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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Sweden, by Victor Nilsson
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Sweden
+
+Author: Victor Nilsson
+
+Release Date: January 8, 2014 [EBook #44624]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SWEDEN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Ann Jury, Paul Clark and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+    Transcriber's Note:
+
+    Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as
+    possible. Some changes have been made. They are listed at the end of
+    the text.
+
+    Italic text has been marked with _underscores_.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS]
+
+
+
+
+                      THE WORLD’S BEST HISTORIES
+
+                                SWEDEN
+
+                                  BY
+                         VICTOR NILSSON, PH.D.
+               AUTHOR OF “LODDFAFNISMAL, AN EDDIC STUDY”
+
+                          _WITH FRONTISPIECE_
+
+                 THE CO-OPERATIVE PUBLICATION SOCIETY
+                          NEW YORK AND LONDON
+
+
+                            COPYRIGHT 1899
+                       BY PETER FENELON COLLIER
+
+
+
+
+SWEDEN
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+ INTRODUCTION                                                          5
+
+
+ CHAPTER I
+
+ SWEDEN IN PREHISTORIC AND EARLY HISTORIC TIMES--ARCHÆOLOGICAL
+    FINDS AND CLASSICAL TESTIMONY                                     11
+
+
+ CHAPTER II
+
+ DAWN OF SWEDISH HISTORY--HEIMSKRINGLA AND YNGLINGATAL                33
+
+
+ CHAPTER III
+
+ THE VIKING AGE--ANSGAR, THE APOSTLE OF SWEDEN                        44
+
+
+ CHAPTER IV
+
+ EARLY CHRISTIAN ERA--STENKIL’S LINE AND INTERCHANGING DYNASTIES      64
+
+
+ CHAPTER V
+
+ THE MEDIÆVAL STATE--THE FOLKUNG DYNASTY                              80
+
+
+ CHAPTER VI
+
+ UNIONISM VERSUS PATRIOTISM--MARGARET, ENGELBREKT AND CHARLES
+    KNUTSSON                                                         100
+
+
+ CHAPTER VII
+
+ UNIONISM VERSUS PATRIOTISM--UNCROWNED KINGS OF THE STURE
+    FAMILIES                                                         115
+
+
+ CHAPTER VIII
+
+ REVOLUTION AND REFORMATION--GUSTAVUS VASA                           130
+
+
+ CHAPTER IX
+
+ REFORMATION AND REACTION--THE SONS OF GUSTAVUS I.                   161
+
+
+ CHAPTER X
+
+ PERIOD OF POLITICAL GRANDEUR--GUSTAVUS II. ADOLPHUS                 192
+
+
+ CHAPTER XI
+
+ PERIOD OF POLITICAL GRANDEUR--QUEEN CHRISTINE                       220
+
+
+ CHAPTER XII
+
+ PERIOD OF POLITICAL GRANDEUR--CHARLES X. AND CHARLES XI.            242
+
+
+ CHAPTER XIII
+
+ PERIOD OF POLITICAL GRANDEUR--CHARLES XII.                          268
+
+
+ CHAPTER XIV
+
+ PERIOD OF LIBERTY--THE ARISTOCRATIC REPUBLIC                        310
+
+
+ CHAPTER XV
+
+ GUSTAVIAN PERIOD--GUSTAVUS III. AND GUSTAVUS IV. ADOLPHUS           343
+
+
+ CHAPTER XVI
+
+ THE CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY--CHARLES XIII. AND THE EARLY
+    BERNADOTTES                                                      365
+
+
+ CHAPTER XVII
+
+ PARLIAMENTARY REFORM--CHARLES XV.                                   391
+
+
+ CHAPTER XVIII
+
+ PROGRESS AND PROSPERITY--OSCAR II.                                  414
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The kingdom of Sweden occupies the eastern and larger part of the
+Scandinavian peninsula, covering an area of one hundred and seventy
+thousand six hundred and sixty square miles, with a population of
+somewhat more than five millions. Sweden is of nearly the same width,
+from east to west, throughout her whole length. If the country were
+divided into four equal parts, the southernmost part would correspond
+to the district of Gothaland, the next to the district of Svealand,
+consisting of most of what is north of the lakes Venar and Vetter
+and what is south of the Dal River, while the two remaining parts
+together would make up the district of Norrland. Gothaland, in
+ancient times called _Sunnanskogs_ (South of the Woods), consists of
+the old provinces Scania, Bleking, Smaland and East Gothland by the
+Baltic, Halland and Bohuslæn by the North Sea, and West Gothland of
+the interior. Svealand, or _Nordanskogs_, consists of the provinces
+Sœdermanland and Upland by the Baltic, south and north of Lake Mælar,
+respectively, Dal, Vermland and Dalecarlia on the Norwegian frontier,
+and Nerike and Westmanland of the interior. Norrland consists of the
+provinces of Gestrikland, Helsingland, Medelpad, Angermanland and
+Westerbotten by the Gulf of Bothnia, a branch of the Baltic, and
+Herjedal, Jemtland and the Lapmark on the Norwegian frontier. A great
+number of islands form part of the kingdom, of which the two largest,
+Gothland and Œland, are situated in the Baltic. One-twelfth of the
+area, or as much as the whole state of Denmark, consists of water.
+
+Sweden is politically united with Norway and ruled by the same king,
+these united kingdoms forming the largest realm in Europe next to
+Russia, Sweden herself ranking as the sixth in size.
+
+Sweden is a country which offers striking varieties in scenery and
+conditions. In the southernmost province of Scania, an ancient home of
+culture, the nightingale and the stork dwell in the fertile plains,
+and the walnut, mulberry and chestnut trees render ripening fruit.
+Central Sweden is a wooded plateau, rich in rocky hills and inland
+seas. Although barren lands occupy large areas, these parts are
+characterized by a loveliness and picturesqueness which are still more
+pronounced in the northern provinces along the coast. Only in the inner
+mountainous regions of Norrland is the scenery of real grandeur where
+the white-capped giants appear in vast groups, or in isolated peaks
+of six thousand to seven thousand feet in altitude, where a hundred
+glaciers with glacier rivers, moraines and erosions cover a surface
+almost as large as the glaciers of Tyrol, and where, in the turbulent
+course of mighty rivers, are formed tremendous waterfalls, one of them,
+The Hare’s Leap, being the largest in Europe.
+
+Geologically considered, Sweden is situated around the centre of the
+ancient Scandinavian land-ice, and in the greater part of the country
+only two of the geological series, the oldest and the youngest, are
+represented. Thus the uneven, undulating surface of the Archæan rocks,
+on which almost the whole country is firmly set, is in general covered
+with quaternary deposits of gravel and clay. The mountains are rich in
+iron ore, the streams and lakes in fish, the woods in game, but the
+soil, itself of a good quality, unfortunately rich in stones. This
+last-mentioned circumstance, together with the rather severe climate,
+which yet is a good deal milder than might be expected, especially in
+the southern and western parts of the country, makes agriculture, which
+is the most important industry, profitable only on the extensive plains
+of Scania, Upland and West and East Gothland. Still barley and rye are
+cultivated within the Polar Circle, ripening in remarkably short time
+under the nocturnal light of the Midsummer sun. Dense forests cover
+Sweden in the very same latitude in which Greenland is clad by eternal
+ice. The short summers are of a surpassing loveliness. In Norrland
+there is a Swedish _læn_, or governmental district, of the size of
+the State of Ohio, on which, between the 5th of June and the 11th of
+July, the sun never sets. If the earth was perfectly plain and even
+one would be able to see the sun above the horizon continually during
+this period. But these northerly regions are very mountainous, and
+consequently you will have to climb a high peak in order to see the
+wonderful sight of a sun which stands still when it should set, and
+which marks the difference between night and day only by a rolling
+motion in the horizon. There is no country in the world where so many
+places for such observation are reached so easily as in Sweden. One may
+travel the whole distance from the southernmost point of the country to
+the very base of a mountain, Gellivara, Sweden’s Klondike, from which
+the midnight sun can be seen for thirty-seven nights in succession.
+But although the sun itself is visible only from the mountain peaks
+above the Polar Circle, the nocturnal light steeps the whole realm in
+midsummer-night’s dreams of magic colors and reflections.
+
+The Swedish people are of Teutonic stock and have lived in the land
+they still inhabit for at least four thousand years, during this entire
+period not having assimilated other nationalities, or at least to no
+extent worth mentioning, so that the Swedish nation is of an origin far
+purer than any other at present existing.
+
+The kingdom of Sweden is the most ancient of the states still extant in
+Europe, for all historical monuments prove that the Swedes have kept
+to about their present territory, perfectly independent of foreign
+nations, probably for a long time divided into lesser communities,
+but for the past twelve hundred years united in one single realm. The
+languages spoken in the Scandinavian North belong to the Teutonic
+family of Indo-European languages, and seem to have been one and almost
+homogeneous up to the time of the Viking Age (about 700-1060), when
+various dialects commence to be distinguished. The old uniform language
+has been preserved in Northern loanwords in the Finnish and Lap
+languages and in about one hundred of the oldest Runic inscriptions.
+The early Old Swedish, from the Viking Age to somewhat later than
+1200, did not differ much from the Old Norse (the Old Norwegian and
+Old Icelandic), while the difference from the Old Danish was almost
+imperceptible. The sources for the study of this language period are
+about two thousand later Runic inscriptions and nearly one hundred Old
+Swedish loanwords, almost all proper names, in the Russian language.
+The classical period of Old Swedish falls between 1200 and about 1350.
+Its most important monuments are the provincial laws and a manuscript
+collection of saintly legends, called Codex Bureanus. The language
+of this period offers a number of dialects, of which only one, the
+Gutnic, is strictly defined. In the next period of Old Swedish, from
+1350 to the Reformation, a universal language for the whole country
+is distinguished. The so-called Oxenstiern manuscripts and Codex
+Bildstenianus are the chief sources of our knowledge of this language
+period, mostly of religious contents. Modern Swedish dates from the
+Reformation, its later period being counted from the publication of
+the state law in 1734. The Swedish language seems to be based chiefly
+upon the dialect of Sœdermanland, with influences from other dialects.
+Among the Scandinavian languages, Swedish ranks next to the Icelandic
+in point of purity, and is the foremost of them all in point of beauty.
+
+The Swedes are a hardworking, industrious and intelligent race, not
+fully conscious of their own rich endowment and slow to push their
+individual claims. In moments of danger and distress, this people
+give evidence of an active heroism, which offers a great contrast to
+their usual quiet and peaceful demeanor. The Swedish nation is endowed
+with an unusual inventive power, which has placed it in the first
+rank of scientific research, having produced a quota of initiative
+spirits, as originators, founders and innovators of sciences, which
+is considerably larger than that of any other modern country, in
+proportion to the population. The national temperament is, like the
+soil, composed of extremes. With the serene quiet and almost sullen
+tranquillity goes a patience of extraordinary endurance which, when
+it gives in, surprises by the passion which takes its place. To the
+melancholy trait in the Swedish character is contrasted a great desire
+for the pleasures of life and exuberant animal spirits. Under a quiet
+surface, the Swede conceals a rapid comprehension and an almost morbid
+sensitiveness, sometimes causing people of other nationalities to judge
+him slow of intellect or perfidious, when he is only slow of action or
+indisposed to show his feelings. The most valuable inheritance from
+his ancestors is his moral courage, while the ancient Northern trait
+of self-restraint is often carried to an extreme. Akin to both is his
+dignity. He possesses great musical and improvisatorial gifts which
+complete his lyric-rhetorical temperament.
+
+There are some 6,000 Laplanders and some 20,000 Finns living in the
+furthest North, and foreigners to the number of about 20,000 dwell in
+Sweden, mostly Norwegians, Finns and Danes. More than 99 per cent of
+the population consists of native Swedes, and 99.9 per cent belong to
+the Lutheran state church or the Protestant denominations.
+
+The principal towns are Stockholm, the capital, with 300,000
+inhabitants, enchantingly beautiful in situation, on the mainland and
+islands at the outlet of Lake Mælar into the Baltic; Gothenburg, with
+120,000 inhabitants, the chief commercial centre, at the mouth of the
+Gotha River, by the North Sea; Malmœ, with 60,000 inhabitants, in
+Scania, by the Sound. The university towns of Upsala, in Upland, and
+Lund, in Scania, have 25,000 and 17,000 inhabitants, respectively.
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF SWEDEN
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+_Sweden in Prehistoric and Early Historic Times--Archæological Finds
+and Classical Testimony_
+
+
+The Swedes, although the oldest and most unmixed race in Europe,
+realized very late the necessity of writing chronicles or reviews of
+historic events. Thus the names of heroes and kings of the remotest
+past are helplessly forgotten, and lost also the history of its
+earliest religion and institutions.
+
+But Mother Earth has carefully preserved most of what has been
+deposited in her bosom, and has repaid diligent research with
+trustworthy and irrefutable accounts of the age and various degrees
+of civilization of the race which inhabited Sweden in prehistoric
+times. Thus it has been proved that Sweden, like most other countries,
+has had a Stone Age, a Bronze Age, and an Iron Age. But there is
+absolutely no evidence to prove the now antiquated theories of various
+immigrations into Sweden by different races on different stages of
+civilization. On the contrary, the graves from the remotest times,
+through all successive periods, prove by the form of the skulls of
+those buried in them that Sweden has, through all ages, been inhabited
+by the same dolichocephalic, or long-headed, race which constitutes the
+overwhelming majority of her people to-day.
+
+Sweden, physically considered, is not of as high antiquity as some
+countries of Europe. Yet it has been inhabited during the last four
+thousand years, at least. In the quaternary period the Scandinavian
+peninsula was a centre of a glacial movement which spread its
+disastrous influences over Western Russia, Northern Germany and
+Holland. In that period no vegetable or animal life was possible in
+Sweden. From the fact that the earliest stone celts found in Sweden
+and Denmark are not polished, archæologists were led to suppose that
+the Stone Age of the North was contemporaneous with the Palæolithic
+civilization in Western Europe. But this standpoint has been found
+untenable, because it has later become evident that the fauna
+surrounding the earliest inhabitants of the Northern countries was ours
+and not a quaternary one.
+
+The oldest types of finds of _the Stone Age_ in the North have been
+discovered in the refuse-heaps on the Danish coast. These refuse-heaps,
+consisting of stone implements, shells, bones, etc., do not occur in
+Sweden, but the implements characteristic of them are found scattered
+over some parts of the southernmost Swedish province of Scania. The
+shape of these earliest finds is exactly the same as of those of the
+later Stone Age, the only difference being that the former are not
+polished. But there are transitions between the classes, and the act of
+polishing must be regarded as an important phase of progress.
+
+The Stone Age of Sweden is quite remarkable. If the remains of the
+earlier period are scanty, the finds from the later one are all the
+more numerous. With the exception of Denmark and a part of North
+Germany, there is no European country which can boast of such rich and
+beautiful relics from the later Stone Age as the southern part of
+Sweden. The finds in the other countries mentioned are almost exactly
+like those of Sweden from the Stone and the Bronze Ages, both as far as
+implements and skulls are concerned, proving them to have been settled
+by the same race.
+
+The weapons and implements from the Stone Age consist of axes, daggers,
+spearheads, arrowheads, saws, and knives of flint; axes, gauges,
+handmills of stone; fishhooks and arrowheads of bone; earthenware,
+etc., etc. The graves of this period are dolmens, passage-graves, and
+stone cists, the last mentioned either uncovered or covered with a
+barrow. The different forms of burial places seem to indicate four
+successive stages of the period. Through their existence it becomes
+probable that the inhabitants of Sweden during the Stone Age had fixed
+dwelling places.
+
+A dolmen is a grave-chamber of which the walls are formed of large,
+thick stones set up edgewise, covered with one huge block of stone
+as a roof, all the stones being rough outside and smooth inside.
+The passage-graves are built in the same way, but are larger and
+distinguished by a long covered passage leading to it. These graves are
+surrounded by a low barrow, upon the top of which the huge roof-stones
+were originally visible. Dolmens and passage-graves occur in Sweden in
+considerable numbers along the coast of Scania, on the plains of West
+Gothland and in Bohuslæn, more sparsely in other parts of West Gothland
+and in Halland, with stray cases of graves of a similar construction in
+Nerike and Western Sœdermanland. It is important to note the regions in
+which these graves have been found, for they must be identical with the
+parts of the earliest settlements. Such graves are also very common in
+Denmark, while only one has been found in Norway.
+
+The stone cists resemble very much the chamber of a passage-grave.
+They are larger and four-sided, and built of somewhat thinner stones.
+Stone cists standing partly visible above the barrow constitute a
+form peculiar to Sweden, occurring in great numbers in West Gothland,
+Bohuslæn, Dalsland and Southwestern Vermland, while the covered stone
+cists appear in the same provinces and in Nerike, East Gothland,
+Smaland, Bleking and the Island of Gothland.
+
+During the Stone Age the bodies were buried unburned, in a recumbent
+or sitting position. By the side of the dead body was usually placed a
+weapon, a tool, or some ornaments, sometimes also earthenware vessels,
+now filled only with earth. These vessels may once have contained
+food. The elaborate graves seem to indicate a belief in a future life.
+The food, if any such was placed by the side of the dead, would not
+necessarily point to the fact that such a future life was imagined
+merely as a continuation of earth life. The heathen Scandinavians of a
+later age believed that the dead remained for some time in their burial
+place before reaching their ultimate destination. For their possible
+wants during this intermediate state food was left with the dead body.
