us, “that King Ingiald had killed +twelve kings and deceived them all under pretence of peace; +therefore he was called Ingiald Illrade (the evil-adviser).” +His daughter, Asa, was of the same disposition as her +father. She was married to Gudrod, king of Scania, but +had to flee from the land after having caused the death of +her husband and his brother. When it was learned that +King Ivar, nephew of Gudrod, had entered Svithiod with +an army, Asa counselled her father to set fire to the hall +of the king after his men were drunk and asleep. Thus +perished Ingiald Illrade with his daughter, very much in +the same fashion in which he had killed so many of the +petty kings.</p> + +<p>For the centuries following upon Ingiald’s death, Snorre +has a very short, or almost no account to give about Sweden +and her rulers. What can be gathered from other sources, +principally from late Icelandic sagas, is not trustworthy, +mythical and fictitious elements being discernible.</p> + +<p>After Ingiald, <i>Ivar Vidfamne</i> (the Far-stretching) is +said to have ruled Sweden, “also Denmark, Saxonland, all +of Austria and one-fifth of England.” One account has +it that Ivar was the head of a new dynasty in Sweden. +As he was originally king of Scania, perhaps these were +the real Ynglings. Another source claims for the succeeding +Swedish kings descent from the old race of the +Ynglings (viz., the Skilfings). Ingiald’s son Olof, according +to Snorre, fled to the woods of Vermland, until then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> +uninhabited, and later came to Norway. But it is a misunderstanding +of Thiodulf’s lines which causes Snorre to +say that King Olof was buried close by the Lake Venar, +in Vermland. The province of Vermland was inhabited +much earlier than in Olof’s time, and the Olof who became +the founder of a Norwegian dynasty was probably +a Danish prince.</p> + +<p><i>Harald Hildetand</i> of Denmark is said to have succeeded +Ivar, and to have ruled over as much territory as his mother’s +father. Several sources speak of King Harald and the +battle of Bravols, in which his life was ended and which +battle generally is taken as a historic milestone, marking +the opening of the Viking Age. It was fought somewhere +about the year 740. King Harald had become old and +almost blind. In Svithiod and West Gothland, the kings +Sigurd and Ring (by the sagas made into one hero by the +name “Sigurd Ring”) ruled under Harald, while he reigned +himself over Denmark and East Gothland. The relations +were good at first, but their aspect soon changed. After +great preparations on either side, Ring met Harald on the +plains of Bravik in East Gothland. The battle was a long +and bloody one and the most renowned in song and saga. +King Harald, too old to take an active part, mounted a +chariot, which carried him into the midst of the fight. +When King Ring at last saw the chariot empty, he understood +that the aged king had fallen and gave the sign that +the battle should come to an end. King Ring caused the +remains of his fallen foe to be burned with great pomp and +ceremony on a pile with his horse, weapons and many a +costly treasure of gold and silver. King <i>Ring</i> was said to +have been ruler of Sweden and Denmark after King Harald. +The sagas mention the hero, <i>Ragnar Lodbrok</i>, as his son<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> +and successor. While this great viking and sea-king appears +to have been a historic personage in the earlier half +of the ninth century, it is impossible that he could have +been identical with King Ring’s son <i>Ragnar</i>, or that he +or his sons ever were kings in Upsala or Sweden.</p> + +<p>With the first attempts to introduce Christianity into +Sweden (of which more later) a more definite knowledge +of Swedish rulers and conditions is gained. When Ansgar, +the apostle of Sweden, visited the country for the first time, +about 830, the ruling king was <i>Biœrn</i>. Shortly afterward +King <i>Anund</i> is mentioned. He fled from his land, but was +reinstated with the help of the Danes. King <i>Olof</i> was on the +throne at the time of Ansgar’s second visit to Sweden, about +850. These kings must have been of the same family as +those who held the throne up to the middle of the eleventh +century, for their names all occur again in the line of later +Swedish kings, the reigns of whom fall in the broad light +of history.</p> + +<p>We have seen how Ingiald Illrade joined the various +communities into one single realm. Although there is doubt +whether this realm from the start embraced all Sweden, +there is no historical evidence or any reliable traditions +whatever to show that Sweden was ever divided into +smaller kingdoms after the death of King Ingiald. When +Ansgar reaches Sweden he travels through half of the country +in order to reach the commercial centre of Birka, where +the king of Sweden is dwelling. No other king, great +or petty, is spoken of, while the contemporary Icelanders +mention jarls (earls) in Gothaland, which proves that the +once independent kings in that district were made away +with.</p> + +<p>Of particular importance is the account of a journey<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +which a certain Wulfstan made to the North, at the close +of the ninth century. This account is given in an Old English +translation of Orosii Historia, credited to King Alfred +of England. Thus it runs: “Wulfstan said that he went +from Schleswig to Truso in seven days, that the ship was all +the way running under sail. Wendland was on his right, +but Langeland, Lolland, Falster and Scania on his left, and +all these lands belong to Denmark, and then Bornholm was +on our left, which has a king of its own. Then after Bornholm, +the lands of Bleking, Mœre, Œland, and Gotland, +were first on our left, and these lands belong to Sweden.”</p> + +<p>Wulfstan’s account, besides furnishing evidence to prove +the political consolidation of Sweden, also gives a good idea +of the size of the country in this period. The once independent +province of Scania, which had kings of its own, +already belongs to Denmark. So does also the province +of Halland, while Bohuslæn belongs to Norway. Dal and +Vermland are contested provinces between the kings of +Sweden and Norway, while great parts of Norrland are +yet uninhabited, except by Laps, who ramble from one +place to another, without a fixed dwelling place. In King +Alfred’s Orosius, Danish Jutland and Swedish Gautland +(Gothaland) are alike called <i>Gotland</i>, which recalls the +supposition of the majority of modern scholars that Gotland +was in the earliest times the common Teutonic name of +the North, and Goths the common name of its Teutonic +inhabitants.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a><br /> +<span class="smaller"><i>The Viking Age—Ansgar, the Apostle of Sweden</i></span></h2> + +<p>“In the North there is a great ocean, and in this ocean +there is a large island called Scandza, out of whose +loins our race burst forth like a swarm of bees and +spread over Europe.” These were the words the Gothic +historian Jordanes put on parchment, inspired by the popular +traditions of a Teutonic migration from the North. +Historic evidence is lacking to prove or disprove the truth +of these words. But they may be applied to the phenomenon +which has given its name to the <i>Viking Age</i>.</p> + +<p>The Viking expeditions seem to stand in connection with +the great Teutonic migrations, at least to be related to +them in nature. The Teutons of the North were not directly +affected by the migrations, but at the close of the +eighth century the same restlessness and desire of expansion +appear to have taken possession of the Northmen as +in earlier times of their relatives in more southerly lands. +And it was a timely move, for the energy and strength +with which these had in their time suffused Europe were +dying out. Europe was in need of new blood and iron to +wake her from her anæmia and to build up new institutions. +The North was freed from a turbulent and lawless +element and was brought in closer contact than ever before<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> +with the learning and culture of the world. For centuries +the Northmen had through their southern kinsmen been +in contact with continental culture. But now they came +out to see for themselves, to make themselves a place in +a wider and richer world, or to bring home from there +what they most desired of beauty, riches and culture. +They were not delicate as to means. Violence was with +them as natural as their freedom of individuality was indispensable. +Yet they were to play a most important part +in the cultural development of Europe, furnishing her with +institutions of imperishable iron and changing the darkness +of the Middle Ages into an era of chivalry in spirit +and in deeds.</p> + +<p>The Viking expeditions were always undertaken by free +men, and were in the North, from remotest times, considered +not only an honest but an honorable occupation. Slaves +and freed men were excluded. The leaders—often kings +or their sons—were always men of noble descent or of +importance. As the Viking expeditions took on larger +proportions, they became more and more organized; from +random expeditions, undertaken by individuals, they developed +into national undertakings, led by the king or his +chieftains, not for a pastime, but in completion of a national +policy. On account of this latest aspect, it is but just to +divide the field in which the Northmen were active according +to their respective nationalities. With such a division +applied, the Viking expeditions to the West, to Britain, +France, Portugal and Spain do not pertain to Swedish +history, for they were planned and undertaken principally +by Danes and Norwegians. It is true that there were many +Swedish participants also in these expeditions, as the sagas +and the memorial stones on Swedish soil tell us; also true<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> +that some of the later Swedish provinces, like Bohuslæn<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> +and Scania, sent out their large contingents of Vikings and +sea-kings to the West, and that one of the oldest Swedish +homes of culture, West Gothland, had an appropriate +channel to the West, by way of the mighty Gotha River, +through which without doubt many a Viking expedition +was sent; yet the leaders were in a majority of cases Danish +or Norwegian chieftains. For similar reasons the Viking +expeditions to the East belong by right to Swedish +history. In them the participants and chieftains were +Swedes, to an overwhelming majority, and, from time +immemorial, Swedish districts from which the expeditions +were started.</p> + +<p>To Russia the Swedes first went on marauding expeditions; +but after the countries of the North had been shaped +into three large monarchies, they came to Russia upon +special invitation, in order to found there a realm of strong +and consistent government. This becomes evident from +the testimony of the Russian historian Nestor, a monk in +Kief, who lived in the latter part of the eleventh century. +About the founding of the Russian empire by the Swedes +he has the following remarkable statements:</p> + +<p>“In the year 6367 (after the creation of the world, which +is the 859th after the birth of Christ) the Variagi (or Varangians) +came across the sea, taking tribute from the Tchud +and the Slavs,” etc.—“In the year 6370 (862 <span class="small">A.D.</span>) they +chased the Variagi back across the sea, giving them no +tribute and commencing to govern themselves, but it turned +out badly with legal affairs, tribe rose against tribe, caus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>ing +strife, and a rebellion was started. Then they said +between themselves: ‘Let us seek a prince who will govern +us and reason with us justly!’ And they went across +the sea to the Variagi, to the Russians, for thus were the +Variagi called, just as others were called Sviar, others Nurmanni, +others Anglii, and others Goths. And the Tchudi +(the Slavs of Novgorod), the Slavs, the Krivitchi and the +Vessi said to the Russians, ‘Our land is great and fruitful, +but it lacks order and justice; come and take possession, +and govern us!’ And three brothers with their followers +were selected, and they took the whole of Rus with them +and came. And the oldest, Rurik, took his abode in Novgorod, +the second, Sineus, his in Bielo-Jesero, and the third, +his in Isborsk; his name was Truvor. After two years +Sineus and his brother Truvor died. Rurik then took the +whole power into his hands and gave towns over to his +men, giving to one Polotsk, to another Rostof, and to a +third Bielo-Jesero. And into these towns the Variagi have +migrated; the earlier inhabitants in Novgorod were Slavs, +in Polotsk, Krivitchi, in Rostof, Meri, and in Bielo-Jesero, +Vessi.”</p> + +<p>That the Variagi were of Swedish descent, and that it +was they who gave the name of Russia to the Slav countries, +is proved beyond the possibility of a doubt. A most +weighty argument is the large number of Swedish names +in the list of Variag princes who reigned in Russia. It +would not have been possible for Nestor to devise the more +than one hundred leading names of Swedish origin which +occur in his chronicle. Furthermore, it has been shown that +there are fifteen Swedish loanwords in Russian. This is +very much. Great and powerful nations have left behind +a good deal less in modern languages, the Vandals three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> +words, the Burgundians four or five, the Herulians one. +Although the Swedes in Russia had no literature in their +ancestral language, they have left behind more words than +the majority of Teutonic tribes founding states and nations. +The Old Swedish equivalents to some of the +most important proper names which meet us in early Russian +history are as follows: Rurik—Hrœrekr, Sineus—Signjótr, +Truvor—Tryggve, Oleg—Helge, Olga—Helga, Igor—Inge, +Ingvar.</p> + +<p>For two hundred years after Rurik, all the leading men +in Russian history carry Swedish names, and all the czars +of Russia were the descendants of Rurik, up to the year +1598. The emperor and historian Constantine Porphyrogenitus, +speaking of Russia, makes the distinction between +the Slavs and the Russians proper. In his description of +the cataracts of the Dniepr, he gives to each the Russian +and the Slav name, and these Russian names are nearly +all understood by reference to old Swedish roots. Examples +are Gellandri (Gellandi)—the Noisy, Eyfórr—the Always +Turbulent. Luitprand, the Italian chronicler, speaking +of the Russians, says: “The Greeks call them Russians, +we call them properly Northmen.” The annals of St. +Bertinus tell how Emperor Theophilus recommended some +Russian envoys to Louis le Débonnaire, but how he, taking +them for Norman spies, threw them into prison. The first +Russian Code of Laws, compiled by Iaroslaf, presents a +striking analogy to the Old Swedish laws.</p> + +<p>The Slavs must have originally borrowed the name Russian +from the Finns, who, up to the present day, call the +Swedes <i>Ruotsi</i>. The name is in Sweden connected with +a part of the coast of Upland still called Roslagen. The +etymology of the name is Old Swedish <i>rodr</i> (rudder)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> +and <i>roðsmenn</i> (oarsmen). Roslagen means “associations +of oarsmen.” The district is famous for its large peculiar +rowboats. By the term Russians, the Slavs originally +meant people from Roslagen, later Sweden in general. But +when these Russians had become the founders of a new +empire, south of the Baltic, it became necessary to devise +a new name for the inhabitants of Sweden. This name +was found in Variagi. Only the Swedes seeking employment +as sworn warriors in the service of the new Russian +dynasty, or in the body-guard of the Byzantine emperors, +were originally thus called. But when the name of the +new nation of Swedes and Slavs became Russians, the +Swedes, and the Scandinavians in general, became known +as Variagi. The etymology of the word has been given as +the Old Swedish <i>vár</i> (<i>sacramentum</i>) and <i>væringar</i> (<i>sacramentarii</i>, +soldiers bound by oath). The same name applied +to Swedes, or Northmen, occurs frequently in slightly +altered forms in Greek and Arabic manuscripts.</p> + +<p>While Rurik and his brothers were building towns, +which probably means the fortifying of ancient villages, +two other Variagi, Askold and Dir, who were not of the +family of Rurik, went down to Kief, and reigned over the +Poliané. It was they who began the expeditions against +Byzantium in 865. In speaking of this, Nestor calls the +Bosphorus <i>Sud</i>, an Old Swedish word meaning a sound. +The Bosphorus is also called Sud on a Swedish memorial +stone over a man who was killed in a similar expedition.</p> + +<p>Oleg, the fourth brother of Rurik, was his successor, +his son Igor being yet a minor. He was an energetic man +and a great administrator.</p> + +<p>Smolensk, Lubetch and Kief were captured, and Askold +and Dir put to death. Between the years 879-912, Oleg<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +organized the Russian empire. For the sake of commerce, +he tried to preserve peace with the Greeks, but when difficulties +arose he called in new armies from Sweden and +great expeditions started against Byzantium. But these +Variagi were an unruly element, and, in order to satisfy +their desire for war and booty, the Russian rulers always +let a plundering expedition to the Caspian Sea follow every +unsuccessful attack upon Byzantium; also when war with +the Greeks was avoided through decrees of peace, expeditions +to the Caspian Sea took place.</p> + +<p>These expeditions against the Arabs, who inhabited the +coasts of the Caspian Sea, were neither in any marked +degree successful. Masudi is the first author among the +Arabs who mentions the expeditions of the Swedes. They +came down the river Volga in their ships. The Arabs +describe the “Rûs” as blond and “tall as palm-trees.” +The burial of a Rûs is described by Ibn Fosslan, who visited +Bulgaria in 921. “The hero was burned in a ship +with weapons, horses, dogs and a woman.” In 965, the +Israelite, Ibrahim Ibn Jakub, made a journey to Germany. +He tells that the Arabs in his day with Rûs (Russians) +meant partly the Swedes of Sweden, “who often came in +ships from the West to plunder,” partly the Swedes settled +in Russia, “who speak the language of the Slavs, on account +of admixture with them.”</p> + +<p>It was the destiny of the Swedes in Russia to exchange +their language for that of the Slavs and finally to absorb +Slav customs. Such might not have been the case if they +had been greater in numbers, or if their coming had been +deferred to a later, Christian period, when to a strong form +of government would have been added a strong Church +organization. Yet their influence was greater than that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> +of the Vikings in any other country, for the Russian empire +was entirely a Northern creation.</p> + +<p>To follow further the Rurik dynasty would lead us away +from Swedish into Russian history. But let us mention +that Oleg was succeeded by Rurik’s son Igor, who also +was a great war-lord, and undertook the third expedition +of Russians and Variagi against Byzantium. His widow +was the celebrated Olga, who was converted to Christianity +and afterward canonized. She reigned during the minority +of her son Sviatoslaf, whose conversion she was never able +to effect. Sviatoslaf’s son and grandson, Saint Vladimir +and Jaroslaf the Great, were the Clovis and the Charlemagne +of Russia.</p> + +<p>After the conquest of Kief, Oleg commanded a tribute +to be paid to the Variagi “for the preservation of peace.” +This tribute to the Swedes was paid up to the death of +Jaroslaf, who in 1019 gave assurance to the king of Upsala +that it should be paid regularly, Vladimir having neglected +to do so. This tribute could be nothing else than a scat +paid to the king of Sweden by the rulers of Russia during +the ninth and tenth centuries. Sweden possessed in those +days a large territory south of the Baltic, which paid scat +to the king of Upsala. It was called Austria (<i>Austerike</i>), +and reference to it under this name is often made in sagas, +chronicles and inscriptions. Ynglinga Saga gives incidents +of close Swedish connections to Finland and the Baltic provinces, +and archæological finds point to Swedish settlements +in Finland, already in the prehistoric period. Memories of +conquests are preserved in statements by the Icelanders +and by Saxo, the Danish historian, about the Austria of +which the Swedish kings Ivar Vidfamne, Harald Hildetand, +“Sigurd” Ring and Ragnar “Lodbrok” were rulers.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> +Closest to an exact statement comes Snorre, who says that +King Eric Edmundson of Sweden ruled over Finland, Carelia, +Esthonia, Courland and “wide over all Austria.” +These countries belonged to Sweden until King Olof Skœtkonung +“let all his scatlands get away from him.” The +chronicler Rimbert says that Courland, by which he means +the Baltic provinces, in 850 belonged to Sweden. Shortly +after this date fall, according to Nestor, those of the first +Swedish contact with interior Russia (859) and of the founding +of the Russian empire by Rurik (862). The Swedish +dominion in the Baltic provinces, as well as the early Russian +empire, must consequently have held a position similar +to the one of Normandie to France and England.</p> + +<p>The old Swedish name for Russia was Gardarike, for +Novgorod Holmgard and for Byzantium Miklagard, which +mean “Country of towns,” “Island town,” and “Great +town,” respectively.</p> + +<p>Vladimir of Russia, in 980, sent a number of Variagi +to the emperor. But already the emperors had probably +surrounded themselves with a small standing army +of Variagi or Barangoi, as they were called by the Greeks. +They were treated with a good deal of respect and consideration, +and in the North it was considered a distinction to +have served in Miklagard, which even the sons of kings +eagerly sought for. Soon not only Swedes, but also Norwegians, +Danes and Icelanders were attracted, and Icelandic +sources have a good many, in part wildly exaggerated, +accounts of the Variagi and their experiences in +Miklagard. The Northmen were relied upon to support the +tottering empire, and were despatched to the points where +the hardest combats were fought. They had officers of their +own nationality, and the strictest discipline was maintained.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> +About the year 1050 a detachment of Variagi were accepted +into the body-guard of the emperor, surrounding his person +on all great occasions and in public; also keeping watch over +the imperial palace. When the emperor died, they had, +according to Snorre, the privilege of passing through his +treasury, each taking along all he could carry off. Another +privilege of theirs was that they were allowed to keep their +heathen faith in the midst of the Christian surroundings.</p> + +<p>Many and various as the reasons for the Viking expeditions +must have been, the principal cause that led to their +abolition was the contact with Christianity abroad, and the +introduction of its teaching in the heathen North. The first +missionaries to Sweden were sent by Louis the Pious, but +Christianity was not entirely unknown before their arrival. +For centuries, the Swedes had through commercial expeditions +stood in direct or indirect contact with the Christian +world, and this had brought home some knowledge of “the +white Christ” and his gospel of peace. Many Northmen +had been baptized while dwelling in foreign lands, and +many must the Christian thralls have been who continually +were brought into the country. The influence these +elements exerted probably could be traced to the ennobling +and developing of heathen myths, rather than to direct +Christian conversions. And a similar influence of Roman +and Greek myths, without doubt, exerted upon the North +in earlier historic times.</p> + +<p>Ansgar, a learned and pious monk from the convent of +Corvey, became the apostle of Sweden. He had spent two +years in Denmark as a missionary when called upon by +Emperor Louis to visit Sweden. Louis the Pious had received +the assurance by Swedish emissaries that the new +faith would not meet with any obstacle, and that many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +were willing to embrace it. Ansgar started in the year of +830, accompanied by Witmar, also of the Corvey convent. +They were well received by King Biœrn, and were able to +comfort many Christians in Swedish captivity, besides converting +some of the inhabitants. Among the converts was +the powerful Jarl Herger, who for a long period was the +chief supporter of Christianity in Sweden. After about a +year and a half, Ansgar and Witmar returned to the emperor, +who, satisfied with the result of their mission, erected +a special archbishopric in Hamburg for the spiritual needs +of the North. Ansgar was made the archbishop and, with +Ebo, archbishop of Rheims, apostolic legate among Swedes, +Danes and Slavs. At the same time, Gauzbert was made +the first bishop of Sweden under the name of Simon. He +went to Sweden and was well received by its king and people. +But a revolt against the new faith soon rose among +the heathens, not issuing from the king but from the people. +Gauzbert was captured and with contumely escorted out of +the country, while his relative, Nithard, was killed, thus +becoming the first Christian martyr in Sweden. For seven +years the country was without a preacher of the Gospel, +until Ansgar sent thither a new missionary, Ardgar, who +stayed there preaching until the death of Herger. In the +meantime Vikings had destroyed Hamburg, and not before +its bishopric had been united to that of Bremen was Ansgar +in a position to visit Sweden for a second time. This he +effected early in the fifties of the ninth century, coming this +time as a kind of ambassador from the kings of Denmark +and Germany to give more importance to his mission. The +heathen partisans, who recently had accepted the departed +King Eric among the gods, resented, and the reigning king, +Olof, dared not grant Ansgar the right to preach. The dif<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>ficulty +was solved through the ancient custom of throwing +dice. Ansgar was successful in the proceedings, and his +cause was then brought before the Thing (or Assembly) for +deliberation. The people decided that permission should +be granted to preach the Gospel, principally on the grounds +set forth by an old man who rose to remind the Thing that +the new God had already helped a good many, and that +it was a good thing to have him to fall back on when the +old gods failed. After having built churches and baptized +a great number, Ansgar returned home, leaving behind +Erimbert, a relative of Gauzbert’s. Archbishop Rimbert +was Ansgar’s successor, himself visiting Sweden. After +his death, the archbishops of the North seem to have +ceased taking interest in Swedish missions. The little +church, left to itself, soon succumbed. When at last one +of the archbishops, Unne, woke up to the necessity of visiting +Sweden, he found that the Gospel was forgotten. He +was himself surprised by death while in Sweden, and buried +in the town of Birka, in 936. Numerous graves of the +earlier Christians in Sweden have been found on the site +of the old commercial centre of Birka in the island Biœrkœ, +in the Lake Mælar, unburned bodies in wooden coffins, and +the graves without mounds.</p> + +<p>King <i>Eric Edmundson</i> was a contemporary of Rimbert. +He was engaged in building up a Swedish dominion in Finland +and on the southern shores of the Baltic. With King +Harald Fairhair of Norway he was disputing the supremacy +over the province of Vermland. He was succeeded by +his son <i>Biœrn</i> who is said to have reigned for fifty years. +<i>Olof</i> and <i>Eric</i>, Biœrn’s two sons, succeeded him, the former +dying suddenly at a banquet. His young son, <i>Styrbiœrn +Starke</i> (the Strong), one of the most famous of Swedish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> +heroes, demanded his share of the kingdom when only +twelve years old. When King Eric told him he was yet +too young, Styrbiœrn two springs in succession installed +himself on the mound of his father, by so doing making +claim upon his inheritance, according to old usage. But +when he came to the Thing to demand his share in the government +he was chased away with stone-throwing. King +Eric gave him sixty ships with men and weapons to try his +luck in Viking expeditions. Styrbiœrn won great fame +during several years of continual warfare in the Baltic, +capturing the mighty Jomsborg, a celebrated Viking nest +in the island of Wollin, later turning his weapons upon +Denmark, where he made the Danish king Harald Gormson +Bluetooth a prisoner. He now felt strong enough to attack +his uncle, King Eric. Harald Bluetooth was to help him, +but failed to do so. Styrbiœrn sailed with a fleet to Sweden; +after having landed he burned his ships to make a +return impossible. King Eric met him at the Fyrisvols +and fought a battle which was said to have lasted for +three days. Styrbiœrn fell, and with him the larger part +of his army. His uncle, the king, was after this called +<i>Eric Segersæll</i> (the Victorious). After the battle the king +ascended a high mound, promising a great compensation to +the one who could compose a song in praise of the victory. +The Icelander Thorvald Hialte, who never previously or +afterward appeared as a scald, came forth and recited two +strophes which are preserved to our day, receiving a costly +armlet of gold as reward. This battle—next to the one at +Bravols, the most famous in the heathen North—was fought +in 988.</p> + +<p>King Eric invaded Denmark and took possession of the +country, making the son of Harald Bluetooth an exile, to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> +which facts Saxo, the Danish historian, testifies. In Denmark +Eric was baptized, the first Swedish king about whom +this is said. But upon his return to Sweden he also returned +to the old gods. Eric Segersæll was king of Sweden and +Denmark until his death, which occurred in 994. His first +consort, Sigrid Storrada (the Proud), from whom he later +separated, played quite an important part in the history of +her time. After the death of Eric, she married the exiled +Svend Tjufvuskægg (their son being Canute the Great), +who through this matrimony came to the throne of +Denmark.</p> + +<p><i>Olof Skœtkonung</i>, the son of Eric and Sigrid, succeeded +his father. His surname is supposed to mean “the lap +king,” but he was no longer a minor at the death of King +Eric. King Olof was not a powerful or energetic ruler, like +the father. He let go, one after the other, the lands of his +crown. Denmark regained its independence, and he lost +also the scat-paying dominions south of the Baltic. Shortly +after Olof ascended the throne, the Norwegian king, Olaf +Tryggvason, had demanded Sigrid Storrada in marriage +and obtained her consent. But when King Olaf asked her +to become a Christian, she refused to change faith, whereupon +he insulted her. Sigrid told him that this should +cause his death. Two years later, when Sigrid was the +wife of King Svend of Denmark, she prevailed upon her +son and her husband to join hands in assailing Olaf Tryggvason, +who was expected back from an expedition to the +lands of the Vends. The compact was made, and the +Norwegian jarls, Eric and Svein, entered it. These all +collected an immense fleet, which assailed the unsuspecting +Olaf at Svolder, close by the coast of Pomerania. The +Norwegian king lost the day and his life. This famous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> +battle was fought in 1000, the kings of Sweden and Denmark +also taking a personal part in it. Norway was divided +between the victors. The Swedish king received as his +share the districts of Drontheim and Bohuslæn. These he +granted to Jarl Svein, who was the betrothed of his sister +Holmfrid. Fifteen years later they were recaptured by the +Norwegian king.</p> + +<p>Olaf Tryggvason had been a devout Christian. His +sister Ingeborg was married to Jarl Ragnvald of West +Gothland, who was baptized and invited Christian missionaries +to Sweden. Through such influences King Olof Skœtkonung +was at last converted and baptized by Sigfrid, a +German missionary, at Husaby in West Gothland, in the +year 1008. Sigfrid, who has been supposed to be of English +parentage and a bishop of York, evidently came from +Germany. He preached for a long period in West Gothland +and Værend, in the latter district once being attacked +by heathen men, who killed three of his companions. King +Olof himself saw to it that the murderers were punished, +and Sigfrid continued his noble work without molestation. +He was later worshipped as a saint. Among other missionaries +who were active in converting the various provinces +may be mentioned the Anglo-Saxon St. David, the apostle +of Westmanland, the Anglo-Saxon St. Eskil and the Swede +St. Botvid, the apostles of Sœdermanland, and the German +Stenfi, or Simon, the apostle of Norrland. St. David was +a contemporary of St. Sigfrid, while the others were a few +generations younger. It was first through influence from +England and Denmark, during the reign of Canute the +Great, that Swedish conversions became more widespread +and general.</p> + +<p>King Olof’s conversion met with a great deal of opposi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>tion, +especially in Svealand, which longest remained heathen. +Upsala, with its temple, was the heathen stronghold +of the North, and there the king had always, as one +of his principal duties, to preside over the great sacrifices. +King Olof was forced to accept the decision of a Thing +which granted him freedom to select some part of the kingdom +wherein to build churches and perform the duties of +the new cult, but which forbade him to use his influence +toward the conversion of his subjects. For this reason +Olof dwelt principally in the more and more christianized +West Gothland, in the capital of which province, Skara, +a bishop was installed. The name of the first bishop was +Turgot. Only after more than two centuries of endeavor +was the Christian Church firmly established in Sweden, in +the middle of the eleventh century; but even at that time +the great mass of the people were heathen in name. The +heathen party was so strong that it could for a long time, +and occasionally with success, keep up the battle against +Christianity. It took yet another century before the complete +victory of Christianity was an assured fact.</p> + +<p>The reasons for the slow progress of Christianity in +Sweden were many, the principal one not being an opposition +to the Christian doctrines. The superstitious change +easily from one cult to another. The sceptics do not believe +more in one god than in another. Of heathen sceptics +there were a great many in the North who believed in nothing +else than their own strength. But it was the Christian +morals which were so difficult for the Swedes to accept. +Accustomed to great personal liberty, they could not endure +the restraint which Christian morals placed upon the +individual. The very spirit of Christianity, with its kindliness +and meekness, was not attractive to the Northman,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> +who in his own mental and physical force found a tower +of strength. The period of the first attempts at conversion +was not well chosen. The whole North was inflamed +by the Viking rage for war and plunder. Then followed +a period of disinterestedness when the good seed was sown +but the field neglected. Later the too arduous zeal of the +priests called forth criticism and resistance from the Swedes, +so tardy in making a decision and so careful in weighing +reasons for and against.</p> + +<p>To this must be added the great prestige of the Upsala +temple as the heathen arc of worship in the North, and the +influence of the scalds and saga men of Iceland. Iceland +was discovered in 870, and settled principally by Norsemen +from the British Isles and from the western coast of Norway, +but also to some extent by Swedes and Danes. Sudden +and brilliant was the rise of Icelandic culture, and +Icelandic scalds overran the whole territory of the North. +At the court of every king and jarl these were at home, +sometimes in great numbers, and soon to the exclusion of +the native poets. For their poetry, both as to contents and +form, they were chiefly dependent upon the heathen myths +and traditions, and the result of their popularity must have +been a perfect heathen revival in those days of growing +scepticism. Through intercourse with Christians in Britain, +the Icelanders had borrowed many a noble trait, and their +taste found admirers in the old North, where such influence +must have been felt through centuries of indirect contact +with lands of classical or Christian culture. We are +told of the great number of southern coins found in Swedish +soil. Which travel further and faster, thoughts or +coins, and which are the more impressionable? So although +it would be unjust to deprive the Icelandic poetry, the im<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>pressive +and grand Eddic songs and the more artificial +court-poetry, of any of its beauty or originality, it is not +right to ascribe all the culture, whose blossom it is, to Iceland, +or Iceland and Norway, to the exclusion of Sweden +and Denmark, or the Teutonic world at large. Good epic +poetry has been written all over Teutondom. In Sweden +strophes in the very metre of the majority of Eddic poems +have been found on tombstones. In the same manner with +the contents of the Eddic poems. Granting important exceptions, +we think that the heathen myths have been the +same in the East as in the extreme West. The very fact +that Icelandic court-poetry was accepted and enjoyed by +continental chieftains presupposes a thorough knowledge +and mastery of the more popular poetry of Eddic songs of +gods and heroes.</p> + +<p>Hence the revival of heathendom in the North, by which +a king like Olof Skœtkonung for a long time was influenced, +finding his chief delight in the association with poets +and saga men.</p> + +<p>In Norway, Olaf Haraldson had ascended the throne, +and he put an end to Swedish dominion in the Norwegian +districts. This caused strife, and also considerable annoyance +to the provinces touching the frontier. Popular feeling +rose high in Sweden, when the demands for a peace +guarantee with Norway were disregarded by King Olof. +Jarl Ragnvald sided with the people, desiring a union between +the Norwegian king and King Olof’s daughter Ingegerd. +At a great Thing held in Upsala, in 1018, King +Olof listened to Norwegian emissaries pleading for peace +and a royal marriage. Jarl Ragnvald complained of the +annoyance caused to his people of West Gothland. King +Olof became indignant, but was, through the forcible yet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> +dignified appeal for peace by Torgny, the <i>lagman</i> (justice) +of Tiundaland, compelled to a promise of peace and a concession +of marriage. But the king did not keep his promises. +A betrothal was arranged but soon annulled by Olof, +and the Norwegian king was in vain expecting his promised +bride. At the instigation of Jarl Ragnvald, Olaf +Haraldson married King Olof’s illegitimate daughter Astrid. +As this was done without the consent of her father, Ragnvald +dared not remain in Sweden. He went to Gardarike +(Russia), where he died shortly afterward, in 1019, his +widow, the princess Ingegerd, in Novgorod becoming the +wife of the Russian ruler Jaroslaf.</p> + +<p>In Sweden, trouble was brewing against the king, who +had broken faith with his people, and in order to avoid +open revolt King Olof was forced to divide his power with +one of his sons, who, although yet a minor, was solemnly +elected king. He had in baptism received the name of +<i>Jacob</i>, which so displeased his heathen subjects that it was +changed to <i>Anund</i>. King Olof also agreed to maintain +peace with Norway, meeting his son-in-law at Konghæll, +in Bohuslæn, in 1019, for a peace agreement. King Olof +died two years later and was buried by the church of +Husaby, where he was baptized. He was the first king +who introduced coinage into Sweden. The earliest coins +were made of silver by Anglo-Saxons settled in Sigtuma, +and resemble closely Anglo-Saxon coins of the same period.</p> + +<p>After the death of his father King Anund ruled alone. +He entered into an alliance with his brother-in-law of Norway +against Canute, who now was king both of Denmark +and England. During Canute’s absence, Anund and Olaf +invaded Denmark. In the subsequent strife between Olaf +and Canute, Anund took no active part. King Olaf had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> +to flee to Russia. Upon his return he gathered an army +in Sweden, with the help of Anund, and entered Norway +through Jemtland. At Stiklastad he met the much superior +Norwegian army, and lost his battle and his life, in 1030. +After his death, the sentiment in Norway changed radically, +and he was worshipped as a saint throughout the +North.</p> + +<p>Of Anund’s reign little is known. Adam of Bremen, +an ecclesiastic, whose history of the diocese of Hamburg +and Bremen, during the period 788-1072, is one of the most +important sources of Swedish history in heathen times, says +of Anund: “Young in years, he excelled in wisdom and +piety all his predecessors; no king was more beloved by the +Swedish people than Anund.” The historian gives as his +authority the Danish king Svend Estridsen, who as an +exile stayed at Anund’s court. Anund died in 1050 and +was succeeded by his older half-brother <i>Emund</i>, surnamed +<i>the Old</i>. He was the son of a freed woman, the daughter +of a Vendish chief. For this reason he had been passed +over at the first election. Emund was educated by his +mother’s relatives, was baptized, but was not much of a +Christian. He was popular neither with the new Christian +church nor with the people at large. Emund’s unpopularity +with the masses was caused by an agreement with +Denmark in regard to the boundaries when he ceded the +province of Bleking. Emund died in 1060. With him +the old royal line became extinct. A new line comes to +the throne of Sweden, where, with the general acceptance +of Christianity, a new era commences.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a><br /> +<span class="smaller"><i>Early Christian Era—Stenkil’s Line and Interchanging +Dynasties</i></span></h2> + +<p>The sources of Swedish history during the first two +centuries of the Middle Ages are very meagre. +This is a deplorable fact, for during that period +Sweden passed through a great and thorough development, +the various stages of which consequently are not +easily traced.</p> + +<p>Before the year of 1060 Sweden is an Old Teutonic +state, certainly of later form and a larger compass than +the earliest of such, but with its democracy and its elective +kingdom preserved. The older Sweden, such as it +had existed at least since the days of Ingiald Illrade, was +in regard to its constitution a rudimentary union of states. +The realm had come into existence through the cunning +and violence of the king of the Sviar, who made away +with the kings of the respective lands, making their communities +pay homage to him. No change in the interior +affairs of the different lands was thereby effected; they +lost their outward political independence, but remained +mutually on terms of perfect equality. They were united +only through the king, who was the only centre for the +government of the union. No province had constitutionally +more importance than the rest, no supremacy by one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> +over the other existed. On this historic basis the Swedish +realm was built, and rested firmly until the commencement +of the Middle Ages. In the Old Swedish state-organism +the various parts thus possessed a high degree +of individual and pulsating life; the empire as a whole was +also powerful, although the royal dignity was its only institution. +The king was the outward tie which bound the +provinces together; besides him there was no power of +state which embraced the whole realm. The affairs of +state were decided upon by the king alone, as in regard to +war, or he had to gather the opinion of the Thing in each +province; any imperial representation did not exist and +was entirely unknown, both in the modern sense and in +the form of one provincial, or sectional, assembly deciding +for all the others. The latter form is one of transition, the +modern form the ripe fruit, both brought out by the historic +development. In society there existed no classes. It +was a democracy of free men, the slaves and freed men enjoying +no rights. The first centuries of the Middle Ages +were one continued process of regeneration, the Swedish +people being carried into the European circle of cultural +development and made a communicant of Christianity. +With the commencement of the thirteenth century Sweden +comes out of this process as a mediæval state, in aspect +entirely different to her past. The democratic equality +among free men has turned into an aristocracy, with aristocratic +institutions, the hereditary kingdom into an elective, +or, at least, into one close upon turning into an elective, +kingdom, while the provincial particularism and independence +have given way to the constitution of a centralized, +monopolistic state. No changes could be more fundamental.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p> + +<p>For lack of sources the historians were, until quite recently, +led to the belief that the change was due to one +tribe in gaining the ascendency over another, the political +supremacy changing from one part of the country to another. +The epoch was called “The Struggle between +Swedes and Goths,” “The Struggle about the election of +kings between Swedes and Goths.” Now it is generally +admitted that the struggle was between principles, not between +tribes. The circumstances sometimes were such that +one section or province opposed others, but these divisions +never were identical or at all depended upon racial or tribal +conditions. It was a struggle between heathendom and +Christianity, democracy and aristocracy, provincial particularism +and centralized state unity.</p> + +<p>The old provincial laws of Sweden are a great and important +inheritance which this period has accumulated from +heathen times. The laws were written down in the thirteenth +and fourteenth centuries, but they bear every evidence +of high antiquity. Many strophes are found in them +of the same metre as those on the tombstones of the Viking +Age and those in which the songs of the Edda are chiefly +written. In other instances the text consists of alliterative +prose, which proves its earlier metrical form. The expressions +have, in places, remained heathen, although used by +Christians, who were ignorant of their true meaning, as, for +instance, in the following formula of an oath, in the West +Gothic law: “Sva se mer gud hull” (So help me the gods). +The laws show a good many individual traits and differences, +but these are not of such a serious character as to +give evidence of having been formulated by tribes of different +origin. A remarkable exception is formed by the laws +of matrimony and inheritance for the inhabitants of Værend<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> +and Bleking, who, it will be remembered, are the descendants +of the Herulian immigration in historic times. In lieu +of a missing literature of sagas and poetry, these provincial +laws give a good insight into the character, morals, customs +and culture of the heathen and early Christian times of +Sweden. From the point of philology they are also of great +value, besides forming the solid basis of later Swedish law. +How the laws could pass from one generation to another, +without any codification, depends upon the facts that they +were recited from memory by the justice (<i>lagman</i> or <i>domare</i>), +and that this dignity generally was inherited, for +centuries being carried by the descendants of one and the +same family.</p> + +<p>Interesting is the appendix to the law of the island of +Gothland, the Guta Saga, being the fragment of a history +of the island and its first contact with Christianity through +a visit by St. Olaf of Norway. The style is the same simple +and serene one as in the Icelandic sagas; while the Gutnic +dialect, in which it is written, more closely resembles the +Gothic of Bishop Wulfila in vowel sounds than the language +of any other known dialect. Quite an important appendix +is found in the older form of the West Gothic law, consisting +of lines of the kings of Sweden, with short but highly +valuable accounts of their reigns and characteristics.</p> + +<p><i>Stenkil</i> was the name of King Emund’s successor. He +was a jarl and married to Emund’s sister. The statement +that he was born in West Gothland is not confirmed by the +authorities. His father’s name was Ragnvald, and it seems +likely that this Ragnvald was identical with the jarl spoken +of above, who died in Russia. Stenkil had close relations +with Russia, for his son Inge was called in from that country +to succeed his father. If Jarl Ragnvald was Stenkil’s<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> +father, this only made his selection as king more plausible, +being then the half-brother of Isiaslaf of Russia and the +brother-in-law of the reigning kings of Hungary, France +and Norway. King Stenkil was a devout Christian, but +of a sagacious disposition, careful not to offend his heathen +subjects by any Christian propaganda. He was a giant in +size, and although phlegmatic, an ardent sportsman. Adalvard, +exiled by Emund, returned and did active work as +bishop of Skara, also converting the population of Vermland. +Even among the heathen of Svealand, Christianity +got a foothold, Adalvard the Younger being established as +bishop in Sigtuna, close by the pagan centre of Upsala. +But when he, in conjunction with Egino, of the newly erected +bishop’s chair of Lund, schemed for the destruction of the +heathen temple of Upsala, he was removed by the command +of the king, who found that such a plan, if carried through, +would prove disastrous to both Church and throne.</p> + +<p>During the short reign of Stenkil there was a conflict +with Norway, an exiled Norwegian jarl having been granted +possessions in Vermland. King Harald Hardrade invaded +Gothaland, punishing this insult by a victory over the +Swedes. No further complications ensued, perhaps on +account of the close family relations of the two rulers.</p> + +<p>Stenkil died in 1066, leaving two sons, <i>Halsten</i> and +<i>Inge</i>, both minors. During their minority two men, both +named <i>Eric</i>, relatives of Stenkil and the old royal line, +fought for supremacy, and both fell in the contest for the +crown. Hakon of West Gothland took hold of the reins of +state and kept them for thirteen years, until King Halsten +became of age, Hakon himself dying. Halsten was a devout +Christian like his father, but less sagacious, trying +to force the new faith upon the heathen of Svealand. For<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> +this reason he was dethroned, and his brother Inge called +in from Russia. But King Inge was a Christian enthusiast +like his brother, and was subsequently driven away by the +irate inhabitants of Svealand, who now called to the throne +his brother-in-law <i>Sven</i>, surnamed <i>Blot-Sven</i> (<i>Sven, the +Sacrificer</i>), of heathen faith. The royal brothers dwelt +undisturbed among the Christians, but after three years +King Inge, in old heathen style, surrounded and set fire +to the domicile of Blot-Sven, who with all his household +perished within. King Inge resumed his reign, likely very +much in his old spirit, for two other pretenders, although +less formidable, appeared: <i>Olof Næskonung</i> (<i>Nose-king</i>) +and a son of Sven, called <i>Kol</i> or <i>Eric Arsæll</i>. Two papal +documents are preserved from Inge’s reign. They consist +of letters from Gregory VII., making appeals for closer +relations between the pope and the Swedish king.</p> + +<p>An invasion was made from Norway, whose king, Magnus +Barfod, subdued the inhabitants of the province of +Dal. King Magnus built a fortified place on the island +of Kollandsœ in Lake Venar, close to the shore of +West Gothland, but it was captured by King Inge, who +set its occupants free, but without their weapons. Two battles +were fought at Fuxerna, the Norwegians being victors +in the first, the Swedes in the latter. Peace was effected +at a meeting between the two kings at Kunghæll in the +summer of 1101, when it was agreed that the frontiers +should remain as they were before the war. King Eric +Ejegod was also present at the meeting, where the betrothal +between King Magnus and King Inge’s daughter Margaret +was agreed upon. On account of the original nature of the +meeting the Swedish princess was surnamed Fredkulla +(Peace-Maiden).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p> + +<p>In 1103 the bishopric of Lund was raised to the dignity +of an archbishopric, yet not becoming perfectly independent +of the archbishopric of Hamburg-Bremen. The archbishop +of Lund received the title of Primas of Sweden, preserved +long after Sweden had obtained its own archbishop.</p> + +<p>King Inge died in 1111, receiving, by the appendix to +the West Gothic law, credit for “having ruled Sweden with +manliness, without breaking the law which governed each +province.” About his brother Halsten, who died before +him, the same source says: “He was sagacious and good-natured; +the cases brought before him were bettered, and +Sweden became worse through his death.” At the time of +Inge’s death, Jemtland was persuaded to pay scat to the +Norwegian king, but it remained in connection with the +church of Sweden.</p> + +<p>Inge’s son Ragnvald died before him, and Halsten’s +sons, <i>Philip</i> and <i>Inge the Younger</i>, ascended the throne. +They were of a more peaceful disposition toward the heathen +than their predecessors, Christianity making great progress +during their reigns. Philip died in 1118, Inge following him +in 1125; his death was said to have been caused by poison. +The epitaph over the two runs thus: “Sweden fared well +while they lived,” in the terse language of the source quoted +above. With them the race of Stenkil became extinct in the +male line.</p> + +<p>In 1123 the Norwegian king, Sigurd Jorsalafare, undertook +a crusade to the eastern parts of Smaland, which were +still heathen. “Crusades” of this kind were not uncommon +during that period, and were hardly anything else than +Viking expeditions in Christian disguise.</p> + +<p>Great confusion ensued through the extinction of Stenkil’s +line. <i>Ragnvald Knaphœfde</i>, probably the son of Olof<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> +Næskonung, was chosen king, but lost his life through the +contemptuous neglect of an ancient custom. The newly +elected king should always make a tour of the realm, receiving +homage and giving assurance of his good faith to +the population of the various provinces. The provincial +laws had stipulations as to the nature and number of the +<i>gisslan</i> (hostages) to meet and escort him through each +province. This tour, called <i>Eriksgata</i>, Ragnvald undertook +without accepting hostages upon entering West Gothland. +He was killed at Karleby, in 1130, by the peasants, +indignant at what they considered an insult to all the West +Goths. These had, moreover, made another choice in Magnus +Nilsson, the son of Margaret Fredkulla in her second +marriage. Magnus never made claim to the Swedish throne, +endeavoring to become king of Denmark, after his father, +Nils Svendsen, but losing his life in the attempt.</p> + +<p><i>Sverker</i>, who had married the widow of the younger +Inge, was in 1133 chosen king by the East Goths, and the +Up-Swedes (in the provinces north of Lake Mælar), having +no special choice of their own, also agreed on him. After +the death of Magnus Nilsson, the West Goths joined by +formally acknowledging King Sverker, who, born in East +Gothland, has been supposed to be the son of Eric Arsæll, +without solid reasons. During Sverker’s reign ecclesiastical +matters developed. The old bishoprics of Birka and Sigtuna +were changed into that of (Old) Upsala, where the pagan +temple seems to have been at last changed into a church. +New bishoprics were created in Linkœping, Strengnæs, +Westeros and Vexio. The whole of Swedish Finland +formed one diocese. The famous Bernard of Clairvaux +was asked by King Sverker and his queen Ulfhild to send +monks of his order, and several Cistercian convents were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> +founded. The quiet and scholarly monks from France, no +doubt, soon began to exert a beneficial influence of importance, +through the means of their superior culture. A papal +legate, Nicolaus of Alba (later Pope Hadrian IV.), visited +Sweden in 1152, meeting all the dignitaries of Church and +State for a conference at Linkœping. The legate was willing +to give to Sweden an archbishop, but the matter was +postponed, since no agreement could be reached in regard +to the archbishopric’s seat. Measures for the establishment +of the Church on a firmer basis and the payment of Peter’s +pence to Rome were agreed on.</p> + +<p>Sverker was a good and peaceful monarch, but seems +with old age to have lost some of his authority. A war +with Denmark was brought on through an escapade of his +son John, who had carried away two Danish women of +noble birth. He returned them, and was himself killed +by the peasants at a Thing. Yet the Danish king, Svend +Grade, had the excuse for an invasion and entered Smaland +with an army in the winter of 1153-54. The brave inhabitants +of Værend gave him a hearty welcome, and he soon +returned to Denmark. It is an old tradition that a woman +by the name of Blenda was chiefly instrumental in this +result. When the peasants feared to attack the superior +enemy, she had a splendid meal spread for the foe. After +the Danes had partaken heavily of its eatables and drinkables, +they were surprised and routed by their hitherto +invisible hosts and hostesses.</p> + +<p>King Sverker, now called “the Old,” was murdered by +his valet while starting for the Christmas matins in 1155 +or 1156. The murder was, without doubt, committed at +the instigation of the Danish prince Magnus Henricsson, +who on his mother’s side was a great-grandson of Inge the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> +Elder, and who in this manner made his first attempt to +reach the throne of Sweden.</p> + +<p>Already, in 1150, the Up-Swedes had in <i>Eric</i>, the son of +Jedvard, found a man in their opinion better suited to rule +Sweden than Sverker the Old. His mother is said to have +been the daughter of Blot-Sven and the sister of Kol, while +his father was “a good and rich yeoman.” Through a mistake +he was named <i>Eric IX.</i>, but is more commonly known +as <i>St. Eric</i>. One source calls him “lawgiver,” although +nothing is definitely known of his activity in this direction. +At the death of Sverker, his son Charles was certainly of +age, but the growing fame of King Eric made it useless for +him to force his right, and Eric was recognized as king +of the whole realm.</p> + +<p>King Eric was a warm friend of the Christian propaganda +in his own country, and by crusades spread the faith +outside of its borders. It was only natural that Sweden +should turn its attention to Finland, with which country it +had stood in close relations since the remotest period, and +where Swedish settlements in all times existed. Accompanied +by Bishop Henric of Upsala, King Eric sailed with +a fleet to the southwestern part of Finland, or the province +now called Finland Proper, where the inhabitants were +forced to receive baptism. This crusade must have taken +place late in the fifties of the twelfth century. Eric soon +returned, but Bishop Henric remained with other priests to +have Christianity firmly established. These efforts met +with considerable difficulty, and Henric was murdered by +one of his converts. He was later worshipped as the patron +saint of Finland.</p> + +<p>The pious King Eric was attacked by the perfidious +prince Magnus Henricsson at East Aros (the present or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> +New Upsala), in 1160. It is said that Eric was attending +mass at the Trinity Church, when he was told of the approach +of his enemy. He remained till the service was over, +after which he went to meet his fate. He was overcome +and slain by the superior force. His pious life and virtues +and the miracles which were said to have been worked at +his grave made him the patron saint of Sweden, although +never canonized by the Church of Rome. His bones are +preserved in a shrine of gilt silver behind the high altar in +the cathedral of Upsala, and were in Catholic days objects +of worship. Oaths were taken “by the power of God and +Saint Eric the King,” his banner was carried in war, and +the city of Stockholm still has his image on its shield.</p> + +<p><i>Charles Sverkersson</i> (<i>Charles VII.</i>) now made valid +his claims, the whole people rising to support him against +the usurper Magnus. In the following year Magnus was +killed by the indignant people. During the reign of Charles +some important novelties in Church and State were introduced. +Sweden received, in 1164, her first archbishop in +Stefan, a monk of Alvastra. The archbishop’s seat was +first Old Upsala. Instead of jarls in the various parts, +there is from this time on a jarl for the whole kingdom +at the side of the king, whom he assists in the government +of the state, sometimes obtaining a power rivalling that of +his master. The first jarl of the realm was Ulf, the second +Gutorm. The rivalry noticeable between the different provinces, +which all thought themselves called upon to select +a new line to rule after Stenkil’s, ceased at the death of +Saint Eric. What follows is a rivalry of interchanging +dynasties. Charles Sverkersson was, in April, 1167, surprised +by a pretender to the throne, Knut Ericsson, who +deprived him of crown and life, while his little son Sverker<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> +was saved and carried away to the queen’s uncle, Valdemar +the Great of Denmark.</p> + +<p><i>Knut Ericsson</i> was the son of Saint Eric, and ruled +Sweden for twenty-five years in peace. In his youth he +had made one unsuccessful attempt to reach the throne, +after which he fled to Norway. After the death of King +Charles he had to fight two pretenders, Kol and Burislev, +the latter said to have been a son of King Sverker.</p> + +<p>During this period the Baltic and its coasts were continually +disturbed by heathen sea-rovers from the southern +shores. A fleet of this kind entered Lake Mælar in 1187 +and destroyed by fire the town of Sigtuna, which, as a +mercantile centre, had succeeded the earlier destroyed +Birka. The second archbishop of Sweden, John, was +killed by the invaders. The first preliminary plan for the +fortification of the present site of Stockholm was probably +then laid, in order to prevent further invasions, and a little +town commenced to grow up.</p> + +<p>Conditions in Finland were not satisfactory. Invasions +by Esthonians and Vends were frequent, while the Finns +themselves were troublesome and little devoted to the new +faith. Bishop Henric’s successor was killed, but Sweden +continued to send bishops during the next hundred years.</p> + +<p>The relations with foreign powers were peaceable, the +first known treaty between Sweden and a German prince +being entered into by King Knut and Duke Heinrich of Saxony +and Bavaria, in regard to trade relations with Lubeck. +King Knut died in the winter of 1195. He had four sons, +but although he had selected one of them for his successor, +“with general consent and through election by the foremost +men in Sweden,” <i>Sverker the Younger</i>, the son of King +Charles, succeeded him. That this could take place with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>out +serious objection of Knut’s sons can only be explained +by the influence wielded by the Church and the nobles. +The latter had already grown up to strength and importance. +Their leader was the mighty jarl, Birger Brosa, who +had succeeded Gutorm. He was of the influential family +of Folkungs, which, one of the first in the land, soon aspired +to the throne. Birger, himself married to a Norwegian +princess, gave his own daughter Ingegerd in marriage +to the new king, and remained in power.</p> + +<p>King Sverker sought the favor of the Church by supporting +its claims. In a document of the year 1200, by +which he donates some property to the church of Upsala, +historians have seen the privileges extended to the Church +as an independent power of state, whose members could +be arraigned before an ecclesiastic forum only, and whose +property was to be exempt from taxation. This is the +spirit of the document; but the king had not, at that period, +the right to grant such extensive privileges. King +Sverker, and probably each of his successors, in turn, gave +only an assurance of their sympathy with the Church policy, +which was to its full extent an assured victory only toward +the close of the thirteenth century.</p> + +<p>In 1202, Birger Brosa died, and with him the firm support +against the pretenders had fallen. The sons of Knut +now made open revolt, leaving their places at Sverker’s +court. In 1205, Sverker gave battle to them at Elgaros, +three of the brothers being killed and the fourth, Eric, +fleeing to Norway. But a few years later he returned +with an army, and Sverker found it safest to retire to +Denmark, whence he returned with a splendid army, which +King Valdemar II. Seier, had placed at his disposal. But +this army was defeated at Lena, in West Gothland, in 1208,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> +and Sverker returned to Denmark, now turning to the pope, +Innocent III., who in vain threatened the pretender with +his ban. Sverker entered Sweden with a new Danish army, +but was killed at the battle of Gestilren, in West Gothland, +in 1210.</p> + +<p><i>Eric Knutsson</i> now came to undisturbed possession of +the throne and thus remained until his death in April, 1216, +his reign being short and uneventful. He was the first +king of Sweden of whom it is known with certainty that +he was anointed and crowned, thus placing himself under +the protection of the Church. His queen, Rikissa, a sister +of Valdemar II., returned to Denmark after his death, +there giving life to a son, who was named Eric, after his +father. King Valdemar tried in vain to have this royal +babe placed on the Swedish throne.</p> + +<p><i>John Sverkersson</i> succeeded King Eric, being, on account +of his fifteen years of age, first surnamed the <i>Young</i>, +later <i>the Pious</i>. By confirming and extending the rights +of the Church which his father granted he won the favor +of the ecclesiastics, and the attempts made by Valdemar to +have his consecration prohibited proved futile. Toward +the end of his short reign (in 1220) King John undertook +a crusade to Esthonia, where he left behind him his jarl, +Charles, a brother of Birger Brosa, and Bishop Charles of +Linkœping, with a part of the army. These all perished +in an onslaught made on them by the heathen in August +of the same year, and the ravages by Esthonians continued +as before. King John died in the island of Visingsœ, in +Lake Vetter, in 1222, like several of his predecessors, and +was, like them, buried in the monastery of Alvastra.</p> + +<p><i>Eric Ericsson</i> now became king of Sweden. The royal +babe was then six years of age, a halting and lisping little<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> +creature. The Church took him under its protection, but +there was no powerful man to take hold of the government +during his minority. A pretender rose in the person of +<i>Knut the Tall</i>, a great grandson of St. Eric, like the king +himself. He defeated Eric’s troops at Olustra, in 1229. +Eric fled to Denmark, where he remained until the short +and restless reign of Knut came to an end through his +death, in 1232. Eric resumed the reins of government, +with the Folkung, Jarl Ulf, at the helm.</p> + +<p>Pope Gregory IX., in 1230, gave commandment to the +Swedish bishops to rouse the people to opposition against the +ravages of the heathen in the Baltic provinces in the further +parts of Finland. In 1237 he commands the Swedish bishops +to have a crusade started against the heathen Tavasti +in the interior of Finland. This crusade took place under +the leadership of Birger Magnusson, who converted the +barbarous Finns by the sword and erected a fort on the +site of the later Tavastehus. Birger, according to Russian +testimony, tried to extend the dominion of Swedish +supremacy as far as to the river Neva, but was repulsed +by the Russians.</p> + +<p>Peace had reigned in Sweden for some time when new +conflicts ensued. The peasants of Upland made an uprising +in 1247, but were conquered at Sparrsætra and punished by +heavier taxes. A pretender rose in the person of Holmger, +the son of Knut the Tall. He was captured and beheaded +in 1248.</p> + +<p>A papal legate, Bishop William of Sabina, visited Sweden +and arranged, in 1248, an ecclesiastical meeting at Skenninge, +effecting the final separation of Church and State, +and establishing the former as an independent power at the +side of the latter. Archbishops and bishops were now to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> +elected by the ecclesiastics and not by the king. Celibacy, +previously not enforced in the Swedish church, was then +introduced, meeting with a good deal of opposition; for the +ecclesiastical offices had already commenced getting hereditary, +as had in earlier times the combined dignities of Asa +priest and chieftain. Birger Magnusson had, shortly before +the meeting of Skenninge, succeeded Ulf as jarl of the +realm. This converter of the Tavasti was destined to play +a most important part in Swedish history, shaping its destiny +through the power of his iron will. He was the leader +of the Folkung family and party, a nephew of Birger +Brosa, and married to princess Ingeborg, a sister of the +reigning king. <i>Birger Jarl</i>, as he is generally called, +effected a satisfactory agreement with Norway at a meeting +with Hakon in the summer of 1249, according to which +the enemies of one realm should have no refuge, or support, +in the other. Besides, it was agreed that the son of the +Norwegian king should marry Rikissa, the daughter of +Birger Jarl.</p> + +<p>King Eric died in 1250, at the age of thirty-four. He +called himself Eric III., while in later times, when St. Eric +was supposed to have been the ninth king of that name, +he has been called Eric XI. He was said to have been +peaceful, just and kind.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a><br /> +<span class="smaller"><i>The Mediæval State—The Folkung Dynasty</i></span></h2> + +<p>With Eric Ericsson the royal line of Saint Eric +became extinct. The crown was, on account +of his birthright, offered to <i>Valdemar</i>, the oldest +son of Birger Jarl. He was crowned in Linkœping +in 1251. From this period on, a new historic source is +found in the rhymed chronicles, of which Swedish literature +possesses several elaborate ones of more than 22,000 +verses in all. Of these the Old, or Eric’s, Chronicle, was +written about 1320, and, like all the rest, anonymously. +The verses are fine, the language pure and powerful; the +portraits of historical personages are roughly drawn but +interesting. Unfortunately these rhymed chronicles in +general, and the Eric’s Chronicle in particular, dwell rather +on the description of impressive events of pomp and splendor +than on historical facts; and the facts given are not +always reliable. The Eric’s Chronicle gives a brief review +of events during the reigns of Eric and Valdemar; then for +the events up to 1319 more fully.</p> + +<p>According to the Eric’s Chronicle, Birger Jarl wished +to succeed Eric, but had to step aside for his son, who was +of royal descent through his mother, King Eric’s sister.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> +But Birger Jarl remained the all-powerful, although uncrowned, +ruler till his death.</p> + +<p>Many of the nobles were not satisfied with the election +of Valdemar. They joined forces, gathering hired troops +from Denmark and Germany. Birger met them at Hervadsbro +and defeated them, capturing the leaders, who were +beheaded. Among these were Philip, a son of Knut the +Tall, and Knut Magnusson, with others of the Folkung +family, which often was at war between themselves when +great interests were at stake.</p> + +<p>After this battle peace reigned under the powerful and +sagacious rule of Birger. An assault upon Denmark by +King Hakon of Norway and Birger jointly was planned, but +a peace agreement took its place, in 1253. In the further +complications between Norway and Denmark, Birger took +no part. When later King Christopher of Denmark called +upon his northern neighbors for help against revolts in his +own country, these were ready to respond; but at the sudden +death of King Christopher these plans were frustrated. +In 1260 Birger bettered the already friendly relations with +Denmark, by arranging the marriage between King Valdemar +and the Danish princess, Sophia, whereupon he, himself +a widower, married Mechtild, a queen-dowager of Denmark. +In Finland, conditions were the same as of yore, +pagan tribes and Russian invasions rendering everything +unsafe and perilous. Birger renewed the trade agreement +with Lubeck, in 1251, with added privileges to Lubeck, but +with the stipulation that those of its citizens who settled +in Sweden must become Swedish subjects. In 1261 the +same privileges were extended to Hamburg. It was at this +period that the Hanseatic League was formed between the +commercial centres of North Germany. The relations be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>tween +the league and the Scandinavian countries waxed +quite intimate and, at times, menacing to the political +independence of the latter. But Sweden derived many +benefits through the contact with the reviving culture of +Southern Europe, which was brought about through the +Hanseatic League; the newly opened mining industry and +the prosperity of Swedish commercial centres particularly +owing much to this influence. Stockholm became the largest +and most important of Swedish towns during the days +of Birger, although he was not its founder. Also with +England, Birger was carrying on peaceful proceedings; yet +their purpose is not known. In 1237, the king of England +had granted the merchants of the island of Gothland free +trade privileges. Birger was a great and sound legislator, +although it is not known with certainty how many of the +judicial reforms accredited to him originated in these days. +He made the law that sister should have equal share +of inheritance with brother, and the laws of sanctity of +home, Church, Thing and woman, which formed the kernel +of a set of laws, later called <i>Edsœre</i> (Pledged oath), which +every crowned king and his foremost men must pledge +themselves to uphold. He tried to make away with the +ordeal of walking on, or the handling of, iron as a legal +testimony of guiltlessness. Further, he prohibited the custom +of self-imposed thraldom.</p> + +<p>The only act of Birger’s which has been condemned was +his attempt to introduce feudalism. His second son, Magnus, +was created a duke, and received, at Birger’s death, +Sœdermanland, with the castle of Nykœping as a duchy. +This gave rise to much strife and many conflicts within +the new royal branch of the Folkungs, and endangered the +unity of the kingdom. Birger, the last jarl of the realm,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> +was the first real statesman of Sweden, whose stern intellect +and integrity of character won for his country an honored +position among its neighbors, and for himself the admiration +of many generations to come. He died in 1266.</p> + +<p>The first few years after Birger’s death were peaceful. +The archbishop’s seat was removed to the present Upsala, +where work was commenced on the magnificent cathedral. +In 1271 the commercial privileges held by Lubeck and +Hamburg were also granted to Riga.</p> + +<p>Valdemar was a weak and frivolous man, and his licentiousness +gave his brother Magnus the idea of pushing him +aside, and later deprived him of the loyalty and respect of +his people. The difficulties with his brothers ended in open +conflict; Magnus and his younger brother Eric turned to +Denmark and Germany, where they hired an army, King +Eric Glipping of Denmark helping them with troops on +promise of good securities. The brothers invaded West +Gothland and defeated a Swedish army at Hofva, in 1275, +while the king with his best troops remained inactive at +Tiveden. Valdemar fled to Norway, bringing his son Eric +with him. Venturing back into Vermland, he was captured +and brought before Duke Magnus. Valdemar went so far +as to abdicate his throne, but the meeting ended in an +agreement according to which <i>Magnus</i> was to become +king of Svealand and Valdemar to keep Gothaland. Eric +was made a duke, but died in the same year. Magnus +was crowned at Upsala in 1276.</p> + +<p>King Valdemar did not long remain content with the +new state of things. One month after Magnus’s coronation +he arranged a meeting with him at Lœdœse, over which +King Magnus Lagabœte of Norway presided, but without +being able to effect an agreement between the brothers.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> +Valdemar now turned to King Eric of Denmark, and won +an ally in him because Magnus had neglected to fulfil his +promises. Magnus gained a supporter in Duke Gerhard I. +of Holstein, whose daughter Helvig he married in November, +1276.</p> + +<p>With the year 1277 war commences between Sweden +and Denmark. Magnus invades Halland and Scania, while +Valdemar, with a Danish army, enters Smaland, burning +the town of Vexio. With King Eric, Valdemar enters +West Gothland, capturing Skara. At last the Danes are +defeated at Ettak. Early in 1278 peace is made at Laholm, +Magnus promising to pay his debt to Eric, leaving the castle +of Lœdœse as security. Each promises not to shelter the +rebels against the other. Valdemar lost his cause and had +to give up Gothaland and his royal title, keeping only his +inherited estates. On account of his scandalous living, the +nobles insisted upon his imprisonment, and ten years after +his abdication he was placed in custody at the castle of +Nykœping. He survived all his brothers, dying in 1302. +His son Eric was imprisoned at the castle of Stockholm, +receiving good treatment like his father. When his cousin +Birger was crowned, in 1302, he was set free, spending the +rest of his life in Sweden as a private citizen. During +Magnus Ericsson’s minority he was a member of the king’s +council. When Magnus was sole occupant of the throne +he took the title of “King of the Swedes and Goths,” +which, occasionally used before, henceforward became the +customary one.</p> + +<p>A revolt against King Magnus took place shortly after +the meeting at Laholm. Some of the nobles were dissatisfied +with the favoritism shown foreigners, a complaint which +was only too often justifiable, and forever repeated, in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> +course of centuries, against the Swedish monarchs. Count +Gerhard of Holstein was imprisoned, and the Danish +knight, Ingemar, killed. The king invited the rebels to +him at Gællqvist, where he in an unexpected way made +them prisoners, and had them beheaded, in August, 1280, +confiscating their property. This incident is characteristic +of the time, but there is no other authority for it than the +Chronicle. The reign of Magnus was comparatively short, +but a happy and glorious one. The relations with the island +of Gothland were made closer and more intimate, although +the proud independence of its inhabitants remained largely +intact. They were to pay increased scat, but continued +their government without royal officials. The Guts were +of Swedish origin, and their island formed since the ninth +century a part of Sweden, but their isolated position and +great commercial activity made them almost independent. +About the year 1000 they seek for themselves protection +from the Swedish king, and after their baptism they turn +to the bishop of Linkœping for spiritual guidance. Thanks +to its position, halfway between Germany, Russia and Sweden, +Gothland gives rise to the most important commercial +centre of Northern Europe after Lubeck. The inhabitants +of Visby were Germans, to a great extent, and their conflicts +with the rural population were frequent. King Magnus +appears as an arbitrator in such cases with an authority +great enough to impose his conditions. In spite of the +inimical relations between Denmark and Norway, Magnus +held peace with both.</p> + +<p>As a legislator Magnus was even more important than +his father, shaping and reshaping laws which furthered the +development of the country and wielding an influence upon +its jurisdiction reaching down to the present day. At a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> +meeting of nobles at Alnsnœ, in 1280, King Magnus gave +solemn pledge to the so-called Edsœre-laws of his father, +and made the nobility into a privileged class. All the men +surrounding him and his brother Bengt (made duke of +Finland), and on their estates, together with the trusted +men in the service of a bishop, were freed from paying taxes +to the king. The same privilege was extended “to all men +who served with a horse, whosoever they serve.” The exemption +from taxes did not include those due the church +or community, but only those due the king. The horse service +(<i>ross</i> = later <i>rusttjenst</i>) meant to provide for a cavalry +force of iron-clad men for military service, according to the +demands of the time. The nobles saw to it that this privilege +was made permanent even after they had discontinued +the horse service, and that others were added to it. A law +prohibiting <i>voldgæstning</i>, the custom of travellers of taking +by violence, or without compensation, food and comfort from +the rural population, was also made at Alnsnœ, and won for +King Magnus the rustic but beautiful surname of <i>Ladulas</i> +(Barn-lock). “For he wished to place such locks on the +peasant’s barn, that no one should dare enter but at the +will of the owner,” wrote Olaus Petri, the historian and +reformer. An official was placed in every country town to +see to the traveller’s comfort, and to his payment for it. At +a meeting in Skenninge, in 1285, a law about <i>konungafrid</i> +(royal sanctity) was made in order to prevent strife among +the nobles and to make away with the ancient evil of revenge +for bloodshed. This period of royal sanctity, when +between men of the most strained relations peace should +reign, commenced a fortnight after the king’s arrival had +been announced at the Thing and lasted until he had by +letter informed it of his departure out of the province. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> +one who abused this sanctity, or only carried weapons, was +exiled and his property confiscated. Secret societies among +the nobles were prohibited.</p> + +<p>Magnus was not only a great legislator, but saw to it +that his laws were not broken. Personally he loved splendor +and dignity, another trait through which he won the +favor of the Swedes, who in all times have been fond of +seeing their highest representatives surround themselves +with impressive luxury and wealth. Magnus was in this +respect the first mediæval monarch of Sweden, who kept +a brilliant court, but at the same time was the pious and +obedient son of the Church. He augmented the ecclesiastical +privileges and founded several convents. In one of +these, St. Clara of Stockholm, he installed his daughter +Rikissa. Upon his death, which deplorable event took place +in the island of Visingsœ, December 18, 1290, he was buried +in the Franciscan convent church (the Riddarholm’s) in +Stockholm, according to his own wish. He was the first +monarch to be entombed in this the present Pantheon +of Sweden. Three sons survived him, Birger, Eric and +Valdemar.</p> + +<p>During the reign of Magnus, the development of mediæval +institutions took rapid strides. This is noticeable +also in the offices of those who surround the king. In +the place of the jarl have been set two new dignitaries the +<i>drotsete</i> and <i>marsk</i>, of the king, “the seater of the retinue” +and “marechal” or “servant of the horse,” respectively. +Circumstances heightened the importance of these offices +and changed them from court into state positions, the president +of the state council and the commander of the army. +The <i>kansler</i> (chancellor), often a bishop, is another important +royal office. The king’s council, consisting of bishops,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> +knights and men of social standing, surrounds the monarch +at his command and according to his selection, the archbishop +being the only ex-officio member. Important affairs +of State and Church are decided on at the meetings of nobles, +<i>herredagar</i>, no one taking part who is not asked, or not +agreeable to the king. These meetings later developed into +<i>riksdagar</i>, at which all classes of the people were represented. +Taxes were collected for the king by bailiffs, who +in compensation received fiefs, sometimes consisting only of +certain estates, in other instances as much as a whole province +or district. The right of taxation belonged to the people. +Only in extraordinary cases the king was allowed to +impose additional taxes, although such were sometimes imposed +wrongfully, in spite of a law stipulated by King +Magnus Barn-Lock.</p> + +<p><i>Birger</i> succeeded his father Magnus. He was only ten +years of age, but his father had placed by his side a man +who was to reign during his minority. Marsk <i>Tyrgils +Knutsson</i> was the second of the great uncrowned rulers +of whom Sweden was destined to receive a number almost +as large as that of illustrious monarchs. Tyrgils Knutsson +followed out the policy of peace and progress which Birger +Jarl had commenced and King Magnus continued, making +in all the happiest era of the Middle Ages. To Birger Jarl’s +conquest of Tavastland in Finland, Tyrgils added that of +Carelia. Two expeditions were sent to Carelia, in 1293 and +1299, whose savage inhabitants were converted and made +Swedish subjects. Viborg was built and formed a stronghold +for further operations, while Landskrona, another fortified +place, erected by Tyrgils, not far from the site of +the present St. Petersburg, was soon lost to the Russians. +Through the conquest of Carelia, better times commenced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> +for the Church of Finland, whose bishopric, in 1300, was +moved to Abo.</p> + +<p>The legislative work of his great predecessors was continued +by Tyrgils, who made possible the union of the various +“lands” of Upland into one judicial district. The first +justice was Birger Persson, who was at the head of the +work of preparing a common law for the whole province +(in 1296). Neutrality was preserved during the conflicts +between Norway and Denmark. King Eric Menved of +Denmark was, in 1296, married to King Birger’s sister, +the pious Princess Ingeborg. In 1298 Birger was married +to Eric’s sister Margaret in Stockholm, over the lavish +splendor of which event the poet of the Chronicle goes +into ecstasies of delight and felicitous description. Both +these unions were prearranged by King Magnus, and the +princess Margaret had been educated in Sweden for the +purpose of becoming its queen.</p> + +<p>The king was now of age, but Marsk Tyrgils continued +for several years at the helm. His relations to the Church +show what a wise and vigorous statesman he was. When +in the name of the king the privileges to the Church were +once more granted, as by his predecessor, Tyrgils made the +important exceptions that the Church should fulfil for its +possessions the same military duty as all others in the country, +and that certain large fines should be reserved for the +king. The ecclesiastics took quietly to these restrictions at +first, but soon an open conflict ensued. Another and greater +one arose between the king and his brothers, Eric, duke +of Sweden, and Valdemar, duke of Finland. It resembles +very much the conflict between their uncle Valdemar and +his brothers. In both cases there was a weak and deceitful +king who was inferior, if not in wretchedness, at least in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> +courage, to one of the brothers. After the first conflict was +ended, the dukes selected Marsk Tyrgils for their prey. In +March, 1305, Tyrgils saw the king grant to the Church the +important privileges held back until then. In December of +the same year the king and his brothers came upon Tyrgils +unprepared. He was imprisoned, and in a shameful manner +dragged to Stockholm, travelling night and day through +the cold of winter, probably by some fraudulent legal process +found guilty of treason, and beheaded, February 10, +1236. As a climax to this foul political murder, Tyrgils +Knutsson was buried on the place of execution. Later, his +body was removed to the church of Riddarholm and placed +at the side of King Magnus, whose son he had served so +faithfully.</p> + +<p>The conflict between the royal brothers burst into flame +again, revealing some of the darkest and most shocking +scenes of deceit, treachery and villany found in Swedish +history. The strife commenced in April, 1304, for the first +time, and continued, with few and short intermissions, +until the autumn of 1318, with broken oaths and pledges, +which were renewed and broken again, alliances and royal +betrothals formed, ended and renewed, kingdoms and +duchies divided and redivided, endless intrigues, rebellion +and mutual invasions. The kings of Norway and Denmark, +with their armies, and several German princes and +hired troops, became actors in this bloody tragedy, which +ended in the annihilation of the principals. The most +dramatic incidents are known as “the Play at Hotuna” +and “the Feast of Nykœping,” both taking place during +the short intervals of peace. The former was enacted +September 29, 1306, when the king invited his brothers +to him at Hotuna in Upland. They accepted the invita<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>tion, +only to carry the king and queen away as captives, +forcing the former to give over to them his kingdom and +his power, only leaving him the royal title. “The Feast +at Nykœping” was held the night between December 10 +and 11, 1317. The king and queen invited the dukes to +the castle, seized them in the night and threw them into +a dungeon, where they both perished after six months of +hunger and neglect. Birger did not derive any benefit from +his fearful crime. The whole country rose against him and +he died, after several years of exile, in 1321. Birger has +generally been held forth as the responsible party in the +crimes and evils of the conflict, but his brothers seem to +have been guilty in about the same degree. Duke Eric +was one of the most brilliantly gifted princes of his age, +and jealousy on the part of the king was the spark that +kindled the fire. But the bad example set by their father +of depriving an older brother of his throne, and the great +possessions and independence of the dukes, were the underlying +causes. The destruction of both the contending +parties was an unexpected solution and a great gain for +Sweden, whose fate appeared sinister, with the prospect +of dismemberment or dissolution, the dukes holding their +vast possessions as heirlooms.</p> + +<p>During the conflict Norway had sided with the dukes, +Denmark with the king. Duke Eric was married to Ingeborg, +only child of King Hakon of Norway, and Duke +Valdemar to his niece of the same name. <i>Mattias Kettilmundsson</i> +was, in June, 1318, elected drotsete and regent. +He led an army against Denmark in the interests of the +duchesses, invading Scania and defeating the Danes near +Hessleholm. November 11th of the same year peace was +made in Rœskilde between the kings, Eric and Birger, on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> +one side, and King Hakon and the heirs of the dukes, +on the other. May 8, 1319, King Hakon died, and <i>Magnus +Ericsson</i>, the young son of Duke Eric, inherited the crown +of Norway, and July 8th of the same year he was elected +king of Sweden at Mora in Upland.</p> + +<p>For the attainment of this end Magnus’s mother, Duchess +Ingeborg, and seven Swedish councillors had worked +with great activity. They had taken part in shaping the first +Act of Union of the North in June, 1319, and from Oslo, +in Norway, hastened to have Magnus elected at the Stone +of Mora, where the Swedish kings since time immemorial +were nominated. The Act of Union stipulated that the two +kingdoms were to remain perfectly independent, the king +to sojourn an equally long part of the year in each, with +no official of either country to accompany him further than +to the frontier. In their foreign relations the countries +were to be independent, but to support each other in case +of war. The king was the only tie to bind them together.</p> + +<p>There was another Magnus whose candidacy was spoiled +by this union. He was the son of King Birger, already, as +a child, chosen king of Sweden in succession to his father. +Magnus Birgersson, a prisoner at Stockholm, was beheaded +in 1320, to make safe the reign of his more fortunate +cousin. King Magnus was only three years old, and +Drotsete Mattias Kettilmundsson presided over the government +during his minority, the nobles of the state council +having great power and influence. Both in Sweden and +Norway the nobility had by this time attained a supremacy +which was oppressive both to the king and the people, not +so much through their privileges as through the liberties +they took. Their continual feuds between themselves disturbed +the peace of the country.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p> + +<p>In 1332, King Magnus took charge of the government. +He was a ruler of a benign and good disposition toward the +common people, whose interests he always furthered. But +he lacked strength of character and was not able to control +the obnoxious nobles. The provinces of Scania and Bleking +suffered greatly under Danish rule, which was changed into +German oppression when handed over to the counts of Holstein +as security for a loan. The people of Scania rose in +revolt and asked for protection from King Magnus. At a +meeting in Kalmar (in 1332) both provinces were united +to Sweden. But the king had to pay heavy amounts in +settlement, which were increased when Halland was procured +in a similar way.</p> + +<p>King Magnus was, at his height of power, one of the +mightiest monarchs of Europe, having under his rule +the entire Scandinavian peninsula and Finland, a realm +stretching from the Sound at Elsinore to the Polar Sea, +from the river Neva to Iceland and Greenland. In 1335 +King Magnus rode his “Eriksgata,” when he announced +that no Christian within his realm should remain a thrall, +thus practically abolishing the remnants of slavery. In the +following year he was crowned with his queen, Blanche +of Namur.</p> + +<p>Magnus took great interest in legislation. During his +minority the provincial laws were revised. The king himself +accomplished the great and noble task of having these +united into a state law (<i>landslag</i>), appointing a committee +of three justices to do the work. The clergy was consulted, +but refused to have ecclesiastical laws made for the whole +kingdom. The state law was first considered in 1347, and +was put in practice in 1352, being both a digest and an +elaboration of the ancient provincial laws. In many an in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>stance +of foreign or domestic conflicts, the people, through +its enforcement, found help and shelter from the national +spirit of this law.</p> + +<p>To the financial difficulties which beset the reign of King +Magnus and made his life a burden the great plague was +added. “The Black Death,” in 1350, came from England +to Norway and spread with great rapidity and the most +disastrous consequences throughout the North. In certain +parts of Sweden one-third of the population perished, in +other parts even a greater percentage, the plague raging +with equal violence throughout all classes of society. King +Magnus had for a long time contemplated revenge against +the invasions made by the Russians into Carelia. He undertook +an expedition, under the pretext of a crusade, which +ended badly, the Swedish fleet being shut in by the Russians +and saved only by means of digging a canal. The +king was severely criticised for this crusade, which was construed +as a punishment for his sins, and, besides, largely +increased his debts. The pope was among his creditors, +who, upon non-payment, placed Magnus under his ban.</p> + +<p>The union with Norway was not a happy one. As a +minor, Magnus dwelt most of the time in Norway, but +later principally in Sweden. This was contrary to the Act +of Union, the state of things in Norway, furthermore, +necessitating the almost continual presence of the king. +For this reason his son, <i>Hakon</i>, was chosen king of Norway, +in 1343, Magnus remaining in power until Hakon became +of age, and his older son, <i>Eric</i>, chosen king, or heir-apparent, +of Sweden, in 1344. It appears that King Magnus +was in favor of this separation and had preconceived it in +giving to his older son the Swedish name of Eric and to the +younger the Norwegian name of Hakon, both equally char<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>acteristic +of the royal lines of the respective countries. The +two young kings caused their father considerable annoyance; +but, upon the early death of Eric, Hakon entered more +into harmony with King Magnus. Valdemar Atterdag, the +crafty and enterprising king of Denmark, took an active +part in the conflicts, pretending to support Magnus, while +simultaneously depriving him of Scania, Halland and Bleking, +which he captured almost without resistance. He +landed in the island of Gothland, plundering Visby in a +treacherous way. Upon his departure, his ships perished +in a storm, the plundered treasures going down with these, +the king himself escaping with difficulty. Valdemar arranged +a marriage between his little daughter Margaret and +King Hakon of Norway. Several Swedish nobles of great +influence considered the treachery and impudence of Valdemar +and the weakness of Magnus as going too far. They +offered the Swedish crown to Albrecht, the son of King +Magnus’s sister Euphemia. The offer was accepted by +Duke Albrecht of Mecklenburg, the father of the young +Albrecht, in behalf of his son. He made a sudden assault +upon Stockholm in 1363, capturing it. At the Stone of +Mora, Albrecht the Younger was chosen king of Sweden. +Magnus was defeated and made a prisoner at Enkœping.</p> + +<p>King Magnus was taken to Stockholm and there imprisoned +for some time, heavily laden with chains. King Valdemar +deserted his cause, but the common people of Svealand, +with whom Magnus had always been exceedingly +popular, rose in order to free him. Soon King Hakon +reached the very gates of Stockholm with a Norwegian +army, whereupon Magnus was released. But he had to +abdicate his throne, leaving for Norway, where he died, +through an accident, in 1374.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Albrecht</i> was the rightful king of Sweden. At the +death of Eric he became heir-apparent to the Swedish +throne, but for having sped on the course of events in his +own interest, neither he nor his father acquired any popularity. +They surrounded themselves by a great number +of Germans, who, through their licentiousness and overbearing +manner, enraged the people. The country was +practically in the hands of a few Swedish nobles, among +whom the drotsete, Bo Jonsson Grip, through his high +office and his immense wealth, bore the supremacy. Bo +Jonsson is said to have been the wealthiest man who ever +lived in the North, his possessions, fiefs and castles being +of an astounding number, the most famous among the +latter being Gripsholm in the Lake Mælar. He loaned +money to the king against new castles and fiefs in security, +and held Albrecht in the most humiliating relation of +dependence. His enemies he persecuted without mercy, +killing one before the high altar in the Franciscan church +of Stockholm. When Bo Jonsson died, in 1386, the king +tried to better conditions by confiscating to the crown some +of his possessions. But he met with opposition from the +nobles, who claimed that he did so only to enrich his German +favorites. The king was helpless against his councillors, +to whom he had handed over all his power. They +were in possession of all the fortified castles, and if one +of them died, the king had no right to select a successor +without their permission. The executors of Bo Jonsson’s +will ended by offering the crown to Margaret, Valdemar’s +daughter, and queen-dowager of Norway. She accepted, +promising the nobles that they should remain in undisturbed +enjoyment of their great privileges. Margaret sent an army +into West Gothland, consisting of men from all three of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> +Scandinavian countries, under the command of the Swede, +Eric Kettilsson. King Albrecht met with an army to a +great extent composed of German troops, and was defeated +and made a prisoner at Falkœping, February 24, 1389. +Albrecht was imprisoned at Lindholm, in Scania, for +seven years, later returning to Mecklenburg.</p> + +<p>To the Folkung period belongs one of the most remarkable +and renowned of Swedish women, herself, on her +mother’s side, a Folkung, <i>St. Birgitta</i>, the daughter of +the legislator and first justice of Upland, Birger Persson. +Her parents were both pious and devoted to ascetic practices. +As a child she had visions, the holy Mary appearing +to her. When thirteen years of age she was married to Ulf +Gumundsson, later justice of Nerike, also a pious man, with +whom she made a pilgrimage to Spain. Birgitta lost her +husband shortly afterward. At the Swedish court, where +she was the highest functionary of Queen Blanche, she had +seen political life at close range, gathering a deep and +strong indignation against the mighty and powerful in +the world. Her husband’s death moved her deeply, and +the religious mysticism of her youth now burst forth with +increased strength, her visions becoming numerous and important. +That she believed in them herself there is no +doubt, and she made the world believe her. At first she +hurled admonitions and curses against King Magnus and +his court; but the wretchedness of the whole world attracted +her to its spiritual centre, Rome, where she lived for twenty-three +years in continual and open protest against the vices +of the popes and priests. She died in Rome, in 1373, at +the age of seventy, after a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, seeing +the two great ambitions of her life fulfilled: the pope returning +to Rome from Avignon, and her creation, the order<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> +of St. Salvator, sanctioned by the pope. Birgitta was canonized +by the pope in 1391, through the influence of Queen +Margaret.</p> + +<p>Birgitta was the greatest political-poetic genius of the +mediæval North. Her revelations fill eight volumes. She +wrote them in Swedish, and had a priest translate them +into Latin. Some of her original Swedish work is preserved. +Birgitta appears to have thought in artistic images, +and these images are of plastic form, often of consummate +beauty, sometimes witty, sometimes avowedly comic, always +effective. The melancholy charm of Sweden’s nature suffuses +all her writings and renders to her peculiar mediæval +mysticism a national temperament. From Swedish sceneries +and animal life she borrows her most beautiful images.</p> + +<p>St. Birgitta has by some been considered as a reformer +before Luther, but not quite correctly. Luther reformed the +institutions; Birgitta aimed at reforming their upholders, +and used against the pope and the priests a language almost +as strong as Luther’s. Some of her ideas were not strictly +in harmony with the Catholic dogmas; she insisted on a +close personal union with God, without the mediation of +priests or saints, fought for a universal knowledge of the +Bible and the preaching of the Gospel in the popular vernaculars, +and considered the sale of indulgences a mortal +sin. Four hundred and seventy convents of her order, in +which men and women were to collaborate for the instruction +and spiritual guidance of the people, were after her death +founded in the Scandinavian countries, Germany, Esthonia, +Poland, Italy and the Netherlands, one existing in England +up to the time of Elizabeth. The mother institution at +Vadstena, in East Gothland, was of the greatest importance +to the cultural development of Sweden and the North.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +One of the greatest libraries of the Middle Ages was reared, +and the first book-printing establishment of Sweden founded +there in 1490. Within its walls a considerable literary activity +prevailed, the religious literature of the time being +copied, or translated into Swedish, and many original works +written. The Swedish language, used by the Birgittine +school of writers, tried, by approaching Danish forms, to +establish a common literary language in the North, the +Norwegian having approached the Swedish during the +time of the close relations between the courts of the two +countries. These efforts, for a time furthered by political +relations, were unfortunately soon to be abandoned forever.</p> + +<p>Birgitta was a great genius in fetters. Her rare gifts +were kept back in their development through the idiosyncrasies +of her period. She was of an indomitable, aristocratic +spirit, always remaining the noblewoman to whom +it was natural to speak the truth to the princes of State and +Church, because she considered herself their equal through +the best blood of the North, of which she had her share. +This religious mystic was a true child of her aristocratic +age, which gave to Sweden two parallel lines, sometimes +identical, of great legislators and weak and indulgent +princes.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a><br /> +<span class="smaller"><i>Unionism versus Patriotism—Margaret, Engelbrekt +and Charles Knutsson</i></span></h2> + +<p>Queen Margaret, the successor of Albrecht, for +the first time in history united the three Scandinavian +countries and their dependencies under one +rule. Born in a prison in which King Valdemar of Denmark +had placed his consort, Queen Hedvig, there remained +in the character of Margaret something of the rigor and +chill of her uncomely birthplace. When she was seven, +she was engaged to King Hakon of Norway, and married +to him at eleven years of age. In Norway, her education +was continued for several years after her marriage under +the stern supervision of Dame Martha, a daughter of +St. Birgitta, who often applied corporal punishment to the +young queen. Margaret early gave evidence of self-control +and power of reflection, and her mind developed at the expense +of her heart. Her son Olaf became king of Denmark +upon Valdemar’s death, in 1375, and king of Norway upon +that of Hakon, in 1380. Upon his death, in 1387, Margaret +succeeded him, and two years later laid Sweden under her +sceptre.</p> + +<p>Albrecht was captured, but the Germans still were in +possession of several Swedish strongholds. These yielded +to Margaret, one after the other, except Stockholm. In the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> +capital, the German influx of soldiers and merchants had +made the foreign population exceedingly large. They now +acted as oppressors. A secret league was formed which +captured a great number of prominent Swedish citizens, +who were cruelly tortured with wooden saws and then +thrown into an old shed on the islet of Kæpplingeholm. +The shed was ignited and the poor prisoners suffered a +terrible death. German freebooters, especially the Vitalen +or Victuallen Brotherhood, who provided the fortress of +Stockholm with victuals, were plundering in the Baltic +and Lake Mælar, and were the allies of the Germans of +Stockholm. Margaret was powerless against them until +she entered into an alliance with the Hanseatic towns. +This ended the war; Stockholm surrendered and peace +was made, in 1395. The plunders by sea-rovers in the +Baltic were put an end to during Margaret’s reign, but +cost heroic efforts and much money, while the influence +of the Hansa grew into menacing proportions.</p> + +<p>Margaret was anxious to place the dynasty of the North +firmly within her line of descent. In 1389, she selected her +sister’s grandson, Eric of Pomerania, then six years old, +her successor, and he was thus proclaimed in Norway. In +1395, Eric was chosen king of Denmark and, in 1396, of +Sweden. At his Swedish coronation in Kalmar, in 1397, +Queen Margaret, who remained at his side as the real ruler, +had the outline drawn of an <i>Act of Union</i>, which should +forever unite the three Scandinavian kingdoms under one +ruler. Each country was to preserve its constitution, laws +and traditions unmolested, but they were to support each +other in times of war. When a king was to be chosen, +representatives of equal numbers from each country were +to meet in Halmstad, the sons of kings to be favored by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> +choice. This Act of Union was never carried into effect, +according to legal forms. The sketch or outline of it, such +as it is still preserved, was signed by representatives of the +three countries, although not in equal numbers; but why +Queen Margaret never allowed it to be enlarged into a +legally binding document is not known. Her favorite +idea was therein embodied, and she appeared to have an +all-powerful influence over those necessary to carry it +through.</p> + +<p>Margaret made it her object to strengthen the crown +and reduce the power of the nobles. She cared naught +about keeping her promises to the latter, confiscating their +castles and possessions, and annulling their privileges. +When they complained, reminding her of her promises in +her letters to them, she replied: “Keep my letters; I shall +certainly keep your castles.” All nobles created by Albrecht +were entirely deprived of their privileges if they +could not prove their due qualifications. The majority of +forts erected during the war were pulled down. No taxes +were longer imposed, except through written order of the +government. These reforms were all rigorously carried +out, according to the “Restitution of Nykœping” of 1396. +Margaret succeeded in a remarkable way in reducing to +normal proportions the power and influence of the Swedish +nobility. The nobles, who were all-powerful and absolutely +unyielding in Albrecht’s days, bowed to her gracefully +and received meekly her severe conditions. An +explanation can be found in the fact that they had no leader +of authority and power among them, after the death of +Bo Jonsson Grip. Further, Margaret was careful not to +fill the important offices of drotsete and marsk, when +vacant, thus making the personal presence and inter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>ference +of the sovereign necessary on all important +occasions.</p> + +<p>The love of the Swedish people should have been Margaret’s +reward for her abolition of aristocratic oppression, +if she had not been in a position which necessitated the +imposition of heavy taxes. The existence of the common +people was made weary and troublesome through the payment +of the “queen’s tax,” the “stake tax” on each hearth, +the “rump tax” on each head of cattle, and, worst of all, the +“Gothland’s release.” Bailiffs, often of foreign birth, collected +these taxes with great severity. When the queen became +aware of the complaints against her and her bailiffs, +she asked in a letter to the archbishop that the people would +forgive her in God’s name. “Some of it one has not been +able to better; some we and they might well have bettered, +although what is done is done.” Without doubt, there was +due reason for the heavy taxes in the unsettled relations +with other countries which existed during Margaret’s reign; +the support of the Hansa and a war with Holstein, commenced +by King Eric, were expensive. The island of Gothland +had been captured by the so-called German Order in +the last days of Albrecht’s reign. When the island was redeemed +through the payment of Swedish money, Margaret +made the mistake of installing there a Danish bailiff, and +it thus for a long time remained a Danish province. Margaret +believed in the Union and counted no Scandinavian +a foreigner in either country. But it was contrary to Swedish +law to install foreigners as bailiffs and vassals, and as +she appointed a great number of Danes to Swedish fiefs, +and never a Swede to Danish positions of the same or +equal importance, the Swedish complaints, on this point, +were justified.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p> + +<p>Margaret was as severe toward the ecclesiastics as +toward the nobles. But when she noticed the forebodings +of powerful resistance, she made important concessions. +She was anxious to observe religious practices, joining the +convent of Vadstena as a “worldly sister,” kissing the hands +of all the monks and nuns on that occasion. She took interest +in the conversion of the Laps, sending a baptized woman +of their race, by the name of Margaret, to preach the Gospel +among them.