+
+The total number of relics of stone found in Sweden is 64,000. Of these
+only 4,000 belong to Svealand and Norrland, while of all the rest found
+in Gothaland 45,000 belong to Scania alone.
+
+In a much later age the Scandinavians were regarded as pure barbarians.
+For this reason it is important to observe that graves from the Stone
+Age show that the Swedes in that remote period had several domesticated
+animals, the dog, horse, ox, swine, sheep, and, perhaps, also the goat.
+Hence they were certainly a pastoral people, not living exclusively
+by hunting and fishing. But whether they practiced agriculture cannot
+be decided in the present state of our knowledge. The fact that the
+very oldest graves are found in the most fertile districts of Southern
+Sweden seems to speak in favor of the supposition that agriculture was
+known and appreciated.
+
+Of metals, even of gold, the people of the late Stone Age were entirely
+ignorant, also of the art of writing. Hence no monuments of their
+language will ever be found. Still it is highly probable that the
+Teutonic ancestors of the Swedes began to settle in the land from the
+beginning of the Stone Age.
+
+It is true that some skulls, very much like those of the Laps, have
+also been found in the graves of the Stone Age; but it must be borne
+in mind that these burial places, impressive through their size and
+the amount of work and mechanical skill necessary for their erection,
+can be believed to have been originally intended only for kings or
+chieftains, and their families. It was probably a custom, as in later
+heathen times, to bury with such distinguished people a number of
+slaves, dead or alive. The presence of skulls of a non-Scandinavian
+type can thus be explained, without the necessity of accepting the
+theory of an early mixture of two races.
+
+In the northern part of Sweden have been found relics of stone, usually
+of slate, which do not appear to have belonged to the people of the
+dolmens or passage-graves. They bear a close resemblance to those found
+in Finland and in other countries inhabited by Laps, Finns and peoples
+related to them. This seems to prove that these so-called Arctic stone
+implements are relics of the Laps and belong to the time when this
+people was still ignorant of the use of metal. Judging from the number
+of relics found on the coast, from Westerbotten to Gestrikland, and
+in Dalecarlia, the Laps dwelt also in somewhat more southerly parts
+of Sweden than at the present day. So far south as in the middle
+provinces, no Arctic stone relics have been found, still less in any of
+the southern provinces. This seems to indicate that the Laps and the
+Swedes did not dwell in the same parts of the country during the Stone
+Age, and their intercourse, if any, must have been of a very accidental
+and casual nature.
+
+That the Stone Age lasted a very long time in the North is proved by
+the fact that it reached a far higher development there than anywhere
+else in Europe. The best authorities think that it must have ended
+rather before than after 1500 B.C., or 3,500 years before our time.
+
+_The Bronze Age_ followed upon the Stone Age. Flint exists in Sweden
+and was easily found. There are also copper mines, but their working
+is of comparatively modern date. The copper of the Bronze Age must
+have been brought from abroad, and tin, necessary for the production
+of bronze, is foreign to Scandinavia. The knowledge of the working of
+any metal proves an immense progress. Yet there are strong grounds
+for the opinion that the beginning of the Bronze Age in Sweden was
+not connected with any great immigration of a new race, but that the
+inhabitants learned the art of working bronze by intercourse with other
+nations. The resemblance of the graves during the last part of the
+Stone Age and the early part of the Bronze Age points most strongly to
+such a conclusion. From Asia the knowledge of bronze, and the higher
+civilization dependent on it, had gradually spread itself over the
+continent of Europe, in a northerly and northwesterly direction, until
+it reached the coasts of the Baltic.
+
+The Bronze Age of Sweden began about 1500 B.C., and lasted for a
+thousand years, or until the beginning of the fifth century before
+Christ. The period has been divided into an Earlier and a Later
+Bronze Age, a division which has been questioned as to its absolute
+correctness. The works from the former are decorated with fine spiral
+ornaments and zigzag lines. The graves generally contain remains of
+unburned bodies. The antiquities of the Earlier Bronze Age, almost
+without an exception, appear to be of native workmanship. They are
+distinguished by artistic forms and point to a highly developed taste
+in the working of bronze. They generally surpass in this respect the
+relics of the Bronze Age found in almost all other European countries.
+The works belonging to the Later Bronze Age are characterized by a
+very different taste and style of ornamentation, though even they are
+often the result of great skill. The spiral ornaments are no longer
+predominant, but the ends of rings, knife-handles, and the like, are
+often rolled up in spiral volutes.
+
+During this period the dead were always burned. Buttons, sword-hilts,
+and other works of bronze were sometimes decorated with pieces of amber
+and resin inlaid. Objects are also often found overlaid with thin
+plates of gold.
+
+Remarkable are the rock-carvings from this period. The Swedes of the
+Bronze Age understood, by a kind of picture-writing, how to preserve
+the memory of important events, although an alphabet of any kind was
+unknown. The rock-carvings have been found abundantly in Bohuslæn
+(formerly a part of West Gothland) and East Gothland, but also occur
+in Scania and other parts of Sweden. At the time of the arrival of
+Cortez in Mexico the Aztecs were exactly on the same standpoint. In
+spite of their high civilization, they were in the Bronze Age and
+possessed a picture-writing, but were not acquainted with an alphabet.
+In Sweden, as in Mexico, there certainly once existed an oral tradition
+necessary for its interpretation, which, now lost, leaves little hope
+for their present or future explanation. Yet they throw considerable
+light on Swedish civilization during this remote period. Thus they
+show that horses were already used for riding and driving. Cattle are
+represented. In pairs these are harnessed to a plow, which is being
+driven by a man. Boats are depicted, generally very large ones, without
+masts, but with thirty pairs of oars or more. They are usually unlike
+at the two ends, sometimes adorned with an animal’s head in the high
+and narrow stem, sometimes with a similar decoration also in the stern.
+
+The rock-carvings tell us nothing of the dwellings or the dress of
+the Swedes in the Bronze Age. All the instruments and tools necessary
+for the construction of wooden houses existed and appear to have been
+in use. The material was ever abundantly supplied by the Swedish
+forests, but it was not strong enough to withstand the influence of
+time. All the more surprising it is that articles of dress from such a
+remote period as the Earlier Bronze Age, 1000 B.C., should have been
+preserved to our time. Still such is the case, thanks to a combination
+of exceptionally favorable circumstances. These garments are of wool of
+a very simple substance; some have been worn by men, others by women.
+The man’s dress consisted of an unbrimmed cap of thick woven wool, a
+wide circular mantle, a kind of tunic, kept together with a woollen
+belt, and some narrow strips of wool which probably covered the legs.
+In a man’s grave was found a shawl of wool with fringes. The woman’s
+dress consisted then, as it does now, chiefly of two garments, a jacket
+with sleeves and a long robe, the latter held together with a belt of
+wool, ending in ornamental tassels. Large mantles, of mixed wool and
+cow hair, were used as wraps. The women wore splendid bronze ornaments,
+such as finger-rings, bracelets, torques and brooches. From the finds
+it becomes apparent that many women in those days carried weapons, a
+dagger often being found at the side of the body.
+
+Besides swords and axes of beautiful workmanship, fishhooks, sickles
+and the different parts of harness have been found; also vessels of
+gold or bronze, evidently used for temple service. The Swedes of the
+Bronze Age were not acquainted with the art of forging the heated
+metal, but they possessed much technical skill in the art of casting.
+When the implement was taken out of the mold it was dipped in cold
+water, and very often the surface was ornamented by means of punches
+made of bronze. Their good taste was as highly developed as their
+skill. That the work was done in the North is proven by numerous
+finds of the very molds in which weapons and agricultural implements
+were cast. During the Stone Age only Gothaland and parts of Svealand
+were inhabited. The finds of the Bronze Age prove that the limits of
+the population were about the same during this period. The southern
+provinces continued to be the more thickly settled. Twenty times as
+many finds have been made in the soil of Scania as in the rest of the
+country. Norrland was hardly settled to any extent until the Iron Age,
+and has offered comparatively few finds from the Bronze Age, the total
+of which for the whole of Sweden amounts to about 4,000.
+
+_The Iron Age_ followed upon the Bronze Age. It lasts to this very day,
+we ourselves still living in the Iron Age; but the term is generally
+applied to that part of the period which commences with the close of
+the Bronze Age, and ends with the fall of heathendom. During the Iron
+Age, the Swedes first became acquainted with iron, silver, brass, lead,
+glass, stamped coins from foreign lands, and learned how to solder
+and gild metal. Archæologists have divided the period into two main
+parts, the Earlier and the Later Iron Age, both with subdivisions. The
+Earlier Iron Age includes the time from the fifth century B.C. to about
+the beginning of the fifth century A.D. The first half of the Earlier
+Iron Age is characterized by swords with both blades and sheaths made
+of iron, thin crescent-shaped knives, brooches of iron, collars, and
+decorative plates overlaid with bronze. The graves resemble those from
+the end of the Bronze Age, containing burned bones in urns, or laid
+together in a heap. This circumstance makes it more than probable that
+the first introduction of iron in the North was not connected with any
+immigration of a new people. The finds of the earliest Iron Age are not
+very rich, but they prove that the people who have left them behind had
+been subjected to a very strong influence from the Gallic tribes living
+close to the south of the Teutonic area of population. Then came the
+second half of the Earlier Iron Age, characterized by a strong Roman
+influence. It commences with the extension of the Roman empire toward
+the North, about the beginning of the Christian era, and winds up
+with the beginning of the fifth century, when Teutonic migrations and
+invasions put an end to the power of Rome. In the hostile or friendly
+relations between Romans and Teutons the Swedes were not involved.
+But by the peaceful ways of commerce the influence of Rome penetrated
+to the people of the North. Great numbers of Roman coins have been
+found in Sweden, and also vessels of bronze and glass, weapons, etc.,
+as well as works of art, all turned out of workshops in Rome or its
+provinces. Out of about 4,760 Roman coins of this time found in Sweden,
+no less than 4,000 were found in the remarkable Island of Gothland,
+in the southern half of the Baltic, 90 in the neighboring island of
+Œland, 650 in Scania, but only 23 on the mainland of Sweden, excluding
+Scania. About 250 were found in Bornholm, 600 in Denmark, but only 3
+in Norway. It becomes evident from these finds that there existed a
+regular traffic over the Baltic, through Germany, between the Island of
+Gothland and the Roman provinces, from the epoch of the Marcomannic war
+down to the time of Septimius Severus. Similar finds have been made on
+the southern shore of the Baltic, showing that the traffic came from
+the southeast, along the valleys of the Vistula and the Oder.
+
+One of the most important discoveries of this period was the art of
+writing, which the inhabitants of the North seem to have acquired soon
+after the beginning of the Christian era. The earliest alphabetic
+symbols in Sweden, and the only ones used there during the whole of
+heathen times, were _runes_. These were probably invented a little
+before the Christian era by a South Teutonic tribe, in imitation of
+the Roman writing which the Teutons received from one of the Celtic
+tribes living just to the north of the Alps. The Roman characters were
+adapted for the use of inscriptions in stone and wood, the curves being
+changed into straight lines. The Runic characters, in use among all
+Teutonic tribes, were twenty-four in number; these older runes were, by
+the Scandinavians, later simplified and reduced to sixteen. There is
+a number of inscriptions in older runes in Sweden, dating from about
+300 to 500 A.D. They are found chiefly on stones and gold bracteates,
+also in England, France, Germany, Wallachia and the west of Russia. All
+belong to about the same date, and are of Teutonic origin. The early
+Runic inscriptions do not contain any accounts of historically known
+persons or events. Yet they are of the greatest historical importance,
+for they show that during the Earlier Iron Age, in the fourth and fifth
+centuries, the language of Sweden, and consequently also the people,
+were Teutonic. These inscriptions in Sweden and neighboring countries
+give samples of the earliest known form of the Northern language,
+which is considerably different from its descendants, the Old Swedish,
+Danish, Norwegian and Icelandic, but very much resembling the language
+spoken by the Goths on the Danube during the same period.
+
+The Later Iron Age commences with the fifth century and stretches to
+the beginning of the eighth century A.D. When Italy had been overrun
+by the “barbarians,” the centre of the old civilization shifted to
+Byzantium, and there are many traces of an active intercourse with the
+capital of the Byzantine rule in the finds made in Swedish soil. Most
+of these finds consist of gold coins of the fifth century, the majority
+of them having been found in the islands of Œland and Gothland. The
+stream of gold coming from Byzantium must have been quite considerable,
+having its source in the tribute which many of the Byzantine emperors
+had to pay to the Goths on the Danube. They are the very same emperors
+whose names appear on the coins found in Sweden. The great number of
+costly and beautiful ornaments of gold found in Sweden, and dating from
+this period, must have been made out of Roman and Byzantine coins,
+melted down. One of the largest hoards of gold ever found in Europe
+was discovered in the Swedish province of Sœdermanland. Its weight was
+twenty-seven pounds, and it contained several ornaments of consummate
+workmanship.
+
+Remarkable are the graves from this period, discovered in the province
+of Upland. They are barrows containing the more or less mouldering
+remains of a large boat in which the dead man has been buried unburned
+with his weapons, horses, and other domestic animals. The swords found
+in these graves are of iron with hilts of beautiful designs in gilded
+or enamelled bronze. The shields and helmets are often of elaborate
+workmanship. Unlike the swords, which mostly, or perhaps always, are of
+foreign, generally of Celtic make, these ornaments and weapons are of
+domestic origin.
+
+It appears, from the many beautiful and artistic finds in Swedish
+soil, as if the inhabitants have benefited by their situation,
+aside and outside of the rest of the world. Continual migrations
+subjected the tribes of the continent to repeated changes and to a
+never-ceasing series of new and heterogeneous impressions. The tribes
+of the North remained on the same spot, and their whole development
+was slower but more consistent. The foreign influences penetrated
+slowly and gradually, without crushing the old civilization. The
+industrial arts blossomed not so often in the North as in the South,
+but steadier, giving a clearer expression of the national traditions
+and peculiarities. These circumstances make the study of Northern
+antiquities of absorbing interest.
+
+Before the end of this period, not only Gothaland and Svealand, but
+also the coast of Norrland, as far north as the province of Medelpad,
+were inhabited. As a whole, the first part of the Later Iron Age forms
+a transition between the Earlier Iron Age and the Viking Age, the
+archæological finds of which we must leave aside to take up the threads
+of the earliest history. The Viking Age is exceedingly rich in stones
+with inscriptions in the later runes, some of these inscriptions being
+quite lengthy, and containing strophes of alliterative verse in Old
+Swedish.
+
+Before entering into an account of early Swedish history, let us
+gather what information the classical writers of history have to give
+in regard to the countries of the North, or rather whatever of such
+information that has been preserved to our day.
+
+The Scandinavian countries are for the first time mentioned by the
+historians of antiquity in an account of a journey which Pyteas from
+Massilia (the present Marseille) made through Northern Europe, about
+300 B.C. He visited Britain, and there heard of a great country, Thule,
+situated six days’ journey to the north, and verging on the Arctic Sea.
+The inhabitants in Thule were an agricultural people who gathered their
+harvest into big houses for threshing, on account of the very few sunny
+days and the plentiful rain in their regions. From corn and honey they
+prepared a beverage (probably the mead). By Thule is no doubt meant the
+Scandinavian peninsula, or rather the western coast of it. Pyteas also
+tells of the land of amber, or the southern shores of the Baltic, where
+the _guttones_ are dwelling. As the northern and southern shores of the
+Baltic from the very earliest period seem to have been inhabited by
+the same race which has shared the same development and civilization,
+there is every reason to recognize the name _guttones_ as identical
+with the one given to the inhabitants of the Swedish Gothaland and
+Island of Gothland.
+
+Several centuries pass without any notice of Scandinavia in the
+classical literature. In the still preserved manuscripts of the
+geographical work by Pomponius Mela, written in the middle of the
+first century A.D., is found a reference to Codania, a large and
+fertile island inhabited by Teutons. Codania is likely some scribe’s
+misspelling of Scandinavia
+
+Pliny the Elder, who himself visited the shores of the Baltic in
+the first century after Christ, is the first to mention plainly the
+name of Scandinavia. He says that he has received advices of immense
+islands “recently discovered from Germany.” The most famous of the
+many islands situated in the Codanian Bay was Scandinavia, of as yet
+unexplored size; the known parts were inhabited by a people called
+_hilleviones_, who gave it the name of another world. When he speaks
+of the British isles, Pliny again gives notice of islands, situated
+opposite Britain in the Teutonic Sea, without suspecting their identity
+with Scandinavia. He mentions Scandia, Nerigon, the largest of them
+all, and Thule. Scandia and Scandinavia are only different forms of the
+same name, denoting the southernmost part of the peninsula, and is yet
+preserved in the name of the province of Scania. Nerigon stands for
+Norway, the northern part of which is mentioned as an island by the
+name Thule. It is not surprising to find the classical writers ignorant
+of the fact that Scandinavia was not a group of large islands, but one
+great peninsula, as the northern parts were as yet uninhabited and
+their physical connection with Finland and Russia unknown.
+
+Tacitus is the first who mentions the Swedish name. In his work
+“Germania,” of such great importance for the knowledge of the ancient
+Teutons, their conditions and institutions, and written about 100 years
+after Christ, the Baltic is described as an open sea called the Suevian
+Sea, shut out from the west by the Danish mainland of Jutland, by the
+Romans called the Cimbric Peninsula. The eastern shore is the country
+of amber. The Swedes are by Tacitus called Suiones, and he speaks of
+them thus:
+
+“Next occur the communities of the Suiones, seated in the very sea,
+who, besides their strength in men and arms, also possess a naval
+force. The form of their vessels differs from ours in having a prow
+at each end, so that they are always ready to advance. They make no
+use of sails, nor have they regular benches of oars at the sides: they
+row, as is practiced in some rivers, without order, sometimes on one
+side, sometimes on the other, as occasion requires. These people honor
+wealth; for which reason they are subject to monarchial government,
+without any limitations or precarious conditions of allegiance. Nor
+are arms allowed to be kept promiscuously, as among the other Teutonic
+nations: but are committed to the charge of a keeper, and he, too,
+a slave. The pretext is that the sea defends them from any sudden
+incursions, and men unemployed, with arms in their hands, readily
+become licentious. In fact, it is for the king’s interest not to
+intrust a noble, a freeman, or even an emancipated slave, with the
+custody of arms.”
+
+These remarks by Tacitus, in all their brevity, are of great
+importance. Boats, exactly corresponding to the description as given,
+have been found in Swedish graves of this period, and that they were
+used for river traffic, to bring the gold and products of Rome and
+Byzantium up the Vistula and Oder, is evident. The great opulence
+in dress and temple service of which the archæological finds bear
+witness, and of which later writers also speak as characteristic of the
+Swedes, is a proof of the wealth that at all times has attended naval
+dominion. Thus far all the statements being fully corroborated, one
+cannot but place great importance upon those that follow. The Roman
+historian tells us that, on account of the honor which the Swedes held
+for wealth, they were subject to a monarchial government, without any
+limitations; that is, the crown was hereditary, not elective. This
+coincides in every way with Swedish conditions of political affairs,
+such as we know them from later times. The important conclusions to be
+gathered from the statements of Tacitus, are that the Swedes already
+at the dawn of the Christian era held the political supremacy in the
+Scandinavian peninsula, or at least in its eastern and southern parts,
+and that the various lesser communities stood in allegiance to the
+hereditary king of the Sviar (Svear), or Swedes in a limited sense, the
+inhabitants of Svealand.
+
+The psychological conclusions made by Tacitus, on the basis of his own
+statements, hold good of the Swedes of to-day as well as of those of
+2,000 years ago. They still honor wealth and a monarchial government
+and consider the sea their best defence against foreign foes.
+
+Ptolemy, the Alexandrine geographer of the second century after Christ,
+speaks of the Scandinavian islands, situated east of the Cimbrian
+peninsula. The fourth and most easterly of these is the one originally
+called Scandeia. He enumerates six tribes which inhabit it, the names
+being unrecognizable, except the one of Gutai, Gauts or Goths, by him
+for the first time mentioned as dwelling in Scandinavia.
+
+To this information, gathered from classical authors, nothing is
+added for the next four hundred years in regard to the countries of
+the North. Only in the sixth century, when Rome has succumbed before
+the Gothic invasions, and the Teutonic tribes have divided between
+themselves the provinces of the West Roman empire, new information
+about Sweden is given by a Byzantine author, Prokopios, a contemporary
+of emperor Justinian. He mentions Scandinavia by the name Thule, and
+says he bases his statements upon information obtained from people “who
+come from there.”
+
+Prokopios says that in the immense island of Thule, in the northern
+part of which the midnight sun can be seen, thirteen large tribes
+occupy its inhabitable parts, each tribe having its own king. One of
+the largest tribes is the Gauts (the Gœtar, or the inhabitants of
+Swedish Gothaland). These tribes very much resemble the people of
+southern Europe, with the exception of the Skee Finns, who dress in
+skins and live from the chase.
+
+Prokopios tells a remarkable story about an immigration to Sweden of
+Herulians, a Teutonic tribe closely connected to the Goths on the
+Danube. In the beginning of the sixth century, it happened that the
+Herulians, after an unsuccessful war with the Longobardians, were
+divided into two branches, of which the one received land from the
+emperor Anastasius south of the Danube, while the other made a resolve
+to seek a home in the Scandinavian peninsula. When they had passed
+the Slavs, they came to uninhabited regions, whence they continued
+to the country of the Varinians, and later to that of the Danes. The
+Danes granted them a free passage and the use of ships, in which they
+crossed to the island of Thule. Here the Herulians went to the Gauts
+and were well received by them. Some decades later the Herulians in
+South Europe were in want of a king. They resolved to send messengers
+to their kinsmen who had settled in Sweden, hoping that some descendant
+of their old royal family might be found there who was willing to
+assume the dignity of king among them. The messengers returned with
+two brothers who belonged to the ancient family of rulers, and these
+were escorted by two hundred young Herulians from Sweden. That this
+immigration really took place there is no doubt. The district of Sweden
+where these kinsmen of the Goths settled was early distinguished
+from the surrounding ones, inhabited by the Gauts of Sweden, through
+the peculiarities of its laws and customs, of which some survived
+into the commencement of the nineteenth century. This district forms
+the southern part of the province of Smaland, called Værend, its
+inhabitants Virdar, and the adjoining province of Bleking.
+
+The Gothic historian Jordanes, or Jornandes, called Master Ardan, who
+was a contemporary of Prokopios, has taken upon himself to explain
+the reason of the strange resolve of the Herulians to seek a home in
+Sweden. He speaks of the traditions of the East Goths, which tell of
+their descent from the people of the North. Similar traditions also
+have existed among the West Goths, Longobardians, Gepidæ, Burgundians,
+Herulians, Franks, Saxons, Swabians and Alemannians. Thus Jordanes: “In
+the North there is a great ocean, and in this ocean there is a large
+island called Scandza, out of whose loins our race burst forth like a
+swarm of bees and spread over Europe.” The island of Scandza, he says,
+has been _officina gentium_, _vagina nationum_--the source of races,
+the mother of nations. And thence also the Goths have emigrated.
+
+Material is lacking to prove the historical truth of the Teutonic
+traditions which point to Scandinavia as the cradle of the Teutonic
+tribes. But Jordanes, the first historian of Teutonic birth who speaks
+of Scandinavia, stands at the cradle of Swedish history, and, as a
+modern historian has expressed it, his shadow throws an umbrage across
+the whole field of Swedish historical research. The mistake, based upon
+Jordanes’ history, of identifying the Swedish Gauts with the Goths has
+caused a great deal of mischief and ridiculous chauvinism, Gothic and
+Swedish history and royal lines being mixed up or put in connection
+with each other.
+
+In leaving aside the Teutonic traditions of the island of Scandza, or
+Scania, as the cradle of the race, let us quote a remark by Tacitus
+which seems to point to the conclusion that such traditions were
+current already in the first century of the Christian era: “I should
+think that the Teutons themselves are aborigines, and not at all mixed
+through immigrations or connections with non-Teutonic tribes. For those
+desiring to change homes did not in early times come by land, but in
+ships across the boundless and, so to speak, hostile ocean--a sea
+seldom visited by ships from the Roman world.”
+
+The Old English poem of Beowulf must also be mentioned among the
+sources which throw light on early Swedish history. Whether the Geátas
+of Beowulf are identical with the Jutes of Denmark, or with the Gauts
+of Sweden, is a much disputed question. Although, phonetically, the
+Old English name Geátas corresponds to the Old Swedish _Gautar_,
+it seems most plausible to suppose that by this term is meant the
+Jutes, and not the inhabitants of Swedish West or East Gothland. This
+accepted, the poem does not contain much about the Swedes. But the
+information, therein given, of the Swedish kings is of great value,
+because it renders the service of a firm chronological support to the
+facts gathered from another source. This source, of vastly greater
+importance, is the Ynglinga Saga, or rather the poem around which it is
+spun, in Heimskringla, of which more in the next chapter.
+
+The first information of the religion practiced by the inhabitants of
+Scandinavia is given by Prokopios, who says that they worshipped many
+gods and spirits of the sky, air, earth, sea, and also some who were
+supposed to dwell in springs and rivers. Offerings were constantly
+made, the chief ones being of human beings, for which the first
+prisoner made in a war was destined. This sacrifice was made to “Mars,”
+who was the highest god. The statements of Prokopios without doubt
+are correct. The Scandinavian war-god who corresponds to the Mars of
+classical mythology was Tyr. Odin, originally the ruler of the wind,
+became the highest god during the Viking Age. He is an aristocratic
+god, the god of the select few, whose cult succeeded that of Tyr as the
+cult of the latter had succeeded that of Thor, the thunderer, as the
+highest god. The idea of a supreme God was probably unknown until the
+contact with Christianity, or at least not common. Thor, the peasant
+god, is probably the oldest of the gods of Teutonic mythology, the
+representative of stern power and law-bound order. Thor was the most
+popular god of the Swedes, to judge from the great number of ancient
+Swedish proper names of which his forms a part. Besides Thor, Odin and
+Frey were the most honored. All the other gods and goddesses mentioned
+in Old Norse literature were probably known, but few of them much
+worshipped in Sweden.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+_Dawn of Swedish History--Heimskringla and Ynglingatal_
+
+
+Snorre Sturleson, the great historian and poet of Iceland, of the
+earlier half of the thirteenth century, is considered to be the author
+of the history of the kings of Norway which, after the first words of
+the first chapter, has been called Heimskringla. As an introduction
+to the work he has put the saga of the Yngling kings of Sweden, of
+whom many of the Norwegian kings were supposed to be descendants. The
+Ynglinga Saga is a paraphrase to the much older song of Ynglingatal,
+a poem composed by the Norwegian poet Thiodulf of Hvin (who lived
+in the latter part of the ninth century) in praise of the supposed
+Swedish ancestors of the Norwegian king Ragnvald. The Ynglings were
+probably not identical with the kings of Upsala, who were of the
+race of the Skilfings, but of South Swedish or Danish origin. It is
+either out of ignorance, or out of sagacity, that the poet selected
+the Upsala rulers as originators of the Norwegian line of kings, but
+he has been unfortunate in the choice of a name for the dynasty. The
+poem itself is a trustworthy historical document, at least as far as
+the times are concerned which come comparatively close to the time
+of its own composition, the first part containing many traits of a
+mythical character. The saga spun around it is far from trustworthy.
+Of the poem evidently the first, or first few, strophes are missing,
+but the “historian” supplies the vacuum with stories of the gods Odin,
+Niord and Frey, whom he, according to the ideas of his time, changes
+from gods into historic kings, the first who ruled Svithiod (Sweden).
+Among learned men in Snorre’s day there was a craze for tracing the
+pedigree of all nations of any renown back to some of the heroes of
+ancient Troy. Snorre serves us a saga of Odin’s migration from Troy
+which, besides being confuse, would appear only ridiculous, if it
+had not wielded about as highly disastrous an influence upon correct
+conceptions of Swedish history as the work by Jordanes. This migration
+saga is found in a still more elaborate form in an introduction to
+Snorre’s Edda, and is responsible for the erroneous opinion held by
+earlier Swedish historians, that the Swedes had migrated from Asia
+under the leadership of a chief who called himself Odin, and that the
+Swedes and the Gauts were, if not of different origin, at least of a
+habitation of differing age in their present locations.
+
+Based upon the information found in Ynglinga Saga we will give a review
+of the history of the early kings of Sweden, although the first dozen,
+and more, of these kings are of a doubtful “historic” character. At
+the dawn of history, Sweden was, like most other countries of Northern
+Europe, divided into petty communities, each ruled by a king. These
+communities seem to have been nearly identical with the “lands”
+or later provinces into which Sweden is yet divided, although the
+administrative divisions are different. In spite of the fact that it
+is about 1,200 years since these communities were united into one
+single realm, the inhabitants preserve to this day their respective
+peculiarities of customs and language.
+
+The most important among the chieftains of Sweden was, since time
+immemorial, the king of Upsala, who conducted the sacrifices and temple
+service at Upsala, the oldest and most celebrated place of heathen
+worship in the Scandinavian North. Originally, he had under his rule
+only one-third of the present province of Upland, the chief settlement
+of the Sviar, or Swedes in a limited sense. The Upsala kings belonged
+to the ancient royal race of Skilfings (or “Ynglings,” according to
+Snorre), who traced their origin from the gods. The founder of the
+dynasty as accepted by Thiodulf and others was _Yngve_, who is said
+to have built the great temple at Upsala, moving thither the capital
+from the older Sigtuna and contributing to the temple all his lands and
+riches. Yngve’s son was _Fiolner_. King Fiolner was drowned by accident
+in a huge vessel full of mead, during a visit paid to King Frode in
+Denmark.
+
+His son _Sveigder_ disappeared during a journey which he made in order
+to find Odin, the old. Both the names Fiolner and Sveigder appear to
+be mythical. Sveigder’s son _Vanlande_ was a great warrior. He is said
+once to have taken up his winter abode in Finland, which, together with
+several archæological finds, point to an early intercourse between
+Sweden and Finland. _Visbur_ succeeded his father Vanlande, marrying
+the daughter of Aude (the Rich), whom he afterward left and took
+another wife, bringing on himself a curse by so doing. Visbur’s sons
+fell unexpectedly over him, burning him in his house. _Domalde_, his
+son, succeeded him. During a great famine in Svithiod he was offered
+to the gods in order to obtain good seasons. Domalde’s son and
+grandson, _Domar_ and _Dygve_, both reigned and died in peace. _Dag_,
+the son of Dygve, was so wise a man that he understood the language
+of birds. _Agne_, the son of Dag, was the ruler after him. One summer
+he invaded Finland with his army. When the Finns gathered there was a
+great battle, in which Agne gained victory, subduing all Finland. The
+daughter of a conquered chief, Skialf, was carried back to Sweden as
+his bride. But after a drinking feast, Agne was hanged in a tree by
+Skialf and her men. The place where this happened was called Agnefit,
+and is said to be identical with the site of Stockholm, the later
+capital of the country. _Alrek_ and _Eric_ became kings after the
+death of their father Agne. They got into a dispute one day while out
+walking. Having no weapons, they assailed and killed each other with
+their horses’ bridles. Their successors, _Yngve_ and _Alf_, the sons
+of Alrek, shared a similar fate, killing each other in the royal hall
+by the high-seat. After them _Hugleik_, the son of Alf, became king of
+the Swedes. On the Fyrisvols, the plains by the river Fyris in Upland,
+Hugleik was killed in battle against a famous sea-king Hake, who
+subdued the country and became king of Svithiod. The saga mentions that
+this Hake was a brother of Hagbard, whose love for the king’s daughter,
+Signe, cost him his life. This love story is one of the most famous in
+the North and much spoken of in saga and song. The spot where Hagbard
+was hanged in a tree is still pointed out. When Hake had ruled as king
+for three years, _Jorund_ and _Eric_, the sons of Yngve, returned
+with warships and warriors. They had grown up and become famous by
+conquering the king Gudlaug, of the Haleygians in Norway, whom they had
+met in Denmark. Now they met King Hake and his army at the Fyrisvols.
+In the battle, Eric was killed and Jorund fled to his ship. But King
+Hake was himself so grievously wounded that he ordered a warship to be
+loaded with his dead men and their weapons, and himself to be placed
+upon it. The sails were hoisted and the ship set on fire, and out it
+flew, with the dying king on board, between the skerries to the sea.
+Jorund now became king in Upsala. When he was one summer marauding in
+Jutland, he met a son of King Gudlaug, in the battle with whom he was
+overpowered, captured and hanged.
+
+King _Aune_ or _Ane_ was the son of Jorund. He was a wise man who
+made great sacrifices to the gods. Being no warrior he lived quietly
+at home. Twice he fled from Upsala, on account of Danish invasions,
+remaining in West Gothland twenty-five years each time, and holding
+sway at Upsala for an equally long time between his periods of exile.
+He lived to become 110 years of age. The secret of his longevity was
+that he sacrificed one of his sons to Odin every tenth year, and was
+granted in return a decade of prolonged life. When about to sacrifice
+his tenth son, the people interfered, and he died from old age. The
+last ten years of his life he was very feeble, drinking out of a horn
+like an infant. He was buried in a mound at Upsala.
+
+King _Egil_ was the son of Ane, and, like his father, no warrior.
+Under his reign and that of his son, king _Ottar_, Sweden suffered a
+good deal of trouble from Denmark. The Danish king Frode had helped
+Egil against the revolt of one of his subjects, and demanded from
+his son a scat, or tribute, in return. Ottar fell in battle against
+the jarls of Frode. Both he and his son _Audils_, who ruled Svithiod
+after him, are mentioned in Beowulf as Ôhthere and his son Eadgils
+of the royal Swedish line of the Scylfingas (Skilfings). This fact
+gives to Swedish history its first reliable date. The Danish king
+Hugleik, a contemporary of King Ottar, died in 515 A.D., which renders
+with a certainty Ottar’s reign as falling in the first part of the
+sixth century. Audils ruled for a long time and often went on viking
+expeditions to Saxonland, Denmark and Norway. In Saxonland, Audils
+captured the household of King Geirthiof, among whom was a remarkably
+beautiful girl, called Yrsa. The king married her, but she was
+afterward taken to Denmark by King Helge of Leire after a successful
+plundering expedition in Svithiod. Helge had a son by her, Rolf Krake,
+but Yrsa returned to her first husband, after being told by Queen Alof,
+the wife of Geirthiof, that Helge was her father and Alof her mother.