</p> + +<p>The war with Holstein concerning the possession of +Schleswig had been brought to an armistice, and the +queen sailed to Flensburg to conduct further negotiations. +While still on board of her ship, death surprised her, in +1412.</p> + +<p>Margaret has been called the Semiramis of the North +and well deserves her widespread fame. During her reign, +the Northern countries, through her wisdom and strength, +enjoyed a degree of order which they missed both before +and after. She put an end to the foreign influence which +had governed Sweden. Yet her rule was a disappointment, +and the Union also. She paved the way for a new foreign +influence, by making a German prince her successor and +by leaning too much on the Hansa. The aristocratic oppression +was crushed by her, but she introduced the oppression +through royal bailiffs. She promised to preserve the +old territory of Sweden unmolested, but placed the island +of Gothland under Denmark. The Union of which Queen +Margaret was the champion her successors were not able +to grasp or uphold in the spirit of her good intentions. To +Sweden it came in an inauspicious time when it was not +fit to receive it. Foreign oppression had irritated the people +to resistance, and discontent was to give life to patriotism.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> +Sweden had recently developed into one joint constitutional +body, the various provinces giving up their ancient +laws for a state law, in which the old individual +traits were gathered and recognized. We know how Sweden +was settled, not by various tribes, but by pioneers who, +from the old home of culture, Scania, penetrated to the +wilderness above, settling one district after the other, +which, one by one, developed into provinces, little states +by themselves, later united into one realm with a common +king. One by one these provinces had taken the lead in +the political and cultural development, often the youngest +before the oldest. Thus the Swedes, a younger branch of +the Gauts, gave their name to the country and furnished +the rulers, the Guts of the island of Gothland securing the +commercial supremacy of the sea, and the Rus of the outskirts +of Upland founding the Russian empire. Now it fell +upon Dalecarlia, the most recently settled of Swedish provinces, +to save freedom and independence to a newly regenerated +state which was awakening to the consciousness of +its solidarity of interests, aspirations and duties. From +Dalecarlia came the first great political leader. From there +he and his later successors received their chief support.</p> + +<p><i>Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson</i> is the earliest and greatest +of the patriotic heroes of Swedish history. To the glory of +his deeds and the noble simplicity of his character the death +of a martyr gives added lustre. Engelbrekt was born at +Kopparberg, in the mining district of Dalecarlia, where +there were many German settlers. Possibly his early ancestors +were among them; but for three generations at least +they had been native-born Swedes, Engelbrekt’s father, +as he himself, belonging to the Swedish nobility, although +not of the influential families. Engelbrekt had received the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> +chivalric education of his time at the courts of the great +nobles, being next in rank to a knight, <i>væpnare</i> (squire), +at the opening of his career. He was small of stature, but +eloquent, courageous and of a lofty mind. The integrity +of his character was absolute; his personal necessities were +few and plain.</p> + +<p>King Eric was a highly educated and refined man, not +without a certain ability, but entirely without discernment +and patience for the various demands and conditions of the +countries over which he was set to rule. His foreign bailiffs +in Sweden, mostly Danes, with a fair sprinkling of +Germans and Italians, were still less in sympathy with his +Swedish subjects. They tried to manage them as they did +the Danes and the inhabitants of more southern countries, +for centuries accustomed to slavery, ignorant of the ancient +spirit of independence of the Swedish yeomanry, abated +but not suppressed. When oppression no longer kept within +reasonable bounds, the Swedish patience came to an end, +and first in the youngest and most solitary parts of the +country.</p> + +<p>The most hated of Danish bailiffs was Jœsse Ericsson, +of Westmanland and Dalecarlia. After having confiscated +the horses of the peasants, he is said to have harnessed the +men to plows and the women to grain-loads, once suffocating +five peasants. Engelbrekt felt compassion for the +misery of the suffering people and accepted the commission +to seek the king, to make complaints in their behalf. He +appeared before King Eric in Denmark, demanding punishment +of the cruel bailiff and offering to go into prison or +surrender his life if not speaking the truth, as was the +custom of the time. The king gave him a letter to the +Swedish council of state, demanding an inquiry which was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> +promptly made. When Engelbrekt for a second time appeared +with the corroboration of his statements from the +Swedish councillors, the king sent him away in a fit of +impatient rage. Upon his return, the Dalecarlians rose +in a body, selecting Engelbrekt as their leader and marching +south to Westeros. The councillors met and promised +to have justice done in the case. But things remained the +same until the following spring, in 1434. At midsummer +the Dalecarlians commenced operations. The fort of Borganæs +and the castle of Kœping were destroyed. Engelbrekt +asked the people of Westmanland to join him, which +they did to a man, the nobles also joining upon evidence +of the determination of the popular leader. In Upsala, +Engelbrekt found the people of Upland ready to join, and +he made clear to the great multitudes the mission he had +undertaken. He now felt strong enough to take a hand +in the affairs of state; with the consent of the leading +nobles reducing the taxes by one-third. Engelbrekt called +upon a young, high-spirited nobleman, Eric Puke, to bring +Norrland to revolt and destroy the forts of that district, +which commissions Puke fulfilled to the letter, thereupon +reinforcing Engelbrekt with his men. In the meantime, +the people of western Sœdermanland rose by their own +determination, destroying Gripsholm; the bailiff of the castle +escaping with his treasures in boats over Lake Mælar. +In Vermland and Dal the people followed these examples +of revolt. The commander of the Stockholm fortress agreed +upon an armistice, other castles surrendering or promising +to surrender.</p> + +<p>Engelbrekt met the council of state at Vadstena, escorted +by 1,000 men of his best troops. Without fear or haughtiness, +he pleaded the cause of his country, advising the coun<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>cillors +in firm and eloquent words to see to it that the foreign +oppression came to an end. The council hesitated, +Bishop Knut of Linkœping stating that the oath to the +king could not be broken. To this Engelbrekt answered +that the king had pledged many oaths but kept none, +for which reason the people were freed from their oath. +Upon a wholesome demonstration of force the councillors +gave in and dictated a letter in which they broke their +pledge to King Eric, yet giving as an excuse that they +were compelled to do so. The revolt had now spread to all +parts of the kingdom, at least 100,000 being armed to meet +the emergency. But so carefully and quietly was the work +of liberation performed that no harm was done in the parts +where the peasant armies were moving. After having +entered Halmstad, Engelbrekt returned to Westeros, where +the army was scattered, but soon gathered again upon the +report that the king with a fleet was approaching Stockholm. +Upon his arrival, the king found Stockholm enclosed +by a peasant army and returned to Denmark, forced +to agree to an armistice. At a meeting in Arboga, Engelbrekt +was elected regent. This was the first meeting in +which representatives of the merchant class and the yeomanry +took part, being thus the first <i>riksdag</i> or parliament +composed of the four Estates—noblemen, ecclesiastics, +burghers, and yeomen.</p> + +<p>King Eric promised, upon his return to Stockholm, to +govern the country according to its laws and through Swedish +men, appointing Krister Nilsson Vasa drotsete, and +Charles Knutsson Bonde marsk. But so badly did he keep +his promises that he was once more dethroned. The nobles +hastened to elect Charles Knutsson regent, but through +pressure which the peasants brought to bear it was agreed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> +that he should share his power with Engelbrekt and lead +the siege of Stockholm, while the latter should free the +country from the bailiffs reinstalled by the king.</p> + +<p>Upon his second tour through the country, Engelbrekt +was seized by illness, but being called to Stockholm by an +important state affair, he started over the lakes thither from +Œrebro. One evening he stopped at an islet in Lake Hielmar +for the night. When he saw a boat approach with +Mons Bengtsson on board he staggered on a crutch down +to receive him. This man sprang ashore and assaulted +Engelbrekt, who tried to ward off the blows of the axe +with his crutch, but failing to do so he was killed on the +spot, in April, 1436. The perpetrator of this beastly murder +was a son of a noble with whom Engelbrekt had been +engaged in some controversy which he had recently settled +to the satisfaction of both parties. The murderer escaped; +but, although shielded from punishment by Marsk Charles +Knutsson, he was shunned by everybody, his high-born and +wealthy relations for several centuries refusing to carry the +proud family name (Natt och Dag) upon which he had +brought shame.</p> + +<p>The memory of Engelbrekt is one of the most honored +and most beloved in Swedish history. He waged the first +battle against the oppression which foreign intrigues had +brought upon his country, and saved from the peril of +slavery the ancient freedom and independence of the Swedish +people.</p> + +<p>Through a remarkable coincidence, a cousin of Engelbrekt’s +murderer, Nils Bosson, a young follower of the +popular hero, who took his mother’s family name of Sture, +was to become the father and grandfather of two of the +most revered of Engelbrekt’s successors; Nils Bosson him<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>self +being as sympathetic and upright a type of nobleman +as any time or country has produced.</p> + +<p>Charles Knutsson, after Engelbrekt’s death, was the +most influential man in Sweden. But he was a very different +man. Belonging to the highest aristocracy, he was himself +of great wealth, highly talented, well read, and a great +traveller. He was exceedingly handsome, dignified, amiable, +eloquent, and possessed a voice of unusual charm and +strength. But he was a prey to ambition, determined to +make his way to the throne, but little careful in the selection +of his means toward that end. He aroused the suspicion +and hatred of Eric Puke, whom he irritated to revolt +only to get him in his power. This noble but headstrong +man was executed for treason, while Drotsete Krister Nilsson, +who signed the death-warrant in the interest of +Charles, himself was persecuted by the latter and deprived +of all his fiefs save one. Charles showed great severity in +punishing the peasants, who were Puke’s supporters, four +of them being burned alive; thus losing the popular +sympathy, while becoming an object of envy in the +eyes of the nobles. These recalled King Eric, who +was again found impossible and soon dethroned also in +Denmark.</p> + +<p><i>Christopher of Bavaria</i>, a nephew of Eric, was elected +to succeed him (in 1440) by the nobles of Denmark and +Sweden. He was a good-natured man, who allowed the +aristocrats of Sweden to rule as they pleased, only keeping +an eye on Charles Knutsson. Christopher died in 1448. +During his reign a new state law was issued in 1442, called +“King Christopher’s land’s law,” although the king probably +had very little to do with its form or stipulations. It +offered a few improvements, but in general so closely resem<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>bled +the older state law that the one was often mistaken for +the other and both remained valid until 1736.</p> + +<p><i>Charles Knutsson (Charles VIII.)</i> returned from Finland, +which duchy had been held under his supremacy, four +months after Christopher’s death, and was by an overwhelming +majority elected king of Sweden. Shortly after +his coronation at Upsala he was elected king of Norway +and crowned at Drontheim, in 1449. His reign opened with +a lucky expedition to the island of Gothland. But in the +following year King Charles lost both Gothland and Norway +to Christian of Denmark, with whom the Unionist +party of Sweden entered into secret plots against the king. +Invasions and intrigues followed. Christian invaded Smaland, +East Gothland and Vermland, to which Charles +responded by an invasion of Scania, destroying the old +town of Lund with nineteen of its twenty churches, the +cathedral alone being spared. Christian took revenge by +an invasion of West Gothland, capturing Lœdœse. Another +Danish army marched through East Gothland, but +met defeat at Holaveden through an onslaught made by +Swedish peasants. The valiant Tord Bonde, a cousin +of King Charles, took the Danes by surprise, recapturing +Lœdœse. An armistice of two years was agreed on, in +May, 1453.</p> + +<p>In the battle against open and secret enemies things +turned out badly for King Charles. The best supporter of +his cause, his cousin Tord, was murdered by a Danish traitor +in his service, in 1456, and a new and dangerous enemy was +encountered in the Church. The king had confiscated to the +crown a number of estates which the Church had gained +in an illegal way. While preparing for an expedition to +Œland, and having instructed the archbishop to gather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> +troops for him, Charles learned that this man, Jœns +Bengtsson Oxenstierna, had turned against him. The +archbishop deposited his ecclesiastical robe at the high +altar of the Upsala cathedral and started, sword in hand, +with his forces to meet the king. Charles tried to surprise +him, but was himself caught in a trap and met his enemy +on the ice of Lake Mælar. The encounter proved a defeat +to Charles, who in haste stored his treasures in a convent +in Stockholm and sailed for Dantzic.</p> + +<p><i>Christian</i> of Denmark was called in by the archbishop +and chosen king of Sweden. Christian was a sagacious +ruler, but his great need of money, incurred by the redeeming +of Schleswig and Holstein, made him unpopular. As +the easy-going Christopher had been surnamed “Bark-king,” +on account of dearth experienced in Sweden during his +reign, when the people had to mix bark with their flour, +thus Christian, on account of his avidity, was called “The +Bottomless Purse.” During Christian’s war with Russia, +the archbishop was commissioned to collect the increased +taxes, but failing to do so, to the full extent demanded, +he was imprisoned at the command of the king. This +caused indignation.</p> + +<p>Kettil Karlsson Vasa, a nephew of the archbishop, and +the bishop of Linkœping, revolted and defeated the king +and his army at Haraker’s church, in Westmanland, in +1464. The victors then marched on Stockholm. The popular +opinion of the country demanded the reinstallation +of King Charles. The peasants wanted him “because +Sweden was of old a kingdom, not a regent’s land or a +diocese.” King Charles returned in the same year, but +soon left the throne again on account of a conflict with +Bishop Kettil. This latter turned to Christian, promis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>ing +a safe return to the crown if he set free the archbishop. +Christian immediately did so, the worthy bishops +commencing operations against Charles, who, defeated and +forsaken by all, abdicated his throne, January 30, 1465. +The once upon a time richest man of Sweden was now +deprived of all, Christian having taken his hidden treasures. +He retired to Raseborg, a castle in Finland, which +after some hesitation was granted him. “We have,” wrote +he, “in such manner departed from Sweden, that never +longeth us to return thither the third time.” He also complained +of his misery in the following strophe of assonance +verse:</p> + +<div class="center"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">While I was lord of Fogelwick<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Then I was both mighty and rich,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">But since made the king of Svea land<br /></span> +<span class="i0">I am a poor and unhappy man.<br /></span> +</div></div></div> + +<p>Great confusion reigned in Sweden during the next two +years. Bishop Kettil, who styled himself regent, tried to +conduct the government in common with the archbishop, +but the great nobles did their own pleasure. At last one +of them, Ivar Axelson Tott, who had the island of Gothland +in fief, joined the party of Charles, marrying his +daughter. His brother, Eric Axelson, was made regent. +Nils Bosson Sture had been repeatedly asked to accept this +dignity, as also the crown, but he refused. He and Sten +Sture, of the original Sture family, who led the army under +Bishop Kettil at Haraker, now made possible the second +reinstallation of Charles, in 1467, the ambitious archbishop +dying in the same year. But Charles was old and weary +of the vanities of life, for which he had made so many sacrifices. +It was only the valor and strength of the two Stures +that made it possible for him to keep the crown and to die<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> +in the purple, in 1470. He designated Sten Sture as his +successor at the rudder of state, but warned him not to +seek the crown. “That ambition,” he said, “has crushed +my happiness and cost my life.”</p> + +<p>Charles is very sympathetically dealt with in the New +Rhymed, or Charles Chronicle, probably written by one of +his men, who flatters him, as did the Old Chronicle the +ill-fated Duke Eric. Still the Charles Chronicle and its +continuations, the Sture Chronicles, are very important +historic sources of these periods of Unionism versus Patriotism, +from Margaret to Gustavus Vasa. The less reliable +Prose Chronicle and the later historic works by Ericus Olai, +Johannis Magnus and Olaus Petri, also throw light upon +them. What all of these have in common is a fiery +patriotic spirit, entirely lacking in the placid and artistic +lines of the Old Chronicle as compared to the New. With +the seeds of patriotism were sowed those of national hatred +against a foreign foe. That the Dane and not the German +was destined to be this national enemy was disastrous to the +Union of the North, but probably a gain for the cultural +development of Sweden. This period is rich in shorter +poems on political men and conditions, all of a strongly +democratic flavor. Among these the song about his friend +Engelbrekt, by Bishop Thomas of Strengnæs, occupies a +high place, but a still higher one the Song of Liberty, by +the same high-minded patriot.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a><br /> +<span class="smaller"><i>Unionism versus Patriotism—Uncrowned Kings of +the Sture Families</i></span></h2> + +<p>Sten Sture the Elder was chosen regent by +the council of state and elected by the people +at the Riksdag of Arboga, in 1471. For more than +half a century following upon the reign of Charles VIII., +Sweden was governed by uncrowned kings, with the intermission +of a few years. These regents had not any republican +ideals in mind, nor were they secretly coveting the +crown. Their ambition was simply to uphold a strong and +firm national government by means of which foreign lordships +could be made impossible, the people enjoy their rights +and their liberty, and the government increase in power and +authority at the expense of Church and nobility. The policy +laid down by Sten Sture the Elder, and strictly adhered to +by him and his successors, was of the broadly democratic +spirit of Engelbrekt. This policy was strengthened by the +high esteem in which the regents were held. Yet their +position was a very difficult one, for although enjoying the +full confidence of the people, they were regarded with envy +and suspicion by the aristocracy, who never could be persuaded +but that these noble uncrowned rulers were secretly +scheming for obtainance of the royal crown.</p> + +<p>Sten Sture had the good fortune to inaugurate his reign<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> +with a glorious victory over King Christian, which put an +end to Danish invasions during a whole generation. Christian +arrived at Stockholm with a fine fleet and a magnificent +army, taking his position at Brunkeberg, close to the north +of the capital. Here a long and fierce battle was fought, +October 10, 1471. Sten Sture commanded a large army of +peasants, attacking Christian’s fortified position from the +north, supported by Knut Posse, with burgher troops, from +the south. At the third attack victory was won, Nils Bosson +Sture arriving on the battle scene with an army of +Dalecarlians. King Christian was wounded in the mouth; +the famous Danish Oriflamme, Dannebrog, was captured, +being surrounded by five hundred corpses of select Danish +knights. Through the prestige of the great victory at +Brunkeberg, Sten Sture managed to give Sweden ten +years of undisturbed peace and comfort. Encouraged by +the victory over the foreign invaders, the city of Stockholm +took the lead in ridding the towns of undue influence, +caused by the supremacy of German commerce. The +town laws held a stipulation that half the number of councillors +in each town council should be Germans. A petition +headed by the burghers of Stockholm and circulated through +the towns was acted upon, the council of state abolishing +by law the stipulation in question. Free markets were established +in the commercial centres Kalmar and Sœderkœping, +and a new commercial town was founded on the Gotha +River, to be called Gothahamn, although the name was +changed to New Lœdœse. In spite of the supremacy of +the Hanseatic League, commerce was good, the iron mines +of Dalecarlia, Westmanland, Nerike and Eastern Vermland +growing in importance, and silver being produced by various +mines in Dalecarlia.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p> + +<p>Lord Sten gave careful and loving attention to the needs +of the yeomanry and the common people. He kept an open +and watchful eye on the bailiffs, and carried out the demands +of justice with severity. Many farms, desolate and +neglected during the times of war, were brought under cultivation. +Lord Sten made no decision in any matter of importance +without consulting the yeomen and the burghers, +as well as the nobles, at <i>Riksdagar</i>, the parliamentary nature +of which was further developed. With a firm hand he +held the nobles down to order and the requirements of a +national democratic policy. The powerful brothers Ivar +and Eric Tott especially caused him annoyance, the former +holding the island of Gothland, the latter the duchy of Finland, +in fief. It came to open hostilities with Ivar Tott +who, defeated and deprived of his castles, fled to Denmark, +taking revenge by turning the much contested island over +to said power.</p> + +<p>Lord Sten was a very pious man, but he held the +ecclesiastics under strict surveillance on account of their +unpatriotic tendencies. But he collaborated with them +for the establishment of a state university at Upsala, in +which the archbishop, Jacob Ulfsson, was greatly interested. +Sanctioned by the pope, the university was opened +in 1477, with great ceremonies. One of its earliest professors +was Ericus Olai, the author of the first but rather uncritical +work of Swedish history, Chronica Regni Gothorum, +written in awkward mediæval Latin, but in a style attractive +through its vivacity. Latin was chiefly used by +the learned and literary men. The cloisters and the cathedrals +had schools where the young people were trained for +the learned professions, chiefly the Church. For a university +education, the institutions of Cologne, Prague, Leipzig<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> +and Bologna, but chiefly Paris, the greatest of them all, had +been sought. The Swedes had three <i>collegia</i> in Paris, and +the Scandinavians held there an honored position as scholars, +the Swedes three times filling the office of rector +or president of the Paris university, the highest dignity of +learning in the world. Ingeborg Tott, the wife of Sten Sture, +was a great friend of learning, having books printed at her +expense and collecting a large library in the convent of +Mariefred, founded by Lord Sten.</p> + +<p>The peace of the country was disturbed by a war with +Russia. Attacks on the castle of Viborg had been made +shortly after the battle of Brunkeberg, but warded off by +Eric Tott, who in return invaded Russian territory. After +his death the valiant Knut Posse was made commander of +Viborg. The Russians, in 1495, made a violent attack upon +the castle, damaging it considerably. But Posse led the +defence with superior skill, repulsing the enemy with astounding +force. This deed has become famous in popular +traditions, both Swedes and Russians crediting Posse with +an alliance of a supernatural order. The regent himself +twice headed expeditions to Finland, forcing a new Russian +army to retire over the frontier. Affairs were going +badly on account of unsafety in Finland, and dearth and +intrigues in Sweden. The council of state accused Lord +Sten of not doing all he could for Finland while secretly +fanning the discontent of the commanders, who made personal +sacrifices of time and money by remaining with the +army. It came to hot words between Lord Sten and +the commander Svante Sture, the son of Nils Bosson. He +returned home, although Lord Sten told him he was a +deserter in so doing, “fleeing from the banner of state.” +Svante Sture, who with Posse had made a glorious inroad<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> +upon Russian territory, now joined the aristocratic enemies +of the regent, calling in King John (Hans) of Denmark. +John succeeded Christian in 1482, and commenced intriguing +for the Swedish crown. The Swedish nobles were anxious +to have this good-natured monarch for ruler. Lord +Sten was too sagacious to openly oppose them, when they, +in the so-called <i>Recess of Kalmar</i> of 1483, declared <i>John</i> +king of Sweden, the king promising the island of Gothland +to Sweden, and all old privileges to the nobles. By means +of skilful diplomatic operations, Lord Sten delayed matters +to such an extent that it took fourteen years before John II. +was king of Sweden in anything but name. But the time +was ripe for Svante Sture’s open conflict with Lord Sten. +The council, the archbishop leading, broke their faith with +the regent, offering King John the crown. He came with +an army to Stockholm, taking his position at Brunkeberg. +An army of Dalecarlians marched upon the capital at the +solicitation of Lord Sten, who awaited them with another +army. The operations took an unfavorable turn on account +of misapprehended movements, Lord Sten with difficulty +saving his life. King John understood that a continued +struggle would lead to his ultimate defeat and made peace. +Lord Sten retired, but with the greatest fiefs given to any +Swedish man; viz., the whole of Finland, with large possessions +besides. When the king entered Stockholm, in +October, 1497, it was at the arm of Lord Sten, to whom +he said jestingly: “Have you now prepared everything well +for me at the castle, Lord Sten; the table set with meat and +ale, so that my guests may make merry?” Lord Sten answered +in the same light spirit, pointing to the Swedish +nobles who had joined the royal retinue: “That these know +best who stand there behind you. They have it all both<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> +baked and brewed.” Later the king remarked: “Lord +Sten, it is a bad inheritance you have bequeathed on me +in Sweden; the peasants whom God created slaves you have +made into lords, and those who should have been lords you +try to make slaves.” At his coronation in Upsala, the king +bestowed knighthood upon many Swedish nobles (something +that had been beyond Lord Sten’s authority to do), +upon his return to Denmark appointing Lord Sten to take +the reins of government with three state councillors at his +side.</p> + +<p>King John’s reign in Sweden was of short duration. +He failed to return the island of Gothland to the Swedish +crown and lost his prestige through an unsuccessful war in +Ditmarschen. Svante Sture, who had not been dealt with +according to his expectations, declared war upon the king +and joined Lord Sten, who was in an unenviable position +and glad to shake off the Union with Denmark, which he +did, in 1501, when made regent for the second time. With +a peasant army siege was laid to the castle of Stockholm, +held by the energetic Queen Christine, who capitulated after +a heroic struggle. Three days later King John appeared +with an army, but returned, seeing that he came too late. +Lord Sten retained Queen Christine at Vadstena for some +time, later escorting her to the Danish frontier. Upon his +return he was taken ill and died suddenly at Jœnkœping, +December 14, 1503. With him the older or original line +of the Sture family became extinct. Lord Sten was the +greatest ruler since Margaret, and his rule, being of a more +patriotic and democratic tendency, was of greater benefit +to Sweden than hers.</p> + +<p><i>Svante Sture</i> succeeded Sten. He was of the younger +Sture line, the son of the noble patriot, Nils Bosson, who in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> +the time of Charles VIII., as the friend of Engelbrekt and +Bishop Thomas, had taken stand against the archbishop +and the nobles, backed by the Dalecarlians, who adored +him. Lord Svante was a very quick-tempered man, which +led him into the conflict with Lord Sten. Unlike the regent +and his own father, he never had experienced what Danish +oppression meant, which accounts for his unwise decision in +joining the Unionists. The war with Denmark lasted eight +of his nine years of reign, which proves him an able soldier +and a stanch patriot. His position from the start was less +favorable than that of his predecessor, who could reign in +the glory of his early victory at Brunkeberg.</p> + +<p>Lord Svante had in <i>Doctor Hemming Gad</i> a patriotic +adviser of rare attainments and great learning. He had +studied in Rostock, was for twelve years Lord Sten’s representative +in Italy, and later bishop of Linkœping, although +never sanctioned and finally placed under ban by +the pope. Hemming Gad was the first democratic agitator +of Sweden, a warm admirer of the Stures, and a good soldier. +His statecraft he had evidently learned in Italy with +her traditions of Machiavelli. His literary style is very +characteristic, the language of a learned ecclesiastic with +the oaths of a soldier. Those of his writings which are still +extant prove a great love for the common people, a love +which was returned by them. Having organized the revolt +against King John, he evinced great slyness and presence +of mind at the death of Lord Sten. To preserve its secrecy +until Svante was forewarned and in possession of the castle +of Stockholm, he had a man dress in the clothes of the deceased +regent and continue the journey to the capital with +Sten’s retinue.</p> + +<p>The Unionist party was as ready as ever to offer the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> +crown to King John, their representatives agreeing to pay +a yearly tribute until he or his son Christian was chosen +king. This agreement was made in 1509, but it called forth +a storm of indignation from the patriots and the people, and +was never considered by the government. Lubeck opened +hostilities against Denmark and was joined by Sweden, the +Unionists recommencing deliberations whenever it looked favorable +for Danish interests. Lord Svante made sure of peace +and safety for Finland before taking up the conflict with the +Danes. On the eastern shore, Hemming Gad led the operations +against the town and castle of Kalmar, held by the +Danes. The town was soon captured, but the castle not +before the end of 1510. Ake Hansson (Natt och Dag) +fought with great valor and considerable success against +the Danes on the western and southern frontier, until this +“Tormentor of Denmark,” as he was surnamed, was killed +in battle in 1510. On the sea the Danes were superior, a +fleet under the command of Otto Rud and Soren Norrby +plundering Abo in Finland. But when Lubeck’s fleet +appeared the Danes were forced back. Peace was made, +but soon broken. Lubeck sent a fleet to invade the coast +of the Danish isles; Hemming Gad, with several Swedish +ships, taking part in the expedition. Denmark did her best +to crush Swedish resistance by inducing Russia to break the +peace, the emperor to declare Sweden the arch enemy of +the German empire, and the pope to place her under ban.</p> + +<p>More unfortunate to Sweden than these intrigues was +the fact that King John in his son Christian had an able +warrior and a great organizer. Prince Christian put down +a revolt in Norway against Danish oppression, entering +West Gothland with a superior army. The Unionists +assembled to force the regent to abdicate, but he firmly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> +refused to do so. A rebellion seemed imminent, Lord +Svante hastening to Westeros to confer with the people +of the mining districts. Shortly after the opening of the +meeting, Lord Svante died quite suddenly, after a stroke +of paralysis, in January, 1512.</p> + +<p>The council of state selected Eric Trolle, a learned but +unfit man of the Unionists, to succeed Lord Svante. But +the popular opinion condemned him, and the council was +forced to choose Svante’s son as his successor.</p> + +<p><i>Sten Sture the Younger</i> was barely nineteen years of +age at his father’s death. Knighted when only five, he +early distinguished himself as a warrior, winning fame +for his chivalric spirit and noble character, and, like his +illustrious namesakes, his father and grandfather, becoming +the idol of the people. And he deserved their idolatry. +More resembling his grandfather in the sweetness of his +disposition than his sterner predecessors, he was as great +a warrior as his father, to which he joined the sagacity +and power of self-control characteristic of the elder Lord +Sten. As a youth, he was made regent of a country in +war, distress and peril. He was called away by death +when only twenty-seven, leaving behind the memory of +not one evil deed to soil the glory of his fair name, although +continually placed in trying and dangerous positions +of strife, rivalry, envy and rebellion. He made his +will respected by high and low with a temperance in spirit +and methods worthy of the highest admiration and the +devoted love of the people. The young Lord Sten had a +tender heart for the lowly and the suffering, never fearing +to wring their rights from the oppressors, whosoever they +were. He took great interest in the pursuits of peace, during +the intervals allowed by his successful exploits in war.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> +In spite of the plague and other contagious diseases, which, +together with the destruction of war, ravaged the country, +he left it in a better condition than he received it. In +many ways more farseeing than his contemporaries, his +name will live on for centuries as one of the most beloved +in Swedish history.</p> + +<p>With the younger Lord Sten, other new actors appeared +upon the stage of Scandinavian history. Christian II. succeeded +his father upon the throne of Denmark and Norway. +In Sweden, Archbishop Jacob Ulfsson retired and was +succeeded by Gustavus Trolle, a son of Lord Eric. The +new archbishop was of a hateful and jealous disposition. +He resolved to avenge the treatment his father had received +at the hands of Lord Sten and the Swedish people by placing +Christian on the throne. The young regent made no +less than four attempts to win over this formidable enemy, +but all in vain. He opened up a court at Stæket, in Upland, +more brilliant than that of Lord Sten, and accepted +subsidies from Denmark. At last, fully aware of the secret +deliberations going on, Lord Sten surrounded Stæket and +called a Riksdag at Arboga, in 1517, where it was resolved +that Christian should never become king of Sweden, and +that the siege of Stæket should be continued. Christian +sent a little army to support his ally, but Lord Sten met +it at Ladugardsland, outside of Stockholm, completely routing +it. A new Riksdag was called at Stockholm before +which the archbishop appeared upon truce. His language +was haughty and disdainful. He said he was in his full +right to support King Christian’s claims with mitre and +sword, the pope sanctioning his policy; and to the pope +alone he was responsible. The indignant Riksdag resolved +that the archbishop should be deprived of his seat, being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> +guilty of high treason, and that his castle should be burned. +The resolution was written down and signed by all the bishops, +none daring to oppose the yeomanry. Bishop Brask, +of Linkœping, managed to conceal in the wax of his seal +a paper with the words: “To this I am forced by necessity.” +The archbishop returned to defend Stæket, but soon +had to flee with his followers. It was only by using all his +authority that Lord Sten could save his enemy’s life from +the irate people. Trolle was forced to resign his seat and +was imprisoned in a convent at Westeros, while his castle +was torn down. Lord Sten wanted to appoint a successor +to Trolle, but Bishop Brask objected that the pope might +not consent to his removal. To this Lord Sten uttered the +following manly words, hardly in touch with the policy of +Rome: “I think that our most holy father, the pope, and +the canonic law should not tolerate as the leaders of the +Church, and as the precepts or mirrors to the people, men +who are infested by open treason, in particular against their +own country.” The Church tried various means to gain +a settled condition of things. When Sten refused the royal +crown from its hand, he was at last placed under ban.</p> + +<p>The hostilities with Denmark recommenced. King +Christian appeared with a fleet and an army, in June, +1518, laying siege to Stockholm. His attacks were valiantly +repulsed, and Christian, fearing to be encircled by +his enemies, marched away in a southeasterly direction, +taking a firm position at Brennkyrka. A Swedish army +met him from the south and gave battle one of the +last days of July, 1518. It was a fierce conflict, ending +with a victory for the Swedes. The chief banner was carried +by the squire Gustavus Ericsson Vasa, who five years +later was to become king of Sweden. Christian returned<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> +to attack Stockholm, once more in vain. He was to sail +for Denmark, but was kept back by storms, great suffering +being experienced by his men. Christian was forced to +open deliberations, making very high demands. But Lord +Sten refused to hold a meeting, postponing it to the following +year. A few days later, King Christian sent word that +he wanted the regent to visit him in his ship on important +affairs. Lord Sten, always good-natured and ready to +accept peace, thought that the king had changed his mind +and was ready to go. But the burgomaster and council +of Stockholm prevailed upon him not to go, sure that it +would bring him into the enemy’s hands. Lord Sten took +their advice and arranged for a meeting on land, sending +six Swedish nobles as hostages to the king at his demand. +Among these were Dr. Hemming Gad and Gustavus Ericsson +Vasa. For two days Lord Sten waited in vain for the +king to appear. Then he learned, to his dismay and indignation, +that King Christian had sailed to Denmark, taking +the hostages with him as prisoners, October 4, 1518.</p> + +<p>Christian collected all his forces and resources to crush +Sweden. The whole of the following year was spent in +preparations. Sweden was placed under ban by the pope, +and Christian made himself his representative, the one who +was to fulfil the heavenly punishment. In January, 1520, +a large Danish army invaded Smaland and West Gothland. +Lord Sten made an appeal to the people and gathered a +peasant army, with which he met the superior force of the +enemy at Bogesund, in West Gothland. The Swedish +forces were arranged in line on the frozen surface of Lake +Asund. Lord Sten rode in front of the line, encouraging +his men, but was seriously wounded during the very first +engagement and carried from the field. After two vain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> +attempts, the Danes were victorious in overthrowing the +Swedes. These gathered in the wooded hills of Tiveden +for a last heroic resistance, which was broken; the Danes +taking possession of the provinces to the north. Lord Sten, +mortally wounded, died on the ice of Lake Mælar during +his journey to Stockholm. Christian continued his march +on Stockholm, the castle of which was heroically defended +by Lord Sten’s consort, Christine Gyllenstierna, who also +tried by support and exhortations to encourage other strongholds +not yet surrendered to resist the Danes. The castle +of Kalmar was defended by another heroic woman, Anna +Bielke. But Christian won, through persuasions and deliberations, +what he could not take by violence. His operations +were carried on by Dr. Hemming Gad, who, for reasons +unknown to history, had changed his old patriotic +views and become a friend of Christian. In September, +1520, Christian won Stockholm by peaceful agreement. +The 4th of November he was crowned by Trolle, the reinstalled +archbishop. At this occasion it caused considerable +surprise that only Danes and Germans were knighted, the +herald proclaiming that the country was won by sword, for +which reason no Swede could be thus honored. This was +in striking contrast to Christian’s proclamation of having +ascended the throne by right of his descent from St. Eric. +Worse things were to follow.</p> + +<p>The 7th of November a great number of Swedish nobles +were called to the castle of Stockholm, where they were +brought before a tribunal, the king presiding. The archbishop +asked for remuneration for the sufferings caused him +during Lord Sten’s reign. A jury of bishops and nobles +convened. Christine Gyllenstierna was the first to answer +to the accusations, holding forth that the Riksdag of Ar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>boga +was responsible for the action taken against Trolle +and bringing the signed document in evidence. The king +answered by announcing that all who signed were under the +ban of the pope; Bishop Brask was the only one acquitted, +producing his written slip of reservation from under his +seal, besides Bishop Otto of Westerns, who supported Trolle +in his claims. In the evening all the accused were imprisoned +and judgment passed on them the following morning.</p> + +<p>In the morning of November 8th, a solemn procession +of convicts started from the castle to the grand square, +hedged in by soldiers and executioners. The bishops Mattias +of Strengnæs and Vincentius of Skara, in their ecclesiastical +robes, came first, followed by thirteen noblemen and thirty-one +town councillors and burghers of Stockholm. In the +square, a Danish councillor of state from the porch of the +court-house asked the masses not to be frightened. The +archbishop, he said, had three times on his knees implored +the king that justice should be done. Bishop Vincentius +replied with great courage that the king had committed +treason against the Swedes and called down divine punishment +on him for such deeds. Two of the Swedish nobles +followed the bishop with short addresses, admonishing the +people not to believe in false letters and promises and to put +down such tyranny as soon as within their power. King +Christian, who from a window of a house facing the square +looked down on the spectacle, now gave a sign for the +executions to commence. First the bishops, then the state +councillors, nobles and burghers were beheaded, among +whom were two brothers of Christine Gyllenstierna and +the father and brother-in-law of Gustavus Ericsson Vasa. +Many burghers were captured in the street, or in their +homes, and brought in to be executed, others being killed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> +on the spot. Not less than eighty-two persons were that +day executed, the number being increased during the following +days by people killed in various ways. Olaus Petri, +the reformer, who was an eyewitness, in his history gives +a graphic description of the terrible scenes. He adds: +“Yes, this was a horrible and cruel murder, such as no +other prince who carried a Christian name ever committed +before.” The corpses were burned, the remains of Lord +Sten and one of his sons being taken from their graves and +thrown into the flames. Christine Gyllenstierna, and the +mother and sister of Gustavus Vasa, were with several +other ladies carried to Copenhagen and thrown into a miserable +dungeon. The mass murder has been called the Carnage +of Stockholm, but it was extended also to Finland—where +Dr. Hemming Gad was executed at Raseborg—and +to the provinces. Christian marked his return through the +Swedish mainland to Copenhagen by executions and mass +murder everywhere; six hundred are estimated to have been +killed through his order during his short stay in Sweden.</p> + +<p>Archbishop Trolle had taken a terrible revenge, and +Christian thought he had crushed forever the stubborn +Swedish resistance. But through this excess of cruelty the +Union became insupportable, and the Swedish people resolved +to throw off forever the connection with any foreign +ruler. In the woods of Dalecarlia a man was hiding who +soon was to step forward to lead the work of liberation and +independence.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a><br /> +<span class="smaller"><i>Revolution and Reformation—Gustavus Vasa</i></span></h2> + +<p>Gustavus Ericsson Vasa, the man whom +Providence had selected to save his country from +anarchy and ruin, belonged to a noble family of +Unionist sympathies, his great-grandfather being Drotsete +Krister Nilsson Vasa. But the Vasa family had joined +the cause of the patriots during the reigns of the Stures, +simultaneously losing some of its earlier importance. The +Vasas prided themselves on being the descendants of St. +Eric and his line, and of St. Birgitta and the Folkungs. +Its coat-of-arms consisted of a simple vase, or bundle of +sticks. Gustavus Vasa was born May 12, 1496, at Lindholmen +in Upland, at the mansion of his parents, Eric +Johansson Vasa, state councillor, and Cecilia of Eka, a +sister of Christine Gyllenstierna. His earliest years were +spent with his mother at Rydboholm, another estate of his +father’s, beautifully situated on an arm of the Baltic, only +ten miles north of Stockholm. When a mere boy he was +sent to the court of his granduncle, Sten Sture the Elder, +who was childless. King John of Denmark noticed the +bright little boy during a visit paid to Lord Sten. Young +Gustavus took the command of all the other children at +play and appeared to be a born leader. The king called the +boy to him and asked him what his name was. Gustavus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> +answered frankly. King John smilingly placed his hand +on the boy’s head, saying: “Certainly thou shalt become +a man in thy day if preserved in life.” The king intimated +that he wanted to take him along to Copenhagen to +supervise his education. But Lord Sten, who did not like +this idea, hurriedly had Gustavus sent away, so that he +could tell the king upon a second inquiry that the boy had +returned to his parents. The young Gustavus was described +as “attractive and welcome with everybody.” +Gustavus was sent to Upsala to study at the age of thirteen. +The University of Upsala was at that period in a +state of stagnation. The first teacher who came in contact +with Gustavus was a Dane named Master Ivar. According +to the Prose Chronicle, he was a man who “was mean +to everybody and who gave Gustavo drubbings.” It seems +that the patriotic spirit early woke in the breast of this +youth, who already in these days foreshadowed his own +mission in the following words: “I will betake myself to +Dalecarlia, rouse the Dalecarlians and batter the nose of the +Jute.” When eighteen years of age, he was accepted as a +squire at the court of Sten Sture the Younger, and Christine +Gyllenstierna, his own aunt. He followed the younger +Lord Sten in all his expeditions of war, taking part in the +siege of Stæket and a battle of Dufnæs, and carrying +the banner of state at Brennkyrka.</p> + +<p>A second time in his life it came to pass that Gustavus +Vasa was considered a person whom the Danish king was +desirious of carrying away. This time the king was Christian +II., who gained his object by treachery and violence. +Gustavus was one of the Swedish hostages who were offered +to King Christian and by him carried away to Denmark.</p> + +<p>Gustavus was handed over to Eric Banér, a relative of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> +his, who held in fief the castle of Kallœ in Jutland. The +latter was placed under a heavy fine in case he allowed his +prisoner to escape. Gustavus received a kind and generous +treatment. He ate at the table of the lord and was allowed +to wander at liberty in the close neighborhood of the castle. +But the danger that menaced his country never left him +in peace. He heard repeatedly of the great preparations +made by Christian II. to crush the resistance of Sweden, +and of the acts of violence to be perpetrated. Gustavus +remained at Kallœ for a year, when he resolved to flee +from a captivity which had become insupportable. One +morning at sunrise, Gustavus Vasa put on the garb of a +peasant and disappeared from the castle. He made good +speed, reaching a seaport and escaping to Lubeck with a +merchant vessel. In this friendly Hanseatic centre Gustavus +expected armed support. Such was not granted, but +he was shielded against Danish pursuit. Eric Banér arrived, +having followed up his tracks, but his demands to +have Gustavus surrendered were refused. After eight +months of delay in Lubeck, Gustavus obtained leave and +arrived in Sweden on board a German ship. He landed +at Stensœ, a promontory outside of the town of Kalmar, +while Christian II. was laying siege to Stockholm. Gustavus +was resolved to do his utmost to rouse the people +to active resistance against the invaders. The castle of +Kalmar, next to that of Stockholm the firmest stronghold +of Sweden, was in charge of Anna Bielke, the widow of +the last commander. Gustavus strengthened the courage +of the inhabitants of town and castle, but finding it impossible +to accomplish anything for the defence himself, and +unsuccessful in his attempts to bring the hired German +troops up to a point of enthusiasm for the Swedish cause,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> +he left Kalmar and continued his way through Smaland. +But the population of this province had no patience to listen +to his appeals for a revolt. The peasants answered him +that if they remained faithful to the Danish king they were +never to be in want of herring and salt. Some of them in +their indignation sent arrows flying after the young patriot. +In September he reached the Terna estate in Sœdermanland, +where his sister and her husband, Joachim Brahe, +resided. Lord Joachim had just received an invitation +to be present at the coronation of King Christian in Stockholm. +The attempts made by Gustavus to persuade the +couple to abandon their intended journey to Stockholm were +futile. Reaching his paternal estate of Ræfsnæs in Sœdermanland, +he remained there in concealment for some time. +He visited the old archbishop Jacob Ulfsson, who, after his +retirement, lived in the neighboring monastery of Mariefred. +The old prelate tried his best to persuade him to seek +mercy and grace of King Christian, but the resolution of +the young squire to free his country was only strengthened +into an iron-cast determination. One of the servants who +had followed Lord Joachim to the capital managed to make +a safe return to tell Gustavus the terrible news of the Carnage +of Stockholm. He was also told that a high price had +been placed on his own head.</p> + +<p>Gustavus at once prepared for flight. Accompanied by +a single servant he secretly left Ræfsnæs one day toward +the end of November, travelling on horseback northward to +Dalecarlia. He arrived at Kopparberg in Dalecarlia, where +he had his hair close cropped and put on peasant’s clothes. +Putting an axe over his shoulder, he went about looking for +employment. The first man whom he tried was Andrew +Persson, a wealthy mine owner at Rankhytta. Gustavus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> +found employment with him, taking part in the threshing. +But the other servants soon detected that the new man had +a carriage and habits different from their own, and they +commenced to watch him closely. They noticed that he +was not accustomed to the work, and one of the servant +girls saw a collar of silk above the coarse blouse. Andrew +Persson called before him the suspect, and was highly surprised +when recognizing in him a comrade from the time +of his student days at Upsala. He was favorably disposed, +but was afraid of sheltering Gustavus, advising him to flee +to the less thickly settled parts of the province, and to +change often from one place to another. Gustavus continued +his way in a westerly direction, following the shore +of a lake named Runn, and arrived at Ornæs the following +day. He knew he had an old comrade and friend in the +owner of the place. This man, Arendt Persson, received +him in the most hospitable manner, but was in his heart +desirous of obtaining the price placed upon the head of the +young squire. Gustavus went to bed in the attic, not suspecting +treachery. The host himself accompanied him to +his resting place, according to the mediæval custom. This +done, Arendt travelled in great haste to one of his neighbors, +the much-respected Mons Nilsson of Aspeboda. +Arendt asked him to assist in capturing Gustavus Vasa; +but Mons Nilsson flatly refused, taking no pains to hide +his indignation. Arendt left and went past his own home +to Sætra, which was the residence of the Danish bailiff. +He started for Ornæs the following morning, accompanied +by the bailiff and twenty men ready to capture the fugitive. +But Arendt’s wife, Lady Barbro Stigsdotter (Swinhufwud), +had not been inactive. Her suspicion was aroused when she +noticed her husband travelling back and forth to disappear<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> +in the direction where the bailiff resided. She divined that +the safety of her guest was threatened and decided to take +action. Lady Barbro went to the attic, roused her sleeping +guest and told him of the impending danger. Gustavus let +himself down to the ground by means of towels fastened to +the window-sill, assisted by Lady Barbro, who had a horse +and sleigh in readiness for him, in charge of a faithful +servant. He reached the residence of John, the priest of +Sværdsjœ. Arendt was enraged when he found that Gustavus +had made his escape. It is said that he from that +day refused to ever see Lady Barbro again.</p> + +<p>The priest of Sværdsjœ held Gustavus in concealment +for three days, but advised him to seek a more secure hiding +place. He sent Gustavus to Swan Elfsson, a hunter to +the king, who dwelt in Isala, a short distance from the +church of Sværdsjœ. Gustavus had hardly reached this +place before the men sent after him by the bailiff arrived. +Gustavus stood by the oven warming himself after the ride. +The wife of Swan Elfsson was busy baking bread. The +men entered, asking if any stranger had been noticed in the +neighborhood. The woman of the house saved the situation +by resolutely dealing a blow with the bread spade to Gustavus, +who was turning his back to her. In an irritated +voice she said: “Why dost thou stand here gaping at the +strangers? Hast thou never seen people before? Get thee +at once out to the barn and do some threshing.” The men +did not suspect in the snubbed servant the noble fugitive for +whom they were looking. But Swan Elfsson was not sure +of the safety of his guest if he remained in Isala. So he +concealed Gustavus in a load of hay and left his house with +the great unsettled districts as his destination. He met +some Danish spies on the way. These suspected the peas<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>ant +and pierced the load of hay with their lances repeatedly. +Gustavus was wounded in the leg, but kept his breath and +lay perfectly still. The spies were satisfied that everything +was right and told Swan Elfsson to move on. But the +peasant noticed that blood was dripping from his load, leaving +scarlet tracks on the snow. He quickly drew his knife +and cut his horse a deep wound in one foot. After a while +the spies noticed the bloody tracks. They returned and +commanded Swan Elfsson to halt, inquiring about the +blood. Swan Elfsson pointed to the injured foot of his +horse and succeeded in making them believe that the horse +had met with an accident.</p> + +<p>Swan Elfsson left Gustavus at the village of Marnæs, +situated in the Finn woods, where he was received by other +hunters. These escorted the noble outlaw to a place further +away in the woods, where he for three days remained in +concealment under a big fallen fir tree. The peasants +in the neighborhood brought food to him. The still hunt +seemed to be at an end, and so Gustavus risked a visit to +the church of Rettvik, situated on the eastern shore of Lake +Siljan. He spoke to the yeomanry collected around the +church after divine service, reminding them of the stanch +patriotism and manliness of their ancestors, and imploring +them to save their country from destruction. The yeomen +of Rettvik gave a satisfactory answer, telling him that they +were ready to resist the Danes. But as they had not heard +the opinion of the people of the other parishes, there was +nothing to be done for the moment.</p> + +<p>Gustavus continued his way to Mora, one of the most +densely populated parishes of Dalecarlia and situated on the +northern shore of Lake Siljan. The priest of the parish +was afraid to hide the outlaw, but confided him to a peas<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>ant, +Tomte Mats, in the village of Utmeland. Gustavus +remained for several days concealed in a vaulted cellar, +which was reached only through a hole in the floor of the +cottage above. One day the bailiff’s men entered to search +for Gustavus. The woman of the house was busy brewing +the Christmas ale. She saved Gustavus by quickly placing +a big barrel over the hinged door, which covered the opening +to the cellar. One of the holidays during Christmas +Gustavus addressed the peasants of Mora when coming +from church. He stood on a small hill near the churchyard. +The noonday sun was shining brightly over the +snowy landscape and a fresh northerly wind was blowing. +Gustavus spoke in a loud voice and with great eloquence. +He asked the men to reflect on what kind of government +foreigners always had given Sweden, and to remember what +they had themselves suffered and risked for the liberty of +their country. He thought that the memory had not died +either of the deeds of violence perpetrated by Jœsse Ericsson +or of the deeds of heroism done by Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson. +He then told them of the treacherous villany +of King Christian and of the Carnage of Stockholm. “My +own father,” he said, with tears in his eyes, “rather wished +to die with his brethren, the honest lords, in the name of +God, than to be spared and live in dishonor after them.” +If the Dalecarlians wanted to save Sweden from thraldom, +he was ready to offer himself as their leader in the name of +the Almighty. The speech of Gustavus made a deep impression +upon the men of Mora, and some of them were +anxious to rise at once. The majority ruled, deciding that +no action should be taken before the other parishes of Dalecarlia +had been heard from. They advised Gustavus to +seek a safer hiding-place further up in the woods. Gus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>tavus +left Mora utterly discouraged, seeking the paths that +led along the Dal River into desert wilds.</p> + +<p>At New Year of 1521 Lars Olsson, a soldier who had +done good service in the times of the Stures, arrived at +Mora, bringing particulars of the doings of King Christian. +He told the peasants that the king had ordered gallows to +be erected at every sheriff’s residence to mark the way of +his Eriksgata. The peasants were touched to the quick and +regretted having sent away the young nobleman. Lars +Olsson advised them to call him back. Two expert ski +runners were sent after Gustavus Ericsson, and after a +ride of a night and a day through the woods, they overtook +him close by the Norwegian frontier, which he was ready +to cross in despair.</p> + +<p>Gustavus returned to Mora and was made the leader +of the peasants in that locality. With these men he started +his work of liberation, which was the commencement of one +of the most remarkable of revolutions that the world ever +saw. In the beginning of February, 1521, Gustavus +marched southward with a few hundred men. At Falun +he captured the bailiff of the mines, confiscating the royal +taxes. Returning to the starting point, he left it again, +with an army of 1,500 men. Entering Norrland, where +he was joined by the peasants of Gestrikland, and the +burghers of Gefle, while the people of Helsingland asked +for time to consider the matter, he learned upon his return +how one of his commanders, Peder Swensson, had won a +glorious victory over a Danish army 6,000 strong at the +ferry of Brunnbæck, by the Dal River. Gustavus began +training his troops, enforcing severe discipline and providing +them with better arrows and longer lances. He declared +war upon Christian in a formal way and marched<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> +on Westeros, where the Danish troops had centred. The +town and castle were captured in spite of a force of superior +Danish cavalry.</p> + +<p>Gustavus shifted his army into divisions which marched +in various directions to capture the castles of surrounding +provinces. The people of Upland reinforced the Dalecarlians, +who were sent home to tend to their sowing. The +Upland forces captured the archbishop’s seat during his absence, +and were joined by Gustavus at Upsala, who made an +exceedingly severe speech to the ecclesiastics, asking them +to decide their nationality, whether they were Swedes or +not. They asked permission to consult Archbishop Trolle, +which was granted. “I will bring the reply myself,” said +Trolle, starting from Stockholm with a splendid body of +German troops. Gustavus was near being taken by surprise, +but gathering troops he fought the archbishop, whose +force met with a crushing defeat, and he escaped with +difficulty to Stockholm.</p> + +<p>At midsummer, 1521, Gustavus arrived at Brunkeberg, +laying siege to Stockholm. The capital was strongly fortified, +and Norrby with a Danish fleet supported and relieved +it. Twice the Danes routed the Swedish troops with the +intermission of one year, but Gustavus provided reinforcements. +He travelled through the country, visiting the +forces who laid siege to the various Danish strongholds, these +surrendering one by one. It was not a chain of glorious +exploits, this work which Gustavus carried to a successful +end, but one of infinite patience and sagacity, saddened by +the news that the revengeful Christian had ended the lives +of his captive mother and sister in the miserable Danish +dungeon. Bishop Brask was scared into submission, turning +his castle Stegeborg and part of his troops over to Gus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>tavus, +who at a Riksdag at Vadstena was elected regent +in August, 1521.</p> + +<p>Gustavus entered into an alliance with Lubeck, and +it sent a fleet to Stockholm, thus encircling it also from the +sea. Norrby left with his ships and was nearly caught in +the ice in the following spring. In Denmark, Christian’s +reign came to an end. With his usual violence he attacked +the nobles and the ecclesiastics in order to better the conditions +of the peasants, for whom he had a tender sympathy. +In so doing, he brought the nobles to open revolt against +his rule. He left his throne in April, 1523. Now Gustavus +found the opportune moment to accept the Swedish crown +offered him. He called a Riksdag at Strengnæs, in June, +1523, where Gustavus was chosen king of Sweden “by the +councillors of state with the consent of the common people.” +At this occasion a tax was agreed on to pay the German +troops engaged in the siege of Stockholm, and to Lubeck +for its timely support. In that very month Stockholm surrendered, +and Gustavus held his proud entry into the capital +on the eve of Midsummer day.</p> + +<p>The position of the king was a most difficult one. The +crown was ruined through the previous state of anarchy +and the expense of war. The Church was in undisturbed +possession of its wealth, but not willing to yield any of its +power or income. Christian was preparing a plan by which +to recapture his lost crowns. Norrby, who had aspirations +of becoming Christian’s regent in Sweden, tried to persuade +Christine Gyllenstierna, lately set free from her prison, to +marry him in order to obtain the prestige of the Stures. +The common people, whom Gustavus so recently used to +free the country, grew restive and rebellious when he could +not at once grant them guarantees of comfort and prosperity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> +in return. In a marvellous manner Gustavus understood +how to face the situation and how to use to the utmost +the resources within reach.</p> + +<p>When the outlawed youth of twenty-four spoke of revolt +to the peasants at Mora, Martin Luther was burning the +ban placed on him by the pope. There were several warm +friends of Luther in Sweden, principally Olaus Petri, himself +a pupil and friend of the German reformer, his brother, +Laurentius Petri, and Laurentius Andreæ. Olaus was a +soul of fire and enthusiasm. He was lacking in self-control, +but possessed a power which if not restrained would +have led him and his work of reform further than the goal +set by Luther. The two Laurentii were, like him, men of +learning and, in addition, of greater sagacity. The king +took interest in these men. He was contemplating a reduction +of the ecclesiastical power, and they were to prepare +the soil by freeing the people from undue respect for the +Roman Church and its worldly power. Laurentius Andreæ +was made the king’s chancellor, and Olaus Petri secretary +to the town council of Stockholm, later pastor of the Cathedral +Church. Olaus preached in the Stockholm Cathedral +fiery sermons against Rome and the pope, responded to +sometimes by irate monks, sometimes by various projectiles +from the audience. Gustavus took pains to fill the +vacancies of the Church, which were many, by appointing +able men. But he made two serious mistakes in making +Master Knut, dean of Westeros, archbishop, and Peder +Sunnanvæder, formerly secretary to Svante Sture, bishop +of Westeros. He came in possession of a correspondence, +which proved that Bishop Peder tried to bring the Dalecarlians +to revolt, and when accusing him and finding Master +Knut on the side of the defence, Gustavus deprived<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> +them of their new dignities. The king commanded that +a new bishop should be appointed and himself selected +Johannes Magni as archbishop. This prelate, a very +learned man, was the representative of Sten Sture in +Rome, returning to his native land as a papal legate. +Gustavus had a rupture with him when, according to his +instructions, he demanded that Trolle should be reinstated +as archbishop. Archbishop Johannes was lacking in moral +courage; brushed aside by the tide of Reformation, he retired +to Rome, where he died after writing the history of +Sweden in Latin, <i>Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus</i>. +Master Knut and Peder Sunnanvæder turned their steps to +Dalecarlia, fanning the brewing malcontent and opening +connections with Norrby, who styled himself the betrothed +of Christine Gyllenstierna and made ready to attack Gustavus +from the sea. Berndt von Melen, a German commander, +in whom Gustavus placed much confidence, was +to chase Norrby away from his stronghold, the island of +Gothland, but turned a traitor, joining Norrby instead, in +1524. Gustavus called a Riksdag at Westeros, in 1525, +resolved to use his diplomacy to the utmost. Upon receiving +a letter from the Dalecarlians, in which they stoutly +swore off their allegiance to him on account of heavy taxes, +foreign influence and disregard for the Church, the king +offered to abdicate. The representatives at the Riksdag +persuaded him to remain, whereupon the king sent the Dalecarlians +a sagacious letter, promising to improve the state of +things as much as possible, but pointing out the two prelates +as traitors in conspiracy with the Danes. The Dalecarlians +were pacified, Knut and Peder finding it safest to leave for +Norway. In the following year the king met the revolting +peasants of Upland at Old Upsala, where he in a fiery<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> +speech unfolded his policy toward the Church. The peasants +resented; they wanted to keep their monks and their +masses. The king commanded one of his followers to make +a speech in Latin, the peasants shouting that they did not +understand. “Why do you, then, love so dearly your Latin +mass?” the king asked them smiling. A few days later +Gustavus made a crushing speech against lazy and worthless +ecclesiastics before the chapter of Upsala. The archbishop +was sent away on diplomatic errands to Poland and +Russia never to return. After his departure Bishop Brask +became the chief representative of papal interests. He was +patriotic, but never yielded an inch of the worldly power of +the Church except to force, opposing the Reformation with +his whole strength.</p> + +<p>The king followed up his policy by demanding for the +crown two-thirds of the ecclesiastic tithe and by placing +the ecclesiastics under the duties of <i>russtienst</i>, in 1526. +The ex-prelates, Knut and Peder, were, upon the king’s +request of an extradition, given up and sentenced to death +for high treason. The king arranged for their triumphal +entry of mockery into Stockholm in a most humiliating +fashion, for which he has been criticised; also for the consummate +manner in which the judges were appointed and +judgment passed. But he set an example of warning to +obnoxious and intriguing prelates that was appreciated by +his contemporaries.</p> + +<p>Gustavus gained the triumph of his policy by the famous +Riksdag of Westeros in 1527. It was nothing else than a +coup d’état, a revolution, which, with the establishment +of the Reformation, gave his throne solidity and resources. +The Diet was called under the pretext of taking measures +against a new revolt in Dalecarlia and for the regulation of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> +dogmatic questions. There were present sixteen state councillors, +four bishops, one hundred and twenty-nine knights +and nobles, one hundred and five peasants, besides various +priests, burghers and miners, but no representatives from +Finland or Dalecarlia. In the great hall of the monastery +the meeting was held, opening with a written address by +the king, read by his chancellor, in which the situation +of the country was set forth. The king refused to continue +at the government, asking to be remunerated for personal +losses and expense, and given a fief like any ordinary +bailiff responsible to the crown. Only if fundamental reforms +were made would he remain, not being able otherwise +to cover the inevitable deficit of the treasury. Bishop Brask +responded with the statement that he for his part was in +duty bound to the king, but that Rome and its demands +must, in the first place, be obeyed; showing by his remarks +that he understood that the question was one of reducing +the ecclesiastical power. The king rose and said in a burst +of passion: “We have no further desire, then, to be your +king. Verily, we had counted on quite another treatment +at your hands. We now no longer wonder at the perversity +of the people, since they have such advisers. Have +they no rain, they blame us for it. Have they no sun, +likewise. For dearth, hunger and plague we are responsible, +as if we were not a man, but God. Yea, though we +labor for you with our utmost power, both in spiritual and +in temporal affairs, you would gladly see the axe upon our +neck, but no one dares to grasp the handle. Monks and +priests and all the creatures of the pope are to be placed +above us, though we have little need of them. In a word, +you all would lord it over us. Who under such circumstances +would desire to govern you? Not the worst wretch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> +in hell would wish the post, far less any man. Therefore +we, too, refuse to be your king. We cast the honor from +us, and leave you free to choose him whom you will. But +be so kind as to let us leave the land. Pay us for our +property in the kingdom, and return to us what we have +expended in your service. Then we declare to you that +we will withdraw never to return.” With tears of anger +and emotion the king left the hall, leaving the assembly +in consternation.</p> + +<p>After four days of pandemonium and deadlock, the representatives +decided to give in and ask forgiveness of the +king, who long disregarded the appeals made for his return. +When re-entering he was greeted by commotion and the +humblest demonstrations of respect and repentance. The +next day, Midsummer day, votes were taken upon his propositions, +each Estate of representatives sending up their vote +with a written construction of the propositions. These were +then revised by the state councillors in their final form, +called “Westeros Recess,” with amendments called “Westeros +Ordinantia.” The startling revolutionary stipulations +of the “Recess” were chiefly these: Authority for the king +(1) to take in possession the castles and forts of the bishops, +whose retinues he was to fix as to numbers; (2) to dispose +of the superfluous income of the clergy and to superintend +the administration of the monasteries; authority for the +nobility to resume title to all their property which had +come in the possession of the Church since 1454; authority +to have the Gospel preached all over the country in +undefiled purity. Among the “Ordinantia” the most important +were: (1) Vacancies in the parish churches were +to be filled by the bishop under the supervision and right +of suspension of the king; (2) the king was to fix the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> +amount of revenue due the bishops, chapters and clerks, +and be entitled to use the surplus for the crown; (3) the +priests were in secular suits to be responsible to secular +courts; (4) the Gospel should be read in the schools. The +king asked the bishops in person to surrender their castles, +to which demand they all agreed.</p> + +<p>We may feel inclined to smile upon the drastic manner +in which Gustavus enacted this important drama of Revolution, +but must bear in mind his solitary position. He had +no statesmen of ability at his side, nor men of great intellect +and power to sustain him. He stood alone, and few knew +as yet his superior qualities as a statesman and an organizer. +The tame opposition, soon yielding to the appeals of +the burghers and peasants, can only be explained through +lack of leaders. Ture Jœnsson (Tre Rosor), the aristocratic +chief of the opposition, was a vain and cowardly man. +Bishop Brask, the head of the clergy, was old and more +of a diplomatist than a man of action. The latest stanch +Romanist, he gave up his cause, finding a pretext to leave +the country and dying in his self-imposed exile. The ecclesiastical +reforms were definitively arranged at a church +meeting at Œrebro in the following year.</p> + +<p>It was one of the evils which beset the reign of Gustavus +that revolts constantly occurred in various provinces and for +various reasons. Dalecarlia took the lead. The inhabitants +were not able to bear the distinction won by their great +patriotic services in the times of Engelbrekt, the Stures, +and Gustavus. Their complaints were mostly unreasonable, +sometimes ridiculous, as when they tried to prescribe +the kind of cloth and colors to be used at court, and so forth. +There was no fable, however stupid, which was not readily +believed by them and the responsibility placed on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> +king. Particularly was everything eagerly swallowed which +spoke of injustice committed against the descendants of +the Stures. A daring pretender took advantage of this +fact. He was born of the lowest peasant class, serving +on an estate in Westmanland, where he had stolen a sum +of money from his master. Appearing in Dalecarlia, where +he claimed that he was a son of Lord Sten and Christine +Gyllenstierna, he gained a great deal of support among the +yeomen, who cried with him like children when he spoke +of his noble father and asked them to pray for his soul. +The false pretender had his instructions from Peder Sunnanvæder; +he married in Norway a woman of noble birth, +and, upon his return to Dalecarlia, surrounded himself with +a regular court. An end was put to his career by a letter +from Christine Gyllenstierna, written at the request of the +king, in which she told the Dalecarlians that her son Nils, +whom the pretender impersonated, had recently died, and +that an impostor was misleading them. The false Nils Sture +answered by claiming that he was born before marriage, +the would-be-reason why his mother did not acknowledge +him. This even the Dalecarlians found was a stretching of +truth. The pretender, who had been stamping coins with +his image and held the demeanor of a ruling prince, fled +to Norway and thence to Rostock, where he was captured +and beheaded. No blood was shed during this period of +revolt; but the king, who was crowned at Upsala in 1528, +proceeded from his coronation to Dalecarlia with an army +of 14,000 men. He commanded the Dalecarlians to meet +him, and forgave them after a severe sermon of reproach, +making them surrender the chief supporters of the “Daljunker,” +who were executed on the spot.</p> + +<p>No better was the outcome of a revolt prepared by some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> +nobles of West Gothland in the following year. They tried +in vain to make the population join with them. The king +managed to obtain their secret correspondence, and had the +guilty ones arraigned before a meeting at which he scrutinized +and repudiated the false charges made against him. +The nobles asked forgiveness and were pardoned, with the +exception of two, who were beheaded. But the originators +of the revolt had fled. They were Ture Jœnsson and +Bishop Magnus of Skara. The former joined the deposed +King Christian, who, in 1532, prepared an attack on Sweden +in his attempts to recapture his crowns. With him were +other such distinguished traitors as Gustavus Trolle and +Berndt von Melen. Gustavus I. sent a splendid army +to meet Christian near Kongelf. Christian withdrew in +disappointment, leaving Ture Jœnsson behind in the +streets of Kongelf, minus a head. Christian was imprisoned +by his uncle, Frederic of Denmark, and died +in captivity.</p> + +<p>In order to pay the debt to Lubeck it was decided at a +meeting at Upsala, in 1530, that the bells of the churches +should be taken to be melted down. Concessions to do so +were asked and obtained from the various communities. +But upon the surrender of the bells discontent grew up. +In Dalecarlia it came to revolt and open violence. The +people refused to give up their bells or took the surrendered +ones back with force. Threatening letters were sent +to the king, who at first pretended to ignore the whole matter. +Christian was preparing his last attack, and prudence +deemed advisable. The inducements made by the Swedish +traitors to support Christian’s claims were scornfully repulsed +by the Dalecarlians, who still continued with their +insulting letters to the king. Gustavus answered them in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> +a peaceful way. In 1533, at New Year, he suddenly appeared +with an army in Dalecarlia, where the revolters also +this time received a severe reproach and were forced to give +up their leaders. These were executed, and that ended the +last revolt of Dalecarlia.</p> + +<p>In the following year Sweden was forced into a war +which lasted up to 1536, the so-called “Feud of the Counts,” +the chief participants being the counts of Holstein, Oldenburg +and Hoya. Sweden sided with Christian of Holstein, +who fought for his rights to the throne of Denmark after +his father Frederic, being opposed by the other counts and +by Lubeck. Hard and repeated pressure was brought to +bear on Svante Sture, a son of Lord Sten and Christine +Gyllenstierna, to appear as a pretender against Gustavus; +but the noble youth, who was sojourning in Germany, +firmly withstood these temptations. His mother had married +John Turesson, a son of the traitor Ture Jœnsson, who +was as able a man as his father was a bad one, being the +successful commander of a Swedish army which invaded +the Danish provinces held by the count of Oldenburg. A +Swedish fleet, created through sacrifices of nobles and +peasants, distinguished itself repeatedly. The war ended +in the defeat of Lubeck.</p> + +<p>Gustavus had, since the end of the work of liberation, +crushed the power of the Church, punished the revolting +peasants, kept the aristocracy within bounds, and put an +end to the supremacy of Lubeck. But he went still further, +trying to deprive the Church of its last vestige of authority, +to introduce a minute administration of the provinces and to +enforce the absolute power of the crown. To these plans he +was led by two foreign advisers, Georg Norman and Konrad +Pentinger. But it must be said to the credit of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> +king that their influence vanished when he saw that their +“reforms” were not acceptable to the people. From this +period of his reign, one noteworthy and wholesome measure +remains, the reintroduction of the former hereditary order +of succession to the throne. It was formulated and accepted +at the Riksdag of Œrebro (Jan. 4, 1540), memorable also +through death sentences pronounced upon two of the apostles +of the Swedish Reformation. The king had long regarded +his chancellor and the two brothers, Olaus and +Laurentius Petri, the latter archbishop of Upsala, with +suspicion. The climax was reached when a conspiracy +by German burghers of Stockholm against the king’s life +was discovered, and it was proved that Olaus Petri and +Laurentius Andreæ were conscious of its purport, without +making it known to the king. They were condemned to +death, Archbishop Laurentius being forced to take a seat as +one of the judges, but pardoned at the request of the burghers +of Stockholm, on the grounds that the ministers had received +their knowledge on the pledge of secrecy through +confession. Laurentius Andreæ lost his position as the +king’s chancellor. In the following year each church +in the country was presented with a copy of the complete +translation of the Bible, the work of the two reformers.</p> + +<p>The greatest, most serious and most expensive of peasants’ +revolts was that called the Dacke Feud (1542 and +1543), after its leader Nils Dacke, a peasant born in Bleking, +emigrated to Smaland, which became the scene +of his revolt. The peasants were resolved to make war +on the royal bailiffs, the nobles and the new religion, and +found in Dacke an excellent leader, ferocious, daring and +of some military ability. The forces sent by the king to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> +meet him were repeatedly routed. The king was seriously +alarmed, particularly since the revolt attracted attention +abroad and was encouraged by Emperor Charles V., in +the interests of the deposed Christian, his brother-in-law, +and by several German princes. The emperor wrote to +Nils Dacke a letter, preserved to this day, although it never +reached its destination, in which Charles, with pride, recalls +his Gothic (that is, according to the views of his time, Swedish) +origin: “Sumus et nos de gente Gothorum.” Nils +Dacke’s plan was to place Svante Sture on the throne. He +wrote him a letter to this effect, which the noble Sture +handed over to the king, together with the messenger who +brought it. After much effort the king gathered an army +of considerable strength, which was ordered against Dacke, +who was defeated at Lake Asund. He fled and was pursued +by the troops into Bleking, where he was captured and +shot. This revolt cost Gustavus dearly, but was a good +lesson in regard to the more immature of his reforms, +against which it, to a great extent, was directed.</p> + +<p>Now the storms and trials of his reign were at an end, +and Gustavus allowed to gather the fruit of his wise management, +which itself grew wiser with his old age. In 1544 +the Union of Succession of 1540 was confirmed at Westeros. +In matters of finance Gustavus laid the foundations of the +modern state. The bailiffs were multiplied and made to +give close accounts of the revenues. Fiefs granted to nobles +before were now kept by the crown. The great nobles who +held fiefs were placed under stricter control. The bloody +Christian did useful work for the crown by ridding it of +many unruly heads. The privileges granted by Westeros +Recess were enforced, but the king saw to it that the nobility +received back only what was properly due. But when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> +the crown was concerned, property was taken from the +Church to the greatest tension of these privileges, and likewise +for the king’s private rights, by means of which less +scrupulous tactics both the state and the king were enriched. +The former came in possession of 12,000 farms, +the latter of 4,000, in his case called “inherited estates.” +As Gustavus was a great economizer, he left a treasury replete +with money and uncoined silver, in spite of elaborate +pomp on state occasions, expensive royal marriages and +wooings, and a feud with Russia. From which of the two +treasuries in his care expenses were paid, Gustavus was not +overparticular. He set a good example as a practical +farmer and agriculturist, the dairy at Gripsholm standing +under the personal supervision of the queen, with twenty-two +less ladylike assistants.</p> + +<p>Gustavus created the nucleus to a standing army of hired +troops, of natives and foreigners, about 15,000 in numbers, +and provided Sweden with a considerable and well-equipped +fleet. He encouraged the mining industry by supporting +the silver mines of Sala and the copper mines of Falun. +He introduced the working of iron, according to new methods, +calling in German experts whose work he superintended +in person. Putting an end to the supremacy of the Hanseatic +commerce, he made treaties of commerce with the +Netherlands and France, making Helsingfors in Finland +the centre of the trade with Russia. On the western coast +he founded the new town of Elfsborg, and ordered the inhabitants +of New Lœdœse to move thither. To the common +people Gustavus held an attitude which shows +evidence of love and confidence. Many of his letters and +messages to them abound in hints at practical methods in +farming. The schools were improved and partly reorgan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>ized +through the spirit of Reformation, while the University +of Upsala lost in importance and prestige, the students again +going abroad.</p> + +<p>The war with Russia, commencing in 1554, and marked +by mutual invasions, offered no aspect of importance, and +was ended by a treaty of peace in 1557.</p> + +<p>The founder of the famous royal line of Vasa was, personally, +a man of prepossessing appearance, tall, and of +commanding presence, having blond hair and beard, sharp +blue eyes, full lips, rosy cheeks and a fine frame. He was +fond of costly garments, and the styles of his day were becoming +to him. Gustavus was of an amiable and cheerful disposition, +although of a quick temper. He had a rare gift +of winning the goodwill and confidence of all classes by +addressing everybody according to their compass of intellect +and conversation. He was fond of music, and played +and sang. The lute was his favorite instrument, which he +liked to play in his evenings of solitude. Gustavus possessed +a rare intellect and a remarkable memory. Well +aware of his own weakness to give way to his quick temper, +he generally postponed all decisive action in matters of importance +until sure of his full power of discernment. He +was not a brilliant genius, but a typical prince of the Renaissance +epoch, never afraid of taking action in instances +without a precedence, or of the consequences of his actions. +His letters and addresses evince an unusual degree +of common sense, clothed in a language of manly vigor, +terseness and humor, and are fine specimens of the modern +Swedish, such as it meets us in this its period of +rejuvenation, brought about by the spirit of the Reformation. +There is something in the oral and literary eloquence +of Gustavus Vasa which makes it easy to believe<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> +that he was a descendant of Birgitta. Gustavus did not +possess the fine erudition of his sons, who were considered +to be men of learning in their time, for he early left his +university studies for the court and the war; but he was +able to pass such good opinions upon subjects of art and +science that he astonished many who had made these a +special study. He had the power of recognizing people +whose faces he once had noticed after ten to twenty +years of absence, and was also skilled in divining what +character dwelt behind every face. What he once heard +he never forgot. Where he had travelled once he could +never mistake the road, and knew not only the names of +the villages but also the names of the peasants whom he +had met. His life was led by the unswaying principles of +an earnest piety and high morals. His nephew, Peter +Brahe the Elder, who in a chronicle has given the above +picture of Gustavus Vasa, adds: “<i>In summa</i>, God had +bequeathed him, above others, with great ability, high intellect +and many princely virtues, so that he was well +worthy of carrying sceptre and crown. For he was not +only sagacious and kind above others, but also manly and +able. He was sharp and just in passing sentences, in many +cases being charitable and merciful.”</p> + +<p>The royal court was characterized by a joyous and elevated +spirit. Every day after dinner all the courtiers collected +in the dancing hall. The lady of ceremonies then +entered with the ladies of the court, and the royal musicians +dispensed music for dancing. Every other or third +day the king went out hunting or horseback riding with +the gentlemen and ladies of his court. The youths of the +nobility once a week held exhibitions of fencing and +other knightly sport, the king taking an interested and ac<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>tive +part. Those who excelled received prizes in the form +of rings of gold or chaplets of pearls and led the dance of +the evening.</p> + +<p>Gustavus I. was three times married. His first consort +was young neurotic Catherine, princess of Saxony-Lauenburg, +whom he married while the “Revolt of the Bells” +was going on in Dalecarlia, and who died four years later, +leaving him a son, Eric, of her own hysteric temperament. +Shortly after the death of Catherine, the king married a +young lady of the highest Swedish nobility, Margaret Leijonhufvud, +with whom he lived in a long and happy union, +ended by her death in 1551, and blessed by ten children, +among whom the sons John, Magnus and Charles. Lady +Margaret had been in love with the oldest son of Christine +Gyllenstierna, Svante Sture, whom she renounced, and +who married her younger sister Martha. Queen Margaret +was a tender and high-minded woman, who won the love +and absolute confidence of her royal consort, on whose quick +temper she exerted a quieting influence, comforting him +in hours of trouble and distress. She preserved as queen +the plain and severe habits of her youth, having a personal +superintendence over the dairies of the royal castles, especially +those of Gripsholm and Svartsjœ. She was interested +in brewing, baking and other household affairs, often making +with her own hands the clothes of her children. When +the king referred to Queen Margaret, he always called her +“our dear mistress of the house.” The king remained a +nobleman of his day in the purple. Royal splendor was displayed +on great occasions only. Simplicity was the principle +of every-day life. When entertaining his friends, the +king took great pains to please and arranged many details +himself. Upon one occasion of this kind at Gripsholm,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> +Queen Margaret carried in the sweetmeats and cookies, +while the king served the wine and asked his guests to be +glad and make merry.</p> + +<p>Queen Margaret was suddenly taken ill while partaking +in a pleasure trip on Lake Mælar, and died in 1551, after a +touching farewell to her consort. In the following year the +king married the young Catherine Stenbock, a daughter of +Gustavus Stenbock, an intimate friend to the king, and +Lady Brita Leijonhufvud, a sister of Queen Margaret. In +the lives and fate of Catherine and Margaret there are +several remarkable coincidences. Like Queen Margaret, +Catherine was secretly in love with some one else when +the royal proposal was made. Strange enough the object +of Catherine’s secret affection was, like Margaret’s, +a son of Christine Gyllenstierna, Gustavus Johnsson Tre +Rosor. This young man was the grandson of conceited +Ture Jœnsson and the son of able John Turesson, the +second consort of Christine Gyllenstierna. The family +name was Tre Rosor, after the coat-of-arms, which consisted +of three roses. As her aunt Margaret must renounce +the hero of her dreams, so also Catherine. Like his half-brother, +Svante Sture, Gustavus Tre Rosor married the +sister of his first love, and this marriage, like that of +Svante, turned out a happy one. There was a last coincidence +in the life of the two queens. When Margaret +heard that the royal sponsor was coming, she knew his +errand and concealed herself in an oak chest in a distant +part of the castle of Ekeberg. Catherine, upon a similar +occasion, ran down in the gardens of Torpa and hid herself +behind a bush. The third marriage of the king was a +happy one, in spite of the great difference in years between +the consorts. The clergy tried to raise objections, holding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> +that Gustavus and Catherine were too nearly related to +make the marriage a legal one. After some severe pressure +these objections were finally dropped.</p> + +<p>Queen Catherine thus expressed the state of her feelings +after her marriage: “Gustavus is dear to me, but I shall +never forget the Rose.”</p> + +<p>The king gave scrupulous attention to the education of +his children. They were brought up in simplicity and sternness, +but received a manifold training and a great amount +of instruction. While they were studying at Upsala, hams +and butter were sent them from the royal estates to make +part of their breakfasts and suppers. In spite of these patriarchal +endeavors, Eric and John grew up to be typical Renaissance +princes, fond of extravagance and luxury. The +king wrote once to Duke Magnus: “Our dear Lady Catherine +sends thee five shirts which thou must bear in mind +to take good care of; <i>item</i>, to keep thy head clean and not +ride or run too much.” When his sons grew older, King +Gustavus used to admonish them orally before the hearth +or at the table, or by letters. His wise counsel recalls the +terse and sharp advice of Havamal in the Edda: “Ye shall +weigh all matters carefully, perform them quickly and +stand by it, putting nothing off to the morrow; counsel +not followed up in due time is like clouds without +rain in times of dearth.” “To speak once and stand +by it, is better than to talk one hundred times.” “Surround +ye ever with able men of pure living; one shall +believe of ye what one knows about them.” Duke Eric +early caused him trouble by stubbornness, defiance and +vanity. Duke John, the oldest child of Queen Margaret, +long remained his favorite, but ended by causing him +grief through disobedience and secret conspiracy with Eric.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> +In his old age, King Gustavus suffered through failing +health and melancholy. He complained because the fate +of his country seemed uncertain on account of the unstability +of his sons, and because his old friends, like John +Turesson and Christine Gyllenstierna, passed away before +him, leaving him alone in the world.</p> + +<p>When King Gustavus felt that the end was drawing +near, he sent word to the four Estates or representative +classes of the country, the nobles, clergymen, burghers and +yeomen, to meet him at Stockholm around the Midsummer +of 1560. He made known to the Estates his will, which his +sons pledged themselves by oath to fulfil. Eric should inherit +the crown, according to the will, but the three other +sons were to receive duchies which they should govern with +a good deal of authority. It became evident that the king +had taken pains to provide liberally for his sons. But it appears +as if he intended to make them all responsible in the +maintenance of the work of their father, by distributing +the power between them.</p> + +<p>When the Estates had collected in the hall of state the +old monarch entered with his sons. After greeting those +present he delivered his farewell address:</p> + +<p>“I respect the power of God, which with me has reinstalled +the ancient royal line on the throne of Sweden. Ye +have without doubt learned, and those of you who are somewhat +advanced in years have seen for yourselves, how our dear +fatherland, already for ages in distress and misery through +foreign lordship, at last suffered the same through the grim +despot King Christian, and how it pleased God to liberate +us from this tyranny through me. For this it behooves us, +high and low, master and servant, old and young, never to +forget that same divine help. For what of a man was I to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> +set myself against a mighty king, who not only ruled three +kingdoms, but who also was related to the powerful emperor +Charles V. and the noble princes of Germany. But +God has performed the work, made me the worker of his +miracle, and been my help and comfort during a reign of +forty years, the cares of which have hastened me on with +gray hairs to the grave. Forsooth, I could liken myself to +King David,” and the tears came to his eyes, “whom God +from a shepherd made to a reigning king over his people. I +could not divine that glory, when I in woods and desert +fells must needs conceal myself from the bloodthirsty +swords of my enemies. Grace and blessing have in a wide +measure been granted both me and you through the knowledge +of God’s true Gospel, also in the shape of material +abundance, which is evident all through the land, thank the +Lord. If during my reign anything good has been accomplished, +give ye God the glory of it. But for what there +has been of failure and fault, I beg you, as faithful subjects, +to forbear and forgive. God is my witness that it has not +been by meanness, but by human weakness, that I have not +been able to do better. My ambition has always been the +improvement and welfare of the people of my country. I +know full well that I have been a severe king in the eyes +of many. Yet that day shall come when the children of +Sweden willingly would dig me up from under the sod if +that they could. My time soon is at an end. I need not in +the stars or other signs search for my last moment; my +body is to me the trustworthy messenger that I soon shall +stand before the severe King of kings, to give account +for the glorious but earthly crown of Sweden which I +have worn.”</p> + +<p>The Estates listened with great emotion to the words of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> +the old monarch. After the king had ceased speaking and +his will had been sanctioned, Gustavus left the assembly +supported by his sons and nodding his farewell to those +standing near. Three months later he was taken ill, and +September 29, 1560, the great liberator, revolutionist and +organizer of his country expired.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a><br /> +<span class="smaller"><i>Reformation and Reaction—The Sons of Gustavus I.</i></span></h2> + +<p>Eric XIV. succeeded his father in 1560, commencing +his reign under the most brilliant of auspices. But +the old King Gustavus had foreseen that his sons +would cause danger to the realm which he with infinite care +had built up. After his forty years’ work of construction +followed forty years of destruction which his elder sons +brought to bear upon it. Fortunately, that work was so +solid that it withstood this bravely, to rise rejuvenated +when loving hands anew were laid to it.</p> + +<p>King Eric was one of the most gifted monarchs of his +time, handsome, eloquent, learned, a fine linguist, a musician +and artist. But his sharp reason carried him to the +excess of suspicion, his artistic temperament into hysterics, +and he was vain, overbearing, quick-tempered, licentious +and cruel. His leaning toward mysticism made him devoted +to astrology.</p> + +<p>Eric’s first ambition was to reduce the power of the +dukes, convoking a Riksdag at Arboga, in 1561, where +the “Arboga Articles” were formulated for such purpose, +the dukes being forced to acquiesce. In order to reduce the +distance between the dukes and the nobility, King Eric, at +his coronation—celebrated with a lavish display of pomp at +Upsala in June of the same year—instituted hereditary dig<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>nities +of counts and barons. Svante Sture, Peter Brahe the +Elder and Gustavus Johnsson Tre Rosor were created +counts, the first and third one the sons of Christine +Gyllenstierna, Peter Brahe being a cousin of Gustavus +Vasa. Among the barons were Sten Leijonhufvud, Gustavus +Stenbock, relatives of the dukes, and Clas Kristersson +Horn (of Aminne). Only small fiefs were given with the +new dignities, which were nothing but an outward sign of +the distinction existing between a higher aristocracy already +extant and the lower nobility. In order to strengthen his +connection with the nobles, Eric made the estate on which +a noble fixed his domicile exempt from <i>russtjenst</i>. He was +jealous of his power and dignity, for which reasons he held +sharp supervision over his officials. He instituted a supreme +court, consisting of twelve men of low birth, who +every three years made a tour of the country to hold court +in the name of the king. These justices were the creatures +of Eric, and soon brought on themselves discredit and hatred +through their servile and cruel acts. Among these justices +was Gœran Persson, an able and powerful man, revengeful +and cruel, who soon rose to be the favorite and influential +adviser of his master.</p> + +<p>Eric was intent upon making a great match, wooing +Elizabeth of England, Mary Stuart of Scotland, Renata of +Lothringia and Christine of Hesse, with more or less success, +overlooking Margaret of Valois, who was anxious to +marry him. His mistress, Carin Monsdotter, a child of the +people, but beautiful and of a noble character, for whom he +had formed a secret attachment, finally was made his queen.</p> + +<p>The German Order which held Esthonia and Livonia +suffered during this period considerably through Russian invasions. +The town of Reval, with a large part of Esthonia,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> +was ceded to Sweden in 1562, upon the receipt of a loan, +Eric immediately giving his attention to the depressed and +enslaved peasants of that section. Later the grandmaster +of the Order turned Livonia over to the king of Poland, +who, in need of money, placed seven castles of this province +at the disposal of John, duke of Finland. John had tendered +a loan to the Polish king and married his sister Catherine. +Eric considered these negotiations as harmful to his +royal authority, and he asked his brother to give account of +them in person. John refused, making the royal emissaries +his prisoners. The Swedish Riksdag condemned John to +death for high treason, and an army was despatched to Finland, +which carried back Duke John and his consort as prisoners. +John’s sentence was commuted to imprisonment at +Gripsholm, proud Catherine choosing to share the fate of +her husband (1563). The prison life of the ducal couple +at Gripsholm was not an unpleasant one. They enjoyed +a great deal of liberty and luxury at the splendid castle in +Lake Mælar, King Eric sending his brother a copy of Boccaccio’s +“Decamerone” in German, to read for a pastime. +The duke read the work and translated it into Swedish. +The room called “king John’s prison,” which is still preserved +with the artistic decoration which Duke Charles later +bestowed on it, served as sleeping apartment for the prisoners, +and there Catherine gave life to two children, one of +whom was to become the founder of the Polish line of Vasa +kings. It is said that Duke Magnus became a prey to the +disposition of insanity latent in his family, by being forced +to sign the death sentence of his brother John, King Eric being +anxious of having him share the responsibility. Magnus +lived until quite an advanced age, but was never cured of +his mental ailment. Even in his best hours he was not of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> +very bright intellect. While sojourning at the castle of Vadstena, +by the Lake Vetter, he had the vision of a mermaid, +who coaxed him to follow her. The duke jumped from the +window of his apartment into the moat below. He did not +sustain any serious injury, but the incident made the unhappy +prince famous in tradition and song.</p> + +<p>In May, 1560, a war commenced with Denmark which, +with several intermissions, lasted for seven years. It has +been called The Seven Years’ War of the North. About the +same time that Eric became king of Sweden, the young +ambitious Frederic II. ascended the throne of Denmark. +In the days of Gustavus I., Christian III. had appropriated +the Swedish emblem of three crowns for the Danish seal of +state, as if by this proclaiming that the Union was considered +still extant or that it could be re-established at the opportune +moment. King Gustavus had protested, but with +no result. When King Frederic kept up the irritating fact +of preserving the Swedish emblem, King Eric answered +by placing the emblems of Denmark and Norway in the +Swedish seal of state. This made things worse and served +as a nominal cause for war. The principal interest at stake +was the supremacy in the Baltic provinces. The diocese of +Œsel, which had accepted a Danish protectorate, was governed +by a brother of the Danish king, who had entered into +an alliance with Poland against Sweden, Denmark also joining +it.</p> + +<p>In May, 1563, a Swedish fleet, commanded by Jacob +Bagge, left Sweden to bring Princess Christine of Hesse, +the promised bride of King Eric. A Danish fleet met them, +at the island of Bornholm, and greeted the Swedish ships +with some shots from their sharply loaded cannon. The +Swedes returned the fire and a naval battle followed, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> +ended in a defeat for the Danes, who lost their flagship. +When Jacob Bagge arrived in Rostock, where he was to +meet the princess, her father was found unwilling to let her +sail on account of the insecurity brought about by the commencing +naval hostilities. This would under ordinary circumstances +have enraged the vain and sensitive king, but +Eric forgot his rage in his delight at the naval victory. +Jacob Bagge was rewarded with a triumphal entry into +Stockholm upon his return. He entered the city on foot +with a golden chain round his neck, followed by his sub-commanders +and surrounded by the banners taken during +the battle. The prisoners followed, in chains and with +shaved heads. The king’s fool was dancing in front of +them, playing on his fiddle. A Danish herald soon afterward +reached Stockholm, declaring war with great pomp +and ceremony on behalf of his royal master. The city of +Lubeck sent a messenger to Stockholm on a similar errand, +but was not received by the king. “Since he is sent by the +mayor and council of his town and other similar lard-mongers, +let him be heard and answered by the mayor and +council of Stockholm,” was the royal order.</p> + +<p>Jacob Bagge was ordered to sea with the Swedish fleet +later in the summer of the same year. He met the united +fleets of Denmark and Lubeck at the island of Œland, in the +Baltic. A terrible battle ensued, which lasted until the +fleets were separated by the darkness of the night, without +victory being won by either side. Jacob Bagge started out +with his fleet again in the spring of the following year, commanding +a new flagship, “The Matchless,” which carried +two hundred cannon, most of them made out of church bells +confiscated by Gustavus Vasa. A new battle was delivered +between the islands of Gothland and Œland. The majority<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> +of the Swedish ships had by a gale been separated from the +admiral and his flagship, but Jacob Bagge fought valiantly +for a whole day, continuing the battle the next morning. A +catastrophe brought it to a close. “The Matchless” caught +fire through some act of negligence, a barrel of powder exploding +between the decks. Jacob Bagge then surrendered, +and was taken on board one of the ships of Lubeck. The +enemies took possession of the “The Matchless” in order to +plunder it, but the immense ship exploded with a tremendous +roar, sinking with everybody who was on board. Jacob +Bagge did not long remain in Danish captivity. He returned, +to be greeted with the greatest distinction, and died +as governor-general of Stockholm.</p> + +<p>The war on land was at the beginning carried on only +through mutual invasions, both sides giving proofs of cruelty +and vandalism. Elfsborg surrendered to the Danes. +A Swedish army, commanded by King Eric in person, entered +the province of Halland, pillaging and plundering and +laying siege to the town of Halmstad. King Eric suddenly +raised the siege, when news came that King Frederic was +approaching with an army. The Swedish troops scattered +in various directions, one division being met and defeated +by the Danes. The whole of Northern Norway was invaded +by Swedish troops and temporarily subjugated. The +entire kingdom of Norway was very near being altogether +absorbed by Sweden. This would have been a happy solution +of the Scandinavian question. Norway would have +become one in language with Sweden and would have shared +her glorious epoch of political grandeur which was to follow. +The best families of Norway would have been entered side +by side with the Swedish nobility at the knightly chapterhouse +of Stockholm, and the countries would have had their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> +later democratic and cultural development in common. But +King Eric was too restless and undecided to make any lasting +conquest, or union, possible. When Claude Collard, a +young French nobleman, who was the conqueror of Northern +Norway, was taken by surprise and captured, King +Eric, to avenge this, devastated forty church parishes in +Norway. The Danes invaded and plundered the provinces +of West Gothland and Smaland, while the Swedes pillaged +Bleking and Scania. The king had given orders +that the population of a whole district should be killed. He +wrote later about the fulfilment of this cruel command: +“God granted luck, so that thousands of men were killed +on the road and in the woods.” The province of Scania +was devastated to a distance of one hundred miles from the +Swedish frontier. A new invasion into Halland was made, +in 1565, when Duke Charles, then fifteen years of age, commanded +the artillery. The town of Varberg was attacked, +but valiantly defended by the Danes. The young duke upon +this occasion gave the first proof of his indomitable energy. +He led the attack and persuaded the Swedes, by word and +action, not to give it up. At last the walls were taken, the +town being pillaged and burned. All men who could carry +arms were killed, except a force of one hundred and fifty +men of hired troops who entered Swedish service. A young +French captain, Pontus de la Gardie, of a noble family of +Languedoc, was among the latter. This man and his descendants +were destined to play an important part in +Swedish history.</p> + +<p>Clas Kristersson Horn was made commander of the +Swedish navy after Jacob Bagge, in which position he covered +his name with glory. He won a naval battle at Œland +(in 1564) which lasted for two days. In the next year he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> +added several victorious battles to his record, among which +the principal ones were fought at Buchow, by the coast of +Mecklenburg, and at the island of Bornholm. When he +went to sea in the spring of 1566 no enemy dared appear. +The united fleets of Denmark and Lubeck at last started +out, but were defeated by Clas Horn at the island of +Œland after a vehement battle. The vanquished fleets were +caught in a gale in which sixteen ships perished with seven +thousand men. Clas Horn with his Swedish fleet was master +of the sea. In the following year no fleet appeared to +meet his. The efforts of Gustavus I. to set the Swedish +fleet in good order thus proved to be of the greatest consequence.</p> + +<p>The Danes were superior in the hostilities on land during +the latter part of the war, thanks principally to their eminent +commander, Daniel Rantzau. He made an unsuccessful +attempt to recapture the town of Varberg, but gained, at +Axtorna, a battle over a superior Swedish army (in 1565). +When Rantzau saw the Swedes approaching for an attack, +he held prayer with his troops, whereupon he arranged them +for resistance. The Swedish infantry captured the Danish +stronghold and artillery, but the hired German troops of the +Swedish wings turned into flight. Rantzau made an attack +upon the deserted infantry, and was victorious when nightfall +ended the battle. The Swedes lost thirty cannon, and Nils +Sture, the son of Count Svante Sture, was able to save the +banner of state only by severing it from the pole and hiding +it on his person. In the following year, Rantzau pillaged +Smaland and West Gothland, and in 1567 he penetrated as +far as East Gothland, where he was very near being caught +in a trap by the Swedish troops. The interior struggle of +Sweden caused hostilities to cease for some time.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p> + +<p>The sad fate of his brother Magnus also befell King Eric. +Evidences of approaching insanity were frequent and brought +on horrible consequences. By licentiousness, mysticism and +astrological speculations his mind became unsettled. It had +been predicted that a blond man would dethrone him. Eric +at first made his brother John the subject of his suspicions. +After the duke’s imprisonment he suspected a rival in Nils +Sture, who also was a blond. Eric accused him of ill behavior +in the battle of Axtorna. The king’s court sentenced +him to death, but Lord Nils escaped with a contumelious +entry of mockery into Stockholm, on a miserable horse, and +a crown of straw on his head. But frightened at the indignation +aroused by his shameful act the king tried to undo it, +and sent Lord Nils on an embassy to Lothringia, to bring +the king’s proposal to Princess Renata.</p> + +<p>In the commencement of 1567, the king had several of +the nobles arrested, on the suspicion of conspiracy, and carried +to the castle of Upsala, where a Riksdag was convoked. +Nils Sture arrived with the consent and betrothal ring of +Princess Renata, but was thrown into prison. The king +asked the Riksdag to pass a sentence of death upon the +accused nobles. When this was refused, he was seized by +fear and rage. Rushing into the prison of Nils Sture, he +wounded him in the arm. Lord Nils drew out the weapon, +a dagger, kissing its handle and returning it to the king, +with a prayer for mercy, but was killed by the soldiers at +the command of the king. Eric’s disposition immediately +was changed, and he darted into Count Svante’s prison, +begging forgiveness at his feet. The aged Sture’s answer +was that he would forgive all, granted that no harm was +done to his son. The king fled in despair from the castle +and town, followed by some of his soldiers, one of whom he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> +sent back with an order to kill all the nobles, “except Lord +Sten.” As there were two by that name, these were spared, +but Count Svante and his son Eric Sture, Abraham Stenbock +and Ivar Ivarsson were killed. The Riksdag was forced to +pass sentence for high treason upon the murdered men, at +the instigation of Gœran Persson, whose perfidious advice +had continually inflamed the sickened brain of his master. +King Eric was for several days missing, and at last found +wandering about in a peasant’s garb. Cared for by Carin +Monsdotter, he slowly regained his reason, showing evidence +of repentance by declaring the murdered nobles innocent and +promising to compensate their families. During this spell +he set free his brother John and dismissed Gœran Persson. +But soon his evil disposition returned, and the resolution of +his brothers to free the country from his rule must be acknowledged +as a beneficent one. The nobles were brought +to revolt, when Eric, in July, 1568, proclaimed Carin as his +consort, and had her solemnly crowned Queen of Sweden. +The dukes John and Charles were at first unsuccessful in +their efforts, the king defeating their troops repeatedly. +But in 1569 Stockholm was captured, Gœran Persson killed +and the king forced to abdicate. The sentence passed upon +Eric, by the Estates of the Riksdag, stipulated that he +should be “imprisoned, but sustained in a princely manner, +for the rest of his days.”</p> + +<p>Eric was at first held imprisoned in his own apartments +at the royal castle, but was transferred to two of the vaults, +called the “apartments of Lord Eskil.” They had served as +a treasury during the reign of Gustavus I., but now stood +empty. Queen Carin and her children were his company. +After an unsuccessful attempt at flight, one room was taken +away from him and the windows in the remaining one re<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>duced +in size. The table of the royal prisoner was well provided +for, but he was unmercifully treated by his warders. +The cruel Olof Stenbock once deprived him of all his clothes. +In a struggle which followed, he shot Eric in the arm and +let him remain senseless in his blood for several hours. +Some of the members of the former body-guard of Eric +once attempted, but in vain, to set free the unhappy prisoner. +In 1569 Eric was removed to Abo in Finland, where +he was locked up in a secure prison. Two years later he +was taken to Castellholm, in the archipelago of Aland, for +fear that the Russian czar would liberate him by violence. +Shortly afterward he was removed to the lovely castle of +Gripsholm, where he had spent some of the happiest days of +his youth, and where he once upon a time held his brother +John imprisoned. At Gripsholm there is a gloomy dungeon +which is said to have served as the prison of King Eric, but +this is not authentic. Eric was treated comparatively well +while at Gripsholm, enjoying the company of his family, a +good table and plenty of servants. The recording books of +the castle from this period speak of “the court of King +Eric.” King John was, in the meantime, irritated by Russian +hostilities and intrigues, the old supporters of Eric joining +in the latter. The appeals of Duke Charles for the +improvement of the condition of his poor imprisoned +brother roused the suspicion of the king, who fostered dark +plots against the prisoner. Eric was removed from Gripsholm +and its pleasant associations, separated from his family +and put in hard prison at Westeros. The warders received +instructions to take his life if necessary. The state +council and the archbishop sanctioned this order of the king. +The last prison of the unhappy King Eric was Œrbyhus, +where he suddenly died, exactly at a time when King John’s<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> +fears of a revolt had reached a climax. Rumors that Eric +had been poisoned were current, and Duke Charles also gave +utterance of his belief that such was the case. In spite of +the wars, cruelty and evil deeds of King Eric XIV., the +Swedish people of his time had a good deal of devotion for +him and his faithful consort. The country enjoyed good +years during his reign and profited by the wise measures +of his father.</p> + +<p>Gustavus, the son of Eric XIV. and Carin Monsdotter, +was born, in 1568, at Nykœping. When Queen Carin was +separated from her imprisoned consort, her children, Gustavus +and Sigrid, followed her to Finland, where she resided +at Abo. In 1575 the young prince was harshly taken +away from his mother, at the command of the state council, +and sent to Prussia. The jealous and uneasy King John +made him the subject of cruel persecutions. In spite of these +he received a fine education, and is known to have embraced +the Catholic religion. He was kindly received by King Sigismund +of Poland, his cousin, at whose coronation in Cracow +he is said to have been present, in the disguise of a beggar. +A relation of intimate friendship existed between the outlawed +prince and Emperor Rudolph of Austria, both of +whom were devoted to the study of alchemy. King John +refused to listen to the appeals for grace and support which +Gustavus repeatedly made to him. Gustavus was not allowed +to see his mother until the year of 1596, when the +two had a touching meeting at Reval. He later made his +home in Thorn, but left for Russia, in 1600, upon an invitation +from Czar Boris. He was received in Moscow as a +reigning prince; but when he refused to appear as a pretender +to the Swedish throne, he was imprisoned. At the +fall of Boris, Gustavus was set free, but again put in prison<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> +by Dimitri. At the fall of the latter, in 1607, Gustavus once +more regained his liberty, but died in Casijn, in the same +year. This unhappy Gustavus Ericsson Vasa was a man of +fine erudition and pure morals. He was a dreamer and of a +sensitive disposition, being an ardent Catholic and fondly +devoted to the country which had outlawed him.</p> + +<p>Sigrid Vasa, the daughter of Eric XIV., was twice married +to members of the Swedish nobility. Ake Henricsson +Tott, her son of the first marriage, was a distinguished warrior +in the times of Gustavus II. Adolphus. Queen Carin +died, in 1612, beloved and highly respected, at the beautiful +estate of Liuksiala in Finland, given her in fief by King +John.</p> + +<p><i>John III.</i> succeeded Eric, without sharing his power +with his younger brother Charles, as he had promised. +John was as learned and highly talented as Eric, and as +vain, restless and unreliable. But while Eric was a mystic +and a sceptic by turns, John was a Catholic, or leaning toward +Catholicism, and a hypocrite who, under the pretence of +meekness and piety, tried to hide his vanity, bad temper +and utter selfishness. Like Gustavus I. and all his other +sons, John was devoted to the fine arts, particularly to architecture, +with an ardor that reached the vehemence of a passion. +He planned a vast number of churches and castles, +which he completed, utterly regardless of cost. The Swedish +Castle Renaissance which was established by John and +his brothers is influenced by contemporary Flemish art, +severe and majestic in outline, graceful and profuse in interior +decoration. Good specimens of it were the earlier +castles of Stockholm and Svartsjœ, the castle of Vadstena +remains so and, to a great extent, the beautiful and memorable +castle of Gripsholm.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span></p> + +<p>At his coronation, John issued hereditary privileges to +the nobility. <i>Russtjenst</i> became no longer essential. Legal +offices were preserved for the nobles, the king’s supreme +court being abandoned. John’s policy was to win the support +of the aristocracy against Charles, who, indignant and +sulky, kept within his duchy, consisting of the provinces of +Sœdermanland and Vermland, with the town of Œrebro in +addition.</p> + +<p>In 1570, an unsatisfactory peace was made with Denmark, +Sweden ceding all the Norwegian and Danish territory +in her possession, together with the island of Gothland, +and agreeing to pay something like one hundred and fifty +thousand dollars for the return of Elfsborg, held by the +Danes. A friendly relation to hostile Poland commenced +with John’s reign, but a long and bloody war with Russia +began in 1570. The Russians tried repeatedly, but in vain, +to capture Reval, plundering and killing the population of +Esthonia, who remained faithful to Swedish rule. Henric +Horn and Clas Tott won laurels for their heroic deeds, while +the war was changed into more modern methods and to a +successful issue by the Swedish general Pontus de la Gardie, +who captured the provinces Keksholm and Ingermanland +and the town of Narva.</p> + +<p>John III. had set two goals for his ambition: to return the +Swedish church to Catholicism and to make his son Sigismund +king of Poland. The latter he reached at the death +of King Stephan in 1589, Sigismund succeeding him upon +the throne. The former ambition John never attained, +after years of stubborn and unreasonable perseverance giving +up this pet idea. John made some attempts to bring +order in the confused conditions of the church, but left it in +a worse state of confusion than he found it. The crown and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> +the aristocracy had deprived the church of nearly all its +property and withheld its income from it. Archbishop +Laurentius Petri complained of the miserable state of +things, the ministers often being useless wretches and the +service in some churches impossible to uphold for sheer lack +of money. In 1572 the ecclesiastical matters were arranged +at a meeting in Upsala, when a new church law was introduced, +demanding higher qualifications for the ministers, +who were to be elected by their congregations, and enforcing +a school law. Laurentius Petri died in 1573 and was +succeeded by Laurentius Petri Gothus. The new archbishop +willingly subscribed to a set of rules, laid before +him by the king, which reintroduced monasteries, worship +of saints and the ceremonies of the Roman church. Jesuits +were invited to the country, but met with little encouragement +from the people. The very climax of John’s reactionary +movements was formed by the introduction of his ritual, +Liturgia, which was nothing else than an adaptation of the +Catholic ritual. It was accepted by the Riksdag of 1577, +but Charles refused to accept it for his duchy. The king +had many conflicts with his brother, the latter always giving +in to his wishes, except on this point. Ministers and +university professors who refused to conform to the new +ritual, or attacked it, were sheltered by the duke and, in +many instances, given high offices. The king grew angry, +but the duke remained firm and unyielding. When Queen +Catherine died, in 1583, John’s Catholic fervor suffered a +relapse, and ceased altogether after his marriage to young +Protestant Gunilla Bielke, in the following year. He stubbornly +stuck to his Liturgia for some time yet, but exiled +the Jesuits, and dismissed with contumely ministers who +had joined the Roman Church. During the last years of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> +his reign, he said it was best to leave everybody a free +choice in religious matters, regretting his Liturgia—which +he once considered the gem of his own theological system—because +it had caused so much trouble and confusion.</p> + +<p>Sweden suffered a great deal through the slack and +unsteady government of King John. He spent unreasonable +sums on his court and his craze for architectural marvels, +while always short of funds for the necessities of war +and internal improvements. Commerce and industries suffered +and were brought to a standstill by dearth, hunger and +pest. The population decreased; the towns were made +bankrupt and many farms abandoned. Bad and greedy +officials and the recommencing war with Russia increased +the evils. After unsuccessful attempts to have his son leave +Poland, where he had met with many difficulties, John entered +into more intimate relations with his brother, who +came to wield a beneficial influence on the government. +John III. died 1592, malcontent and tired of life, his death +being little regretted by the people.</p> + +<p>One of the most famous love episodes of Sweden dates +from the reign of John III. It has no bearing upon the +affairs of state, but is not devoid of value as an illustration +of the history of civilization, giving us a glimpse of the private +life of the nobles of that period and the standard of +morals of their lives. The episode is told by Countess Anne +Banér in a manuscript by her hand with the title: “In the +following manner my blessed mother’s sister, Lady Sigrid +Sture, lady of Salestad and Geddeholm, related what took +place when Lord Eric Gustafson Stenbock carried away +our blessed mother’s sister, Magdalen Sture, from Hœrningsholm.”</p> + +<p>The dowager-countess, Martha Sture, resided at the cas<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>tle +of Hœrningsholm, enlarged to a four-story structure and +fortified with four corner towers by her consort. She was +a sister of Queen Margaret, the second queen of Gustavus +I., and was married to the renounced lover of that sister, +Count Svante Sture. The countess was called “King Martha,” +partly because of her stern power and great authority, +partly because it was known to have been her ambition to +see her husband’s family grace the throne of a country +which their forefathers had ruled as uncrowned kings. She +had lived to see her husband and two sons killed by the +insane Eric XIV., but she had yet two sons who would +carry high the glorious name, on which there was not a +stain of any kind. There were five daughters, Sigrid and +Anne, married to members of the influential Bielke family, +and Magdalen, Margaret and Christine, as yet unmarried. +There was another young lady at Hœrningsholm, besides +the daughters, the little Princess Sigrid Vasa, the daughter +of King Eric XIV. and Carin Monsdotter, who had received +a home with the stern “King Martha” while her mother +was following the tracks of the deposed monarch from +prison to prison.</p> + +<p>Between Magdalen Sture and Lord Eric Stenbock a passionate +love sprang up. Lord Eric was a very fine young +man, of an influential family and the brother of the queen-dowager, +Catherine, third consort of Gustavus I. But, unfortunately, +he was the nephew of Countess Martha, and, +as a cousin of Magdalen, considered to be too closely related +to her to make a marriage possible. Countess Martha was +unwilling to listen to any appeals, and she was strengthened +in her resolution by the old Archbishop Laurentius Petri, +who still held the same opinions as when he, once upon a +time, refused to grant his consent to a marriage between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> +King Gustavus I. and young Lord Eric’s sister, because +she was a niece of Queen Margaret. The years passed by, +but no change came in the stubborn resistance of “King +Martha.” Christmas eve of 1573, Lord Eric visited Hœrningsholm +to remain until New Year. He brought with him +costly presents which he offered as New Year’s gifts to +Countess Martha, her daughters, chaplain and servants. +He left to return on Palm Sunday with his sister Cecilia, +the wife of Count Gustavus Tre Rosor. One morning a few +days later, Lady Sigrid Bielke, who was visiting her mother, +entered the so-called rotunda, a large room in one of the +towers which Countess Martha and her daughters used as +sleeping apartment. She was surprised to find her sister +Magdalen kneeling and in tears. Lady Sigrid greeted her: +“God bless you, you have a good deed in mind!” “God +grant it were good,” answered Magdalen, rising. “Certainly +it is good to make one’s prayers amid tears,” Sigrid +said. Magdalen caught the hands of her sister and said: +“My darling sister, if all the rest forsake me, you will not +turn away your faithful heart from me.” Sigrid found the +words and emotion of her sister strange, but did not suspect +anything. “Why do you use such words to me?” she answered. +“I do not believe that you are going to make an +evil-doer out of yourself; there are none in the Sture family +who have carried themselves in a way to make us turn our +hearts away from them.” Tears came again to the eyes +of Magdalen, but Sigrid was called into an interior room by +her mother. Magdalen went to play with one of her little +nieces, when Lord Eric entered. “Dear lady,” he said, +“would you like to see the horse that I have given you? +It is now waiting in the court.” Magdalen rose and left, +escorted by her cousin. They met two of the women of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> +household, whom Eric commanded to follow them. A horse +and sleigh stood in the vaulted entrance. Magdalen was +placed between the two servants, while Eric took his position +back of them on the runners, holding the reins. In the castle +court they met the chaplain and several of the servants, who +thought it a pleasure ride and let them pass. When they +rode down on the frozen lake, the two servants in the sleigh +grasped the importance of the situation for the first time, +and commenced praying Lady Magdalen to return. Lord +Eric silenced them by displaying his short musket. A few +moments later they were surrounded by a force of one hundred +men on horseback, who formed an escort. They were +a loan to Lord Eric by Duke Charles.</p> + +<p>The excitement at Hœrningsholm was great when the +elopement was discovered. Margaret Sture happened to +look through the window at the moment when the sleigh +reached the lake. At her outcry Countess Martha and +Sigrid joined her. The old countess fainted on the stairs +when making for the court, and Sigrid was ordered to follow +up the eloping couple. Countess Cecilia found her aunt +on the stairs and hastened to assure her of the mortification +that she felt at the daring and unsuspected deed of her +brother, also expressing some surprise at the bad manner +in which it was accepted. But then the old countess became +wroth, exclaiming: “Go to the devil, and may God +punish both you and your brother! And if you have any +part in his scheme of robbing me of my dear child, betake +yourself after him, so that no shame or dishonor may +happen.” Countess Cecilia hastened to her sleigh and +reached Sværdsbro, where her brother was stopping, ahead +of Sigrid.</p> + +<p>When Lady Sigrid arrived at Sværdsbro, she was ad<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>mitted +through the lines of soldiers only after some difficulty, +finding tailors and seamsters busy cutting and sewing +precious stuffs for clothing for Lady Magdalen and her servants, +“for she left with uncovered head such as she went +and stood in her mother’s house.” Sigrid tried to persuade +her sister to return to her mother, who in her great sorrow +was willing to forgive all if she only came back. Magdalen +sat silent for a long time. Finally she said: “If you can +vouchsafe me, that the lady, my mother, will grant that +we shall belong to each other, since I have so dearly pledged +myself to him, I shall return.” This Sigrid could not do, +and Magdalen added, weeping sorely: “The last complication +is then as bad as the first.” Lord Eric entered with +his sister Cecilia. When Sigrid asked where he intended +to bring Magdalen, he answered: “To Visingsœ, to the +Countess Beatrix, my sister, where she shall remain until we +obtain the consent to marry of the lady, her mother.” It +was arranged that Cecilia should accompany Magdalen, and +Sigrid try her best to win her mother’s consent. Magdalen +sent home to her mother a piece of horn of the fabulous +unicorn; “the only thing I have carried with me from my +father’s house,” she added. This horn, which really was +taken from the incisor of the narwhal, was in those days +generally thought to be authentic and of miraculous power.</p> + +<p>Countess Martha was, in her grief and dismay, taken ill. +She soon gathered strength enough to write to King John, +her nephew, pleading her cause. King John at once took +action in the matter, calling Lord Eric to account, and issuing +a command to all ministers of the kingdom, prohibiting +them to unite in marriage the two cousins. Eric Stenbock +was on his way to Stockholm when he received the order +of the king. Upon his arrival at the capital, he was impris<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>oned +and deprived of all his offices. But Lord Eric had +powerful friends in Duke Charles and the Stenbock family. +As the king himself did not wish to be without his service, +he was soon set free and reinstalled in his offices. He succeeded +in obtaining the goodwill of the whole Sture family, +but “King Martha” remained irreconcilable. More than +a year had passed since the elopement. One day Lord Eric +suddenly appeared at the castle of Visingsœ. He made, +with Magdalen and his aunt, Lady Anne, a journey into +the province of Halland, where a Danish minister joined the +two cousins in marriage. The wedding was celebrated +at the home of Eric’s father, Baron Gustavus Stenbock +of Torpa. But Lady Magdalen was not happy. She +grieved because of her mother’s hostile attitude, and continued +to dress in black colors, as she had done ever since +she left her mother. Duke Charles, the queen-dowager, +the royal princesses, and all the members of the state council, +yea, the king himself, wrote letters to the indignant +countess, whose ire was rather increased than diminished +thereby.</p> + +<p>Finally, after another year and a half, “King Martha” +gave in to the tears and prayers of her daughters. Lady +Magdalen returned to Hœrningsholm after three years of +absence. She was not allowed to come up to the castle +at first, but had to dwell in the building occupied by the +baths. As the winter was approaching, and Lady Magdalen +was soon to give life to a child, her brothers and sisters +prevailed upon their mother to receive Lord Eric and +his wife at the castle. The event was arranged in a conspicuous +way. Countess Martha was seated in the place +of honor in the great hall of the castle, surrounded by her +daughters and sons-in-law, when Lord Eric entered with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> +Magdalen. When the mother saw her pale and thin features, +she was moved to tears, exclaiming: “Thou unhappy +child!” Magdalen approached her on her knees, and the +countess embraced her, stammering her forgiveness between +tears. Magdalen remained at the castle, where she bore her +husband a son, who was called Gustavus. Lady Martha +invited the king, the duke and the princesses to be present +at the baptism, at the same time granting Magdalen an +equal share of inheritance with the other daughters. Lady +Magdalen continued to dress in mourning as a self-imposed +punishment for her disobedience to her mother. One day +she was preparing to leave for a wedding, when her mother +asked her the reason why she dressed thus. When “King +Martha” learned why, she took a costly cross of diamonds +intended for the bride and placed it on her daughter’s +breast, telling her to put aside her black dresses. From +that day joy and happiness seemed to return to Lady Magdalen, +who commenced to put on lighter colors and to wear +diamonds. Of Magdalen Stenbock—a child of these Stures, +who so often had protected and preserved Sweden—Count +Magnus Stenbock was a lineal descendant, he who during +the reign of Charles XII. saved his country in the hour of +its greatest peril and distress.</p> + +<p><i>Sigismund</i>, the son and successor of John III., was not +apt to become more popular than his father. Born at the +pleasant prison of Gripsholm, which yet was a prison, he was +of a cold, unsympathetic disposition, a king of few words +and hard to approach. At John’s death, Sigismund was +twenty-six years of age and had reigned several years in +Poland. Charles stepped to the front as the head of the +government until Sigismund’s arrival.</p> + +<p>The Protestants, fearing the worst from their new Cath<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>olic +king, decided to take firm and early action. The duke +ordered a Riksdag at Upsala in February, 1593, the deliberations +being held by the clergy alone. The Liturgia was +abolished with the majority of Catholic church ceremonies, +Luther’s catechisms, L. Petri’s ritual, church visitations, +etc., being reintroduced. Abraham Angermannus was +elected archbishop, and decision made for the re-establishment +of the Upsala University. The duke had not been +present at the deliberations, and appeared displeased because +not consulted. He, who was secretly accused of being a +Calvinist, pointed out more Catholic ceremonies to be abolished, +whereupon the decisions won the sanction of the duke, +the state council and the bishops. By this act the Lutheran +Church was re-established, the Augsburgian Confession +being laid down by the meeting as its corner-stone. When +this action had been taken, the chairman, Nicolaus Bothniensis, +a young Upsala professor, exclaimed: “Now Sweden +has become <i>one</i> man, and we all have <i>one</i> God.”</p> + +<p>In August, 1593, King Sigismund arrived in Sweden, +surrounded by Jesuits and Polish nobles, and with a sum +of money wherewith to pay the expenses of a Catholic +revival. To the demands made to sign the decisions of the +Upsala meeting he gave a flat refusal. The conditions in +Stockholm grew perilous, Jesuits and Lutheran ministers +preaching denouncements upon each other in the churches +and conflicts between the Polish troops and the populace +taking place. In January, 1594, Sigismund, accompanied +by the state councillors and the members of the Riksdag, +came to Upsala for his father’s funeral and his own coronation. +Duke Charles arrived with 3,000 men, whom he quartered +in the neighborhood. He dismissed the papal legate, +Malaspina, and his Jesuits from the funeral procession, be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span>fore +it entered the cathedral, and told the king, in behalf +of all, that no coronation would take place before the confessional +liberty of the Lutheran Church was confirmed. +The Estates declared themselves ready to sacrifice their lives +for the pure faith. The king still refused his sanction, +whereupon the duke replied that the Riksdag would be dismissed +within twenty-four hours if he insisted. Sigismund +gave in, upon the advice of the Jesuits, who told him that +pledges to Lutherans were not binding. Sigismund was +crowned and returned suddenly to Poland.</p> + +<p>The king had left matters in an unsatisfactory condition, +placing six governors with great authority in various districts, +but leaving the government to be conducted by the +duke and the state council in common. This little pleased +the energetic Charles, who soon called a Riksdag at Sœderkœping, +in 1595, forcing the councillors to sanction this act +and follow him to the Riksdag. In Finland, the governor, +Clas Fleming, had tried to have a peace agreement with +Russia postponed as an excuse to keep the navy and army +at his disposal in the interest of the king. At Sœderkœping, +Charles had himself chosen regent, the last vestige +of Catholicism abolished, and the punishment of Fleming +decided on. In consequence, the Catholics were dealt with +in a merciless way through the instigation of the archbishop, +whom the duke called an executioner on account +of his recklessness. The convent of Vadstena was closed, +its eleven nuns scattered and its property confiscated. In +Finland a bloody revolt against the oppression of Fleming +cost 11,000 people their lives. It was called the “War +of Clubs,” on account of the rude weapons used by the +peasants. The state council refused to consent to Fleming’s +punishment, whereupon the duke suddenly resigned. But<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> +he convoked a Riksdag at Arboga, in 1597, at which the +councillors and nobles were absent, also the burghers. The +peasants and clergy were abundantly represented and +cheered the propositions of the duke to the echo. It was +then decided that the king should be asked to return, until +which event the duke was to remain regent, and that peace +should be restored in Finland. Fleming died in the meantime +and was succeeded by Arvid Stolarm, who also was one +of the duke’s enemies. The Riksdag at Arboga was the +first in the deliberations of which the state council had not +taken a part. The councillors were disposed to punish the +duke; but, not agreeing as to means, they left the country +to seek the king.</p> + +<p>King Sigismund arrived in the summer of 1598 with an +army of 5,000 Poles, gathering a good deal of strength by +reinforcements from Gothaland. The duke had his stronghold +in Svealand, the Dalecarlians rising to join him. The +Uplanders warded off an attempt made by Stolarm to land +with his army; they were led by Nicolaus Bothniensis, the +Upsala professor, who called his exploit “a crusade.” The +two princes met in East Gothland, near Stegeborg. The +duke and his peasant army were surrounded by the king’s +cavalry, and would have been doomed if not for the outcry +of one of the king’s followers that his subjects would +be killed on either side. The king gave order to stop the +attack, feeling pity at the sight. The duke was deeply +moved by this act and offered to leave the land with his +family. But the deliberations which followed were without +result.</p> + +<p>On the 25th of September a battle was fought at +Stongebro, near Linkœping, ending in the defeat of the +royal army. An armistice followed. The conditions of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> +peace were that the king should remain in Sweden, dismissing +his foreign troops, and take charge of the government. +No one should be punished except five of the nobles, to be +placed before a jury of ambassadors. The king agreed +to the conditions, but soon left Sweden never to return. A +meeting of nobles and clergymen, in 1599, accepted him +as reigning king if willing to return within four months. +In July, a Riksdag was called at Stockholm, which declared +Sigismund dethroned and his son Vladislav king if sent +to Sweden to be educated in the Lutheran faith. Sigismund +took no heed of these stipulations, planning to regain +his throne by force.</p> + +<p>Charles followed up the punishment with such unprecedented +severity that it has left a stain upon his memory. +Three nobles were beheaded after Kalmar was taken, and +proceeding to Finland, the duke applied capital punishment +to a wide extent, in more than twenty cases at Abo alone. +At a Riksdag in Linkœping, in 1600, the duke appeared as +an accuser against the five imprisoned nobles and several +others, eight state councillors being among them. The +accused, thirteen in number, were sentenced to death for +high treason, but the majority were pardoned upon confession +of guilt. The councillors Gustavus Banér, Eric Sparre, +Sten Banér and Ture Bielke were beheaded. They were all +men of learning and great ability, who had faithfully served +their king. During John’s reign they had already suffered +years of imprisonment for intrigues against a hereditary +kingdom and a strong government.</p> + +<p><i>Charles IX.</i> was chosen king at the bloody Riksdag of +Linkœping, and his son Gustavus Adolphus heir-apparent. +The hereditary rights of Duke John, second son of John +III., were acknowledged, and a duchy, consisting of East<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> +Gothland and Leckœ Castle, granted him; but he was +passed over as too young and too closely related to Sigismund. +Measures to strengthen the financial administration +and the army were passed.</p> + +<p>Sigismund prepared, by alliances with Catholic powers, +to gather support, Charles turning to England and France +for the same purpose. A conflict was unavoidable, and +Charles decided to invade the disputed province of Livonia, +which he captured, only to be ousted by the Polish general, +Zamoisky. The castle of Volmar was long and heroically +defended by the Swedes under Jacob de la Gardie, a son of +General Pontus, and Charles Gyllenhielm, an illegitimate +son of Charles IX. After their surrender the former received +for five years a tolerable treatment, the latter a most +severe one for twelve years. After attempts to place conditions +on a better footing in Finland, where the peasants +had long suffered through aristocratic oppression, Charles +increased the army still further and invaded Livonia once +more, in 1604. He met with a crushing defeat at Kerkholm, +close by Riga, at the hands of the Pole, Chodkiewitz, +losing 9,000 men. But the Poles did not understand how +to use their victory, and the centre of the conflict changed +to Russia.</p> + +<p>On Russian territory, the troops of Sigismund and +Charles were to meet. The line of Rurik became extinct +in 1598, its last descendant, Dimitri, being murdered. +Great complications ensued with usurpers and two “false +Dimitris” in succession. Sigismund supported the false +Dimitris in order to gain ground and place the royal line +of Vasa upon the throne of Russia after that of Rurik. +Charles sided with Vassili Schuisky against the second false +Dimitri. In 1607 an agreement was made that Sweden,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> +upon the receipt of the province of Kexholm, should send +an army to Russia to support Czar Vassili. In 1609, a +small Swedish army, consisting of Swedes, Finns and some +hired troops, entered Russia, under command of Jacob de +la Gardie. It was received at Novgorod with the blaze +of cannon and tolling of church bells. A victory was won +at Tver over the pretender, but further progress was impeded +by mutiny among the hired troops, the stubborn +Finns returning home. With his 1,200 faithful Swedes, +reinforced by hired troops to 5,000, De la Gardie made a +daring march eastward to Moscow, scaring away the Polish +army, attacking it and making a triumphant entry into the +Russian capital. Sigismund was at Smolensk, and met +De la Gardie at Klusina, winning the battle on account of +renewed mutiny of the hired troops in the Swedish army. +De la Gardie was given free leave with 400 men, upon +pledge not to support Czar Vassili, and later captured the +promised Kexholm, while Sigismund’s son Vladislav for +a short time became czar of Russia.</p> + +<p>Although the short reign of Charles IX. was filled with +continual warfare, the king never for a moment lost interest +in the peaceful development of the country. He continued +his father’s work in furthering the mining industry, and +tried to build up the commerce and trade relations. He +founded the city of Gothenburg, on the western coast, in +the island of Hising, opposite Elfsborg, also founding the +towns of Karlstad, Christinehamn, Mariestad and Philipstad. +The aristocracy looked upon his administration with +coldness. It received sanction of the privileges granted by +John III., but nothing more, except in return for additional +<i>russtjenst</i>. The peasants were his favorites and he was +surnamed the “Peasant King.” To the Church, Charles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> +stood in a good relation, supporting its re-established Reformation +with his whole authority. Also the University +had in him a patron, although he severely criticised the +too conservative spirit in both, exchanging a series of pamphlets +with the archbishop on theological questions, firm +in his Calvinistic tendencies. To make the government +stronger it was stipulated that four members of the state +council were always to hold the four principal offices, with +the titles of drotsete, kansler (chancellor), admiral and treasurer. +The greatest economy was enforced at court and +throughout the whole system of government, various minor +country offices being established for the enforcement of +order, justice and economy. The king was liberal only +with severe orders and harsh words, the artistic tendencies +of his youth succumbing to the cruel necessities of his +reign.</p> + +<p>In private he was as severe as in public life. His first +consort, Maria of the Palatinate-Zweibrucken, had a quieting +influence upon him, but the second, Christine of Holstein, +stern and sharp like the king, strengthened the harshness +and violence of his disposition. During the last years +of his reign, Charles gave his attention to the critical European +situation, desiring to join the Netherlands, England, +France and the Protestant German princes into an alliance +against the forming Catholic league. This man, so assured +of his power to reign and so unscrupulous as to his means, +was very careful not to do any act of importance without +the sanction of his people, and for a long time refused to be +called king. In 1604 he agreed to accept that name, but +was in 1606 ready to cede it to Duke John. Still, after his +coronation he admitted the hereditary right of his nephew, +who was a good-natured man without the qualifications<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> +of a ruler. At the Riksdag of Norrkœping, in 1604, the +crown was made hereditary among the descendants of +Charles, also in the female line, provided that the monarch +confessed the Lutheran faith and had not accepted the government +of, or residence in, any other country.</p> + +<p>The stress placed upon Charles was greater than his +originally strong health could carry. In 1609 he suffered a +stroke of paralysis, which deprived him of his full power of +speech. He still stood firm at the head of the government, +with Prince Gustavus Adolphus, now sixteen years of age, +at his side, who took part in the affairs of State and spoke +for the paralytic king. The young and ambitious Christian +IV. of Denmark thought that the opportune moment was +come to turn down the rising power of Sweden. He declared +war, in April, 1611, in spite of the efforts made by +King Charles to avoid the conflict, pointing to Germany, +where their joined forces would be needed. Christian captured +the town of Kalmar, while its castle withstood his +attacks, being handed over to him by treason. In his wrath +and disgust, Charles sent word to Christian to meet him +in a duel face to face, which the latter refused to do in a +letter of abusive contempt. Gustavus Adolphus had made +a dash into Bleking, capturing the store of provisions at +Christianopel. In the autumn, the war came to a temporary +standstill.</p> + +<p>Charles started for Stockholm from Kalmar, but was +taken ill during the journey and died at Nykœping, October +11, 1611, surrounded by his sons and councillors. To his +death-bed came the news that Jacob de la Gardie had captured +the important city of Novgorod, and that the Russians +offered the crown to either of his sons, Gustavus Adolphus +or Charles Philip. With Charles died the only worthy son<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> +of Gustavus I. Vasa. In strength of intellect and stern +power, he stands first among Swedish rulers. Devoted +to the work of his great father, he educated the Swedish +people, through hardships and sacrifices, to its political +grandeur.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a><br /> +<span class="smaller"><i>Period of Political Grandeur—Gustavus II. Adolphus</i></span></h2> + +<p>Gustavus II. Adolphus is the greatest figure +of Swedish history, revered and beloved as one of +the noblest of heroes, a genius in whom the qualities +of the great statesman and warrior were blended with +the faith of a man ready to sacrifice his life for the loftiest +of causes—religious liberty. Gustavus Adolphus was, by +his own triumphant deeds and through his school of discipline, +which turned out men worthy to follow up his work, +destined to bring his country up to the fulfilment of its +mission in the history of human progress, and to open for +it an era of glory and political grandeur which its limited +resources made it impossible to preserve, but which was +fruitful of results for its later cultural evolution.</p> + +<p>The secret of Sweden’s success in solving the stupendous +conflict between Catholicism and Protestantism, between +reaction and progress, rested in the fact that this little +country was eminently ready to wage a war for religious +liberty. It had been more perfectly rejuvenated by the +spirit of Protestantism than had, at the time, any other +country. The mediæval state, completed later in Sweden +than on the continent, also gave way there sooner and more +completely than elsewhere. The yeomanry, never fully +suppressed, had preserved its old spirit of independence,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> +fostered and guided by patriotic leaders of the nobility, +with or without a crown. The population was suffering, +hungering, bleeding, but free, indomitable, and devoted to +its once more hereditary kings of Swedish birth and to +their new faith, which had made strong in them their old +individuality of views and life.</p> + +<p>When Gustavus Adolphus ascended the throne, the +country was in the greatest peril and distress, and had +many a lesson to learn before entering the universal conflict +of the Thirty Years’ War.</p> + +<p>Gustavus Adolphus was born, Dec. 9, 1594, at the castle +of Stockholm. When six years old, he followed his father +to devastated Finland, returning through Norrland, for the +settlement and future of which territory great plans were +made. At ten, he was ordered to be present at the deliberations +of the state council; at thirteen, he received petitions +and complaints, rectifying wrongs and soothing suffering. +His father said of him, in speaking of the fulfilment +of great works, placing his hand on the curly blond head: +“<i>Ille faciet.</i>” The prince received a severe and carefully +supervised education, led by Johan Skytte. He acquired +knowledge of a considerable number of languages, probably +all in a mechanical way, except the Swedish and German, +with both of which he was made equally and thoroughly +familiar, speaking and writing the latter language with +greater ease and perfection than the emperor Ferdinand, +or Maximilian of Bavaria. In the sciences of economics +and war he was well read, himself inaugurating novel +theories in both. In him the best traits of the Vasa dynasty +were admirably blended and enlarged. He possessed +an acute intellect, far-reaching views of almost prophetic +discernment, a mastery and patience in detail, and an in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>domitable +strength of will. To the ceaseless and painstaking +care of the welfare of his subjects, characteristic +of his father and grandfather, were in him added a harmony +of endowment and a gentleness of disposition which +made him their superior. In him the turbulent blood of +the Vasas was held in noble self-restraint. After his rare +outbursts of passion, he made good his faults in a most +royal manner. His youth was not without the temptations +which beset all richly endowed natures, but they were vanquished +as he grew up to the importance of his grand mission. +He stood in the paternal attitude to his people so +becoming to his grandfather, but lacked the fiery democratic +tendencies and the sympathy for the untitled, unpretentious +and lowly, so strong in his stern father. To his +relatives he was as gentle as to his subjects, treating his +resolute and ambitious mother, Christine of Holstein-Gottorp, +with love and respect; on her demand sacrificing the +love of his youth and intended bride, Ebba Brahe, who +became the consort of victorious Jacob de la Gardie. Also +to his brother Charles Philip he stood in an exemplary +relation; but firmly refused to grant him privileges for his +duchy of Vermland which could be injurious to the country +at large.</p> + +<p>Gustavus Adolphus was a man of commanding presence, +tall and of a heavy frame. The color of his face was +clear and light, his eyes blue, his hair and beard blond. +Foreign contemporary authors called him “the golden king +of the North.” He carried his head high, and his open, +frank eye, and the clear voice of manly resonance, gave +added charm to his noble appearance. Gustavus Adolphus +possessed a majestic dignity of bearing coupled with the +unfeigned kindness of a noble heart.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span></p> + +<p>Charles IX. had left his son the Danish war as an inheritance. +It was carried on in the provinces of the frontiers, +and consisted chiefly in small conflicts, which caused +fatigue and detriment without being decisive. The Danes +entered the interior of Smaland during the first days of the +year 1612. Gustavus Adolphus, in his turn, moved from +the fort of Ryssby into the province of Scania, destroying +by fire the town of Væ and several castles belonging to the +wealthy nobility. During a smaller conflict which then +took place, Gustavus Adolphus was in imminent danger +of his life.</p> + +<p>The Swedes had made a camp for themselves at the +cemetery of Vittsjœ, when suddenly surprised by a force +of Danish cavalry. The Swedes fought with determination, +but found it necessary to leave their camp. They +took a firm stand on the frozen waters of the adjoining lake, +but were forced to leave that position also. A tumult ensued, +during which the ice gave way on the spot where the +king found himself, for the moment, alone and without an +escort. Per Banér, a son of Gustavus Banér, who was +executed at Linkœping at the command of Charles IX., +perceived the king in the moment of greatest danger, and +hastened with Thomas Larsson, a trooper from Upland, +to rescue him. When in safety, the king at once unbuckled +his silver belt, and, handing it to the trooper, said: “I +shall remember thee with a piece of bread, which neither +thou nor thy children shall ever find lacking.” Thomas +Larsson received in the following year a farm in the province +of Westmanland, which has remained in the possession +of his descendants to this very day. Per Banér received +in fief the estates which had been in the possession of his +uncle, Sten Banér, also executed at Linkœping, and rose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> +to the dignity of a state councillor during the minority of +Queen Christine.</p> + +<p>It was the ambition of Christian IV. of Denmark to cut +Sweden off from any communication with the North Sea. +As Bohuslæn and Halland both were parts of the Danish dominion, +there was only the small strip of territory surrounding +the mouth of the Gotha River to conquer. The island +of Hising constituted the larger part of it, and was the site +of the new town of Gothenburg, which was defended by the +fortress of Elfsborg. The town of New Lœdœse was situated +on the opposite shore, some few miles up the river, +defended by the fort of Gullberg. The Danish king approached +Gullberg from Bohus, having with him a smaller +force, which he considered sufficient in numbers. Gullberg +was only a poor little nest, but it was valiantly defended +by Morten Krakow and his wife, the stanch Lady Emerentia +Pauli. One day the Danes made a violent attack. +The ladders which they placed against the walls were +crushed by heavy beams which the Swedes let fall down +on them. In spite of this, the Danes succeeded in forcing +the gates of the place. The position was a critical one for +the Swedes. The commander had met with an accident +and was unable to lead the defence. But Lady Emerentia +resolved to take the command. She gave orders to the +wives of the soldiers to fill up the vaulted passage of the +gates with barrels, washtubs, timber, etc. When the Danes +stormed on in a compact body, they were received by a +downfall of scalding-hot lye, which the women kept pouring +down on them from behind their barricade. The daughter +of Lady Emerentia thus graphically describes the effect: +“They lay in the vault and around the gates like scalded +hogs.” Lady Emerentia had placed two pieces of artillery<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> +on the top of a small building fronting the gates. They +were loaded with broken horseshoes and the like and sent +out a disastrous fire. The few surviving Danes fled hurriedly +for their lives, leaving Lady Emerentia in proud +possession of the fort. A second attack which was made +later on proved as futile as the first. King Christian then +gave command to abandon the plan of taking the fort. The +Danish army collected in a field in front of Gullberg. But +Lady Emerentia was vigilant. From the walls of the fort +she espied a man of prepossessing appearance who rode a +white horse. “Shoot that man!” was her immediate command +to the nearest soldier. The shot took effect, killing +the white horse, whose brains and blood spattered the king. +For the man on horseback was King Christian. “That +devilish crow does never sleep!” exclaimed the king, referring +to the commander.</p> + +<p>King Christian turned on New Lœdœse, killing without +mercy all the male inhabitants of the town. West Gothland +was invaded, the province appearing to be an easy +prey because the Swedish army, commanded by Duke John, +had just left it to march into Halland. But the bailiff of +Hœjentorp called on the peasants to rise, which caused the +Danes to recede. The Danes next made an attack on the +fortress of Elfsborg, commanded by Olof Strole. Elfsborg +was defended with heroism, but when fire threatened to +destroy the towers, Olof Strole at last surrendered. On +account of their valiant conduct the commander and his +men, who were reduced to 200, were granted free passage +with their music and banners. The able Morten Krakow +of Gullberg had been promoted to the fortress of Vaxholm. +His successor surrendered Gullberg to the Danes shortly +after the fall of Elfsborg. King Christian planned a series<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> +of invasions in the year 1612, but, thanks to the vigilance +of Gustavus Adolphus, he failed to accomplish the desired +effect.</p> + +<p>Gustavus Adolphus wanted peace with Denmark, and +such was made at Knerœd in 1613, after a war of mutual +invasions and without any decisive battles or conquests of +territory. The frontiers were to remain the same as before +the war; the Danish king was allowed to keep the emblem +of three crowns, but had to resign his claims upon the Swedish +crown. The fortress of Elfsborg remained in the hands +of the Danes for six years, until $1,000,000, an exorbitant +sum in those days, was paid for it. It cost the people of +Sweden very dear to pay this sum, sacrifices being made +by the king and his friends to contribute to it. But Elfsborg, +the only approach to the North Sea, was indispensable. +It was returned in a miserable condition, and Gothenburg, +on the opposite side of Gotha River, destroyed. +Gustavus Adolphus ordered Gothenburg to be moved to its +present site, on the mainland, and endowed it with extensive +commercial privileges, encouraging Dutch merchants +to settle there.</p> + +<p>The war with Russia began once more in 1614. Gustavus +Adolphus not having been found willing to accept the +crown for his brother Charles Philip, the negotiations were +dropped. Count de la Gardie resumed control of the movements, +although the king was present in person. The +Swedes won a great victory at Bronitz and captured the +fortress of Augdof. An attempt to take Pskof was unsuccessful, +Evert Horn, the hero of a hundred battles, losing +his life; but the Russians were willing to make peace. +Through the honorable peace of Stolbova, in February, +1617, Russia gave up all claims on Esthonia and Livonia,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> +and ceded to Sweden Ingermanland and Kexholm. This +cut off the Russians from the Baltic, fixed the Swedish +frontier on the lakes Ladoga and Peipus, and left Sweden +in peace with the mightiest of her enemies during almost a +century. The armistice with Poland ended in 1616, but +after two years of insignificant movements it was continued +up to 1620.</p> + +<p>Gustavus II. Adolphus with untiring energy continued +the work of building up the new state founded by Gustavus +I. At the death of his father, the royal youth had won +everybody by his gentleness and generosity. His first act +was perhaps the wisest of all, in selecting among the councillors +the young, highly talented Axel Oxenstierna as his +chancellor. This couple have no peers in history, being +united by the firmest of friendships and rising simultaneously +to the highest ability of statesmanship, the gifts of +the one wonderfully supplementing those of the other. The +chancellor was cooler and slower than his royal friend. He +placed supreme the duties to his country, but was of very +aristocratic tendencies, through his influence leading the +king still further away from the democratic principles of his +father. To the nobility were granted the old privileges, +with others in addition, which became menacing to the +ancient freedom of the peasantry. The management of +internal affairs and all branches of the administration were +placed under various departments. They were presided +over by the high functionaries and their offices chiefly filled +by noblemen. A permanent supreme court was established +in Stockholm, with the Drotsete as president, in 1614. In +1623, a supreme court for Finland was established and a +governor-general for that grandduchy appointed, who was +also to be president of the court. In 1630, a supreme court<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> +for the Baltic provinces was established at Dorpat. The +Riksdag, governed by the new rules of 1617, was to convene +yearly, and to consist of the four Estates of the kingdom: +the nobility, clergy, bourgeoisie and yeomanry, each divided +into various classes. These latter were as yet not quite +distinct or organized, except those of the nobility, who, in +1625, formed a knightly chapter, the Riddarhus, which kept +a register of the legitimate noble families of Sweden and +Finland and watched over the interests of its members. +The Estate of the nobility was divided in three classes, +lords, knights and squires. To the first belonged the +holders of counties and baronies, to the second those whose +ancestors held the rank of state councillors, and to the third +the rest of the nobility. As each class had one vote in the +Riksdag, the supremacy of lords and knights, called the +“higher nobility,” was secure, when standing united, over +the more numerous third class, the “lower nobility.” The +king appointed the speaker of the nobility, the <i>landtmarskalk</i>, +who also was the president of their chapter. The +Swedish church had its greatest epoch during the period +of political grandeur, being characterized by a remarkable +strength of faith and by a praiseworthy energy and earnestness. +The clergy, high and low, set beautiful examples of +piety, learning and patriotism. It was beloved by the people +and spoke in their behalf with authority and courage. +Not able to win Gustavus Adolphus over to more democratic +views, it won his admiration, and he surnamed the +ministers “tribunes of the people.” The burghers, touched +by the patriotic spirit, developed great energy during this +period, trade and commerce having a devoted patron in +the king, who, besides the new Gothenburg, founded twelve +other towns in Sweden and Finland. The miners occupied<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> +of old an uncertain position between burghers and yeomen. +They were strengthened and encouraged by the personal +interest which the king took in the mining industry. He +visited the mines repeatedly, descending into the bowels +of the earth to inspect the ore and the new methods introduced +from abroad by foreign miners. Among the latter +the immigrated Dutchman, Louis de Geer, exerted a beneficial +influence upon that industry. The factories producing +clothing and weapons for the army were also encouraged. +The yeomen occupied a difficult, almost desperate position +between the increasing privileges of the nobility and the increasing +taxes of the crown. Their burdens were doubled +and their rights reduced; yet sustained by the church, and +believing in the lofty ideals of the king, they persevered, +fulfilling their duties with a high degree of patriotism.</p> + +<p>No Swedish king has done so much for education as +Gustavus Adolphus. To the University of Upsala he donated +300 of his hereditary estates, founding its library, +improving its courses, banishing misrule, and appointing +his old teacher, John Skytte, its chancellor. He +created the German University of Dorpat in Esthonia, in +1632; later for some time moved to Pernau. Colleges were +established in the larger towns. The king was, through +his thorough studies of Swedish laws and conditions, in a +position to take an active part in the reforms which he +promulgated, never resting long in one place, but travelling +from one point to another, where his presence was +most necessary; shaping plans and reforms by his own +judgment, to have them indorsed by the next Riksdag, +and then enforcing them himself. Especially the army +passed through an evolution, thanks to new methods, devised +by the king, who was to win his victories through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> +the introduction of improved tactics and divisions, by means +of which the troops were easier to move and the co-operation +between the various weapons increased.</p> + +<p>In 1618 the “Thirty Years’ War” began. The dethroned +Frederic of the Palatinate turned, among others, +to Gustavus Adolphus for support, which the latter was +not able to give in a direct way. But he promised to attack +Poland as soon as the armistice was at an end, thereby +making it impossible for Sigismund to support Emperor +Ferdinand with troops. In 1621, Gustavus Adolphus commenced +operations against Poland, taking the command +himself. Riga and Mitau were captured, the former important +commercial centre regaining its privileges, but sending +representatives to the Swedish Riksdag and accepting +a Swedish governor. After having conquered Livonia, +Gustavus Adolphus entered Courland the following year, +when an armistice was agreed to. Gustavus followed the +events in Germany with increasing interest, forming the +plan of an alliance between the Protestant powers. Learning +that the emperor was willing to support Sigismund, +Gustavus Adolphus offered to invade Silesia. But as Christian +IV. of Denmark was anxious to lead the Protestant +forces, Gustavus Adolphus quietly withdrew, resuming +action against Poland. After a victory at Wallhof, he +entered Polish Prussia, where he was dangerously wounded +at Dirschau. The Poles were reinforced by imperial troops, +but suffered a defeat at Gurzo; the Swedish general, Herman +Wrangel, winning the day. When the considerable +reinforcements of 10,000 men joined the Poles, the Swedes +receded in good order. A smaller conflict occurred at +Stuhm, famous because Gustavus Adolphus was twice in +danger of his life during the struggle, which otherwise<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> +was of no importance. An imperial trooper caught him +by the belt and tried to drag the king with him. According +to the report of Axel Oxenstierna, the king loosened +the belt and let it go. In so doing, he also lost his hat, +which was carried to Vienna and preserved as a token of +the “great victory.” Another trooper, shortly afterward, +caught the king by the arm, aiming at the head with his +sword. In the critical moment, Eric Soop, the colonel of +a Swedish cavalry regiment, appeared, killing the trooper +with a pistol-shot. Gustavus Adolphus referred to this +struggle as the “hottest bath” that he was ever in.</p> + +<p>In September, 1629, an armistice was agreed to, at +Altmark, to last for six years, during which period Sweden +was to keep Livonia and the Russian towns of Elbing, +Braunsberg, Pillau and Memel. The new acquisition of +territory was small, but the revenue from these commercial +towns, and from Dantzic, Libau and Windau, was considerable, +and went to pay for the army expenses of the German +campaign. The new temporary possessions in Prussia +were formed into a Swedish governmental section, over +which Axel Oxenstierna was appointed governor-general.</p> + +<p>What follows belongs to one of the most noted chapters +of universal history. The unbroken chain of Swedish victories, +the noble character of the king and the severe discipline +upheld among his men, who commenced and ended +their battles with prayers and hymns, astounded the world. +The exalted nobility of Gustavus Adolphus appears to us +all the more striking, contrasted with the faithlessness, +vanity and cowardice of the contemporary reigning princes +of Germany and Denmark. His victories appear all the +more remarkable because the greatest warriors of the age—Tilly, +Wallenstein and Pappenheim—were his adversaries.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> +He was received by the people of Germany as a liberator, +and his memory is blessed by every thinking German, who +admits that the Swedes, Gustavus Adolphus and Axel Oxenstierna, +completed the work which the Germans, Luther +and Melanchthon, created. The loftiness of the ideals +which inspired Gustavus Adolphus have been doubted, +but not with justice. He was brought up in a severely +Christian home and the sincerity of his piety is unmistakable. +His father’s clairvoyant views upon the coming +religious conflict were familiar to him since his early youth, +while he was, through his mother, related in blood to the +majority of Protestant princes. Thus apparently predestined, +as the greatest statesman and warrior of his age, to +take up the cause of his persecuted brethren, he did not do +so before the ambitious Christian IV. had utterly failed +in his attempts and with contumely been forced to retire. +It is not probable that Gustavus Adolphus ever thought +of placing the crown of the Roman empire upon his head, +but plausible to suppose that he had in view the formation +of a strong union of the Protestant countries of Northern +Europe.</p> + +<p>Before leaving Sweden, Gustavus II. convoked the representatives +of his people, holding on his arm his little +daughter Christine, four years old, for whom he asked their +pledge of allegiance. His farewell speech was touching +in its simplicity and the premonition of his tragic end. +Not for worldly glory, but to save his country from peril +and his brethren from distress, he undertook this risky war. +“Generally,” he said, “it happens thus that the vessel hauls +water until it goes to pieces. With me likewise, that I, +who in so many perils for the weal of my country have +shed my blood, and yet until this day have been spared<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> +through the grace of God, now at last must lose my life. +For that reason I will this time commend you, the collected +Estates of the realm, to the hand of God, the Supreme One, +wishing that we, after this our miserable and burdensome +life, according to the will of God, may meet again, to dwell +in the celestial and infinite.” These words do not resemble +the terse, striking speeches of his grandfather, but they bear +the stamp of sincerity, and by them Gustavus Adolphus, +his work and his purpose, are judged by the Swedish +people.</p> + +<p>Midsummer Day, 1630, Gustavus Adolphus landed with +his troops at the island of Ruden, on the coast of Pomerania. +Two days later he proceeded to the larger island +of Usedom. His troops consisted of 13,000 men. Gustavus +Adolphus was himself the first to land. He knelt on the +shore and prayed to God in a loud voice; his prayer moved +those surrounding him to tears. When the king noticed +it he said: “Do not cry, but pray to God with fervor. +The more of prayer, the more of victory; the best Christian +is the best soldier.” Then he took hold of a spade and +commenced to assist personally in the work of building a +camp. When it grew dark, the heavens were illuminated +by the fire of burning villages, giving evidence of the manner +in which the enemy conducted his warfare.</p> + +<p>The supercilious Wallenstein had been dismissed by the +emperor at the time when Gustavus Adolphus landed in +Germany, but his wild hordes were pillaging Pomerania. +Yet Gustavus Adolphus had great difficulty in persuading +the old duke of Pomerania to accept the alliance he offered +him. But when this was done, it took the Swedes only a +short time to clear the duchy of its enemies. The young +landgrave of Hesse and the free city of Magdeburg were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> +glad to accept an alliance with Gustavus Adolphus. A +treaty was made with France, which country promised to +pay subsidies to Sweden as long as the German war lasted. +Tilly, who was in command of the imperial troops, approached +Magdeburg. Gustavus Adolphus sent proper +provisions to Magdeburg with an experienced commander, +as he could not go himself, because the elector of Saxony +refused to let him pass with his army through Saxon territory. +Magdeburg was captured by Tilly, who sacked and +destroyed it by fire in a most barbarous way.</p> + +<p>The discipline and moderation of the Swedish troops +formed a great contrast to the reckless behavior of the imperial +army. The Swedes left the peaceful inhabitants +in undisturbed possession of their lives and property; the +strictest order was maintained within the army; each regiment +held morning and evening prayers in the open air; +gambling, carousing and plundering were sternly prohibited. +For these reasons the Swedish king and his army +were received by the poor downtrodden people as saviors +and liberators. Gustavus Adolphus deeply mourned the +fall of Magdeburg, whose fate it had not been in his power +to prevent. He took a fortified position at Werben, where +the river Havel is joined by the Ube. Tilly entered Saxony +with a hostile demeanor, not satisfied with the lukewarm +friendship of the elector. Burning villages marked the way +of his army. The poor elector, not knowing what to do, in +his despair turned to Gustavus Adolphus, whom he had +treated so coldly and begged him for help. The king at +once was ready to forget past differences, and, joining +forces with the elector, he marched toward Leipsic.</p> + +<p>Tilly, with 35,000 men, occupied an advantageous position +near the village of Breitenfeld, not far from Leipsic,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> +at the summit of a long ridge of sandy hills. The infantry +and the greater part of the cavalry were grouped in heavy +divisions, forming one single line of battle with artillery +behind at the very top of the hills. Tilly himself commanded +the centre, while his able and fiery sub-commander, +Pappenheim, had the command of the left wing, being in +hopes to encounter the Swedish king personally. The +Swedish army consisted of 22,000 men, who were joined +by 11,000 Saxons.</p> + +<p>Early in the morning of September 7, 1631, the Swedes +started toward Breitenfeld. Tilly turned pale, it is said, +when he saw the order and firmness with which the Swedes +marched up to take their positions on the narrow slips of +ground between the Lober brook and the reach of the imperial +cannon. The Swedes were arranged in a double line +of battle, infantry in the centre and cavalry on the wings. +Between the squadrons of cavalry divisions of musketeers +were placed. The regimental artillery was distributed over +a number of places. The king commanded the right wing +in person, with John Banér as sub-commander. Teuffel +led the centre and Gustavus Horn the left wing. The king +had no confidence in the Saxons, for which reason he had +arranged them by themselves at some distance to the left +of the Swedish army. When everything was arranged, the +king rode to the front. With his head uncovered, and his +sword pointing to the ground, he prayed: “Almighty God, +thou who holdest victory and defeat in the hollow of thy +hand, turn thine eyes unto us, thy servants, who have come +hither from distant dwellings to fight for liberty and truth, +for thy holy Gospel. Give victory unto us for the glory +of thy hallowed name! Amen!” The prayer of the king +could be heard by almost every man of the army, and all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> +were touched and strengthened by his pious trust in a righteous +cause. The Swedes of the right wing were soon attacked +by Pappenheim and his cavalry. But the horses +of the imperialists were frightened by the flashing fire of +the musketeers, and the attack failed to have an effect. +It was ended as quickly as it was begun. Pappenheim +concluded to make an attempt to surprise the Swedes from +the left side. But the king divined his plan. He ordered +John Banér with the second line to make a movement by +which to turn at an angle with the first and face the attack +from the side. Pappenheim was surprised to find a new +line facing him. A bloody struggle ensued. Seven times +his men made an inroad on the Swedish line and were seven +times repulsed, badly damaged by the fire of the musketeers. +The Swedes, in their turn, made an attack which +scattered Pappenheim’s forces from the field in wild flight.</p> + +<p>Tilly had with his light cavalry attacked the left wing +of the Swedes. His men were mostly made up of Croats +and other semi-barbarous people. When repulsed by the +Swedes they concentrated their forces to crush the Saxons. +These withstood the first assault, but the second routed +them completely. The imperialists then made a second +attack upon the left Swedish wing, made up of only 2,500 +men. Gustavus Horn acted with coolness and great presence +of mind. He let the first line close in on the second +till it was able to take a firm stand against the heavy force +of the attacking enemy. The Swedes never for a moment +lost their position, in spite of the frightful onslaught. The +king arrived and remained for some time with the left wing. +He ordered the Scotch brigade of hired troops to support +him. The Scotch had cannon hidden behind their lines. +These had a telling effect upon the attacking imperialists,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> +who were thrown back, suffering great losses. Everywhere +the battle was fought with frenzy, the clouds of dust and +smoke changing the day into night.</p> + +<p>The king made sure that the left wing of the enemy’s +army was engaged in continued flight. Then he commenced +an attack with his own right wing upon the imperial +artillery, which had kept up a steady fire against the +Swedish centre. Tilly’s cannon were captured at the first +attempt and turned on the imperial troops, causing consternation. +Horn opened an attack on his side and the +king hastened to support him with his troops. Tilly tried +in vain to lead his troops into the battle. Pappenheim had +returned and gave brilliant proofs of personal courage. The +defeat of the imperial army was unavoidable; it scattered +in helpless confusion. Tilly lost his horse and was near +being captured himself. Four of his best infantry regiments +took a stand and tried to resist the conquering foe. +These imperial soldiers, who never had suffered a defeat, +preferred death to surrender. Tilly fled at last, followed by +only 600 men. After five hours of fighting the Swedes had +won a glorious victory. They finished the day with prayer +and remained on the battlefield over night, arranged in +order of battle. The following morning they entered the +deserted camp of the enemy where a rich booty awaited +them.</p> + +<p>The progress of Gustavus Adolphus along the shores +of the river Main to the towns of Frankfort and Mayence +was a march of triumph. In capturing Mayence, the +Swedes fought the Spanish allies of the emperor. The +towns surrendered to violence or by their own consent. +Gustavus Adolphus made their inhabitants pledge their +fidelity to him and strengthened his power with the rich<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> +resources of the Frankish country. Then he turned against +Maximilian of Bavaria. Tilly, who was to defend Bavaria, +was again encountered and defeated at Lech. He was carried +from the battle mortally wounded and died soon afterward. +Gustavus Adolphus made his triumphal entry into +Munich, with Frederic of the Palatinate at his side. The +danger to the crown lands of the emperor was imminent.</p> + +<p>Wallenstein was the most famous of German generals. +Reticent and secretive, he appeared to be unable to feel +mercy. He was devoted to the secret doctrines of astrology, +which in him had taken the place of religion. He +cared naught for the cause of religious liberty or the fall +of the German empire, looking only for occasions to satisfy +his own ambition and the means of obtaining power +and wealth. He had served the emperor, who had raised +him to the dignity of a duke of Mecklenburg, but had been +dismissed and deprived of his dignities at the time of the +arrival of Gustavus Adolphus on German soil. His downfall +was caused by complaints of his insolence and recklessness, +made by Maximilian of Bavaria and other German +princes. Wallenstein retired to Prague, at the castle of +which town he surrounded himself with princely luxury +and comfort, scheming for revenge. His plan was to join +the enemies of the emperor. He approached Gustavus +Adolphus for such purpose, before the battle of Breitenfeld, +and was delighted to hear of the defeat of Tilly. Gustavus +Adolphus seemed at first inclined to take up relations with +Wallenstein, but at the point where an agreement was to +be made he suddenly changed his attitude. The king probably +hesitated to accept the services of a man who had no +other aim than to satisfy his own ambition. The emperor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> +was placed in a bad predicament, at the second defeat of +Tilly, for want of an army to defend his lands and a commander +to lead it. There was only one way out of the +difficulty, and that was to pacify the mortally offended +Wallenstein, and to persuade him to re-enter the service +of the emperor. The emperor resigned himself to accept +this humiliating condition, and Wallenstein agreed to resume +command, but only at a high price. The name of +Wallenstein was enough to bring thousands of warriors +under the imperial banners, and Wallenstein was soon at +the head of an army of sufficient proportions. His doctrine +was that “the war should support itself,” according to +which his soldiers were allowed to sack and plunder at will +the countries through which they were passing. He cared +naught for the recklessness of his subordinates, if they only +showed blind obedience to him.</p> + +<p>Wallenstein expelled the Saxons who had invaded Bohemia. +But he showed disinclination to assist the elector +of Bavaria, who was compelled to leave his country. At +Eger, Wallenstein was reinforced and marched on Nuremberg +with an army of 60,000, prepared to meet Gustavus +Adolphus. He was confident of his superior force. “Within +four days,” he said, “it shall become evident whether +I or the Swedish king is the master of Germany.” Gustavus +Adolphus hastened to relieve Nuremberg, taking his +position in the immediate neighborhood of said town. He +had only 18,000 men with him, but he surrounded this army +with solid fortifications, and Wallenstein dared not risk an +attack, in spite of his superior force. Wallenstein took his +position at the summit of three steep hills, surrounded by +trenches and ramparts. His intention was to cut off the +Swedes from all sources of supplies and force them to sur<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>render +by starvation. “I shall teach the Swedish king,” +he said, “a new method of warfare.”</p> + +<p>For nine weeks the two armies were facing each other. +The suffering became great in both camps. The Swedes +suffered most, although the inhabitants of Nuremberg tried +their utmost to supply them with food. When the provisions +were diminishing, the bonds of discipline were loosened. +Especially the Germans of the Swedish army made themselves +conspicuous by licentiousness and plunder. Gustavus +Adolphus decided to try an attack on Wallenstein’s +camp, in order to put an end to the critical state of things. +He was so much more anxious to risk it, as his army had +been considerably reinforced and was almost equal to Wallenstein’s +in numbers. At noon, August 24, 1632, the +Swedish army made ready for battle. The attack was first +made on Burgstall, the most important one of the three +hills occupied by the enemy. The battle was a fierce and +bloody one, the whole mountain being clothed in fire and +smoke. Several of the most distinguished of the Swedish +officers were killed or captured. A bullet passed through +the boot of the king; an officer was killed at his side. The +Swedes were thrown back on one hand, while on the other, +Duke Bernhard of Weimar, one of the German commanders +of the king, succeeded in capturing one of the forts built on +the Burgstall. But as the day was over and the army +exhausted, the Swedes were not able to profit by their success. +A heavy rain commenced, continuing through the +night. This made it impossible to haul any cannon up to +the captured fort, which was then abandoned. The Swedish +army returned to the camp. This unsuccessful attack +cost the Swedes almost 2,000 men. Gustavus Adolphus +wrote in regard to it: “It was too much to be considered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> +a page’s trick, but too small to be of real earnest.” Wallenstein +wrote of it. “Never in my life have I seen a more +desperate fire, but I hope that the Swedes have lost their +horns in this conflict.”</p> + +<p>The king broke camp a fortnight later, arranging his +army into a line of battle. For four hours he waited for +Wallenstein to come forward, but the latter did not risk +an attack. Gustavus Adolphus intended to enter Swabia, +to complete the conquest of Southwestern Germany. But +Wallenstein, who soon afterward also broke camp, invaded +Saxony. This caused the king to change his plans. He +was obliged to follow Wallenstein in order to protect his ally +and to avoid the danger of being cut off from the connections +with his own empire. Wallenstein marked his way +by cruel devastation, and the appeals of the unhappy population +persuaded the king to take an early decision.</p> + +<p>The people of Saxony received Gustavus Adolphus with +great enthusiasm, of which they gave evidence in the most +exultant manner. People were seen kneeling everywhere +on his way, imploringly stretching their hands toward him. +The king was not content with their exaggerated devotion. +“I fear that God is offended by their vain demonstrations +of joy and soon shall show them that the one whom they +adore as a god is naught but a weak and mortal man.”</p> + +<p>Wallenstein was in the neighborhood of Leipsic, at the +little town of Lutzen. He had sent away Pappenheim, his +best sub-commander, to Halle with a considerable force. +Gustavus Adolphus found this circumstance favorable and +decided on an attack.</p> + +<p>It was the 6th of November, 1632. A heavy mist covered +the spacious fields around Leipsic. Wallenstein was, +with the right wing of his army, close on Lutzen, the little<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> +town being set on fire, in order not to shield a clandestine +attack. The flame of the conflagration appeared dull but +magnified through the mists of the early morning. In +front of the imperial army was the highway. Musketeers +were stationed in and above the ditches, which were made +deeper and provided with ramparts. The musketeers were +so arranged that higher lines could shoot over the heads of +the lower ones. Behind them was another chain of musketeers. +The artillery was placed partly behind the musketeers, +partly on the sides of a hill where some windmills +were situated. The cavalry was placed on the wings, the +infantry in the centre, both arranged in great square divisions. +A courier had been sent to recall Pappenheim, as the +army without his force counted only 18,000 men. The +Swedish army was 20,000 strong and was arranged according +to a plan similar to the one followed at Breitenfeld. It +was arranged in two lines. Musketeers were interspersed +among the cavalry. The regimental artillery was placed +before the front. The king commanded the right wing, +Nils Brahe the centre, Kniephausen the second line of the +centre, and Duke Bernhard the left wing.</p> + +<p>The king, who for the time being had none of his best +officers around him, spent the night in a wagon, together +with Duke Bernhard and Kniephausen. He rose in the +morning, dressed, without armor, in a blouse and a gray +coat, and mounted his usual white charger, without having +tasted food. He conducted in person the morning prayers +of the army, when Luther’s psalm, “Eine feste Burg ist +unser Gott,” was sung. After the song had ceased, the +king made a short speech in Swedish, which he repeated in +German. He said: “There you have the enemy. He is +not now at the top of the hill or behind intrenchments, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> +in the open field. You know well how eagerly he has +sought to avoid a conflict and that he is forced to fight +because he cannot escape us. Fight, then, my dear countrymen +and friends, for God, your country and your king. I +will reward you all. But if you flinch, you know well that +not a man of you will ever see his country again.” Then +the psalm, “Versage nicht du Hæuflein klein,” the words +of which were written in German by Gustavus Adolphus +himself, was sung. The king gave the sign of attack by +waving his sword over his head and cried: “Forward in +God’s name; Jesu, Jesu, Jesu, help us to-day to strive +to the honor of thy holy name!”</p> + +<p>It was eleven o’clock, and the mists had, to a great +extent, scattered. The Swedish centre, with the battery +behind, marched toward the highway. The left wing made +an attempt to penetrate between the burning Lutzen and +the batteries below the windmills. A terrible fire from +muskets and cannon met the attacking Swedes. Whole +lines of infantry were killed. The left wing suffered in +particular. But when the Swedes reached their destination, +the centre moved on with great force, cleaning the +ditches of musketeers, capturing seven pieces of artillery +and making two of the great squares of imperial infantry +retire from their position. While fighting the third, the +Swedes were surprised by the reserve and cavalry forces +of the enemy, and had to abandon what they had taken, +retiring into the open field.</p> + +<p>The king had, in the meantime, with the cavalry of the +right wing, forced the ditches. When notified of the danger +in which the centre was placed, he hurried to assist his +infantry. At the head of his Smaland cavalry he moved +on so quickly that he was separated from the rest of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> +forces. The king was near-sighted and the mist once more +thickening. For these reasons he happened to ride close +up to the lines of the imperial cuirassiers. His horse was +wounded, and the king himself received a pistol shot in the +arm. He turned to one of his companions, Duke Frantz +Albrecht, of Sachsen-Lauenburg, with a request to be escorted +out of the battle, but was at that instant wounded +in the back, immediately falling off his horse. Duke Frantz +Albrecht, only thinking of saving his own life, fled from the +spot. But a German page, eighteen years of age, who accompanied +the king, jumped from his horse and tried to +assist the king in mounting it. Some imperial cavalrymen +passed by. They inquired for the name of the wounded +lord. The page tried to hide his identity, but Gustavus +Adolphus answered: “I was once the king of Sweden.” +One of the imperialists attempted to drag the king with +him, but seeing some Swedish soldiers approaching, he sent +in leaving a bullet through the wounded hero’s brain.</p> + +<p>The Swedes had been thrown back from the highway +all over the line. The white horse of the king, with empty +saddle and stained with blood, was seen galloping before +the front. The message of mourning spread with lightning +rapidity through the army, causing universal sorrow and +anger. The ambition to avenge the death of the beloved +king was kindled in every breast. Duke Bernhard at once +assumed supreme command when notified of the catastrophe. +The sagacious Kniephausen thought the battle lost +and considered it best to retire in good order. The duke +answered: “Here is not the question of retreat, but of revenge +in victory or death.” The Swedish line of battle +soon moved forward once more and with redoubled strength. +The right wing, commanded by the valiant Stolhandske,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> +threw back the imperial troops who had caused the fall +of the king. Nils Brahe once more carried the troops of the +centre across the highway and captured for a second time +the seven pieces of artillery. The left wing, commanded +by Duke Bernhard, also moved forward victoriously, capturing +the batteries at the windmill and pointing the cannon +toward the enemy. When simultaneously some wagons +loaded with powder for the imperial artillery exploded with +a tremendous roar, the whole army of Wallenstein was +thrown into a state of confusion. It was thought that the +Swedes had made an attack from the rear. The cavalry +fled in great numbers with the cries: “We know the king +of Sweden! He is worst toward the end of the day.”</p> + +<p>But now another cry was heard: “Pappenheim is coming! +Pappenheim is coming!” And so it was. Pappenheim +arrived with his valiant cavalry at this important +juncture. “Where is the king of Sweden to be found?” +was his first question. When told that Gustavus Adolphus +had been seen leading the right wing, he hurried thither, +not knowing the fate that had befallen his royal enemy, +and desirous of fighting him face to face. The imperialists +recommenced the battle with renewed vigor. The scattered +forces of cavalry and infantry were collected once more and +were joined by the fresh troops of Pappenheim. The attacking +Swedes met a stanch resistance. The latter were +almost tired out, but preserved their courage. A contemporary +writer says that a battle was never fought in a better +way by troops who had for such a long stretch been in +the fire. The Swedish losses were exceedingly heavy. The +royal standard and several other banners were taken. The +able Nils Brahe was killed, and the division of which he +was the head fell to the very last man. But Pappenheim,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> +who rushed forward blindly, in his eagerness to meet the +king of Sweden, was also killed, according to tradition, +by a bullet from Stolhandske. “Pappenheim has fallen! +All is lost!” shouted his men, and drew back discouraged. +Wallenstein still thought there was a chance to hold the +field against the exhausted enemy.</p> + +<p>Kniephausen had preserved the second line of battle in +good order, resolved to cover the retreat he thought unavoidable. +He had sent away smaller divisions to support +the first line, but not in numbers enough to disturb the +order of his own troops. Now he commanded his men to +the front, to fill all the gaps of the first lines. When this +was done, the Swedes made a third attack. The evening +sun pierced through the mists for a moment, and Wallenstein +in this light saw the Swedish army approach in a +mighty solid line as at the opening of the battle. He was +greatly surprised. This time the Swedes were resolved to +conquer or die. Soldiers were heard to promise each other +to stand by that resolution. For a third time the Swedes +passed the highway and recaptured, after a bloody struggle, +the disputed cannon. The wings of Wallenstein’s army +were both in a state of dissolution. But his centre preserved +two divisions which offered a stubborn resistance +until sunset, when they were ordered to retreat. The +Swedes had won the day, but were too tired to pursue the +enemy. Following their custom, they rested over the night +on the battlefield they had bought by their blood.</p> + +<p>The loss of troops had been heavy on either side, +amounting to about 6,000 men altogether, or about one-third +of the whole number of men engaged in the battle. +The excitement was so great on both sides that no prisoners +were made. The corpse of Gustavus Adolphus, bruised<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> +and mangled, was found during the night under a heap of +dead soldiers. A large monumental stone, with inscription, +now marks the spot where the hero king lost his life. The +Gustavus Adolphus Society of Germany is a living monument +to his memory.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</a><br /> +<span class="smaller"><i>Period of Political Grandeur—Queen Christine</i></span></h2> + +<p>Christine was six years old when she succeeded +her father. Her armies stood scattered through +foreign lands, surrounded by enemies and faithless +allies. Her country was covered with glory, but in direst +distress. The most remarkable aspect of her father’s greatness +now was to become apparent. Gustavus Adolphus had +left behind men whom he had educated as statesmen, and +generals capable of bringing his work to a successful end. +First among the former was the state chancellor, <i>Axel +Oxenstierna</i>, the friend and adviser of the hero king. He +managed to keep the Swedish allies together and to establish +harmony and unity of action between the Swedish commanders, +supplying funds to carry on the war and strengthening +the government at home with his courage and his +wisdom. Oxenstierna was a statesman of considerable +power before the death of the king; after it he grows in +grandeur to carry the burden of unlimited responsibility +placed on his shoulders. His coolness and dignity were +a source of constant irritation to Richelieu, who said there +was “something Gothic and a good deal of Finnish” about +his proceedings in diplomatic affairs, while Mazarin said +that if all the statesmen of his time were to be put aboard +of one vessel, Oxenstierna should be placed at the helm.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> +The great chancellor always upheld the dignity of his country. +When French diplomatists forgot themselves thus far +as to use, in correspondence, their own language, instead of +Latin, the recognized language of diplomacy in that day, +Axel Oxenstierna gave instructions that they should be +answered in Swedish.</p> + +<p>After the death of Gustavus Adolphus, the war in Germany +lost more and more of its original aspect. The cause +of Protestantism was dropped out of sight for political interests. +The battles of Sweden were, to a great extent, and +sometimes altogether, fought by foreign troops; but Swedish +were the generals and statesmen who led the operations +of the armies and the diplomatic deliberations. The success +of Sweden, at first, seemed to have passed away with her +great hero king. The imperialists won a great victory at +Nœrdlingen in 1634. The young archduke, Ferdinand, had +succeeded Wallenstein as their commander-general, the latter +having been murdered at the request of the emperor. +Ferdinand marched on the town of Nœrdlingen with an +army of German and Spanish troops, the experienced Piccolomini +being at his side. Duke Bernhard, who with an +army had been taking possession of Franconia in his own +personal interests, hastened to support the town and was +joined by Gustavus Horn, who, with another army, had +been stationed in Elsass. Count Horn gave the advice to +await reinforcements, but the excitable Duke Bernhard +opened an attack on the enemy, which necessitated an immediate +battle. After eight hours of hard fighting, the imperialists, +who were 30,000 strong, entirely routed the +Swedish army of 18,000 men, not a single Swedish regiment +being among them. Horn was made a prisoner. +Duke Bernhard, who soon afterward with his troops entered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> +French service, acknowledged his fault, saying: “I was +a fool, but Horn a wise man.” Sweden lost through this +terrible defeat an army and two able generals. The Swedish +conquests in South Germany were lost, and the German +allies were scattered, the elector of Saxony joining the cause +of the emperor. The armistice with Poland came to an end +in 1635, and it was renewed for twenty-six years, at the +cost of the Prussian seaports, with their lucrative revenues, +which had paid for the expenses of the German war. Oxenstierna +returned to Sweden to gather means wherewith +to continue the war. The ordinary resources of Sweden +were drained, and great sacrifices were needed. The +Riksdag declared itself willing to “risk life, blood and +means, until God grants a peace equal to the dignity of +Sweden.”</p> + +<p>John Banér was the man who re-established the success +of the Swedish arms. He resembled Gustavus Adolphus +in greatness of mind and ability in war, paying back the +execution of his father under Charles IX., by loyalty to +the illustrious son of the latter. Banér was a typical soldier +of the Thirty Years’ War, amiable, but licentious, and cruel +to his enemies. An able tactician and strategist of inexhaustible +resources, he had distinguished himself in the +Polish war and later held many important commands. The +death of Gustavus Adolphus stirred this strong man to the +very depths of his soul. He left his army in Bavaria and +arrived at Wolgast, resolved to leave the army. At the +sight of the body of his beloved king, he was overcome by +a paroxysm of grief. Axel Oxenstierna persuaded him to +resume his command in order to bring the work of their +dead master to completion. He marched with his army +through Silesia to Bohemia, encamping before Prague.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> +After the battle of Nœrdlingen he retreated to Saxony, +whose deceitful elector he reproached with harsh words. +Intrigues by the latter to bring the German troops in Swedish +service to mutiny were frustrated by Banér, who had +only 2,000 Swedes and Livonians with him. The Saxon +army followed Banér into Mecklenburg, but suffered a defeat +at Dœmitz. Banér marched eastward and joined the +Swedish force, which met him, from Prussia, commanded +by Lennart Torstensson. The elector of Brandenburg also +declared war on Sweden, Banér answering by invading his +country. From the vicinity of Berlin, Banér continued his +way through Saxony back to Mecklenburg, his German +troops marauding with such cruelty that they were sharply +remonstrated with by Banér, who said he found it strange +that God did not instantly punish them.</p> + +<p>Banér was followed by the united armies of Austria and +Saxony, but, having received reinforcements of Swedish +troops, he turned on his tracks and met the enemy at Wittstock, +in Brandenburg, September 24, 1636. The Swedish +army consisted of 20,000 men, while the opposing force was +much larger and occupied a favorable position on a hill. +Banér won a glorious victory, thanks to a skilfully executed +manœuvre. It grew dark, and the right wing of the +Swedes was leading an almost forlorn hope against the +overwhelming forces, when their left wing, after a difficult +roundabout move, attacked the enemy from behind. Of +the hostile armies every man was killed except a detachment +less than 1,000 strong. The baggage, artillery and +banners were taken, even the table silver of the elector and +the imperial generals falling into the hands of the Swedes, +who by this victory had regained their supremacy on German +soil.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span></p> + +<p>Banér had commenced the siege of Leipsic, when, upon +news of an approaching army of the imperial allies, he was +forced to undertake the famous “Retreat from Torgau,” +which made him more celebrated than any of his great battles. +He with his army was near being surrounded at the +river Oder, but saved himself through a series of movements +of the highest strategic skill. Cardinal Richelieu wrote that +“this retreat, by means of which Banér saved 14,000 men, +less a few fugitives and wounded, with cannon and baggage, +against an army 60,000 strong, is to be compared to the most +glorious deeds in history.” The enemy prided itself on having +“caught Banér in a bag.” “Yes,” said Banér later, +“surely they had me there, but they forgot to tie the string +around.”</p> + +<p>In Pomerania, Banér received the reinforcements from +Sweden which he had awaited, and once more invaded +Saxony, where he won a grand victory at Chemnitz, in +1639. The Swedish army invaded Bohemia, cruelly devastating +the country. Banér made a daring attack upon +Regensburg in order to make the emperor and the whole +German diet his prisoners. Sudden thaws frustrated the +plans, making it impossible for the Swedes to cross the +Danube. A superior force was sent to meet Banér, who +saved his army by another famous retreat back to Saxony. +On the way Banér was attacked by a fever and died at Halberstadt, +in 1641. When the imperialists learned of the +death of the Swedish Leonidas, they thought they could +easily defeat his army. The Swedes saw the approaching +enemy and collected around the coffin of their dead hero, +offering solemn pledges to fight for the glory of his name. +They then made a sudden attack upon the imperial army, +which suffered a thorough defeat at Wolfenbuttel. John<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> +Banér, triumphant in death like his great master, was buried +in the Swedish Pantheon of the Riddarholm.</p> + +<p>Banér had expressed the wish that Lennart Torstensson +should succeed him as commander-general of the Swedish +armies. Lennart Torstensson was a greater warrior even +than John Banér; no Swedish general, Gustavus Adolphus +not excepted, ever reaching higher skill or perfection in the +science of war than this crippled hero. Torstensson was +of a noble although not influential family. He entered the +service of Gustavus Adolphus as a body page to the king, +later distinguishing himself as an artillery commander. +Torstensson took an honorable part in the battle of Breitenfeld, +but made a prisoner at Nuremberg, he lost his health, +during one year’s captivity, in a miserable dungeon. During +his later brilliant career he suffered greatly from rheumatism, +and was mostly carried around in a litter throughout +the battles which covered his name with undying fame. +He was a pious man of a gentle and cheerful disposition, +who tried his utmost to reintroduce among his troops the +excellent moral behavior and severe discipline which had +been lost after the death of Gustavus Adolphus.</p> + +<p>Torstensson with rigor suppressed the intrigues against +Sweden which were secretly carried on within the army. +Brandenburg received a new elector in Frederic William, +who, ambitious and far-seeing, entered an alliance with the +victorious power of the North. Torstensson now was enabled +to invade the imperial crown lands, commencing with +Silesia; but finding it necessary to force a battle he met the +imperialists at Breitenfeld. October 23, 1642, the second +great victory of Breitenfeld was won by Swedish arms. +Archduke Leopold and Piccolomini led the imperial army, +the latter general fighting as a common soldier to inspire<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> +courage by his example, but with no effect. The Swedes +captured the baggage, cannon and banners of the enemy, +taking 5,000 prisoners and leaving as many dead imperialists +on the field. Torstensson conquered Leipsic on the +following day.</p> + +<p>Torstensson marched through Bohemia and Moravia +with the rapidity which characterized all his military movements, +and penetrated to the very gates of Vienna, the emperor +with difficulty saving himself from being made his +prisoner. But suddenly he left and marched through Silesia +to North Germany. He had received an order from the +state council to attack Denmark. The great chancellor was +out of patience with the perfidy and intrigues of Christian +IV., who stood in secret connection with every one of Sweden’s +enemies. No previous declaration of war was made. +Torstensson captured the Danish duchies of Schleswig and +Holstein before any one could prevent it, his army then taking +possession of all Jutland. Gustavus Horn invaded +Scania, almost completely capturing the whole province in +spite of bands of freebooters among the peasants, called +<i>Snaphaner</i>.</p> + +<p>Denmark was in danger of its very existence, but King +Christian IV. did not forget his old wish to destroy the +town of Gothenburg, whose growing prosperity caused him +envy. He approached Gothenburg with a fleet, and viewed +the town from the overlooking mountain of the Ramberg. +His demands for a surrender were refused. Patriotic Louis +de Geer had ordered from Holland a fleet at his own expense, +which was to go to the support of Gothenburg. It +did not arrive in time, but King Christian left to meet it, +and it later proved of great value in the Swedish movements +at sea, joining the Swedish fleet in the Sound. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> +latter, consisting of twenty-two ships under the command +of Clas Fleming, sailed to the Danish waters, capturing +the island of Femern, supported by Torstensson. An invasion +of the island of Funen was planned, but could not be +effected. A great naval battle between the Swedish and +Danish fleets was fought July 6th. It caused great loss +on either side, without being decisive. King Christian, +who commanded his naval forces, lost one eye and received +over twenty different wounds. The Swedes kept the place +of battle, but sought the Bay of Skiel for repairs, where +they were hedged in by the Danish fleet. Clas Fleming +encouraged his followers to cut through the line, in which +they were successful. A month later he was killed by a +shot from the coast of Holstein, where the Danes had erected +a fort. The Swedes avenged the death of their valiant +commander by destroying the fort and killing its defenders. +Fleming was succeeded by Charles Gustavus Wrangel, who +saved the fleet to Sweden, returning to Femern in the autumn, +joined by the Dutch fleet of Louis de Geer. The +Danish fleet was met with October 13th, and at once scattered. +The swift-sailing Dutch ships went in pursuit and +destroyed all the seventeen Danish ships but two, which +brought the news of the disaster to Copenhagen.</p> + +<p>King Christian, who had in vain expected support from +the emperor, found himself defeated on every point, and +had no other choice than to make peace. The treaty was +signed August 13, 1645, at Brœmsebro, Denmark ceding +the provinces of Jemtland and Herjedal and the islands +of Gothland and Œsel. The province of Halland was to +remain for thirty years in the possession of Sweden, which +country was exempt from duties of toll for the traffic in the +Sound. Denmark disavowed all claims of supremacy over<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> +Holstein, the duke of said country two years later formally +placing himself under Swedish protection.</p> + +<p>Lennart Torstensson had fulfilled his task in Denmark +and returned to Germany. At Jueterbogk, in Brandenburg, +he met the imperial army, which had been sent to +cut off his retreat from Denmark, and entirely routed it. +After this victory Torstensson hastened to Bohemia, resolved +to “attack the emperor in his heart and force him to make +peace.” At Jankowitz, in Bohemia, Torstensson administered +a new and crushing defeat to the imperialists, in 1645. +The emperor, who himself had ordered his army to battle, +had arrived in Prague to witness the defeat of the Swedes, +which the Holy Virgin had promised him in a dream. He +soon learned the news, which was quite different from that +expected. The imperial commander-general, five generals +and eight colonels were made prisoners by the Swedes, who +captured the artillery and baggage of the enemy. The +health of Torstensson was at that moment so good that he +was able to lead the movements on horseback. He said +that such a bloody battle would not be seen for a long time.</p> + +<p>Torstensson invaded Moravia, the fortresses surrendering +and the inhabitants fleeing in terror. For a second time +he stood at the walls of Vienna. The very fortifications +which protected the bridge across the Danube were captured +by the Swedes. The enemy, whom the elector of +Saxony had promised to chase out of Germany, was now +knocking at the gate of the emperor, who heard the report +with consternation. But Lennart Torstensson was forced +to surrender to a perfidious enemy, who came to his door +without knocking. His rheumatic ailment returned with +such violence that he was obliged to renounce his command +and return from the fields where he had led none but vic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span>torious +armies. He was succeeded by Charles Gustavus +Wrangel. The latter had to give up the siege of Vienna, +but maintained, in connection with the French, the supremacy +in Germany until an honorable peace was won. Upon +his return to Sweden, Lennart Torstensson was covered +with distinctions, being made a baron and a count on one +and the same day. He was appointed governor-general +of West Gothland, Vermland, and the lately conquered +Halland, with his seat at Gothenburg, where he built himself +a palace (still the official residence of the governor of +Gothenburg and Bohuslæn). Lennart Torstensson died +in 1651, leaving behind the fame of one of the greatest warriors +known to history, and a spotless memory.</p> + +<p>The treaty of peace of Westphalia was signed in October, +1648. The representatives of Sweden were John Oxenstierna, +a son of the great chancellor, and Adler Salvius. +Sweden received, as a reward for her decisive and glorious +part in the Thirty Years’ War, the following possessions: +West Pomerania, with the islands of Rugen and Usedom; +the western part of East Pomerania, with the island of +Wollin; the town of Wismar, with surrounding territory, +and the bishoprics of Bremen and Verden. With these +German possessions followed three votes at the German +Diet. The Swedish government was to receive a sum of +several millions to defray the army expenses, of which +Queen Christine recklessly ceded the larger part.</p> + +<p>Through these glorious conditions of peace Sweden rose +to the rank of one of the mightiest of European empires, +which held the balance of power in Northern Europe. Her +possessions made the Baltic almost an “inland lake of Sweden,” +and efforts soon followed to make it completely so. +Sweden exerted a beneficent influence throughout her large<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> +possessions, which, from a cultural point of view, hardly +can be overestimated. Her methods of planting the seeds +of culture, by establishing Swedish and German universities, +and by abolishing serfdom in the conquered lands, are +worthy of the highest respect. But with her new political +grandeur Sweden acquired formidable enemies; she had +not the resources to sustain or defend her great possessions, +and the development of the mother country was for a time +misdirected by dreams of vain glory.</p> + +<p>The government of Sweden during Christine’s minority, +according to the directions left by her father, consisted of +the five highest officials of the realm. Among these the +chancellor, through his experience and his former intimacy +with Gustavus Adolphus, was the leading spirit, king in all +except the name, and deserving the honorable surname of +“our greatest civilian,” given him by Swedish historians. +Unlike the majority of other uncrowned or crowned rulers, +he did not use his power to secure wealth or distinction for +himself and his family until upon his retirement. Offers +to make him a ruling prince of Germany, and the young +queen his son’s consort, were coldly refused. While the +war was going on he strengthened the foundations of the +centralization of the state by the government regulations +of 1634. At the side of the supreme court of Stockholm +another was established at Jœnkœping, for Gothaland, with +a state councillor as president. The system of various government +departments was enlarged upon.<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> The most important +of these was the chancery, in which all business to +come before the government was prepared. Departments +for commerce and for mining were established. Sweden<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> +was divided into eleven administrative districts, <i>læn</i>, later +increased to sixteen, each of these having a governor. Finland +was divided into five districts. Count Peter Brahe +the Younger, as governor-general of Finland, did more for +this neglected country than was ever done before to right +wrongs and foster prosperity. Livonia and Ingermanland +received each their governor-general, the latter province, +by repeated wars brought into a devastated condition, serving +as a place of deportation. This system of administration +won the admiration of the Continent and was in many +instances copied as a pattern of perfection. The Swedish +army was considered the finest in the world, and troops +better trained or more victorious did not exist. At the end +of the Thirty Years’ War about 100,000 men were under +Swedish command. The majority of these were foreigners, +who afterward were enlisted for continual service. Their +officers were raised in great numbers to the rank of nobles +and endowed with dignities and estates. The army was +divided into twenty regiments, seven of which were Finnish. +The town and coast population regularly furnished able +men for the navy. Much was done to improve the interior +communications by means of new roads and canals. A +postal route was established between Stockholm and Gothenburg, +and others followed. A Swedish postmaster in +Hamburg had charge of the foreign mails. Newspapers +were published, the government shaping for itself an organ +for official announcement which is yet published.