+When Rolf Krake later became king his men once helped King Audils in
+one of his expeditions in Norway. King Rolf’s men did not receive the
+compensation promised them, and Rolf came to Upsala to demand it for
+them. King Rolf was warned by his mother Yrsa that Audils was not well
+disposed, and he and his men made in haste for their ships. King Audils
+and his men started out in their pursuit. Then Rolf took a horn filled
+with gold, a recent gift of his mother, emptying its contents on the
+plain. Audils and his men stopped to pick up the gold, and Rolf thus
+made his escape. Rolf Krake is one of the most famous of Danish heroes.
+In the poetic language of the Old Northern literature, gold is often
+called “the seed of the Fyrisvols” or “Rolf Krake’s seed.” As King
+Audils once rode around the hall at a sacrifice his horse stumbled and
+fell, and the king was killed.
+
+_Eystein_, the son of Audils, ruled after him and was succeeded by his
+son _Yngvar_. Eystein was never able to defend his people against the
+Danes, while Yngvar was a successful warrior, both at home and abroad.
+But one summer when he was fighting in Esthonia he was killed by the
+Esthonians. He was buried in a mound close to the seashore.
+
+_Anund_ was Yngvar’s son and successor. He went to Esthonia to avenge
+his father, ravaging the country and returning with great booty. In
+his time there were fruitful seasons in Svithiod. On this account, and
+because he made many roads, cleared the woods and cultivated the new
+land, he became one of the most popular of early Swedish kings. He was
+called _Brœt-Anund_, viz., Anund Roadmaker.
+
+_Ingiald_, the son of Anund, became king in Upsala after his father. He
+was the most remarkable of all the Ynglings (Skilfings), for, through
+violence and cunning, he united all the communities of Sweden into
+one realm. When his father died, the king at Upsala was certainly the
+supremely powerful ruler in Svithiod, but not the only one, for there
+were many district-kings who were to a great extent independent. There
+were not only kings in East Gothland, Sœdermanland, and Nerike, but
+in Upland there were, besides the Upsala king, also kings in each of
+the three “lands” into which this province was formerly divided; viz.,
+Tiundaland, Attundaland, and Fiedrundaland. Ingiald ordered a great
+feast to celebrate the fact that he had come to the throne after his
+father, and invited seven other kings, all of whom were present, except
+Granmar, king of Sœdermanland. When the Brage-bowl, on which promises
+were made, was carried in, King Ingiald made a solemn vow to enlarge
+his dominions by one-half, toward all the four corners of the world,
+or die. In the evening Ingiald set fire to the hall, and all the six
+royal guests perished with their followers. Ingiald took possession
+of all the dominions belonging to the unfortunate kings. In the next
+year he surrounded the hall in which King Granmar found himself at the
+time, killing him and taking his land in possession. “It was a common
+saying,” Snorre tells us, “that King Ingiald had killed twelve kings
+and deceived them all under pretence of peace; therefore he was called
+Ingiald Illrade (the evil-adviser).” His daughter, Asa, was of the same
+disposition as her father. She was married to Gudrod, king of Scania,
+but had to flee from the land after having caused the death of her
+husband and his brother. When it was learned that King Ivar, nephew of
+Gudrod, had entered Svithiod with an army, Asa counselled her father to
+set fire to the hall of the king after his men were drunk and asleep.
+Thus perished Ingiald Illrade with his daughter, very much in the same
+fashion in which he had killed so many of the petty kings.
+
+For the centuries following upon Ingiald’s death, Snorre has a very
+short, or almost no account to give about Sweden and her rulers. What
+can be gathered from other sources, principally from late Icelandic
+sagas, is not trustworthy, mythical and fictitious elements being
+discernible.
+
+After Ingiald, _Ivar Vidfamne_ (the Far-stretching) is said to have
+ruled Sweden, “also Denmark, Saxonland, all of Austria and one-fifth
+of England.” One account has it that Ivar was the head of a new
+dynasty in Sweden. As he was originally king of Scania, perhaps these
+were the real Ynglings. Another source claims for the succeeding
+Swedish kings descent from the old race of the Ynglings (viz., the
+Skilfings). Ingiald’s son Olof, according to Snorre, fled to the woods
+of Vermland, until then uninhabited, and later came to Norway. But it
+is a misunderstanding of Thiodulf’s lines which causes Snorre to say
+that King Olof was buried close by the Lake Venar, in Vermland. The
+province of Vermland was inhabited much earlier than in Olof’s time,
+and the Olof who became the founder of a Norwegian dynasty was probably
+a Danish prince.
+
+_Harald Hildetand_ of Denmark is said to have succeeded Ivar, and to
+have ruled over as much territory as his mother’s father. Several
+sources speak of King Harald and the battle of Bravols, in which his
+life was ended and which battle generally is taken as a historic
+milestone, marking the opening of the Viking Age. It was fought
+somewhere about the year 740. King Harald had become old and almost
+blind. In Svithiod and West Gothland, the kings Sigurd and Ring (by
+the sagas made into one hero by the name “Sigurd Ring”) ruled under
+Harald, while he reigned himself over Denmark and East Gothland. The
+relations were good at first, but their aspect soon changed. After
+great preparations on either side, Ring met Harald on the plains of
+Bravik in East Gothland. The battle was a long and bloody one and the
+most renowned in song and saga. King Harald, too old to take an active
+part, mounted a chariot, which carried him into the midst of the fight.
+When King Ring at last saw the chariot empty, he understood that the
+aged king had fallen and gave the sign that the battle should come to
+an end. King Ring caused the remains of his fallen foe to be burned
+with great pomp and ceremony on a pile with his horse, weapons and many
+a costly treasure of gold and silver. King _Ring_ was said to have been
+ruler of Sweden and Denmark after King Harald. The sagas mention the
+hero, _Ragnar Lodbrok_, as his son and successor. While this great
+viking and sea-king appears to have been a historic personage in the
+earlier half of the ninth century, it is impossible that he could have
+been identical with King Ring’s son _Ragnar_, or that he or his sons
+ever were kings in Upsala or Sweden.
+
+With the first attempts to introduce Christianity into Sweden (of which
+more later) a more definite knowledge of Swedish rulers and conditions
+is gained. When Ansgar, the apostle of Sweden, visited the country
+for the first time, about 830, the ruling king was _Biœrn_. Shortly
+afterward King _Anund_ is mentioned. He fled from his land, but was
+reinstated with the help of the Danes. King _Olof_ was on the throne
+at the time of Ansgar’s second visit to Sweden, about 850. These kings
+must have been of the same family as those who held the throne up to
+the middle of the eleventh century, for their names all occur again in
+the line of later Swedish kings, the reigns of whom fall in the broad
+light of history.
+
+We have seen how Ingiald Illrade joined the various communities into
+one single realm. Although there is doubt whether this realm from the
+start embraced all Sweden, there is no historical evidence or any
+reliable traditions whatever to show that Sweden was ever divided into
+smaller kingdoms after the death of King Ingiald. When Ansgar reaches
+Sweden he travels through half of the country in order to reach the
+commercial centre of Birka, where the king of Sweden is dwelling.
+No other king, great or petty, is spoken of, while the contemporary
+Icelanders mention jarls (earls) in Gothaland, which proves that the
+once independent kings in that district were made away with.
+
+Of particular importance is the account of a journey which a certain
+Wulfstan made to the North, at the close of the ninth century. This
+account is given in an Old English translation of Orosii Historia,
+credited to King Alfred of England. Thus it runs: “Wulfstan said that
+he went from Schleswig to Truso in seven days, that the ship was all
+the way running under sail. Wendland was on his right, but Langeland,
+Lolland, Falster and Scania on his left, and all these lands belong
+to Denmark, and then Bornholm was on our left, which has a king of
+its own. Then after Bornholm, the lands of Bleking, Mœre, Œland, and
+Gotland, were first on our left, and these lands belong to Sweden.”
+
+Wulfstan’s account, besides furnishing evidence to prove the political
+consolidation of Sweden, also gives a good idea of the size of the
+country in this period. The once independent province of Scania, which
+had kings of its own, already belongs to Denmark. So does also the
+province of Halland, while Bohuslæn belongs to Norway. Dal and Vermland
+are contested provinces between the kings of Sweden and Norway, while
+great parts of Norrland are yet uninhabited, except by Laps, who ramble
+from one place to another, without a fixed dwelling place. In King
+Alfred’s Orosius, Danish Jutland and Swedish Gautland (Gothaland) are
+alike called _Gotland_, which recalls the supposition of the majority
+of modern scholars that Gotland was in the earliest times the common
+Teutonic name of the North, and Goths the common name of its Teutonic
+inhabitants.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+_The Viking Age--Ansgar, the Apostle of Sweden_
+
+
+“In the North there is a great ocean, and in this ocean there is a
+large island called Scandza, out of whose loins our race burst forth
+like a swarm of bees and spread over Europe.” These were the words the
+Gothic historian Jordanes put on parchment, inspired by the popular
+traditions of a Teutonic migration from the North. Historic evidence is
+lacking to prove or disprove the truth of these words. But they may be
+applied to the phenomenon which has given its name to the _Viking Age_.
+
+The Viking expeditions seem to stand in connection with the great
+Teutonic migrations, at least to be related to them in nature. The
+Teutons of the North were not directly affected by the migrations, but
+at the close of the eighth century the same restlessness and desire of
+expansion appear to have taken possession of the Northmen as in earlier
+times of their relatives in more southerly lands. And it was a timely
+move, for the energy and strength with which these had in their time
+suffused Europe were dying out. Europe was in need of new blood and
+iron to wake her from her anæmia and to build up new institutions. The
+North was freed from a turbulent and lawless element and was brought in
+closer contact than ever before with the learning and culture of the
+world. For centuries the Northmen had through their southern kinsmen
+been in contact with continental culture. But now they came out to see
+for themselves, to make themselves a place in a wider and richer world,
+or to bring home from there what they most desired of beauty, riches
+and culture. They were not delicate as to means. Violence was with them
+as natural as their freedom of individuality was indispensable. Yet
+they were to play a most important part in the cultural development
+of Europe, furnishing her with institutions of imperishable iron and
+changing the darkness of the Middle Ages into an era of chivalry in
+spirit and in deeds.
+
+The Viking expeditions were always undertaken by free men, and were
+in the North, from remotest times, considered not only an honest but
+an honorable occupation. Slaves and freed men were excluded. The
+leaders--often kings or their sons--were always men of noble descent or
+of importance. As the Viking expeditions took on larger proportions,
+they became more and more organized; from random expeditions,
+undertaken by individuals, they developed into national undertakings,
+led by the king or his chieftains, not for a pastime, but in completion
+of a national policy. On account of this latest aspect, it is but
+just to divide the field in which the Northmen were active according
+to their respective nationalities. With such a division applied, the
+Viking expeditions to the West, to Britain, France, Portugal and Spain
+do not pertain to Swedish history, for they were planned and undertaken
+principally by Danes and Norwegians. It is true that there were many
+Swedish participants also in these expeditions, as the sagas and the
+memorial stones on Swedish soil tell us; also true that some of the
+later Swedish provinces, like Bohuslæn[1] and Scania, sent out their
+large contingents of Vikings and sea-kings to the West, and that one of
+the oldest Swedish homes of culture, West Gothland, had an appropriate
+channel to the West, by way of the mighty Gotha River, through which
+without doubt many a Viking expedition was sent; yet the leaders were
+in a majority of cases Danish or Norwegian chieftains. For similar
+reasons the Viking expeditions to the East belong by right to Swedish
+history. In them the participants and chieftains were Swedes, to an
+overwhelming majority, and, from time immemorial, Swedish districts
+from which the expeditions were started.
+
+To Russia the Swedes first went on marauding expeditions; but after the
+countries of the North had been shaped into three large monarchies,
+they came to Russia upon special invitation, in order to found there a
+realm of strong and consistent government. This becomes evident from
+the testimony of the Russian historian Nestor, a monk in Kief, who
+lived in the latter part of the eleventh century. About the founding
+of the Russian empire by the Swedes he has the following remarkable
+statements:
+
+“In the year 6367 (after the creation of the world, which is the 859th
+after the birth of Christ) the Variagi (or Varangians) came across the
+sea, taking tribute from the Tchud and the Slavs,” etc.--“In the year
+6370 (862 A.D.) they chased the Variagi back across the sea, giving
+them no tribute and commencing to govern themselves, but it turned out
+badly with legal affairs, tribe rose against tribe, causing strife,
+and a rebellion was started. Then they said between themselves: ‘Let
+us seek a prince who will govern us and reason with us justly!’ And
+they went across the sea to the Variagi, to the Russians, for thus
+were the Variagi called, just as others were called Sviar, others
+Nurmanni, others Anglii, and others Goths. And the Tchudi (the Slavs
+of Novgorod), the Slavs, the Krivitchi and the Vessi said to the
+Russians, ‘Our land is great and fruitful, but it lacks order and
+justice; come and take possession, and govern us!’ And three brothers
+with their followers were selected, and they took the whole of Rus with
+them and came. And the oldest, Rurik, took his abode in Novgorod, the
+second, Sineus, his in Bielo-Jesero, and the third, his in Isborsk;
+his name was Truvor. After two years Sineus and his brother Truvor
+died. Rurik then took the whole power into his hands and gave towns
+over to his men, giving to one Polotsk, to another Rostof, and to a
+third Bielo-Jesero. And into these towns the Variagi have migrated; the
+earlier inhabitants in Novgorod were Slavs, in Polotsk, Krivitchi, in
+Rostof, Meri, and in Bielo-Jesero, Vessi.”
+
+That the Variagi were of Swedish descent, and that it was they who
+gave the name of Russia to the Slav countries, is proved beyond the
+possibility of a doubt. A most weighty argument is the large number of
+Swedish names in the list of Variag princes who reigned in Russia. It
+would not have been possible for Nestor to devise the more than one
+hundred leading names of Swedish origin which occur in his chronicle.
+Furthermore, it has been shown that there are fifteen Swedish loanwords
+in Russian. This is very much. Great and powerful nations have left
+behind a good deal less in modern languages, the Vandals three words,
+the Burgundians four or five, the Herulians one. Although the Swedes in
+Russia had no literature in their ancestral language, they have left
+behind more words than the majority of Teutonic tribes founding states
+and nations. The Old Swedish equivalents to some of the most important
+proper names which meet us in early Russian history are as follows:
+Rurik--Hrœrekr, Sineus--Signjótr, Truvor--Tryggve, Oleg--Helge,
+Olga--Helga, Igor--Inge, Ingvar.
+
+For two hundred years after Rurik, all the leading men in Russian
+history carry Swedish names, and all the czars of Russia were the
+descendants of Rurik, up to the year 1598. The emperor and historian
+Constantine Porphyrogenitus, speaking of Russia, makes the distinction
+between the Slavs and the Russians proper. In his description of the
+cataracts of the Dniepr, he gives to each the Russian and the Slav
+name, and these Russian names are nearly all understood by reference
+to old Swedish roots. Examples are Gellandri (Gellandi)--the Noisy,
+Eyfórr--the Always Turbulent. Luitprand, the Italian chronicler,
+speaking of the Russians, says: “The Greeks call them Russians, we call
+them properly Northmen.” The annals of St. Bertinus tell how Emperor
+Theophilus recommended some Russian envoys to Louis le Débonnaire, but
+how he, taking them for Norman spies, threw them into prison. The first
+Russian Code of Laws, compiled by Iaroslaf, presents a striking analogy
+to the Old Swedish laws.
+
+The Slavs must have originally borrowed the name Russian from the
+Finns, who, up to the present day, call the Swedes _Ruotsi_. The name
+is in Sweden connected with a part of the coast of Upland still called
+Roslagen. The etymology of the name is Old Swedish _rodr_ (rudder)
+and _roðsmenn_ (oarsmen). Roslagen means “associations of oarsmen.”
+The district is famous for its large peculiar rowboats. By the term
+Russians, the Slavs originally meant people from Roslagen, later Sweden
+in general. But when these Russians had become the founders of a new
+empire, south of the Baltic, it became necessary to devise a new name
+for the inhabitants of Sweden. This name was found in Variagi. Only
+the Swedes seeking employment as sworn warriors in the service of the
+new Russian dynasty, or in the body-guard of the Byzantine emperors,
+were originally thus called. But when the name of the new nation of
+Swedes and Slavs became Russians, the Swedes, and the Scandinavians
+in general, became known as Variagi. The etymology of the word has
+been given as the Old Swedish _vár_ (_sacramentum_) and _væringar_
+(_sacramentarii_, soldiers bound by oath). The same name applied to
+Swedes, or Northmen, occurs frequently in slightly altered forms in
+Greek and Arabic manuscripts.
+
+While Rurik and his brothers were building towns, which probably
+means the fortifying of ancient villages, two other Variagi, Askold
+and Dir, who were not of the family of Rurik, went down to Kief, and
+reigned over the Poliané. It was they who began the expeditions against
+Byzantium in 865. In speaking of this, Nestor calls the Bosphorus
+_Sud_, an Old Swedish word meaning a sound. The Bosphorus is also
+called Sud on a Swedish memorial stone over a man who was killed in a
+similar expedition.
+
+Oleg, the fourth brother of Rurik, was his successor, his son Igor
+being yet a minor. He was an energetic man and a great administrator.