</p> + +<p>Great improvements were made in the mining industry, +thanks principally to the efforts of the noble immigrant, +Louis de Geer and his Walloons, who made the mines of +Dannemora a source of riches. Weapons and cannon were +manufactured not only for the army, but for exportation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> +also. The brass foundries were excellent. The towns began +to flourish, especially Stockholm and Gothenburg, +through commerce with Holland and the Baltic States. A +Swedish colony, planned by Gustavus Adolphus through +the South Company, created by him in Gothenburg, was +founded in North America. In 1638 two ships, “Kalmar +Nyckel” and “Fogel Grip,” arrived at the mouth of the +Delaware River, where territory was procured through +honest purchase from the Indians. The Dutch in neighboring +colonies tried to persuade the Indians to oust the +newcomers, but the Swedish governor, Peter Menuet, won +their goodwill by fair dealing. The members of the colony +of New Sweden were honest, upright people, who dwelt in +peace with the natives. They accepted a governor appointed +by the government, in the person of John Printz, +but refused to tolerate among themselves criminals who +later were despatched to their colony, and these had to be +taken back. New Sweden after a few decades became the +prey of the Dutch, but many American families point with +justifiable pride to their descent from these honest and industrious +Swedish settlers. A Swedish colony on the coast +of African Guinea existed between 1650 and 1663, but was +through treacherous dealings turned over to the Dutch.</p> + +<p>Much was done to build up the educational system, +several new colleges were established, and regulations made +to instruct the peasants. Peter Brahe founded the University +of Abo, in 1640, while in Finland, and the German +University of Greifswald, in Swedish Pomerania, was re-established. +Swedish men of learning began to attract +attention, such as John Skytte, who was considered the +most brilliant Latin scholar of Europe in his day, Stiernhœk, +the jurist, Bureus and Messenius, the historians, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> +Georg Stiernhielm, poet and antiquarian. The old Icelandic +literature was discovered and began to exert a strong +influence on literature and science, to a great extent +strengthening their chauvinistic spirit. The Swedish poets +Stiernhielm, Runius, Holmstrœm, Lucidor and the poetess +Brenner, from the Eddic songs, which contain some of the +oldest humorous poems in existence, learned how to write +in a humorous vein, something entirely unknown in the +German and French literatures of that day.</p> + +<p>The excellent government, of which Axel Oxenstierna +was the leading spirit, had its defects. In its perfect system +of administration, which in the main features stands +unshaken to this day, there appeared to be no room for +the people themselves to be governed. On account of the +great allowances made to the nobles it was necessary to +increase the taxes of the peasants. Many had to leave +their homes and farms for want of resources to pay their +taxes; others were forced away from their property by the +nobles. There was danger of the destruction of the free, +self-dependent yeomanry. A hatred against the nobility +grew up. The great lords returned from the wars laden with +booty, erected fine castles, and continued the high living +to which they had become accustomed while abroad. The +power of the nobility was increased by lavish donations from +Queen Christine and by the appropriation of other crown +lands which the government was forced to sell or mortgage +on account of the wars. The clergy were the spokesmen +of the peasant class at the Riksdag, every year demanding +with greater emphasis a restitution to the crown of its property, +which was held by the nobles.</p> + +<p>Queen Christine herself took the reins of government, +in 1644, at the age of eighteen. She had inherited from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> +her illustrious father some of his genius, and from her +mother, Marie Eleonore of Brandenburg, a peculiar nervous +disposition. Her mother took no interest in her until the +death of Gustavus Adolphus, when a flood of exalted tenderness +suddenly was let loose over her. Count Jacob de +la Gardie took the lead in opposing the undesirable and +unstable character of this relation, Christine being separated +from her mother and educated by the Countess-Palatine +Catherine, a pious and noble woman, the older sister +of Gustavus Adolphus. Greatly offended, Marie Eleonore +left the country never to return. Queen Christine showed +a remarkable faculty of absorbing knowledge. Well versed +in a great number of languages, and well read in various +sciences, particularly mathematics, she soon acquired fame +as the most learned woman of her time. She was of frank +countenance, slept little, cared little for dress, and was +passionately fond of hunting and riding on horseback. +Queen Christine possessed a sharp intellect, was daring +and resolute, but headstrong, fickle, extravagant, and but +little particular in her choice of favorites. Her vanity and +egotism knew no bounds. At the beginning of her reign +she took pains to give serious attention to the affairs of +state. The great chancellor had been her instructor in +economics and statecraft, but she repaid him by open coldness +and secret antagonism. Her ambition to surround herself +with scientists of note, particularly foreigners who flattered +her vanity by blowing her fame to the four corners +of the earth, killed her interest for politics. Later she was +seized by the evil spirit of frivolity, abandoning herself to +empty pleasures and to excesses of extravagance when her +learned admirers were forgotten for unworthy favorites. +Among the latter, Count Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> +for a long time all-powerful. The grandson of General +Pontus and a daughter of John III., he was the son of +Count Jacob de la Gardie and Ebba Brahe, and one of the +most brilliant noblemen of Europe. In his youth he formed +an intimate friendship with the dauphin of France, later +Louis XIV., who throughout his life honored him with the +title of “Mon Cousin,” or “Mon cher Cousin.” His ambition +to become Queen Christine’s consort was never satisfied, +nor was he allowed to accept the rank of a prince +from the German emperor, but the queen made him the +richest man in her realm. Magnus de la Gardie did not +possess the sterling qualities of his ancestors, but was of +great patriotism and lavishly liberal toward educational +institutions, in this respect without a peer in Swedish history. +In 1666 he founded the Academy of Antiquities, +which was the first archæological institution in Europe, +the Swedish antiquarians of the day, principal among them +Bureus and Stiernhielm, doing valuable antiquarian research. +In 1664, Count de la Gardie donated to the University +Library of Upsala a highly valuable collection of +manuscripts and books, chiefly from Iceland. In the collection +was also the Gothic Bible translation of Bishop Wulfila +in the only copy extant. Liberal with his silver, Count de +la Gardie gave to the precious book a silver binding, as he +had in earlier years presented to Queen Christine a silver +throne (which is still in use). This book has an interesting +history of its own.</p> + +<p>Codex Argenteus, the silver book, thus called on account +of its silver binding, contains fragments of the four +Gospels in the Gothic language. The translation was made +from the Greek original by Bishop Wulfila (b. 318-d. 388), +the apostle of the Goths. The writing is done in so-called<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> +encaustum (printing with heated stamps) of gold and silver +letters on vellum of scarlet color. This copy is considered +to have been made toward the end of the fifth or in the +beginning of the sixth century, when the East Goths still +held sway in Italy. Its early fortunes are unknown, but +it is supposed that the book was found in the possession of +the Visigoths (or West Goths) when their empire was seized +by the Franks, and donated to the monastery of Verden by +some munificent Frankish chief. Here, in the Benedictine +abbey of Verden, on the river Ruhr, in Westphalia, the +book was discovered at least as early as 1554, when the +scholars Cassander and Gualther of Cologne are known to +have had copies which can have been made from no other +source.</p> + +<p>After the outbreak of the Thirty Years’ War, the Codex +was transmitted to Prague for safety. In the year of +1648, Prague, or rather the older portion of the town, was +captured by the Swedish general, Count Hans Christopher +Kœnigsmark, who, among the vast treasures of the Bohemian +capital, found also the Codex Argenteus which he +presented to Queen Christine. All the books and manuscripts +of the queen were in the care of her librarian, Isaac +Vossius, a learned but eccentric scholar of Dutch parentage. +Vossius was at first Queen Christine’s teacher of Greek, not +a very agreeable position, for the queen called him to the +castle at three o’clock in the morning for her first hour. +In 1650 he had to leave court and country on account of a +quarrel with that light of learning, Claude de Saumaise +(Salmasius), another one of the foreign scholars in favor +with the queen. In 1653 he was called back, and again took +charge of the books of the queen, but soon returned to Holland. +Before his departure he gathered several costly books<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> +and manuscripts, among which Codex Argenteus, with or +without the queen’s private permission, taking them with +him. In 1670, Vossius came to England, where he died, +in 1688, as court chaplain at Windsor. King Charles II. of +England said of him: “Vossius believes in anything but the +Bible.”</p> + +<p>When in Holland, the Codex Argenteus passed out of +the hands of Vossius after his uncle Franziskus Junius had +made a complete copy of it. Junius, called the “grandfather +of modern philology,” published the first edition +of Codex Argenteus at Dortrecht, in 1665, providing the +beautiful fac-simile with parallel Old English texts and a +Gothic glossary. In Holland the Codex changed hands +repeatedly until found in Brabant by Samuel Pufendorff, +in 1661, who, in the following year, bought it for Count +de la Gardie, paying a sum of something like $1,200 +for it.</p> + +<p>Once more in Sweden the Codex Argenteus was made +the subject of close attention, a new edition of it being published, +in 1671, by Georg Stiernhielm, the innovator of +Swedish language and literature.<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> That Bishop Wulfila’s +Bible should ultimately harbor in Sweden does not seem +out of place, for of all languages now spoken the Swedish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> +comes closest to the language of the Goths as crystallized +during its classical epoch. The interest taken by Swedish +scholars in the book has always been great and fruitful of +results, in times when it was thought to be written in the +mother tongue of all the Teutonic languages, as well as +later, when Gothic was found to be, not the mother, but +the oldest sister in the family.</p> + +<p>At the Riksdag of 1649 considerable dissatisfaction was +directed against the nobility and the extravagance of the +queen in deeding over to favorites all the possessions of the +crown, in form of counties and baronies. The nobility +sided against the queen, desirous of reducing her power. +But Queen Christine received gracefully the complaints +made, and promised to institute a reduction of taxes and +payments. In the following year the commotion increased +when the same taxes were asked as in time of war. The +queen continued her policy of earnestly considering the +requests of the lower Estates, thus gaining the controlling +power. The nobility, suffering strife between its various +classes, was forced to seek a shelter in the royal power it +desired to crush, and humiliated itself before the queen. +Christine received a joint appeal from the lower Estates +for a restitution to the crown of all property illegally turned +over to the nobility, but she managed to have the reform +postponed upon promise of some minor privileges and a +reduction of taxes. She refused the appeals of the nobility +to have the clergymen and others punished who had used +hard language against the aristocrats. But the discontent +was spreading and turned against the queen personally. +The ministers preached against the wrongs and violence +of the mighty ones; the nobles and the peasants threatened +each other. Peasants in Finland refused to work for aristo<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span>cratic +masters, and a general rebellion seemed imminent. +In the meantime Queen Christine was crowned at Upsala +amid great display and elaborate festivities, the count-palatine +Charles Gustavus, her cousin, being installed as heir-apparent +to the throne.</p> + +<p>But Queen Christine was not able to still the storm +around her. The finances of the crown were utterly ruined +by her extravagance, and she dared not take by violence +from the nobility what she had given by grace. In 1651 +she declared it to be her intention to leave the government, +but was persuaded to remain. Her cousin was placed in a +very difficult position, apparently taking no interest in what +was going on, but following everything with the keenest +attention. The son of John Casimir, count of Palatinate-Zweibrucken, +and Princess Catherine, he was born at Nykœping +in Sweden, in 1622, and designated as the future +consort of Queen Christine. Charles Gustavus was educated +in simplicity and rigor, and was, as his father before +him, utterly neglected by Axel Oxenstierna and the government. +He slept in a room without wallpaper, and when +through with his lessons he sawed wood with his teacher, +Professor Lenæus. Burning with ambition, and perhaps +also in love with his brilliant cousin, he proposed to her +repeatedly, but in vain. After several years of extensive +travel he joined Lennart Torstensson, refusing a command +and working himself up through the military degrees. He +took an honorable part in the victory at Jankowitz, and +was appointed supreme commander of the Swedish armies +shortly before the close of the German war. When the +opposition against Christine reached its climax a good deal +was expected from Charles Gustavus, which he, on account +of his singular position, could not undertake to do. A peti<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>tion +replete with abusive language about the queen was sent +him, asking him to take hold of the government. Charles +turned the document over to the queen. Its author, the +promising young Arnold Messenius, and his father, an able +historian, suspected as having inspired his son, were accused +of high treason, condemned to death and executed.</p> + +<p>This act of force produced an impression, and the new +taxes demanded at the next Riksdag were granted without +opposition. But the queen felt that the discontent was only +subdued, not suppressed, and, having no further means to +keep up a luxurious court, she did the wisest act of her +reign, that of resigning, at Upsala, in June, 1654, Charles +Gustavus being crowned the same day. The scene of her +abdication was very impressive, Queen Christine carrying +herself with noble and lofty dignity, an inheritance from +her father which she made use of when she saw fit. Leaving +the crown and the royal emblems, one by one, to the +Riksdrotset, she descended the throne, from the lowest steps +of which she spoke an eloquent and touching farewell to +the four Estates of the Riksdag. She suddenly left the +country after having secured for herself a princely income. +At Innsbruck, the daughter of Gustavus Adolphus joined +the Catholic church, thereby, and by her fame as a learned +woman, creating a sensation. She died in Rome in 1689, +after having made two unsuccessful attempts to regain her +Swedish throne, and one equally unsuccessful to succeed +the last king of the Polish line of the Vasa dynasty, and +was buried in the church of St. Peter.</p> + +<p>Among the many learned men who at one time surrounded +Christine were Vossius, Heinsius, Salmasius, Huet, +Freinshemius, Loccenius, Meibom, Bœclerus, Ravius, Schefferus, +and others. The greatest of them all, the philoso<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span>pher +Cartesius (René Descartes), died in Stockholm, in +1650.</p> + +<p>After the love-story of Gustavus Adolphus had come +to an end, he long felt a disinclination to marry. His sister +Catherine is said to have tried to rouse him to the necessity +of choosing a consort. His answer was always: “Never +mind, dear sister, you shall yourself bring up a son to inherit +the crown and continue my work.” This son of Catherine +became Queen Christine’s successor.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</a><br /> +<span class="smaller"><i>Period of Political Grandeur—Charles X. and +Charles XI.</i></span></h2> + +<p>Charles X. was one of the most ambitious men +ever placed upon a throne, and Europe was soon +to realize that a new war-lord was come. His ambition, +so long unsatisfied and secreted, burst forth with +uncontrollable strength, in compass only to be equalled by +his rare gifts of mind and heart. Charles Gustavus had +suffered a good deal of neglect, coldness and hatred, but +when ascending the throne he seemed to have forgotten all +this. Oxenstierna died a few months after the abdication +of Queen Christine, deeply impressed by the magnanimity +and genius of the new sovereign. Charles Gustavus was +one of the most highly gifted of Swedish monarchs. He +had a great deal of interest in and rare discernment for the +requirements of a peaceful development. But reared in +the most warlike of times, when a reputation could be made +only by winning so and so many “victorias” for the firm +establishment of a hero’s “gloire,” Charles Gustavus +thought that only the monarch favored by “Fama” would +have the prestige to lead firmly the fate of his people. He +often expressed the wish to rest from his campaigns in order +to contemplate his work and make it beneficial to his people, +but such a rest he never gave himself time to enjoy during +his short and remarkable reign.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span></p> + +<p>Charles burned with desire to gain fame in war, taking +for pretext that the king of Poland, by his repeated claims +to the Swedish throne, made peace treacherous and impossible. +But such was the condition of affairs that something +must be done to quiet the malcontent people, restore +peace between the quarrelling classes, and reimburse the +empty state treasury. At a Riksdag in Stockholm, in 1655, +a restitution was proposed by the king and agreed to, according +to which all estates which in earlier times had been +rendering dues to the direct support of the court, army, +fleet, or administration, should be confiscated to the crown; +also one-fourth of the estates given away since the death +of Gustavus Adolphus, and all estates fraudulently obtained. +A committee to enforce the restitution was appointed, +to be presided over by the able Herman Fleming. +The restitution, far from radical in itself, was not completely +carried through, thanks to the opposing nobles. +But it proved effective for the moment, the king securing +the goodwill of the people, temporary quiet and means to +carry on the proposed war, to commence which Charles +Gustavus received the somewhat reluctant consent of the +faithful people whose financial state was a most despairing +one. Charles X. thought in new conquests to find means +to better their condition. Shortly after his coronation he +married Hedvig Eleonore of Holstein-Gottorp.</p> + +<p>John II. Casimir of Poland, the younger son of Sigismund, +like Vladislav, styled himself king of Sweden and +had claims to Livonia. For this he should be punished. +It was not the original intention of Charles X. to make +himself king of Poland, but he was probably the first who +ever devised a division of that unhappy country. The success +of Charles X. was without a parallel. The strong for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span>tresses +were captured, the armies surrendered and registered +in Swedish service. After two months Charles X. entered +the old capital of Cracow, John Casimir fled from his country, +and, carried away by the frenzy of success, Charles +Gustavus had himself crowned king of Poland. West +Prussia was captured, and the elector of Brandenburg, who +held East Prussia in fief, and the duke of Courland were +forced to become the vassals of Sweden, in 1656.</p> + +<p>But Charles X. had roused an enemy that few invaders, +however great, have been able to successfully encounter, +the spirit of patriotism. The Poles, enticed to revolt by +the Catholic clergy, found a leader in the noble Czarniecki, +who commenced a war of liberation on the Swedish +usurper. King John Casimir returned, and armies were +gathered. Charles Gustavus was yet to do wonders of +strategy, which aroused the amazement and fear of all +Europe, but he was glad, when finding a good excuse, +to extract himself from the affairs of Poland. In +1656 he defeated Czarniecki at Golumbo, undertook the +adventurous crossing of the river of San, and captured, +and recaptured, the capital of Warsaw. The “three days’ +battle of Warsaw” (18th-20th of July, 1656) is one of the +most famous in modern warfare, by which the reputation +of Charles X., as one of the greatest warriors of his time, +was firmly established. Charles X. had joined forces with +the “great elector” of Brandenburg, who up to the last +moment was unwilling to risk a battle of 22,000 men +against an enemy twice as strong. Charles Gustavus was +unyielding and turned it into a great victory. But his +position became precarious, Russia, Germany, Holland and +Denmark being hostile, joined by Brandenburg, the ambitious +“great elector” not being satisfied with the Swedish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> +supremacy in East Prussia. To save himself from the +dilemma with untarnished glory, Charles X. decided to +fight Denmark, which country had declared war without +suspecting the possibility of an attack.</p> + +<p>Lennart Torstensson, his master of strategy, had shown +Charles X. how Denmark was to be attacked. With an +army of only 8,000, but consisting of the choicest and most +victorious troops in all Europe, Charles X. hastened in rapid +marches through Pomerania and Mecklenburg, recaptured +Bremen, and invaded through friendly Holstein all of Schleswig +and Jutland, defeating the larger but inexperienced Danish +army and capturing the strong fortress of Fredericia.</p> + +<p>Yet the new position was as precarious as the one in +Poland, and Charles had to use all the skill of his diplomacy +to save his little army from an assault by inimical Europe. +France and England seemed unwilling to render him effective +help. But when the elector of Brandenburg, who had +taken upon himself the leadership of Sweden’s enemies, +turned to the emperor, emphasizing the necessity of crushing +the Swedish power in one blow, he received the following +surprising answer: “The king of Hungary has no reason +to be the enemy of the king of Sweden.” Charles had +reached a secret understanding with Austria. By this +move he gained time. Through what seemed almost a +miracle, he was not only to save his army but lead it on +to victory after a strategic deed, in originality and daring +unique in the history of the world.</p> + +<p>The year of 1658 commenced with severe frosts. +Charles X. conceived the daring plan of attacking the +Danish isles by leading his army over the frozen sounds. +He concluded to cross the sound of Lille Belt, opposite the +islet of Brandsœ. His quartermaster-general, Eric Dahl<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span>berg, +an engineer of great genius, ascertained that the ice +was safe. One frosty winter morning, the 30th of January, +the Swedish army, reinforced to 9,000 men, marched down +on the ice, safely reaching Brandsœ at sunrise. A Danish +army, arranged in order of battle in the island of Funen, +was defeated. While crossing over to Funen, the ice +cracked under two squadrons of cavalry, those who followed +not daring to proceed. The king himself hurried +past the dangerous place, pointing out a safe course, and +the troops followed him.</p> + +<p>The most dangerous part remained to cross, the much +wider sound of Store Belt, in order to reach Seeland. +Charles first thought of taking the direct route of two +miles, but commissioned Dahlberg to explore the condition +of the ice across to the smaller islands to the south. Dahlberg +did so, and said he would wager his head for its perfectly +safe condition. In enthusiasm, Charles clapped his +hands exclaiming: “Now, brother Frederic, we will converse +in good Swedish!” In the night between the 5th and +6th of February, the Swedish army marched from Svendborg +in Funen over the ice to Langeland. “It was terrible,” +wrote an eye-witness, “to march through the night +over this frozen sea, where the horses’ hoofs had thawed +down the snow on the ice, which was below two feet of +water, and where we, in every moment, were in fear +of striking the open sea.” At dawn the army landed in +Langeland. During the rest for breakfast, frozen beer was +chopped and distributed in pieces to the soldiers. The +march continued over the still wider sound to Laaland, +Eric Dahlberg in front, directing the march. Reaching +Grimsted in Laaland at three o’clock in the afternoon, and +proceeding to Nakskov, Charles Gustavus was met, at mid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span>night, +by the burgomaster and council of said town, who +surrendered its keys. The 9th of February, the army stood +in Falster, and a few days later was collected at the captured +castle of Vordingborg in Seeland. Peace was hastily +offered and agreed to on the 17th, and the treaty of peace +signed the 28th of February, 1658, at Rœskilde. The conditions +were severe, Denmark ceding the provinces of +Scania, Halland, Bleking and Bohuslæn, the whole district +or diocese of Drontheim in Norway, and the island +of Bornholm, and agreeing to hold the Baltic closed to +hostile fleets with the help of Sweden. The last clause +was a piece of a Scandinavian policy devised by the Swedish +king.</p> + +<p>Charles X. now prepared to meet Brandenburg and +Austria, once more siding against Sweden. It was necessary +to keep Holland out from the Baltic, and when Charles +X. found Denmark unwilling to keep the conditions of the +recent treaty on that point, the war-lord became wrathful, +dooming obnoxious Denmark to lose her very existence. +But the spirit of patriotism, which so often had saved Sweden +in instances of extreme danger, now sided with Denmark, +as it had already sided with Poland. King Frederic +declared he would die like a bird in its own nest, and roused +the patriotism of the population of Copenhagen, which, +badly defended, was hurriedly fortified at the news of an +intended attack. Contrary to the advice of Eric Dahlberg, +Charles X. made no instantaneous attack, but commenced +a siege, although he did not bring with him the necessary +means. The castle of Kronborg by Elsinore was captured +and its cannon used against Copenhagen. The greatest +enthusiasm prevailed in the Danish capital; the king slept +in a tent by the fortifications, and especially the students<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> +and Norwegian sailors distinguished themselves by their +valor and patriotism. Charles X. found it impossible to +take Copenhagen and retired to some distance from the +capital. What caused Charles to retire was the arrival +of a Dutch fleet. It had been met by the Swedish fleet, +under command of Charles Gustavus Wrangel, the hero +of Fredericia and Kronborg. After six hours of hard fighting +the Dutch forced the entrance to the Sound. Before +leaving, the Swedish king resolved to make a desperate +effort to capture Copenhagen, defended by 13,000 troops +and by a patriotic population, with his 8,000 Swedes. The +attack was made in the night of February 11, 1659, but the +city, forewarned by traitors, tendered the Swedes a warm +reception, consisting of artillery fire, stones, and scalding +hot water. The Swedes lost 600 men and suffered their +first and only defeat under the command of Charles X.</p> + +<p>The situation was grave. The Swedish army in Jutland +was forced to retire; the troops of 5,000 men in Funen +were defeated and made prisoners; a revolt took place in +Bornholm, and the Danes recaptured the district of Drontheim. +The powers united in their efforts to force Sweden +and Denmark to a treaty of peace on the basis of the Rœskilde +stipulations. Charles still held his head high, declaring +that he would crush the fleets of the allies if they tried +to interfere in the affairs of the North, striking a sharply +discordant note in the concert of the powers. To Denmark +he was willing to cede the district of Drontheim, but prepared +to occupy that of Akkershus instead, when he was +taken ill at the convening Riksdag at Gothenburg, dying +February 11, 1660, in the palace erected by his friend Lennart +Torstensson.</p> + +<p>Charles X. Gustavus was one of the most remarkable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> +men of his day, whose wonderful deeds of bravery and +genius caused amazement through their brilliancy, and +anxiety through their recklessness. At the first glance his +appearance gave no idea of the real man. He was short, +and of an unusually square and clumsy build, with a head +of coarse proportions. But there was the fire of genius in +his sharp blue eyes; under the black hair, and below the +thin black mustache, there was a mouth of firm and resolute +lines. In the versatility of his endowment, he stands +as one of the first among Swedish kings, the rich gifts of +the Vasas and the Wittelsbachs being united in him. As +a warrior he was great, yet more of a tactician than a +strategist. As a statesman his views were almost as clairvoyant +as those of his grandfather, Charles IX., but he +gave way to the impressions and impulses of the moment. +He failed to make the Baltic a Swedish inland lake, but +gained for his country the inestimable gift of a natural +frontier to the east and south, by the acquisition of Bohuslæn, +Halland, Scania and Bleking, provinces more valuable +to Sweden than a whole empire south of the Baltic.</p> + +<p><i>Charles XI.</i> was a child of four years at the death of +his father; his country at war with a world, and in a +sorely afflicted condition. In the will of Charles X., the +queen-dowager, Hedvig Eleonore, was named to preside +over the government, with two votes, and the brother of +Charles X., the duke Adolphus John, was to take a seat +with her as Riksmarsk. This arrangement displeased the +nobility, understanding that it was directed against their +influence, and they had the duke excluded from the government. +The lower Estates of the Riksdag sided with +the duke, but soon gave up his cause as they found that +he was utterly vain, quick-tempered, and without stability<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> +or genius. Lars Kagg, a good warrior, was appointed +Riksmarsk in his place. Herman Fleming, the able state +treasurer, was removed as disagreeable to the nobility, his +ill-health being taken as an excuse, and was succeeded by +Gustavus Bonde. Peter Brahe remained Riksdrotset, Magnus +Gabriel de la Gardie state chancellor, and Charles Gustavus +Wrangel state admiral. Kagg died in 1661 and was +succeeded by Wrangel, Gustavus Otto Stenbock becoming +state admiral.</p> + +<p>The first duty of the new government was to make peace +for the bleeding country. This was effected in 1660 through +the treaties of Oliva and Copenhagen, and in a most satisfactory +manner, speaking high for the diplomatic ability +of the governing ones, but also of the ignorance of +the powers of the utter helplessness of Sweden, in great +contrast to her outward political grandeur. Poland ceded +Livonia to Sweden, and Denmark all the territory gained +by Charles X., except the district of Drontheim and the +island of Bornholm, while Russia was satisfied with the +boundaries set by Gustavus Adolphus.</p> + +<p>The government, with care and consideration, made +the necessary arrangements to have the new provinces +intimately connected with the country. Representatives +were sent to the Riksdag of 1664, and the University of +Lund, in Scania, was founded in 1668. If to this is added +that a good deal was done to encourage art and science, +principally through Count Magnus de la Gardie, who was +the Mæcenas of Sweden, the meritorious deeds of the government +during Charles XI.’s minority are enumerated. +The less that is said of it in addition, and of its leading +men, the better for these. They were men of some patriotism, +but, through their exceedingly aristocratic views and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> +lack of stability, unable to further the interests of their +country, so badly in need of reform. There was not one +of them who possessed the abilities of a statesman. They +lived like princes in their counties, each holding court and +possessing various considerable castles, all the members +of the higher aristocracy upholding the same standard of +luxury and power, appointing clergymen and judges, founding +towns, and discussing the necessity of having mints +and coins of their own. Magnus de la Gardie, count of +Leckœ, and married to a sister of Charles X., was the +greatest of these lords. Close to him came Peter Brahe, +count of Visingsborg, and Charles Gustavus Wrangel, +count of Skokloster. The barons approached the counts +in their display of wealth. The lower nobility, whose +members often served at the courts of the great lords, were +not satisfied with this state of affairs. But in the contempt +and oppression in which they held the lower classes, they +agreed with the higher nobility, who made no secret of +their intention to reduce the peasants to slaves. The peasantry, +suffering and neglected, became the prey of a superstition +which was shared by the more educated members +of society, accusations and legal executions of witches becoming +numerous.</p> + +<p>The government was not agreed between themselves +upon many questions and turned to the state council for +support. The old privileged class of councillors forced their +influence upon the government, and the position between +the two became quite intimate, at the same time difficult +to define. The state council was as divided in its opinions +as the government, which fact had a disastrous influence +upon state politics and administration. Great negligence +was shown in the various departments, the records of re<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span>ceipts +and expenditures being imperfect, and a constant lack +of funds existing. Forgery and thefts were committed by +high and low officials. Administrative orders were not +obeyed. The army and the navy suffered utter neglect.</p> + +<p>During such a state of affairs the abominable practice +of receiving “subsidies” came into use. The government +received, now from one foreign power, now from another, +a large sum of money to back its respective interests with +the military forces or the diplomatic influence of Sweden. +This practice, ignoble in itself, injured the dignity of the +state and had a demoralizing influence. Thanks to it, +Sweden sided sometimes against, but mostly with, France, +her old ally, who, in Count de la Gardie, had an enthusiastic +friend. In 1662, Sweden schemed with France for +the election of a French prince as king of Poland; in 1667, +she formed, with England and Holland, a triple alliance +against France. Louis XIV. soon won back the friendship +of the government of Sweden, thus having this country as +his only ally when reaching the climax of his success. At +last the Swedish promises to send an army against the +elector of Brandenburg were fulfilled. It was under the +command of the old and invalid Count Wrangel, and suffered +defeats at Ratenau and Fehrbellin, in 1675. These +were of little importance, or extension, in themselves, but +they injured the prestige of Sweden, so long supremely +victorious on German soil, and caused her enemies to combine +their efforts in order to regain their lost possessions.</p> + +<p>Charles XI. was declared of age at seventeen, in 1672, +when he himself took charge of the government, yet for +a few years standing under the influence of Count de la +Gardie. King Charles was, as a child, physically weak, +and the astrologers had prophesied that he would die an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> +infant. For this reason the queen-dowager, a very ordinary +woman, gave all her attention to have her son develop +a strong and sound constitution. The child was given its +own way in everything, casting aside books and rules for +his individual pleasures. King Charles grew up an ignorant +self-willed and headstrong youth, who delighted in +hunting and reckless riding on horseback. His companions, +manners and language were not of the choicest order, +and he remained all his life shy and awkward in demeanor. +From his thirteenth year he was made acquainted with the +routine of state affairs, but he lacked the qualifications to +grasp them in detail. He surrounded himself with members +of the lower nobility, but was well at ease only among +ministers, burghers and peasants. Charles XI. was all his +life of an unrestrained temper and an indomitable will, coming +to the throne the most ignorant king Sweden had had +for centuries. But he was pious, sincere and just, and his +morals pure and severe. Through the hardest of lessons, +Charles XI. was to develop his great uncultivated gifts, +to become the liberator of his people and one of its most +remarkable rulers.</p> + +<p>Sweden had to encounter many enemies after the battle +of Fehrbellin, and a chain of disasters followed, nearly +crushing the young king under their weight. Holland, +Austria, Brandenburg and Denmark attacked the Swedish +possessions, which were all captured, one after the other. +Charles was not able to send reinforcements, the navy +being in a miserable condition, and when rejuvenated, +through strenuous effort, defeated by the excellent admirals +Juel, of the Danish, and Tromp, of the Dutch, navy. The +treasury was empty, the administration in disorder, and +mistrust and strife reigned supreme. But the young king<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> +showed that he wanted to be obeyed, and managed, by +hard work, to establish order, the Riksdag sacrificing means +to organize the defence.</p> + +<p>The Danes were successful in their first expeditions on +land also, their army having undergone a reorganization. +King Christian V. marched into Scania, while his general, +Gyldenlœve, invaded Bohuslæn and West Gothland. The +hostile fleets captured the islands of Œland and Gothland. +Charles XI., in a sinister state of mind verging on despair, +at last had his army collected, and entered Halland, where +Danish troops were encountered and defeated at Halmstad. +This gave courage to the Swedes, who soon thought themselves +invincible, when commanded by the young king +himself. Charles received reinforcements through peasant +troops, and was desirous to meet Christian in open battle. +But the Danish army in Scania retreated until forced to +meet the enemy near Lund. Here a bloody and decisive +battle was fought, more than 8,000 men being killed, and +resulting in a victory for the Swedes, who took 2,000 prisoners, +fifty-one cannon, and the whole hostile camp, December +3, 1676.</p> + +<p>In the following year Sweden suffered two defeats at +sea, through the hands of Juel, but won another victory +on land, at Landskrona, when the Danes lost 3,000 men.</p> + +<p>While Charles XI. fought with the courage of despair, +Louis XIV. was supremely victorious over his enemies, soon +appearing as the dictator of Europe, when peace was made +at Nimwegen, in 1679. Finding Charles XI. resolved not +to cede any of his territory, King Louis took a similar +standpoint in his behalf, but contemptuously neglected to +let the Swedish ambassadors take any active part in the +deliberations. Louis XIV. made peace with the emperor,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> +Brandenburg and Denmark on behalf of Sweden, which +country only ceded a small part of East Pomerania to Brandenburg. +Charles XI. deeply felt the insolence of the benevolent +dictator, and forced Christian V. to sign a treaty +of peace at Lund, in 1680, as if Louis XIV. had no part in +it. An agreement was made that Charles XI. should +marry the sister of Christian V., the beautiful Ulrica +Eleonore. Through her gentleness, piety and great benevolence, +she soon acquired fame as one of the noblest queens +of Sweden. Ulrica Eleonore led a quiet life, seldom being +seen at court, where the vain and despotic queen-dowager +held the first place. She was never able to win the affection +of her consort until during her last illness. King +Charles then, for the first time, understood what a treasure +he had held unappreciated at his side, and watched over +her with infinite care, bringing peace and sunshine into her +last days. After her death, in 1693, the king became a +prey to deep sorrow and remorse, which threw added gloom +over his dark countenance. The queen had been active in +upholding a good relation between the Scandinavian countries, +often bitterly opposed by the queen-dowager, in the +interests of Holstein.</p> + +<p>When peace was made, Charles XI. immediately took +action in the matter of reform. He saw his country at the +verge of utter ruin and the crown unable to help it. The peasants +were losing their rights, one by one, and five-sixths of the +crown lands were in the possession of the nobles. Brought +up in ignorance and isolation, finding rottenness and incapability +everywhere, it was no wonder that the king +became strongly imbued by the spirit of absolutism, which +pervaded all Europe. He followed the example of the monarchs +of France and Denmark, learning from them how, by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> +secret agitation and pressure, to make the lower classes +fervently appeal to him to take the absolute power in his +hand. His principal adviser was <i>John Gyllenstierna</i>, a +man of old, celebrated stock, but belonging to the lower +nobility. Gyllenstierna was one of the greatest and most +patriotic statesmen of his day. He first attracted attention +as a champion of the lower nobility against the great lords +for the restitution of crown lands. Raised to dignities and +a high station, he never changed his position to the aristocrats +in power, who thought they could win him over by +favors. Seeing the absolute impossibility of reform, with +the help of the nobles, Gyllenstierna turned to the king, +whose whole confidence he won, inspiring him with plans +of a Scandinavian peace policy, and a reform through the +destruction of the aristocracy. Gyllenstierna died after +having brought to the king his bride, a union which was +the work of this able statesman.</p> + +<p>The Riksdag was convoked to meet October 5, 1680. +Everything commenced quietly. No royal proposition was +made; but a strong agitation had been set in motion +among the four Estates, the three lower ones sending in a +petition to make the royal power absolute, to have a restitution +of crown lands made, and the government, during the +king’s minority, brought to answer for their acts. Similar +requests were sent up from the nobility, after many stormy +scenes at the Riddarhus. Thus, toward the end of the +Riksdag, with the petitions in, came the royal propositions +which, when accepted, in one blow crushed the aristocracy, +as a ruling class, and the antiquated state council, as an +institution, and established the absolute power of the king.</p> + +<p>According to the resolutions of this memorable Riksdag, +which marks a new era in Swedish history, a “grand com<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span>mission” +was selected which fulfilled its duties with the +greatest severity. The members of the former government +and state council were made responsible for their administration, +and themselves, or their heirs, sentenced to pay +smaller or larger sums. Two-thirds of the whole amount +was afterward given up, but the fines were nevertheless +great. Count Nils Brahe, the heir of both Peter Brahe and +Charles Gustavus Wrangel, and the wealthiest man in +Sweden, had to pay something like $600,000 in fines, an +immense sum in those days, and was reduced almost to poverty. +The restitution department, assisted by two commissions, +did equally thorough work under the pressure of the +king. Ten counties and seventy baronies, with a great +number of other crown lands of various classes, were confiscated. +It cost the higher nobility dearly; Count Magnus +de la Gardie, the all-powerful favorite of three monarchs, +lost his immense wealth and died on a little estate left him, +with one single servant out of his former princely retinue. +The work of restitution was carried on without cruelty or +injustice.</p> + +<p>A second restitution was to follow. The propositions +were arranged at the Riksdag of 1682, in the same way +as in 1680. This time the lower nobility was to suffer. All +crown lands rendering less than $600 a year of income had +been spared; now these were confiscated, without exception. +In 1686 followed another blow. The dividends on the state +loans were reduced, and a stipulation made that holders +of bonds must refund what they, up to that date, had received +above the new schedule. The same principle was +applied in the redemption of mortgaged state lands. These +new harsh measures were enforced with a great deal of severity, +with incidental cases of injustice. The king showed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> +clemency only to certain parties in stringent need. The +discontent of the nobles caused many of them to leave the +country, as, for instance, Count Otto William von Kœnigsmarck, +son of the conqueror of Prague, and himself the valiant +defender of Pomerania against the hostile allies. Their +example was followed by many nobles of Livonia, the +measures of the restitution entirely crushing the nobility +of that province, while its peasants, who were slaves, +gained their liberty, and had every reason to bless the +Swedish government.</p> + +<p>The power of absolutism grew steadily stronger. The +king decided all matters alone, and prepared in advance the +measures he proposed to the Riksdag, of whose sanction +he was as independent as of that of the old state council. +All officers and institutions were also changed in name from +“state” to “royal” servants and instruments. The university +professors were instructed to impress the students +with the necessity and divine rights of an absolute ruler. +The nobles were alone in their discontent. The other +classes, especially the peasants, looked with satisfaction +and approval on the work which crushed the enemies of +their liberty and prosperity, and submitted willingly to the +absolute power because it was in the hands of a patriotic +king.</p> + +<p>Charles XI. used the revenues of the restitutions principally +for the reorganization of army and navy. For the +former he reintroduced a system which Gustavus Adolphus +had applied, the so-called <i>Indelningsverk</i> (work of division), +which, elaborated upon and firmly established by +Charles XI., became the foundation of the Swedish army +system. The whole country was divided into small sections, +which were each to support an infantry soldier, or a sea<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span>man, +and larger ones to support a cavalry soldier. This +soldier received a hamlet with earth to till within his section, +paying for it by work to the farmers or squires, while +these paid for his equipment. In times of war the state +paid his expenses. This changed the troublesome army +element into useful members of state in times of peace. +The officers were given small estates by the crown for their +support. The army consisted, at the death of Charles XI., +of 65,000 men, well equipped. On the coast of Bleking +extensive navy yards were built by Count Hans Wachtmeister +and Eric Dahlberg, in a new town called Carlscrona. +At great expense, the best fleet ever under Swedish +command was constructed by Wachtmeister, who enjoyed the +full confidence of the king. His excellent means wherewith +to conduct a successful war, Charles XI. used to maintain +a dignified peace, of which his country was badly in need. +Bengt Oxenstierna held the reins of diplomacy, which had +no attraction for Charles XI. The old alliance with France +was broken off and close connections with William of +Orange established for the maintenance of peace. Sweden +regained its prestige, rising to a power whose support was +sought by all. When William became king of England, +Sweden was a member of the alliance against Louis XIV., +but contributed to the great European war only a few thousand +soldiers, according to agreement, preserving, together +with Denmark, an armed neutrality. Charles XI. lived +to the proud moment when the powers selected Sweden as +an arbiter in the deliberations for peace in Riswick, a +worthy satisfaction gained over the earlier insolence of +Louis XIV.</p> + +<p>Charles XI. improved the administration by filling the +offices of the excellent institutions with excellent men. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> +he obtained by enforcing the necessity of obeying orders, +supplying officials of all ranks, from the lowest upward, +with new regulations which must be obeyed, also regulating +their salaries. Sweden never had a greater lover of law +and order than Charles XI., and he used his absolute power +in their interests, trying to remold the old laws to suit modern +requirements, and having a new church law, a masterpiece +in its line, introduced. The church itself and its men +had in Charles XI. an interested friend. New catechism, +hymn book and ritual were prepared, and a new translation +of the Bible completed, being published after his death. +Commerce and mining industries were encouraged, while +agriculture improved with the improvement of the financial +conditions of the peasants. Charles XI. was not +only a “peace king,” but a “peasant king,” who was +ardently devoted to the improvement of the education and +financial circumstances of the country population. He was +of broadly democratic inclinations, finding his delight in +moving among the humble and lowly as one of them. The +peasants, who had been brushed aside by the great and +powerful, were now brought to the front and took an +active and important part in the affairs of state. Charles +ruled over them with a stern husbandry, and asked great +sacrifices of them for the maintenance of an armed defence; +but no king has accomplished more in their true interest +than he, or remains more clearly in their memory and traditions. +He travelled continually through the country, avoiding +the places where he would be received with ceremony, +stopping in the houses of the farmers, and enjoying heartily +what comfort these offered. In his appearance he was +far from prepossessing. His features were not devoid of +beauty, but gloomy; his figure strong and vigorous, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> +not impressive. Through an accident while hunting he +became slightly lame. Although dearth and hard times +set in during the last years of his reign, causing terrible +losses of life through hunger and prostration, he could +plainly tell the beneficent results of his administration. +Charles XI. took the reins of state when disastrous war +ravished a country which seemed doomed to destruction. +He left it reformed, reorganized, rejuvenated and prosperous +at his death, in 1697.</p> + +<p>The Period of Political Grandeur in Swedish history +falls within the epoch of the history of art which has been +called <i>Barocco</i>, an unbalanced offspring of the Renaissance, +and a style characterized by great complicity, pretensions +and ambitions, a renaissance in wigs of formidable proportions. +After the great victories of the Thirty Years’ War, +it seems as if the interchange of influences between art, +literature, science, politics and religion was increased. The +whole era becomes a Barocco period of bombast and chauvinism, +the climax being reached in the form of the absolute +monarchy of the age.</p> + +<p>In Sweden, as elsewhere, there was no lack of men of +ability and brilliant genius; but, influenced by the spirit +of their time, the works of most of them were bombastic +and chauvinistic, like the artistic and political aspirations +of the era. The artists were, as were at first the scholars, +mostly foreigners. The native and imported scholars +were characterized by great learning and versatility, but +abused their genius by Utopian theories and vainglorious +dreams, and violated the laws of history and sound +research.</p> + +<p>Olof Rudbeck was not only the most learned and brilliantly +gifted scholar of his day, but his genius also embod<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span>ies +the eccentricities of the period in gigantic outlines. He +was born at Westeros, in 1630, his father being the learned +bishop, Johannes Rudbeckius. As a boy, he gave evidence +of rare artistic and mechanic talents. He made +drawings of exquisite designs, constructed clock mechanisms +of wood, and was a skilled musician. His character +was proud and violent. At sixteen he was through with +his college course and ready to enter the university. The +youth could not stand the change from his coarse jacket +and fur coat into a coat of broadcloth with buttons such +as the students wore, and was for his overbearing manner +punished by his severe father with an additional year of +college work. At the University of Upsala he caused from +the start great surprise by his knowledge in all subjects. +He devoted his attention chiefly to natural science, which, +in that day, was a neglected study, and soon excelled his +professors.</p> + +<p>At twenty, Rudbeck made a scientific discovery of great +importance, which caused a stir in the whole learned world. +By his discovery and theory of the lymphatic ducts, the +blood circulation of the human body received a satisfactory +explanation. Before the circle of scholars which surrounded +Queen Christine, Rudbeck was allowed to demonstrate his +anatomical discoveries, in 1652. Queen Christine, who +earlier had been an admirer of his beautiful voice and +musical abilities, loaded him with praise and gave him the +means for a journey abroad. Rudbeck returned, in 1660, +to Sweden, and was appointed professor of medicine at the +University of Upsala. He planned the first botanic garden +in the country, donating it to the university. He had illustrations +made of the native plants and commenced a learned +work on botany. The first hall of anatomy was erected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> +according to his proposition. As rector of the university, +he established several important reforms, in spite of opposition, +but supported by the chancellor, Magnus Gabriel de la +Gardie, who was his friend and protector. To the stupendous +mastery of all sciences, Rudbeck added a skill and +cleverness in various branches of practical activity which +made him carry, with honor, the nickname of “master at +all trades.” He was an excellent financier, who succeeded +in restoring the sound economy of the university. He built +a fish pond, from which the tables of the learned professors +were regularly supplied with fish. A book store and a book-printing +establishment were erected by him, and for a time +run at his expense. He repaired windmills, built houses, +provided the university town with water works and street +pavement, also arranging its postal service. Rudbeck was +one of the finest composers and singers of his day, conducting +the musical exercises at the university. He made fireworks +and compasses for the Swedish navy, built fountains +and organs, was a good poet and painter and an excellent +etcher and drawer.</p> + +<p>Rudbeck does not owe his great renown to his mastery +of any of these trades, arts or sciences, nor to any discovery, +reform or invention by his versatile genius. It was his +monumental work, “Atland or Manheim,” generally called +“The Atlantica,” which made him world-famous. For +centuries one had believed in the statement made by Jordanes, +and based upon traditions current among his people, +that the Goths who conquered Rome had migrated from the +North, and that their ancestors, from the remotest period, +were inhabitants of Sweden. Johannes Magnus constructed +a line of Swedish kings, beginning with Magog, +the son of Japhet, on the basis of which the sons of Gus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span>tavus +Vasa, Eric XIV., and Charles IX., had accepted +their high ordinals. In the time of Rudbeck it was considered +a supremely praiseworthy effort to glorify the fatherland +by strengthening its claims to a high antiquity. Rudbeck, +the remarkable savant and able poet, got his head +turned by the political grandeur of his country. He had +in his youth read the story of Atlantis, found in Plato. +Rudbeck undertook to prove, in “The Atlantica,” that the +lost island, with its ancient ideal state from which the gods +of antiquity were supposed to hail, was identical with Sweden. +The work, in four large volumes, was written in Swedish +and Latin of parallel columns. The first volume was +printed in 1675, Rudbeck having made the types himself. +In Sweden the work was greeted with an enthusiasm which +had no bounds. The second volume was published by +funds which Charles XI. with great generosity placed at +the author’s disposal. The third volume was dedicated +to the youthful Charles XII., a true child of the chauvinistic +epoch, who hailed the book with delight. The fourth +volume was in press when Upsala was destroyed by fire, +in 1702. The aged Rudbeck led the battle against the +ravaging element, by supreme exertions saving the university +halls, at the expense of his home, his press and +manuscripts, and the rest of the town. Rudbeck died in +the autumn of the same year.</p> + +<p>The elaborate construction which Rudbeck had completed +by means of ingenious deductions and learned guesswork +succumbed with the political grandeur of Sweden. +“The Atlantica,” which once had its place beside the Bible +on the tables of the mighty ones, was ridiculed and forgotten. +On the continent of Europe, where similar books +had been written in Germany and Holland, making for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> +these respective countries similar claims, “The Atlantica” +was at first received with surprise and admiration, later +with doubt and criticism. The work, in spite of its mistakes, +proved a foundation for archæological research, which +gradually was developed into a science. In order to support +the boldest and most impossible theories, the almost +unparalleled power of combination of an eminent genius +has brought together material which for the first time gave +the suggestion of relationship between the Teutonic and the +classical languages of Greece and Rome. Rudbeck was +also the first to point out the unmistakable resemblance of +the Old Norse and classical mythologies, as to the origin +of which modern scholars have reached no absolute certainty, +but radically different conclusions. The importance +which Rudbeck placed upon popular customs and traditions +was too great, but it has favorably influenced later students +of ethnography and folk lore.</p> + +<p>If Rudbeck had limited himself to the demonstration that +Sweden has been not the cradle of all races, but the original +home of the Teutonic branch of the Aryan race, he might +have been able to offer a theory, the truth of which modern +science lacks, and forever may lack, the resources to +disprove.</p> + +<p>Rudbeck had not been entirely without opponents in +Sweden. The most noted among them was John Peringskiold, +who criticised the opinion expressed by Rudbeck that +the Runes were the oldest alphabet of the world. Peringskiold +was a fine Icelandic scholar, and the first editor of +Snorre Sturleson’s “Heimskringla.”</p> + +<p>A typical and highly valuable illustrated work from this +period is the “Svecia Antiqua et Hodierna,” by Eric Dahlberg, +the renowned quartermaster of Charles X. The text,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> +written by Dahlberg and translated into Latin by several +scholars, was never published, the magnificent engravings +not before 1716. The latter give an impressive portrayal +of architectural Sweden during the reigns of the three +Charleses, but are not quite reliable, as some of the +castles and palaces in this work are provided with additions +and embellishments which were never more than +projected.</p> + +<p>There is no family who has wielded a greater influence +over the Swedish church than that of Benzelius. The +founder of the house, Eric Benzelius the Elder, and three +of his sons were archbishops of Sweden, and two of his +grandsons bishops of the state church. The first Archbishop +Benzelius, born in 1632, was the son of a peasant, +and took his name from the farm of Bentseby, of Lulea +parish, in Norrland, where he was born; he and the three +of his seven sons who were archbishops refused to be +ennobled, the other members of the family adopting the +name of Benzelstierna. The earlier generations of the +family produced men of great talent and power, to whom +the third one, although consisting of able men, could not +be compared. The influence of this family in matters of +religion, science and culture was strongly felt during the +period of more than one century. The most remarkable +member was Eric Benzelius the Younger, one of the most +learned, active and patriotic men ever born in Sweden. +Like the other members of the family, he perfected his +education at foreign universities and made the personal +acquaintance of Leibnitz, Thomasius, Malebranche, and +other celebrated scholars. He was a historian, literary +critic and philologist of merit, writing a history of Sweden +and preparing an edition of Codex Argenteus, published<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> +in London after his death. He was highly appreciated by +Charles XII., and was a friend of Polhem and Swedenborg, +being married to a sister of the latter. Eric Benzelius was +appointed archbishop, but died, in 1742, before he had +entered office.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</a><br /> +<span class="smaller"><i>Period of Political Grandeur—Charles XII</i></span></h2> + +<p>Charles XII., the most famous of Swedish kings, +was a boy of fifteen at the death of his father. He +was born June 17, 1682, at the castle of Stockholm. +The astrologers declared that Sweden was to receive a new +war-lord, and that time they were not mistaken. Charles +XII. was born in the same year as the absolute monarchy +of Sweden, which power he was to abuse in such a great +measure. Shortly after his birth, one of the speakers of the +knightly chapter house, Justice Gyllencreutz, said while +warning against the consequences of an absolute power: +“A king may come who follows his own will, being more +fond of war than peace, or utterly extravagant. History +proves that changes of the constitution generally are beset +by dangerous consequences; yea, that they often have +brought destruction to the country and its people.” These +words were prophetic.</p> + +<p>The early education of Charles was supervised by his +mother, sweet Ulrica Eleonore, who taught him piety, +modesty, gentleness and justice by her own example. He +participated with earnestness in the morning and evening +prayers, kneeling before the only Lord he ever acknowledged +as his superior. His mother died when Charles was +seven years of age, but the devotion in which he held her<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> +he fixed upon his sisters, Hedvig Sophie and Ulrica Eleonore, +but especially upon the former. His religious feeling +was deep and sincere, and he evinced early a love of truth, +justice and pure morals which, like his brotherly devotion, +followed him through life. The most remarkable trait in +a son of Charles XI. was his power of self-control; but he +was his father’s superior also in intellectual gifts, such +as a ready memory, a good apprehension and a sharp discernment. +His faults were early developed, and met, after +the death of his parents, no restraint. He was taciturn, +unapproachable, proud, self-willed and headstrong. He had +from his grandfather inherited an ambition for the vain +glory of war, which was led astray by his unrestrained power +of imagination. From the age of five he was taught by the +learned professor, Andreas Norcopensis, ennobled under the +name of Nordenhielm, to whom he was very devoted and +under whose guidance he received a good general education. +The plain, able scholar influenced the young prince +in a wholesome manner. When his teacher asked him how +an honest man ought to be, the pupil, then seven years of +age, answered: “He should be gentle but of great courage; +fierce like a lion to his enemies, gentle like a lamb to those +at home.” To the question if it were not better to avoid +dangers in order to save one’s life, the little Charles answered: +“No, it would be a shame to live in such a +manner.”</p> + +<p>Charles XI. had drawn an outline of the course which +the education of his son was to follow. The first place +was given to study of the Bible and the Christian doctrines +and the severe practice of religion. The prince was to +learn Swedish and German early, to receive instruction +in the laws and constitution of his country, and in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> +science of war, and to be trained in the arts of military +drill, fencing and riding on horseback. He soon acquired +the faculty of speaking Latin fluently, in the ordinary +mechanical way, and learned some French. When his +first governor, Eric Lindskiold, tried to interest him in the +latter language by pointing out its usefulness in diplomatic +intercourse with the French ambassador, the prince answered: +“If I meet the king of France I will converse with +him in his own language. When a French ambassador +comes here, it is more appropriate that he learns Swedish +on my account than I French on his.” His favorite studies +were strategy and mathematics, which he made under +the Swedish general, Charles Magnus Stuart. He often +said that the one who was ignorant of mathematics was +only a half human being. Charles was fond of riding the +horses of his father, and followed the latter on his adventurous +journeys and hunts. When only twelve years of age +he killed his first bear. He early developed the reckless +courage which made him so famous. Charles was exceedingly +fond of reading the Eddic poems and the old hero +Sagas of the North. He said he wanted to resemble the +ancient hero kings, and wished he had, like many of them, +a brother who would remain at home to rule the country +in peace, while he, with his warriors, made a tour of the +world. The prescription, made by his father, that the +prince should be taught to make a moderate use of his +absolute power, was, if carried out, of little consequence. +Charles mourned deeply the losses of his mother and of his +first teacher, Nordenhielm, which followed close upon each +other, seeking, after that, more the company of his father. +Charles XI. had a long private conversation with his son +shortly before his death, pointing out the men in whom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> +he could confide. Among these Charles Piper occupied +a conspicuous place. He remained ever the adviser of +Charles XII., but never had his full confidence. The enigmatic +king confided in nobody, and passed through life +without opening his heart to any one.</p> + +<p>Charles XI. had appointed a government to reign during +the minority of his son, to be presided over by Queen-dowager +Hedvig Eleonore. But the Estates of the Riksdag, +at the request of the nobility, declared Charles XII. +of age when only fifteen. The young king placed the crown +upon his head with his own hands at the coronation, and +took charge of the government in November, 1697. Bengt +Oxenstierna remained at the head of foreign affairs as the +president of the chancery, while Charles took personal +interest in continuing the life work of his father, the +restitution of crown lands, which still went on. Charles +Piper, who had been quite active in obtaining an early +majority for the king, was raised to the dignity of a count, +and became one of the most influential members of the state +council. Charles was not influenced by anybody in spite +of his youth. He listened to what the councillors had to +say, then announced his resolutions with terse independence. +He refused firmly the appeals of the nobility to reduce +the demands of the work of restitution. He abolished +the practice of torture, in spite of the unanimous vote of the +state council to the contrary. When the aged Bengt Oxenstierna +was anxious to have annulled a treaty with France, already +signed, the young king answered tersely: “You have +heard my opinion; I am the one who signed the treaty.” +Charles took, in general, little interest in foreign affairs, +except those concerning Holstein, to the duke of which +country his elder sister was married.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span></p> + +<p>The exuberant spirits of the youthful Charles found an +outlet in daring exploits and plays of war. The somewhat +older man, Count Arvid Bernhard Horn, the commander of +the royal body-guard, took an active part in these as the +most intimate comrade of the king. They went bear-hunting +together, with wooden forks as their only weapon, fought +naval battles with hand-spurts, made breakneck rides on +horseback, etc. When the king was near being drowned +in one of these “naval battles,” the only ones that Charles +XII. ever fought, he was saved by Arvid Horn, who pulled +him up by the hair. When Horn in some other game was +badly hurt and taken ill, the king kept the night watch at +his bedside. Upon the visits of Duke Frederic of Holstein, +the two young princes indulged in escapades of the wildest +kind, if one were to believe the reports made by the foreign +ambassadors at Stockholm to their respective governments, +and chiefly founded upon hearsay. His application to state +affairs was almost constant and very arduous, for which +reason these reports of the escapades and adventures of the +youthful king are probably wild exaggerations, or mere +fables.</p> + +<p>The reports of a young inexperienced king who gave +up his time to sport and pastimes spread abroad, and the +enemies of Sweden were led to believe that an opportune +moment was come for an attack on the empire which held +the balance of power in Northern Europe. Peter the Great, +one of the most remarkable men of modern history, was +czar of Russia. Engaged in his heroic task of reorganizing +his barbarous empire to a modern European state, he was +desirous of obtaining harbors on the coast of the Baltic, +from which sea he was cut off by the Swedish possessions. +August, a cousin of Charles XII., who was elector of Sax<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span>ony +and king of Poland, was anxious to take possession +of Livonia. King Frederic IV. of Denmark, also a cousin of +Charles, wished to suppress the duke of Holstein, who had +gained independence, thanks to the assistance of Sweden. +Czar Peter and King August entered into a secret alliance +with each other. While negotiations for continued peace with +Sweden were still pending, the Russians secretly crossed +the boundary in Ingermanland, Saxon troops entered Livonia, +and the king of Denmark took possession of Holstein. +The Swedish council of state was amazed at this +triple danger. Charles simply remarked that it was strange +that both of his cousins wanted war, and expressed the hope +that God would support him in his righteous cause.</p> + +<p>Charles XII. was eighteen years of age when he entered +this stupendous conflict. He was tall and slender, but +broad-shouldered; he had a sympathetic face, dark-blue +eyes, thin brown hair, and a carriage expressing courage +and an indomitable spirit. Upon entering actual warfare, +Charles renounced all pleasures and comforts. Sharing the +severe discipline of his soldiers, he slept in a tent, ate of +their rude food, and drank nothing but water. The wig, +considered so indispensable in those days, was laid aside +and he dressed, like the men of his body-guard, in a coat +of coarse blue cloth with large brass buttons and yellow +lining. His long sword was hung at a yellow leather +girdle. He wore high boots and yellow trousers made +of skin. In battle he was always found where the danger +was most imminent.</p> + +<p>Charles turned first against Denmark. A Swedish fleet +of forty-eight ships joined the naval forces of equal strength +which the Swedish allies, England and Holland, had sent +to meet it in the Sound. A more powerful combination has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> +never been seen before or after in Scandinavian waters. +Charles embarked with his troops on one hundred Scanian +ships and landed at Elsinore, August 4, 1699. He was +impatient to reach shore, jumped into the water, which +reached to his arms, and was followed by his troops, +who carried their weapons high above the water. A sudden +attack was made on the Danish troops on shore, who +turned and fled. The Swedes made a temporary camp +and prepared themselves for a march on Copenhagen. +King Frederic was struck with terror and hastened to +make peace with the duke of Holstein, who was left in +undisturbed possession of his country through the treaty +of peace at Traventhal. Charles withdrew his troops at +once, although reluctantly, having wished to crush the +power of Denmark. He had maintained the strictest discipline +in his camp, and treated the inhabitants of the country +with gentleness. The Danish peasants, who abundantly +brought necessary provisions, said to the king: “You do +us no harm because you are the son of our pious Ulrica +Eleonore.” The king answered: “What I have done I +have been forced to do. But rest assured that I shall from +this day be the upright friend of your king.”</p> + +<p>Charles now turned against Russia. With an army of +somewhat more than 8,000 men he sailed for Ingermanland +to attack the invaders, at least five times as many in numbers, +who were laying siege to the town of Narva. The +majority of the Russian troops consisted of serfs who were +taken directly from their work and were without any military +training. This army of undisciplined serfs was to +a great extent commanded by foreign adventurers. The +news of the approach of the Swedish troops brought consternation. +Several of the Russian officers shed tears, while<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> +the czar quickly left his army to gather more troops. The +remarkable battle of Narva was fought November 20, 1700. +King Charles offered the enemies a battle in the open field, +but when they refused to accept or to come out, he attacked +them in their trenches, which formed a semi-circle around +the town of Narva, with the wings touching the river of the +same name. The war-cry of the Swedes was: “With the +help of God!” Their attack was favored by a snowstorm, +which blew in the faces of the Russians, blinding them. The +enemies could tell that the Swedes were few in numbers, +but thought that reinforcements must be on the way. The +trenches were filled with bundles of fagots, the ramparts +were mounted, and the Russians thrown into confusion. +The Russian cavalry fled at the opening of the artillery fire. +The rest, crushed in between the walls of the town and their +aggressors, tried to escape on every side. The Swedes soon +had cut the immense Russian line of troops in twain at the +centre. The half which consisted of the right wing moved +down to the bridge over the Narva River. But the bridge +gave way under the weight of the first 3,000 men, who +found their graves in the river below. The rest of the right +wing was hedged in between the Swedes and the river. +The regiments of the Russian guards, who were the most +experienced of the troops, fought bravely for some time, +but great confusion ensued among the others, the soldiers +wanting to kill their foreign officers, whom they blamed for +the catastrophe. The chief commander, Duke de Croi, with +several other foreigners, for this reason surrendered to the +king.</p> + +<p>The Russian soldiers of the right wing, abandoned by +their superior officers, made heroic efforts to defend themselves +behind barricades which they erected for the mo<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span>ment. +King Charles hastened to the spot, but was very +near losing his life in passing through a swamp. He sank +so deep that the water rose to his neck, and he could save +himself only by leaving his horse, his sword, and one of his +heavy boots behind in the mud. Without in the least improving +his condition, the king took another horse and +sought his way to the heart of the battle. The Russians +were killed in masses, but did not surrender before King +Charles had taken a Russian battery, thus depriving them +of the last hope of being reunited with the left wing. The +latter, who kept in the vicinity of their trenches, had fought +with a good deal of courage. At nightfall two officers +were sent from the right wing to ask the king for an +armistice, which was granted. King Charles spent the +night in his wet clothes, by the bivouac fire, on the ground, +his head resting in the lap of one of his soldiers. In the +morning, before dawn, two Russian generals arrived, demanding +free leave for the remainder of the right wing. +This was granted, but the superior officers had to remain +as prisoners of war. The commander of the left wing also +opened negotiations. Free leave was granted them upon +the surrender of their arms. It must have been an impressive +sight to see the body of 12,000 Russians, with +heads uncovered, who passed in line by only half as many +Swedes, depositing their banners and arms at the feet of +Charles XII. It was a wise plan to keep as prisoners only +the superior officers, for the Swedes had not the means at +hand to watch and feed so many prisoners as those who +were allowed a free leave. In the battle of Narva 18,000 +Russians were killed or captured; the hostile camp, baggage +and artillery fell into the hands of the victors. +Charles XII. made his solemn entry into Narva, where<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> +Te Deum was sung in the cathedral. Charles with his own +hand crossed out all expressions of vainglory over the success +or disdain of the vanquished which occurred in the +official account of the victory to be sent to Stockholm.</p> + +<p>In the following year Charles XII. turned against his +third enemy, King August. Saxon troops, 10,000 strong, +were joined by 19,000 Russians, and had taken a strongly +fortified position on the southern shore of the river Dvina. +Charles decided to cross the river from Livonia and attack +the enemy. The famous crossing of the Dvina was planned +in all details by Eric Dahlberg, the venerable hero and +engineer from the wars of Charles X. and Charles XI. +Baron Dahlberg died not long after this memorable event. +It was June 27, 1701. The Swedish infantry was carried +across in prams, the cavalry on fleet-bridges provided with +wooden walls on hinges, which, when erect, were a protection +against the fire of the enemy, and, when let down, +formed gangways for the landing. In front of all boats +loaded with hay and straw were sent out, which were +ignited, sending a thick, disagreeable smoke in the face of +the enemy. The artillery in the prams kept up a disastrous +fire. Charles XII. was one of the first to land, and opened +the attack when only half of his infantry had reached the +shore. The Russians soon scattered in wild flight. The +Saxons withstood three powerful attacks, but at last followed +the bad example set by their allies. The battle was +fought and won before the Swedish cavalry had reached +the shore. The bountiful provisions of the scattered army +were captured. The crossing of the Dvina was executed +under the direction of Charles Magnus Stuart and Count +Magnus Stenbock.</p> + +<p>The victories of the young hero king and his valiant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> +soldiers aroused the admiration of all Europe, and much +sympathy was expressed for Sweden, who had so successfully +warded off a deceitful and unjust attack. Charles +XII. received offers of peace from his enemies, but he did +not accept them. He did not believe that his treacherous +neighbors would keep their promises, and he was no doubt +right. He ought to have crushed Russia first, but his victory +over Czar Peter had been too easily acquired to make +him realize the genius, power and resources of this semi-barbarous +enemy. Charles considered King August a more +formidable opponent, which was a mistake; but his suspicion +that the latter would attack him from behind if he +entered Russia would probably have proved to be well +founded had circumstances permitted. So Charles invaded +Poland, resolved to gain by the interior conflict which was +disturbing the peace of that country. He wanted to dethrone +August and select a prince who would keep faith +with Sweden.</p> + +<p>The Polish empire had not taken any active part in the +war against Sweden, but Charles XII. demanded that the +Poles should prove their good faith by dethroning August +and by choosing a native king. When they refused, he let +his army enter Poland. For four years King Charles remained +there, marching from one part of the country to the +other. He conquered the Polish capitals of Warsaw and +Cracow, and several other fortified places, winning over +a considerable group within the nobility. In 1704 the Diet +of Warsaw was called, at which the Polish nobles, in the +presence of Swedish troops under the command of Count +Arvid Horn, were compelled to deprive August of his +crown and elect a new king according to the instructions +of King Charles. The new king chosen was the noble, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> +incapable Stanislav Leczinski, who belonged to an aristocratic +family of little influence and few connections. He +was an upright and highly educated man, but lacked energy. +King August was not willing to abdicate, for which +reason King Charles pursued him into his hereditary land. +The line of march to Saxony went through Silesia, a neutral +country belonging to the empire of Austria. As the +army of August had been allowed to pass this country, +Charles argued that the same right must be granted him +and his troops. At the river Oder, Charles was met by +a number of persecuted Protestants, who, kneeling and +weeping, prayed for his assistance in pleading their cause +before the emperor. Charles promised them to do so, and +kept his word.</p> + +<p>The Swedish army entered Saxony in the year 1706. +The inhabitants, who had in a clear memory the acts of recklessness +and cruelty committed by the troops of John Banér, +fled for their lives, taking along all the property that could +be moved. To their great surprise, they saw the Swedes +encamp themselves as quietly as in time of serenest peace. +No violence was committed. Nothing was taken, except +in exchange for money. But a heavy war tax was imposed, +which made both August and his people inclined to seek an +early end of the war.</p> + +<p>Thanks to the means raised in this manner, the Swedish +army was provided with an entirely new outfit of clothes +and furnished with necessary provisions. Every regiment +established a savings bank of its own, in which the soldiers +deposited their earnings. The castle of Alt-Ranstædt was +the headquarters of Charles XII., situated close by the +memorable battlefield of Lutzen. The sojourn of Charles +XII. in Saxony was an incident of universal importance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> +to the history of Europe. He had with his soldiers approached +the scene of a conflict which was shaking the +whole of Western and Southern Europe. The situation +was such that it for the moment hung at the point of the +victorious sword of Charles XII. The great question was +whether he was resolved to take an active part in the universal +conflict. Charles was besieged at his headquarters +by princes, warriors and statesmen, who came to pay their +respects, desirous of winning his favor and of getting an +idea of his plans. The Swedish invasion of Saxony was +highly beneficial to the interests of France, and Louis XIV. +was the first to admit it, anxious to make the stay of +Charles as long as possible, because it had caused a standstill +in the hostilities against France. The Duke of Marlborough +was among the visitors of Charles XII. He +brought a letter of courtesy from Queen Anne, who wrote +that the letter “came not from her chancery but from her +heart, and was written by her own hand.” She longed +to meet the famous king personally. The duke’s errand was +to find out whether Charles was to join the fighting forces +of Western Europe or to attack Russia. He was glad to +learn that the latter move was the one which the king had +in mind. Although the two great warriors expressed mutual +admiration, neither was sympathetically impressed by +the other. Charles XII. thought Marlborough looked “too +fine” for a soldier, while the latter thought the rude simplicity +of the king an affectation by which to obtain notoriety. +On account of the great influx of distinguished visitors, +the style of living was quite different at the royal +headquarters of Alt-Ranstædt to what it was during the +Polish and Russian wars. But the king kept up the heavy +military drills and long individual expeditions on horseback,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> +which he thought indispensable. One of the first ones of +the latter which he undertook was to visit the battlefield +of Lutzen. The king remembered distinctly all that he +had read about the famous battle, and made clear to his +generals the various positions of the two armies. At +Schwedenstein, the place where Gustavus Adolphus fell, +he lingered for a long while in silence. At last he said: +“I always have tried to live as he did. May God grant +me the grace of dying in like manner.”</p> + +<p>King August was satisfied to conclude a treaty of peace, +which was signed at Alt-Ranstædt. He renounced the +crown of Poland and recognized Stanislav Leczinski as +the legitimate king. August turned over John Reinhold +Patkul, a Livonian traitor, who during the reign of +Charles XI. had made himself disagreeably conspicuous, +and who had been intriguing against Sweden ever since. +Charles XII. was, in gentleness and justice, far in advance +of his contemporaries, but he made an exception to his +ordinary course of clemency in the case of Patkul, who +was executed according to the cruel practice of the time. +When the Swedish army left their camp, after peace was +made, the regiments were for many miles followed by the +grateful inhabitants, who, with tears in their eyes, gave +evidence of their friendship. The reason was that the good-natured +soldiers of the regular army had followed the habits +of their country in assisting their temporary hosts in their +various rural pursuits. The Swedes were greeted by the +people of Silesia with great enthusiasm, out of gratitude for +the improved conditions which the emperor had granted +them, at the request of the king. Charles XII. thus +made good, in a measure, the acts of violence committed +by the Swedish army during the Thirty Years’ War,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> +and proved that he had at heart the cause of religious +liberty.</p> + +<p>Czar Peter was now to be punished, when it was too +late. The Russians had invaded the Baltic provinces and +captured the fortress of Nœteborg, which Czar Peter gave +the new and significant name of Schluesselburg. The new +Russian capital of St. Petersburg, with formidable fortresses, +was founded in 1703. The laborers were carried +away by force from the various parts of the immense empire. +They died in great numbers of prostration and of +fevers, the Swedes also doing their best to impede the +progress of the work. The vacancies were rapidly filled +by new multitudes. While the Swedish king was fighting +in Poland, the provinces of Ingermanland, Esthonia and +Livonia were overrun by the Russians, who devastated the +country with acts of cruelty. Dorpat was captured and +Narva fell after a bloody conflict, being bravely defended +by Rudolph Horn. The Russians destroyed the Swedish +navy of the Lake Peipus and penetrated to the province +of Courland where Charles XII. had left a considerable +detachment of troops. The plan of Czar Peter to conquer +Courland and cut off Charles from the connections with his +empire was frustrated by General Adam Louis Lewenhaupt.<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> +He met a formidable Russian force, several times +as numerous as his own, at Gemauerthof, near Mitau, +which he routed, in 1705.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span></p> + +<p>Sweden stood alone in her struggle with Russia. The +old alliance with England and Holland was no longer in +existence. The continental powers were too busily engaged +in the West to assist in checking the rising power of the +Eastern giant. For the limited resources of Sweden he was +too big already. Charles XII. had with him a stately and +well-equipped army of 44,000, which, by contemporary +authors, was pronounced to have consisted of the finest +soldiers of the world. Charles was to attack Russia from +Poland, for the devastated Baltic provinces could no longer +support an army with the necessary provisions. General +Lewenhaupt was to join him from Livonia with an army +of 12,000 men and ample provisions. Another Swedish +commander, General Lybecker, was to attack and destroy +St. Petersburg, with an army of the same size, from his +headquarters in Finland. The total of Swedish troops distributed +in various directions amounted to 100,000, the +largest regular army Sweden ever had put up. Charles +had concluded to engage semi-barbarous allies in a battle +against a semi-barbarous enemy. In 1707 he entered +into an alliance with Turkey, and, about the same +time, another with Mazeppa, an old ambitious Cossack +leader who wanted to establish his supremacy over the +steppes of Russia. The plans of Charles XII. for the invasion +of Russia have often been severely criticised, but +competent judges of our day have declared that they were +not only elaborate but highly ingenious. They miscarried +on account of arrangements which could not be made according +to expectations, and on account of Czar Peter’s practice +of laying bare and waste the parts of his own country +through which the invaders were to pass. Furthermore, +Charles had sent home to Sweden several of his best gen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span>erals, +such as Arvid Horn and Magnus Stenbock. This +was done after the successes in Poland, and was a good +thing in itself, for the men mentioned were exactly those +who were destined to save the very existence and honor +of a country which was deprived of its political grandeur +through the heedlessness of King Charles. But without +them he was surrounded by inexperienced men only. +Charles Gustavus Rehnskiold was the most conspicuous +of these, a valiant but reckless man, who only understood +certain details of the elaborate expedition.</p> + +<p>When the Swedes were approaching Russian territory, +Czar Peter made offers of peace which the French ambassador +urged Charles to accept. Charles answered: “He +does not mean it. He wishes the world to believe that he +wants peace and I war.” Czar Peter had organized his +army through a wonderful exertion of energy, built new +fortresses and strengthened the old ones, enforced discipline +and gathered ammunition. Able officers had been trained +in the repeated conflicts with the Swedes. These took the +lead of the army movements.</p> + +<p>Charles left Poland with somewhat more than 30,000 +men, entering Lithuania and chasing the Russians before +him. A last great victory was won by Charles XII. at +Holovzin in Lithuania, in 1708. The Swedish army crossed +the Dniepr and marched to Mohilev. Charles lingered in +this place for a month, anxiously awaiting the arrival of +General Lewenhaupt. The latter remained in Livonia during +all this time, the letter ordering him to join the central +army not reaching him in due time. The march was continued +toward Smolensk, but King Charles thought that he +could only reach Moscow over that route with the greatest +difficulty, and changed his course, marching toward the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> +Ukraine to join Mazeppa and the Tartars. Mazeppa had +been vexed by the long delay, and was, besides, not able +to gather the forces which he had promised. Czar Peter +captured his stronghold, and Mazeppa reached the Swedish +army more like a fugitive than an ally. The expedition +of General Lybecker against St. Petersburg proved a failure. +Lewenhaupt, who had at last received his order, +moved into Russia. At Liesna he met a hostile army considerably +larger than his own. After a fierce battle, which +involved a great loss of life, Lewenhaupt broke through the +Russian lines. He had been forced to destroy the great +amount of provisions which he had gathered, and reached +the army of King Charles in a very different state than was +anticipated. The king found himself in a difficult position, +being cut off from all connections with his country and in +want of provisions.</p> + +<p>The battle of Pultowa, which was fought June 28, 1709, +decided for centuries the contest over the political supremacy +of Northern Europe. Charles XII., with his army, +which had been reduced to 18,000 men, laid siege to the +important town of Pultowa, by the river Vorskla. The +Russian army, 50,000 strong, under the command of Czar +Peter, hastened toward the enemy. The fear of the terrible +Swedes was as yet so strong in them that they did not +risk an attack, but built a strongly fortified camp. King +Charles, with his army in distress, further reduced to only +12,000 men, and in want even of ammunition, saw no other +way than to fight. He was himself wounded in the foot +and unable to take command in person. General Rehnskiold, +who led the cavalry, acted as general commander +during the battle, which position he was not able to fill; +Lewenhaupt commanded the right wing with decided suc<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span>cess. +He forced the enemy to abandon three of its seven +forts, and saw it once inclined to leave in flight. The left +wing of the Swedish army was brought into disorder and +receded. King Charles, who suffered greatly from his +wounded foot, was carried on a litter between the lines, +encouraging his soldiers and dealing out new orders. The +litter was soon shattered, and the horse which the king +mounted was shot under him. He saved himself by accepting +the horse of one of his officers. Rehnskiold, who appeared +nervous and confused, offered only a lame assistance +with the cavalry. While riding back and forth in his heedless +anxiety to be useful, without obtaining his object, he +rode into the Russian lines and was made a prisoner. The +same fate befell Count Piper, the aged adviser of King +Charles. Lewenhaupt kept up his heroic struggle on the +right wing, but his forces were greatly reduced by the fire +of the Russian artillery. The Swedes had lost the battle. +Their infantry had especially suffered great losses. A great +number of the ablest officers were killed or made prisoners. +As an illustration may be quoted the fact that among the +killed were twenty-two officers of the Wrangel family. +The Russians made no fierce pursuit, and the remnants of +the Swedish army were given time to recede to the shore +of the Dniepr where this river is joined by the Vorskla. +The change of route toward the Ukraine had been made +contrary to the advice of Count Piper; the march to the +Dniepr was made contrary to that of Count Lewenhaupt. +The Swedish troops were in fact shut in between the mighty +rivers, which they lacked the means to cross, and the +surrounding mountains, lined with Russian artillery. +Charles was unwilling to leave his army, but Lewenhaupt +persuaded him to save his life. Mazeppa had crossed the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> +Dniepr with his troops. Charles followed in the night of +July 1st with 1,000 of his men. With 500 Swedes Charles +reached the Turkish town of Bender, where he was at first +resolved to remain only until his wound was healed. Lewenhaupt, +who now was in command, surrendered to the +Russians the following morning, with all the rest of the +army. This course was inevitable; another battle would +only have caused new and useless sacrifices of human lives.</p> + +<p>A sad fate awaited the Swedes in Russian captivity. +Only a few saw their homes again, after years of suffering. +Rehnskiold was among these. The majority, like Lewenhaupt +and Piper, died in captivity. Considerable information +about the experiences of the Swedish prisoners in +Russia is found in their memoirs and note-books, preserved +to this day. It appears that the treatment which they +received varied greatly, according to circumstances. Czar +Peter wished to keep the Swedish captives in the country +as long as possible, with the object of favorably influencing +his barbarous subjects by their superior abilities and culture. +He had commanded clemency in their treatment; but his +orders must have been disobeyed, for many Swedish soldiers +are known to have perished in the sulphur mines. +In Tobolsk and other towns of Siberia, Swedish majors and +captains were in great numbers occupied in the humble +pursuits of teachers, barbers, tailors, painters and blacksmiths. +Some kept shops and others made articles of the +Swedish sloyd, in which there was no competition in the +market. The pastimes were music and theatricals. There +were, among these thousands of prisoners, 9 generals, 17 +colonels, 27 lieutenant-colonels, 38 majors, 494 captains, +975 lieutenants, 67 ministers of the Gospel, etc. A good +many of these were Swedish subjects of German descent,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> +or foreigners in Swedish service. The prisoners tried their +best to make it as pleasant for themselves as possible. They +formed a little community of their own in Moscow, with +Piper and Rehnskiold as their highest officials. Georg +Nordberg, pastor of the body-guards, was made the president +of a chapter-house, which held church conferences, issued +texts for special services, examined and consecrated ministers. +Czar Peter tried to attract some of the ablest officers +to him by promises of liberty and remunerative positions. +Many of the captives, seeing no prospect of freedom, decided +to remain in the country, entered the Greek church +and married Russian women. Some who could not endure +captivity made a revolt at Kasan, killing the armed troops, +and making an attempt to reach their own beloved country. +The plot was frustrated and was of sinister consequences, +for the Swedish captives commenced from that time, 1711, +to be transported to Siberia in great numbers. This was +only to move the important work of civilization eastward. +The captives, instead of succumbing to the severe climate, +unfolded the great energy of their race, cheerfully accommodating +their lives to the new requirements and devoting +their time to travels for scientific research, or mercantile +purposes, in Russian service, or on their own responsibility. +They made accounts and maps of undiscovered and unexplored +parts of Siberia, gathering results which have +been of great importance to later explorers, geologists and +ethnographers. Principal among these scientists are Philip +John von Strahlenberg, whose great book on Siberia was +published in Leipsic in 1730, and John Anton Matérn and +Peter Schœnstrœm, his collaborators; John Gustavus +Renat, made a prisoner by the Kalmucks, whom he +taught the secrets of manufacturing cannon and bombs,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> +and of printing books with movable types; Lorenz Lange, +who was secretary of several Russian embassies to the +imperial court of China, about which country he has given +valuable information; John B. Muller, John Schnitscher +and Ambjœrn Molin. Tobolsk was the centre of the Swedish +colonies in Siberia, where a peculiar sect grew up among +those of deep religious sentiment. A sectarian school, with +more than 100 pupils, was established, and the German +pietist, Aug. Herrman Francke, for some time supported +the movement. Governor Gagarin, who wanted to make +himself ruling sovereign of Siberia, arranged a formidable +conspiracy. It was discovered, the governor was hanged, +and the Swedish captives who were involved in it were sent +still further away to Nerschinsk.</p> + +<p>If Charles XII., up to the date of the terrible battle of +Pultowa, has deserved our sympathy, in spite of his faults +and mistakes, it is impossible to look upon him in the same +charitable light for the rest of his career. The great defeat +and the loss of his army he described in letters to his sister, +Ulrica Eleonore, and the state council, as small misfortunes, +without consequence, which he was soon to repair. +Instead of trying his utmost to obtain peace on the best +possible conditions for his poor country, and instead of +saving his unhappy army from the miseries of captivity, +he made plans for new campaigns and demands for a new +army. Czar Peter expressed more correct views of the +situation. A few hours after the battle of Pultowa he +wrote to Admiral Apraxin: “Now rests at last secure our +city on the Neva.” And he was right. The period of +the political grandeur of Sweden was at an end.</p> + +<p>Great was the renowned heroism of Charles XII. and +his warriors. Still greater, although less renowned, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> +heroism with which his poor and neglected country suffered +the disasters which these glorious deeds brought upon it. +The regular troops of the army created by Charles XI. +had not been sufficient. New regiments were, one after +the other, created by means of increased taxes and repeated +enlistments, until it appeared as if the whole male population +was to be sent out in the endless wars, to be killed or +imprisoned, and the distressed country doomed to inevitable +destruction. Plague, hunger and emigration threatened +to make away with those spared from military service. +Swedes of the nineteenth century have difficulty in apprehending +how the country was able to endure such terrible +hardships.</p> + +<p>The consequences of the defeat at Pultowa soon became +manifest. The enemies of Sweden had formed a better +idea of the resources of the country than had its own ruler, +and were resolved to profit by it. King August at once +declared the treaty of Alt-Ranstædt to be null and void, and +entered Poland, where he in a short time recovered his +lost authority. Stanislav fled and sought a refuge on +Swedish territory. King Charles later gave him his little +hereditary land of Palatinate-Zweibrucken. King Frederic +of Denmark declared war upon untenable grounds and had +an army of 16,000 men invade Scania. Helsingborg was +captured without difficulty. Great consternation was +caused by this assault upon the unhappy and apparently +defenceless country. The state council was brought to +despair. The situation was saved by Count Magnus Stenbock, +the able general. After having served as quartermaster-general +of the Swedish army in Poland, he was sent +back to Sweden, being governor-general of Scania at the +time when this province was invaded. He had not with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> +him the necessary troops to meet the enemy, but left for +Smaland, where he gathered an army of peasants, chiefly +consisting of inexperienced but sturdy youths in wooden +shoes and coats of goatskins. From Vexio, where he had +met his new mustered troops, Stenbock returned to Scania, +in February, 1710, obtaining the reinforcements of a few +additional regiments, which swelled his army to the number +of 14,000 men. The well-equipped Danish force, which, +after an expedition into Bleking, returned to Scania, made +a good deal of fun of the “Stenbuk og hands Gededrenge” +(the mountain buck and his goatherds). Governor Stenbock +understood how to gain the confidence and rouse the +patriotism of his “goatherds.” He was soon sufficiently +sure of their ability to risk a battle, which was fought at +Helsingborg, February 28, 1710. The Danes, commanded +by George Rantzau, were routed, and sought a refuge +behind the walls of the town. The Danish losses were +4,000 killed and wounded and 3,000 prisoners, with their +camp, artillery and baggage. A few days later the Danes +evacuated Scania, returning to Seeland. The victory of +Helsingborg was the most glorious of the battles fought +by Magnus Stenbock. It saved Sweden in the hour of +direst distress, rekindling the hope which the battle of Pultowa +had extinguished. It was the last time in Swedish +history that the Danes entered Scania as enemies.</p> + +<p>The victory at Helsingborg was only one bright star +in a night of darkness. In the Baltic provinces the disasters +followed close upon each other. Count Nils Stromberg, +the governor-general of Livonia, was forced to surrender +the town of Riga, July 1, 1710, after having fought +the Russians for months with great bravery. The enemies +which forced the able Stromberg to give up his cause were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span> +hunger and plagues. Not less than 40,000 Russians had +lost their lives outside the walls of Riga. Within a few +months Duenamuende, Pernau and Reval also surrendered. +This made complete the Russian conquest of the Swedish +empire in the Baltic provinces. The operations against +Finland, begun earlier, were continued with success. The +town and fortress of Viborg, which never had been occupied +by foreign troops, were captured in June, and Kexholm in +September. The country was unmercifully devastated, +in spite of solemn promises to the contrary.</p> + +<p>That under such circumstances discontent against the +absolute ruler was fostered seems only natural. During +the first few years of the Carolinian campaign the noise +of the great victories was stronger than the voices of discontent +and complaint. When the glorious battles were +not followed by treaties of peace, the grumbling voices +grew louder. The king was at first not the object of the +growing discontent, but the state council, which was considered +to make greater demands than were necessary. +The king was supposed to fight for a righteous cause +against treacherous enemies, but the truth dawned on a +good many that a government invested with absolute power +was the cause of the misery. The battle of Pultowa +brought to a mature state the thoughts of a change in the +constitution, thoughts which for years had occupied the +ablest men of the country. The double government was +to a great extent responsible for the bad state of affairs. +The king tried to rule with absolute power from his headquarters +in Saxony, Poland and the Ukraine, with Piper +as his adviser. At home the state council held the reins of +government and sometimes acted in direct opposition to the +instructions or intentions of the king. Charles XII. was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span> +very jealous of his power, and the state council, foremost +in which were a few men of the very highest ability, like +Count Arvid Horn, was on this account sometimes unable +to carry out its best endeavors. Charles by his methods +brought confusion and uncertainty into the deliberations +and acts of the government, injuring the commonwealth +and the principles of an absolute monarchy as well. The +king was not able to supervise the details of his administration, +and unrighteous officers profited thereby, by their +unlawful collections of taxes, causing open revolts of the +suffering population in various parts of the country.</p> + +<p>The state council took no pains to hide the truth from +the king, rather using strong colors in their descriptions +of the critical condition in order to obtain the much-sought-for +and needed peace, or at least the gratification of seeing +the armies of the country used exclusively for the defence +of its own possessions. King Charles considered the members +of the state council as a body of weaklings, cowards +and fools, who painted the devil on the wall because they +lacked the courage and endurance to await the final and infallible +triumph of his royal arms in a righteous cause. +The climax was reached after the arrival of Charles at +Bender. The state council commenced to negotiate for +peace on its own responsibility. It also convoked a committee +of the Estates of the Riksdag to a meeting for deliberations +on measures which would better the hopeless conditions +of the state and people. King Charles learned of it +and sent from Bender a remarkable order, in which he absolutely +forbade such meetings, “especially because the last +convention of the Estates,” he wrote, “had no other consequence +than to let them still plainer discover their impoverished +condition.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span></p> + +<p>King Charles lingered in Bender, fascinated by the plans +made by several Turkish princes of an armed support +against his enemies, or at least an escort of troops for his +return through Poland. The king succeeded in his efforts +to force the sultan of Turkey to an attack on Russia. The +Turks, 200,000 strong, made an invasion, according to plans +drawn up by Charles, and were successful in completely +surrounding a Russian army, commanded by Czar Peter in +person, at the shores of the river Pruth. The czar saved +himself by a supreme effort, sacrificing all his gold and the +jewels of the czarina as bribes to the grand vizier, who commanded +the Turkish army. This dignitary let the Russians +escape, thus spoiling the plans of the whole campaign. To +Charles it was a great disappointment. His hope to see the +Russian giant crushed, and the defeat at Pultowa avenged, +was gone forever. His plan of reaching Poland with +Turkish troops to join Stenbock and a Swedish army was +shaken with the loss of confidence in his barbarous allies. +The perfidious grand vizier was punished, but the agreement +of peace which he had made with the czar was sanctioned +by the sultan, in 1711.</p> + +<p>The Swedish state council was quite reluctant to obey +the repeated orders of the king for a new army, hesitating +to impose new burdens upon the suffering people. The king +grew impatient and there was no escape possible. Magnus +Stenbock, the most popular man in all Sweden, set an +example of personal sacrifices which was followed by many +others, and a new army of 9,000 men was at last equipped +with a navy to carry it across the Baltic to Pomerania. +Stenbock landed in the island of Rugen, in September, +1712, and increased his army to 14,000. He abandoned +the idea to march toward Poland because the king remained<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> +at Bender, and entered Mecklenburg after having skilfully +avoided meeting a superior force of Russian and Saxon +troops, which followed him at a distance. Negotiations +of peace had been commenced before the arrival of Stenbock, +between the dethroned Stanislav of Poland, who was then +in Pomerania, and King August. This caused a standstill +in the operations, an armistice of a fortnight having been +agreed to, with a prospect of renewal. The Danes made +an end to it, entering Mecklenburg in December. When the +armistice was at an end, Stenbock hastened with his troops +to Gadebusch, where the Danish army was encamped, by +this rapid move preventing the latter from joining the Russian +and Saxon forces. Only a detachment of Saxon cavalry +had succeeded in reaching the Danish camp. The +battle of Gadebusch was fought December 9, 1712, and +was the last of the great victories on land that a Swedish +army ever won on the Continent. The Danes were crushingly +defeated, and their allies found it safest to return to +their former fortified positions. The Swedish artillery, +commanded by Charles Cronstedt, distinguished itself in +this battle against an enemy of superior strength. But +Stenbock could not for any length of time keep up the +struggle against the armies of three countries, not receiving +any support from Sweden, nor sufficient provisions in Mecklenburg. +When the Danes burned the town of Stade, Stenbock +in revenge burned Altona, toward the end of the year. +His army was reduced for lack of provisions, and Stenbock +saw no other course to take than to shut himself up with +his troops in the fortress of Tœnning, in the possession of +the young duke of Holstein-Gottorp. Stenbock persevered +in his hopes for support from Sweden, or friendly powers, +in vain. Efforts were made in Sweden to send him troops<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> +and provisions, but did not prove successful. When death +from starvation was impending, the valiant general concluded +to surrender. May 6, 1713, it was agreed that Stenbock +and his army of 11,000 men should become Danish +prisoners, but that they should be exchanged at the earliest +opportunity. King Frederic IV. of Denmark dishonestly +neglected to fulfil this agreement, repeatedly and flatly +refusing to exchange any of the prisoners. The hero of +the victories at Helsingborg and Gadebusch at first received +a tolerably good treatment in Danish captivity, which later +was changed in a horrible manner. After years of cruel +suffering, he died in a miserable dungeon, in 1717, one year +prior to the death of Charles XII. This great descendant +of Eric Stenbock and Magdalen Sture tried to kill the time +of his captivity by carving in ivory, some articles of exquisite +design by his hand still being preserved.</p> + +<p>At the surrender of Tœnning, Sweden lost her last +army and her ablest general. Her king dwelt among the +Turks in circumstances fraught with increasing dangers, +and her enemies on every side stood ready for attack, the +country being a prey to discontent and despair. Still her +measure of misery and contumely was not filled.</p> + +<p>Charles XII. persevered in his strange sojourn at Bender, +being a guest who caused the sultan continual worry +through his great political influence. The king was resolved +to leave Turkey only in one manner, and that was +escorted by a Turkish force. He was successful in persuading +the sultan to declare war on Russia once more, but Czar +Peter hastened to make so many concessions that peace was +made before any campaign was begun. King Frederic of +Prussia offered Charles an alliance on the condition that +he should at once return to Sweden. Charles seemed at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> +last inclined to do so, but then a conspiracy was brought +to his notice, disclosing a plan by which the perfidious +Turkish princes of his intended escort were to deliver him +into the hands of King August of Poland. King Charles +refused to leave Poland, and the conspirators effected an +order from the sultan to attack Charles with an army of +10,000 men, and bring him, dead or alive, to Adrianople. +The order was executed February 11, 1713, Charles defending +himself with his few hundred Swedes and some +Poles of his escort against the overwhelming force of Turks +and Tartars. The house of the king, near Bender, had +been strongly fortified for the occasion. When the trenches +were taken most of his men surrendered, but Charles remained +with fifty Swedes in the house, which was built +of wood, warding off the attack and putting the enemy +to flight with a heroism vividly recalling the tales of the +ancient Sagas. The Turks returned toward evening and +ignited the building. The Swedes valiantly continued their +struggle, fighting with their swords against the Turks, surrounded +by heavy fire and by the smoke of the burning +building. The king at last was forced to leave the house +and tried to make his way to the neighboring chancery +building, which was of stone and better fit to withstand +an attack. Charles stumbled and fell, and was at once +made prisoner, together with his followers. This peculiar +incident, which has been called the Kalabalik, or Popular +Tumult, of Bender, aroused universal surprise and dislike. +Charles was conducted to a Turkish pasha, who treated him +with respect. He was under supervision first at the town +of Demotika, later at the palace of Timurtasz, both in the +vicinity of Adrianople. Charles considered it incompatible +with his royal dignity to call on the grand vizier. For this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> +reason it was given out that he was ill, and in his miraculous +stubbornness he persevered in keeping his bed for a +whole year! During all this time, Charles followed up his +policy of governing Sweden from afar with absolute despotism. +He prepared new rules for the chancery, attempting +to change the form of administration from one of faculties, +or colleges, to one of departments, or bureaus. He made +negotiations of peace in the same spirit as of yore, viz., +without being willing to make any concessions, and planned +new campaigns. For recreation he played chess and listened +to music.</p> + +<p>In Sweden the peculiar Turkish adventures of Charles +XII. were not understood or appreciated, and the country +seemed forsaken by all, even by the king, who by many +was thought to be insane. The state council saw no possibility +of maintaining a government without the consent +and goodwill of the people. Plans for a new constitution, +a reduction of the royal power and a peace at any cost +were in the air. Princess Ulrica Eleonore was called as +a member of the state council and a Riksdag was convoked, +to meet toward the end of 1713. The Estates declared that +they were, in case of necessity, ready to seek peace under +the auspices of the princess and the state council, and were +in favor of appointing the princess to the regency. Arvid +Horn, the leading spirit of the state council, used the utmost +of his influence in keeping the Riksdag from the revolutionary +acts which would be involved in making Ulrica +Eleonore regent, but he saw to it that the declaration of the +Riksdag, of intended peace-making through the princess +and state council, was communicated to the king. Hans +Henric von Liewen, one of the state councillors, was +selected to carry this communication to the king, together<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span> +with letters from the queen-dowager and the state +council. Count Liewen gave a full and true account +to the king, telling him in plain words that if he did +not return home without delay his kingdom would be +lost to him.</p> + +<p>King Charles at last decided to return to his country. +He sent an embassy of seventy-two people to officially +announce his departure to the sultan at Constantinople, +made a loan of a considerable sum of money, and left +Demotika with a large escort. In Wallachia he left the +Turks behind, and continued on his way through Hungary +and Germany, followed by two Swedish officers. The +emperor of Germany, who was desirous of winning over +the Swedish king for his plans, prepared a hospitable reception, +but Charles passed Vienna <i>incognito</i> as Captain Peter +Frisk. He rode on, through night and day, taking care +of his own horse and never changing his clothes. Charles +arrived at the gate of Stralsund, in Swedish Pomerania, +in the night of November 11, 1714, accompanied by one +officer. In a fortnight he had, on horseback, traversed a +stretch of 1,300 miles.</p> + +<p>The situation at the arrival of Charles XII. in Stralsund +was beset with new dangers and complications. Prussia +had ceased to be friendly and was planning to seize the +Swedish possessions in Germany. Hanover, united with +England under the same ruler, had the same ambition. +The dilapidated fortifications of Stralsund were attacked +by Saxons and Danes, commanded by their respective +kings, August and Frederic. For more than a year, +Charles, with admirable heroism, withstood the siege. +Once, while the king was dictating a letter to a secretary, +the latter sprang to his feet in consternation, a bomb hav<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span>ing +shattered the roof of the building. “The bomb, your +majesty, the bomb!” exclaimed the scribe. Charles answered: +“What connection is there between the bomb and +my letter?” quietly continuing his dictation. The king +found it at last impossible to keep up the defence of Stralsund, +leaving it a stormy December night, and arriving +safely in the town of Trelleborg, on the southernmost point +of Sweden, December 15, 1715.</p> + +<p>What a different country that Sweden was which +Charles XII. left in August, 1699, at the very summit +of her political grandeur, to the impoverished and suffering +Sweden in which he had now landed! And what a different +man he had himself become during these sixteen years +of absence! Sweden had won a new hero king, of greater +fame than any of his predecessors or successors, but lost +her prosperity for the time being and her political grandeur +forever. The people received the king with demonstrations +of joy and with reviving hope for an honorable peace. The +state council and the intelligent few received him with +badly concealed hopelessness and indifference. They knew +that although the young ambitious king had changed to +a world-famous hero, prematurely aged in victory and +defeat, the unyielding stubbornness and the never satiated +desire for glory had remained unchanged in Charles XII. +Charles was met by a message from the dying queen-dowager, +his grandmother, with an ardent prayer for peace. +Charles answered to hopes and prayers, to silent indifference +and despair, with a command of more money and more +troops! He wanted peace, but as he spoke in the same +terms as when he was the victorious commander of an +apparently invincible army, nobody cared to consider his +demands in earnest. The absolute power reached its last<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> +stage of development, a military despotism which had no +other policy than war, no other administration than the +one requisite to maintain and provide the requirements of +war. The state council fell in deepest disgrace, and its +functions ceased, in 1715.</p> + +<p>During the last years of his reign, Charles XII. took no +advice of Swedish men. Foreign adventurers and schemers +were in charge of the affairs of state, principal among +whom was Baron George Henric Gœrtz. This man was +a minister of state of the young duke of Holstein-Gottorp, +in whose service he remained, and in whose interests, as a +successor to Charles XII. on the throne of Sweden, he zealously +worked, while developing into the all-powerful minister +of the Swedish king. Charles granted him authority +to act in his name in almost every branch of the government, +interior as well as foreign. Gœrtz was a genius, but +utterly reckless. For his acts the king was responsible, not +he. Gœrtz was a foreigner and working for the cause of +a foreign master. He tried to obtain loans abroad, made +compulsory loans within the country, placed a tax on +articles of luxury, and put in circulation coins of copper +which were a kind of “promissory notes,” worthless in themselves, +but each representing a Swedish dollar. At first +these “coins of need” were issued to the amount of a sensible +sum, but were soon increased in number at the command +of Charles XII. himself, so that they represented higher +sums than the crown could redeem, and thus lost their +value. The people refused to take them, while the prices +of everything in the market rose to an astounding height. +The government, in order to save itself from this difficulty, +took possession of all coined money and uncoined silver, and +gave the “coins of need” in exchange, perpetrating several<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> +other scandalous acts of violence against the rights of private +property.</p> + +<p>The situation grew almost insupportable. Commerce +and industry, injured by the war, ceased entirely because +nobody was inclined to sell, only to receive in exchange +worthless coins. Wars and hard years combined in creating +misery and distress everywhere. The peasants were recklessly +treated, and a disregard for moral obligations grew +out of the bad examples set by the government. The +students and scientists had in great numbers been carried +away by the bloody wars, and the interest in the fields +of culture was slackened by the power of financial depression. +The wealthy and well-to-do saw their means daily +diminish, and, losing their interest in public welfare, they +tried to save the remnants of their own property. The +members of the state council were threatened by investigations +which Gœrtz and his friends were scheming to institute +against them. In the nobility, the plans for a change +of the constitution matured, the leaders in this movement +being Count Per Ribbing and the old Gyllencreutz, who +had prophesied the outcome of an absolute monarchial +government.</p> + +<p>Charles XII., in spite of his all-absorbing passion for +war, did not lack interest for the pursuits of peace. He +encouraged several men of genius, of whom two were +eminently worthy of distinction; viz., Nicodemus Tessin, +Junior, the architect, and Christopher Polhem, the engineer.</p> + +<p>Nicodemus Tessin was born in Nykœping in 1654. His +father and namesake belonged to an old Pomeranian family, +and had come to Sweden during the reign of Queen Christine. +Nicodemus Tessin, Senior, was an able architect, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> +built the castle of Drottningholm for Queen-dowager Hedvig +Eleonore, a moderately gifted but art-loving woman. +The latter gathered around herself artists and architects +at her castle of Drottningholm, in Lake Mælar, among +whom were Ehrenstrahl, a famous artist of German birth, +who founded the first school of Swedish painters. The +younger Tessin belonged to this circle and was, in their +respective times, in the favor of Charles XI. and Charles +XII., acting as court architect to both. The work which +won for him an immortal fame is the royal palace of Stockholm, +an architectural creation worthy of the admiration +of all Europe, and, in Sweden, standing unsurpassed to this +day. It was planned and commenced by Tessin, but completed +according to his plans a hundred years after his +death. Charles XI. ordered a reconstruction of the old +castle, which enterprise Tessin undertook. Shortly after +the death of Charles XI., both the old and the reconstructed +parts of the palace were burned, and the body +of the king with difficulty saved from the conflagration. +Charles XII. ordered Tessin to build an entirely new +palace. The work was commenced in 1698, but was gradually +abandoned during the war times, to cease shortly +before the battle of Pultowa. Charles was highly interested +in it and wrote from Turkey to Tessin about his +views. Tessin intended to decorate the exterior according +to the taste of his day, but Charles raised opposition, finding +the severe beauty of the stern yet graceful outlines perfect +in themselves. The work on the new palace was +recommenced after the death of Charles XII. King Adolphus +Frederic was the first who took up his residence within +its walls. Tessin rose high on the social ladder. From +Turkey, the king made him a count and chancellor of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> +University of Lund; after his return to Sweden he appointed +him marshal-colonel. Tessin stood in strong +opposition to Baron Gœrtz, and after the death of King +Charles joined the leaders of the revolutionary nobles. He +was of universal fame.</p> + +<p>Christopher Polhem was the first of great Swedish engineers +and inventors. He was born at the ancient town +of Visby, in the island of Gothland, in 1661, and was the +son of a merchant, who died when Christopher was a child. +When only twelve years of age he had to make his own +living. As secretary to a widow of wealth, he early developed +his genius as a mechanician, building his own shop +of carpentry, sloyd, etc., making watches and devising +smaller inventions. His want of a classical education was +detrimental to him, and he commenced, when twenty-four +years of age, to study Latin with various ministers in the +country, in exchange for works of his genius and handicraft. +At last he was able to enter the University of Upsala +by means of recommendations from his last teacher. +Soon after his arrival he created considerable attention and +admiration by a proof of his ingenuity. Behind the high +altar in the Upsala Cathedral there was a clock of the finest +workmanship, devised in mediæval times by a monk of the +monastery of Vadstena. It was out of order, and not for +a hundred years had anybody attempted to set it right. +Polhem undertook to reconstruct the whole work, connecting +with the main mechanism all the hands which pointed +out the hours of the day, the eclipses of the moon and the +motions of the “ruling” planets, according to the system +of the astrologers. Polhem succeeded in his task, and was +allowed to test his invention of automatic haulers of ore in +the mines. The college of mining, before which the inven<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span>tion +was successfully demonstrated, accepted it, and Charles +XI. appointed Polhem a mining engineer. In 1694, Polhem +made an extensive journey through England and the Continent. +In Paris he learned that several mathematicians +were in vain endeavoring to construct a clock which would +simultaneously show the time of the day in various countries +and strike the hours at the same time. Polhem announced +through the Swedish ambassador in Paris that he +was willing to solve the problem. He constructed a model +which gave universal satisfaction. Louis XIV. had a clock +made after this model and gave it as a gift of honor to the +Turkish sultan. Upon his return he proposed the founding +of a <i>laboratorium mechanicum</i>, which in several respects +served as a pattern for the later technological institutes +of Stockholm and Gothenburg. The youthful Charles +XII. embraced the idea with interest, but the promising +institution came to a standstill during the wars. Among +Polhem’s more remarkable inventions was one for the leading +of water-power, to be used at considerable distances. +Charles XII. said that a man like Polhem was not to be had +for several centuries, and that for this reason he ought to be +made useful as long as he lived. A task of gigantic proportions +was intrusted to him—the construction of a dock +for the navy yards at Carlskrona. The great engineer filled +it in an admirable way, and was appointed councillor of +commerce and ennobled under the name of Polhem, his +original name having been Polhammar, which to modern +ears sounds just as fine and a good deal more suggestive.</p> + +<p>Another gigantic task worthy of the genius of Polhem +was the construction of a navigable route from the North +Sea across the great inland seas of Sweden to the Baltic, but +he was not allowed to finish it. Charles XII. intrusted the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span> +work to Polhem, who was to have it ready in five years. +In 1718, Polhem commenced by forming an immense sluice, +by means of explosions in the rock at Trollhetta. The great +waterfalls of said place were to be avoided and the work +of completing the sluice was begun, when it was all destroyed +by unknown enemies, who dropped beams and +planks in the river above, which carried away the dam. +The death of King Charles and the impoverished condition +of the country made it impossible to continue the work on +the great canal system, which had to wait for more than +a century for its ultimate completion. With the death of +Charles XII. the era of ambitious enterprises came to an +end; but Polhem was employed in various works of mechanic +improvements in the interest of agriculture, industry +and manufactures. Czar Peter of Russia, King George +I. of England, and several other monarchs made brilliant +offers in order to win Polhem for their countries. He executed +several works and inventions abroad, but loved his +own country too much to leave it. Polhem exerted a great +influence in the interest of his science, both by instruction +and by the publication of technical works. Active to the +last, he died in 1751. Polhem was a man of a harmonious +endowment, amiable and dignified, and preserved his plain +mode of living throughout his brilliant career.</p> + +<p>Gœrtz led with superior skill the negotiations for peace, +while the impoverished country suffered untold miseries as +a consequence of his unscrupulous financial schemes. He +tried to benefit by the sudden but lasting enmity between +Czar Peter and George I., desiring to gain the support of +either against the other. The deliberations were held in the +archipelago of Aland, with Gœrtz as the representative +of the Swedish government. Czar Peter wanted to keep<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span> +Ingermanland, Esthonia and Livonia, but was ready to +cede Finland, which country he occupied, and to assist +King Charles with troops in an attack on Denmark. Norway +was to be the compensation for the lost Baltic provinces, +and the attack on Denmark was to be made from Germany. +Charles XII. had no confidence in the czar as an ally and +had commenced the conquest of Norway directly and without +his aid. No decision was reached in the negotiations +with England.</p> + +<p>In February, 1716, Charles XII., from Bohuslæn and +Vermland, made an invasion into Norway, penetrating over +the Glom River to Christiania. He captured the capital, +where he held his headquarters for several weeks, but was +not able to take the fortress of Akershus, which, with its +artillery, commanded the city. The Swedish army, 10,000 +strong, suffered a great deal from want of provisions and +through a guerilla war, skilfully conducted by the Norwegians. +Charles was in danger of being surrounded by the +enemy, and with difficulty retreated to Sweden, over the +Strait of Svinesund. The dangers were increased by the +Norwegian naval hero, Peter Tordenskiold, who, with some +Danish ships under his command, had destroyed a flotilla +of Swedish transport vessels. An invasion into Scania by +Denmark and her allies was planned for the summer, but +did not materialize. King Charles took up his headquarters +at Lund.</p> + +<p>The war offered no aspect of interest during the year +1717, except some unsuccessful attempts made by Tordenskiold +to capture the towns of Strœmstad and Gothenburg. +Charles prepared another attack on Norway, and, +by draining the last resources of his country, managed +to equip an army of 60,000 men. In August, 1718, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span> +smaller army, under the command of Charles Gustavus +Armfelt, was sent through Jemtland over the mountains +into the diocese of Drontheim. King Charles, with an +army of 30,000 men, invaded Norway from Bohuslæn, Dal +and Vermland, and took in possession the country east of +the Glom River. Within a few days the king laid siege +to the fortress of Fredericsten, close by the town of Fredricshall. +November 27th the fort of Gyldenlœve was captured, +and the Swedes moved their trenches ever closer +to the fortress, which seemed doomed to surrender. In the +evening of November 30th the king was seen in one of +the trenches watching the work of his soldiers, and leaning +against the rampart. He remained there a long time, not +heeding the appeals of his officers, who grew uneasy on +account of the apparent danger to his person. Suddenly +his head sank down on his breast. A bullet from the fortress +had reached him, penetrating his temples and causing +instant death. He met death in the manner he most desired +it, although not while engaged in battle.</p> + +<p>Charles XII. was of an enigmatic character, which attracts, +through its strength and superiority over his contemporaries, +but which is repulsive through its tenacity, +unyielding sternness and inaccessibility to reason or persuasion. +His moral greatness has won admiration. It had +its limitations, but was superior to the standards of his time. +His ideals were pure and lofty, but, through lack of contact +with the realities and facts of life, only assumed a tragic +grandeur, without proving beneficent to mankind. His +faults were such that his education and experience as an +absolute monarch aggravated them. Charles XII. was the +most remarkable man of his age and one of the greatest +soldiers that ever lived. He was also a great general,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span> +although the proper balance between the soldier and the +field marshal, perhaps, was to some extent lacking. The +influence of his personality and example had a miraculous +effect upon his soldiers. He suffered his one great defeat +in open battle when wounded, suffering, and not able to +exert his usual influence to its full extent.</p> + +<p>Charles XII. has been idolized by his countrymen of all +ages, who in him have recognized an impersonation of +all their chief national virtues, with a few of their national +faults, enlarged into the image of a patriotic hero of almost +supernatural grandeur. The Swedish people were forced +to accept absolute power as a salvation from the impending +thraldom of oligarchy. In Charles XII. it saw to what +a climax of abuse this power could attain, even in hands +which were deemed righteous and free from stains. With +Charles XII. the political grandeur and the absolute monarchy +of Sweden came to an end, although attempts to +restore both were to be made. A new phase of her development, +with new improvements and new evils, commenced +with the reign of Ulrica Eleonore.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV</a><br /> +<span class="smaller"><i>Period of Liberty—The Aristocratic Republic</i></span></h2> + +<p>Ulrica Eleonore succeeded her brother Charles +XII as the sovereign of Sweden. She was proclaimed +queen by birthright, and called the Riksdag, +willing to cede the absolute power. When the Riksdag +convened a disagreeable surprise met her. The Estates +refused to acknowledge her right to the crown, stating that +both she and her older sister had deprived themselves of +their rights of succession by marrying without the consent +of the Estates of the Riksdag. Princess Hedvig Sophie was +dead, but her son, the young Duke Charles Frederic of +Holstein was in Sweden, ready to claim the throne. Ulrica +Eleonore was compelled to yield gracefully. She sent a +note to the Riksdag disclaiming her hereditary right, but +declaring herself willing to accept the crown, with restriction +of the absolute power. She was at once elected queen +by the Riksdag of 1719, which then proceeded to pass a new +constitution. Such a constitution had been formulated in +advance by a new party, chiefly consisting of nobles, who +aimed at introducing a royal government, restricted in its +power by the state council and the Riksdag. They were +successful in their efforts, but unfortunately lost their ablest +leaders at the start, Per Ribbing dying soon after the first +Riksdag, and Arvid Horn retiring from the government<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> +and council on account of a conflict with the queen. Thus +the new government did not open up under favorable auspices. +Baron von Gœrtz was captured and put to death +for high treason without being granted the privilege of an +appropriate legal defence. The queen overstepped her limit +of power in being the active force in this illegal execution, +anxious to rid herself of Gœrtz because he was the ablest +man among the supporters of Duke Charles Frederic of +Holstein. The duke gave up his chances and left for +Russia, where he married a daughter of Czar Peter. The +arrangements made to establish order in financial matters +were not satisfactory. The management of the war with +Denmark was miserable. The army was recalled from +Norway and little done to protect the coast from attacks +by the Danish fleet under Admiral Tordenskiold. This +valiant naval hero, of Norwegian birth, who, during the +reign of Charles XII., had made unsuccessful attacks on +Strœmstad and Gothenburg, through cunning captured the +strong fortress of Carlsten, but was unable to take New +Elfsborg. Danckwardt, the commander who surrendered +Carlsten, was executed by the Swedish government. The +Swedish army of 6,000 men, which had entered the district +of Dronthiem by the command of Charles XII., perished +from hunger and cold when returning through the mountains +of Jemtland. Only a few hundred survived to tell +the terrible tale. The Russians sent a fleet to the Swedish +shores with 40,000 men, and burned, in two expeditions, +twelve Swedish towns in the middle and northern parts +of the country. They avoided open battle, and when landing +in great numbers were effectively repulsed.</p> + +<p>Under such conditions Sweden was anxious for peace. +In compensation for various sums of money, Bremen and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> +Verden were ceded to Hanover in 1719, Pomerania, south +of the river Peene, with Stettin, Usedom and Wollin to +Prussia, in 1720, and Ingermanland, Esthonia, Livonia, +with Viborg and Kexholm, and surrounding Finnish territory, +to Russia, in 1721. Denmark had to give up all +territory captured from Sweden, but received a sum of +money in exchange for Carlsten, in 1720. Thus the Baltic +empire of Sweden was swept away. It had been of importance +during the time of the German war and for the +shielding of new conquests in the Scandinavian Peninsula +itself. Now its loss was a gain for Sweden, as it allowed +her to concentrate her attention upon the interior development +of the country.</p> + +<p>The tendency of Ulrica Eleonore to exert more power +than was within her authority had created dissatisfaction, +and when she commenced an agitation to have her consort, +Prince Frederic of Hesse, share the throne with her, the +crown was granted him only upon her own resignation from +the government.</p> + +<p>Frederic I. was crowned in 1720 and Ulrica Eleonore +retired from the government. Frederic left the Reformed +and entered the Lutheran Church. The crown was to be +inherited by his male issues only, in the union with Ulrica +Eleonore. He showed a tendency for mixing in the affairs +of state to further his own interests, but soon gave in to +his easy-tempered, pleasure-loving nature, occupying himself +exclusively with his hunts and his mistresses.</p> + +<p>The real ruler of Sweden, during the first two decades +of Frederic’s reign, was <i>Arvid Horn</i>, one of the greatest +of Swedish statesmen. His was not the work of building +up the government of a strong and influential nation, like +that of Oxenstierna or Gyllenstierna, nor were his their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span> +grand, far-reaching views. But his mission was to raise +from the dust his bleeding, downtrodden country, and to +reinstall it in the honor and respect, not only of itself but +of the world. Count Arvid Bernhard Horn was an opportunist, +but one of the noblest kind, who by means of peace +found the only way in which to protect and further the +financial and cultural development of Sweden. He was +an able soldier and a skilled diplomatist. The son of an +illustrious but poor family, of the Finnish nobility, he entered +the military service after a university course at Abo. +He served in foreign armies, but was with Charles XII. +in Stockholm as the best companion of his youth. As the +commander of the royal body-guard he took an honorable +part in the early victories of Charles XII., later being +chosen to fulfil the delicate task of making the Polish +nobles elect Stanislav king, in which he was eminently successful. +After a short captivity he was released and returned +to Sweden, where he became a member of the state +council and president of the state chancery. In this position +he repeatedly sent letters to Charles XII., in which +he described the distress of the country, in eloquent words +pleading its need of peace. Upon his return Charles XII. +removed him from office with the other councillors, although +he was the one who had saved the tottering throne for the +king. Of this Ulrica Eleonore was aware and was glad to +accept his resignation; when reinstated in his position he +found that he could not preserve it with dignity in the face +of the irregularities committed by the queen. Count Horn +was responsible for the exclusion of Ulrica Eleonore from the +government at King Frederic’s ascendency, but the latter +was forced to accept Horn in his former position as the controlling +power of the government. With due reason, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span> +peaceful and honorable decades of Frederic’s reign have +been named the “Period of Arvid Horn.”</p> + +<p>The new form of government introduced by Ribbing, +Horn and others was nothing else than that of an aristocratic +republic. The rights of the monarch, reduced in +1719, were still further reduced in 1720. He had two votes +in the state council and a deciding vote in deadlock, but +besides the authority to appoint councillors from the candidates +nominated by the Riksdag, and to appoint all higher +officials, no other rights. The government was in the +hands of the state council, consisting of sixteen members. +The Riksdag decided all questions of taxes and legislation, +and settled issues of peace and war. Each of the four +Estates was represented in the committees, except in the +“secret committee,” for international affairs, to which no +yeoman could be chosen. Each Estate had its speaker. +The president of the chancery was the minister of foreign +affairs and consulted the secret committee on important +questions, being the only head of a department who was +allowed as a member of the state council. The nobility +held the balance of power, much to the opposition of the +lower Estates, who tried, by repeated agitation, to invest +the king with the authority held by him before the days +of absolute power. The nobility had done away with its +three classes, and, with these abandoned, it was the majority, +viz., the lower nobility, who were the governing class. +The aristocracy tried its best to regain the privileges enjoyed +during the reign of Queen Christine and Charles X., +but Horn forced it to be satisfied with those granted by +Gustavus Adolphus. The power of the higher nobility was +forever crushed by the loss of their immense possessions. +The friction between the nobility and the lower Estates of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span> +the Riksdag was constant, Horn siding with the former, but +keeping them all in check.</p> + +<p>Arvid Horn led with superior skill and gentleness the +management of foreign affairs. All influences from the +powers and from the restless nobles to involve Sweden in +a conflict of war were unsuccessful. A treaty was never entered +into with any one power without another one formed +with a power of the opposite continental party to counterbalance +it. Thus England, France and Russia were unable +to make Sweden an obedient ally, Horn upholding her +independence, maintaining peace and inspiring respect. +Utterly refusing to accept the bribes which were freely +offered and considered the indispensable means of obtaining +diplomatic influence in that day, Horn himself distributed +bribes to gain his patriotic purposes. Horn’s great mistake +was to refer the decision of foreign affairs in which he was +opposed by members of the state council to the Riksdag and +its secret committee. The latter commenced to act independently +in important foreign matters. By signing an +agreement with France, through which Sweden lost its +former privilege of an independent policy, the committee +ultimately caused his downfall, in 1738. Arvid Horn then +retired, at the age of seventy-two, and died a few years +later.</p> + +<p>During Horn’s peaceful administration the financial conditions +improved, the state debt was reduced and the peaceful +trades and industries were furthered. The great deed +accomplished was the completion of a new state law which +was published in 1734 and is in force to this very day. +Arvid Horn was a perfect type of the great Carolin era, of +pure and severe morals and modest requirements. In a day +of increasing scepticism and levity, he ostentatiously pre<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span>served +the rigid religious practices of his youth. He +showed unreserved indignation at the unworthy and immoral +conduct of the king, for which reason strained relations +existed between them. Count Horn was of impressive +form and carriage, controlling the quick temper of the warrior +beneath the smooth and dignified bearing of the statesman.</p> + +<p>The decades which followed upon the fall of Arvid +Horn were stormy ones and full of miseries. The friends +of peace were called Caps and the warlike party Hats. +The latter, now in power, commenced a war against Russia, +which turned out badly, the Swedes being defeated at Vilmanstrand, +in 1741, and at Helsingfors, in 1742. The government +and secret committee felt ashamed of their work +and had the poor generals, Charles Emil Lewenhaupt and +Buddenbrock, executed for their lack of martial skill and +good fortune. Peace was made with Russia in 1743, the +towns of Fredericshamn, Vilmanstrand and Nyslott, in +Finland, being ceded by Sweden, and the river Kymene +made the boundary line.</p> + +<p>Next the Hats had to face a rebellion. In order to +please Elizabeth of Russia, Czar Peter’s daughter, they +had selected Charles Peter Ulric, her nephew and the son +of the duke of Holstein, as heir-apparent to the Swedish +throne, to which he was the nearest in right, Ulrica Eleonore +dying without issue, in 1741. But when chosen as +Elizabeth’s successor in Russia, the Hats selected Adolphus +Frederic, prince bishop of Lubeck, who on his mother’s side +was a descendant of Gustavus Adolphus. This caused +popular discontent, the people, forgetful of past enmities, +desiring to make Crown Prince Frederic of Denmark heir-apparent. +The peasants at the Riksdag of 1742 proclaimed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> +loudly their desire of a personal union with Denmark-Norway, +which would establish Scandinavia as one solid power +against Russia. The peasants of Helsingland and Dalecarlia +revolted. They gathered, and marching down to +Stockholm, placed the government in a dangerous position +by demanding the election of Crown Prince Frederic +of Denmark and the execution of the two imprisoned +generals. In that very moment peace was obtained with +Russia, and the government persuaded the leaders of the +rebellion, who had obtained admission to the Riksdag, that +Adolphus Frederic must be chosen, since it was a part of +the treaty of peace. Later the rebels, 3,500 in number, +were forced to surrender. Their principal leader was +executed.</p> + +<p>The Hats were at first led by Count Gyllenborg, who +was succeeded by the brilliant Count Charles Gustavus +Tessin, a son of the great architect, Nicodemus Tessin the +Younger. Although not a statesman of any higher ability, +Charles Gustavus Tessin was able to shake the oppressive +influence of Russia. He was assisted by Prince Adolphus +Frederic, who said he would rather resign than be a Russian +vassal. A war seemed imminent, but was averted, +Finland in the meantime being effectively fortified. The +unconquerable fortress of Sveaborg was built near Helsingfors, +and was the creation of Augustinus Ehrensverd. The +Hats were eager in their attempts to encourage industry +and manufacture, but did so at the expense of agriculture, +and placed immense taxes on imported goods. A pioneer +of industry was John Alstrœmer, who, in his town of +Alingsos, built factories of various kinds. King Frederic +died in 1751.</p> + +<p><i>Adolphus Frederic</i> was a good-natured and gentle man.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span> +He was not averse to an increased royal authority, but was +not energetic enough to exert a controlling influence or to +push his claims. His consort was the ambitious and brilliantly +gifted Louise Ulrica, the sister of Frederic the Great +of Prussia. She tried to inspire the king to action. Continually +occupied by ambitious schemes, she spoiled them +herself, through lack of caution and stability. As crown +princess, she stood close to Count Tessin, whom she hoped +to win over for her plans. They devised the institution of +the knightly orders of the Seraphim, the Sword and the +North Star, the credit of their introduction being given to +King Frederic I. Adolphus Frederic was forced to subscribe +to the same minimum of royal privileges as those +enjoyed by Frederic I. At court a party was formed +which supported the king, who soon commenced to oppose +the state council. In 1755 this went so far that he refused +to sign a document from the council. The case was +brought before the Riksdag, where, in spite of strong opposition +from the peasants, a resolution was passed indorsing +the action of the state council. Count Tessin, in friction +with the court, resigned from all his positions. The Riksdag +tried to reinstall him as governor of the royal princes, +but gave in upon the request of Tessin. The Riksdag went +to the extreme of having a stamp made of the king’s signature, +to use in cases where he refused to sign, and also took +upon itself to engage and dismiss teachers for the royal +princes. At court indignation rose high, and a conspiracy +was formed to take possession of the capital, with the state +council and the speakers of the four Estates, in order to +bring about a revolution with increased power for the king. +The conspiracy was discovered, and Count Eric Brahe, +Count Jacob Horn and six others of its leaders executed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span></p> + +<p>A new humiliation to the court was Sweden’s alliance +with Austria, Russia and France against Frederic the Great +of Prussia. The plans laid out by the Swedes were as +elaborate as those for the Russian war. But on account +of poor equipment and repeated change of commanders +nothing effective was done. When peace was made at +Hamburg, in 1762, Sweden neither lost nor gained anything. +The Swedes had fought no battles, and Frederic +the Great said he would call the Swedish invasion of Pomerania +a private fight at the frontier.</p> + +<p>The great expense of the profitless war gave the Caps +an occasion to gain in influence, and at the Riksdag of +1765 they overthrew the power of the Hats, in their turn +summarily dismissing the councillors of their opponents. +They introduced perfect liberty of the press in 1766, but +went too far in their policy of economy, dangerously injuring +the new industries by the withdrawal of loans and subsidies. +The expensive factories came to a standstill and +skilled workingmen emigrated. Popular opinion turned +against these repeated changes and the endless strife of +the parties, and felt inclined to criticise a Riksdag which +had attained such power without giving a prosperous and +secure administration in return. Foreign powers, encouraged +by the court, tried to gain adherents of their various +policies by bribes to councillors and members of the Riksdag, +thus demoralizing state politics.</p> + +<p>The king received a valuable supporter in the crown +prince Gustavus, who in 1767 became of age. He prevailed +upon the king to resign when the state council refused to call +an extraordinary Riksdag for the granting of added royal +authority. The king did so, and the country was without +a monarch for six days (December 15-21, 1768). The crown<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span> +prince notified the presidents of the different administrative +offices in Stockholm that his father had ceased to reign. +The state council persisted; but had to give in, when the +colonels of the regiments reported that they could no longer +answer for their troops, since also the paymaster’s office was +closed. The Riksdag convened in Norrkœping in 1769. +The Caps suffered defeat in spite of strenuous efforts made +for their preservation by the secret agents of the powers, +anxious to see the anarchic condition of the government +continue. But the court party failed in the exertions to +have the royal privileges augmented. The intrigues of the +foreign powers continued, and the crown prince left for +France to insure her support in case of war. While the +Hats were once more in power, Adolphus Frederic died +suddenly in February, 1771.</p> + +<p>Gustavus was to put an end to the party strife of the +“Period of Liberty,” as it has been called. His own reign +belongs properly to it, for he reaped the benefit of the seed +it had been sowing. The Period of Liberty, with all its +faults, forms an important chain in the cultural and political +development of Sweden. Its form of government +made necessary a varied and active part in public affairs, +educating all classes of officials to a high degree of efficiency +and the people at large to self-government. The +Riksdag, through parliamentary activity and importance, +developed an authority which, although too composite +to govern itself, was enabled to act as a shield of steel +against all abuse of the executive power. The national life +never gathered a richer harvest of men of genius who +worked for the progress of their country and for that of +the world. The heroism of the Swedish people during the +preceding period of suffering and distress bore fruit in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span> +men like Emanuel Swedenborg, the inventor, naturalist, +philosopher and founder of a new religion; Charles +Linnæus; the founder of modern botany; Andrew Celsius, +Junior, the inventor of the centigrade thermometer; John +Ahlstrœmer, the pioneer of industry; John Ihre, the able +philologist, and Olof von Dalin, the poet, humorist, and, +with Sven Lagerbring, the first modern historian of Sweden. +The Period of “Liberty,” viz., of an Aristocratic +Republic, was the golden era of Swedish science, the latter +for the first time becoming of universal fame and of universal +importance. The scientists of this period belong to +the fathers of modern research, basing their conclusions upon +personal observation, in strong contrast to <i>their</i> fathers and +precursors of the chauvinistic barocco period.</p> + +<p>Emanuel Swedenborg, the most remarkable man whom +Sweden has ever brought forth, was born in Stockholm, +June 29, 1688. His father was Jesper Svedberg, bishop +of Skara, in West Gothland, and his mother Sara Behm. +The tendency toward mysticism, an inheritance from his +father, was noticed in him at an early age. He has told +of himself that between the age of four and ten his thoughts +were exclusively occupied with religious subjects. While +in prayer, he sometimes entered a somnambulic condition, +revealing things which surprised his parents, who said that +angels spoke through him. As a child, he had the idea of +God as one, without any conception of a Trinity. Later +he received instruction in the systematic theology of his +day. His father gave him a thorough training in the +Oriental and classical languages. The early mysticism of +the boy was supplanted by a thirst for knowledge of the +phenomena of life and nature, coupled to a burning desire +to illustrate his reading by practical experiments. Having<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> +entered the University of Upsala, he at first devoted himself +to the study of the classical languages and literature, later +to that of mathematics and natural science. When the +university was visited by the plague in 1710, and almost all +courses of instruction were interrupted, Swedenborg made +a journey for scientific purposes to England, Holland, +France and Germany. He returned in 1714, enriched with +valuable results. In 1716-18 he published the first scientific +journal of Sweden, “Dædalus Hyperboreus,” treating +subjects of mathematics and physical science. In 1716 he +came in close personal contact with Charles XII. at the +university town of Lund. The king, being deeply impressed +by his great learning and practical ability, appointed +him assistant assessor of the college of mining. Swedenborg +had, by the scholar Eric Benzelius, been made acquainted +with the idea of the old Bishop Brask, of the time +of Gustavus I., to “cut up the land” between the North Sea +and the Baltic to make a navigable route through Sweden. +Swedenborg gave close attention to this scheme, and communicated +his plans to Charles XII., who became very much +interested in them. Christopher Polhem was selected to +build the great canal, and Swedenborg was made his assistant. +We know from the sketch of Polhem’s life why the +great work failed of accomplishment. Swedenborg gave +a proof of his superior genius as a practical engineer during +the siege of Fredericshall. Tordenskiold made the sea unsafe +and had hedged in the Swedish fleet at Iddefiord. The +Swedish boats and galleys were then carried overland to +the town of Strœmstad, travelling the main road for fifteen +miles on rolling machines devised by Swedenborg. After +the death of Charles XII., whom he highly respected, Swedenborg +travelled to Saxony and Hungary to study the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span> +mining industry of these countries. Returning in 1722, +he entered for the first time upon his work of the college of +mining, becoming assessor a few years later. In 1719 he +was ennobled with his brothers and sisters, when the change +of name from Svedberg to Swedenborg was made. In 1724 +he declined to accept the chair of mathematics at the University +of Upsala, dividing his time between his official +work and his studies, until 1747, when he resigned from +his position with a pension of the same amount as his salary. +His religious works were commenced in 1745, and +after that time he made repeated journeys to London or +Amsterdam to have these printed, as they could not be published +in Sweden on account of the strict and highly orthodox +censure of that period.</p> + +<p>In 1744 the event occurred which Swedenborg in various +places of his works has described as the opening of his +spiritual sight, or the manifestations of the Lord to him +in person. He had not, by geometrical, physical and metaphysical +principles, succeeded in grasping the infinite and +the spiritual, or their relation to the nature of man, but he +had touched on facts and methods which seemed to conduct +him in the right direction. He thought that God had led +him into the natural sciences in order to prepare him for his +later spiritual development. The visions of his boyhood +returned, now conceived by a nature enriched by the experiences +of a life spent in ardent and scientific research. +The great seer remained a man whom everybody loved and +respected. People who did not believe in his visions feared +to ridicule them in the presence of this august savant. His +manner of life was simple, his diet chiefly consisting of +bread, milk and large quantities of coffee. He made little +distinction between night and day, and sometimes lay for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span> +days in a trance. His servants were often disturbed at +night by hearing him engaged in what he called conflicts +with evil spirits. His intercourse with spirits was often +perfectly calm, in broad daylight, and with all his faculties +awake. He held that every man and woman has the same +power of spiritual intercourse, although not developed in +the same degree as it was found in him.</p> + +<p>The work which established the scientific reputation of +Swedenborg was published, in 1734, in three massive folios, +at the expense of Duke Ludvig Rudolph of Brunswick. +The second and third volumes describe the best methods +employed in Europe and America in the manufacture of +iron, copper and brass. The first volume contains a philosophical +explanation of the elementary world which has +aroused admiration as a beautiful, daring and consistent +creation of human genius, worthy of being placed side by +side with the works of Newton, and replete with remarkable +ideas and anticipations of later discoveries. Swedenborg +indicated the existence of the seventh planet forty +years before Uranus was discovered by Herschel. He was +the first to form an idea of the development of nebulæ from +chaotic masses to concrete heavenly bodies, a hypothesis +later perfected by Herschel, and the first to offer the theory, +later developed by Buffon, Kant and La Place, of the solar +origin of the planets and their satellites. As in astronomy, +so also in physics and geology he preconceived great discoveries. +His experiments and theories in physics have been +confirmed by the discoveries of the polarity of light and the +galvanometer and its magnetic properties. Swedenborg +discovered before anybody else the great importance of +magnetism and the fact that magnetism and electricity are +manifestations of the same power. He made observations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span> +concerning air and water which have been confirmed as to +their correctness by Priestley, Cavendish and Lavoisier, +who long were supposed to have been the first discoverers. +In geology, he was the first to demonstrate that the Scandinavian +peninsula, except the southern part of Scania, was +a rising continent, proving the earlier level of the sea to +have been much higher and the inland lakes to have stood +in connection with the sea. Through his remarks on bowlders, +he gave rise to the later theories of Berzelius and +Sæfstrom of a bowlder period. Upon these researches followed +great and remarkable works of anatomy, which, by +later anatomists of the first rank, have been declared to be +classics in the literature of physiology. His immense work, +“Arcana Cœlestia,” and other theosophical writings which +he has placed as a foundation for the New Church, and on +which his present fame rests, were not so celebrated in his +days as his scientific works. Like the latter, they were all +written in Latin.</p> + +<p>The new religion, founded by Swedenborg, more spiritual +than the old, has proved equally attractive to the individual +and idealistic thinkers of all sects, Protestants and +Catholics, Unitarians and Theosophists. Swedenborg made +no attempt to establish a sect, and the New Church as an +organization is the result of a movement which was started +after his death.</p> + +<p>In his personal appearance Swedenborg was a middle-sized +man of strong constitution. His head was of a fine +shape, the color of his face somewhat dark and its expression +pensive, but his blue eyes were large and radiant. His +disposition was amiable. He was a man of the world, fond +of music and society, especially of that of cultured women, +and was often seen at court. He had a tendency to stutter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span> +when speaking fast, for which reason he used a slow diction, +characterized by choice and mature expressions. In +his youth, he frequented the house of Christopher Polhem +and fell in love with his daughter Emerentia. Both Polhem +and Charles XII. favored the idea of seeing them +united, the young girl of fourteen giving her consent. But +young Emerentia was secretly in love with somebody else, +and her health and disposition suffered under the strain. +When Swedenborg discovered the truth, he gave his betrothed +freedom from her allegiance. He ceased to visit the +house of Polhem and never entered any other relation of +love.</p> + +<p>In 1770, at the age of eighty-two, Swedenborg for the +last time visited Amsterdam. John C. Cuno, who then +saw him, thus described the impression which the aged +visionary and thinker made upon him: “He looked so +touchingly pious, and when I gazed into his smiling eyes +of a heavenly blue, it always seemed to me that truth itself +spoke from his lips.” Swedenborg left Amsterdam for +London, where, on Christmas eve, 1772, he was struck +by hemiplegia. After a few weeks he recovered his speech, +and his faculties were clear to the last. The chaplain of the +Swedish legation asked him if he had not formulated the +doctrines of his new religion in order to gain fame, and if +he wished to recall it all before he died. The yet partly +paralyzed man raised himself into a sitting position, saying: +“As true as it is that you see me here in front of you, +as true is also all that I have written, and in eternity you +will find a confirmation of it.” The chaplain asked him +if he wanted to receive the sacrament. Swedenborg answered: +“I need it not; for I am already a member of the +other world; but your intention is good, and I will with joy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span> +receive the sacrament in token of the bond of unity between +heaven and earth.” Swedenborg died March 29, 1772, and +was buried in the Lutheran church of London.</p> + +<p>Swedenborg was shrewd in worldly affairs and discussed +politics and finance in the Swedish Riksdag for nearly a +score of years after his visions and theological writings had +begun to occupy most of his time.</p> + +<p>If the theological works of Emanuel Swedenborg at first +were apt to discredit the results of his manifold scientific +research in the eyes of those who did not share his theosophical +views, the renown of the great religious thinker +in later times has outshone the fame of which, as the versatile +scholar and philosopher, he was so eminently worthy. +With his younger contemporary, Charles Linnæus (or Carl +von Linné), the case was different. There was in his career +no radical change to divert or throw an umbrage over the +fame he had won as a scientist of the very first rank.</p> + +<p>Charles Linnæus, the most celebrated of Swedish scientists, +was born at Rashult, in Smaland, in 1707. His father +was a minister of a very subordinate charge of the state +church. The neighborhood in which the young Linnæus +grew up was not fertile, but rich in flowers, which were +the toys and comrades of his childhood. He made but little +progress at his work in the college of Vexio, being more +fond of collecting and examining plants than of studying +Greek and Latin. It was the wish of his parents that he +should become a minister and the assistant of his father; +but the youth had so little inclination to pursue the life or +studies of a clergyman that he at last found it necessary +to tell his parents so. He had found a friend and protector +in Doctor Rothman, a district physician, who encouraged +him to follow his ambition of becoming a naturalist and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span> +physician. Doctor Rothman supervised his studies in botany +and succeeded in teaching him Latin by giving him +the natural history of Pliny to study. In this manner Linnæus, +who at college showed utter dislike for the classical +languages, learned to write and speak Latin with ease. +His teachers, who at first had advised his parents to let +him quit the book, in order to take up some trade, were +made aware of his gifted nature, but as he was found +deficient in the regular courses, their recommendation, +necessary for his admittance to the University of Lund, +was very carefully worded. “The youths in our colleges +may be likened unto little trees in a plant school, where +it happens, although but rarely, that young trees upon +which the greatest care have been lavished do not turn out +well, but resemble wild stems, yet, when removed and transplanted, +change their wild nature and develop into beautiful +trees of agreeable fruit. Likewise, and for no other purpose, +this youth is sent to the university, where he may +venture into a climate favorable to his growth.” There +was an accurate but unconscious prophecy concealed in this +beautiful “recommendation,” which, curiously enough, has +chosen the similes which were considered indispensable in +the artificial language of the period from the world of +plants, when speaking of the future flower king of the +North.</p> + +<p>The young Linnæus made his way to the university +town of Southern Sweden, walking the whole distance from +Vexio to Lund, with a heavy knapsack and a light pocket-book. +He was in hopes to win the protection of his uncle, +the influential dean of the cathedral. Upon entering Lund, +he heard all church bells tolling, and, upon inquiry, learned +that they rang for the funeral of his uncle, the dean! A<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span> +former teacher of his managed to have him enrolled at the +university without having to turn in the diplomatic recommendation +from his college. He took his bachelor’s degree +and was kindly encouraged by Professor Chilian Stobæus, +at whose house he was stopping. The mother of Stobæus +told him to look after the young man from Smaland, who +was in the habit of going to sleep with his candle left burning, +thus liable to “lead the whole house into adventure.” +When the learned professor looked into the matter he found +his own works in the hands of the youth, who spent his +nights reading them. After that all the books and the +heartfelt sympathy of the scholar were at the command +of Linnæus.</p> + +<p>In 1728 Linnæus, so advised by his earliest protector, +changed his place of study to the University of Upsala, +which at the time was better equipped and provided with +a fine botanical garden. The young scholar endured a +great deal of suffering for lack of funds, his father no +longer being able to provide for his support. His diet was +very light, and he wrapped his benumbed feet in paper to +keep them from peeping out of his ragged shoes. His +father called him home to reconsider his resolution as to +a ministerial calling. Linnæus was ready to leave and +paid a farewell visit to the botanic gardens. He lingered +in melancholy thoughts before a rare flower which he intended +to pluck. A harsh voice behind commanded him +to leave the flower alone. Linnæus turned and stood face +to face with the dean, Olof Celsius the Elder. In the interview +which followed the young man surprised the dean, +who was an able and enthusiastic botanist, by his exceptional +knowledge of plants. Celsius inquired about his +circumstances and ended by taking him into his house and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span> +providing for his future. Shortly afterward Linnæus published +a short but important treatise on the sexual life of +plants, which he handed in to Professor Olof Rudbeck the +Younger. This able scholar was forcibly struck by the ingenuity +of the thoughts in the work, which contained the +nucleus to the grand scientific system which Linnæus later +developed. When, in 1730, Rudbeck obtained a vacation he +had Linnæus installed as a lecturer of the botanic gardens. +Shortly afterward Linnæus received the commission to pay +a visit of botanic research to Lapland, on the plants of +which he published a remarkable work. The journey was +made on horseback, the young scholar returning deeply +impressed by the grandeur of natural sceneries in the extreme +North.</p> + +<p>Linnæus had to fight poverty and adversity for some +time still. His mother, who always had regretted that he +should “turn out a surgeon instead of a minister,” was elated +over his first triumph when opening the field of a new science +by his sexual system of plants. He suffered all the more at +her death, which he was forced to conceal because he could +not afford a mourning garb. Envious comrades put an end +to his lectures at Upsala by having enforced, through petitions, +an order against the filling of temporary vacancies +by men who had not taken the doctor’s degree. It was +found necessary for Linnæus to go abroad, and some +money was subscribed by his friends for that purpose. +In Holland he met the learned Professor Boerhave, who, +on being made acquainted with his system of botany, +which Linnæus then for the first time published, received +him with tokens of unlimited admiration and friendship. +It was by Boerhave that the continental fame of Linnæus +was founded. The latter found, in the arranging of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span> +great gardens of Hartekamp intrusted to him, a work both +agreeable and instructive. In London, Linnæus broadened +his experience with study of the rich collections of plants +and naturalia which were made accessible to him by the +celebrated scholar Hans Sloane, later the founder of the +British Museum. The letter of recommendation from Boerhave +was somewhat different to the one Linnæus had received +at Vexio: “Linnæus, who hands you this letter, +is the only one worthy to see you, and to be seen by you. +Those who see you together look upon two men the peers +of which the world does hardly possess.” After a stay in +Paris, where the greatest scientists of France treated him +with distinction, he returned to Holland, to find his friend +Boerhave dying in Leyden. Linnæus kissed the hand of +the dying man, who insisted on kissing the hand of Linnæus +in return, pronouncing him the greater genius, of +whom the world should expect and receive more.</p> + +<p>Linnæus, the celebrated founder of a new science, returned +home as an unknown man. His ability as a physician, +acquired at the University of Leyden, and his growing +continental fame soon made him distinguished. In 1741 +he was appointed professor of medicine at Upsala, but +changed chairs with the professor of botany. The study +of the latter science was highly developed through the +continued research of Linnæus, and became very popular, +while giving a great impetus to the study of medicine. +The grace and animation of Linnæus as a lecturer caused +students and scholars to flock around him in hundreds. +The botanic excursions led by Linnæus resembled daily +marches of triumphs, the multitude of students escorting +their beloved teacher back to the botanic gardens with +flowers in their hats and with music of drums and French<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span> +horns. Sweden, with Upsala as a centre, was for the first +time in history considered a home of scientific culture, to +which naturalists gathered from all parts of the world, +America included. Pupils of ability and distinction were +sent by Linnæus to strange and unknown quarters, from +which they returned with new and unfamiliar plants, which +were examined and classified by the flower king of the +North. Linnæus was honored by his contemporaries in +such a superlative manner as no one of his countrymen, +before or after, and few other scientists of any age or country. +Count Charles Gustavus Tessin has the credit of having +encouraged him in his work and improved his career +upon his return from the Continent. When ennobled, Linnæus +changed his name to Von Linné, the earlier form +being the more familiar to English readers. King Gustavus +III. presented him with the estate Hammarby, where +he liked to dwell, surrounded by his flowers and his family, +resting from the fatigue caused by the endless stream of +distinguished pilgrims who came to visit his flower court +at Upsala. The offers of foreign monarchs to have him +come and dwell with them were many and liberal. In 1739 +he married the love of his youth, Maria Elizabeth Moræus, +“and never since felt an inclination to leave Sweden.”</p> + +<p>Linnæus in many respects resembled Swedenborg, being +convinced that his acceptance of truth was the correct one +and disliking disputes. Like Swedenborg, he was pious, +modest, benevolent and sincere. Of his own exterior and +disposition Linnæus has himself given the following characteristic +account: “Linnæus was not tall, not small, lean, +brown-eyed, light, quick, walked briskly, did everything +promptly, disliked slow people, was sensitive, easily moved, +worked continuously and could not spare himself. He was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span> +fond of good food and drank good drinks, but never to excess. +He cared little for exteriors, considering that man +should adorn his dress and not vice versa. Faculty meetings +were not his delight, or business, for he was made for +quite other things, and had other things in mind than those +which there were discussed and decided upon.” In the +preface to the late edition of his principal work, “Systema +Naturæ,” the following noteworthy paragraph is found: “I +saw the shadow of the Supreme Being go past me, and +I was seized with respect and admiration. I searched for +His footsteps in the sand—what power, what wisdom! I +saw how the animals existed only by means of the plants, +the plants by means of the lifeless particles, and these in +their turn constitute the earth. I saw the sun and stars +without number hanging suspended in the air, held by the +hand of the Being of beings, the artist of this grand masterpiece.”</p> + +<p>Linnæus died January 10, 1778, and was buried in the +cathedral of Upsala. His botanic system has been superseded +by others, but the influence that his researches and +discoveries have exerted on the natural sciences and medicine, +has not ceased to be benignantly felt, nor have the +utmost results of his researches been as yet attained.</p> + +<p>Andrew Celsius, professor of astronomy at Upsala, +acquired fame as a writer on astronomy and was successful +in his efforts to have an observatory built at the university. +In 1742 he introduced his invention, the Celsius +or centigrade thermometer, which is of almost indispensable +practical value in all physical and chemical experiments. +Olof Celsius, Senior, the able botanist, Orientalist and +patron of Linnæus, was his uncle, he thus being a cousin +of Olof Celsius, Junior, whose brightly written histories of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span> +Gustavus Vasa and Eric XIV. were translated into contemporaneous +French and German.</p> + +<p>John Ahlstrœmer accomplished more for the resurrection +of the downtrodden industry of his country than +any one else, and therefore justly deserves the name of the +Father of Swedish Industry. This man, who occupies an +honored place in Swedish history, was born in 1685, of poor +parents, at the town of Alingsos, in West Gothland, his +original name being John Toresson. He worked himself +up in various mercantile positions in Stockholm and other +towns, later coming to London, where he engaged in business +of his own and became an English citizen. He saw +with regret that his countrymen sent their money abroad +to obtain articles which they could manufacture at home, +and was seized with the ambition to introduce into Sweden +the industries which constitute the foundation of England’s +mercantile wealth.</p> + +<p>When Charles XII. returned to Sweden, Ahlstrœmer +went there also, trying to win the king to his industrial +plans. He did not succeed, but found in Christopher Polhem +a man who listened to and appreciated them. Ahlstrœmer +intended to return to England, but was captured by +the Danes during the journey. On account of his English +citizenship he soon regained his liberty, visiting England +and the Continent, and carefully selecting everything which +he had in view of sending to Sweden as the requisite instruments +for his plans. This work sometimes involved great +danger, as the buying of looms for hose and ribbon, fulling +vats, dyes, etc.; for the great manufacturing countries were +keeping jealous watch that the secrets of their industries +should not become known abroad. In a town in Holland, +Ahlstrœmer barely missed being pelted with stones by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span> +mob. Pursued by the revenue authorities, he managed to +escape with his ship, arriving safely in Gothenburg with +the valuable cargo and skilled laborers in his employ. +Shortly afterward he arrived in his native town of Alingsos, +where the industrial enterprises were established. The +Riksdag at first was unwilling to grant him the necessary +concessions, the clergy especially being averse to allow so +many foreign workingmen free confession of their Catholic +religion. In 1724 the concessions were at last obtained, and +Ahlstrœmer began his course, which he was resolved should +result in the fostering of the same industrial activity in his +impoverished country, which he, with surprise, had noticed +in England and on the Continent.</p> + +<p>In establishing his enterprises, Ahlstrœmer exhausted +his resources, and when he tried to form a company to keep +them going he was met with stubborn resistance, caused +by ignorance and jealousy. He succeeded at last in obtaining +the financial backing of some wealthy mine owners of +Vermland, who took shares in his enterprises. The Riksdag +of 1726 encouraged him by placing high protective or +prohibitive tariffs on foreign articles which could be produced +in the country. In the following year King Frederic +paid a visit to Alingsos, spending a whole day in looking +over the mills and factories. The king said that +he would rather own the stock of goods of Ahlstrœmer +than the largest arsenal in his kingdom, and saw to it that +his servants were dressed in broadcloth manufactured at +Alingsos.</p> + +<p>Alingsos saw its population suddenly increase from 300 +to 1,800 and entered upon an era of prosperity. Ahlstrœmer’s +factories formed almost a little town of their own beside +the older one. There were twelve looms for the manufact<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span>uring +of broadcloth, forty-five looms for wool, and, besides, +cotton mills, dye works for wool and silk, hose factories, +an English tannery and various other industrial works. Also +a foundry, with eight communicating shops, where all kinds +of household articles of simple and composite metals were +manufactured. Alingsos was made a kind of normal school +of industry for the whole country. The foreign master +workmen, who at the beginning had charge of the factories, +instructed in time a great number of native apprentices, who +later found employment elsewhere, thus distributing to +various parts the experience obtained at Alingsos. Wool +was the principal material in the factories, and in order +to obtain a refined quality, Ahlstrœmer imported stocks of +foreign breeds. He commenced with English sheep, the +Riksdag of 1727 granting him the use of the royal estate +Hœjentorp for the purpose. Angora goats were later imported +and seemed to thrive.</p> + +<p>Ahlstrœmer did his country a great service by introducing +the cultivation of potatoes. The first shipment of +this useful plant arrived in 1723, with workingmen imported +from France. As soon as the plant was seen to stand the +climate, larger quantities were sent for. Potatoes were +cultivated in the vast fields around Alingsos at a period +when they were exhibited in the botanic gardens of the Continent +as rare plants from Peru. Prejudice at first interfered, +but when the soldiers returned home from Pomerania +with the habit of eating potatoes, and planted such +around their cottages, the popularity of the Peruvian plant +was assured. Ahlstrœmer also introduced the cultivation +of tobacco and several dye plants. The coal mines, near +Helsingborg, in Scania, commenced to be operated at his +instigation. When the Academy of Science was instituted,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span> +in 1739, Ahlstrœmer was made one of its members. The +Academy of Science served originally and in that era of +utilitarianism a more practical purpose than later. The +Cap administration of Arvid Horn gave comparatively little +attention to the enterprises of Ahlstrœmer, having more +in view to develop agriculture than industry. When the Hats +got into power the conditions were reversed. Count Charles +Gyllenborg, the successor of Arvid Horn as president of the +chancery, in order to set a good example, always dressed in +broadcloth of Swedish manufacture. Ahlstrœmer was +made a councillor of commerce, and ennobled, while his bust +was placed in the Exchange of Stockholm and medals issued +in his honor by the Academy of Science.</p> + +<p>Ahlstrœmer was a middle-sized man of a strong constitution. +He was amiable, courteous and hospitable, ever +ready to conduct visitors through his factories and warehouses. +His energy was as great as his kindness, and he +refused to recognize an enemy in anybody. The large +profits of his plants he mostly spent on other patriotic +enterprises, leaving hardly any other inheritance to his sons +than an excellent education. During the last few years +of his life he suffered the consequences of a stroke of paralysis. +He died in 1761, and thus was saved from witnessing +the destruction which was caused to the new factory +industry and his own works at Alingsos by the reckless +policy of the new Caps.</p> + +<p>Olof Dalin is the principal poet and writer of the Period +of Liberty, strongly influencing not only the creative minds +of his own day, but also those who with more or less right +have been counted as belonging to the Gustavian Period. +Dalin was the son of a minister in the province of Halland +and a relative of Professor Andrew Rydelius of Lund, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span> +historian of the older generation, who conducted the course +of his studies. He came to Stockholm in 1726, where several +positions in various state departments afforded opportunity +for study in libraries and archives. Dalin, from +the year 1732 to 1734, published a magazine called “The +Swedish Argus,” which, with the English “Spectator” as +a pattern, contained articles on public and individual morals, +with allusions to the facts of contemporary life. This publication +caused a great stir and became very popular on +account of the acute logic and excellent language of its +editor. Dalin was appointed royal librarian by the Riksdag, +and, on the recommendation of Count Tessin, teacher +to the young crown prince Gustavus.</p> + +<p>Dalin was an enthusiastic admirer of the glorious epoch of +Swedish history and of the character of Charles XII., which +caused him to join the party of the Hats. When the latter +utterly failed in their attempts to restore the political grandeur +of the past, and Dalin witnessed the excesses of the +rivalling parties, he joined the secret agitators for an increased +royal power. In the literary and artistic circle of +the brilliant Queen Louise Ulrica, Dalin was the leading +spirit. He was not unaware of the conspiracies and intrigues +of the queen, and is supposed to have been the author +of several of the sharp notes which the king added to the +records of the state council. The Hats, who took offence +at his sharp satires, made him resign from his position as +the teacher of the crown prince. After the conspiracy +of the court party was detected, Dalin was called before a +committee of the Estates and by order dismissed from the +court. Dalin used the time of his compulsory isolation for +the writing of a history of Sweden. This work, which +never was carried further than to the end of the Period<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span> +of Reformation, is characterized by an attractive style, +but is not reliable as to facts.</p> + +<p>Dalin was allowed to return to the court in 1761. He +stood in great favor and was covered with testimonials of +appreciation. He died in 1763, at the moment when King +Adolphus Frederic was resolved to make him a state councillor. +Dalin was the first writer who made Swedish history +popular, and exerted, by his poems and his magazine, +and by his education of Gustavus III., a considerable influence +upon the history of his own time.</p> + +<p>In point of scientific research the historical works of +Sven Lagerbring have a much higher value than Dalin’s +history, although they lacked the literary excellence of +the latter. Lagerbring, who, born in Scania, was professor +of history at the University of Lund, carried his work to the +times of Charles VIII. A shorter history of his was translated +into French and long formed the chief source of continental +knowledge of Swedish history.</p> + +<p>As a poet Dalin had a rival in the somewhat younger +Hedvig Charlotta Nordenflycht, one of the most interesting +characters in Swedish history of literature. Her works, +chiefly consisting of lyrics and idyls, show a long chain +of development from the taste of the Carolinian period to +that of the Gustavian epoch. In her deep emotional nature +and enthusiasm for all cultural movements she stands without +a rival. Receiving an annuity from the government, +she was after many adversities able to maintain a literary +salon. The men who met there, like Gustavus Philip +Creutz and Gustavus Frederic Gyllenborg, were the founders +of an academic style in poetry, as was Charles Gustavus +Tessin in eloquence.</p> + +<p>John Ihre is perhaps the most highly gifted of Swedish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span> +philologists and the first whose research had a lasting scientific +value. He stood at the summit of contemporary European +study of language, and rose a head or more higher +than the philologists of his own country in that day. The +period was characterized by a movement for the purification +and analyzation of the language, Dalin expressing his wish +to speak the truth to the Swedes in pure Swedish, and the +Academy of Science taking pride in publishing their important +papers in the mother tongue. Eric Benzelius, an able +critic of the Gothic, and interested in Swedish dialect research, +was one of the precursors of Ihre; and so was Olof +Celsius, Senior, professor of Greek, later of Oriental languages, +who was the first to fix the age of the majority +of Runic inscriptions as dating from the Christian era.</p> + +<p>John Ihre was born, in 1707, in Lund, where his father +was a professor of theology, a talented, witty and learned +man. The young Ihre lost his father in 1720, after which +time his uncle, Archbishop Steuchius of Upsala, had charge +of his education. He later studied modern languages at the +University of Jena, made the acquaintance of the contemporary +philologists of Holland, and also studied at the universities +of London, Oxford and Paris. After an absence +of three years he returned, soon to be connected with the +University of Upsala, where he remained for forty-two +years as professor of rhetoric and politics. Ihre was a liberal, +outspoken man, who was severely censured for his opinions +upon political and religious subjects, once by the Riksdag +being sentenced to pay fines and receiving a warning from the +chancellor of the university. When the clergy upon another +occasion warned the philosophers not to mix in theological +subjects, Ihre defended himself in the following terms in +a letter to the chancellor, Count Charles Gustavus Tessin.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span> +“Gracious lord! I teach <i>eloquentiam</i>, <i>politicam</i> and the +states, with all things pertaining to them. To become a +heretic I possess neither genius nor stupidity enough, less +an evil purpose. Therefore I am willing to forego all theology, +if only an allowance of it be made large enough for +my private practice and edification in Christianity. I never +intended to go any further.”</p> + +<p>Ihre left religion and politics alone, and received many +high distinctions in return for his great scientific merits. +When ennobled, he kept his old family name, stating that +he was “somewhat known abroad under the name of Ihre,” +while if he changed it to Gyllenbiorn or Vargstierna, it +would take “some time to announce this new disguise.” +He was renowned for his ready wit, and wielded a considerable +influence in academic circles. Ihre was satisfied +with his position and his science, and was not willing to +exchange them for a political career.</p> + +<p>Ihre was led to the study of the Teutonic languages in +their oldest forms by his desire to find a consistent spelling +and correct understanding of the words in his own language. +He was desirous of freeing it from foreign words, +but only when those substituted were as expressive and +comprehensible as the old. Ihre was a pioneer in the field +of dialect lexicographers, publishing the outline of a Swedish +dialect dictionary in 1766, and wrote a number of works +pertaining to the historic forms of Gothic, Lappish, Finnish +and Old Norse. Special importance is due to his epoch-making +research concerning the language of the Codex Argenteus. +He once for all settled the controversy, proving +the Codex to contain the Gothic Bible translation of Bishop +Wulfila against the assertions of M. Lacroze of Berlin, who +claimed that it was written in Frankish. In regard to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span> +Edda of Snorre Sturleson, he declared it to be intended as +an introductory study of poesy, a handbook of poetics for +young scalds, an opinion which has been fully established +in a much later time. By these and other theories Ihre +attained a much higher standpoint as a scientific critic than +his contemporaries. He spoke of the resemblance between +the Teutonic and the classical languages, without being able +to find the reasons. He even to some extent anticipated the +great discovery which after its formulator has been called +Grimm’s Law, by pointing out “a certain regularity of consonant +shift” in the Teutonic languages.</p> + +<p>The monumental work of Ihre and the crowning effort +of his life was prepared between the years 1750-1759. This +Glossarium suiogothicum, published at the expense of the +government, is the best Swedish dictionary of the eighteenth +century. Ihre by his severe critical method kills +the wild etymologies of the “Rudbeckian philology,” turning +to Old Swedish for the derivations, and, where this gave +no satisfaction, to the Old Icelandic, “because this language +nine hundred years ago was separated from our own and +has remained undisturbed by foreign influence.” From the +Old Northern dialects he turned to Old High German, Old +English and Gothic, the last mentioned of which he considered +the mother of the Teutonic languages. Many of +Ihre’s etymologies have not been able to withstand the +scrutiny of later criticism, but his great etymological dictionary +is the product of versatile knowledge and unusual +insight, and has not only exerted a profound influence upon +his own period but also served as a model for later epochs +of philological research.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV</a><br /> +<span class="smaller"><i>Gustavian Period—Gustavus III. and Gustavus IV. +Adolphus</i></span></h2> + +<p>Gustavus III., with his brilliant endowment, one +of the most illustrious, and, in spite of his glaring +faults, one of the most beloved, of Swedish monarchs, +was the first king since Charles XII. who was born +in Sweden. For this very reason, and on account of his +amiable and charming disposition, he had won for himself +the sympathy of the people even before his succession to the +throne. This nephew of Frederic the Great of Prussia had +inherited the genius, ambition and pride of his gifted mother, +all enlarged and intensified, and the gentleness and good +nature of his father. He was in every particular a child +of his time, and every inch a king. Gustavus was decidedly +French in education, taste and superficiality, but had by his +first teacher Dalin been inspired with a deep love of his +country, its history, language and traditions. He handled +the Swedish and French languages with equal skill, and +a more eloquent monarch has never graced a throne. He +was passionately fond of theatricals and impressive ceremony, +and, like his mother and illustrious uncle, he surrounded +himself with men of genius. Gustavus was betrothed +to Princess Sophie Magdalene of Denmark when +only four years of age, and married her when twenty. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span> +union was arranged by the Riksdag, contrary to the wish +of Gustavus’s parents. Gustavus appeared at first to be +deeply in love with the gentle and unpretentious princess, +but she soon found herself as neglected by her consort as +she was detested by his mother. The crown prince early +began to hate the form of government which had brought +so much humiliation to his parents. This absolutism of the +Riksdag, which could be bought and sold through bribery +by foreign powers, he considered dangerous to the independence +and welfare of the country, and was resolved to +change the balance of power to the hands of the king, +of whose dignity and importance he held an exalted opinion.</p> + +<p>At the death of his father, Gustavus was in France, +returning with the agreement of a secret alliance. At the +Riksdag of 1771, where the Caps once more came into +power, Gustavus III. signed a pledge with new restrictions +of the royal authority. But while the king officially seemed +to desire a pacification of both parties, and his time was +principally occupied with theatricals, embroideries and costumes, +he was secretly arranging a conspiracy. He was +crowned in May, 1772, and in August the news of a revolt +in Scania, led by John Christian Toll, reached the capital. +The king feigned surprise, but waited for similar news from +Finland, whence Jacob Magnus Sprengtporten was to bring +troops to Stockholm. As Sprengtporten’s movements were +somewhat delayed, the king had to take action himself. +In the morning of August 19th he entered the officers’ hall +of the body-guards, where he delivered a patriotic address, +asking the officers to follow him as their ancestors had followed +Gustavus Vasa and Gustavus Adolphus. He was +greeted with an enthusiasm which soon spread throughout +the capital, assuring the king of perfect loyalty. The state<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span> +councillors were quickly arrested and order given that no one +should be allowed to leave the capital. The Riksdag was +called together August 21st, and addressed by the king in +an eloquent speech which gave a striking view of the situation +and its perils. He declared that he was not going to +touch liberty, only to abolish misrule by the establishment +of a firm administration. Then was read the proposition +for a constitution which the king had prepared. The king +alone was to be the executive, appointing higher officials +and councillors, making alliances with foreign powers, but +not commencing any war of attack without the consent of +the Riksdag. The state council was to consist of seventeen +members with deliberative, but no executive, power. The +Riksdag was to convene at the order of the king, taxation +and legislation to be decided on by the king and Riksdag +in common. The judicial power of all committees was to be +abolished. The Riksdag accepted the royal propositions, +and one of the most smoothly and skilfully managed <i>coups +d’état</i> ever attempted was accomplished, much to the dismay +of Russia, Prussia and Denmark. During half a score +of years the country enjoyed a happy peace, the king winning +the love of his people and being active in administrative +improvements.</p> + +<p>Gustavus III. was intensely interested in literature and +art, and a writer of considerable ability, composing +dramatic works of French pattern but with patriotic subjects. +In his best creations he is influenced by Shakespeare. +Among the poets whom he encouraged were Kellgren, Leopold, +Creutz, Gyllenborg, Oxenstierna, Adlerbeth, the creators +of a classical school of Swedish poetry and drama, +influenced by the contemporary French writers. Above +these towers Charles Michael Bellman, who, with his com<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span>posite +and rich endowment, became the first great national +poet, and of an originality as remarkable as that of any +genius in the literature of the world. The humor introduced +into Swedish literature through the contact with the +songs of the Edda, in Bellman reaches its perfection, while +his poetry in exquisite and triumphant grace of form outrivals +that of his classical contemporaries. His poems were +almost all produced under the inspiration of the moment, +even if later remodelled, and sung to the lute to melodies +of the day, or of his own composition. His impressionistic +power of description leads the thought to the modern +artists, while his ambition to unite the arts of poetry, +music and plastics makes him a precursor of Neo-Romanticism. +There is not one accent of chauvinism, not even a +note of patriotism, in his songs, yet he is the most beloved +of Swedish poets, recognized as the highest exponent of the +lyrico-rhetorical temperament of his people, a mixture of +melancholy humor and exuberant joy in a graceful yet +stately form. Anne Marie Lenngren was a highly talented +poetess, who preserves the classic form for her verse, in +which she ridicules the faults and vices of her period. Thorild +and Lidner were men of great genius, but of somewhat +bizarre and neglected literary form, influenced by contemporary +Romanticism in Germany. Sweden continues to +add a number of names to the galaxy of men distinguished +in the service of natural science, those of Bergman and +Scheele, the founders of modern chemistry, being the most +renowned. To the Academy of Science and Academy of +Art, established during the Period of Liberty, Gustavus +added a Swedish Academy and a National Theatre for the +encouragement of poetry, eloquence, music and drama. +It is during this period that the Swedish language devel<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span>oped +the beauty and plasticity for which it holds the first +rank among Teutonic dialects, and is considered one of the +most musical languages of the world. Of artists, the painters +Hœrberg, Hillestrœm and Roslin rose to great continental +fame, while Sergel, through the genius and tendencies +of his works one of the most remarkable sculptors of +modern times, won renown for his name, but hardly the +very highest perfection within his possibilities. His statue +of Gustavus III. is the finest monument of Stockholm.</p> + +<p>Sweden, so rich in great poets, artists and scientists, +is poor in philosophers, content with the systems of thinkers +in more favored countries. Swedenborg is an important +exception to this rule. Not satisfied with an original system, +with pure reason as the fundamental principle, he divined a +system in which philosophy and religion are inseparably +united. Kant, when made acquainted with Swedenborg’s +earlier system, was utterly astonished, expressing fear that +he himself had been an object of thought-transference, +when writing his celebrated work, “Kritik der reinen Vernunft.” +The system of Descartes was followed by Swedish +philosophers of the Carolinian epoch. During the Period +of Liberty and the reign of Gustavus III., Locke, Voltaire +and Diderot were supreme. At the close of the eighteenth +century, Kant began to exert great influence, Benjamin +Hœijer being his talented and individualistic disciple, and +enjoying the reputation of having been Sweden’s greatest +original thinker. Charles August Ehrensverd, an able warrior +and statesman of the Gustavian epoch, devised an +attractive and novel, although slightly dilettantic, system +of his own, the Philosophy of Fine Arts.</p> + +<p>The suspicions that Gustavus III. was not satisfied with +the share of power which he obtained in 1772, and that he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span> +was anxious to gain fame by the means of war, were found +to be justified. In 1786 he called a Riksdag, at which most +of his propositions, to his great surprise, were stubbornly +opposed. Catherine II. of Russia was intriguing with the +Finnish nobles for the purpose of establishing the independence +of Finland under Russian protection. But she was +careful not to commence hostilities. Attempts made by +Gustavus III. to bring the Norwegian people in revolt +against Denmark failed. And so Gustavus, who had no +authority to begin a war of attack, arranged for a simulated +Russian assault on the Finnish boundary, executed by Finnish +peasants in disguise. He declared war on Russia, in +June, 1788, although nobody was found willing to believe +in the feigned cause of it. The actual hostilities were +opened by a brilliant naval battle at Hogland, fought with +success by the Swedish fleet under command of Prince +Charles, the brother of the king, against the Russians. +The king had arrived in Finland resolved to attack St. +Petersburg, which plan he was obliged to change. All +further operations came to a sudden standstill through +mutiny among the Finnish officers in the royal camp at +Anjala, 113 of them signing a document in which they +pledged themselves to force the king to make peace and to +convoke the Riksdag. Another document offering peace +and a union of Finland to Russia was despatched to St. +Petersburg with Jægerhorn, one of the leaders. The officers +received a favorable answer from Russia, which +was handed to the king, and the whole army was made +acquainted with the proceedings. The king found himself +in a most perilous position, out of which he was +saved as by a miracle. Denmark declared war, and the +king hastened to embrace the opportunity to leave with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span> +honor the trap in which his life and liberty were in +danger.</p> + +<p>Gustavus III. sent word to several provinces, asking the +inhabitants to rise in defence of their country. He went +himself to Dalecarlia, where he addressed the peasants when +coming from church, as had Gustavus Vasa. Everywhere +the population rose in arms. The king hastened to Gothenburg, +which was threatened by the Danes, and had the city +strongly fortified. England and Prussia sided with Sweden, +and the Danes found it best to retire from Swedish territory.</p> + +<p>Gustavus had won the game. Now for the stakes! He +called a Riksdag in 1789. Through his personal courage +and patriotism, Gustavus III. had recaptured the love of +his people. The nobility was hated and despised on account +of its responsibility for the mutiny at Anjala and for its +intrigues with Russia. Gustavus III. consequently stood +exceedingly well with the three lower Estates of the Riksdag, +but lost their respect through the many violations of +the law which he committed in forcing upon the Riksdag +a new constitution which made him a ruler with almost +absolute power. The nobility stubbornly refused to accept +any change in the constitution. There were many stormy +scenes, both among the nobles and in the presence of the +king, who also paid a visit to the Riddarhus, which he left +with the statement that the nobles were willing to subscribe, +the latter loudly protesting. Axel von Fersen the Elder and +several other aristocratic leaders were held in a prolonged +arrest. Archbishop Troil told the king that he did not wish +to be the first archbishop after Gustavus Trolle to sell the +liberty of his country, and begged to be excused from being +present at the deliberations. The poet and royal favorite<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span> +Adlerbeth, himself a nobleman, pleaded in the Riksdag the +right of his Estate to take action on the royal propositions. +These were in private signed by the speakers of the four +Estates and pronounced by the government as accepted, and +were called an “Act of Union and Security.” This new +constitution gave almost absolute power to the king. The +state council was once more, and forever, swept away and +not even mentioned in the constitution. It was divided into +a supreme court and a department for “the preparation +of public affairs.” By taking half of their members only +from the nobility, the greatest privilege of that class was +annulled. To the peasants was extended the privilege of +buying land originally belonging to the nobility. By hard +pressure, and in opposition to the nobles, the king forced the +Riksdag to take the responsibility for the state debt, which +had increased considerably.</p> + +<p>Gustavus III. opened the Riksdag as the most popular +man of the country. He closed it as an absolute sovereign +who had lost the love of his people and aroused the revengeful +hatred of the nobility. Gustavus III. was now enabled +to continue the Russian war at will. His sub-commander +Stedingk won a victory over the Russians at Porosalmi, +the latter being led by Sprengtporten, the former supporter +of Gustavus III., now a soldier of Empress Catherine. He +was killed in the battle. Prince Charles won a victory at +Œland, but was by negligence of his sub-commander detained +from reaping its benefits, Charles August Ehrensverd +defeated a superior Russian naval force at Svensksund +with the “Skerry Fleet,” the creation of his father, Augustinus +Ehrensverd. At the order of the king, he then met +a still larger fleet and was defeated. Dissatisfied with the +king and the result, the valiant hero and philosopher made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span> +his report in the following laconic phrase: “Your majesty +has no longer any Skerry Fleet,” and resigned from his +position as admiral-general. In the following year, 1780, +the combined naval forces of Sweden were shut up by the +Russian fleet in the bay of Viborg, and seemed doomed to +destruction. But the king gave orders that all the ships +should force a passage, and this heroic effort was successfully +made, through the lines of colossal Russian warships +chained together. The Russian losses were great, and also +those of the Swedes, on account of an explosion on board one +of the ships. The Russians were anxious to gain the victory +that escaped them at Viborg, and decided on July 9th, +the day of Empress Catherine’s coronation, as an appropriate +date. The battle was fought at Svensksund, and +turned into a humiliating defeat, the Russians losing 53 +ships, 643 cannon and 14,000 men, and the imperial flag +of state; twenty-six of these ships were entered in the +Swedish navy. Peace was made at Værælæ a month later. +No change of territory was involved, but an end was put to +Russian intrigues, and Sweden had once more and forever +demonstrated her power of taking care of her independence.</p> + +<p>The revolution in France made a deep impression upon +the factions which in Sweden were secretly continuing their +struggle. The nobility, in their aristocratic republicanism, +sided with the revolutionists, while the king, an intimate +friend of Louis XVI., tried to save the monarchy. Gustavus +III. left Sweden in the summer of 1791, in order to +receive Louis XVI. and his family at the frontier, while +Count Axel von Fersen the Younger, a son of the old aristocratic +party leader who had taken part with distinction +in the American revolutionary war, was very near to saving +the royal family through a flight from Paris. King<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span> +Gustavus III. waited in vain for the royal fugitives, but +commenced active operations for the forming of an alliance +between Sweden, Russia, Prussia, Austria and Spain +against republican France. Sweden and Russia made a +treaty of mutual defence, but the negotiations for a general +alliance were not at a favorable point when Gustavus +III. himself fell by the aristocratic republicans of his own +country.</p> + +<p>A conspiracy between the nobles had been formed, the +majority being men of the highest station. Jacob John +Anckarstrom, a retired officer, was found willing to commit +the deed of killing the hated despot. After several unsuccessful +attempts, the act was accomplished at a mask ball +in the Royal Opera, the king being shot through the hip. +All of the accomplices present were arrested, and, much +to their disappointment, the king not dying instantly, their +plan for a revolution was thus frustrated. Gustavus III. +was shot March 16, 1792, and died March 26, 1792, suffering +his fate with fortitude and great presence of mind. He +appointed his brother Charles and his favorite, Charles Gustavus +Armfelt, members of the government during the +minority of his son, Gustavus Adolphus.</p> + +<p>The devotion of his country returned to Gustavus III. +at his deathbed, never to leave him. In spite of his superficiality, +violation of the law, disregard for a constitutional +government, and adventurous and expensive wars, solid +reasons remain to love and respect his memory. His noble +patriotism, frank heroism, brilliant genius and great generosity +are worthy of high praise. His revolution of 1789 +brought disastrous consequences, but he furthered the +progress of democracy by annihilation of the aristocratic +republic and saved his country from the tragic fate of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span> +Poland. Even if the Period of Liberty is to be credited +for a great deal of the cultural development during his +reign, Gustavus has a large share therein, and Esaias +Tegnér is right in his eulogy when he says:</p> + +<div class="center"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">“There rests o’er Gustav’s days a golden shimmer,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Fantastic, foreign, frivolous, if you please;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">But why complain when <i>sunshine</i> caused the glamour?<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Where stood we now if it were not for these?<br /></span> +<span class="i0">All culture on an unfree ground is builded,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And barbarous once the base of patriotism true;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">But wit was planted, iron-hard language welded,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The song was raised, life more enjoyed and shielded,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And what Gustavian was, is, therefore, Swedish too.”<br /></span> +</div></div></div> + +<p>In the mixture of patriotism and unreserved cosmopolitanism, +true genius and superficiality, earnestness and recklessness +in the character of Gustavus III., the Swedes have +recognized peculiarities of their own national temperament, +for which they are tempted to love him as dearly, although +not considering him to be as great, as his two predecessors +and namesakes on the Swedish throne. By his eloquence, +wit and amiability, his personality charmed even his enemies. +In contrast to the sombre autocrats of the Barocco +period, Gustavus III. was a typical Rococo monarch, and +he tried to give the charms and grace of the Rococo epoch +to his surroundings. In appearance, he was of middle size, +slender and graceful, with a face which bespoke genius, and +eyes of unusual size and brilliancy.</p> + +<p><i>Gustavus IV. Adolphus</i> was a boy of thirteen at the +death of his father. His uncle, Prince Charles, was regent +in name, but Baron Reuterholm, the latter’s favorite, was +the real head of the government. Compared to the eccentric +but energetic, generous and liberal despotism of Gustavus +III., Reuterholm’s was a rule of pettiness, incapa<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span>bility, +revenge and hypocrisy. Prince Charles was a good +soldier, but early lost all energy through dissipation and +a natural tendency to mysticism, secrecy and simulation. +Reuterholm was a good worker, but of no ability as a statesman, +sharing and increasing the love of mysticism and +superstition characteristic of his master. The new policy +was to estrange the friends and favorites of Gustavus III. +as much as possible, they all being sent away under various +pretexts. Prince Charles had from the start declared invalid +the postscript of the king’s will, according to which +Count Armfelt was to take part in the government. Later +a conspiracy, with Armfelt as the leader, was detected, +when he, who was abroad and later entered Russian service, +was declared to have forfeited his property, rank and life. +A young woman, Lady Madelaine Rudenschiold, who was +one of the conspirators, was punished by being exhibited +to the mob on the place of execution and afterward imprisoned.</p> + +<p>Prince Charles was criticised for the leniency shown +toward his brother’s murderers, perhaps without justice, +for the dying king had pleaded clemency in their behalf. +Only Anckarstrom was executed, the other conspirators +all receiving surprisingly mild sentences. This was contrasted +to the petty and revengeful hatred shown the opponents +of the new government, and one now recalled the +fact that Gustavus III. in his last moments had refused +to see the prince. That Charles also had aspirations of his +own seems evident from the fact that he had the young +king examined by physicians, raising doubt as to his physical +and mental fitness to ever take a hand in the government.</p> + +<p>Reuterholm made himself hated and ridiculous by his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span> +pettiness. Thus restrictions were placed on extravagance +in food and clothing, the use of coffee for some time being +entirely prohibited. The Swedish Academy was disbanded +because it did not make Reuterholm a member. The liberty +of the press was extended and then suddenly restricted. +Thorild, the writer and poet, was exiled for agitation +against the old division of the Riksdag into four houses, +“because its four Estates always have been bringing about +one unsettled state.” Characteristic of the opinion of Reuterholm’s +administration are the words which the warrior +and philosopher, Charles August Ehrensverd, gave him in +the course of a quarrel between the two: “Monsieur is ambitious +to govern, but monsieur does not know how.” The +best things accomplished during this period were the establishment +of a military academy at Carlberg, and improvements +of the Bible translation and the ritual and hymn-book +of the church.</p> + +<p>The attitude toward France was changed with the +change of government, Sweden being the first power to +recognize the French republic. With that country and +Denmark close intimacy was formed, which enraged Russia +and England. In order to pacify the empress, old negotiations +for a marriage between King Gustavus Adolphus and +Alexandra, a niece of Empress Catherine II., were reopened +and a decision reached. The king left for St. Petersburg. +When the great ceremony was to take place, the empress +sat there waiting with her brilliant court for several hours. +No Gustavus Adolphus appeared. In the last moment he +had been asked by a priest to grant his future consort, +Alexandra, liberty to practice her Greek Catholic faith in +public, which he refused to do, thus dropping the whole +matter. The indignant empress was suddenly taken ill and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span> +died a few weeks later. Soon afterward the king married +the beautiful princess Frederica of Bade.</p> + +<p>Gustavus IV. Adolphus was declared of age and took +charge of the government when eighteen (in 1796). Reuterholm +was dismissed, and Prince Charles retired. The king +surrounded himself with the friends of his father, Armfelt +and Toll being recalled, the latter taking excellent care of +foreign affairs, as far as his authority went. But Gustavus +IV. ruled alone, without favorites or influential advisers. +This was most unfortunate, for he was entirely without the +gifts of a regent. He was a lover of order, economy, justice +and pure morals, but through lack of mental and physical +strength his good qualities were misdirected. His +father’s tragic fate had a sinister influence upon his mind, +the equilibrium of which was shaken also by the outrages +of the revolutionists in France. Of a morbid sensibility, +and without inclination to confide in any one, his religious +mysticism led him into a state close to insanity. He imagined +himself to be a reincarnation of Charles XII., while +in Napoleon he recognized the monster of the Apocalypse, +which he himself was sent to fight and conquer.</p> + +<p>Gustavus IV. went to an extreme in his fear of liberal +movements, placing severe censorship on the periodical +press, book market and universities. Benjamin Hœijer, +the great philosopher, for some time left his chair at Upsala +and the country. A man who was resolved to “go even +to the doors of hell in search of truth” could not be in sympathy +with the bigot despot. Hard times, produced by +failure of crops and fisheries, and by maritime losses during +the war between England and France, threw added umbrage +over the reign of Gustavus IV. He convoked a +Riksdag, in 1800, in order to raise money to cover the debts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span> +involved by his predecessor. He never repeated the experiment. +The nobles sanctioned the absolute rule, but stormy +sessions ensued over the royal propositions, six nobles resigning +from titles and privileges, six others their seats +in the Riksdag. The peasants, almost as unyielding, were +pacified by Toll. By his own authority, the king mortgaged +the Swedish city of Wismar, in Mecklenburg, to the +ruler of said duchy for a period of one hundred years, in +receipt for a sum of some two million dollars.</p> + +<p>There was no question in which the insanity of the king +became more apparent or disastrous than in his foreign +policy. An alliance of armed neutrality between Sweden, +Russia and Denmark came to naught through the inactivity +of Gustavus IV., and he stubbornly refused to +accept the repeated offers of Napoleon of an alliance with +France in the combat with the powers. Things took a +sinister aspect when an intimate alliance was effected between +Napoleon and Alexander of Russia, in 1807. Napoleon +had lost patience with the lunatic king, and tried to +call forth a catastrophe by urging Alexander to capture +Finland, which he at first was unwilling to do. The French +invaded Swedish Pomerania, and Toll was able to save the +little Swedish army of 10,000 only by means of a most skilful +diplomacy. Denmark, attacked by England, declared +war against Sweden. Gustavus IV. made great preparations, +sending Armfelt with one army to the Norwegian +frontier and Toll with another to Scania. The regular +army counted 100,000 men, and a great force of militia was +organized. But through gross incapability of the government +the majority of troops were never used, the militia +suffering immensely through neglect and hunger.</p> + +<p>Czar Alexander at last decided to capture Finland. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span> +called it himself an act of bad faith and treason against a +relative and ally, and in a treacherous way he carried on his +preparations. The Swedish ambassador was misled as to +the object of the latter, and when informed received exaggerated +accounts as to the force which was to invade Finland. +Gustavus IV. was alarmed and gave the old and +incapable field-marshal, Klingspor, appointed to command +the army in Finland, directions to save his troops in the best +way possible. And so commenced, in February, 1808, the +war which after a heroic struggle was to separate the Finns +from their Swedish brethren. Not only were the Finnish +troops possessed of the noblest patriotic spirit, but they had +also courageous and distinguished commanders, who, if +duly supported and intrusted with more authority, would +probably have been able to ward off the attack. Conspicuous +among the latter were C. J. Adlercreutz, born in Finland, +the hero of Siikajoki, Lappo and Oravais; G. C. von +Dœbeln, the victor of Juutas, and J. A. Sandels, the hero +of Pulkkila, Indensalmi and Virta, all three of them veterans +from the war of Gustavus III.