+
+Smolensk, Lubetch and Kief were captured, and Askold and Dir put to
+death. Between the years 879-912, Oleg organized the Russian empire.
+For the sake of commerce, he tried to preserve peace with the Greeks,
+but when difficulties arose he called in new armies from Sweden and
+great expeditions started against Byzantium. But these Variagi were
+an unruly element, and, in order to satisfy their desire for war and
+booty, the Russian rulers always let a plundering expedition to the
+Caspian Sea follow every unsuccessful attack upon Byzantium; also when
+war with the Greeks was avoided through decrees of peace, expeditions
+to the Caspian Sea took place.
+
+These expeditions against the Arabs, who inhabited the coasts of the
+Caspian Sea, were neither in any marked degree successful. Masudi
+is the first author among the Arabs who mentions the expeditions of
+the Swedes. They came down the river Volga in their ships. The Arabs
+describe the “Rûs” as blond and “tall as palm-trees.” The burial of a
+Rûs is described by Ibn Fosslan, who visited Bulgaria in 921. “The hero
+was burned in a ship with weapons, horses, dogs and a woman.” In 965,
+the Israelite, Ibrahim Ibn Jakub, made a journey to Germany. He tells
+that the Arabs in his day with Rûs (Russians) meant partly the Swedes
+of Sweden, “who often came in ships from the West to plunder,” partly
+the Swedes settled in Russia, “who speak the language of the Slavs, on
+account of admixture with them.”
+
+It was the destiny of the Swedes in Russia to exchange their language
+for that of the Slavs and finally to absorb Slav customs. Such might
+not have been the case if they had been greater in numbers, or if their
+coming had been deferred to a later, Christian period, when to a strong
+form of government would have been added a strong Church organization.
+Yet their influence was greater than that of the Vikings in any other
+country, for the Russian empire was entirely a Northern creation.
+
+To follow further the Rurik dynasty would lead us away from Swedish
+into Russian history. But let us mention that Oleg was succeeded
+by Rurik’s son Igor, who also was a great war-lord, and undertook
+the third expedition of Russians and Variagi against Byzantium. His
+widow was the celebrated Olga, who was converted to Christianity
+and afterward canonized. She reigned during the minority of her son
+Sviatoslaf, whose conversion she was never able to effect. Sviatoslaf’s
+son and grandson, Saint Vladimir and Jaroslaf the Great, were the
+Clovis and the Charlemagne of Russia.
+
+After the conquest of Kief, Oleg commanded a tribute to be paid to the
+Variagi “for the preservation of peace.” This tribute to the Swedes
+was paid up to the death of Jaroslaf, who in 1019 gave assurance to
+the king of Upsala that it should be paid regularly, Vladimir having
+neglected to do so. This tribute could be nothing else than a scat
+paid to the king of Sweden by the rulers of Russia during the ninth
+and tenth centuries. Sweden possessed in those days a large territory
+south of the Baltic, which paid scat to the king of Upsala. It was
+called Austria (_Austerike_), and reference to it under this name is
+often made in sagas, chronicles and inscriptions. Ynglinga Saga gives
+incidents of close Swedish connections to Finland and the Baltic
+provinces, and archæological finds point to Swedish settlements in
+Finland, already in the prehistoric period. Memories of conquests are
+preserved in statements by the Icelanders and by Saxo, the Danish
+historian, about the Austria of which the Swedish kings Ivar Vidfamne,
+Harald Hildetand, “Sigurd” Ring and Ragnar “Lodbrok” were rulers.
+Closest to an exact statement comes Snorre, who says that King Eric
+Edmundson of Sweden ruled over Finland, Carelia, Esthonia, Courland
+and “wide over all Austria.” These countries belonged to Sweden until
+King Olof Skœtkonung “let all his scatlands get away from him.” The
+chronicler Rimbert says that Courland, by which he means the Baltic
+provinces, in 850 belonged to Sweden. Shortly after this date fall,
+according to Nestor, those of the first Swedish contact with interior
+Russia (859) and of the founding of the Russian empire by Rurik (862).
+The Swedish dominion in the Baltic provinces, as well as the early
+Russian empire, must consequently have held a position similar to the
+one of Normandie to France and England.
+
+The old Swedish name for Russia was Gardarike, for Novgorod Holmgard
+and for Byzantium Miklagard, which mean “Country of towns,” “Island
+town,” and “Great town,” respectively.
+
+Vladimir of Russia, in 980, sent a number of Variagi to the emperor.
+But already the emperors had probably surrounded themselves with
+a small standing army of Variagi or Barangoi, as they were called
+by the Greeks. They were treated with a good deal of respect and
+consideration, and in the North it was considered a distinction
+to have served in Miklagard, which even the sons of kings eagerly
+sought for. Soon not only Swedes, but also Norwegians, Danes and
+Icelanders were attracted, and Icelandic sources have a good many,
+in part wildly exaggerated, accounts of the Variagi and their
+experiences in Miklagard. The Northmen were relied upon to support the
+tottering empire, and were despatched to the points where the hardest
+combats were fought. They had officers of their own nationality,
+and the strictest discipline was maintained. About the year 1050
+a detachment of Variagi were accepted into the body-guard of the
+emperor, surrounding his person on all great occasions and in public;
+also keeping watch over the imperial palace. When the emperor died,
+they had, according to Snorre, the privilege of passing through his
+treasury, each taking along all he could carry off. Another privilege
+of theirs was that they were allowed to keep their heathen faith in the
+midst of the Christian surroundings.
+
+Many and various as the reasons for the Viking expeditions must have
+been, the principal cause that led to their abolition was the contact
+with Christianity abroad, and the introduction of its teaching in the
+heathen North. The first missionaries to Sweden were sent by Louis the
+Pious, but Christianity was not entirely unknown before their arrival.
+For centuries, the Swedes had through commercial expeditions stood
+in direct or indirect contact with the Christian world, and this had
+brought home some knowledge of “the white Christ” and his gospel of
+peace. Many Northmen had been baptized while dwelling in foreign lands,
+and many must the Christian thralls have been who continually were
+brought into the country. The influence these elements exerted probably
+could be traced to the ennobling and developing of heathen myths,
+rather than to direct Christian conversions. And a similar influence of
+Roman and Greek myths, without doubt, exerted upon the North in earlier
+historic times.
+
+Ansgar, a learned and pious monk from the convent of Corvey, became the
+apostle of Sweden. He had spent two years in Denmark as a missionary
+when called upon by Emperor Louis to visit Sweden. Louis the Pious had
+received the assurance by Swedish emissaries that the new faith would
+not meet with any obstacle, and that many were willing to embrace it.
+Ansgar started in the year of 830, accompanied by Witmar, also of the
+Corvey convent. They were well received by King Biœrn, and were able
+to comfort many Christians in Swedish captivity, besides converting
+some of the inhabitants. Among the converts was the powerful Jarl
+Herger, who for a long period was the chief supporter of Christianity
+in Sweden. After about a year and a half, Ansgar and Witmar returned
+to the emperor, who, satisfied with the result of their mission,
+erected a special archbishopric in Hamburg for the spiritual needs of
+the North. Ansgar was made the archbishop and, with Ebo, archbishop
+of Rheims, apostolic legate among Swedes, Danes and Slavs. At the
+same time, Gauzbert was made the first bishop of Sweden under the
+name of Simon. He went to Sweden and was well received by its king
+and people. But a revolt against the new faith soon rose among the
+heathens, not issuing from the king but from the people. Gauzbert
+was captured and with contumely escorted out of the country, while
+his relative, Nithard, was killed, thus becoming the first Christian
+martyr in Sweden. For seven years the country was without a preacher
+of the Gospel, until Ansgar sent thither a new missionary, Ardgar,
+who stayed there preaching until the death of Herger. In the meantime
+Vikings had destroyed Hamburg, and not before its bishopric had been
+united to that of Bremen was Ansgar in a position to visit Sweden for
+a second time. This he effected early in the fifties of the ninth
+century, coming this time as a kind of ambassador from the kings of
+Denmark and Germany to give more importance to his mission. The heathen
+partisans, who recently had accepted the departed King Eric among the
+gods, resented, and the reigning king, Olof, dared not grant Ansgar
+the right to preach. The difficulty was solved through the ancient
+custom of throwing dice. Ansgar was successful in the proceedings,
+and his cause was then brought before the Thing (or Assembly) for
+deliberation. The people decided that permission should be granted to
+preach the Gospel, principally on the grounds set forth by an old man
+who rose to remind the Thing that the new God had already helped a good
+many, and that it was a good thing to have him to fall back on when
+the old gods failed. After having built churches and baptized a great
+number, Ansgar returned home, leaving behind Erimbert, a relative of
+Gauzbert’s. Archbishop Rimbert was Ansgar’s successor, himself visiting
+Sweden. After his death, the archbishops of the North seem to have
+ceased taking interest in Swedish missions. The little church, left
+to itself, soon succumbed. When at last one of the archbishops, Unne,
+woke up to the necessity of visiting Sweden, he found that the Gospel
+was forgotten. He was himself surprised by death while in Sweden, and
+buried in the town of Birka, in 936. Numerous graves of the earlier
+Christians in Sweden have been found on the site of the old commercial
+centre of Birka in the island Biœrkœ, in the Lake Mælar, unburned
+bodies in wooden coffins, and the graves without mounds.
+
+King _Eric Edmundson_ was a contemporary of Rimbert. He was engaged in
+building up a Swedish dominion in Finland and on the southern shores
+of the Baltic. With King Harald Fairhair of Norway he was disputing
+the supremacy over the province of Vermland. He was succeeded by his
+son _Biœrn_ who is said to have reigned for fifty years. _Olof_ and
+_Eric_, Biœrn’s two sons, succeeded him, the former dying suddenly at
+a banquet. His young son, _Styrbiœrn Starke_ (the Strong), one of the
+most famous of Swedish heroes, demanded his share of the kingdom when
+only twelve years old. When King Eric told him he was yet too young,
+Styrbiœrn two springs in succession installed himself on the mound of
+his father, by so doing making claim upon his inheritance, according
+to old usage. But when he came to the Thing to demand his share in the
+government he was chased away with stone-throwing. King Eric gave him
+sixty ships with men and weapons to try his luck in Viking expeditions.
+Styrbiœrn won great fame during several years of continual warfare in
+the Baltic, capturing the mighty Jomsborg, a celebrated Viking nest in
+the island of Wollin, later turning his weapons upon Denmark, where he
+made the Danish king Harald Gormson Bluetooth a prisoner. He now felt
+strong enough to attack his uncle, King Eric. Harald Bluetooth was to
+help him, but failed to do so. Styrbiœrn sailed with a fleet to Sweden;
+after having landed he burned his ships to make a return impossible.
+King Eric met him at the Fyrisvols and fought a battle which was said
+to have lasted for three days. Styrbiœrn fell, and with him the larger
+part of his army. His uncle, the king, was after this called _Eric
+Segersæll_ (the Victorious). After the battle the king ascended a high
+mound, promising a great compensation to the one who could compose a
+song in praise of the victory. The Icelander Thorvald Hialte, who never
+previously or afterward appeared as a scald, came forth and recited
+two strophes which are preserved to our day, receiving a costly armlet
+of gold as reward. This battle--next to the one at Bravols, the most
+famous in the heathen North--was fought in 988.
+
+King Eric invaded Denmark and took possession of the country, making
+the son of Harald Bluetooth an exile, to which facts Saxo, the Danish
+historian, testifies. In Denmark Eric was baptized, the first Swedish
+king about whom this is said. But upon his return to Sweden he also
+returned to the old gods. Eric Segersæll was king of Sweden and Denmark
+until his death, which occurred in 994. His first consort, Sigrid
+Storrada (the Proud), from whom he later separated, played quite an
+important part in the history of her time. After the death of Eric,
+she married the exiled Svend Tjufvuskægg (their son being Canute the
+Great), who through this matrimony came to the throne of Denmark.
+
+_Olof Skœtkonung_, the son of Eric and Sigrid, succeeded his father.
+His surname is supposed to mean “the lap king,” but he was no longer
+a minor at the death of King Eric. King Olof was not a powerful or
+energetic ruler, like the father. He let go, one after the other, the
+lands of his crown. Denmark regained its independence, and he lost
+also the scat-paying dominions south of the Baltic. Shortly after Olof
+ascended the throne, the Norwegian king, Olaf Tryggvason, had demanded
+Sigrid Storrada in marriage and obtained her consent. But when King
+Olaf asked her to become a Christian, she refused to change faith,
+whereupon he insulted her. Sigrid told him that this should cause his
+death. Two years later, when Sigrid was the wife of King Svend of
+Denmark, she prevailed upon her son and her husband to join hands in
+assailing Olaf Tryggvason, who was expected back from an expedition
+to the lands of the Vends. The compact was made, and the Norwegian
+jarls, Eric and Svein, entered it. These all collected an immense
+fleet, which assailed the unsuspecting Olaf at Svolder, close by the
+coast of Pomerania. The Norwegian king lost the day and his life. This
+famous battle was fought in 1000, the kings of Sweden and Denmark also
+taking a personal part in it. Norway was divided between the victors.
+The Swedish king received as his share the districts of Drontheim and
+Bohuslæn. These he granted to Jarl Svein, who was the betrothed of
+his sister Holmfrid. Fifteen years later they were recaptured by the
+Norwegian king.
+
+Olaf Tryggvason had been a devout Christian. His sister Ingeborg was
+married to Jarl Ragnvald of West Gothland, who was baptized and invited
+Christian missionaries to Sweden. Through such influences King Olof
+Skœtkonung was at last converted and baptized by Sigfrid, a German
+missionary, at Husaby in West Gothland, in the year 1008. Sigfrid, who
+has been supposed to be of English parentage and a bishop of York,
+evidently came from Germany. He preached for a long period in West
+Gothland and Værend, in the latter district once being attacked by
+heathen men, who killed three of his companions. King Olof himself saw
+to it that the murderers were punished, and Sigfrid continued his noble
+work without molestation. He was later worshipped as a saint. Among
+other missionaries who were active in converting the various provinces
+may be mentioned the Anglo-Saxon St. David, the apostle of Westmanland,
+the Anglo-Saxon St. Eskil and the Swede St. Botvid, the apostles of
+Sœdermanland, and the German Stenfi, or Simon, the apostle of Norrland.
+St. David was a contemporary of St. Sigfrid, while the others were a
+few generations younger. It was first through influence from England
+and Denmark, during the reign of Canute the Great, that Swedish
+conversions became more widespread and general.
+
+King Olof’s conversion met with a great deal of opposition, especially
+in Svealand, which longest remained heathen. Upsala, with its temple,
+was the heathen stronghold of the North, and there the king had always,
+as one of his principal duties, to preside over the great sacrifices.
+King Olof was forced to accept the decision of a Thing which granted
+him freedom to select some part of the kingdom wherein to build
+churches and perform the duties of the new cult, but which forbade
+him to use his influence toward the conversion of his subjects. For
+this reason Olof dwelt principally in the more and more christianized
+West Gothland, in the capital of which province, Skara, a bishop
+was installed. The name of the first bishop was Turgot. Only after
+more than two centuries of endeavor was the Christian Church firmly
+established in Sweden, in the middle of the eleventh century; but
+even at that time the great mass of the people were heathen in name.
+The heathen party was so strong that it could for a long time, and
+occasionally with success, keep up the battle against Christianity. It
+took yet another century before the complete victory of Christianity
+was an assured fact.
+
+The reasons for the slow progress of Christianity in Sweden were many,
+the principal one not being an opposition to the Christian doctrines.
+The superstitious change easily from one cult to another. The sceptics
+do not believe more in one god than in another. Of heathen sceptics
+there were a great many in the North who believed in nothing else
+than their own strength. But it was the Christian morals which were
+so difficult for the Swedes to accept. Accustomed to great personal
+liberty, they could not endure the restraint which Christian morals
+placed upon the individual. The very spirit of Christianity, with its
+kindliness and meekness, was not attractive to the Northman, who
+in his own mental and physical force found a tower of strength. The
+period of the first attempts at conversion was not well chosen. The
+whole North was inflamed by the Viking rage for war and plunder. Then
+followed a period of disinterestedness when the good seed was sown but
+the field neglected. Later the too arduous zeal of the priests called
+forth criticism and resistance from the Swedes, so tardy in making a
+decision and so careful in weighing reasons for and against.
+
+To this must be added the great prestige of the Upsala temple as the
+heathen arc of worship in the North, and the influence of the scalds
+and saga men of Iceland. Iceland was discovered in 870, and settled
+principally by Norsemen from the British Isles and from the western
+coast of Norway, but also to some extent by Swedes and Danes. Sudden
+and brilliant was the rise of Icelandic culture, and Icelandic scalds
+overran the whole territory of the North. At the court of every king
+and jarl these were at home, sometimes in great numbers, and soon
+to the exclusion of the native poets. For their poetry, both as to
+contents and form, they were chiefly dependent upon the heathen myths
+and traditions, and the result of their popularity must have been a
+perfect heathen revival in those days of growing scepticism. Through
+intercourse with Christians in Britain, the Icelanders had borrowed
+many a noble trait, and their taste found admirers in the old North,
+where such influence must have been felt through centuries of indirect
+contact with lands of classical or Christian culture. We are told
+of the great number of southern coins found in Swedish soil. Which
+travel further and faster, thoughts or coins, and which are the more
+impressionable? So although it would be unjust to deprive the Icelandic
+poetry, the impressive and grand Eddic songs and the more artificial
+court-poetry, of any of its beauty or originality, it is not right to
+ascribe all the culture, whose blossom it is, to Iceland, or Iceland
+and Norway, to the exclusion of Sweden and Denmark, or the Teutonic
+world at large. Good epic poetry has been written all over Teutondom.