</p> + +<p>The aged General Klercker commanded a Finnish army +at Tavastehus, where Klingspor arrived with his royal orders, +which were for retreat and evacuation of the country. The +troops were deprived of their hopes of a battle and forced +to make a retreat of nearly 600 miles, suffering from cold +and hunger. The retreat continued without interruption +for two months, until the army, in April, found itself between +Brahestad and Uleoborg. A battle was fought at +Siikajoki, April 18th, the sub-commander, General Adlercreutz, +receiving instructions to make a stand against the +enemy until the safety of the army supplies could be insured. +After five hours of fighting, the Finns won a glo<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span>rious +victory over the Russians. But royal orders for a +continued retreat arrived, and the Russians took possession +of Siikajoki.</p> + +<p>As long as Sveaborg, the Gibraltar of the North, was +safe, the final outcome of the struggle must remain undecided. +Sveaborg, the creation of Augustinus Ehrensverd, +is situated on seven islets and consists of several strong +works partly cut out of the rock and in an admirable way +protecting and supplementing each other. The fortress was +defended by 6,000 men, with 1,000 cannon and ample provisions +of all kinds; in the harbor a division of the Swedish +navy was at anchor. Olof Cronstedt, the commander, was +dissatisfied with the king and a secret supporter of Prince +Charles. His sub-commander, Jægerhorn, a brother of the +leader of the Conspiracy of Anjala, was a traitor, probably +in understanding with the Russians even before the war. +A little army of 4,000 Russians under the command of Van +Suchtelen was sent against Sveaborg. This force was too +small to make a serious attack; it was not able to capture +any of the fortifications; the naked rocks made it impossible +to build any earthworks. What the Russians could not +effect by force they accomplished by treachery, winning +over the commanding officers of Sveaborg through threats +and promises. When the Swedish and Finnish soldiers saw +the queer behavior of their officers they planned a mutiny; +but this was not carried out on account of lack of leadership. +The officers tried by the most shameful lies to pacify +the soldiers, Jægerhorn taking the leading part in these +proceedings. Sveaborg surrendered May 3d, all Swedes +being made prisoners of war, but the Finns given free +leave. When the troops saw the small force of Russians +and their miserable equipment they were enraged, breaking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span> +their weapons and tearing their banners to pieces. Cronstedt, +Jægerhorn and the other commanding officers became +Russian citizens, and received high outward distinctions; +but by both Russians and Finns they were ever treated with +cold contempt on account of their shameless treason.</p> + +<p>With the fall of Sveaborg, all hope of saving Finland +was lost. In the summer of 1808, her army fought several +glorious battles under the command of Adlercreutz, Dœbeln +and Sandels, but in the autumn it was attacked by a superior +Russian force and was nearly closed in between Old +Carleby and Vasa. Gripenberg stood with one division at +Old Carleby, furthest to the north, Dœbeln lay prostrated +by illness at New Carleby, and Adlercreutz stood with the +central body of troops at Oravais, about twenty miles south +from the latter town. The Russian army attacked the force +which was with Dœbeln, resolved to cut off Adlercreutz +from a retreat. One attack was already made at Juutas, +near New Carleby, when Dœbeln, alarmed by the news and +heedless of his serious illness, was seen approaching. His +men received him with enthusiasm, collected their scattering +forces and proved victorious over the attacking enemy. +The Russians retreated and Adlercreutz was saved.</p> + +<p>The famous battle of Oravais was fought the following +day, September 14th. The Swedish army was arranged +on a promontory in the sea, with artillery on a hill to the +north, close to which a detachment of the regiment of Helsingland +was arranged in an excellent position. Another +detachment of the same regiment was by a little brook at +the south base of the promontory, with two cannon, under +the command of Count William von Schwerin, a boy of sixteen +years. At this latter point the battle was begun at five +o’clock in the morning. The Russians, 8,000 strong, with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span> +twenty cannon and commanded by Kamenski, approached +a bridge leading over the brook. The 400 Swedes offered +a plucky resistance to the overwhelming force. Every time +the bridge was filled by Russians, Schwerin swept it clear +with the fire from his two cannon. This heroic struggle +was kept up for four hours, when the Helsings had no more +cartridges for their guns wherewith to support the artillery +fire. The aide-de-camp Biornstierna, who was despatched +thither by Adlercreutz, saw a pitiable sight. Most of the +officers of the 400 Swedes were killed and the Russians were +storming across the bridge in heavy masses. “Now, +count,” cried Biornstierna, “let us see what your artillery +amounts to!” Schwerin let the Russians approach until +only fifty feet from the cannon, when he ordered: “Fire!” +The whole first fine of the Russian column fell. Schwerin +gave command to have the cannon dragged a hundred +yards back and then fired, with the same disastrous effect. +Thus the retreat was made from hill to hill. At last the +young hero received a mortal wound and his men were +surrounded on every side. With a final effort he rose to +his feet, broke through the lines with his valiant Helsings, +and died in the midst of the Swedish troops.</p> + +<p>Adlercreutz closely watched the movements of the Russians, +and saw an opportunity to break through their centre, +which was successfully done, the enemy turning into flight. +It looked like an overwhelming defeat for the Russians, +when reinforcements arrived in the last moment, and the +exhausted Swedes had to stop fighting on account of the +darkness of the night. After a battle of fifteen hours +the Swedes had lost 2,600 men, or nearly one-third of their +forces, but not one single cannon or banner. The remnants +of the army followed the “royal orders of retreat,” crossing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span> +the Swedish frontier. Finland was lost and Sweden proper +in danger.</p> + +<p>Only a revolution could save the country. The republican +aristocrats were the ones to bring it about. A conspiracy +among them was formed, George Adlersparre and +Ch. H. Anckarsverd being the leaders. When it was rumored +that the former, with the western army division, +of which he was the commander, had left the Norwegian +frontier and was marching on Stockholm, Gustavus IV. +sent order to Toll in Scania to meet him with his troops, +while the king seemed to make preparations to leave. +Great excitement reigned in Stockholm, and General Adlercreutz, +who recently had been received in the capital +with enthusiasm, resolved to take action in preventing the +king’s departure. Accompanied by half a dozen officers, +he entered the king’s bedchamber the morning of March +13th, and took possession of the king in person, who made +a struggle and later a frustrated attempt to escape. The +body-guards were persuaded to remain inactive. Prince +Charles was proclaimed regent. Neither this fact nor the +arrest of the king seemed to impress the population, who +received the news with ice-cold reserve. The king was +conducted to Drottningholm, and later to Gripsholm, where +he signed the document of abdication, finally to be escorted +out of the country with his family, never to return. He +died in St. Gallen in 1837.</p> + +<p>The regent’s first duty was to ward off the Russian invasion +of Norrland and to obtain peace. Napoleon congratulated +Sweden on having got rid of the “supremacy +of a fool,” and sanctioned an armistice, granted by his +general Marshal Bernadotte, who commanded an army +in Seeland, ready to attack Sweden. Peace was made in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span> +Paris, Sweden receiving back Pomerania in return for a +promise to close its own harbors against English ships. +Peace with Denmark was made, with no change of territory +on either side. Attempts to rout the Russian army of invasion +at Ratan, in West Bothnia, were unsuccessful, but +it withdrew by its own choice. In the treaty of peace +signed at Fredericshamn, September 17, 1809, Finland, the +archipelago of Aland and a part of Swedish Bothnia were +ceded to Russia, the rivers of Torne and Muonio to form the +boundary line.</p> + +<p>Finland, since time immemorial in intimate relations +with Sweden, from whom she had received a portion of her +population, had for 600 years with her mother country +formed integral parts of the same realm. Sweden had +given to Finland her religion, constitution, laws, privileges +and culture, and in return received her fidelity and a host +of patriotic men eminent in affairs of war and peace. Together +the Swedes and Finns had fought on the battlefields +of Europe for the political grandeur of their country and +the religious liberty of the world. United to Russia, Finland +preserved her institutions and privileges unmolested, and +has, up to date, enjoyed a peaceful development greater than +would perhaps have been her share under Swedish rule. +The mother country was after this great loss forced to concentrate +her energy on a more solid material progress, and +has, according to the prophecy of Esaias Tegnér, “within +the boundary of Sweden reconquered Finland.” The Finns +have proved themselves to be one of the most talented and +energetic of nations. Out of the two million inhabitants +of Finland, two-fifths are Swedish, forming the nobility and +the majority of the cultured classes. Already at the time +of the separation from Sweden was born the national singer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span> +of Finland, John Ludvig Runeberg, who was to become the +greatest poet that ever wrote in the Swedish language and +one of the greatest that ever lived. In his immortal songs +of “Finland’s latest war,” the two countries have a great +common inheritance. Sweden dreamed of reconquering +Finland as soon as a good warrior ascended the throne. +This hope was given up forever. But the most intimate +sympathy still reigns between the two countries. In case +that harm to Finland or her home-rule should be done, +and her independence be lost, the Swedish people would not +be in a position to avenge such a crime, but it would cause +profound grief and indignation, and would be considered +a shameful act of violence which the glory of no peace +emperor would suffice to cover.</p> + +<p>By the revolution of 1789, Sweden for a second time +in her history surrendered her liberty into the hands of an +energetic and patriotic ruler only to see the absolute power +utterly abused by an incompetent successor. The loss and +suffering were almost as great as at the death of Charles +XII., but the era of democracy, peace and prosperity so +much closer at hand. It was the spirit of the aristocratic +republicanism which caused the timely downfall of absolute +monarchy, but it was in its turn destined to fall for the +spirit of democracy and a constitutional government.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI</a><br /> +<span class="smaller"><i>The Constitutional Monarchy—Charles XIII. and the +early Bernadottes</i></span></h2> + +<p>Charles XIII. succeeded his nephew. He was +chosen king after a new constitution had been +formulated and accepted by the Riksdag of 1809. +Charles XIII. was one of the most unsympathetic of Swedish +kings, but his reign marks a new period in Swedish +history, commencing the era of constitutional government. +The new constitution to which the king subscribed was not +a radical document; it only reduced the power of the king. +Hans Jærta, one of the nobles who had renounced their +privileges and been active in the conspiracy against Gustavus +IV., was the leading spirit of the constitutional committee +and was appointed secretary of state in the new +cabinet. Urgent appeals of the peasant Estate to reduce +or abolish the privileges of the upper classes were of no +avail, no reform of state or society yet being made. A +proposition by Count von Platen to introduce a compulsory +militia defence was voted down. This Riksdag, which +lasted for a year, gave fuller liberties to the press, which at +once used it to voice the popular dissatisfaction with the +state of affairs. It was necessary to select an heir to the +throne, as the old king was childless, Prince Christian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span> +August of Augustenborg being chosen, much in opposition +to the nobles, who wanted the son of Gustavus IV.</p> + +<p>The prince of Augustenborg, who was Danish governor-general +of Norway, accepted, and was adopted by the king, +changing his name to Charles August. He was a plain, +resolute and active man, unattractive in appearance, but +of a kind and noble character. Beloved by the lower +classes, who had effected his selection, he was treated coldly +by the Gustavian aristocrats and by Queen Hedvig Elisabeth +Charlotte (Princess of Oldenburg), who all favored the +selection of young Gustavus, the son of exiled Gustavus +IV. Reports of attempts to poison the heir-apparent were +in circulation even before he arrived in Sweden. Prince +Charles August himself often said that he thought he would +die young by some stroke of paralysis, but he paid no attention +to the warnings given him. During a parade of troops +at Qvidinge, in Scania, he was suddenly seen to lose consciousness +and dropped dead from his horse. Peculiarities +in the investigation of the corpse, led by his physician, +caused a second post-mortem examination, in which the +celebrated chemist Berzelius took part. The report seemed +in favor of the supposition that the death was caused by +poison. The indignation of the populace knew no bounds. +The friends of the government tried to coin political money +by insinuating that the Gustavians, particularly Count +Axel von Fersen the Younger and his sister, Countess +Piper, were the responsible parties. At the burial of the +dead prince the mob of Stockholm perpetrated one of the +most hideous murders of a man who was without doubt +innocent. When Count Fersen, in the capacity of marshal +of the realm, was to open the procession, he was warned +not to do so, but in pride and sense of duty resolved to meet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span> +his fate. Approaching the church of Riddarholm, his carriage +was pelted with stones, Fersen himself seeking shelter +in various places, but being pursued by the mob and killed. +Fersen had sought protection in a body of troops, whose +officers commanded them to turn him over to the mob. +Thus perished a man who, with Curt von Stedingk, had +received the order of Cincinnatus from the hands of George +Washington, and who once was so near saving Louis XVI. +and Marie Antoinette from their cruel fate. Fersen’s +brother was saved only by mere chance and his sister by a +flight in disguise. The mob now was resolved to attack +Countess Piper, who was thought to be at the castle, and +the queen herself. But the authorities, who had brought +shame on themselves by their unwillingness to save Fersen, +interfered, directing a few shots of cannon against the mob, +dispersing it and killing many (June 10, 1810).</p> + +<p>Sweden was once more without an heir-apparent to the +throne. Frederic, the brother of Charles August, was +favored by the king. Frederic VI. of Denmark was a +candidate, but the old national hatred against the Danes +was still too strong to make his selection possible. A count +of Oldenburg was also mentioned by some. The Gustavians, +to whom Adlercreutz belonged, dared not openly push +their candidate of the old royal line. The patriotic noblemen +in power were anxious to see some great general +chosen, regardless of a royal pedigree, who could recapture +Finland. King Charles sent two emissaries to Napoleon +to notify him of the death of Charles August and the selection +of his brother. Then one of the most original and +daring schemes ever attempted on such a line was carried +through by Count Otto Mœrner, one of the emissaries. On +his own responsibility, he inquired of Marshal Bernadotte,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span> +one of Napoleon’s ablest generals, if he would consent to +become heir-apparent to the Swedish throne. Bernadotte +consented, and the consent of Napoleon was obtained +through the Swedish ambassador in Paris. Upon his return, +Mœrner was ordered to leave the capital by the minister +of state, who blamed him for his unauthorized action. +But from Upsala Mœrner led an eager agitation, with the +result that the Riksdag of Œrebro selected Bernadotte, +who was represented by a secret emissary. Thus the two +generals who, at the abdication of Gustavus IV., were, one +in Norway, the other in Denmark, with troops ready to +attack Sweden, both within one year were chosen to succeed +Charles XIII.</p> + +<p>Jean Baptiste Jules Bernadotte was born at Pau, in +South France, in 1764. The son of a lawyer, he worked +himself up in the army and was by the Revolution enabled +to reach the high military stations for which his eminent +genius had destined him. Next to Napoleon the ablest +of French generals, he opposed the imperial tendencies of +the latter, but was later repeatedly used by the emperor +to fulfil important duties as a warrior, diplomatist and +statesman, receiving the rank of a marshal of France and +the title of Prince of Ponte Corvo. Related by marriage, +the two were never on terms of intimacy, and the Swedish +politicians who thought to please the emperor, and gain +a strong point with him by the selection of Bernadotte, were +mistaken. Bernadotte joined the Lutheran church at Elsinore +and landed in Sweden October 20, 1810. By his impressive +appearance, his amiability and his genius, he soon +won all hearts. As he never acquired the Swedish language, +and as his superior ability as a statesman and warrior +was not always comprehended, he suffered often<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span> +through misunderstandings by his new countrymen, who +never ceased to admire his eminent genius. Prince Charles, +or Charles Johann, as he called himself henceforward, was +of a commanding presence and had an interesting face, +surrounded by black curly hair. His fascinating ways and +winning disposition held captive the admiration even of his +political opponents. Prince Charles refused to submit to +the undue influence with which Napoleon tried to fetter +him, and always carried high and with patriotic independence +the interests of his adopted country.</p> + +<p>Napoleon soon found reason to be offended with Sweden. +Through the peace of Paris, Sweden had agreed to close its +harbors to England, but in Gothenburg, which town had +suffered destruction by fire and was recently rebuilt, a lively +traffic was secretly carried on, connecting England with +Northern Europe and enriching Gothenburg. Napoleon +was enraged and forced Sweden to declare war on England, +which power, realizing the circumstances, did not +open any hostilities, and allowed the commercial traffic to +continue, although more secretly. Prince Charles, who +from the start exerted a strong influence upon the government, +effected an approach to Russia and England to save +the dignity of Sweden, much to Napoleon’s dismay. He +also put the army in a satisfactory condition by recruiting. +This caused a revolt in Scania, which was subdued with +severity. The Riksdag of 1812 passed a law for the establishment +of a compulsory militia, all men between twenty-one +and twenty-five years old being registered in classes +according to age and instructed in military tactics and +discipline.</p> + +<p>Napoleon tried by various methods to subdue and humiliate +the independence of his Swedish ally, which, when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span> +fruitless, led him to acts of hostility. Prince Charles made +peace with England and an alliance with Russia, who +promised 20,000 men to assist in the conquest of Norway. +When Napoleon and Alexander of Russia commenced war +against each other, popular opinion in Sweden sided with +the former, but Prince Charles, who knew in detail the +nature of Napoleon’s power and its lack of a solid foundation, +tried to make his views clear. He met Alexander +personally, agreeing with him on plans of mutual action, at +Abo in 1812. After Napoleon’s unsuccessful march against +Russia, Swedish opinions changed and Bernadotte had free +hands to follow up his policy. England formed an alliance +with Sweden, agreeing to support the conquest of Norway +and ceding the island of Guadeloupe (later sold to France +by Sweden). In 1813, 25,000 Swedish troops were sent +to Germany, joining the continental allies, who, divided +in three armies, were to attack Napoleon, according to +plans mostly mapped out by Prince Charles of Sweden. +The latter was to command the Northern army of 100,000 +men, Swedes, Prussians, Russians and English, but his +position was a difficult one, for his superior tactics were +misunderstood by his subordinates and by Blucher, the +valiant but headstrong commander of 50,000 Prussians, +who formed the Silesian army. But through the battles +of Grossbeeren (August 23d), Dennewitz (September 6th), +and Leipsic (October 16-19), the eminence of Bernadotte’s +genius was fully brought out, his leadership and the Swedish +troops taking honorable part in each. Napoleon and his +armies were defeated and pursued by the allies. The monarchs +voted a resolution of thanks to Prince Charles, who, +with his army, marched northward to carry out the ultimate +object of his policy, the conquest of Norway, the plans of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span> +which had been made by Count Platen and handed him +before he ever left Paris.</p> + +<p>Denmark had declared war on Sweden and sided with +Napoleon. By turning against Denmark the former Marshal +Bernadotte saved himself from the necessity of making +an attack on the country of his birth. Lubeck surrendered, +the Danes were defeated at Bornhœved, Kiel and Glucksburg +were captured, and the whole of Holstein occupied. An +armistice was agreed to. Denmark offered the diocese of +Drontheim, but Prince Charles was resolved to expel Denmark +from the Scandinavian Peninsula. January 14, 1814, +peace was made at Kiel, Denmark ceding to Sweden the +whole of Norway, except Iceland and Fero Islands, and +receiving Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rugen in +compensation.</p> + +<p>Norway, united with Denmark ever since the days of +Queen Margaret, in a relation of more or less neglected +conditions, during which her original independence was +lost, had of late not been satisfied to remain under Danish +supremacy. The governing class of officeholders was to +a great extent of Danish origin and tendencies, and the +patriotism of the population at large dates from a later +period. Among the more cultured classes the revolution in +France and close relations with England had fostered a +desire for political independence. The Danes made use +of this fact in order to try to maintain the relation with +Denmark in some way. The Danish crown prince, Christian +Frederic, was in 1813 made governor-general of Norway. +He was a man of some brilliant gifts, but without +any great ability. By journeys in the country he acquired +popularity and adherents. In February, 1814, a +meeting was held at Eidsvold by men of prominence, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span> +declared the prince regent. May 17th a constitution was +adopted and Christian Frederic elected king of Norway. +His courteous offer of extending his rule to Sweden was +there met by derision. After a triumphal return to Stockholm, +Prince Bernadotte gathered his forces and attacked +Norway both by land and sea, the aged King Charles XIII. +having command of the navy. An army of 20,000 Swedes +entered Norway under command of Von Essen, who captured +the fortifications at Svinesund. The navy took possession +of the islands in the archipelago outside of Fredericstad, +which town was captured, with the fortress Kongsten, +100 cannon and considerable stores of weapons and provisions. +The Norwegian army of 30,000 men was located in +various places with the central body of troops at Moss. +The plan of Prince Charles was to enclose it from all sides. +A smaller Swedish force of 3,000 men was repulsed by the +Norwegians in two conflicts at Lier and Medskog, celebrated +by the latter as important victories. In the meantime +the Swedish army proceeded northward and the fleet +penetrated to the bay of Christiania. The plan to enclose +the Norwegian army at Moss was being carried into effect +in order to finish the war by one single battle, when negotiations +for peace were begun.</p> + +<p>Prince Charles was anxious to have the conflict brought +to a rapid close because he feared that the powers, envious +of Sweden’s good fortune and dissatisfied with the refusal +of Prince Charles to join in an attack on France, might +take unfavorable decisions at the approaching congress of +Vienna. Prompted by these reasons, and perhaps influenced +by his experience of revolutionary movements, Prince +Charles offered to sanction Norway’s constitution only with +such changes as were necessary for a union with Sweden,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span> +besides demanding the abdication and speedy departure +of Christian Frederic. On these terms peace was made at +the convention of Moss, August 14, 1814. At the first +meeting of the Norwegian Storthing, or Diet, the terms of +peace were sanctioned and Charles XIII. chosen king +of Norway. At the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, treaties +were signed between Sweden and Prussia and between Denmark +and Prussia, according to which Swedish Pomerania +and Rugen were ceded to Prussia on the payment of about +$2,000,000, and the duchy of Lauenburg ceded to Denmark. +In the relation between Sweden and Norway no change was +made, and Denmark lost all hope of the restitution of the +latter country.</p> + +<p>The great moderation shown by Prince Charles in the +acquisition of Norway has been criticised in various ways, +but none of the arguments used against it have themselves +been able to bear a critical test. The idea of uniting +the two countries as independent states was older in Sweden +than the very constitution of Norway which Prince Charles +accepted. It was the idea of the leading men in Sweden +who had dethroned Gustavus IV. in 1809. The Scandinavian +Union is not the best imaginable, has brought Sweden +no added power or security, and has placed her king in +a difficult position. The only bond of union is the king, +the two countries each having their constitution, diet and +cabinet. There is only one department in common, the one +of which the Swedish minister of foreign affairs is the head +and which settles all relations with other countries for both +Sweden and Norway. Three members of the Norwegian +cabinet are residents of Stockholm, to prepare affairs pertaining +to the Norwegian administration and to partake in +affairs involving both countries. These stipulations are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span> +made by the Act of Union, accepted in 1815 by the Diets +of both countries. According to the Norwegian constitution, +the king can use no greater force than 3,000 men outside +the Norwegian boundary, except with the special consent +of the Diet. Thus Sweden cannot in case of war expect +any solid support from her sister country. The loose connections +of the Union did not become apparent during the +reigns of Charles XIII. and his successor, and the powers +of Europe were not aware of them. Thus the Union served +its purpose as offering a solid front of unity and strength +to the powers who were dividing and redividing almost +every territory on the map of Europe.</p> + +<p>Charles XIII. died in February, 1818, at the age of +seventy, and his talented queen followed him a few months +later.</p> + +<p><i>Charles XIV. Johann</i> was fifty-four years of age when +ascending the throne, but a man in his prime. To the +dignity of the crown he brought a great personal influence, +and his fame as a warrior, which spread throughout +Europe. The firm diplomatic relations with Russia were +continued, but approaches to England were also made. +Charles XIV. gave close personal attention to the administration, +being especially interested in the defence, finances, +canals and roads. With his brilliant genius, quick temper +and sense of superiority, the king sometimes reigned more +alone and by his own decision than was considered advisable; +but in the majority of cases he was influenced by the +able men of his cabinet—Wetterstedt, Rosenblad, Skjœldebrand, +Cederstrom and Wirsén. An intimate friend of the +king was Count Magnus Brahe, who, though not a member +of the cabinet, influenced the government more than was +thought compatible with its dignity. Count Brahe, the head<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span> +of one of the most distinguished of aristocratic families, used +his great influence over the king mostly in a noble way, himself +being raised to the highest dignities of the state. He +was blindly devoted to the king, followed him like a shadow, +taking infinite care of him during his last illness, and dying +only a few months after his royal friend.</p> + +<p>One of the most remarkable works carried on during the +reign of Charles XIV. was the Gotha Canal system, which +was brought to completion. The old bishop Brask had +spoken of a connection between the lakes of Venar and Vetter, +and the great Oxenstierna thought of a canal between +the North Sea and the Baltic across Sweden. Charles XII. +had ordered Polhem to make a trafficable passage around +the waterfalls of Trollhetta, which was done after new plans +during the reign of Gustavus IV. During the Period of +Liberty, Daniel Thunberg had made plans for the whole +canal system. But Count Balzar von Platen was the man +to make the great work a realized fact, devoting his whole +life to it, conquering distrust, opposition and lack of funds. +He spent six years in preliminary surveys before taking up +the agitation for the realization of his plans. During the +whole progress of the work, his efficient activity in looking +after every detail could only be compared to his constant +agitation in the Riksdag for the support of the immense +enterprise and his scrupulous attention to the financial part +of it. When the great canal was opposed as an unpatriotic +scheme, endangering the defence of the country, Platen +answered by completing plans for a colossal fortress in the +heart of the canal system, which, when erected, became +the strategic stronghold of Sweden, and was named Carlsborg. +Platen died as governor-general of Norway, seeing +his great life-work nearing completion. The Gotha Canal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span> +is the most remarkable of its kind in Europe, being 259 +miles long, with 74 locks, many of which have been cut out +of solid granite hills. It is of great value to commerce and +affords a most picturesque scenic tour.</p> + +<p>Charles XIV. met with a power in politics which, from +the start not strong enough to carry away victory, ended +by attaining its goal. It was the liberal opposition in the +Riksdag, supported by a liberal press. Charles XIV., in +his native country, had seen to what an infamy the abuse +of liberal forms of government could lead, and he was +sternly resolved to antagonize any movement which aimed +to introduce more democratic principles in the handling +of state affairs and in the remodelling of the system of +representation. Charles XIV. was in a delicate personal +position. He was the only one of the Napoleonic marshals +who preserved his throne after the fall of the emperor, and +the strong continental reaction looked askance at this new +man who wore one of the oldest crowns of Europe. But +his great reputation as a warrior and statesman, and his +persistent peace policy, ought to have been to him sufficient +guarantees of the fidelity of his subjects. Charles XIV., +in the agitation against the self-willed cabinet, saw an +enmity against himself. By a network of secret detectives, +the king tried to uncover conspiracies and plots which +existed in his imagination only, or in that of those who were +aware of his weakness and sought to gain personal favors +by making use of it. The severity with which the press +was censured and its members punished created a bitterness +against the king personally, which ceased only during +the few last years of his reign. With the new constitution +a law establishing full liberty of public utterance in print +was enacted, but a temporary restraint had been placed on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></span> +this liberty, in 1812, on account of violent newspaper attacks +upon Russia. The government still made use of this +restraint, which caused many severe legal sentences and +subsequent bitterness.</p> + +<p>Among the press organs of that period the “Argus” and +“Aftonbladet” were the most conspicuous in their attacks +upon the conservative government; Lars Hierta, one of the +ablest of Swedish editorial writers, was the publisher of the +latter. His paper was repeatedly confiscated. Anders +Lindeberg was the publisher of “Stockholmsposten.” In +an agitation against the royal monopoly in theatrical affairs, +Lindeberg threw out the accusation that the king, for +purely economical reasons, opposed a reform in those matters. +He was arraigned and a sentence of death passed +upon him, which was commuted to three years’ imprisonment. +But Lindeberg refused to accept any clemency, +declaring himself ready and resolved to die. The government, +who dared not take his life, was in a delicate predicament, +but saved itself and Lindeberg by announcing pardon +of “political criminals,” at the anniversary of the king’s first +arrival in Sweden. Jacob Crusenstolpe, a novelist and +writer of note, was one of the intimate friends and supporters +of the government, but turned liberal, attacking the +king in a pamphlet. He was sentenced to three years’ +imprisonment, which created great commotion and a revolt +in Stockholm, not subdued except after a bloody conflict +with the troops (July, 1838). Crusenstolpe continued +writing from his prison.</p> + +<p>The principal leaders of the opposition in the Riksdag +were L. Boye, F. B. von Schwerin and C. H. Anckarsverd +among the nobles, and Anders Danielsson among the peasants. +This opposition criticised the government for negli<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span>gence, +extravagance and incompetency. Its policy was an +entire reconstruction of the state, politically, socially and +financially, on the basis of a constitutional government. +The opposition commenced by establishing the right of free +deliberations in the Riksdag. At the Riksdags of 1827 and +1828 the government was severely taken to task on account +of the sale of ships to the Spanish insurgents in South +America. The king was inclined to join England against +Spain, but had to recede on account of pressure from Russia +and the continental powers. The sales were partly annulled +and the Swedish government experienced a considerable +financial loss. Cederstrom was the responsible party, but +upon his resignation his able successor Wirsén was able +to cover up his tracks.</p> + +<p>If Sweden was forced to change her policy in the South +American affair she was found unyielding in the settlement +of the boundary questions with Russia. This power was +anxious to obtain a slice of the Norwegian Finnmark, with +excellent ice-free harbors at the bay of Varanger. In the +ultimate settlement with Russia, in 1826, a great territory +was ceded, but not any of the important harbors.</p> + +<p>In 1840 the opposition had waxed strong enough to effect +one of its most desired reforms, the constitutional reconstruction +of the cabinet. This body was made to consist +of ten members, of whom seven were to be the heads of the +various state departments, those of justice, foreign affairs, +army, navy, civil service, finance and ecclesiastics.<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> As +a consequence of this change in the constitution, several +cabinet members resigned and were succeeded by men more +in touch with the opposition.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span></p> + +<p>The greatest of contemplated reforms was a new system +of representation, but the opposition was not able to carry +it through. At the first revolution of Gustavus III., Stedingk +favored a reconstruction of the Riksdag after the +model of the English parliament. Gustavus III, was afraid +to cause complications by the introduction of such a novelty, +but considered it gravely at the time of his second +revolution. In 1830, the idea was taken up by the opposition, +and Anckarsverd and the eminent lawyer Richert made +up a plan for a new Diet, according to the plan of the Norwegian +Storthing. This plan, with the idea of one chamber, +instead of two, was repeatedly discussed at the Riksdag +of 1840, but not adopted. This remarkable Riksdag, +which lasted seventeen months, did considerable for the +improvement of education and was ultimately dismissed +by Charles XIV., in a speech of a conciliatory spirit, +which went far toward restoring the old popularity of +the king.</p> + +<p>Charles XIV. died March 8, 1844, at the age of eighty-one. +During the last years of his reign he received strong +and repeated evidence of the love of his people, especially +upon the occasion of his twenty-fifth anniversary as king +of Sweden. “No one has made a career like mine,” he said +shortly before his death. He was a child of the revolutionary +epoch, favored by its opportunities to receive a high +station, without being sullied by any of its vices. If it be +true that his position often was made difficult through lack +of appreciation by his new subjects, it is not less true that +he, through lack of intimacy with the Swedish language, +national character and traditions, was unable to further the +development of his new country, in the same degree as +would a native provided with such rich endowment. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></span> +sun of Charles XIV., which rose in brilliancy, set in the +glory of full appreciation.</p> + +<p>The reign of Charles XIV. produced a new line of eminent +scientists and was the golden age of Swedish literature. +The remarkable genius of J. J. Berzelius remolded +the science of chemistry, placing it on a basis where there +are hardly any limits to its scope. Elias Fries devised a +new system of botany. Sven Nilsson, a distinguished zoölogist, +also became the founder of a new science, comparative +archæology. K. J. Schlyter edited a complete collection +of the old provincial laws, a work of equal importance +to philology and jurisprudence. P. H. Ling invented the +Swedish system of gymnastics and founded the Central +Institute of Gymnastics in Stockholm, where the Swedish +massage or movement cure has won a scientific development +worthy of its world-wide fame. E. G. Geijer, +as a philosopher, was a noble follower of Hœijer, while as +a historian he is the greatest genius of his country. As a +poet and composer Geijer is also noteworthy. Professor +of history at Upsala, he was once accused of heterodoxy, +but acquitted. His political career was remarkable. Geijer +was a firm supporter of the government and conservative +principles, until fifty-seven years of age, when he joined the +opposition.</p> + +<p>The world of letters was divided in parties as bitterly +opposed to each other as those of the political world. The +old Gustavian school, of which Leopold remained the last +representative, was attacked by the “New School,” which, +inspired by German Romanticism, was brimful of inspiration, +imagination and feelings, but very little that was original, +clear or national. Of this so-called “phosphoristic” +school Atterbom was the distinguished leader. Stagnelius, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></span> +poet of rare attainments, but who died early, belongs in this +group. The New School was in turn attacked by the “Gothic +Society,” a school of national Swedish Romanticism, which +introduced a cult of the Old Northern spirit of individuality, +terseness and power. Ling and Geijer were among the +leading men of this school, whose enthusiasm for everything +national had a lasting influence upon the research for, and +gathering of, folk lore, songs, traditions, customs, and every +trait of the popular culture of bygone days. In Franzén +and Wallin, Sweden had two religious poets of the very +first rank. More famous than any of these was Esaias +Tegnér, the second great national poet of Sweden, whose +“Frithiof’s Saga” was destined to become the most celebrated +literary work of all Europe in its day, appearing in +a vast number of translations in a great number of languages. +Tegnér was in sympathy with the old Gustavian +school, but a member of the Gothic Society, and by his +choice of subjects in harmony with the national school. +There is a wonderful richness of sparkling life and wit in +Tegnér’s poems, but they are sometimes overladen by the +vivid ornamental images in which they abound. Tegnér +was a man of extremely broad and liberal views on every +phase of human life and effort. He hated with the whole +power of his fiery soul the mysticism, obscurantism and +morbid sensualism of his age. He was the sworn enemy +of the “Holy Alliance” and the reactionary powers in state, +church and literature. In his chivalrous spirit and love of +the great individuals, he became the admirer of Charles +XIV., whose policy he therefore supported. Tegnér is not +the one who in the grandeur and faultlessness of his creations +has attained the very highest rank among Swedish +poets, but is the greatest and most unbiased thinker among<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></span> +them, and has as such exerted a beneficial influence upon +the national consciousness and cultural development. Tegnér’s +judgment upon one of his Gustavian precursors may +be repeated in his own case: “Perchance the greatest not +as poet, but as genius.”</p> + +<p><i>Oscar I.</i> was forty-five years of age at the death of his +father. He was the only son of Charles XIV. and Queen +Desideria, the latter a daughter of a French merchant by +the name of Clary. Oscar was, in 1823, married to Princess +Josephine of Leuchtenberg, a granddaughter of the +French empress of the same name. It was a difficult position, +the one held by the heir-apparent. Charles XIV. was +jealous of his own power and popularity and suspected his +son of being in sympathy with the opposition. The prince, +distanced as far as possible from the affairs of state, devoted +himself to the study of social and economic subjects. He +gave a great deal of attention to the study of prisons and +the care of prisoners, seeking by pamphlets to spread his +sympathies for the latter and to improve their conditions. +Oscar I. was fondly devoted to the fine arts, himself a +talented painter and composer. He did not possess his +father’s brilliant genius or power of personal influence, +although an upright man of great talent and exceedingly +prepossessing in appearance. Oscar was of a mild, sagacious +disposition, who liked to go into detail and take +time for investigation and decision. He was not a man +of action, and lacked somewhat consistency in carrying +out plans of a wider scope. Oscar I. had a little of the +autocrat of the father in him and often acted on his own +judgment, without taking the advice of his cabinet. Being +the loyal, highly cultured and patriotic man that he was, +he in various ways furthered the development of his country.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</a></span></p> + +<p>Few kings have ascended a throne under such enthusiasm +and joyful aspirations on the part of the people as +King Oscar I. Several important reforms were enacted +at the Riksdag which met in 1844, and the king gave his +sanction to them all. It was decided that the Riksdag +should meet every third instead of every fifth year, the liberty +of the press was augmented, and to women were given +equal rights in the stipulations of inheritance and marriage. +The last-mentioned reform was bitterly opposed by the +nobles, who feared it would, to a great extent, annul their +privileges. The law was passed by the three lower Estates, +in spite of the nobles, and was sanctioned by the king. +Oscar I. took great pains to have the industries freed from +the restraint under which they had been suffering during +the reign of his predecessor.</p> + +<p>King Oscar surrounded himself with men of a more +modern type than his father’s advisers. They were in +touch with the principles of the opposition, although far +from radical, and more respected for their character than +for their ability. The opposition, which had been so harsh +during the administration of Charles XIV., was toned +down considerably; but complaints were soon heard that +the new government was neither consistent nor resolute +in its liberal policy and that courtiers and young officers +won an unduly rapid promotion. Soon an opposition of a +new order was organized against the administration. The +conservatives, finding that it leaned too much on the liberal +principles, attacked it for this reason. A powerful +conservative party at the Riksdag was organized, with +Hartmansdorff as the leader among the nobles and Archbishop +Wingard among the clergy. Attacked by liberals +and conservatives alike, and not supported by either,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></span> +the government was of an undecided and vacillating +tenor.</p> + +<p>The French revolution of 1848 influenced Swedish politics +in several ways. The “friends of reform,” viz., the +party desiring a parliamentary reorganization, were incited +by the republican tendencies. The masses of Stockholm +on one occasion gave vent to their feelings by demonstrations +which were of a menacing character. Great crowds +collected outside the place where a “reform banquet” was +held. There it was resolved to attack the houses of Hartmansdorff +and several other leading conservatives. The +owners placed themselves in safety, but the windows of the +houses were broken by the mob, who also threw stones at +the troops. The tumult was quenched, but not without +bloodshed. The press was greatly agitated for a long time +afterward, using language against the government that was +by no means choice. The liberals in the Riksdag commenced +to take an attitude as decided as the one held by +the conservatives. From this time on King Oscar showed +great coldness to the liberals, and surrounded himself with +advisers more in harmony with the conservatives.</p> + +<p>The proposition for a reorganization of the Riksdag, made +in 1840, was not accepted, but a committee was appointed +in 1848 to make a new proposition, which failed to please +either government or Riksdag. The king then had a +new proposition prepared, based upon general elections. +The liberals did not think the royal proposition democratic +enough and offered one of their own. Both of these were +defeated at the Riksdag of 1850, thanks to the opposition +of nobility and clergy. A third one was made by Hartmansdorff, +but also failed to please, not being conservative +enough for the nobles. Hartmansdorff aroused so much<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</a></span> +hatred among his fellow nobles that they refused to be +seated on the same bench with him during the sessions. +After a period of perfect isolation the old conservative leader +was judged with greater leniency by his former followers. +Shortly before his death, in 1856, he sent them the following +greeting: “Ask the nobles not to stand up so long for their +privileges, they will lose nothing by surrendering them.” +It seemed as if the interest for parliamentary reform had +died out during the latter part of King Oscar’s reign, but +such was not the case; it only gathered force in the quiet, +and the king was right when defining it as a “question +which could never fall.”</p> + +<p>The influence of the revolution of 1848 also was felt in +the foreign relations of Sweden. The German population of +Holstein and Schleswig tried to sever their connections with +Denmark in order to effect a union with Germany, Prussia +taking upon herself to liberate said provinces. Denmark +made various efforts to gain the active support of Sweden. +The so-called “Scandinavism” was a good means to obtain +this end. This movement, which aimed at the establishment +of a closer union between the three Scandinavian countries, +based upon the fact of the common origin of their inhabitants, +had originated at the University of Copenhagen. The +meetings of scientists and students, in 1842 and 1843, at +Stockholm, had given growth to this movement, which was +of a very high-strung nature, but, as far as the Danes were +concerned, also of an egotistical motive. Charles XIV. had +been averse to this “students’ policy,” but Oscar I. was +sympathetically impressed by it. “Scandinavism” rose +high in 1848, especially at the universities, and King Oscar +sent a communication to the Prussian government to the +effect that he was resolved to oppose any attack on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span> +Danish isles. An army of 20,000 men was ordered to +Scania to give weight to this statement. A smaller division +of it was even for a time quartered in the island of Funen. +The German troops which had invaded Jutland soon retired +and hostilities ceased for some time. King Oscar effected +an armistice of seven months in August, 1848. As a result +of the war between Denmark and Germany during the next +few years an agreement followed, according to which Holstein +and Schleswig would for some time remain under +Danish supremacy.</p> + +<p>King Oscar had, from the commencement of his reign, +tried to meet all demands for reform made by his Norwegian +subjects, who were anxious to demonstrate to the +world the perfect independence of their country. The king +himself took the initiative steps to give Norway a national +flag of its own, the two countries up to the reign of Oscar +having had one common official flag. He also instituted the +Norwegian knightly order of St. Olaf in resemblance to +the older Swedish orders of Seraphim, Vasa, etc., and gave +permission to place the name of Norway before that of Sweden +in the Norwegian royal title. For these reasons public +opinion in Sweden expected Norwegian concessions in regard +to the Act of Union, which seemed in need of revision. +A committee of men from both countries was appointed to +make the revision, but the Norwegian members opposed all +measures involving any change, expressing themselves in +such emphatic terms that it was found best to leave the +deliberations of the committee unpublished. In 1854 the +Norwegian Storthing decided to abolish the office of a governor-general. +King Oscar refused to sanction this law, +but allowed the office to remain vacant during the rest of +his reign.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</a></span></p> + +<p>Intemperance had grown to be an evil from which the +Swedish people greatly suffered since the reign of Gustavus +III., when alcohol began to be produced in great quantities +by the common people. The king encouraged the temperance +movement, which was very fruitful in results. In 1853 +the Riksdag abolished the free and unrestrained production +of alcohol, which was changed into a regular industry and +placed under heavy taxation. From 1855 onward, the principles +of free trade were adopted for commerce and trade +through the influence of J. A. Gripenstedt, the minister of +finance, and seemed to have beneficial results in every +branch of industrial and commercial activity. The state +revenues were greatly increased and the surplus spent in +improvements of the widest scope. The means of interior +communications were vastly improved. In 1853 the network +of the state electric telegraph began to spread and +now embraces every part of the country. The agitation +for the construction of railways had long been an active +one. The first one constructed was a private railway between +Œrebro and Arboga. In 1854 the Riksdag decided +on the construction of trunk lines in Southern Sweden, to be +built and controlled by the state. The Riksdag of 1856 +appropriated a sum of $5,000,000 for that purpose. The +railways were rapidly and solidly built under the supervision +of Baron Nils Ericsson, the highly talented brother of +John Ericsson, the world-famous inventor of the propeller, +the caloric engine, the steam hose and the “Monitor.”</p> + +<p>The relations with Russia were not the best during the +latter part of King Oscar’s reign. The Russian claims on +the harbors at the bay of Varanger were repeated in 1847, +and when deliberations for a settlement were opened, in +1851, Russia showed a tendency to take possession of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span> +desired places. In the conflict between Russia, on one hand, +and Turkey, supported by England and France, on the +other, Sweden sided with the latter, especially after Russia +had failed to recognize an alliance of neutrality under arms +formed by Sweden-Norway and Denmark. In 1855 Sweden +entered an agreement with France, promising not to cede +any territory to Russia in case of a conflict. In 1856 peace +was made at Paris; the only favor won by Sweden was +a pledge made by Russia not to fortify the archipelago of +Aland.</p> + +<p>King Oscar was a very hard worker and also fond of the +pleasures of life. His health was injured through illness, +in 1857, and he never recovered. The premature death of +his second son, Prince Gustavus, a talented composer and +highly popular, had a disastrous influence on him. King +Oscar I. died July 8, 1859, after a long illness, beloved by +the two nations who, during his reign, had enjoyed the +happiest epoch of their history.</p> + +<p>Romanticism in literature had an important second blossom +during the reign of King Oscar I. and his successor. +With the exception of Runeberg and Almquist, it offers no +name of the very first rank. But Runeberg, the Homer +of the North, does not belong to Sweden alone, and Almquist, +the only great Romanticist, had made his appearance +during the preceding epoch. Charles John Ludvig Almquist +was a genius of great versatility and exceptional endowment. +He wrote with equal force in all branches of +literature; besides the poet, dramatist and prosaist, being +a good philologist and well versed in a number of practical +pursuits. He anticipated the ideas of which George Sand +became a champion, and wrote charming peasant idyls long +before Auerbach and Bjœrnson. His most important work<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</a></span> +is an ambiguous creation, conceived somewhat in the form +of Boccaccio’s “Decamerone,” but much larger, and containing +productions in every imaginable artistic form. It is +called <i>Tœrnrosens bok</i> (The Book of the Wild Rose). +Almquist has not, like Bellman and Tegnér, crystallized +the Swedish national character in a lyrical form, but he +remains, in spite of glaring defects, the most versatile and +supremely gifted genius of Swedish literature.</p> + +<p>Nybom, Bœttiger, Malmstrœm, Sætherberg and Strandberg +were talented lyric poets of this epoch, Von Braun, +Sturzen-Becker and Sehlstedt good humorists, while Bœrjesson, +Blanche, Jolin, Dahlgren and Frans Hedberg wrote +successfully for the stage. Swedish women were destined +to win fame for themselves by bringing the novelistic form +to a richer development; principal among whom were Frederica +Bremer, Sophie von Knorring, Emilie Carlén and +Sophie Schwartz, while the men Crusenstolpe, Sparre, Mellin, +Ridderstad and Starbæck cultivated the field of historical +fiction, for which Swedish history offers such a +wealth of appropriate subjects.</p> + +<p>Swedish composers of note were becoming numerous, +although the field in which they chiefly excel is the +rather limited one of lyric song, the most spontaneous +medium of expression for the lyrico-rhetoric Swedish temperament. +As the composer of “lieder” or <i>visor</i>, Adolphus +Lindblad, an intimate friend of Mendelssohn, occupies a +revered place in the history of music. Close to him stand +Crusell, Nordblom and Josephsson, while Hæffner, Otto +Lindblad, one of the noblest composers in this line, Prince +Gustavus and Vennerberg are famous principally for their +part songs.</p> + +<p>The cultivators of dramatic and orchestral composition<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</a></span> +have as yet been comparatively few. Chief among them +is Bervald; further, Norman and Hallstrœm. In a later +contemporary epoch, Hallén, Aulin, Sjœgren, Stenhammar +have considerably brightened this aspect of cultural development. +Gunnar Vennerberg occupies an honored place as +a poet, humorist and composer in one. There seems to be a +deeply rooted tendency in the Swedish national temperament +to unite the various branches of artistic creation, which +would stamp it as romantic in its very essence if there did +not run a vein of stunningly realistic portrayals through the +works of such composite nature. In the art of Bellman this +tendency has found its highest exponent. Bellman selected +for his subjects the life of the lower middle classes in the +Swedish capital of his day. His Fredman sings of the experiences +of himself and his friends. Vennerberg has +chosen the student’s life at the University of Upsala as the +subject of his duets between two students, “Gluntarne,” in +which are mirrored as faithfully, and sometimes as artistically, +as by Bellman the humorous and pathetic scenes which +have fascinated the poet and composer.</p> + +<p>Swedish song for the first time acquired universal fame +through Jenny Lind, who has had many successors, but no +peer as a dramatic singer. Contemporaneous with Jenny +Lind were a number of highly talented histrionic artists, +principal among whom were Lars Hjortsberg, Nils William +Almlœf, Olof Ulric Torsslov, Emilie Hœgquist and Carl +Georg Dahlquist. The Swedish stage has set a good example +for the preservation of the highest standards of the +language, and in this line exerted a great cultural influence.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[Pg 391]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII</a><br /> +<span class="smaller"><i>Parliamentary Reform—Charles XV</i></span></h2> + +<p>Charles XV., the eldest son of Oscar I., succeeded +his father, having for two years presided +over the government during king Oscar’s last illness. +King Charles was of gigantic stature, exceedingly +handsome and of a manly and noble bearing. There dwelt +a fiery soul within him, conscious of its power, longing for +heroic deeds and in sympathy with all that was noble in life +and art. The king possessed an abundance of youthful +energy and vivacity. He was a passionate hunter and a +gay companion, who surrounded himself with men equally +boisterous and gay. He was fond of jokes and merry pastimes, +and took no pains to hide his weaknesses, which were +of a convivial nature. In his social intercourse the king +was exceptionally open and frank, treating everybody alike +in a good-natured, hearty manner, winning the whole heart +of his people. He understood better than any king since +Charles XI. how to put himself in cordial relation with the +masses of the people. But fond of playing practical jokes +on high and low, he did not like to receive in the +same measure. Charles XV. was devoted to the pursuits +of art. Especially in his youth, he wrote poetry and distinguished +himself as a landscape painter through his love +for typical Swedish sceneries. Sweden did not at first know<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[Pg 392]</a></span> +what to expect of her new ruler, and no one was able to predict +the course of his policy. There were fears that his +youthfulness and his fiery southern temperament might lead +him to feel satisfied with the exterior of things or that he +might give way to the impulses of the moment. These +fears soon proved to be without foundation. The king had +chosen as his maxim “Land shall with law be built,” from +the old provincial law of Upland, and he remained, with +very rare exceptions, true to the constitutional spirit of +these words. He had the good fortune to find highly +capable advisers, in whose hands he placed the details +of the administration, and, in contrast to his father, was +satisfied to give his attention exclusively to matters of a +more general importance. He gave his unreserved support +to his cabinet, occupying a position above all party interests. +Charles XV. often sacrificed, sometimes only after considerable +internal struggle, his own personal sympathies and +inclinations at the request of the advisers when he saw that +the welfare of his country and his own royal dignity demanded +such a sacrifice. On account of this, his true constitutional +spirit, he deserved as a ruler the blind adoration +of his people. His summer residence, the castle of Ulricsdal, +in the neighborhood of Stockholm, he changed into +an artistic abode, with choice collections in various lines. +Charles XV. had, in 1850, married Princess Louise of the +Netherlands, of the royal house of Orange. Their daughter, +Louise, was married to the crown prince of Denmark, +and is still in life, while King Charles had to suffer the +premature losses of his only son and of his consort.</p> + +<p>The cabinet which surrounded Charles XV. was one +of the strongest bodies of its kind that ever controlled the +government of Sweden. During his regency, Crown Prince<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[Pg 393]</a></span> +Charles appointed Baron Louis de Geer minister of justice +and Ludvig Manderstrœm minister of foreign affairs. These +men continued their duties during the reign of Charles XV., +while Gripenstedt, as minister of finance, followed up his +beneficent activity for the emancipation and development of +the national industries. The historian, Frederic Ferdinand +Carlson, had been the teacher of King Charles and had +successfully continued the monumental work of Swedish +history, left unfinished by Geijer. Carlson occupied, during +the greater part of the reign of Charles XV., the position +of minister of ecclesiastics (church and education), in +which capacity he did great work for the improvement +of educational affairs. The high schools and colleges were +reorganized through new regulations of 1859, being the +work of Carlson before his appointment to the cabinet. +Carlson also improved the public, or common, schools. +King Charles was a warm friend of public instruction. In +one of his speeches from the throne he said: “This is my +ambition that a true and living culture shall penetrate our +people and with its blessings reach the humblest of its +cottages.”</p> + +<p>The relations between Sweden and Norway, during the +first few years of the reign of Charles XV., were strained. +The Norwegian Storthing once more voted the abolition of +the office of a governor-general. It was thought that the +king, who earlier, as viceroy of Norway, had spoken in a +spirit of acquiescence upon this question, would sanction the +vote of the Storthing. But in Sweden great indignation was +felt. It was known and understood that the Act of Union +contained nothing in regard to the office in question, but +was created by a stipulation in the constitution of Norway +which admitted the possibility of its being filled by a Swede.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[Pg 394]</a></span> +The Norwegian view was that the Storthing had exclusive +right to decide the question, while the Swedish view was +that it was a question concerning the Union and to be decided +on by the diets of the two countries. Practically the +Swedes were right; theoretically, and from a purely patriotic +standpoint, which considered necessary the development +of a perfect national independence even at the expense +of the Union, the Norwegians were right. Ankarsverd, +well known since the days of Charles XIV., made a motion, +at the Swedish Riksdag of 1859, for the revision of the Act +of Union on the basis of the treaty of Kiel, which motion +in Norway was accepted as an insult. V. F. Dalman made +a motion that the Estates should ask the king not to render +a decision in the question of a Norwegian governor-general +before the Riksdag had had an opportunity to look into the +international aspect of the question. Great was the commotion +caused by this issue, both in the diets and the press +of the two countries. Swedish pamphlets were circulated +which accepted the possibility of a dissolution of the Union. +But in Norway, where the security of a union with Sweden +had become apparent, especially during the conflict with +Russia, such utterances were repudiated. Both of the motions +in question were passed by the four Estates of the +Riksdag, but put in such a shape that a request to have +a revision of the Act of Union made was sent up to the king, +with the demand for a royal proposition on that issue. The +king was then asked to consider the question of a Norwegian +governor-general in connection with that revision. As +there was a difference of opinion also in the cabinets of the +two countries, the final decision rested with the king alone. +The sagacity and discernment of which King Charles gave +evidence saved the situation and is worthy of praise. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[Pg 395]</a></span> +declared in the Norwegian cabinet that he could not sanction +the abolition of the office of a governor-general. +Shortly afterward, he gave in the Swedish cabinet as his +opinion the advisability of postponing, for the time being, +all deliberations of a revision of the Act of Union. By +doing so, the king quieted the high feelings in both countries, +and peace returned. It had become apparent to both +Swedes and Norwegians that the Union was the result of +great political foresight because it was preserved through +the increasing feeling of faith and of the necessity of mutual +protection. That great obscurity existed in regard to +the affairs regulating the Union had also become evident.</p> + +<p>The reforms and improvements which were effected +during the reign of Charles XV. were highly important. +New criminal and maritime codes were made at the Riksdag +of 1862, and sanctioned by the government. Through +the new regulations passed in the same year the foundations +for increased municipal home rule were laid. Such home +rule was as old as the country itself, but, in the same degree +as the state organization, had attained a higher development, +and the centralization of the administration was realized; +it had weakened and was in peril of being entirely +lost. Now the time was come for the powers of state to +give municipal home rule new strength, adapting its old +forms and creating new ones, in accordance with modern +requirements. Laws were made which gave the towns the +right to elect members to local assemblies (<i>stadsfullmœgtige</i>), +with authority to act in behalf of their communities. +Similar institutions (<i>kommunalstæmmor</i>) were arranged for +the country communities. <i>Landsting</i> were instituted in +every governmental district, or <i>læn</i>, at which representatives, +elected by the people, were to take action on the pub<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[Pg 396]</a></span>lic +affairs of the district, especially on such that pertained +to sanitary conditions, communications, etc. The conditions +for suffrage and elective franchise in municipal affairs +were based on personal income. The old class distinctions +were thus disregarded and a return made to the still older +democratic institutions of the ancient Teutonic communities, +in which every free man is entitled to his word and vote in +public affairs. But those only are considered “free” who +by their work can gain enough to pay their taxes in return +for the privileges of a citizen. The church got a representation +of its own in the clerical assembly (<i>kyrkomœtet</i>), which +meets every fifth year and consists of equal numbers of ministers +and laymen.</p> + +<p>The government in the municipal reforms found a basis +for the reorganization of the Riksdag. The royal proposition +for a new parliamentary representation, placed before +the Estates in 1862, was built upon the municipal suffrage +and the Landstings or district assemblies, the latter being +authorized to elect the members of the senate, or First +Chamber. The old system of representation corresponded +as little with the new municipal home rule as with the general +tendencies in politics and social life. The nobility had +lost its old importance. It was no longer advisable for the +clergy to take a leading part in political affairs. A new +industrial class of wealth and prominence had formed and +demanded a representation in the burgher class. The peasants +had ever since 1809 been carrying on their agitation for +a reduction of taxes and abolition of the class privileges. +They had met with an overwhelming opposition, which +would fall with the old system of representation. A parliamentary +reform had been fervently discussed ever since +1840. The municipal home rule reforms of 1862 had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[Pg 397]</a></span> +brought the question closer to a solution. The burghers +and peasants at the Riksdag of 1860 petitioned the government +to present a royal proposition for the reorganization +of the Diet. Baron Louis de Geer, the minister of justice, +was the author of this proposition, which was presented in +1862 and placed on the table until the next Riksdag. The +great question was acted upon at the Riksdag of 1865. +There was a great deal of commotion on account of the +opposition which was expected from the nobility and clergy. +The discussions in the periodical press and in pamphlet form +were lively. The country population preserved its peaceful +and sensible demeanor, but the excitement in the towns was +considerable and increased as the decision drew nearer. +The majority of towns and several rural communities in +their close proximity sent deputations to Stockholm, who +tendered their best wishes to the able minister of justice +for the success of his proposition. The commotion +in Stockholm was so great that troops were ordered +ready in case of an emergency. The 4th of December +the proposition was voted on by the burghers and +peasants. At the question of the speaker, whether they +were willing to accept the royal proposition, the peasants +rose to their feet in a body and gave their answer with one +laconic yea. A few of the burghers spoke against the proposition, +but it was carried also in their Estate, and by an +overwhelming majority. Long and heated discussions took +place among the nobility and clergy. The clergymen were +generally opposed to the parliamentary reform, but feared +to be found remaining as the only opponents in the storm of +disapproval which would follow. For this reason they postponed +their decision until the nobility had taken action upon +the proposition.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[Pg 398]</a></span></p> + +<p>There rested a spirit of real grandeur over the deliberations +at the Riddarhus upon this occasion, when the question +of a voluntary surrender of the aristocratic privileges was +to be decided. The Swedish nobility had its class instincts +and prejudices, but very rarely it had been found lacking in +men of the loftiest patriotism and highest attainments, ever +ready to take the lead in the defence of the independence +of their country or to follow up faithfully the ambitions of +their great rulers. Arrangements had been made to allow +noblemen from distant parts and of very limited means to +be present, if not during the time of the discussions, which +lasted four days, at least at the casting of the vote. Never +in the memorable history of the knightly chapterhouse had +more eloquent language or loftier thoughts been heard than +upon this occasion. Both supporters and opponents of the +royal proposition spoke with great sagacity and discernment. +The former spoke of the inadvisability of a representation +by Estates and by hereditary privileges, and of the dangers +of a further postponement of the needed reform. The latter +nicely scrutinized the royal proposition, which was considered +to give too great influence to the peasants, to weaken +the executive power and to depend upon municipal reforms +as yet untried. They further considered the upper house, +or First Chamber, too homogeneous with the Second to be +able to exert the conservative or retaining power expected +from it. The members of the cabinet all spoke with fervor +and persuasive power in favor of the royal proposition, +especially De Geer, Gripenstedt and Carlson. The outcome +was that the royal proposition was accepted by a vote of 361 +yeas against 294 nays. The nobility as a class thus left the +political arena voluntarily and with honor. Now the turn +was come to the clergy, who unanimously accepted the royal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[Pg 399]</a></span> +proposition without further discussion. The result was +accepted with outbursts of enthusiasm from all over the +country, but especially from the towns. The four Estates +adjourned June 22, 1866, forever, and the law of the new +system of parliamentary representation was sanctioned the +same date.</p> + +<p>The royal proposition, which became the law of a new +Diet, is based upon the principle of general elections. The +Riksdag meets at the commencement of every year. It is +divided into two houses or Chambers. The members of the +First Chamber, or upper house, are elected for a term of +nine years, partly by the Landstings, or district assemblies, +partly by the assemblies of towns which do not take part +in a Landsting. Elective to the First Chamber are those +who have a yearly income of at least $1,000 from some +business or enterprise, or as the interest on a capital of their +own. These members, or senators, must be at least thirty-five +years of age; they do not enjoy any compensation. +The members of the Second Chamber, or lower house, are +elected by every judicial district in the country which has +no more than 40,000 inhabitants and by every 10,000 inhabitants +of a town. Towns which have a population of +less than 10,000 inhabitants are joined into election districts +of from 6,000 to 12,000 inhabitants. Elective to the Second +Chamber are those who pay taxes on an income of at least +$200 a year and who are twenty-five years of age. These +members are compensated for the time spent at the Riksdag. +The ordinary Riksdag, which meets every year, lasts +for a period of at least four months. The extraordinary +Riksdag is called by the king whenever he finds it necessary. +The members of the cabinet are elective as members +of the Riksdag, and should, during all sessions, be present<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[Pg 400]</a></span> +at the deliberations of the Chambers. The standing committees +remain the same as during the time of the old system. +Special and temporary committees are appointed +when considered necessary. When the two Chambers end +in a conflicting vote upon one and the same subject, the +committee which prepared it for discussion should try to +obtain a satisfactory solution. If such fails, the question +is dropped for that year. The expenses of state, the state +appropriations and the management of the national bank, +when involved, form exceptions to this rule and are voted +upon by both Chambers together, the majority of votes +from both making the decision.</p> + +<p>A new era in Swedish history opens up with the acceptance +of the parliamentary reform. The constitution itself +had suffered no change, except in points of contact with the +new rules of the Riksdag. But the powers of state no +longer held to each other the same position as of yore. The +government hitherto had, in the very division into four +Estates, a support against powerful class and party interests. +An equally solid support was not to be expected +from a Riksdag of only two Chambers, which in questions +of state appropriations is practically one. For this reason +many would have preferred the establishment of a system +which, instead of abolishing the mediæval arrangement of +four Estates, would have added as many classes as there +are really extant in the modern state, to gain the desired +equilibrium through a manifold and dynamically operating +representation. As things shaped themselves after the two +Chamber system, the government ought more than ever +to have a conservative, retaining power in order to preserve +the proper balance. But such was not the case, for the +Riksdag had been placed in a position to watch and control<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[Pg 401]</a></span> +the executive power much closer than before, thanks to its +authority to fix for each year the appropriations and expenditures +of the state. The stipulation that the members +of the cabinet are to take part in the deliberations of the +Chambers gives another pillar of strength to the Riksdag. +If the ministers of state are to exert any influence upon the +decisions of the Riksdag, it is requisite to have its full confidence. +The king is forced to select for his cabinet such +members as are supposed to have an influence with the +representatives of the people. The influence of the Riksdag +has been steadily increasing ever since 1867.</p> + +<p>While the issue of a parliamentary reform occupied the +attention of all public-spirited men, the interest in the political +situation of Europe was hardly less intense. The sympathy +with the unhappy Poles was almost feverish. In +1863 two motions were made at the Riksdag to petition the +government to take an active part in the restoration of the +kingdom of Poland, by means of diplomatic intervention. +The position of the government was a difficult one. The +complications between Denmark and Germany had recommenced, +and it was important to stand in good relations to +Russia. The Swedish public did everything to make these +relations precarious, by demonstrations of various kinds in +favor of Poland, warlike newspaper articles and subscriptions +of money to the leaders of the revolt. Thanks to the +sagacity and tactful demeanor of Manderstrœm and the +common sense of the Riksdag the motions in question were +defeated and a dangerous conflict avoided. Complications +of a more serious nature arose on account of the reopened +conflict between Denmark and Germany. The Danish government +had failed in its efforts to make a satisfactory +arrangement in the relations between the crown and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[Pg 402]</a></span> +duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. The Germans repeatedly +mixed themselves up in the interior affairs of Denmark, and +the Danes themselves were divided into several parties. +King Frederic VII. at last concluded to give up the idea +of gathering in the duchies as integral parts of the kingdom, +satisfied to sacrifice the ultimate connection of Holstein and +Lauenburg with the crown, but resolved to connect the +originally Danish Schleswig with Denmark. The purely +German parts were, through the so-called “March Patent” of +1863, separated from the rest of the monarchy, while Schleswig +was reunited with it, according to the constitution. This +policy was approved by the Scandinavian party in Sweden +and Norway, supported by Swedish diplomacy, and, in the +first place, by Charles XV. himself. King Charles was +inspired by general sympathy with the Scandinavian movement +and by personal friendship for Frederic VII. to follow +up the Scandinavian policy of his father. The two Scandinavian +monarchs met twice during the summer of 1863 +and influenced the Swedish-Norwegian and Danish cabinets +to draw the outline of a treaty of defence on the basis of the +river Eider as the Danish boundary to the south. The Danish +government made the proposition for a new constitution +according to which Schleswig was to be united to Denmark. +This was contrary to the promise made by King Frederic +to the German powers in 1852. The proposition for a new +constitution was placed before the Danish Diet and accepted. +Two days later, November 15, 1863, King Frederic suddenly +died, before he had sanctioned the new law. This was a +severe blow. The popular king left his beloved people in a +most inopportune moment, fraught with peril and disastrous +mistakes. The people of Schleswig and Holstein renewed +an old contention in regard to the right of succession. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[Pg 403]</a></span> +new Danish king, Christian IX., gave in to the pressure +brought to bear on him by his cabinet and the inhabitants +of Copenhagen. He signed the new constitution, which +gave to the German powers a valid excuse to interfere. +The Prussian and Austrian troops crossed the river Eider to +make good the agreements of 1852.</p> + +<p>The Swedish-Norwegian government was placed in an +embarrassing position. The alliance of defence that was +planned was to a great extent based upon the relations of +personal friendship between Charles XV. and Frederic VII. +Sweden was not legally pledged to shield Denmark as a +consequence of the acceptance of the new constitution. But +Sweden had taken a conspicuous part in the deliberations, +for which reason a change of policy could not be made without +considerable difficulty. The liberal organs of the Swedish +press, headed by “Aftonbladet,” whose editor was +August Sohlman, did everything in their power to make +such a change an impossibility. But Sweden was not prepared +to make war on two of the great powers of Europe, +especially as no other power was willing to join in an alliance +in behalf of Denmark. The change must be made; and +was effected, principally because of the persuasive arguments +and resolute demeanor of Gripenstedt. King Charles resolved +to take the painful measures of a retreat. The +standpoint of his government he gave to the Riksdag in the +following words: “It cannot be expected from us that we +should place our sword on the scale of justice without considering +if the object can be attained with the resources at +our command.” It was a supreme sacrifice that Charles +XV. made when, for the safety of his countries, he was +forced to draw back the hand of support and comradeship +which he had offered a brother in distress. The noble<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[Pg 404]</a></span>-hearted +king, in one of his poems, has given a touching +expression of the sorrow he felt in being unable to assist +Denmark in her hour of peril. King Charles might, with +proper resources at his command, have proved a formidable +enemy. He had given evidence of possessing all the qualities +requisite for the make-up of a great general, without +doubt an inheritance from his two grandfathers, Prince +Bernadotte and Eugene Beauharnais. A few hundred +Swedish and Norwegian volunteers took an honorable part +in the Danish war, which was the only practical result of +the Scandinavian policy. The Swedish press was violent +in its attacks upon the government for its change of policy. +In March, 1864, the mob of Stockholm assailed the residences +of Manderstrœm, Gripenstedt and other cabinet +members, breaking the windows with stones.</p> + +<p>Poor Denmark was left alone. Napoleon III. made the +mistake of not attempting to defeat Prussia before she had +reached her climax of strength. He was tied up with his +Mexican adventure and unwilling to help Denmark. +Charles XV. could not endure to see Denmark thus deserted. +Privately he offered Christian IX. an alliance +which stipulated that the three Scandinavian kingdoms +should be joined into a union with one common foreign +policy and common defence. Charles was also willing to +make the succession one, if necessary. This alliance was to +embrace only such parts of Denmark which were not to +enter the German union. Sweden-Norway would do their +utmost to prohibit a separation between Denmark and +Schleswig. Denmark refused to accept this offer. Her leading +statesman, Monrad, held stubbornly to the idea of an undivided +Danish monarchy. For this reason, Denmark was +for a second time abandoned to fight out alone her uneven<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[Pg 405]</a></span> +battle. It ended in the loss of Holstein, Lauenburg and the +greater part of Schleswig, through the treaty of Vienna, +October 30, 1864. In Denmark a hard feeling against the +Swedes and Norwegians sprang up as a consequence of +the disastrous war fought without allies; and the Scandinavian +policy and enthusiasm had received a blow from +which they have never fully recovered. Charles XV. did all +in his power to revive them. He had the pleasure of uniting +the efforts of Sweden, Norway and Denmark in a peaceful +work of great significance, the first Scandinavian Exposition +of Industry and Art, which was opened at Stockholm +in June, 1866. The consequence was a perfect Norwegian +conquest of Sweden, in a cultured sense. The painters +Tidemand and Gude captured the prizes. The composers +Kierulf and Nordraak took the lead in song and music. +Ibsen and Bjornson became the craze in literature. The +literary contact with Norway was begun in 1861, when +Lorenz Dietriechson was appointed a docent at the University +of Upsala, and for the first time made the contemporary +Norwegian and Danish poets acquainted in Sweden. +What Sweden received from Norway was a quaint, late-born +Romanticism of a strong national flavor. When this +Romanticism was changed into stern Realism its influence +upon Swedish culture, especially her literature, was only +increased, Swedish literature receiving strong realistic impulses +from the neighboring Scandinavian countries. The +Norwegian influence ceased, when the Swedes at last became +aware that there was in it a deeply pessimistic trait, +akin to the stern Norwegian and Scotch Christianity, which +is incompatible with the Swedish national temperament, +slightly inclined to melancholy, but of a robust and irrepressible +desire to live and enjoy.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[Pg 406]</a></span></p> + +<p>Charles XV. followed up his practical Scandinavian +policy by marrying his only daughter Louise to Crown +Prince Frederic of Denmark. King Charles was as unsuccessful +in his noble efforts to unite more closely his two +kingdoms as in his foreign policy. The king allowed some +time to pass in order to let the ill-feeling, caused by the conflict +of 1859 and 1860, die out. In February, 1865, he +considered that the moment had arrived to institute the +review of the Act of Union. He appointed a committee +of Swedes and Norwegians to prepare the proposition of a +new Act of Union, on the basis of perfect equality and +right to decide separately all matters, except such pertaining +to the Union. The committee performed the work, but +their proposition was defeated at the Norwegian Storthing of +1871, at the instigation of John Sverdrup and K. Motzfeldt. +The Swedish Riksdag for this reason also failed to accept +it. At the close of the Riksdag, King Charles made the +following utterance in regard to the defeated proposition: +“What has now failed to attain success shall perhaps win +out without difficulty when the two nations once have +learned to place confidence in each other, as the result of a +more intimate intercourse.” He saw with great satisfaction +the completion of a railway which forever unites the +Swedish and the Norwegian capitals with ties of steel.</p> + +<p>The administration of Charles XV. persevered in its +liberal policy concerning questions of economy and jurisprudence. +This was particularly noticeable in commercial +matters. The idea of free trade had won ascendency in +Europe. Napoleon III. had entered a treaty of commerce +with England, in strict opposition to the protective system. +Other nations were one by one admitted into the free-trade +system by means of new treaties. Sweden made a treaty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[Pg 407]</a></span> +of commerce and navigation in 1865. This step was severely +criticised by the Riksdag of 1865-1866, both from +a constitutional and financial point of view. Gripenstedt +was accused of leading the way over demolished industries, +but he defended his position with great eloquence. The +treaty was ratified in spite of the powerful opposition in the +Riksdag. The press condemned both the treaty and the +government in the most violent language.</p> + +<p>The first Riksdag of the new parliamentary system met +January 19, 1867. The “Landstings” had sent to the +First Chamber the most prominent men of the country. It +was a truly representative gathering, a house of peers +elected by the people. Lagerbielke, the landtmarshal of the +preceding Riksdag, was appointed speaker. The Second +Chamber counted a larger number of peasants as representatives +than of any other class. Anton Nicolaus Sundberg, +then bishop of Carlstad, now archbishop of Sweden, +was made speaker of the Second Chamber. The power of +the peasants made itself felt at once. There was formed +a strong and influential party, the <i>landtmanna</i>, or countrymen’s +party, consisting of small landowners. The peasants +constituted the majority, but the party also counted +many titled and untitled country gentlemen in interests +united with them. The founder of the party was Count +Arvid Rutger Posse, later minister of state. Emil Key and +the peasants Charles Ifvarsson and Liss Olof Larsson were +among the leaders of the party. The policy of the Landtmanna +party demanded simplification of the administration, +economy in the matter of appropriations and a solution of +the questions of the defence and taxation in harmony with +the interests of the owners of the soil. The party followed +up its policy with stern consistency from Riksdag to Riks<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[Pg 408]</a></span>dag, +until in perfect control of the whole government. The +opposition consisted of “the Intelligence” or intellectual +party, which, without a solid constitution or a fixed policy, +has in vain fought the spreading influence and power of the +Landtmanna party. The latter has gone almost too far in +its endeavors for economical reform, but has also given +evidence of appreciation of the material needs of a cultural +development, appropriating large sums for the benefit of +science and education.</p> + +<p>The army question was the most important issue of +Swedish politics. The events of 1866 had made it evident +that a strengthening of the defences was necessary. King +Charles was anxious to have the question solved in a satisfactory +manner, finding therein the only reliable safeguard +for the future independence of Sweden. It was apparent +that any attempts to settle the question in accordance with +the system adopted by Charles XI. would be devoid of +result. It was based upon direct taxation of the soil and +must be opposed by the strong majority of small landowners +of the Landtmanna party. A compromise policy was +for this reason begun in 1867, the question of an abolition +of the land tax being connected with the army question, +although the two ought to have had no connection. The +question was started with promises of a reduction or exemption +of the duties of the old army system as compensation +for the acceptance of a new arrangement for the country’s +defence. The government made an army proposition to the +Riksdag of 1869, promising several reductions to the landowners +who furnished soldiers according to the old system +(<i>indelningsverket</i>). The proposition was prepared +by a committee, of which the new minister of war, Gustavus +Rudolph Abelin, was the chairman. It was based<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[Pg 409]</a></span> +upon the preservation of the old system for the furnishing +of the body force of officers and men. The larger +force was to be provided for through militia. The militia +was to be drilled in the neighborhood of their various homes +during sixty days of the year. The proposition was not +accepted. The militia compulsory service, as the duty of +every citizen for the defence of his country, had nothing +to do with the regular army as provided by the stipulations +of the old system. But the majority of the Second Chamber +confused the two and refused to allow the establishment +of the former on a wider basis, because the offers made to +reduce the burdens of the old system did not appear to them +liberal enough. In 1871 another proposition was made by +Abelin to the Riksdag. It was similar to the first one, and +its cause was eloquently pleaded by Abelin, Axel Gustavus +Adlercreutz, minister of justice, Peter Axel Bergstrœm, +minister of civil service, and Gunnar Vennerberg, minister +of ecclesiastics. They warned against the mistake of attaching +impossible conditions to the acceptance of the proposition. +The proposition for an extended militia service was +accepted by both Chambers. But when the Second Chamber +raised, as a condition for its acceptance, the suspension, +for fifteen years, of the old system which provided for the +regular army, the government found it impossible to grant +this, and the proposition was dropped.</p> + +<p>King Charles was grieved and vexed with the fate of the +army bills. The Franco Prussian war made it, in his opinion, +of added importance to Sweden to have her defences +remodelled. He called an extraordinary session of the +Riksdag, in the autumn of 1871, when Abelin brought out +a third proposition. It was chiefly of the same contents +as the preceding ones. But a remarkable change in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[Pg 410]</a></span> +public opinion had now taken place, as to the advisability +of retaining the old system. Men who looked upon the +question more from a military than an economic point of +view entertained doubts as to the practical value of the old +regular army as the body force of a compulsory militia. +Military officers commenced to attack the old system as the +basis of a new army. The Landtmanna party persevered +in the request for an abolition of the old system, and this +killed the army bill at the extraordinary Riksdag.</p> + +<p>Together with the request for an abolition of the old +army system, demands for redemption from other burdens +placed upon the owners of the soil made themselves heard. +The land-tax was the principal one of these burdens and +caused as much difference of opinion as the army system. +The Landtmanna party considered the land-tax to be of the +same nature originally as other taxes, which ought to be +more evenly distributed and shared by all classes in the +same proportion. The Intelligence party was of the opinion +that the land-tax in the course of time had come to be +rents or mortgages which always were taken into consideration +at the exchange of property, as reducing the stock value +of the property in question. To free a present generation +from the payment of land-tax, was in the eyes of the opposition, +an injustice to the other classes whose taxes thereby +were to be increased. The Landtmanna party had, in 1869, +commenced an agitation for the reduction of the land-tax +for shorter periods and on a small scale at first, but with +increasing demands at every new Riksdag.</p> + +<p>The government, whose members had been the champions +of parliamentary reform, was soon disregarded by the +triumphant party, while its old opponents never forgot it. +The earlier advisers of the king retired one by one when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[Pg 411]</a></span> +they saw their influence in the Riksdag vanish. King +Charles himself took the defeat of the army bills deep at +heart. His health commenced to fail in 1871, and when his +faithful consort died, in the same year, having exposed her +own health in her attempts to improve the condition of the +king, the latter grew worse. After a trip abroad for his +health, King Charles XV. died at Malmœ, September 18, +1872, deeply mourned by the two nations. In the following +year his youngest brother Nicolaus August, duke of Dalecarlia, +died, leaving only two of the children of Oscar +I., Oscar Frederic, duke of East Gothland, and Princess +Eugenie. The history of Charles XV. carries the principal +traits of his character. His sweeping reforms in social, +political and economical matters, and his great plans for the +future, even if sometimes immature, or high-strung, were +always characterized by loftiness of purpose. A typical +Swede both in his merits and his faults, this was the secret +of the immense popularity of King Charles, which always +followed him, although he never sought it.</p> + +<p>The philosopher Christian Jacob Bostrœm is the most +popular of Swedish thinkers and the first who founded a +national system and school of philosophy, idealistic and +rational, and in strict opposition to the system of Hegel. +Bostrœm was born in Pitea, in 1797, was the teacher of the +sons of Oscar I., and succeeded the able philosopher Samuel +Grubbe, a talented follower of Hœijer, as professor of philosophy +at the University of Upsala. Bostrœm was a highly +fascinating and suggestive teacher, while he neglected his +literary production, which is neither exhaustive nor quite +representative of his philosophy. He exerted a considerable +influence by his outline of a philosophical state, which +pleased the conservatives, while a much more widespread<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[Pg 412]</a></span> +and lasting impression was produced by his criticism of the +doctrines of a hell and a devil. A whole literature sprang +into life, discussing vehemently the existence or non-existence +of the fiend. To this literature and the works and +writings of Bostrœm is to be credited the spirit of religious +tolerance which characterized life and literature during the +reign of Charles XV. It fostered in the cultured few a +leaning toward Unitarianism or Theosophy, while it gave +rise to a shallow materialism and religious indifference in +the less cultured classes and individuals.</p> + +<p>The artistic, literary and musical life bore a decided +resemblance to the intellectually interested but dilettantic +king. Charles XV. was surrounded by a great number of +painters who, although possessing a good deal of talent, +succeeded only in the smaller field of genre painting. Remarkable +exceptions are J. F. Hœckert, Marcus Larsson +and C. H. L. D’Uncker, who possessed sterling genius and +acquired great fame. Several promising painters, like +George von Rosen, developed later the full scope of their +power. The sculptor J. P. Molin was highly talented, a +worthy follower of B. E. Fogelberg, who had enriched +Swedish art with a number of highly important sculptures.</p> + +<p>In the world of letters, the spirit of dilettantism was +more strongly felt than in art, Swedish literature, after its +several glorious epochs, experiencing one of its most stagnant +periods. A veritable giant among pygmies was Victor +Rydberg, whose remarkable novel, “The Last Athenian,” +appeared in 1859, but whose principal productivity as a poet +and scientist belongs to a later period. So do, to a great +extent, the best works of the poets Eduard Beckstrœm, also +an able dramatist, and Count Carl Snoilsky. Zacharias +Topelius, the Walter Scott and Hans Christian Andersen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[Pg 413]</a></span> +of Finland, must be mentioned here. Writing in the Swedish +language, and for his principal work using subjects of +Swedish history, he was as highly beloved in Sweden as in +Finland. His excellent series of historical novels, called +“The Surgeon’s Stories,” have been translated into several +languages. His juvenile stories are not characterized by the +same degree of inventive power as are the tales by Andersen, +but Topelius had the latter’s ability of placing himself in +intimate contact with the pure minds of all ages.</p> + +<p>In the most national of Swedish cultural elements, the +song, the epoch of dilettantism found its most beautiful and +lasting expressions. The quartet and chorus singing at the +universities of Upsala and Lund was cultivated to the highest +standards of excellence and had a splendid repertory in +the songs of Otto Lindblad, Vennerberg, Prince Gustavus, +Josephsson, Crusell, Cronhamn, etc. The Upsala students +caused a great sensation by their singing at the Paris Exposition +of 1867, and have repeated their successes at the Paris +Exposition of 1878, and in Berlin in 1898. Swedish quartets +of men’s and women’s voices have travelled all over the +world and made a lasting fame for this minor but bewitching +branch of musical art. As dramatic singers of the first +rank, Louise Michaëli and Christine Nilsson have been the +worthy successors of Jenny Lind. To this period, as well +as to the next, belongs Elisa Hvasser, the greatest and most +versatile actress Sweden has ever had. This artist was +equally at home in the farce and melodrama, but excelled +in the tragic parts of the Shakespeare, Schiller, and Ibsen +repertory. Indispensable in their positions at the Royal Theatre +of Stockholm, Michaëli, the songstress, and Hvasser, +the tragedienne, did not travel, thereby losing the fame a +world would have been only too glad to give them.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[Pg 414]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII</a><br /> +<span class="smaller"><i>Progress and Prosperity—Oscar II</i></span></h2> + +<p>Oscar II. ascended the throne at a moment when +universal peace was restored after the great conflict +between France and Germany, and when an +age of commercial prosperity for Sweden seemed to have +begun. King Oscar had received the same superior education +as his older brothers, is as brilliantly gifted as they +were and of a more scholarly mind. As a writer on scientific +subjects, a poet and an orator, Oscar II. had distinguished +himself before his succession to the throne. The +new king offered the best of securities for a sound administration +in his thorough and versatile knowledge, wide experience +in public affairs, and rich and harmonious endowment. +Oscar II. still did not find it easy to gain the love +and admiration of the Swedish people, of which he is so +eminently worthy. He was the successor of one of the most +popular of rulers that the country ever saw, but King Oscar +has lived to see his own popularity almost outrival that of +his predecessor. King Oscar is, at seventy, a handsome, +spirited gentleman, with that dignity which age, rare attainments, +high intelligence and a noble soul grant their common +possessor. This the most learned and popular monarch +of Europe is of a tall, commanding figure, six feet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[Pg 415]</a></span> +three inches in height, of a handsome, expressive face, with +cheeks of a ruddy color and mild blue eyes.</p> + +<p>Oscar II. has shown great discernment in his arrangement +of dynastic matters. Himself married to the fervently +religious Princess Sophie of Nassau, the king has +married his oldest son, Crown Prince Gustavus Adolphus, +to Princess Victoria of Bade, a granddaughter of Emperor +William I. of Germany, and a great-granddaughter of +Gustavus IV. of Sweden. His third son, Prince Charles, +duke of West Gothland, is married to Princess Ingeborg of +Denmark, a granddaughter of Charles XV. of Sweden. +These unions are well calculated to accentuate the increasing +political, commercial and cultural intimacy with Germany, +the Scandinavian policy of his predecessor and the +desire of King Oscar to see the descendants of the old royal +line of Sweden as heirs to the crown. In giving his consent +to the marriage of his second son, Prince Oscar (Bernadotte), +to Lady Ebba Munck, of the Swedish nobility, King +Oscar has given evidence of the fact that he is not a match-maker +regardless of the feelings of the parties involved. +Prince Oscar, formerly Duke of Gothland, upon renouncing +his share of inheritance to the two thrones, was allowed to +marry the choice of his heart. King Oscar has tried to heal +the wounds of the past by opening the vaults of the church +of Riddarholm to the sarcophagi of Gustavus IV. and his +son, and by giving Queen Carola of Saxony, the only living +granddaughter of the former, repeated proofs of esteem and +considerate distinction.</p> + +<p>King Oscar with his crowns had received as an inheritance +two important problems to be solved—the reorganization +of the Swedish army and the settlement of the difficulties +in the relations between the two states of the Union.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[Pg 416]</a></span> +The latter has not yet found a satisfactory solution, although +the king has devoted to it his most strenuous attention +and the best of his efforts, in honest application to his +royal motto: “The Weal of the Brother Nations.”</p> + +<p>The reorganization of the Swedish army was not effected +until after twenty years of parliamentary struggle. The +road of a compromise policy which was opened in 1867 was +followed up at the Riksdag of 1873, in all the long chain +of years royal army bills being repeatedly rejected. In +1885 the government and Riksdag agreed on a remission +of thirty per cent of the military taxes of landowners in +exchange for new regulations for the militia compulsory +service. In 1887 the Riksdag sanctioned the total abolition +of the “indelta,” or cantoned troops, as far as the navy was +concerned, which was the first step toward the reorganization +of the navy, and the same year the militia law of 1885 +went into effect.</p> + +<p>The old Landtmanna, or agrarian party, in 1888 gave +place to a new protectionistic party. A contested election +of twenty-two members from Stockholm gave a sudden +majority to the protectionists, O. R. Themptander, the able +minister of state, resigning. The army bill did not fare +well at first. In spite of the fact that the Landtmanna +party was brushed aside, the old enemies of an army reform, +the landowners, nobles and peasants alike, still being +strong enough to successfully oppose it. The Riksdag of +1888 passed a grain tariff, which went into effect February +14th of the same year, enforcing several other points of a +protective tariff system.</p> + +<p>King Oscar called an extraordinary, or special, session +of the Riksdag, October 18, 1892, when royal propositions +were offered and accepted. The land-tax was abolished and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[Pg 417]</a></span> +a new army bill passed. According to the stipulations of +the latter, the <i>beværingstid</i>, or period of liability for every +citizen to bear arms, was extended to embrace twenty years +instead of twelve, viz., eight years in the first ban of the +<i>landtværn</i>, or militia, four years in the second ban, and +eight years in the <i>landstorm</i>, or final levy. The first ban of +militia is in time of war to form an integral part of the +first fighting line, the second ban forming a reserve for +the first fighting line. The final levy is to be called out +for garrison duty exclusively, and for the defence of the +country against foreign invasion. Six military districts +have been established, five distributed along the entire coast +of Sweden, the sixth inland in the western provinces to be +a reserve ready to be used at the point and moment most +needed. The reorganized army in active service is composed +of <i>værfvade</i>, or enlisted troops, and <i>indelta</i>, or cantoned +troops, the expenses also of the latter being paid by +the government. The royal guards, chasseurs, hussars, +artillery, and engineers are enlisted for two years up to +eight. The militia troops are distributed among both the +enlisted and the cantoned troops, the length of service with +the colors being ninety days in time of peace. The infantry +in which all the cantoned troops serve consist of twenty-six +regiments and two battalions. The line is armed with +Remingtons of 8.8 millimetres calibre. There are eight +regiments of cavalry and six regiments and six batteries +of field artillery, forty batteries in all, with 240 cannon. +The effective of the active army, in 1896, was 1,953 officers, +571 employees, 1,779 non-commissioned officers, 1,641 musicians +and 38,802 men, with 6,852 horses. The war effective +is 272,994 men, besides 180,000 in the <i>landstorm</i>. The +chief fortifications of Sweden are Carlscrona, on the south<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[Pg 418]</a></span> +coast; two fortresses outside of Stockholm, viz., Vaxholm +and Oscar Fredericsborg; and, in the interior, Carlsborg, +near Lake Vetter. The navy comprises 4 turret ships, with +10-inch armor, armed each with 2 10-inch and 4 5.9-inch +guns, and having a total displacement of 12,450 tons; 4 +armor clad monitors, 9 armored gunboats, 3 corvettes, +9 first-class and 5 second-class gunboats, 2 torpedo cruisers, +7 first-class and 9 second-class torpedo boats, 5 torpedo +launches, and 12 school ships. The navy is manned by 267 +officers and about 4,500 sailors, not including conscripts +to the number of 8,500 men. The entire cost of the defence +of Sweden exceeds ten million dollars a year.</p> + +<p>The movement for a reorganization of the defences has +not been caused by any change in the policy of peace, which +has faithfully been carried out by all the rulers of the +Bernadotte dynasty. The ruler of Sweden and her people +desire peace, but not as a gift of mercy from the great +powers, but as a self-chosen right which can be effectively +defended if necessary. The ever-increasing armament of +the European powers has made a strengthening of the +Swedish arms unavoidable, but the Swedish government +was the first to announce its readiness to accept the invitation +of Czar Nicholas II. of Russia to a conference for the +discussion of a general reduction of the regular armies. +Germany was made the pattern for the reorganization of +the army and navy, the Swedish government having followed +the German also in the treatment of the labor question, +with schemes of accident and old-age insurance, accepted +by the Riksdag.</p> + +<p>King Oscar, at his succession to the throne, gave evidence +of his desire to meet the reasonable demands of his +Norwegian subjects. He sanctioned, in 1873, the abolition<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[Pg 419]</a></span> +of the office of a governor-general of Norway, the government +at Christiania to be presided over by a Norwegian +minister of state. To the later Norwegian demands for +a separate flag, consular service and ministry of foreign +affairs, King Oscar has been unyielding. The flag question +is of subordinate importance. King Oscar, in 1899, has +refused to sanction the resolution of the Storthing, three +times passed, for a flag without the mark of Union, for the +reason that the flag with that mark was offered to Norway +by his father, Oscar I., and gratefully accepted when the +country had no colors at all, except the Swedish. The +Swedish people will carry their old flag with the mark of +Union, irrespective of any changes made in the Norwegian +colors. More serious are the questions of consular and +diplomatic service. In 1893, the Swedish government offered +to compromise by establishing a common ministry of +foreign affairs whose head might be indifferently a Swede +or a Norwegian. This was rejected by the Norwegian +Storthing. The same offer was made in 1837, when the +dispute first arose, provided that the Norwegian troops +should share the duty of the common defence of both kingdoms. +The Swedish Riksdag of 1893 passed a resolution, +in compliance with which King Oscar for a second time +refused to sanction the bill of Norwegian consulates.</p> + +<p>The diametrically opposite views which are held in regard +to the relations of Sweden and Norway are, to a great +extent, caused by a misconception of the nature of the +Union. In lack of a Union parliament, it has by many +been considered to be only a personal union of two countries +under the same king. Such is not the case. It is true that +the two countries are both free and independent states and +that the king is the only visible bond between them, accord<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[Pg 420]</a></span>ing +to the Act of Union, but the Union is nevertheless an +<i>actual</i> and not a <i>personal</i> one. If it was only personal, the +king could at will, or when forced to do so, resign his power +in one of the countries and continue his reign in the other. +The Act of Union cannot be changed except upon a resolution, +enacted in both of the respective diets, and with the +sanction of the king in behalf of the Union. A change can +be made at the same Swedish Riksdag at which it is proposed, +at the Norwegian Storthing not until the next regular +session. As a consequence the Union cannot be dissolved +by the representatives of either country alone, and the king +cannot dissolve it by exercising any power of his own. The +king cannot abdicate one throne without abdicating the +other, for the first paragraph of the Act of Union stipulates +that the two countries shall be indissolubly and irrevocably +united under the rule of the same king. No abdication can +be granted, except by common consent of the two diets in +joint session. When the two thrones are empty, without +an heir-apparent, a new king shall be elected by the two +diets in common. What underlies the Norwegian claims +of a separate foreign ministry is, besides to own an outward +sign of the country’s independence, a desire for a +closer constitutional control of diplomatic affairs. From +the Swedish side the desirability of a Union parliament and +a greater authority for the Union government has been +expressed. The Swedes have been found unwilling to grant +any change of the constitution of the Union, except the +right be added for the Union government to dispose of the +military forces of both countries, in equal proportion, for +the common defence. King Oscar’s standpoint in the +Unionist conflict has contributed much to increase his popularity +in Sweden, where his firm refusal to sanction any<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[Pg 421]</a></span> +measure which would cause a weakening to the Union has +been received with the highest approval.</p> + +<p>A committee to review the relations of the Union and +propose a revision of its charter was appointed in 1897, but +failed to accomplish anything, the views of the Swedish and +Norwegian members differing too radically in their opinions. +It is to be hoped that the ultimate solution of the +unionist conflict, whensoever it come or whatsoever it be, +will bring the two countries of the Scandinavian peninsula +closer together, without any great sacrifice on either side, +least of all of their independence.</p> + +<p>During the more than eighty years of peace which Sweden +has enjoyed under the rule of the Bernadotte dynasty, +she has developed her constitutional liberty and her material +prosperity in a high degree. The dreams of glory by +conquest belong to days gone by, but in the fields of peaceable +industries she has attained a greatness which the world +begins to realize. At the expositions of Paris in 1867, 1878 +and 1889, of Vienna in 1873, of Philadelphia in 1876 and of +Chicago in 1893, Swedish industry and art have taken part +with honor in the international competition. The railways +of Sweden have incessantly spun a more and more extended +network of steel over the country, opening connections for +enterprises in new districts and furthering commerce and +industrial art in a wide measure. Oscar II. is an enthusiastic +friend of railway improvements, the state having built +and acquired a quite considerable length of road at his initiative. +The length of Swedish railways, in 1896, was 6,145 +miles, of which 2,283 miles belonged to the state, compared +to a total of 1,089 miles of Norwegian railways.</p> + +<p>The post-office, which was made a government department +by Axel Oxenstierna, in 1636, annually transmits 130<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[Pg 422]</a></span> +million letters and parcels. The telegraph lines have not +reached a very high state of development; still there are +14,600 miles of telegraph. The telephone has made much +more progress, far surpassing that of any other country +in Europe. The total length of the connections exceeds +40,000 miles, and the number of apparatus is more than +25,000. Stockholm makes the widest use of the telephone +of any city in the world, with her 300,000 inhabitants +having a telephone for every thirty. Sweden has +developed into a commercial country of no inconsiderable +rank, notwithstanding her isolated position. Exports and +imports each exceed yearly in value $100,000,000, the imports +being 344,290,000 kronor and the exports 311,434,000 +kronor in value, in 1895, a Swedish krona being about +twenty-eight cents. The commercial value of the foreign +trade amounts to thirty-nine dollars in yearly average for +each inhabitant of Sweden, which is about as much as in +France. The imports chiefly consist of coal, coffee, salt, +cotton and wool, while the exports are timber products, +about forty per cent of the whole, iron and steel, the best +in the world, machinery, butter, cattle, matches, etc. The +inland navigation and commerce are very lively. The state +finances are in a prosperous condition. The budget of +1898 showed total receipts of 120,086,000 kronor, of which +14,229,000 was surplus from proceeding budgets.</p> + +<p>Thanks to the well equipped and regulated system of +instruction, the general education has been so highly advanced +that Sweden, in this respect, holds the very front +rank among the nations. Besides the national universities +of Upsala and Lund and the state medical college of Stockholm, +city universities at Stockholm and Gothenburg have +been recently founded which are quickly developing. All<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[Pg 423]</a></span> +study at the universities consists of post-graduate work, +there being about thirty colleges in various parts of the +country which lead their pupils as far as the demands +requisite for entering the universities. The Swedish university +courses are of unexcelled thoroughness and completeness. +The so-called Peasant High Schools are peculiar +to Scandinavia, having originated in Denmark. There are +twenty-five such high schools in Sweden, which give to +young men and women of the peasant class a higher education +than is available in the common schools, of which latter +there are 10,702, with 692,360 pupils and 13,797 teachers.</p> + +<p>Scientific research progresses with energy and success, +and Sweden possesses to-day a great number of eminent +scholars, even if the epoch of men of universal genius appears +to be a thing of the past there as elsewhere. Swedish +scientists have opened closer relations with their co-workers +in all parts of the world. The energy of King Oscar has +brought about several congresses of science at Stockholm. +In the natural sciences, Sweden still holds an honored place, +in physics offering two great names, Eric Edlund and A. J. +Angstrœm, the latter celebrated for his work on the solar +spectrum, which forms the basis for the spectral analysis. +Death has claimed these men and also J. A. H. Gyldén, +an eminent astronomer; J. G. Agardh, C. W. Blomstrand, +H. O. Nathorst, J. E. Rydquist, able botanist, chemist, +agriculturist, and philologist, respectively; Pontus Wikner, +the most remarkable of the disciples of the philosopher +Bostrœm, and Victor Rydberg, the philosophical poet, +novelist and polyhistor.</p> + +<p>Among the most noteworthy of living Swedish scholars +are Adolph Norén, Axel Koch and Esaias Tegnér, Junior, +philologists; Hans Hildebrand and Oscar Montelius, archæ<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[Pg 424]</a></span>ologists; +P. Fahlbeck, Nils and Magnus Hœjer, Martin +Weibull, Ernest Carlson, historians; A. M. Mittag-Leffler, +mathematician; Hugo Hildebrandsson, meteorologist; E. A. +H. Key, E. O. T. Westerlund, Anton Wetterstrand, F. J. +Biornstrœm, T. F. Hartelius, Curt Wallis, prominent in +various branches of medical science.</p> + +<p>King Oscar with fervent interest and unfailing liberality +has encouraged various scientific explorations, and has had +the satisfaction to see the greatest geographical discoveries +of the century successfully made by Swedes, the circumnavigation +of Asia and Europe, and the discovery of the +Northeast Passage by Baron N. A. E. Nordenskiold, and +the exploration of Central Asia by Sven Hedin, which has +forever settled the learned disputes of ages. A third expedition, +the most daring of scientific exploits ever attempted, +still keeps the world in suspense as to its final outcome. +July 11, 1897, S. A. Andrée, a scientifically experienced +aëronaut, with two companions, Nils Strindberg and Knut +Frænkel, started in a balloon constructed for the purpose, +and with provisions for three years, from an island of +Spitzbergen, with the purpose of reaching the North Pole. +The daring aëronauts have not been heard from since their +departure, but authorities like Baron Nordenskiold have +expressed the best of hopes that they may have reached +Franz Joseph’s Land in safety, whence they might regain +settled regions.<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> S. A. Andrée belongs to a class of men, +the Swedish engineers, who have won distinction for their +ability, and on whom the examples set by Christopher +Polhem and John Ericsson have had a stimulating influ<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[Pg 425]</a></span>ence. +There are among them two inventors of the very +first rank, who belong to the reign of Oscar II., Alfred +Nobel (d. 1896), the inventor of dynamite, and Gustavus +de Laval, the Swedish Edison. The latter is world-famous +for his separator and other inventions, which have revolutionized +the dairy industry. Alfred Nobel, the disciple of +John Ericsson, has not only the glory of having invented +one of the most useful helpers of mechanic and industrial +progress, but also that of having set aside his vast fortune, +amounting to something like $12,500,000, for public purposes. +The money is so invested as to constitute a fund +the interest of which shall be applied to five equal annual +prizes, to be awarded for the most important discovery or +improvement in chemistry, physics or medicine, for the +work in literature highest in the ideal sense, and to the one +who shall have acted most and best for the fraternity of +nations, the suppression or reduction of standing armies, +and the constitution and propagation of peace congresses. +The first prize, physics and chemistry, shall be awarded by +the Academy of Science of Sweden; that for physiology and +medicine by the Carolin Institute of Stockholm; the literary +prize by the Swedish Academy; and that for the propagation +of peace by a commission of five members elected by +the Norwegian Storthing. He especially directed that in distributing +these prizes no consideration of nationality shall +prevail, so that he who is most worthy of it shall receive +the reward, whether he be Scandinavian or not. It seems +that the sum of each of the five annual prizes thus instituted +will amount to $75,000. The inventor of dynamite was +deeply interested in all that was done to promote peace by +congresses and societies. He always considered that by improving +war material, and thus increasing the dangers of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[Pg 426]</a></span> +war, he was contributing his share toward the pacification +of the world. Alfred Nobel has, by the manner in which +the Norwegian Storthing is made an active party in the disposition +of his will, indicated <i>his</i> view upon the Union of +Sweden and Norway and his hopes for a peaceful solution +of their conflicts.</p> + +<p>Swedish literature, after the period of dilettantism and +epigones, has, during the reign of Oscar II., twice been +rejuvenated and continues its development on broadened +paths and with a wider scope. The eighties were characterized +by a strong realistic movement, which went far +in daring truth of description and brought problems of a +social, religious and political nature under discussion in +works of a novelistic or dramatic form. In naturalism, +it never went to the extremes of the other Scandinavian +literature. The movement was to a great extent brought +on by Norwegian and Danish influence, and soon subsided +for want of solid and fascinating art to maintain it. The +Swedish champion of this movement, although without the +restrictions of any school, was August Strindberg, a genius +of extraordinary endowment. Through the versatility and +power of his talent, he created new forms for the Swedish +drama, novel, short story and essay. In his battle against +reactionary conservatism he went too far; an excitable +nature, led into extremes, but he has had the manly courage +to confess and regret his mistakes. Strindberg, who is an +able historian, ethnographer, naturalist and sinologue, is the +most versatile and prolific of contemporary writers. In the +wide scope of his genius and originality of his methods, +Strindberg is one of the most remarkable dramatists that +ever lived. His autobiographical works are of supreme +importance, both to the students of literature and psychol<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[Pg 427]</a></span>ogy. +Among his masterpieces are “Master Olof,” the great +historic drama of his youth, “Swedish Fates and Adventures,” +and “Utopia Realized,” two series of short stories, +and “The Father,” a modern drama of unsurpassed tragic +grandeur.</p> + +<p>Several women took an active part in the literary discussion +of social problems, with more or less justice considered +as the champions of women’s rights. Among these Anne +Charlotte Leffler, duchessa di Cajanello, in spite of her +premature death, developed into a novelist of merit who +will be placed side by side with Bremer, Knorring and +Carlén.</p> + +<p>The golden lyres of Romanticism were silenced and the +epigones were hushed by the sarcasms of Realism. Count +Snoilsky and Victor Rydberg were the only poets of the +earlier period who sang with inspiration and were listened +to. After the realistic movement of the eighties came a +romantic reaction with new lyrics and new novelists, who +avoided the ruthlessness of the realists, but had profited by +their merits. This new movement cannot be called a school, +for it is marked by its great versatility of subjects and great +elasticity of treatment. If the definition of realistic art +be “a piece of nature seen through a temperament,” that +of the new movement may be “an artistic temperament +attuned to pieces of nature,” a sensitive and supple talent +which has an almost unlimited capacity to tell every story +just in the vein its particular subject demands. Pre-eminent +in this movement stand Ola Hansson, Selma Lagerlœf, +Verner von Heidenstam, Gustaf af Geijerstam, Peter Hallstrœm, +Thor Hedberg, Oscar Levertin, all fine novelists, +almost all good poets, and Geijerstam, an able dramatist. +One of the most interesting and supremely gifted poets<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[Pg 428]</a></span> +Sweden has ever had is Gustaf Frœding, who generally +excels, sometimes abuses, his remarkable versatility in finding +a true lyric expression for the very widest range of subjects. +Sigurd Hedenstierna is the most popular humorist, +witty in his sketches, but impossible as a novelist. The +greatest humorists are August Strindberg and Gustaf +Frœding. Contemporary Sweden has very few and no +great literary critics, but some good literary historians +in Henric Schueck, Karl Warburg and Oscar Levertin. +She has a number of able journalists, most distinguished +among whom is their Nestor, S. A. Hedlund, of Gothenburg, +a fiery but dignified champion of a liberal government, +religious tolerance, social evolution and cultural +progress.</p> + +<p>Swedish literature has a long pedigree compared to +Swedish art, which is hardly more than two centuries old. +All the more remarkable, then, is its rapid growth and high +degree of excellence. The first school of Swedish painters +was founded by the German Ehrenstrahl, giving to Swedish +art the cosmopolitan character it has preserved to this day, +influenced by continental but chiefly French art. Swedish +painters early attracted attention abroad. Gustavus Lundberg, +with a picture of Boucher and his wife, won the +greatest success of the Salon of Paris, in 1743. Peter +Adolphus Hall, “painter to the king and the children of +France,” has been called the Van Dyck of the miniature +painters. He resided in Paris up to the time of the revolution +and took part in the storming of the Bastile. Alexander +Roslin was, from the year 1760, installed in the +Louvre as painter to the king and councillor of the French +Academy. In 1771 he carried home a prize which the immortal +Greuze could not capture, much to the dismay of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[Pg 429]</a></span> +Diderot, and died as the most famous and wealthy artist +of the period. In a later period, Italy attracted many +Swedish artists, and later still, in the sixties of the present +century, the influence of Germany, especially of the Dusseldorf +school, was strongly felt. John Frederic Hœckert +won the first prize of the Paris Exposition of 1855 with his +large picture “Divine Service in the Lapmark.” When the +glories of Hœckert were almost forgotten at home, Edward +Wahlberg, in the seventies, was ushered into celebrity as +one of the greatest landscape painters of modern times, +equally appreciated in Germany, as later in France, and new +French laurels were won by Hugo Salmson, William von +Gegerfelt and August Hagborg. Since then French influences +have become solidly established, with a few important +artists of the Munich school, like C. G. Hellquist and +Julius Kronberg. The climax of artistic honors was +reached by Nils Forsberg, whose picture, “The Death +of a Hero,” carried home the first prize of the French +Salon in 1888 (not an exposition medal), a distinction which +no Swede and exceedingly few non-French artists ever won. +The repeated successes which Swedish painters have won +at expositions of Europe were more than duplicated by +the enthusiastic approval granted it at the World’s Fair +in Chicago in 1893. The truth is that Sweden possesses +a number of eminent painters in every branch of painting, +except the marine, which has been but sparingly represented +since the days of Marcus Larsson. The most famous among +them are, besides those already mentioned, Richard Bergh, +Oscar Biorck, Eva Bonnier, Gustavus Cederstrœm, Prince +Eugene, Eugene Jansson, Ernst Josephson, Nils Kreuger, +Carl Larsson, Bruno Liljefors, Charles Nordstrœm, Allan +Œsterlind, Georg and Hanna Pauli, George von Rosen,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[Pg 430]</a></span> +Robert Thegerstrom, and A. L. Zorn. It has been said +of the Swedish painters, by way of complaint, that they +are not, as their brethren in Denmark and Norway, in any +marked degree national. Swedish art has, for its characteristic +boldness and superiority in modern technique, loftiness +of purpose, great individuality of expression and depth of +feeling. Be these characteristics national or cosmopolitan, +the Swedish painters are certainly a great credit to their +country. To King Oscar it must be in a high degree satisfactory +to see the artistic tendencies of his family culminate +in the works of his youngest son, Prince Eugene, who, +being in the front line of the advance corps of art, paints, +from dreamy, inner life, pictures which are the delight of +artists and true connoisseurs.</p> + +<p>The sculptors are less numerous, but the art of Sergel, +Fogelberg and Molin have found worthy perpetuators and +innovators in Per Hasselberg, John Bœrjesson, Frithiof +Kjellberg, Alfred Nystrœm, Christian Ericsson, Th. Lundberg +and Ingel Fallstedt. To the art of metal engraving +on coins and medals Sweden has offered some works of the +very highest value by J. E. Ericson, P. H. Lundgren, Lea +Ahlborn and Adolphus Lindberg.</p> + +<p>Architecture cannot boast of any continuous chain of +brilliant development. Since the days of Nicodemus Tessin +there have been few great architects until in very recent +times, when architecture has received a sudden impetus +which has made its progress and results as remarkable, or +almost more so, than that of the other arts. To Helgo +Zettervall a number of elaborate national works of construction +and restoration have been intrusted and, as a +rule, carried through in a meritorious manner, although +sometimes giving occasion for serious criticism. An im<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[Pg 431]</a></span>portant +influence was exerted by Frederic William Scholander, +more by his teaching than by his works. It is principally +his pupils who in the last few decades have almost +revolutionized the building methods and architectural aspect +of the capital, and endowed Gothenburg and other towns +with works of architectural distinction. Pre-eminent among +modern architects are I. G. Clason, Gustavus Wickman, +K. F. von Gegerfelt, Adrian Peterson, Hans Hedlund, +Valfried Karlson, A. F. Anderberg, E. Lallerstedt. The +Vasa, or Swedish Castle Renaissance, which with good +effect has been reintroduced for monumental buildings, +seems to lead architecture on to a wholesome national +development, combining impressive outlines and solidity +with elaboration and grace of interior decoration.</p> + +<p>The foremost composers of orchestral music have been +mentioned above. Sweden maintains her reputation as +being the country of song through the compositions by +Hedenblad, Kœrling, Svedbom, Sjœgren and Arlberg, +while Sœderman has brought the form of the ballad, based +on national folk music, to the highest development. The +royal opera of Stockholm recently moved into new and +elegant quarters erected on the site of the old opera house +built by Gustavus III. It possesses, in Caroline Œstberg, +Mathilde Linden, Arvid Œdman, C. F. Lundquist and J. +Elmblad, dramatic singers of high rank, while Sweden, in +Louise Pyk, Mathilde Grabow Taube and Solomon Smith, +owns concert singers of great eminence. The international +firmament of song has two Swedish stars of considerable +magnitude in Sigrid Arnoldsson-Fischhoff, a colorature +songstress, and Ellen Nordgren-Gullbrandson, a Wagner +singer. The greatest actor is Emil Hillberg, a noble +creator of Ibsen and Strindberg rôles, while the country<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[Pg 432]</a></span> +recently lost its ablest comedian in the death of Knut +Almlœf.</p> + +<p>Sweden of to-day offers an attractive picture of a country +in a high degree cultured and prosperous, but no country +or period is entitled to reap only benefits or enjoy undisturbed +happiness. No progress is obtained without struggle +and relapses, and a good must give way for something +better. Beneath a surface generally smiling and serene +formidable religious and social forces are in motion. The +Swedish state church is divided into two camps, which +resemble a high and a low church, out of which the whole +may come forward strengthened and rejunevated. The +various sects are not all satisfied with the degree of liberty +they enjoy. A shallow materialistic movement of anti-religious +tendencies, which styled itself Utilitarian, caused some +sensation in the latter eighties and early nineties, more +through the somewhat too severe manner in which it was +suppressed than through any of its own merits. There are +agitators for a separation of state and church who are +opposed by some of the stanchest friends of a constitutional +monarchy. A separation of educational and church +affairs seems desirable. The yeomen have regained the +predominant position in political life which was theirs in +the time of the ancient Teutonic communities, using their +power in a way which is not always beneficial to the other +classes or the state at large. The great class of country +population, which has been in vain striving to rise to the +privileged class of landowners, if even on the smallest +scale, have emigrated in vast numbers. The emigration, +which has given America at least 1,200,000 inhabitants of +Swedish birth or parentage, is one of the most astounding +phenomena of the century. It has, to a large extent, sub<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[Pg 433]</a></span>sided, +but may be revived if the pressure for social improvement +is found of no avail. The workingmen are resolved +to gain a representation and are striving to attain the introduction +of general suffrage. The weapons they use are +principally strikes, but may also turn to wholesale emigration. +In 1893 the advocates of universal suffrage arranged +for the election of a convention by popular vote, the first +Folksriksdag, which addressed an appeal to the legal Riksdag, +to consider an amendment for the extension of the +suffrage. The liberals and radicals are interested in this +agitation, and brought out their full vote to the Folksriksdag. +The conservative party ignores the whole movement, +probably not wisely. The towns are seeking an extended +representation and bitterly oppose the curtailment of the +rights already enjoyed, fearing the reactionary tendencies +of the conservatives, who have their strength in the large +agrarian population. Anarchism is something unknown +in Sweden. The socialistic agitation, which is spreading +among the classes without a political representation, is carried +on without any great bitterness and entirely without +lawless means.</p> + +<p>Any practical or theoretical agitation for a republic there +is none in Sweden, the population as a whole not finding +salvation from the defects of government or society in any +outward change of rule. Civil service is enforced to the +letter, and the social pressure from above downward is of a +nature caused by financial or educational supremacy only +and would remain the same under republican rule. The +Swedes are proud of their history and the long and unbroken +chain of their political and social development. Their +neighbors accuse them of having traces of the chauvinism +of bygone days, but not altogether with justice. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[Pg 434]</a></span> +national anthem of Sweden can be quoted in their justification. +It speaks, in one instance, of the country as enthroned +on memories of a glorious past when its name +filled the world; but that name is the North, to whose +grandeur and loveliness of nature the whole song is a panegyric. +The name of Sweden is not even mentioned, a fact +which does not point to a narrow or antiquated form of +patriotism. There is in the nature of the Swedes a tendency +to delight in the display of dignified luxury, which +was known to Tacitus. The Swedes love to see the crown +of one of the oldest states of Europe carried with dignity +as an emblem of their ancient independence. The +Swedish king has in reality less power than the President +of the United States, but the Swedes have an inherited +faculty of confidence and loyalty of which their king receives +his full share. The Swedes become excellent citizens +of a republic for that very reason: reverence for, and loyalty +to, the institutions and historial development of the +country in which they dwell. Among the Scandinavian +nationalities, the Swede has been characterized as the nobleman +or aristocrat, on account of his love of luxury and the +joys of life, his dignity, diplomatic talent and lyrico-rhetoric +temperament. It is true that his dignity seldom forsakes +the Swede; when it does, something of the soldier of the +Thirty Years’ War comes to the surface. To her diplomatic +talent, more than to her glorious victories, Sweden owes +her superiority in size, prosperity and political importance, +as compared to her Scandinavian neighbors.</p> + +<p>The fundamental laws of the kingdom of Sweden are: +1. The constitution of June 6, 1809; 2. The amended regulations +for the formation of the Riksdag of June 22, 1866; +3. The law of royal succession of September 26, 1810; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[Pg 435]</a></span> +on the liberty of the press of July 16, 1812. According to +these statutes, the king must be a member of the Lutheran +church, and have sworn fealty to the laws of the land. His +person is inviolable. He has the right to declare war and +make peace after consulting the state council. He nominates +to all higher appointments, both military and civil; +concludes foreign treaties, and has a right to preside in the +supreme court of justice. The princes of the blood royal +are excluded from all civil employments. The king possesses +legislative power in matters of political administration, +but in all other respects that power is exercised by the +Riksdag, in concert with the sovereign, and every new law +must have the assent of the crown. The right of imposing +taxes is vested in the Riksdag. The executive power is in +the hands of the king, who acts under the advice of a cabinet +or state council, the head of which is the minister of +state. It consists of ten members, seven of whom are ministerial +heads of departments and three without departments. +All the members of the cabinet are responsible for the acts +of the government.</p> + +<p>Eric Gustavus Bostrœm is minister of state, holding +office since 1891, after the protectionists had got into power +and the compromise cabinets which followed were a thing +of the past. The other ministers without departments, +Baron A. L. E. Akerhielm and S. H. Wikblad, have remained +in office since the days of compromise cabinets. The +other members who have been in office from five to eight +years are as follows: Count L. V. A. Douglas, minister +of foreign affairs; P. S. L. Annerstedt, minister of justice; +Baron A. E. Rappe, minister of war; J. C. E. Christerson, +minister of marine; J. E. von Krusenstierna, minister of +interior; Count H. Hansson Wachtmeister, minister of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[Pg 436]</a></span> +finance; G. F. Gilljam, minister of education and ecclesiastical +affairs.</p> + +<p>King Oscar II., in the jubilee year of 1897, which +marked the completion of a quarter of a century of his +reign, received innumerable proofs of the love of the two +nations under his rule and of the high esteem in which he +is held by the governments and citizens of foreign countries. +The occasion was celebrated by a large and highly successful +Scandinavian exposition at Stockholm in the summer, +Russia, with Finland, also taking part, and by a series of +festivities about September 21st, the date of his succession +to the throne. King Oscar has always given sympathetic +attention to the United States, especially to their citizens +of Swedish birth. Several deputations from America called +upon the king in the jubilee year. Among these was a +male chorus of fifty-four members, belonging to the American +Union of Swedish singers. The singers were invited +to the royal castle and received and feasted by the aged +monarch with cordial simplicity, in all royal splendor, without +any of its pomp or ceremony. To the hearty songs of +his unpretentious guests, King Oscar responded with one +of the eloquent speeches for which he is so justly famous, +assuring them that, although citizens of another land, they +were still followed by the loving interest of their mother +country and her monarch. When the singers intoned one +of the songs by Prince Gustavus, the king joined them with +his sonorous tenor voice, smilingly calling their attention +to the fact that he had not forgotten his students’ songs. +The anniversary of the seventieth birthday of Oscar II. was +celebrated January 21, 1899, a slight gloom being cast over +it on account of the temporary illness of the king. Oscar +II. fully recovered after a few months of rest and recreation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[Pg 437]</a></span> +and bears every indication of attaining the same advanced +age, with the same unimpaired activity, as his grandfather, +which would mean another decade added to the era of undisturbed +peace. Crown Prince Gustavus Adolphus, who +is yet little known in Norway, enjoys great popularity in +Sweden, where his harmonious, sagacious nature and resolute +energy are highly respected.</p> + +<p>The reign of Oscar II. in Sweden has been marked by +reactionary movements in Church and State, but the king +has been in such close contact with his people that they +have recognized in him a sovereign who stands above the +parties. The king has used the conservative elements of his +country to strengthen her defences and to maintain the +Union with Norway, which have been the great goals of +his policy of peace. To sum up King Oscar’s standpoint +in the Norwegian question, he is willing to grant Norway +home rule in its fullest extent, but refuses to grant her +separate control of foreign affairs, which he considers incompatible +with the idea of the Union. In this standpoint +King Oscar is backed by the convictions of the overwhelming +majority of Swedes, who see in the dissolution of the +Union a danger to Sweden, Norway, or both countries, of +sharing the fate of unhappy Finland, which the civilized +world is now deeply deploring. The danger which menaces +the sons of Suomi has touched all Scandinavians to the +quick, and it would seem that the new century shall witness +a restoration of the Scandinavian policy. If the movement +to bring this about meets with success, it is to be +hoped that, from the start, it shall have rather the actual +wants than the ideal rights of the independent Scandinavian +states in view. From the point of view of citizens of the +United States we cannot but sympathize with a movement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[Pg 438]</a></span> +which may establish a union of independent states into a +realm of imperial government, less an emperor. Let there +rather be two or three kings in the North, with one solid +union government and a common and equal defence in case +of war, than two or three foreign ministers with as many +different policies and a divided and unequal defence.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The ancient name of this province, Viken, probably is the key to +the disputed etymology of the word <i>Viking</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> These were not departments in the sense of bureaus, but <i>collegia</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Through the efforts of the Swedish scholar, Eric Benzelius, Junior, +a third edition was published at Windsor in 1750. J. K. Kohn’s edition +dates from 1805, founded on the works of the Swedish scholars Sotberg +and Ihre. Of later editions, the one by Professor A. Uppstrœm, of +Upsala, of 1854 to 1857, is considered to be the standard one. A fine +American edition has, in recent years, been published by Dr. G. H. Balg, +of Mayville, Wis. The history of Codex Argenteus, after once for all +being placed in the University Library of Upsala, has not been altogether +uneventful. In 1834 ten of the 187 leaves were stolen and remained +missing for twenty-three years. One of the trusted janitorial +attendants of the library had taken them in the hope of obtaining a +great sum of money for them, but later dared not dispose of them. On +his death-bed he surrendered the stolen leaves.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Lewenhaupt is a German translation of the old Swedish family +name of Leijonhufvud, and carried by a branch whose members held +the dignity of counts. Almost similar is the derivation of Von Rosen +from Tre Rosor, etc. During the Period of Political Grandeur, and later, +it was a habit of certain branches of the old Swedish nobility to translate +or Germanize their names in this way. The burghers and clergymen +followed the custom when being ennobled, Archaic spelling was +preserved, or adopted, in most cases.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> The ecclesiastic department is also the department of education.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> A. C. Nathorst, an able scientist and explorer, started in the summer +of 1899 with an expedition to Greenland in search of Andrée and +his companions.</p></div></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[Pg 439]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX">INDEX</a></h2> + +<ul class="index"><li><h3>A</h3></li> + +<li class="indx">Abelin, G. R., <a href="#Page_408">408-410</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Abo, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">peace treaty (in 1743), <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">University of Abo (see <a href="#Universities">Universities</a>).</li> + +<li class="indx">Absolutism, Absolute Monarchy, <a href="#Page_255">255-258</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300-301</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Academic style, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Academy, of Antiquities, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">of Art, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">of Science, <a href="#Page_336">336-337</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Swedish, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">French, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Military, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Adalvard, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">the Younger, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Adam of Bremen, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Adlerbeth, G. G., <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Adlercreutz, C. J., <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360-361</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">A. G., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Adlersparre, George, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Admiral, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">State, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Adolphus Frederic of Sweden, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317-320</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Adolphus John, Duke, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Adrianople, <a href="#Page_297">297-298</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Africa, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Aftonbladet, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Agardh, J. G., <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Agne, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Agnefit, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Agriculture. See <a href="#agriculture">Sweden</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ahlborn, Lea, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Ahlstroemer" id="Ahlstroemer">Ahlstrœmer</a>, John, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334-337</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Akerhielm, A. L. N., <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Akkershus, district of, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">fortress of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Aland archipelago, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">peace deliberations at, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Albrecht the Elder, duke of Mecklenburg, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">the Younger, king of Sweden, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96-97</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Alemannians, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Alexander I. of Russia, <a href="#Page_357">357-358</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Alexandra, princess of Russia, <a href="#Page_355">355-356</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Alexandria, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Alf, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Alfred the Great, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Alingsos, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334-337</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Alliance, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Triple, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Alliterative prose, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">verse, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Almlœf, N. V., <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Knut, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Almquist, C. J. L., <a href="#Page_388">388-389</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Alnsnœ, meeting at, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Alof, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Alps, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Alrek, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Altmark, armistice of, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Altona, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Alt-Ranstædt, <a href="#Page_279">279-281</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">peace treaty signed at, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Alvastra, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ambassadors, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Amber, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="America" id="America">America</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">South America, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">American Union of Swedish Singers, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Amsterdam, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Anastasius, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Anatomy, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">hall of, <a href="#Page_262">262-263</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Anckarstrœm, J. J., <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[Pg 440]</a></span></li> + +<li class="indx">Anckarsverd, C. H., <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Anderberg, A. F., <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Andreae" id="Andreae">Andreæ</a>, Laurentius, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Andrée, S. A., <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Ane" id="Ane">Ane</a>, or Aune, King, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Angermanland, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Angermannus, Abraham, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Anglii, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Anglo-Saxon, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">See also <a href="#OE">Old English</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Angstrœm, A. J., <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Anjala Conspiracy, <a href="#Page_348">348-349</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Anne of England, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Annerstedt, P. S. L., <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ansgar, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53-55</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Antiquarian, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">See also <a href="#Arcaeology">Archæology</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Anund, Swedish kings: <a name="Broet_Anund" id="Broet_Anund">Brœt-Anund</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Anund, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="Anund_Jacob" id="Anund_Jacob">Anund, or Jacob</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62-63</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Apocalypse, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Apostles, Swedish, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53-55</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Apraxin, Admiral, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Arabs, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Arboga, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Arboga articles, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Arcana Cœlestia, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Archæan rocks, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Arcaeology" id="Arcaeology">Archæology</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423-424</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Archbishop, <a href="#Page_54">54-55</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266-267</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Architecture" id="Architecture">Architecture</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265-266</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302-303</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430-431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Arctic explorations, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Sea, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Stone Age, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ardan. See <a href="#Jordanes">Jordanes</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ardgard, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Argus, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">the Swedish, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Aristocracy, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238-239</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250-251</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Aristocratic republic, republicans, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">See also <a href="#higher">Nobility, higher</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Arlberg, Fritz, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Armfelt: Charles Gustavus, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Gustavus Maurice, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Army. See <a href="#army">Sweden</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Arnoldsson, Sigrid, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Aros, East (see <a href="#Upsala">Upsala</a>).</li> +<li class="isub1">Aros, West (see <a href="#Westeros">Westeros</a>).</li> + +<li class="indx">Aryan race, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">See also <a href="#Indo_European">Indo-European</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Asa, Princess, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Asa creed, <a href="#Page_31">31-34</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Asia, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Askold, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Aspeboda, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Astrology, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Astronomy, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Asund, Lake, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">battle of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Atland" id="Atland">Atland</a>, Atlantica, <a href="#Page_263">263-265</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Atlantis, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Atterbom, P. D. A., <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Atterdag. See <a href="#Atterdag">Valdemar</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Attundaland, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Aude, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Audils" id="Audils">Audils</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37-38</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Auerbach, B., <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Augdof, fortress of, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Augsburgian Confession, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">August II., elector of Saxony and king of Poland, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277-279</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">August, Prince Nicolaus, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Aulin, Tor, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Aune. See <a href="#Ane">Ane</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Austria: Swedish empire in the Baltic provinces, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51-52</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Austria-Hungary, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Avignon, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Axelsson. See <a href="#Tott">Tott</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Axtorna, battle of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Aztec, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> + +<li><h3>B</h3></li> + +<li class="indx">Bade, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bagge, Jacob, <a href="#Page_164">164-166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bailiffs, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Baltic_dominion" id="Baltic_dominion">Baltic dominion</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51-52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Baltic_Provinces" id="Baltic_Provinces">Baltic Provinces</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198-199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291-292</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Baltic Sea, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Ban" id="Ban">Ban</a>, Militia, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Papal, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Banér, Sten, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Anne, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Eric, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Gustavus, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Per, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">John, <a href="#Page_207">207-208</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222-225</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Banner of State, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Barangoi, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Barbro" id="Barbro">Barbro</a>, Stigsdotter, <a href="#Page_134">134-135</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bark-king, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[Pg 441]</a></span></li> + +<li class="indx">Barn-lock, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Barocco, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Barons, Baronies, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bastile, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bavaria, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Beauharnais, Eugene, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Beckstrom, Edward, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Behm, Sara, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bellman, C. M., <a href="#Page_345">345-346</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bells, revolt of. See <a href="#Bells">Revolts</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Belt, Lille, <a href="#Page_245">245-246</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Belt, Store, <a href="#Page_246">246-247</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bender, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="Kalabalik" id="Kalabalik">Kalabalik of</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Benedictine monastery, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bengt, Duke, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bengtsson, Jœns. See <a href="#Oxenstierna">Oxenstierna</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bentseby, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Benzelius" id="Benzelius">Benzelius</a>: Eric the Elder, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Eric the Younger, <a href="#Page_237">237</a> note, <a href="#Page_266">266-267</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Benzelstierna. See <a href="#Benzelius">Benzelius</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Beowulf, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bergh, Richard, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bergman, T. O., <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bergstrœm, P. A., <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Berlin, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bernadotte, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="Prince_Oscar" id="Prince_Oscar">Prince Oscar</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">See also <a href="#Charles_XIV">Charles XIV</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bernard of Clairvaux, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Bernhard_Weimar" id="Bernhard_Weimar">Bernhard</a>, duke of Weimar, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bervald, F. N., <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Berzelius, J. J., <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Beværingstid, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bible, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Gothic (see <a href="#Gothic_Bible">Gothic</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">translations of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bielke, Anna, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="Gunillan" id="Gunillan">Gunillan</a>, queen, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Sten, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Ture, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bielo-Jesero, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Biœrkœ, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Biœrn, Swedish kings, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Biorck, O., <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Biornstierna, M. F. F., <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Biornstrœm, F. J., <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Birger, Brosa, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Jarl, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78-83</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">King, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88-91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Persson, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Birgitta" id="Birgitta">Birgitta</a>, St., <a href="#Page_97">97-99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Birka, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Bishops" id="Bishops">Bishops</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112-113</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145-146</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bjœrnson, B., <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Black Death, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Blanche, queen of Sweden and Norway, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Blanche, August, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bleking, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Blenda, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Blomstrand, C. W., <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Blot_Sven" id="Blot_Sven">Blot-Sven</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Blucher, General, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bo Jonsson. See <a href="#Grip">Grip</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Boccaccio, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bœclerus, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bœrhave, <a href="#Page_330">330-331</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bœrjesson, John, dramatist, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">John, sculptor, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bœttiger, C. V., <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bogesund, battle of, <a href="#Page_126">126-127</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bohemia, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bohus, fortress of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bohuslæn, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bologna, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bonaparte. See <a href="#Napoleon">Napoleon</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bonde, Charles Knutsson (see <a href="#Charles_VIII">Charles VIII</a>.);</li> + +<li class="isub1">Tord, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Gustavus, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bonnier, Eva, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Borgannæs, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Boris of Russia, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bornhœved, battle of, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bornholm, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">naval battle of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bosphorus, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bosson, Nils. See <a href="#Nils_Bosson">Sture</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bostrœm, C. J., philosopher, <a href="#Page_411">411-412</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Botany" id="Botany">Botany</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331-333</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bothnia, Gulf of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bothnia, West, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bothniensis, N. O., <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">“Bottomless Purse,” <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Botvid, St., <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Boucher, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bourgeoisie. See <a href="#Burghers">Burghers</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Boye, L., <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Brabant, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Brage-bowl, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Brahe, Joachim, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Peter, the Elder, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Ebba, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Nils, the Elder, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Peter, the Younger, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Nils, the Younger, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Eric, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Magnus, <a href="#Page_374">374-375</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Brahestad, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[Pg 442]</a></span></li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Brandenburg" id="Brandenburg">Brandenburg</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Elector of, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Great Elector of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Brandsœ, <a href="#Page_245">245-246</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Brask, Bishop Hans, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Braun, V. A. D. von, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Braunsberg, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bravols, battle of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Breitenfeld, battles of. See <a href="#Leipsic">Leipsic</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bremen, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bremer, Frederica, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Brenner, S. E., <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Brennkyrka, battle of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bridget, St. See <a href="#Birgitta">Birgitta</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bring. See Lagerbring.</li> + +<li class="indx">Britain, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">British Isles, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Museum, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Brœmsebro, peace treaty at, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Brœt-Anund. See <a href="#Broet_Anund">Anund</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bronitz, battle of, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bronze Age, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16-20</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Brunbeck, battle of, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Brunkeberg, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">battles of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Buchow, naval battle of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Buddenbrock, M. H., <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Budget. See <a href="#budget">Sweden</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Buffon, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bureus, John, <a href="#Page_232">232-235</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Burghers" id="Burghers">Burghers</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Burislev, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Byzantium, Byzantine, <a href="#Page_22">22-23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + +<li><h3>C</h3></li> + +<li class="indx">Cabinet, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Swedish (see <a href="#cabinet"></a>Sweden).</li> + +<li class="indx">Cadet School. See <a href="#Carlberg">Carlberg</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Calmar. See <a href="#Kalmar">Kalmar</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Caloric engine, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Calvinism, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Canute" id="Canute">Canute</a> the Great, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">“Caps,” <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Carelia" id="Carelia">Carelia</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Carin_Monsdotter" id="Carin_Monsdotter">Carin Monsdotter</a>, queen, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170-173</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Carl. See <a href="#Charles">Charles</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Carlberg" id="Carlberg">Carlberg</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Carleby" id="Carleby">Carleby</a>, Old, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">New, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Carlén, Emelie, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Carlsborg, fortress of, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Carlscrona" id="Carlscrona">Carlscrona</a>, navy yards at, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Carlson" id="Carlson">Carlson</a>, F. F., <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Ernest, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Carlstad" id="Carlstad">Carlstad</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Carlsten, fortress of, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Carnage of Stockholm, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Carolin Institute, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cartesius. See <a href="#Descartes">Descartes</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Casijn, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Caspian Sea, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cassander, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Castellholm, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Castles, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Catechismus, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Catherine_Countess_Palatine" id="Catherine_Countess_Palatine">Catherine, Countess Palatine</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Catherine" id="Catherine">Catherine</a> (queens of Sweden), of Saxony-Lauenburg, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="Catherine_Stenbock" id="Catherine_Stenbock">Stenbock</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Monsdotter (see <a href="#Carin_Monsdotter">Carin Monsdotter</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="Jagello" id="Jagello">Jagello</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Catherine II. of Russia, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355-356</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Catholicism, Catholic, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182-184</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cavendish, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cederstrom, O. R., <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Gustavus, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Celibacy, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Celsius" id="Celsius">Celsius</a>, Andrew, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Olof, Senior, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Olof, Junior, <a href="#Page_333">333-334</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Celtic swords, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">tribes, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chambers (of the Riksdag), <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399-401</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Chancellor" id="Chancellor">Chancellor</a>, of State, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a> (see also <a href="#PotC">President of the Chancery</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">king’s, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">of the University, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">the Great (see <a href="#Axel_Oxenstierna">Axel Oxenstierna</a>).</li> + +<li class="indx">Chancery, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="PotC" id="PotC">president of the</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Charles" id="Charles">Charles</a> (kings of Sweden): VII. Sverkersson, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="Charles_VIII" id="Charles_VIII">VIII</a>. Knutsson, <a href="#Page_108">108-114</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="Charles_IX" id="Charles_IX">IX</a>. <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170-174</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181-191</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">X. Gustavus, <a href="#Page_239">239-241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242-249</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">XI. <a href="#Page_249">249-268</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270-271</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">XII. <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268-309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[Pg 443]</a></span></li> +<li class="isub1">XIII. <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365-374</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="Charles_XIV" id="Charles_XIV">XIV</a>. <a href="#Page_367">367-373</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374-380</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">XV. <a href="#Page_391">391-413</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Charles, Bishop, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Charles, Jarl, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Charles_Philip" id="Charles_Philip">Charles Philip</a>, son of Charles IX., <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Charles, son of Oscar II., <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Charles V., emperor, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Charles II. of England, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Charles_Chronicle" id="Charles_Chronicle">Charles’s Chronicle</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Charles Frederic of Holstein-Gottorp, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Charles Peter Ulric of Holstein-Gottorp, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chauvinism, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chemistry, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chemnitz, battle of, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chicago, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">China, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chodkiewitz, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Christerson, J. C. E., <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Christian" id="Christian">Christian</a> (kings of Denmark): I. <a href="#Page_111">111-113</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">II. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124-129</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">III. <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">IV. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196-198</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226-227</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">V. <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="Christian_VIII" id="Christian_VIII">VIII</a>. <a href="#Page_371">371-373</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">IX. <a href="#Page_403">403-404</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Christian August (Charles A.), Prince, <a href="#Page_365">365-367</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Christian Frederic, Prince. See <a href="#Christian_VIII">Christian VIII</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Christiania, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Christianity, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">influence of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">introduction of, <a href="#Page_53">53-55</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">opposition to, <a href="#Page_58">58-61</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Christianopel, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Christine" id="Christine">Christine</a> (queens of Sweden), <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220-241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Christine of Denmark, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Christine of Hesse, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164-165</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Christinehamn, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Christopher" id="Christopher">Christopher</a>, kings of Denmark, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, and of Sweden, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Christopher’s, King, Land Law. See <a href="#state_law">Sweden, State Law</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chronica regni gothorum, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chronicles, <a name="Prose_Chronicle" id="Prose_Chronicle">prose</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">rhymed, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Church, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174-176</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">law, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">See also <a href="#Clergy">Clergy</a>, <a href="#Bishops">Bishops</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cimbrian Peninsula, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">See also <a href="#Jutland">Jutland</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cincinnatus, Order of, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cistercians, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Civil service, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Clary. See <a href="#Desideria">Queen Desideria</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Clason, I. G., <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Clergy" id="Clergy">Clergy</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145-146</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398-399</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Codania, Codanian Bay, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Codex_Argenteus" id="Codex_Argenteus">Codex Argenteus</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235-238</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Bildstenianus, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Bureanus, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Coffee prohibited, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Coins, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">of need, <a href="#Page_301">301-302</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Collard, Claude, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Colleges, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Collegia, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a> note.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cologne, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a href="#colonies">Colonies</a>, <a href="#commerce">Commerce</a>, <a href="#communities">Communities</a>, <a href="#constitution">Constitution</a>. See Sweden.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Constantine_Porphyrogenitus" id="Constantine_Porphyrogenitus">Constantine Porphyrogenitus</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Constantinople, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Continent. See <a href="#Europe">Europe</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Copenhagen, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">siege of, <a href="#Page_247">247-248</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">peace treaty of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Corvey, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cossacks, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Council, Councillors, State (or royal), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292-293</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344-345</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Council, Town, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Councillor of Commerce, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Counties, counts, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Courland, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cracow, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Creutz, G. P., <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Croats, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Croi, Duke de, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cronhamn, J. P., <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cronstedt, Charles, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Olof, <a href="#Page_359">359-360</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Crown prince, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Crown_lands" id="Crown_lands">Crown lands</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="Crown_lands_restitution" id="Crown_lands_restitution">restitution</a> of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256-258</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Crusades, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Crusell, B. F., <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[Pg 444]</a></span></li> + +<li class="indx">Crusenstolpe, M. J., <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cuno, John C., <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Czar (see <a href="#Russia">Russia</a>), Czarina, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Czarniecki, Stefan, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> + +<li><h3>D</h3></li> + +<li class="indx">Dacke “Feud,” <a href="#Page_150">150-151</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dacke, Nils, <a href="#Page_150">150-151</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dag, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dahlberg, Eric, <a href="#Page_245">245-246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265-266</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dahlgren, Frederic Aug., <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dahlquist, C. G., <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dal, province of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">River, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dalecarlia, Dalecarlians, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133-139</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dalin, O. von, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337-339</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dædalus Hyperboreus, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">“Daljunker,” <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dalman, V. F., <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Danckwardt, Henric, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Danes, Danish. See <a href="#Denmark">Denmark</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Danielsson, A., <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dannebrog, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dantzic, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Danube, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">David, St., <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dearth, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Decamerone, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">De Geer. See <a href="#Geer">Geer</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">De la Gardie. See <a href="#Gardie">Gardie</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Delaware River, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Democracy, Democratic, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Demotika, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Denmark" id="Denmark">Denmark</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56-57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126-127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195-198</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226-228</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245-248</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253-255</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273-274</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295-296</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348-349</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371-373</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385-386</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dennewitz, battle of, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Descartes" id="Descartes">Descartes</a>, René, <a href="#Page_240">240-241</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Desideria" id="Desideria">Desideria</a>, Queen, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Diderot, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Diet, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">See also <a href="#Riksdag">Riksdag</a> and <a href="#Storthing">Norwegian Storthing</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dietriechson, Lorenz, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dilettantism, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dimitri, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">false Dimitris, <a href="#Page_187">187-188</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Diplomacy, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dir, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dirschau, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ditmarschen, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dniepr River, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">cataracts of the, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dœbeln, G. C. von, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dœmitz, battle of, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dolmens, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Domalde, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Domar, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dorpat, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">University of (see <a href="#Universities">Universities</a>).</li> + +<li class="indx">Dortrecht, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Douglas, L. V. A., <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Drama, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426-427</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431-432</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dramatic singers, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Drontheim, diocese or district of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Drotsete" id="Drotsete">Drotsete</a>, Drotset (Riks-), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Drottningholm, castle of, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Duchies, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185-186</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Duenamuende, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dufnæs, battle of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">D’Uncker, C. H. L., <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dusseldorf School, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dutch, Dutchman. See <a href="#Holland">Holland</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dvina, crossing of the, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dygve, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li><h3>E</h3></li> + +<li class="indx">Eadgils. See <a href="#Audils">Audils</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">East Gothland. See <a href="#Gothland">Gothland</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ebo, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ecclesiastics. See <a href="#Clergy">Clergy</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Edda, Eddic songs, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Snorre’s, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Edlund, Eric, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Edsœre laws, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Education, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Eger, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[Pg 445]</a></span></li> + +<li class="indx">Egil, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Egino, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ehrenstrahl, D. K., <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">School of Painters, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ehrensverd, Augustinus, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Ch. A., <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350-351</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Eider, River, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Eidsvold, meeting held at, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Eka, Cecilia of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ekeberg, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Elbing, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Elective kingdom. See <a href="#Kingdom">Kingdom</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Electricity, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Elfsborg, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">New, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Elfsson, Swan, <a href="#Page_135">135-136</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Elgaros, battle of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Elisabeth of Russia, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Elizabeth of England, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Elmblad, Johannes, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Elsass, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Elsinore" id="Elsinore">Elsinore</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Emigration, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432-433</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Emund, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Engelbrekt, Engelbrektsson, <a href="#Page_105">105-109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">song about, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">England, English, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306-307</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Eric (Danish kings): Ejegod, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="Glipping" id="Glipping">Glipping</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Menved, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">of Pomerania (see <a href="#Eric_XIII">Swedish King Eric XIII</a>.).</li> + +<li class="indx">Eric, Norwegian Jarl, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Eric (Swedish kings): <a href="#Page_36">36</a>; <a href="#Page_36">36-37</a>; <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Edmundsson, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Biœrnson Segersæl, <a href="#Page_55">55-57</a>; <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Arsæl, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">IX. (St. Eric), <a href="#Page_73">73-74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">X. <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">XI. <a href="#Page_77">77-79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">XII. <a href="#Page_94">94-95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="Eric_XIII" id="Eric_XIII">XIII</a>. <a href="#Page_101">101-110</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="Eric_XIV" id="Eric_XIV">XIV</a>. <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161-173</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Eric (Swedish princes): Birgersson, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Magnusson, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89-92</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Valdemarsson, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Erics_Chronicle" id="Erics_Chronicle">Eric’s Chronicle</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ericson, J. E., <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ericsson, <a name="Joesse" id="Joesse">Jœsse</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">John, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Nils, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Christian, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Eriksgata, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Erimbert, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Eskil, St., <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Eskil’s apartments, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Essen, H. H. von, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Estates" id="Estates">Estates</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204-205</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398-399</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Esthonia, Esthonians, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307-312</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ethnography, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ettak, battle of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Eugene, Prince of Sweden, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Eugenie, Princess, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Euphemia, Princess, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Europe" id="Europe">Europe</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Expositions, Scandinavian, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">World’s, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Eyfórr, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Eystein, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li><h3>F</h3></li> + +<li class="indx">Fahlbeck, P., <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Falkœping, battle of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fallstedt, I., <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Falster, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Falun, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">“Father, The,” <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Father of Swedish Industry, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fehrbellin, battle of, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Femern, naval battles of, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ferdinand (emperors): II. <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">III. <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fero Islands, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fersen, Axel von, the Elder, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">the Younger, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366-367</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Feudalism, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Feud of the Counts, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fiedrundaland, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fiefs, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Finance. See <a href="#finance">Sweden</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fine Arts, Philosophy of, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Finland" id="Finland">Finland</a>, Finns, Finnish, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357-364</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412-413</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">language, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Finnmark, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Finn woods, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[Pg 446]</a></span></li> + +<li class="indx">Fiolner, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fleming, Clas Ericsson, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Clas Larsson, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Herman, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Flemish art, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Flensburg, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Flower king of the North, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fogelberg, B. E., <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fogel Grip, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fogelwick, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Folk lore, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Folksriksdag, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Folkungs, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Folkung dynasty, <a href="#Page_80">80-99</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Forsberg, Nils, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">France, French, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Franciscan, convent, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Church (see <a href="#Riddarholms_Church">Riddarholm’s Church</a>).</li> + +<li class="indx">Francke, A. H., <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Franconia, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Franco-Prussian War, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Frankfurt, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Franks, Frankish, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Frantz, Albrecht, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Franz Joseph’s Land, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Franzén, F. M., <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Frederic I. of Sweden, <a href="#Page_312">312-317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Frederic (kings of Denmark): I. <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">II. <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">III. <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">IV. <a href="#Page_273">273-274</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">V. <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">VI. <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">VII. <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Frederic of Augustenborg, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Frederic, crown prince of Denmark, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Frederic of Holstein, <a href="#Page_272">272-274</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Frederic of the Palatinate, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Frederic (kings of Prussia): I. <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">II. (the Great), <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Frederic William, the Grand Elector. See <a href="#Brandenburg">Brandenburg</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Frederica, Queen, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fredericia, fortress of, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fredericshall, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fredericshamn, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">peace treaty at, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fredericstad, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fredericsten, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fredkulla. See <a href="#Margaret_Fredkulla">Margaret</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fredman, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Free trade, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407-408</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Freinshemius, John, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Frey, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Friedland. See <a href="#Wallenstein">Wallenstein</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fries, Elias, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Frithiof’s Saga, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Frode (Danish kings): <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Frœding, Gustaf, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Funen, island of, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fuxerna, battles of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fyris, River, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Fyrisvols, battles of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li><h3>G</h3></li> + +<li class="indx">Gad, Dr. Heming, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gadebush, battle of, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gagarin, governor, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gallia, Gallic, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gardarike, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Gardie" id="Gardie">Gardie</a>, Pontus de la, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Jacob, <a href="#Page_187">187-188</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198-199</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Magnus Gabriel, <a href="#Page_234">234-235</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gautland. See <a href="#Gothaland">Gothaland</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Gauts" id="Gauts">Gauts</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Gauzbert" id="Gauzbert">Gauzbert</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Geátas, <a href="#Page_30">30-31</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Geer" id="Geer">Geer</a>, Louis de, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226-227</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Louis, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gefle, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gegerfelt, K. F. von, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">William, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Geijer, Eric Gustavus, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Geijerstam, Gustaf of, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Geirthiof, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gellandri, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gellivara, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gemauerthoff, battle of, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Geology, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">George I. of England, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">George Sand, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gepidæ, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gerhard, Count of Holstein, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Germania, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Germans, Germany, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385-386</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401-405</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414-418</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">emperor, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[Pg 447]</a></span> <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Order, <a href="#Page_162">162-163</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gestilren, battle of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gestrikland, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gibraltar of the North, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Giljam, G. F., <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gisslan. See Hostages.</li> + +<li class="indx">Glaciers, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Glipping. See <a href="#Glipping">Eric (Danish kings)</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Glom River, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Glossarium sviogothicum, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Glucksburg, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gluntarne, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Goertz, G. H., <a href="#Page_301">301-302</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306-307</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gœtar. See <a href="#Gauts">Gauts</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gold finds, <a href="#Page_22">22-23</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Golumbo, battle of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gospel, <a href="#Page_53">53-55</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Gotha_Canal" id="Gotha_Canal">Gotha Canal</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305-306</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375-376</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gotha River, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gothahamn, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Gothaland" id="Gothaland">Gothaland</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gothenburg, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gothenburg University. See <a href="#Universities">Universities</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Gothland" id="Gothland">Gothland</a>, East, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">West, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Island of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Goths, of Continental Europe, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235-236</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">of Sweden (see <a href="#Gauts">Gauts</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">Teutons, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">East, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">West, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gothic, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="Gothic_Bible" id="Gothic_Bible">Bible</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> (see further <a href="#Codex_Argenteus">Codex Argenteus</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">invasions, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">language, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237-238</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">society, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">glossary, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gothic law, West, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gotland, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gottorp. See <a href="#Holstein_Gottorp">Holstein-Gottorp</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Government. See <a href="#government">Sweden</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Governor, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Governor-general, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">of Norway, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394-395</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418-419</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Grabow" id="Grabow">Grabow</a>, Mathilde, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Grammar, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Greece, Greek, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">myths, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">church, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gregory, VII. <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">IX. <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Grimm’s law, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Grimsted, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Grip" id="Grip">Grip</a>, Bo Jonsson, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gripenstedt, J. A., <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gripsholm, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Grossbeeren, battle of, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Grubbe, Sam, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Guadeloupe, island of, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gualther, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gude, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gudlaug, <a href="#Page_36">36-37</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Guinea, African, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gullberg, fort of, <a href="#Page_196">196-197</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gullbrandson, Ellen, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gunilla, Queen. See <a href="#Gunillan">Bielke</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gurzo, battle of, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gustavian period, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343-364</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gustavus, Adolphus Society, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gustavus (kings of Sweden): <a name="Gustavus_I" id="Gustavus_I">I</a>. Vasa, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130-160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="Gustavus_II_Adolphus" id="Gustavus_II_Adolphus">II. Adolphus</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192-219</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">III. <a href="#Page_319">319-320</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343-353</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">IV. Adolphus, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353-362</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gustavus (princes of Sweden): Ericsson (see <a href="#Gustavus_Ericsson">Vasa</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">Prince of Vasa, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Frans G. Oscar, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Oscar G. Adolphus, crown prince, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Guta, Saga, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gutai, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gutnic, Guts, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gutorm, Jarl, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Guttones, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gyldén, J. A. H., <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gyldenlœve, general, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">fort of, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gyllenborg, Charles, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">G. F., <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gyllencreutz, Charles G., <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gyllenhielm, C. C., <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gyllenstierna, Christine, <a href="#Page_127">127-129</a>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[Pg 448]</a></span> <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">John, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gymnastics, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Central Institute of, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li> + +<li><h3>H</h3></li> + +<li class="indx">Hadrian IV. See <a href="#Nicolaus">Nicolaus of Alba</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hæffner, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hagbard, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hagborg, A., <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hake, <a href="#Page_36">36-37</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hakon (Norwegian kings): <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Magnusson, <a href="#Page_94">94-95</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hakon, Swedish regent, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Halberstadt, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Haleygians, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hall, P. A., <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Halland, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hallén, Andreas, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hallstrœm, Ivar, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Peter, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Halmstad, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Halsten, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hamburg, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">peace treaty of, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hammarby, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Handbook. See <a href="#Ritual">Ritual</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hanover, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hans. See <a href="#John_II">John II</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hansa, Hanseatic, <a href="#Page_81">81-82</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hansson, Ola, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Haraker, battle of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Harald, king of Denmark, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Harald (kings of Norway): Fairhair, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Hardrade, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Harald, Hildetand, king of Sweden and Denmark, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hare’s Leap, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hartekamp, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hartelius, T. J., <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hartmansdorff, J. A. von, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384-385</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hasselberg, Peter, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">“Hats,” political party, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Havamal, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Havel River, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Heathen Revival, <a href="#Page_59">59-61</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hedberg, Frans, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Thor, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hedenblad, Ivar, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hedenstierna, A., <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hedin, Sven, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hedlund, S. A., <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Hans, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hedvig, queen of Denmark, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hedvig, Eleonore, of Sweden, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Elisabeth Charlotte, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hedvig, Sophie, Princess, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Heidenstam, V. von, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Heimskringla, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33-41</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Heinrich (the Lion), <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Heinsius, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Heir-apparent, <a href="#Page_316">316-317</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365-366</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Helga. See <a href="#Olga">Olga</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Helge. See <a href="#Oleg">Oleg</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Helge, Danish king, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hellquist, C. G., <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Helsingborg, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">battle of, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Helsingfors, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">battle of, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">University of (see <a href="#Universities">Universities</a>).</li> + +<li class="indx">Helsingland, Helsings, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">regiment of, <a href="#Page_360">360-361</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Helsingœr. See <a href="#Elsinore">Elsinore</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Helvig, Queen, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Henric, St., <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Herger, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Herjedal, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Herredag (-ar), <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Herschel, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Herulians, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hervadsbro, battle of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hesse, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hessleholm, battle of, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Heterodoxy, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hielmar Lake, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hierta: Hans (see <a href="#Jaerta">Jærta</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">Lars, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hildebrand, Hans, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hildebrandsson, H. H., <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hillberg, Emil, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hillestrœm, Peter, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hiortsberg, L., <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hising, island of, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="History" id="History">History</a>, Historians, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24-32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33-34</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46-47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333-334</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337-339</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412-413</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hœckert, J. F., <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hœgquist, Emelie, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hœijer, B. C. H., <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hœjentorp, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hœjer, Nils, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Magnus, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[Pg 449]</a></span></li> + +<li class="indx">Hœrberg, Peter, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hœrningsholm, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hofva, battle at, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hogland, naval battle at, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Holaveden (Holavid), battle at, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Holland" id="Holland">Holland</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236-237</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Holmfrid, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Holmgard, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Holmger, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Holmstrœm, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Holovzin, battle of, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Holstein, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">counts of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Holstein_Gottorp" id="Holstein_Gottorp">Holstein-Gottorp</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Holy Alliance, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Holy Virgin, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Horn: Clas Kristersson, Baron, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167-168</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Henric, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Evert, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Gustavus, <a href="#Page_207">207-208</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221-222</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Arvid Bernhard, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310-311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312-316</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Rudolph, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Jacob, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hotuna, play at, <a href="#Page_90">90-91</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hoya, counts of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Huet, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Hugleik" id="Hugleik">Hugleik</a> (O. E. Hygelâc): Swedish king, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Danish king, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Humor, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hungary, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Husaby, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hvasser, Elisa, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hvin. See Tiodolf.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hygelâc. See <a href="#Hugleik">Hugleik</a>.