+In Sweden strophes in the very metre of the majority of Eddic poems
+have been found on tombstones. In the same manner with the contents
+of the Eddic poems. Granting important exceptions, we think that the
+heathen myths have been the same in the East as in the extreme West.
+The very fact that Icelandic court-poetry was accepted and enjoyed by
+continental chieftains presupposes a thorough knowledge and mastery of
+the more popular poetry of Eddic songs of gods and heroes.
+
+Hence the revival of heathendom in the North, by which a king like Olof
+Skœtkonung for a long time was influenced, finding his chief delight in
+the association with poets and saga men.
+
+In Norway, Olaf Haraldson had ascended the throne, and he put an end to
+Swedish dominion in the Norwegian districts. This caused strife, and
+also considerable annoyance to the provinces touching the frontier.
+Popular feeling rose high in Sweden, when the demands for a peace
+guarantee with Norway were disregarded by King Olof. Jarl Ragnvald
+sided with the people, desiring a union between the Norwegian king and
+King Olof’s daughter Ingegerd. At a great Thing held in Upsala, in
+1018, King Olof listened to Norwegian emissaries pleading for peace
+and a royal marriage. Jarl Ragnvald complained of the annoyance caused
+to his people of West Gothland. King Olof became indignant, but was,
+through the forcible yet dignified appeal for peace by Torgny, the
+_lagman_ (justice) of Tiundaland, compelled to a promise of peace and
+a concession of marriage. But the king did not keep his promises. A
+betrothal was arranged but soon annulled by Olof, and the Norwegian
+king was in vain expecting his promised bride. At the instigation of
+Jarl Ragnvald, Olaf Haraldson married King Olof’s illegitimate daughter
+Astrid. As this was done without the consent of her father, Ragnvald
+dared not remain in Sweden. He went to Gardarike (Russia), where he
+died shortly afterward, in 1019, his widow, the princess Ingegerd, in
+Novgorod becoming the wife of the Russian ruler Jaroslaf.
+
+In Sweden, trouble was brewing against the king, who had broken faith
+with his people, and in order to avoid open revolt King Olof was
+forced to divide his power with one of his sons, who, although yet
+a minor, was solemnly elected king. He had in baptism received the
+name of _Jacob_, which so displeased his heathen subjects that it
+was changed to _Anund_. King Olof also agreed to maintain peace with
+Norway, meeting his son-in-law at Konghæll, in Bohuslæn, in 1019, for
+a peace agreement. King Olof died two years later and was buried by
+the church of Husaby, where he was baptized. He was the first king who
+introduced coinage into Sweden. The earliest coins were made of silver
+by Anglo-Saxons settled in Sigtuma, and resemble closely Anglo-Saxon
+coins of the same period.
+
+After the death of his father King Anund ruled alone. He entered into
+an alliance with his brother-in-law of Norway against Canute, who now
+was king both of Denmark and England. During Canute’s absence, Anund
+and Olaf invaded Denmark. In the subsequent strife between Olaf and
+Canute, Anund took no active part. King Olaf had to flee to Russia.
+Upon his return he gathered an army in Sweden, with the help of Anund,
+and entered Norway through Jemtland. At Stiklastad he met the much
+superior Norwegian army, and lost his battle and his life, in 1030.
+After his death, the sentiment in Norway changed radically, and he was
+worshipped as a saint throughout the North.
+
+Of Anund’s reign little is known. Adam of Bremen, an ecclesiastic,
+whose history of the diocese of Hamburg and Bremen, during the period
+788-1072, is one of the most important sources of Swedish history
+in heathen times, says of Anund: “Young in years, he excelled in
+wisdom and piety all his predecessors; no king was more beloved by
+the Swedish people than Anund.” The historian gives as his authority
+the Danish king Svend Estridsen, who as an exile stayed at Anund’s
+court. Anund died in 1050 and was succeeded by his older half-brother
+_Emund_, surnamed _the Old_. He was the son of a freed woman, the
+daughter of a Vendish chief. For this reason he had been passed over
+at the first election. Emund was educated by his mother’s relatives,
+was baptized, but was not much of a Christian. He was popular neither
+with the new Christian church nor with the people at large. Emund’s
+unpopularity with the masses was caused by an agreement with Denmark in
+regard to the boundaries when he ceded the province of Bleking. Emund
+died in 1060. With him the old royal line became extinct. A new line
+comes to the throne of Sweden, where, with the general acceptance of
+Christianity, a new era commences.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+_Early Christian Era--Stenkil’s Line and Interchanging Dynasties_
+
+
+The sources of Swedish history during the first two centuries of the
+Middle Ages are very meagre. This is a deplorable fact, for during that
+period Sweden passed through a great and thorough development, the
+various stages of which consequently are not easily traced.
+
+Before the year of 1060 Sweden is an Old Teutonic state, certainly of
+later form and a larger compass than the earliest of such, but with
+its democracy and its elective kingdom preserved. The older Sweden,
+such as it had existed at least since the days of Ingiald Illrade,
+was in regard to its constitution a rudimentary union of states. The
+realm had come into existence through the cunning and violence of the
+king of the Sviar, who made away with the kings of the respective
+lands, making their communities pay homage to him. No change in the
+interior affairs of the different lands was thereby effected; they
+lost their outward political independence, but remained mutually on
+terms of perfect equality. They were united only through the king, who
+was the only centre for the government of the union. No province had
+constitutionally more importance than the rest, no supremacy by one
+over the other existed. On this historic basis the Swedish realm was
+built, and rested firmly until the commencement of the Middle Ages.
+In the Old Swedish state-organism the various parts thus possessed a
+high degree of individual and pulsating life; the empire as a whole was
+also powerful, although the royal dignity was its only institution. The
+king was the outward tie which bound the provinces together; besides
+him there was no power of state which embraced the whole realm. The
+affairs of state were decided upon by the king alone, as in regard to
+war, or he had to gather the opinion of the Thing in each province; any
+imperial representation did not exist and was entirely unknown, both
+in the modern sense and in the form of one provincial, or sectional,
+assembly deciding for all the others. The latter form is one of
+transition, the modern form the ripe fruit, both brought out by the
+historic development. In society there existed no classes. It was a
+democracy of free men, the slaves and freed men enjoying no rights.
+The first centuries of the Middle Ages were one continued process of
+regeneration, the Swedish people being carried into the European circle
+of cultural development and made a communicant of Christianity. With
+the commencement of the thirteenth century Sweden comes out of this
+process as a mediæval state, in aspect entirely different to her past.
+The democratic equality among free men has turned into an aristocracy,
+with aristocratic institutions, the hereditary kingdom into an
+elective, or, at least, into one close upon turning into an elective,
+kingdom, while the provincial particularism and independence have
+given way to the constitution of a centralized, monopolistic state. No
+changes could be more fundamental.
+
+For lack of sources the historians were, until quite recently, led
+to the belief that the change was due to one tribe in gaining the
+ascendency over another, the political supremacy changing from one part
+of the country to another. The epoch was called “The Struggle between
+Swedes and Goths,” “The Struggle about the election of kings between
+Swedes and Goths.” Now it is generally admitted that the struggle was
+between principles, not between tribes. The circumstances sometimes
+were such that one section or province opposed others, but these
+divisions never were identical or at all depended upon racial or tribal
+conditions. It was a struggle between heathendom and Christianity,
+democracy and aristocracy, provincial particularism and centralized
+state unity.
+
+The old provincial laws of Sweden are a great and important inheritance
+which this period has accumulated from heathen times. The laws were
+written down in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, but they bear
+every evidence of high antiquity. Many strophes are found in them of
+the same metre as those on the tombstones of the Viking Age and those
+in which the songs of the Edda are chiefly written. In other instances
+the text consists of alliterative prose, which proves its earlier
+metrical form. The expressions have, in places, remained heathen,
+although used by Christians, who were ignorant of their true meaning,
+as, for instance, in the following formula of an oath, in the West
+Gothic law: “Sva se mer gud hull” (So help me the gods). The laws show
+a good many individual traits and differences, but these are not of
+such a serious character as to give evidence of having been formulated
+by tribes of different origin. A remarkable exception is formed by
+the laws of matrimony and inheritance for the inhabitants of Værend
+and Bleking, who, it will be remembered, are the descendants of the
+Herulian immigration in historic times. In lieu of a missing literature
+of sagas and poetry, these provincial laws give a good insight into
+the character, morals, customs and culture of the heathen and early
+Christian times of Sweden. From the point of philology they are also
+of great value, besides forming the solid basis of later Swedish law.
+How the laws could pass from one generation to another, without any
+codification, depends upon the facts that they were recited from memory
+by the justice (_lagman_ or _domare_), and that this dignity generally
+was inherited, for centuries being carried by the descendants of one
+and the same family.
+
+Interesting is the appendix to the law of the island of Gothland,
+the Guta Saga, being the fragment of a history of the island and its
+first contact with Christianity through a visit by St. Olaf of Norway.
+The style is the same simple and serene one as in the Icelandic
+sagas; while the Gutnic dialect, in which it is written, more closely
+resembles the Gothic of Bishop Wulfila in vowel sounds than the
+language of any other known dialect. Quite an important appendix is
+found in the older form of the West Gothic law, consisting of lines of
+the kings of Sweden, with short but highly valuable accounts of their
+reigns and characteristics.
+
+_Stenkil_ was the name of King Emund’s successor. He was a jarl and
+married to Emund’s sister. The statement that he was born in West
+Gothland is not confirmed by the authorities. His father’s name was
+Ragnvald, and it seems likely that this Ragnvald was identical with the
+jarl spoken of above, who died in Russia. Stenkil had close relations
+with Russia, for his son Inge was called in from that country to
+succeed his father. If Jarl Ragnvald was Stenkil’s father, this only
+made his selection as king more plausible, being then the half-brother
+of Isiaslaf of Russia and the brother-in-law of the reigning kings of
+Hungary, France and Norway. King Stenkil was a devout Christian, but
+of a sagacious disposition, careful not to offend his heathen subjects
+by any Christian propaganda. He was a giant in size, and although
+phlegmatic, an ardent sportsman. Adalvard, exiled by Emund, returned
+and did active work as bishop of Skara, also converting the population
+of Vermland. Even among the heathen of Svealand, Christianity got a
+foothold, Adalvard the Younger being established as bishop in Sigtuna,
+close by the pagan centre of Upsala. But when he, in conjunction with
+Egino, of the newly erected bishop’s chair of Lund, schemed for the
+destruction of the heathen temple of Upsala, he was removed by the
+command of the king, who found that such a plan, if carried through,
+would prove disastrous to both Church and throne.
+
+During the short reign of Stenkil there was a conflict with Norway, an
+exiled Norwegian jarl having been granted possessions in Vermland. King
+Harald Hardrade invaded Gothaland, punishing this insult by a victory
+over the Swedes. No further complications ensued, perhaps on account of
+the close family relations of the two rulers.
+
+Stenkil died in 1066, leaving two sons, _Halsten_ and _Inge_, both
+minors. During their minority two men, both named _Eric_, relatives of
+Stenkil and the old royal line, fought for supremacy, and both fell
+in the contest for the crown. Hakon of West Gothland took hold of the
+reins of state and kept them for thirteen years, until King Halsten
+became of age, Hakon himself dying. Halsten was a devout Christian
+like his father, but less sagacious, trying to force the new faith
+upon the heathen of Svealand. For this reason he was dethroned, and
+his brother Inge called in from Russia. But King Inge was a Christian
+enthusiast like his brother, and was subsequently driven away by
+the irate inhabitants of Svealand, who now called to the throne his
+brother-in-law _Sven_, surnamed _Blot-Sven_ (_Sven, the Sacrificer_),
+of heathen faith. The royal brothers dwelt undisturbed among the
+Christians, but after three years King Inge, in old heathen style,
+surrounded and set fire to the domicile of Blot-Sven, who with all
+his household perished within. King Inge resumed his reign, likely
+very much in his old spirit, for two other pretenders, although less
+formidable, appeared: _Olof Næskonung_ (_Nose-king_) and a son of Sven,
+called _Kol_ or _Eric Arsæll_. Two papal documents are preserved from
+Inge’s reign. They consist of letters from Gregory VII., making appeals
+for closer relations between the pope and the Swedish king.
+
+An invasion was made from Norway, whose king, Magnus Barfod, subdued
+the inhabitants of the province of Dal. King Magnus built a fortified
+place on the island of Kollandsœ in Lake Venar, close to the shore of
+West Gothland, but it was captured by King Inge, who set its occupants
+free, but without their weapons. Two battles were fought at Fuxerna,
+the Norwegians being victors in the first, the Swedes in the latter.
+Peace was effected at a meeting between the two kings at Kunghæll in
+the summer of 1101, when it was agreed that the frontiers should remain
+as they were before the war. King Eric Ejegod was also present at
+the meeting, where the betrothal between King Magnus and King Inge’s
+daughter Margaret was agreed upon. On account of the original nature of
+the meeting the Swedish princess was surnamed Fredkulla (Peace-Maiden).
+
+In 1103 the bishopric of Lund was raised to the dignity of an
+archbishopric, yet not becoming perfectly independent of the
+archbishopric of Hamburg-Bremen. The archbishop of Lund received the
+title of Primas of Sweden, preserved long after Sweden had obtained its
+own archbishop.
+
+King Inge died in 1111, receiving, by the appendix to the West Gothic
+law, credit for “having ruled Sweden with manliness, without breaking
+the law which governed each province.” About his brother Halsten,
+who died before him, the same source says: “He was sagacious and
+good-natured; the cases brought before him were bettered, and Sweden
+became worse through his death.” At the time of Inge’s death, Jemtland
+was persuaded to pay scat to the Norwegian king, but it remained in
+connection with the church of Sweden.
+
+Inge’s son Ragnvald died before him, and Halsten’s sons, _Philip_ and
+_Inge the Younger_, ascended the throne. They were of a more peaceful
+disposition toward the heathen than their predecessors, Christianity
+making great progress during their reigns. Philip died in 1118, Inge
+following him in 1125; his death was said to have been caused by
+poison. The epitaph over the two runs thus: “Sweden fared well while
+they lived,” in the terse language of the source quoted above. With
+them the race of Stenkil became extinct in the male line.
+
+In 1123 the Norwegian king, Sigurd Jorsalafare, undertook a crusade
+to the eastern parts of Smaland, which were still heathen. “Crusades”
+of this kind were not uncommon during that period, and were hardly
+anything else than Viking expeditions in Christian disguise.
+
+Great confusion ensued through the extinction of Stenkil’s line.
+_Ragnvald Knaphœfde_, probably the son of Olof Næskonung, was
+chosen king, but lost his life through the contemptuous neglect of
+an ancient custom. The newly elected king should always make a tour
+of the realm, receiving homage and giving assurance of his good
+faith to the population of the various provinces. The provincial
+laws had stipulations as to the nature and number of the _gisslan_
+(hostages) to meet and escort him through each province. This tour,
+called _Eriksgata_, Ragnvald undertook without accepting hostages upon
+entering West Gothland. He was killed at Karleby, in 1130, by the
+peasants, indignant at what they considered an insult to all the West
+Goths. These had, moreover, made another choice in Magnus Nilsson, the
+son of Margaret Fredkulla in her second marriage. Magnus never made
+claim to the Swedish throne, endeavoring to become king of Denmark,
+after his father, Nils Svendsen, but losing his life in the attempt.
+
+_Sverker_, who had married the widow of the younger Inge, was in 1133
+chosen king by the East Goths, and the Up-Swedes (in the provinces
+north of Lake Mælar), having no special choice of their own, also
+agreed on him. After the death of Magnus Nilsson, the West Goths joined
+by formally acknowledging King Sverker, who, born in East Gothland,
+has been supposed to be the son of Eric Arsæll, without solid reasons.
+During Sverker’s reign ecclesiastical matters developed. The old
+bishoprics of Birka and Sigtuna were changed into that of (Old) Upsala,
+where the pagan temple seems to have been at last changed into a
+church. New bishoprics were created in Linkœping, Strengnæs, Westeros
+and Vexio. The whole of Swedish Finland formed one diocese. The famous
+Bernard of Clairvaux was asked by King Sverker and his queen Ulfhild to
+send monks of his order, and several Cistercian convents were founded.
+The quiet and scholarly monks from France, no doubt, soon began to
+exert a beneficial influence of importance, through the means of their
+superior culture. A papal legate, Nicolaus of Alba (later Pope Hadrian
+IV.), visited Sweden in 1152, meeting all the dignitaries of Church and
+State for a conference at Linkœping. The legate was willing to give to
+Sweden an archbishop, but the matter was postponed, since no agreement
+could be reached in regard to the archbishopric’s seat. Measures for
+the establishment of the Church on a firmer basis and the payment of
+Peter’s pence to Rome were agreed on.
+
+Sverker was a good and peaceful monarch, but seems with old age to have
+lost some of his authority. A war with Denmark was brought on through
+an escapade of his son John, who had carried away two Danish women of
+noble birth. He returned them, and was himself killed by the peasants
+at a Thing. Yet the Danish king, Svend Grade, had the excuse for an
+invasion and entered Smaland with an army in the winter of 1153-54.