</li> + +<li><h3>I</h3></li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Iaroslaf" id="Iaroslaf">Iaroslaf</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ibn, Fosslan, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ibsen, H., <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Iceland, Icelanders, Icelandic, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60-61</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">language, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">sagas, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">scalds, saga men, <a href="#Page_60">60-61</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Iddefjord, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ifvarsson, Charles, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Igor" id="Igor">Igor</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ihre, John, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339-342</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Illrade. See <a href="#Ingiald">Ingiald</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Imperial army: Imperialists, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">crown lands, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Imports. See <a href="#exports_imports">Sweden</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Indelningsverk, Indelta, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Indensalmi, battle of, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Indians, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Indo_European" id="Indo_European">Indo-European</a> language, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Industry, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Inge (Swedish kings): the Elder, <a href="#Page_68">68-70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">the Younger, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ingeborg, duchesses, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">princesses, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ingegerd, Princess, <a href="#Page_61">61-62</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Queen, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ingemar, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Ingermanland" id="Ingermanland">Ingermanland</a> (Ingria), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Ingiald" id="Ingiald">Ingiald</a>, Illrade, <a href="#Page_39">39-40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ingria. See <a href="#Ingermanland">Ingermanland</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ingvar. See <a href="#Igor">Igor</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Innocent III., <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Intelligence_party" id="Intelligence_party">Intelligence party</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Interchanging dynasties, <a href="#Page_74">74-79</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Interdict. See <a href="#Ban">Ban</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Iron Age, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20-24</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Isala, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Isborsk, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Isiaslaf, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Italy, Italians, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ivar, Master, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ivar, Vidfamne, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ivarsson, Ivar, of Strœmstad, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + +<li><h3>J</h3></li> + +<li class="indx">Jacob. See <a href="#Anund_Jacob">Anund Jacob</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jacobi, Petrus. See <a href="#Sunnanaeder">Sunnanvæder</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jægerhorn, G. H., <a href="#Page_359">359-360</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">J. A., <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Jaerta" id="Jaerta">Jærta</a>, Hans, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jagello. See <a href="#Jagello">Catherine</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jankowitz, battle of, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jansson, Eugene, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Japhet, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jarl, jarls, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57-58</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">of the realm, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jaroslaf. See <a href="#Iaroslaf">Iaroslaf</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jedvard, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jemtland, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jesuits, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jœnkœping, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jœns, Bengtsson. See <a href="#Oxenstierna">Oxenstierna</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jœsse, Ericsson. See <a href="#Joesse">Ericsson</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[Pg 450]</a></span></li> + +<li class="indx">Johannes, Magni (Johannes Magnus), <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142-143</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">John, archbishop, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="John_duke" id="John_duke">duke</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">prince, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">John (kings): I. <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="John_II" id="John_II">II. Hans</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119-120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130-131</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="John_III" id="John_III">III</a>. <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170-172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173-176</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">John, Casimir, count of Palatinate-Zweibrucken, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">John, Casimir, king of Poland. See <a href="#John_Casimir">Vasa</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jolin, J. C., <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jomsborg, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Jordanes" id="Jordanes">Jordanes</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jornandes. See <a href="#Jordanes">Jordanes</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jorsalafare. See <a href="#Sigurd">Sigurd</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jorund, <a href="#Page_36">36-37</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Josephine, Queen, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Josephsson, J. A., <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Ernst, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Juel, Niels, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jueterbogk, battle of, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Junius, Franziskus, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Justinian, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Jutland" id="Jutland">Jutland</a>, Jutes, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Juutas, battle of, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> + +<li><h3>K</h3></li> + +<li class="indx">Kæpplingeholm, Massacre of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kagg, Lars, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kalabalik of Bender. See <a href="#Kalabalik">Bender</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kallœ, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Kalmar" id="Kalmar">Kalmar</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Nyckel, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Recess of, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Union of (see <a href="#Union">Union</a>).</li> + +<li class="indx">Kalmucks, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kamenski, M. K., <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kansler. See <a href="#Chancellor">Chancellor</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kant, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Karelen. See <a href="#Carelia">Carelia</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Karin. See <a href="#Carin_Monsdotter">Carin</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Karl. See <a href="#Charles">Charles</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Karlberg. See <a href="#Carlberg">Carlberg</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Karleby, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">see also <a href="#Carleby">Carleby</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Karlskrona. See <a href="#Carlscrona">Carlskrona</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Karlson, Valfried, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Karlsson. See <a href="#Carlson">Carlson</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Karlstad. See <a href="#Carlstad">Carlstad</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kasan, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Katarina. See <a href="#Catherine">Catherine</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Keksholm. See <a href="#Kexholm">Kexholm</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kellgren, J. H., <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kerkholm, battle at, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kettilmundsson, Mattias, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Kettilsson" id="Kettilsson">Kettilsson</a>, Eric, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Kexholm" id="Kexholm">Kexholm</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Key, Emil, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">E. A. H., <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kief, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kiel, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Bay of (see <a href="#Skiel">Skiel</a>).</li> + +<li class="indx">Kierulf, Halfdan, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Kingdom" id="Kingdom">Kingdom</a>, elective, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">hereditary, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">“King Martha.” See <a href="#King_Martha">Leijonhufvud</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kjellberg, F., <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Klercker, Charles N., <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Klingspœ, W. M., <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Klusina, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Knaphœfde. See <a href="#Ragnvald">Ragnvald</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Knerœd, peace treaty of, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kniephausen, Dodo von, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Knights, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Knightly Chapter (see <a href="#Riddarhus">Riddarhus</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">orders, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Knorring, Sophie von, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Knud. See <a href="#Canute">Canute</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Knut (Swedish kings), Ericsson, <a href="#Page_74">74-76</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">the Tall, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Knut, Folkung, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Bishop, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Master, <a href="#Page_141">141-143</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Koch, Axel, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kœnigsmarck, von, H. C., <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">O. W., <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kœping, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kœrling, Aug., <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kol, king (Eric Arsæl), <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">pretender, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kolbrænna. See <a href="#Anund_Jacob">Anund Jacob</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kollandsœ, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kommunalstæmmor, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Konghæll, Kungkæll, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Konungafrid, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kopparberg, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Krakow, Morton, <a href="#Page_196">196-197</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kreuger, Nils, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kristian, Kristiern. See <a href="#Christian">Christian</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kristina. See <a href="#Christine">Christine</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kristofer. See <a href="#Christopher">Christopher</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Krivitchi, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kronberg, Julius, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kronborg, fortress of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Krusenstierna, J. E. von, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kyrkomœtet, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> + +<li><h3>L</h3></li> + +<li class="indx">Laaland, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Labor question, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[Pg 451]</a></span></li> + +<li class="indx">Lacroze, M., <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ladoga, Lake, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ladugardsland, battle of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ladulas (Barn-lock). See <a href="#Ladulas">Magnus</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Læn, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lagerbielke, Gustavus, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lagerlœf, Selma, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Laholm, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lallerstedt, E., <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Landskrona (in Sweden), battle of, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">(in Finland), <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Landsting, <a href="#Page_395">395-396</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Landstorm, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Landtmanna party, <a href="#Page_407">407-408</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Landtmarskalk" id="Landtmarskalk">Landtmarskalk</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Landtværn, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lange, Lorenz, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Langeland, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Languedoc, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">La Place, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lapland, Lapmark, Laps, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">language, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">“Divine service in the Lapmark,” <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lappo, battle of, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lars. See <a href="#Laurentius">Laurentius</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Larsson, Thomas, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Liss Olof, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Marcus, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Carl, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Latin, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lauenburg, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Laurentius" id="Laurentius">Laurentius</a>. See <a href="#Andreae">Andreæ</a> and <a href="#Petri_Laurentius">Petri</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Laval, Gustavus de, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lavoisier, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Laws. See <a href="#legislation">Sweden</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">League, Catholic, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lech, battle of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Leckœ, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Leczinski (see <a href="#Stanislav">Stanislav</a>), <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Leffler, A. M. (Mittag-), <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Anne Charlotte, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Leibnitz, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Leijonhufvud, <a href="#Page_282">282</a> note;</li> +<li class="isub1">Margaret (see <a href="#Margaret_Leijonhufvud">Margaret, queens of Sweden</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">Martha (<a name="King_Martha" id="King_Martha">King Martha</a>), <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Sten, baron, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Leipsic" id="Leipsic">Leipsic</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">first battle of, <a href="#Page_206">206-209</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">second battle of, <a href="#Page_225">225-226</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Leire, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lena, battle of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lenæus, J., <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lenngren, Anne Marie, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Leonidas, the Swedish, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Leopold, C. G., <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Leopold I., emperor (1640-1705), <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Leuchtenberg, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Levertin, Oscar, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lewenhaupt, <a href="#Page_282">282</a> note;</li> +<li class="isub1">A. L., <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285-287</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">C. E., <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Leyden, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Libau, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Liberty, song of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">period of, <a href="#Page_310">310-342</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320-321</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Libraries, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lidner, Bengt, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Liesna, battle of, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Liewen, H. H. von, <a href="#Page_298">298-299</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Liljefors, Bruno, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lind, Jenny, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lindberg, A., <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lindblad, A. F., <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Otto, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lindeberg, A., <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Linden, Mathilde, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lindholm (-en) in Scania, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">in Upland, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lindskiold, E., <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ling, P. H., <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Linkœping, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">conference at, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Linnæus (von Linné), Charles, <a href="#Page_327">327-333</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Literature. See <a href="#literature">Sweden</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lithuania, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Liturgia, <a href="#Page_175">175-176</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Liuksiala, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Livonia, Livonians, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290-291</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lober Brook, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Loccenius, John, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Locke, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lodbrok. See <a href="#Ragnar">Ragnar</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lœdœse, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">New, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">London, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Longobardians, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lord, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lothringia, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Louis le Débonnaire (the Pious), <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">XIV. <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254-255</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">XVI. <a href="#Page_351">351-352</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Louise" id="Louise">Louise</a>, Princess, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Queen, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Louise Ulrica, Queen, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lovisa. See <a href="#Louise">Louise</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[Pg 452]</a></span></li> + +<li class="indx">Lubeck, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lubetch, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lucidor, Lasse (Johansson), <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ludvig Rudolph of Brunswick, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Luitprand, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lulea, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lund, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">battle of, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">peace treaty at, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">University of (see <a href="#Universities">Universities</a>).</li> + +<li class="indx">Lundberg, Gustavus, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Theodor, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lundquist, C. F., <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Luther, Lutheran, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lutzen, battle of, <a href="#Page_213">213-219</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">battlefield of, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lybecker, George, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lymphatic ducts, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> + +<li><h3>M</h3></li> + +<li class="indx">Machiavelli, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mæcenas of Sweden, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mælar, Lake, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Magdeburg, <a href="#Page_205">205-206</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Magnetism, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Magnus (Danish princes): M. Nilsson, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">M. Henricsson, <a href="#Page_72">72-74</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Magnus, Bishop, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Magnus (kings of Norway): M. Barfod, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">M. Lagabœte, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Magnus (kings of Sweden): M. <a name="Ladulas" id="Ladulas">Ladulas</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82-88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">M. Ericsson, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92-95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Magnus (princes of Sweden): Magnus Birgersson, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="Magnus_Vasa" id="Magnus_Vasa">M. Vasa</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163-164</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Magog, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Main, River, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Malaspina, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Malebranche, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Malmstrœm, B. E., <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Malmœ, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Manderstrœm, Count, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Manheim. See <a href="#Atland">Atland</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Margaret, missionary to the Laps, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Margaret_Fredkulla" id="Margaret_Fredkulla">Margaret Fredkulla</a>, Princess, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Margaret (queens of Sweden), <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Valdemarsdotter, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100-105</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="Margaret_Leijonhufvud" id="Margaret_Leijonhufvud">Leijonhufvud</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Margaret of Valois, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Maria, queen of Sweden, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Marie Antoinette, Queen, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Marie Eleonore, Queen, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mariefred, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mariestad, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Marlborough, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Marnæs, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mars, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Marsk" id="Marsk">Marsk</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Martha, Dame, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Massilia, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">“Master Olf,” <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Masudi, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Matchless, The, <a href="#Page_165">165-166</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Materialism, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Matérn, J. A., <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mathematics, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mattias, Bishop, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Maximilian of Bavaria, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mayence, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mazarin, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mazeppa, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mechtild, Danish queen, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mecklenburg, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Medelpad, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mediæval. See <a href="#Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Medical science, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Meibom, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Melanchthon, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Melen, Berndt von, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Memel, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mendelssohn, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Menuet, Peter, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Meri, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Messenius, John, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Arnold J., <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Arnold, the Younger, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Metals, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mexico, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Michaëli, Louise, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Middle_Ages" id="Middle_Ages"></a>Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64-129</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Midsummer, Midnight, sun, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Miklagard, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mines, miners, mine owners, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200-201</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Mining, College of, <a href="#Page_304">304-305</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ministers, church, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="Ministers_state" id="Ministers_state">state</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[Pg 453]</a></span> (secretary), <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">of foreign affairs, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">of justice, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">of finance, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">of ecclesiastics, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">of war, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">of civil service, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">of marine, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">of interior, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Missionaries, <a href="#Page_53">53-55</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mitan, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mœrner, Otto, <a href="#Page_367">367-368</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mohilev, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Molin, Ambjœrn, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">J. P., <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Monitor, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Monrad, D. G., <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mons Bengtsson. See <a href="#Mons_Bengtsson">Natt och Dag</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Montelius, Oscar, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mora, in Dalecarlia, <a href="#Page_136">136-138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Stone of, in Upland, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Moravia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Moræus, Maria Elis, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Moscow, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Moss, Convention of, <a href="#Page_372">372-373</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Motzfeldt, K., <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Muller, J. B., <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Munck, Lady Ebba, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Munich School of Painters, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Muonio, River, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Music" id="Music">Music</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389-390</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">national folk, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mutiny, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mysticism, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mythology, classical, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">Swedish (see <a href="#mythology">Sweden</a>).</li> + +<li><h3>N</h3></li> + +<li class="indx">Nakskov, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Namur, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Napoleon" id="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> I., <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369-371</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Napoleon III., <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Narva, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">battle of, <a href="#Page_274">274-277</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">river, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nassau, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nathorst, H. O., <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">A. C., <a href="#Page_424">424</a> note.</li> + +<li class="indx">Natt och Dag, <a name="Mons_Bengtsson" id="Mons_Bengtsson">Mons Bengtsson</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Nils Bosson (see <a href="#Nils_Bosson">Sture</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">Ake Hansson, <a href="#Page_122">122</a> (see also <a href="#Sture">Sture</a>).</li> + +<li class="indx">Nerigon, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nerike, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nerschinsk, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nestor, <a href="#Page_46">46-47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Netherlands, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Neva, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">New Church, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">New Rhymed Chronicle. See <a href="#Charles_Chronicle">Charles Chronicle</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">New School, <a href="#Page_380">380-381</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Newton, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nicholaus II. of Russia, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Nicolaus" id="Nicolaus">Nicolaus of Alba</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nils Bosson (Natt och Dag). See <a href="#Nils_Bosson">Sture</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nils, king of Denmark, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nilsson, Mons, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Sven, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Christine, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nimwegen, peace treaty of, <a href="#Page_254">254-255</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Niord, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nithard, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nobel, Alfred, <a href="#Page_425">425-426</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nobility, Nobles, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="higher" id="higher">higher</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256-257</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">lower, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>,</li> +<li class="isub1">speaker of (see <a href="#Landtmarskalk">Landtmarskalk</a>).</li> + +<li class="indx">Nœrdlingen, battle of, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nœteborg, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Norcopensis. See <a href="#Nordenhielm">Nordenhielm</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nordanskogs, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nordberg, G., <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nordblom, J. E., <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nordenflycht, Hedvig Charlotta, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Nordenhielm" id="Nordenhielm">Nordenhielm</a>, Andreas, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nordenskiold, Baron, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nordgren, Ellen, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nordraak, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nordstrœm, Charles, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Norman, Normandie, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Norman, Georg, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">F. V. L., <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Norén, Adolph, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Norrby, Sœren, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Norrkœping, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Norrland, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">North, the Scandinavian, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[Pg 454]</a></span></li> + +<li class="indx">North Pole, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">North Sea, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">North Star, Order of the, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Northeast Passage, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Northern language, common, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">oldest form, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">tribes, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">industrial arts, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">literature, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Northmen, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Norway, Norwegians, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166-167</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371-374</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393-395</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418-421</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">governor-general question, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393-395</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418-419</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">constitution, <a href="#Page_373">373-374</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">cabinet, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394-395</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">consular and diplomatic service, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">defence, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">flag, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">culture, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">government, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">king, <a href="#Page_373">373-374</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Minister of State, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">railways, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">royal title, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="Storthing" id="Storthing">Storthing</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393-394</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425-426</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">viceroy, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Novgorod, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nuremberg, <a href="#Page_211">211-212</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nurmanni, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nykœping, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Feast of, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Restitution of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nyslott, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nystrœm, Alfred, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> + +<li><h3>O</h3></li> + +<li class="indx">Oder, River, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Odin, <a href="#Page_31">31-32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Œdman, A., <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Œland, island of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">naval battles of, <a href="#Page_165">165-166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167-168</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Œrbyhus, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Œrebro, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Œsel, island of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Œstberg, Caroline, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Œsterlind, A., <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ohio, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ôhthere. See <a href="#Ottar">Ottar</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Olaf (Norwegian kings) Tryggvasson, <a href="#Page_57">57-58</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Haraldsson, <a href="#Page_61">61-62</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Hakonsson, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Olai, Ericus, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Olaus, Petri (Master Olof). See <a href="#Olaus_Petri">Petri</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Oldenburg, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">counts of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Old Chronicle. See <a href="#Erics_Chronicle">Eric’s Chronicle</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Old Danish, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="OE" id="OE">Old English</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Old High German, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Old Icelandic. See <a href="#Old_Norse">Old Norse</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Old_Norse" id="Old_Norse">Old Norse</a> language, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">literature, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">mythology, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Old Swedish language, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">literature, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66-67</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">laws, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66-67</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Oleg" id="Oleg">Oleg</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Olga" id="Olga">Olga</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Oligarchy, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Oliva, peace treaty of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Olof (Swedish kings), <a href="#Page_40">40-41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Skœtkonung, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57-62</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Næskonung, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Olsson, Lars, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Olustra, battle of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Opposition, Conservative, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Liberal, <a href="#Page_376">376-378</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">See also <a href="#Intelligence_party">Intelligence Party</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Orange, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Oravais, battle of, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360-362</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ordeals, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Orientalists, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ornæs, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Orosius, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Oscar Fredericsborg, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Oscar (kings of Sweden): I. <a href="#Page_382">382-390</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">II. <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414-438</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Oscar, Prince. See <a href="#Prince_Oscar">Bernadotte</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Oslo, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Ottar" id="Ottar">Ottar</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37-38</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Otto, Bishop, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Oxenstierna" id="Oxenstierna">Oxenstierna</a>, Jœns Bengtsson, <a href="#Page_112">112-113</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="Axel_Oxenstierna" id="Axel_Oxenstierna">Axel</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220-221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">John, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Bengt, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">John Gabriel, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Oxford, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> + +<li><h3>P</h3></li> + +<li class="indx">Palæolithic Civilization, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Palatinate-Zweibrucken, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[Pg 455]</a></span></li> + +<li class="indx">Pappenheim, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207-209</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217-218</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Paris, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">expositions, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">peace treaties, <a href="#Page_362">362-363</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">University, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Parliament" id="Parliament">Parliament</a>, Parliamentary Reform, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384-385</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396-401</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Passage-graves, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Patkul, J. R., <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Patriotism, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pau, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pauli, Emerentia, <a href="#Page_196">196-197</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">George, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Hanna (Hirsch-P.), <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Peasant. See <a href="#Yeoman">Yeoman</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Peasant High Schools, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Peasant-king, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Peene, River, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Peipus, Lake, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pentinger, Konrad, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Peringskiold, John, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pernau, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Person, Andrew, <a href="#Page_133">133-134</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Arendt, <a href="#Page_134">134-135</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Gœran, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Peru, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Peter Frisk, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Peter’s Pence, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Peter the Great, <a href="#Page_272">272-273</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Peterson, Adrian, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Petri, <a name="Olaus_Petri" id="Olaus_Petri">Olaus</a> (Master Olof), <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="Petri_Laurentius" id="Petri_Laurentius">Laurentius</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Laurentius P. Gothus, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Philadelphia Exposition, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Philip, king, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Folkung, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Duke (see <a href="#Charles_Philip">Charles, Princes of Sweden</a>).</li> + +<li class="indx">Philipstad, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Philology" id="Philology">Philology</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339-342</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Philosophy" id="Philosophy">Philosophy</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240-241</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411-412</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Phosphoristic School, <a href="#Page_380">380-381</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Physical science, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324-325</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Physiology, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Piccolomini, General, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pillau, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Piper, Charles, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Louise Sophie, <a href="#Page_366">366-367</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pitea, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Plague, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Platen, Baltzar B. von, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Plato, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pliny, the Elder, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Poland, Polish, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243-245</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278-279</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Polar Circle, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Sea, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Polhammar. See <a href="#Polhem">Polhem</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Polhem" id="Polhem">Polhem</a>, Christopher, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304-306</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Emerentia, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Poliané, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Polotsk, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pomerania, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294-295</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pomponius Mela, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ponte Corvo, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pope, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97-98</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Porosalmie, battle of, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Porphyrogenitus. See <a href="#Constantine_Porphyrogenitus">Constantine P</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Portugal, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Posse, Knut, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Arvid, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Potatoes, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Powers, Continental, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Prague, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Press, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376-377</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">law, <a href="#Page_434">434-435</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pretenders, <a href="#Page_55">55-56</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187-188</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Priestley, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Priests, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Primas of Sweden, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Printz, John, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Prisons, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Prokopios, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Propeller, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Prose Chronicle. See <a href="#Prose_Chronicle">Chronicle</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Protective system, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">protectionistic party, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Protestantism, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182-184</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281-282</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Province, Provincial, <a href="#Page_5">5-6</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64-65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">laws (see <a href="#provincial_laws">Sweden</a>).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[Pg 456]</a></span></li> + +<li class="indx">Prussia, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385-386</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pruth, River, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pskof, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ptolemy, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pufendorff, S., <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Puke, Eric Kettilsson (see <a href="#Kettilsson"></a>Kettilsson);</li> +<li class="isub1">Eric (Nilsson), <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pulkkila, battle of, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pultowa, battle of, <a href="#Page_285">285-286</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pyk, Louise, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pyteas, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + +<li><h3>Q</h3></li> + +<li class="indx">Quaternary period, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Qvidinge, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li> + +<li><h3>R</h3></li> + +<li class="indx">Ræfsnæs, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Ragnar" id="Ragnar"></a>Ragnar, Swedish king, <a href="#Page_41">41-42</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">R. <a name="Lodbrok" id="Lodbrok">Lodbrok</a>, sea-king, <a href="#Page_41">41-42</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Ragnvald" id="Ragnvald">Ragnvald</a>, jarl, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61-62</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">king, <a href="#Page_70">70-71</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">prince, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Railways. See <a href="#railways">Sweden</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ramberg, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rankhytta, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rantzau, Daniel, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">George, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rappe, A. E., <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Raseborg, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rashutt, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ratan, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ratenau, battle of, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ravius, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Realism, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426-427</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Reform Banquet, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Reform, Parliamentary. See <a href="#Parliament">Parliament</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Reformation, Reformers, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140-146</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">language, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Reformed Church, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Regensburg, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rehnskiold, C. G., <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285-286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Renaissance" id="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Swedish Castle, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Renat, J. G., <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Renata of Lothringia, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Restitution. See <a href="#Crown_lands">Crown Lands</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rettvik, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Reuterholm, G. A., <a href="#Page_353">353-356</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Reval, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Revolts, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107-108</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141-143</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146-151</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316-317</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">of <a name="Bells" id="Bells">Bells</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148-149</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Revolution, French, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Swedish, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349-352</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rheims, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ribbing, P., <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Richelieu, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Riddarholms_Church" id="Riddarholms_Church">Riddarholm’s Church</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Riddarhus" id="Riddarhus">Riddarhus</a>, The, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ridderstad, C. F., <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Riga, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291-292</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rikissa, princess, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">queen, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Birgersdotter, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Riksdag" id="Riksdag">Riksdag</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183-184</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349-350</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356-857</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394-395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396-401</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407-411</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416-418</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">regulations of the, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Riksdrotset. See <a href="#Drotsete">Drotsete</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Riksmarsk. See <a href="#Marsk">Marsk</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rimbert, Archbishop, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ring (“Sigurd Ring”), <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Riswick, peace treaty of, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Ritual" id="Ritual">Ritual</a> and hymn-book, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rock-carvings, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rococo, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rœskilde, peace treaties of, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rolf Krake, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Romanticism (Neo-), <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380-381</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388-389</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rome, Roman, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rosen, von, <a href="#Page_282">282</a> note;</li> +<li class="isub1">George von, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rosenblad, M., <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Roslagen, <a href="#Page_48">48-49</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Roslin, Alex., <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rosstjenst. See <a href="#Russtienst">Russtienst</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rostock, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rostof, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rothman, Dr., <a href="#Page_327">327-328</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Royal offices, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">sanctity, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">title, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[Pg 457]</a></span></li> + +<li class="indx">Rud, Otto, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rudbeck, Olof, the Elder, <a href="#Page_261">261-265</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Olof, the Younger, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rudbeckius, J., <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ruden, Island of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rudenschiold, Madelaine, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rudolph, emperor, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rugen, Island, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ruhr, River, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Runeberg, J. L., <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Runes, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21-22</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Runius, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Runn, Lake, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ruotsi, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rurik, <a href="#Page_47">47-49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rus, Rûs, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Russia" id="Russia">Russia</a>, Russians, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46-52</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274-277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282-287</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291-292</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348-349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350-351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357-362</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387-388</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">captivity, <a href="#Page_287">287-289</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">language, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">names, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Russtienst" id="Russtienst">Russtienst</a>, Rusttjenst, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rydberg, Victor, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rydboholm, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rydelius, Andrew, <a href="#Page_337">337-338</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ryssby, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> + +<li><h3>S</h3></li> + +<li class="indx">Sachsen (Saxony)-Lauenburg, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sæfstrom, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sætherbey, H., <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sætra, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">St. Gallen, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">St. Olaf, Order of, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">St. Peter of Rome, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">St. Petersburg, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">St. Salvator, Order of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sala, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Salestad, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Salmasius, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Salmson, H., <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Salon, French, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Salvius, A., <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">San, River, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sandels, J. A., <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Saxo, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Saxons, Saxonland, Saxony, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206-208</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279-282</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Scandia, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Scandinavia, Scandinavian, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">languages, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">peninsula, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">policy, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402-406</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437-438</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">religion, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Scandinavism, <a href="#Page_385">385-386</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Scandza, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Scania, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290-291</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Scheele, C. W., <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Schefferns, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Schleswig, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Schluesselburg, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Schlyter, K. J., <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Schœnstrœm, P., <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Scholander, E. W., <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Schools, school laws, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Schueck, H., <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Schuisky" id="Schuisky">Schuisky</a>, Vassili, <a href="#Page_187">187-188</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Schwartz, Sophie, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Schwedenstein, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Schwerin, von W., <a href="#Page_360">360-361</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">F. B., <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Scotland, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Scylfingas. See <a href="#Skilfings">Skilfings</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Secret Committee, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Seeland, <a href="#Page_246">246-247</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sehlstedt, Elias, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Semiramis of the North, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Separator, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Seraphim, Order of the, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Seven Years’ War, of the North, <a href="#Page_164">164-168</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Continental, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Siberia, <a href="#Page_287">287-289</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sigfrid, St., <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Sigismund" id="Sigismund">Sigismund</a> of Sweden and Poland, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182-186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Signe, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Signjótr. See <a href="#Sineus">Sineus</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sigrid Storrada, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sigtuna, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sigurd, King, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Sigurd" id="Sigurd">Sigurd</a> Jorsalafare, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Siikajoki, battle of, <a href="#Page_358">358-359</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[Pg 458]</a></span></li> + +<li class="indx">Silesia, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281-282</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Siljan, Lake, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Simon. See <a href="#Gauzbert">Gauzbert</a> and <a href="#Stenfi">Stenfi</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Sineus" id="Sineus">Sineus</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sjœgren, Otto, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Skara, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Skee Finns, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Skenninge Conference, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">meeting, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Skerry fleet, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Skialf, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Skiel" id="Skiel">Skiel</a> (Kiel), Bay of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Skilfings" id="Skilfings">Skilfings</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Skjœldebrand, A. F., <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Skokloster, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Skytte, Johan, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Slavs, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47-50</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sloane, Hans, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Smaland, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Smith, S., <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Smolensk, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Snaphaner, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Snoilsky, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Snorre Sturleson, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Socialism, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sœderkœping, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sœderman, August, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sœdermanland, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sohlman, Aug., <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Soop, Eric, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sophia (queens of Sweden), <a href="#Page_81">81</a>; <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sophie Magdalene, queen of Sweden, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sound, the, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">naval battle of, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">South Company, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Spain, Spanish, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sparre, P. G., <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sparrsætra, battle of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Spectator, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Spitzbergen, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sprengtporten, J. M., <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Squire, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stade, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stadsfullmægtige, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stæket, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stagnelius, E. J., <a href="#Page_380">380-381</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Stanislav" id="Stanislav">Stanislav</a> of Poland, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Starbæck, George, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Steam hose, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stedingk, C. von, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stefan, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stegeborg, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stellin, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stenbock (see <a href="#Catherine_Stenbock">Catherine, queens of Sweden</a>), Brita, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Gustavus, Baron, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Olof,<a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Eric, <a href="#Page_176">176-182</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Magdalen (see <a href="#Magdalen_Sture">Sture</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">Cecilia, <a href="#Page_178">178-180</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Beatrix, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Anne, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Gustavus, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Gustavus Otto, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Magnus, Count, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294-296</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Stenfi" id="Stenfi">Stenfi</a> (Stephan), <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stenhammar, W., <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stenkil, <a href="#Page_67">67-68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stensœ, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stephan of Poland, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Steuchius, Archbishop, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stiernhielm, Georg, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stiernhœk, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stiklastad, battle of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stobeus, Chilian. <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stockholm, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231-232</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Royal Palace, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">City University (see <a href="#Universities"></a>Universities);</li> +<li class="isub1">Exchange, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Posten, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Royal Theatre, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stolarm, Arvid, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stolbova, peace treaty of, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stolhandske, Torsten, <a href="#Page_216">216-217</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stone Age, <a href="#Page_11">11-16</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">cists, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stongebro, battle of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Strahlenberg, J. von, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stralsund, siege of, <a href="#Page_299">299-300</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Strandberg, C. W. A., <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Strengnæs, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Strindberg, August, <a href="#Page_426">426-427</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Nils, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Strœmstad, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Strole, Olof, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stromberg, Nils, <a href="#Page_291">291-292</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stuart, Mary, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Charles Magnus, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stuhm, battle of, <a href="#Page_202">202-203</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[Pg 459]</a></span></li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Sture" id="Sture">Sture</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">original line: Sten Sture, the Elder, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114-120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130-131</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Natt och Dag branch: <a name="Nils_Bosson" id="Nils_Bosson">Nils Bosson</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108-109</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Svante Nilsson, <a href="#Page_118">118-123</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Sten Sture, the Younger, <a href="#Page_123">123-129</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Nils Stensson, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Svante Stensson, Count, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169-170</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Nils Svantesson, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Eric, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Martha (see <a href="#King_Martha">Leijonhufvud</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">Sigrid, <a href="#Page_176">176-182</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="Magdalen_Sture" id="Magdalen_Sture">Magdalen</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176-182</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Anne, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Margaret, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Christine, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sture Chronicles, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sturzen-Becker, O. P., <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Styrbiœrn Starke, <a href="#Page_55">55-56</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Subsidies, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Succession, Royal, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">law of, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Suchtelen, von, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sud, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Suevian Sea, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Suiones, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sundberg, Archbishop, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sunnanskogs, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Sunnanaeder" id="Sunnanaeder">Sunnanvæder</a>, Peder, <a href="#Page_141">141-143</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Suomi, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Supreme Court. See <a href="#supreme_court">Sweden</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">“Surgeon’s Stories,” <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sværdsbro, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sværdsjœ, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Svartsjœ, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sveaborg, fortress of, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359-360</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Svealand, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">“Svecia,” <a href="#Page_265">265-266</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Svedberg, Jesper, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Svedbom, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sveijder, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Svein, Norwegian jarl, <a href="#Page_57">57-58</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sven. See <a href="#Blot_Sven">Blot-Sven</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Svend (Danish kings): Tjufvuskægg, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Estridsen, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Grade, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Svendborg, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Svensksund, naval battles of, <a href="#Page_350">350-351</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sverdrup, J., <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sverker, the Old, <a href="#Page_71">71-73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">the Younger, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75-77</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sviar, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sviatoslaf, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Svinesund, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Svithiod, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Svolder, battle of, <a href="#Page_57">57-58</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Swabia, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sweden, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229-230</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320-321</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363-364</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432-434</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">administration (see <a href="#government">Government</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="agriculture" id="agriculture">agriculture</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">alcohol industry, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">architects (see <a href="#Architecture">Architecture</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="army" id="army">army</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201-202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258-259</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408-410</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415-418</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="art" id="art">art</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428-431</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">botanists (see <a href="#Botany">Botany</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">broadcloth, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="budget" id="budget">budget</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="cabinet" id="cabinet">cabinet</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391-392</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394-395</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399-400</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">canals (see <a href="#Gotha_Canal">Gotha Canal</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">civilization (see <a href="#cultural_development">Cultural Development</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">climate, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="colonies" id="colonies">colonies</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="commerce" id="commerce">commerce</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81-82</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">communications, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="communities" id="communities">communities</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">composers (see <a href="#Music">Music</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="constitution" id="constitution">constitution</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255-258</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292-293</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349-350</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">court, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">court party, <a href="#Page_318">318-320</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">criminal code, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">crown, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174-175</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a> (see also <a href="#Crown_lands_restitution">Crown lands, restitution of</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="cultural_development" id="cultural_development">cultural development</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30-31</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59-61</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71-72</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98-99</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117-118</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141-142</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232-233</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261-267</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302-306</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321-341</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345-347</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380-381</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388-390</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411-413</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422-433</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">dairy industry, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">defence, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417-418</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">departments, state, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a> (see also <a href="#cabinet">Cabinet</a> and <a href="#Ministers_state">Ministers</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">dialect research, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">electric <a name="telegraph" id="telegraph">telegraph</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">emblem, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">engineers, <a href="#Page_424">424-426</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">estates (see <a href="#Estates">Estates</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="exports_imports" id="exports_imports">exports and imports</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="finance" id="finance">finance</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301-302</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">forests,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[Pg 460]</a></span> <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">fundamental laws, <a href="#Page_434">434-435</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">geographical discoveries, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">geology, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="government" id="government">government</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101-104</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149-150</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152-153</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161-162</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249-252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256-257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259-260</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292-293</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300-302</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310-311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354-355</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383-384</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395-401</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410-411</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>,<a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">graves, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">historians (see <a href="#History">History</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">industries, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334-337</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">inland seas, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">inventors, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425-426</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">kings, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64-65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382-383</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434-435</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">land-tax, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">language, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47-48</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346-347</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="legislation" id="legislation">legislation</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85-86</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395-401</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416-418</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="literature" id="literature">literature</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66-67</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337-339</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345-347</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380-382</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388-389</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412-413</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426-428</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">loanwords, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">manufactures, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335-336</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">maritime code, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">metal engraving (see <a href="#art">Art</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">migrations, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">military districts and divisions, <a href="#Page_417">417-418</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">militia, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">mining industry, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230-232</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">municipal government, <a href="#Page_395">395-396</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="mythology" id="mythology">mythology</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31-32</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">national anthem, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">national character and temperament, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389-390</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433-434</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">naturalists (see <a href="#science">Science</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">navigation, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">navy, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226-227</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258-259</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">one realm, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64-65</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">painters (see <a href="#art">Art</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">philologists (see <a href="#Philology">Philology</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">philosophers (see <a href="#Philosophy">Philosophy</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">political grandeur, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192-309</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">population, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">possessions, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a> (see also <a href="#territory">Territory</a>, <a href="#Finland">Finland</a>, and Baltic <a href="#Baltic_dominion">Dominion</a> and <a href="#Baltic_Provinces">Provinces</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">postal service, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">proper names, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="provincial_laws" id="provincial_laws">provincial laws</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66-67</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="railways" id="railways">railways</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">regent, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353-356</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362-364</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392-393</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Riksdag (see <a href="#Riksdag">Riksdag</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">scenery, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="science" id="science">science</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304-306</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324-325</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">sculptors (see <a href="#art">Art</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">seal of state, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">sects, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">singers, song (see <a href="#Music">Music</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">sloyd, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">state, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64-65</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="state_law" id="state_law">state law</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">state treasurer, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">statesmen, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315-316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392-393</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">suffrage, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="supreme_court" id="supreme_court">supreme court</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">taxes, taxation, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">telephone system, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="territory" id="territory">territory</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">towns, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">town laws, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">tribes, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Swedenborg, E., <a href="#Page_321">321-327</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">“Swedish Fates and Adventures,” <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Swinhufvud. See <a href="#Barbro">Barbro Stigsdotter</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sword, Order of the, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Systema Naturæ, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> + +<li><h3>T</h3></li> + +<li class="indx">Tacitus, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tartars, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Taube, Mathilde. See <a href="#Grabow">Grabow</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tavastehus, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tavasti, Tavastland, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tchudi, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Te Deum, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tegnér, Esaias, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381-382</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Esaias, Junior, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Telegraph. See <a href="#telegraph">Sweden</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Temperance movement, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Terna, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tessin, Nicodemus, Senior, <a href="#Page_302">302-303</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Nicodemus, Junior, 302<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[Pg 461]</a></span>-<a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Charles Gustavus, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Teuffel, General, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Teutons, Teutonic, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">ancestors, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">languages, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">communities, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">migrations, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">mythology, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">origin, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">sea,<a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">state, <a href="#Page_64">64-65</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">traditions, <a href="#Page_29">29-30</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">tribes, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Thegerstrom, Robert, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Themptander, O. R., <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Theology, <a href="#Page_340">340-341</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Theophilus, Emperor, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Theosophy, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Thermometer, Centigrade, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">See <a href="#Celsius">Celsius</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Thing (Assembly), <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Thiodulf of Hvin, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Thirty Years’ War, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202-229</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Thomas, Bishop, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Thomasius, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Thor, <a href="#Page_30">30-31</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Thorild, T., <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Thorn, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Thorvald, Hialte, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Thraldom, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Thule, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Thunberg, D., <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tidemand, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tilly, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206-209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210-211</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Timutarsz, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tiundaland, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tiveden, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tobacco, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tobolsk, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tœnnig, fortress of, <a href="#Page_295">295-296</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">“Tœrnroseus bok,” <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Toll, J. C., <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tomte Mats, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Topelius, Z., <a href="#Page_412">412-413</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tordenskiold, Peter, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Toresson. See <a href="#Ahlstroemer">Ahlstrœmer</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Torgau, retreat from, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Torgny, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tormentor of Denmark, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Torne, River, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Torpa, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Torsslov, O. U., <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Torstensson, Lennart, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225-229</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Tott" id="Tott">Tott</a>, Eric Axelson, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Ivar Axelson, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Ingeborg, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Ake, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Clas, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Traventhal, peace treaty of, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tre Rosor, <a href="#Page_282">282</a> note;</li> +<li class="isub1">Ture Jœnsson, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">John Turesson, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Gustavus Johnsson, Count, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Trolle, Eric, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Gustavus, Archbishop, <a href="#Page_124">124-125</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127-128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Trollhetta, waterfalls of, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tromp, Admiral, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Truso, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Truvor" id="Truvor">Truvor</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tryggve. See <a href="#Truvor">Truvor</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Turgot, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Turkey, Turks, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296-298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tver, battle of, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tyr, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tyrol, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> + +<li><h3>U</h3></li> + +<li class="indx">Ube, River, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ukraine, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Uleoborg, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ulf, jarls, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>; <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ulf Gudmundsson, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ulfhild, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ulfsson, Jacob, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ulrica Eleonore, queens of Sweden, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>; <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ulricsdal, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Union" id="Union">Union</a>, Act of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101-102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166-167</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372-374</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">nature of the, <a href="#Page_419">419-421</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">revision of the, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394-395</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Union government, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">defence, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">parliament, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Unionism, Unionist party, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393-395</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415-416</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Unitarianism, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">United States, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437-438</a> (see also <a href="#America">America</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">President of, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Universities" id="Universities">Universities</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340-341</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422-423</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Unne, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Upland, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Uppstrœm, A., <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Upsala" id="Upsala">Upsala</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[Pg 462]</a></span> <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331-332</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">cathedral, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">meeting, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">University (see <a href="#Universities">Universities</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">University Botanical Garden, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Library, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Observatory, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">temple, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Uranus, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Usedom, island of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Utilitarianism, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Utmeland, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">“Utopia Realized,” <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> + +<li><h3>V</h3></li> + +<li class="indx">Vadstena, <a href="#Page_98">98-99</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Værælæ, peace treaty of, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Værend, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Værfvade, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Væringar, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Valdemar of Sweden, <a href="#Page_80">80-84</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Valdemar (kings of Denmark): Seier, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="Atterdag" id="Atterdag">Atterdag</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Valdemar, Prince, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89-91</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vandals, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vanlande, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Varanger Bay, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387-388</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Varberg, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Variagi, Varangians, <a href="#Page_46">46-53</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Varinians, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vasa dynasty, family, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Original line: Krister Nilsson, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Kettil Karlsson, <a href="#Page_112">112-113</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Eric Johansson, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Gustavus Ericsson (see <a href="#Gustavus_I">Gustavus I</a>.);</li> +<li class="isub1">Eric (see <a href="#Eric_XIV">Eric XIV</a>.);</li> +<li class="isub1">John (see <a href="#John_III">John III</a>.);</li> +<li class="isub1">Magnus (see <a href="#Magnus_Vasa">Magnus, Princes of Sweden</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">Charles (see <a href="#Charles_IX">Charles IX</a>.);</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="Gustavus_Ericsson" id="Gustavus_Ericsson">Gustavus Ericsson</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172-173</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Sigrid, <a href="#Page_172">172-173</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Sigismund (see <a href="#Sigismund">Sigismund</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">John, Duke (see <a href="#John_duke">John</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">Charles Philip (see <a href="#Charles_Philip">Charles</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">Catherine (see <a href="#Catherine_Countess_Palatine">Catherine, Countess-Palatine</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">Gustavus Adolphus (see <a href="#Gustavus_II_Adolphus">Gustavus II. Adolphus</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">Christine (see <a href="#Christine">Christine, queens of Sweden</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="Polish_line" id="Polish_line">Polish line</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Sigismund (see <a href="#Sigismund">Sigismund</a>);</li> +<li class="isub1">Vladislav, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a name="John_Casimir" id="John_Casimir">John II. Casimir</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243-244</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vasa Renaissance. See <a href="#Renaissance">Renaissance</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vasa, town, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vassili, Czar. See <a href="#Schuisky">Schuisky</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vaxholm, fortress of, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Venar, Lake, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vends, Vendish, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vennerberg, Gunnar, <a href="#Page_389">389-390</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Verden, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vermland, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vessi, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">“Verzage nicht,” <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vettar, Lake, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vexio, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Viborg, fortress of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Victoria, crown princess of Sweden-Norway, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vienna, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Congress of, <a href="#Page_372">372-373</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Exposition, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">peace treaty of, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">siege of, <a href="#Page_228">228-229</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Viken <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Viking Age, Vikings, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44-63</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vilmanstrand, battle of, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vincentius, Bishop, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Virdar, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Virta, battle of, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Visbur. <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Visby, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Visigoths, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Visingsborg, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Visingsœ, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vistula, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vitalen, or Victualen Brotherhood, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vitesjœ, battle of, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vladimir, St., <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vladislav. See <a href="#Polish_line">Vasa, Polish line</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Voldgæstning, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Volga, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Volmar, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Voltaire, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vordingborg, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vorskla, River, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Vossius, <a href="#Page_236">236-237</a>.</li> + +<li><h3>W</h3></li> + +<li class="indx">Wachtmeister, Hans, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Hans Hansson, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wahlberg, Edward, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wallachia, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[Pg 463]</a></span></li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Wallenstein" id="Wallenstein">Wallenstein</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210-218</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wallhof, battle of, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wallin, J. O., Archbishop, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wallis, Curt, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Walloons, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">War of Clubs, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Warburg, K., <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Warsaw, battle of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">conquest of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">diet of, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Washington, George, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Weibule, M., <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Weimar. See <a href="#Bernhard_Weimar">Bernhard, Duke of Weimar</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wendland, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Werben, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Westerbotten, West Bothnia, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Westerlund, Dr., <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Westeros" id="Westeros">Westeros</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Ordinantia and Recess, <a href="#Page_145">145-146</a>; <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">West Gothland. See <a href="#Gothland">Gothland</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Westmanland, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Westphalia, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Peace of, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wetterstedt, G. af, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wetterstrand, Dr., <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wickman, G., <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wikblad, S. H., <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wikner, Pontus, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">William, Bishop of Salima, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">William I. of Germany, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">William of Orange, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Windau, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Windsor, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wingard, C. F. af, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wirsén, G. F. af, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wismar, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Witches, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Witmar, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wittelsbachs, The, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wittstock, battle of, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wolfenbuttel, battle of, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wolgast, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wollin, island of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Women’s rights, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wrangel, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Herman, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Charles Gustavus, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wulfila, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wulfstan, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + +<li><h3>Y</h3></li> + +<li class="indx"><a name="Yeoman" id="Yeoman">Yeoman</a>, Yeomanry, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ynglinga Saga, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33-41</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ynglingatal, <a href="#Page_33">33-41</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ynglings, Yngling kings, <a href="#Page_33">33-41</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Yngvar, <a href="#Page_38">38-39</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Yngve, Swedish kings, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>; <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">York, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Yrsa, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li><h3>Z</h3></li> + +<li class="indx">Zamoisky, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Zettervall, H., <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Zoölogy, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Zorn, A. L., <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li></ul> + +<div class="transnote"> +<p>Transcriber's notes:</p> + +<p>Some entries in the index appeared out of alphabetical order. They +have been moved.</p> + +<p>The following is a list of changes made to the original. +The first line is the original line, the second the corrected one.</p> + +<p>Page 252:</p> + +<p> +in 1672, <span class="u">whon</span> he himself took charge of the government,<br /> +in 1672, <span class="u">when</span> he himself took charge of the government,</p> + +<p>Page 429:</p> + +<p> +Prince Eugene, Eugene Jansson, <span class="u">Ernest</span> Josephson, Nils Kreuger,<br /> +Prince Eugene, Eugene Jansson, <span class="u">Ernst</span> Josephson, Nils Kreuger,</p> +</div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Sweden, by Victor Nilsson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SWEDEN *** + +***** This file should be named 44624-h.htm or 44624-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/6/2/44624/ + +Produced by Ann Jury, Paul Clark and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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