+The brave inhabitants of Værend gave him a hearty welcome, and he soon
+returned to Denmark. It is an old tradition that a woman by the name
+of Blenda was chiefly instrumental in this result. When the peasants
+feared to attack the superior enemy, she had a splendid meal spread
+for the foe. After the Danes had partaken heavily of its eatables and
+drinkables, they were surprised and routed by their hitherto invisible
+hosts and hostesses.
+
+King Sverker, now called “the Old,” was murdered by his valet while
+starting for the Christmas matins in 1155 or 1156. The murder was,
+without doubt, committed at the instigation of the Danish prince Magnus
+Henricsson, who on his mother’s side was a great-grandson of Inge the
+Elder, and who in this manner made his first attempt to reach the
+throne of Sweden.
+
+Already, in 1150, the Up-Swedes had in _Eric_, the son of Jedvard,
+found a man in their opinion better suited to rule Sweden than Sverker
+the Old. His mother is said to have been the daughter of Blot-Sven
+and the sister of Kol, while his father was “a good and rich yeoman.”
+Through a mistake he was named _Eric IX._, but is more commonly known
+as _St. Eric_. One source calls him “lawgiver,” although nothing is
+definitely known of his activity in this direction. At the death of
+Sverker, his son Charles was certainly of age, but the growing fame
+of King Eric made it useless for him to force his right, and Eric was
+recognized as king of the whole realm.
+
+King Eric was a warm friend of the Christian propaganda in his own
+country, and by crusades spread the faith outside of its borders. It
+was only natural that Sweden should turn its attention to Finland,
+with which country it had stood in close relations since the remotest
+period, and where Swedish settlements in all times existed. Accompanied
+by Bishop Henric of Upsala, King Eric sailed with a fleet to the
+southwestern part of Finland, or the province now called Finland
+Proper, where the inhabitants were forced to receive baptism. This
+crusade must have taken place late in the fifties of the twelfth
+century. Eric soon returned, but Bishop Henric remained with other
+priests to have Christianity firmly established. These efforts met
+with considerable difficulty, and Henric was murdered by one of his
+converts. He was later worshipped as the patron saint of Finland.
+
+The pious King Eric was attacked by the perfidious prince Magnus
+Henricsson at East Aros (the present or New Upsala), in 1160. It is
+said that Eric was attending mass at the Trinity Church, when he was
+told of the approach of his enemy. He remained till the service was
+over, after which he went to meet his fate. He was overcome and slain
+by the superior force. His pious life and virtues and the miracles
+which were said to have been worked at his grave made him the patron
+saint of Sweden, although never canonized by the Church of Rome. His
+bones are preserved in a shrine of gilt silver behind the high altar in
+the cathedral of Upsala, and were in Catholic days objects of worship.
+Oaths were taken “by the power of God and Saint Eric the King,” his
+banner was carried in war, and the city of Stockholm still has his
+image on its shield.
+
+_Charles Sverkersson_ (_Charles VII._) now made valid his claims, the
+whole people rising to support him against the usurper Magnus. In the
+following year Magnus was killed by the indignant people. During the
+reign of Charles some important novelties in Church and State were
+introduced. Sweden received, in 1164, her first archbishop in Stefan,
+a monk of Alvastra. The archbishop’s seat was first Old Upsala.
+Instead of jarls in the various parts, there is from this time on a
+jarl for the whole kingdom at the side of the king, whom he assists
+in the government of the state, sometimes obtaining a power rivalling
+that of his master. The first jarl of the realm was Ulf, the second
+Gutorm. The rivalry noticeable between the different provinces, which
+all thought themselves called upon to select a new line to rule after
+Stenkil’s, ceased at the death of Saint Eric. What follows is a rivalry
+of interchanging dynasties. Charles Sverkersson was, in April, 1167,
+surprised by a pretender to the throne, Knut Ericsson, who deprived him
+of crown and life, while his little son Sverker was saved and carried
+away to the queen’s uncle, Valdemar the Great of Denmark.
+
+_Knut Ericsson_ was the son of Saint Eric, and ruled Sweden for
+twenty-five years in peace. In his youth he had made one unsuccessful
+attempt to reach the throne, after which he fled to Norway. After the
+death of King Charles he had to fight two pretenders, Kol and Burislev,
+the latter said to have been a son of King Sverker.
+
+During this period the Baltic and its coasts were continually disturbed
+by heathen sea-rovers from the southern shores. A fleet of this kind
+entered Lake Mælar in 1187 and destroyed by fire the town of Sigtuna,
+which, as a mercantile centre, had succeeded the earlier destroyed
+Birka. The second archbishop of Sweden, John, was killed by the
+invaders. The first preliminary plan for the fortification of the
+present site of Stockholm was probably then laid, in order to prevent
+further invasions, and a little town commenced to grow up.
+
+Conditions in Finland were not satisfactory. Invasions by Esthonians
+and Vends were frequent, while the Finns themselves were troublesome
+and little devoted to the new faith. Bishop Henric’s successor was
+killed, but Sweden continued to send bishops during the next hundred
+years.
+
+The relations with foreign powers were peaceable, the first known
+treaty between Sweden and a German prince being entered into by King
+Knut and Duke Heinrich of Saxony and Bavaria, in regard to trade
+relations with Lubeck. King Knut died in the winter of 1195. He had
+four sons, but although he had selected one of them for his successor,
+“with general consent and through election by the foremost men in
+Sweden,” _Sverker the Younger_, the son of King Charles, succeeded him.
+That this could take place without serious objection of Knut’s sons
+can only be explained by the influence wielded by the Church and the
+nobles. The latter had already grown up to strength and importance.
+Their leader was the mighty jarl, Birger Brosa, who had succeeded
+Gutorm. He was of the influential family of Folkungs, which, one of the
+first in the land, soon aspired to the throne. Birger, himself married
+to a Norwegian princess, gave his own daughter Ingegerd in marriage to
+the new king, and remained in power.
+
+King Sverker sought the favor of the Church by supporting its claims.
+In a document of the year 1200, by which he donates some property to
+the church of Upsala, historians have seen the privileges extended to
+the Church as an independent power of state, whose members could be
+arraigned before an ecclesiastic forum only, and whose property was
+to be exempt from taxation. This is the spirit of the document; but
+the king had not, at that period, the right to grant such extensive
+privileges. King Sverker, and probably each of his successors, in turn,
+gave only an assurance of their sympathy with the Church policy, which
+was to its full extent an assured victory only toward the close of the
+thirteenth century.
+
+In 1202, Birger Brosa died, and with him the firm support against the
+pretenders had fallen. The sons of Knut now made open revolt, leaving
+their places at Sverker’s court. In 1205, Sverker gave battle to them
+at Elgaros, three of the brothers being killed and the fourth, Eric,
+fleeing to Norway. But a few years later he returned with an army,
+and Sverker found it safest to retire to Denmark, whence he returned
+with a splendid army, which King Valdemar II. Seier, had placed at
+his disposal. But this army was defeated at Lena, in West Gothland,
+in 1208, and Sverker returned to Denmark, now turning to the pope,
+Innocent III., who in vain threatened the pretender with his ban.
+Sverker entered Sweden with a new Danish army, but was killed at the
+battle of Gestilren, in West Gothland, in 1210.
+
+_Eric Knutsson_ now came to undisturbed possession of the throne and
+thus remained until his death in April, 1216, his reign being short and
+uneventful. He was the first king of Sweden of whom it is known with
+certainty that he was anointed and crowned, thus placing himself under
+the protection of the Church. His queen, Rikissa, a sister of Valdemar
+II., returned to Denmark after his death, there giving life to a son,
+who was named Eric, after his father. King Valdemar tried in vain to
+have this royal babe placed on the Swedish throne.
+
+_John Sverkersson_ succeeded King Eric, being, on account of his
+fifteen years of age, first surnamed the _Young_, later _the Pious_.
+By confirming and extending the rights of the Church which his father
+granted he won the favor of the ecclesiastics, and the attempts made
+by Valdemar to have his consecration prohibited proved futile. Toward
+the end of his short reign (in 1220) King John undertook a crusade
+to Esthonia, where he left behind him his jarl, Charles, a brother
+of Birger Brosa, and Bishop Charles of Linkœping, with a part of the
+army. These all perished in an onslaught made on them by the heathen
+in August of the same year, and the ravages by Esthonians continued as
+before. King John died in the island of Visingsœ, in Lake Vetter, in
+1222, like several of his predecessors, and was, like them, buried in
+the monastery of Alvastra.
+
+_Eric Ericsson_ now became king of Sweden. The royal babe was then six
+years of age, a halting and lisping little creature. The Church took
+him under its protection, but there was no powerful man to take hold of
+the government during his minority. A pretender rose in the person of
+_Knut the Tall_, a great grandson of St. Eric, like the king himself.
+He defeated Eric’s troops at Olustra, in 1229. Eric fled to Denmark,
+where he remained until the short and restless reign of Knut came to an
+end through his death, in 1232. Eric resumed the reins of government,
+with the Folkung, Jarl Ulf, at the helm.
+
+Pope Gregory IX., in 1230, gave commandment to the Swedish bishops
+to rouse the people to opposition against the ravages of the heathen
+in the Baltic provinces in the further parts of Finland. In 1237 he
+commands the Swedish bishops to have a crusade started against the
+heathen Tavasti in the interior of Finland. This crusade took place
+under the leadership of Birger Magnusson, who converted the barbarous
+Finns by the sword and erected a fort on the site of the later
+Tavastehus. Birger, according to Russian testimony, tried to extend
+the dominion of Swedish supremacy as far as to the river Neva, but was
+repulsed by the Russians.
+
+Peace had reigned in Sweden for some time when new conflicts ensued.
+The peasants of Upland made an uprising in 1247, but were conquered
+at Sparrsætra and punished by heavier taxes. A pretender rose in the
+person of Holmger, the son of Knut the Tall. He was captured and
+beheaded in 1248.
+
+A papal legate, Bishop William of Sabina, visited Sweden and arranged,
+in 1248, an ecclesiastical meeting at Skenninge, effecting the
+final separation of Church and State, and establishing the former
+as an independent power at the side of the latter. Archbishops and
+bishops were now to be elected by the ecclesiastics and not by the
+king. Celibacy, previously not enforced in the Swedish church, was
+then introduced, meeting with a good deal of opposition; for the
+ecclesiastical offices had already commenced getting hereditary, as had
+in earlier times the combined dignities of Asa priest and chieftain.
+Birger Magnusson had, shortly before the meeting of Skenninge,
+succeeded Ulf as jarl of the realm. This converter of the Tavasti was
+destined to play a most important part in Swedish history, shaping its
+destiny through the power of his iron will. He was the leader of the
+Folkung family and party, a nephew of Birger Brosa, and married to
+princess Ingeborg, a sister of the reigning king. _Birger Jarl_, as
+he is generally called, effected a satisfactory agreement with Norway
+at a meeting with Hakon in the summer of 1249, according to which the
+enemies of one realm should have no refuge, or support, in the other.
+Besides, it was agreed that the son of the Norwegian king should marry
+Rikissa, the daughter of Birger Jarl.
+
+King Eric died in 1250, at the age of thirty-four. He called himself
+Eric III., while in later times, when St. Eric was supposed to have
+been the ninth king of that name, he has been called Eric XI. He was
+said to have been peaceful, just and kind.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+_The Mediæval State--The Folkung Dynasty_
+
+
+With Eric Ericsson the royal line of Saint Eric became extinct. The
+crown was, on account of his birthright, offered to _Valdemar_, the
+oldest son of Birger Jarl. He was crowned in Linkœping in 1251.
+From this period on, a new historic source is found in the rhymed
+chronicles, of which Swedish literature possesses several elaborate
+ones of more than 22,000 verses in all. Of these the Old, or Eric’s,
+Chronicle, was written about 1320, and, like all the rest, anonymously.
+The verses are fine, the language pure and powerful; the portraits of
+historical personages are roughly drawn but interesting. Unfortunately
+these rhymed chronicles in general, and the Eric’s Chronicle in
+particular, dwell rather on the description of impressive events of
+pomp and splendor than on historical facts; and the facts given are not
+always reliable. The Eric’s Chronicle gives a brief review of events
+during the reigns of Eric and Valdemar; then for the events up to 1319
+more fully.
+
+According to the Eric’s Chronicle, Birger Jarl wished to succeed Eric,
+but had to step aside for his son, who was of royal descent through his
+mother, King Eric’s sister. But Birger Jarl remained the all-powerful,
+although uncrowned, ruler till his death.
+
+Many of the nobles were not satisfied with the election of Valdemar.
+They joined forces, gathering hired troops from Denmark and Germany.
+Birger met them at Hervadsbro and defeated them, capturing the leaders,
+who were beheaded. Among these were Philip, a son of Knut the Tall, and
+Knut Magnusson, with others of the Folkung family, which often was at
+war between themselves when great interests were at stake.
+
+After this battle peace reigned under the powerful and sagacious rule
+of Birger. An assault upon Denmark by King Hakon of Norway and Birger
+jointly was planned, but a peace agreement took its place, in 1253. In
+the further complications between Norway and Denmark, Birger took no
+part. When later King Christopher of Denmark called upon his northern
+neighbors for help against revolts in his own country, these were
+ready to respond; but at the sudden death of King Christopher these
+plans were frustrated. In 1260 Birger bettered the already friendly
+relations with Denmark, by arranging the marriage between King Valdemar
+and the Danish princess, Sophia, whereupon he, himself a widower,
+married Mechtild, a queen-dowager of Denmark. In Finland, conditions
+were the same as of yore, pagan tribes and Russian invasions rendering
+everything unsafe and perilous. Birger renewed the trade agreement
+with Lubeck, in 1251, with added privileges to Lubeck, but with the
+stipulation that those of its citizens who settled in Sweden must
+become Swedish subjects. In 1261 the same privileges were extended to
+Hamburg. It was at this period that the Hanseatic League was formed
+between the commercial centres of North Germany. The relations between
+the league and the Scandinavian countries waxed quite intimate and, at
+times, menacing to the political independence of the latter. But Sweden
+derived many benefits through the contact with the reviving culture
+of Southern Europe, which was brought about through the Hanseatic
+League; the newly opened mining industry and the prosperity of Swedish
+commercial centres particularly owing much to this influence. Stockholm
+became the largest and most important of Swedish towns during the
+days of Birger, although he was not its founder. Also with England,
+Birger was carrying on peaceful proceedings; yet their purpose is
+not known. In 1237, the king of England had granted the merchants of
+the island of Gothland free trade privileges. Birger was a great and
+sound legislator, although it is not known with certainty how many
+of the judicial reforms accredited to him originated in these days.
+He made the law that sister should have equal share of inheritance
+with brother, and the laws of sanctity of home, Church, Thing and
+woman, which formed the kernel of a set of laws, later called _Edsœre_
+(Pledged oath), which every crowned king and his foremost men must
+pledge themselves to uphold. He tried to make away with the ordeal
+of walking on, or the handling of, iron as a legal testimony of
+guiltlessness. Further, he prohibited the custom of self-imposed
+thraldom.
+
+The only act of Birger’s which has been condemned was his attempt to
+introduce feudalism. His second son, Magnus, was created a duke, and
+received, at Birger’s death, Sœdermanland, with the castle of Nykœping
+as a duchy. This gave rise to much strife and many conflicts within
+the new royal branch of the Folkungs, and endangered the unity of
+the kingdom. Birger, the last jarl of the realm, was the first real
+statesman of Sweden, whose stern intellect and integrity of character
+won for his country an honored position among its neighbors, and for
+himself the admiration of many generations to come. He died in 1266.
+
+The first few years after Birger’s death were peaceful. The archbishop’s
+seat was removed to the present Upsala, where work was commenced on the
+magnificent cathedral. In 1271 the commercial privileges held by Lubeck
+and Hamburg were also granted to Riga.
+
+Valdemar was a weak and frivolous man, and his licentiousness gave
+his brother Magnus the idea of pushing him aside, and later deprived
+him of the loyalty and respect of his people. The difficulties with
+his brothers ended in open conflict; Magnus and his younger brother
+Eric turned to Denmark and Germany, where they hired an army, King
+Eric Glipping of Denmark helping them with troops on promise of good
+securities. The brothers invaded West Gothland and defeated a Swedish
+army at Hofva, in 1275, while the king with his best troops remained
+inactive at Tiveden. Valdemar fled to Norway, bringing his son Eric
+with him. Venturing back into Vermland, he was captured and brought
+before Duke Magnus. Valdemar went so far as to abdicate his throne, but
+the meeting ended in an agreement according to which _Magnus_ was to
+become king of Svealand and Valdemar to keep Gothaland. Eric was made a
+duke, but died in the same year. Magnus was crowned at Upsala in 1276.
+
+King Valdemar did not long remain content with the new state of things.
+One month after Magnus’s coronation he arranged a meeting with him at
+Lœdœse, over which King Magnus Lagabœte of Norway presided, but without
+being able to effect an agreement between the brothers. Valdemar now
+turned to King Eric of Denmark, and won an ally in him because Magnus
+had neglected to fulfil his promises. Magnus gained a supporter in Duke
+Gerhard I. of Holstein, whose daughter Helvig he married in November,
+1276.
+
+With the year 1277 war commences between Sweden and Denmark. Magnus
+invades Halland and Scania, while Valdemar, with a Danish army, enters
+Smaland, burning the town of Vexio. With King Eric, Valdemar enters
+West Gothland, capturing Skara. At last the Danes are defeated at
+Ettak. Early in 1278 peace is made at Laholm, Magnus promising to
+pay his debt to Eric, leaving the castle of Lœdœse as security. Each
+promises not to shelter the rebels against the other. Valdemar lost his
+cause and had to give up Gothaland and his royal title, keeping only
+his inherited estates. On account of his scandalous living, the nobles
+insisted upon his imprisonment, and ten years after his abdication he
+was placed in custody at the castle of Nykœping. He survived all his
+brothers, dying in 1302. His son Eric was imprisoned at the castle of
+Stockholm, receiving good treatment like his father. When his cousin
+Birger was crowned, in 1302, he was set free, spending the rest of his
+life in Sweden as a private citizen. During Magnus Ericsson’s minority
+he was a member of the king’s council. When Magnus was sole occupant of
+the throne he took the title of “King of the Swedes and Goths,” which,
+occasionally used before, henceforward became the customary one.
+
+A revolt against King Magnus took place shortly after the meeting
+at Laholm. Some of the nobles were dissatisfied with the favoritism
+shown foreigners, a complaint which was only too often justifiable,
+and forever repeated, in the course of centuries, against the
+Swedish monarchs. Count Gerhard of Holstein was imprisoned, and the
+Danish knight, Ingemar, killed. The king invited the rebels to him
+at Gællqvist, where he in an unexpected way made them prisoners, and
+had them beheaded, in August, 1280, confiscating their property. This
+incident is characteristic of the time, but there is no other authority
+for it than the Chronicle. The reign of Magnus was comparatively short,
+but a happy and glorious one. The relations with the island of Gothland
+were made closer and more intimate, although the proud independence of
+its inhabitants remained largely intact. They were to pay increased
+scat, but continued their government without royal officials. The Guts
+were of Swedish origin, and their island formed since the ninth century
+a part of Sweden, but their isolated position and great commercial
+activity made them almost independent. About the year 1000 they seek
+for themselves protection from the Swedish king, and after their
+baptism they turn to the bishop of Linkœping for spiritual guidance.
+Thanks to its position, halfway between Germany, Russia and Sweden,
+Gothland gives rise to the most important commercial centre of Northern
+Europe after Lubeck. The inhabitants of Visby were Germans, to a great
+extent, and their conflicts with the rural population were frequent.
+King Magnus appears as an arbitrator in such cases with an authority
+great enough to impose his conditions. In spite of the inimical
+relations between Denmark and Norway, Magnus held peace with both.
+
+As a legislator Magnus was even more important than his father, shaping
+and reshaping laws which furthered the development of the country
+and wielding an influence upon its jurisdiction reaching down to the
+present day. At a meeting of nobles at Alnsnœ, in 1280, King Magnus
+gave solemn pledge to the so-called Edsœre-laws of his father, and
+made the nobility into a privileged class. All the men surrounding him
+and his brother Bengt (made duke of Finland), and on their estates,
+together with the trusted men in the service of a bishop, were freed
+from paying taxes to the king. The same privilege was extended “to
+all men who served with a horse, whosoever they serve.” The exemption
+from taxes did not include those due the church or community, but only
+those due the king. The horse service (_ross_ = later _rusttjenst_)
+meant to provide for a cavalry force of iron-clad men for military
+service, according to the demands of the time. The nobles saw to it
+that this privilege was made permanent even after they had discontinued
+the horse service, and that others were added to it. A law prohibiting
+_voldgæstning_, the custom of travellers of taking by violence, or
+without compensation, food and comfort from the rural population, was
+also made at Alnsnœ, and won for King Magnus the rustic but beautiful
+surname of _Ladulas_ (Barn-lock). “For he wished to place such locks on
+the peasant’s barn, that no one should dare enter but at the will of
+the owner,” wrote Olaus Petri, the historian and reformer. An official
+was placed in every country town to see to the traveller’s comfort, and
+to his payment for it. At a meeting in Skenninge, in 1285, a law about
+_konungafrid_ (royal sanctity) was made in order to prevent strife
+among the nobles and to make away with the ancient evil of revenge for
+bloodshed. This period of royal sanctity, when between men of the most
+strained relations peace should reign, commenced a fortnight after the
+king’s arrival had been announced at the Thing and lasted until he had
+by letter informed it of his departure out of the province. The one
+who abused this sanctity, or only carried weapons, was exiled and his
+property confiscated. Secret societies among the nobles were prohibited.
+
+Magnus was not only a great legislator, but saw to it that his laws
+were not broken. Personally he loved splendor and dignity, another
+trait through which he won the favor of the Swedes, who in all times
+have been fond of seeing their highest representatives surround
+themselves with impressive luxury and wealth. Magnus was in this
+respect the first mediæval monarch of Sweden, who kept a brilliant
+court, but at the same time was the pious and obedient son of the
+Church. He augmented the ecclesiastical privileges and founded several
+convents. In one of these, St. Clara of Stockholm, he installed his
+daughter Rikissa. Upon his death, which deplorable event took place
+in the island of Visingsœ, December 18, 1290, he was buried in the
+Franciscan convent church (the Riddarholm’s) in Stockholm, according
+to his own wish. He was the first monarch to be entombed in this the
+present Pantheon of Sweden. Three sons survived him, Birger, Eric and
+Valdemar.
+
+During the reign of Magnus, the development of mediæval institutions
+took rapid strides. This is noticeable also in the offices of those
+who surround the king. In the place of the jarl have been set two new
+dignitaries the _drotsete_ and _marsk_, of the king, “the seater of
+the retinue” and “marechal” or “servant of the horse,” respectively.
+Circumstances heightened the importance of these offices and changed
+them from court into state positions, the president of the state
+council and the commander of the army. The _kansler_ (chancellor),
+often a bishop, is another important royal office. The king’s council,
+consisting of bishops, knights and men of social standing, surrounds
+the monarch at his command and according to his selection, the
+archbishop being the only ex-officio member. Important affairs of State
+and Church are decided on at the meetings of nobles, _herredagar_,
+no one taking part who is not asked, or not agreeable to the king.
+These meetings later developed into _riksdagar_, at which all classes
+of the people were represented. Taxes were collected for the king by
+bailiffs, who in compensation received fiefs, sometimes consisting only
+of certain estates, in other instances as much as a whole province
+or district. The right of taxation belonged to the people. Only in
+extraordinary cases the king was allowed to impose additional taxes,
+although such were sometimes imposed wrongfully, in spite of a law
+stipulated by King Magnus Barn-Lock.
+
+_Birger_ succeeded his father Magnus. He was only ten years of age,
+but his father had placed by his side a man who was to reign during
+his minority. Marsk _Tyrgils Knutsson_ was the second of the great
+uncrowned rulers of whom Sweden was destined to receive a number
+almost as large as that of illustrious monarchs. Tyrgils Knutsson
+followed out the policy of peace and progress which Birger Jarl had
+commenced and King Magnus continued, making in all the happiest era of
+the Middle Ages. To Birger Jarl’s conquest of Tavastland in Finland,
+Tyrgils added that of Carelia. Two expeditions were sent to Carelia,
+in 1293 and 1299, whose savage inhabitants were converted and made
+Swedish subjects. Viborg was built and formed a stronghold for further
+operations, while Landskrona, another fortified place, erected by
+Tyrgils, not far from the site of the present St. Petersburg, was soon
+lost to the Russians. Through the conquest of Carelia, better times
+commenced for the Church of Finland, whose bishopric, in 1300, was
+moved to Abo.
+
+The legislative work of his great predecessors was continued by
+Tyrgils, who made possible the union of the various “lands” of Upland
+into one judicial district. The first justice was Birger Persson, who
+was at the head of the work of preparing a common law for the whole
+province (in 1296). Neutrality was preserved during the conflicts
+between Norway and Denmark. King Eric Menved of Denmark was, in 1296,
+married to King Birger’s sister, the pious Princess Ingeborg. In 1298
+Birger was married to Eric’s sister Margaret in Stockholm, over the
+lavish splendor of which event the poet of the Chronicle goes into
+ecstasies of delight and felicitous description. Both these unions were
+prearranged by King Magnus, and the princess Margaret had been educated
+in Sweden for the purpose of becoming its queen.
+
+The king was now of age, but Marsk Tyrgils continued for several
+years at the helm. His relations to the Church show what a wise and
+vigorous statesman he was. When in the name of the king the privileges
+to the Church were once more granted, as by his predecessor, Tyrgils
+made the important exceptions that the Church should fulfil for its
+possessions the same military duty as all others in the country,
+and that certain large fines should be reserved for the king. The
+ecclesiastics took quietly to these restrictions at first, but soon an
+open conflict ensued. Another and greater one arose between the king
+and his brothers, Eric, duke of Sweden, and Valdemar, duke of Finland.
+It resembles very much the conflict between their uncle Valdemar and
+his brothers. In both cases there was a weak and deceitful king who
+was inferior, if not in wretchedness, at least in courage, to one of
+the brothers. After the first conflict was ended, the dukes selected
+Marsk Tyrgils for their prey. In March, 1305, Tyrgils saw the king
+grant to the Church the important privileges held back until then. In
+December of the same year the king and his brothers came upon Tyrgils
+unprepared. He was imprisoned, and in a shameful manner dragged to
+Stockholm, travelling night and day through the cold of winter,
+probably by some fraudulent legal process found guilty of treason, and
+beheaded, February 10, 1236. As a climax to this foul political murder,
+Tyrgils Knutsson was buried on the place of execution. Later, his body
+was removed to the church of Riddarholm and placed at the side of King
+Magnus, whose son he had served so faithfully.
+
+The conflict between the royal brothers burst into flame again,
+revealing some of the darkest and most shocking scenes of deceit,
+treachery and villany found in Swedish history. The strife commenced
+in April, 1304, for the first time, and continued, with few and short
+intermissions, until the autumn of 1318, with broken oaths and pledges,
+which were renewed and broken again, alliances and royal betrothals
+formed, ended and renewed, kingdoms and duchies divided and redivided,
+endless intrigues, rebellion and mutual invasions. The kings of Norway
+and Denmark, with their armies, and several German princes and hired
+troops, became actors in this bloody tragedy, which ended in the
+annihilation of the principals. The most dramatic incidents are known
+as “the Play at Hotuna” and “the Feast of Nykœping,” both taking place
+during the short intervals of peace. The former was enacted September
+29, 1306, when the king invited his brothers to him at Hotuna in
+Upland. They accepted the invitation, only to carry the king and
+queen away as captives, forcing the former to give over to them his
+kingdom and his power, only leaving him the royal title. “The Feast at
+Nykœping” was held the night between December 10 and 11, 1317. The king
+and queen invited the dukes to the castle, seized them in the night and
+threw them into a dungeon, where they both perished after six months of
+hunger and neglect. Birger did not derive any benefit from his fearful
+crime. The whole country rose against him and he died, after several
+years of exile, in 1321. Birger has generally been held forth as the
+responsible party in the crimes and evils of the conflict, but his
+brothers seem to have been guilty in about the same degree. Duke Eric
+was one of the most brilliantly gifted princes of his age, and jealousy
+on the part of the king was the spark that kindled the fire. But the
+bad example set by their father of depriving an older brother of his
+throne, and the great possessions and independence of the dukes, were
+the underlying causes. The destruction of both the contending parties
+was an unexpected solution and a great gain for Sweden, whose fate
+appeared sinister, with the prospect of dismemberment or dissolution,
+the dukes holding their vast possessions as heirlooms.
+
+During the conflict Norway had sided with the dukes, Denmark with the
+king. Duke Eric was married to Ingeborg, only child of King Hakon of
+Norway, and Duke Valdemar to his niece of the same name. _Mattias
+Kettilmundsson_ was, in June, 1318, elected drotsete and regent. He led
+an army against Denmark in the interests of the duchesses, invading
+Scania and defeating the Danes near Hessleholm. November 11th of the
+same year peace was made in Rœskilde between the kings, Eric and
+Birger, on one side, and King Hakon and the heirs of the dukes, on the
+other. May 8, 1319, King Hakon died, and _Magnus Ericsson_, the young
+son of Duke Eric, inherited the crown of Norway, and July 8th of the
+same year he was elected king of Sweden at Mora in Upland.
+
+For the attainment of this end Magnus’s mother, Duchess Ingeborg, and
+seven Swedish councillors had worked with great activity. They had
+taken part in shaping the first Act of Union of the North in June,
+1319, and from Oslo, in Norway, hastened to have Magnus elected at
+the Stone of Mora, where the Swedish kings since time immemorial were
+nominated. The Act of Union stipulated that the two kingdoms were to
+remain perfectly independent, the king to sojourn an equally long part
+of the year in each, with no official of either country to accompany
+him further than to the frontier. In their foreign relations the
+countries were to be independent, but to support each other in case of
+war. The king was the only tie to bind them together.
+
+There was another Magnus whose candidacy was spoiled by this union.
+He was the son of King Birger, already, as a child, chosen king of
+Sweden in succession to his father. Magnus Birgersson, a prisoner
+at Stockholm, was beheaded in 1320, to make safe the reign of his
+more fortunate cousin. King Magnus was only three years old, and
+Drotsete Mattias Kettilmundsson presided over the government during
+his minority, the nobles of the state council having great power and
+influence. Both in Sweden and Norway the nobility had by this time
+attained a supremacy which was oppressive both to the king and the
+people, not so much through their privileges as through the liberties
+they took. Their continual feuds between themselves disturbed the peace
+of the country.
+
+In 1332, King Magnus took charge of the government. He was a ruler
+of a benign and good disposition toward the common people, whose
+interests he always furthered. But he lacked strength of character and
+was not able to control the obnoxious nobles. The provinces of Scania
+and Bleking suffered greatly under Danish rule, which was changed
+into German oppression when handed over to the counts of Holstein as
+security for a loan. The people of Scania rose in revolt and asked for
+protection from King Magnus. At a meeting in Kalmar (in 1332) both
+provinces were united to Sweden. But the king had to pay heavy amounts
+in settlement, which were increased when Halland was procured in a
+similar way.
+
+King Magnus was, at his height of power, one of the mightiest monarchs
+of Europe, having under his rule the entire Scandinavian peninsula and
+Finland, a realm stretching from the Sound at Elsinore to the Polar
+Sea, from the river Neva to Iceland and Greenland. In 1335 King Magnus
+rode his “Eriksgata,” when he announced that no Christian within his
+realm should remain a thrall, thus practically abolishing the remnants
+of slavery. In the following year he was crowned with his queen,
+Blanche of Namur.
+
+Magnus took great interest in legislation. During his minority the
+provincial laws were revised. The king himself accomplished the great
+and noble task of having these united into a state law (_landslag_),
+appointing a committee of three justices to do the work. The clergy was
+consulted, but refused to have ecclesiastical laws made for the whole
+kingdom. The state law was first considered in 1347, and was put in
+practice in 1352, being both a digest and an elaboration of the ancient
+provincial laws. In many an instance of foreign or domestic conflicts,
+the people, through its enforcement, found help and shelter from the
+national spirit of this law.
+
+To the financial difficulties which beset the reign of King Magnus and
+made his life a burden the great plague was added. “The Black Death,”
+in 1350, came from England to Norway and spread with great rapidity and
+the most disastrous consequences throughout the North. In certain parts
+of Sweden one-third of the population perished, in other parts even a
+greater percentage, the plague raging with equal violence throughout
+all classes of society. King Magnus had for a long time contemplated
+revenge against the invasions made by the Russians into Carelia. He
+undertook an expedition, under the pretext of a crusade, which ended
+badly, the Swedish fleet being shut in by the Russians and saved only
+by means of digging a canal. The king was severely criticised for
+this crusade, which was construed as a punishment for his sins, and,
+besides, largely increased his debts. The pope was among his creditors,
+who, upon non-payment, placed Magnus under his ban.
+
+The union with Norway was not a happy one. As a minor, Magnus dwelt
+most of the time in Norway, but later principally in Sweden. This
+was contrary to the Act of Union, the state of things in Norway,
+furthermore, necessitating the almost continual presence of the king.
+For this reason his son, _Hakon_, was chosen king of Norway, in 1343,
+Magnus remaining in power until Hakon became of age, and his older son,
+_Eric_, chosen king, or heir-apparent, of Sweden, in 1344. It appears
+that King Magnus was in favor of this separation and had preconceived
+it in giving to his older son the Swedish name of Eric and to the
+younger the Norwegian name of Hakon, both equally characteristic of
+the royal lines of the respective countries. The two young kings caused
+their father considerable annoyance; but, upon the early death of Eric,
+Hakon entered more into harmony with King Magnus. Valdemar Atterdag,
+the crafty and enterprising king of Denmark, took an active part in the
+conflicts, pretending to support Magnus, while simultaneously depriving
+him of Scania, Halland and Bleking, which he captured almost without
+resistance. He landed in the island of Gothland, plundering Visby in a
+treacherous way. Upon his departure, his ships perished in a storm, the
+plundered treasures going down with these, the king himself escaping
+with difficulty. Valdemar arranged a marriage between his little
+daughter Margaret and King Hakon of Norway. Several Swedish nobles of
+great influence considered the treachery and impudence of Valdemar
+and the weakness of Magnus as going too far. They offered the Swedish
+crown to Albrecht, the son of King Magnus’s sister Euphemia. The offer
+was accepted by Duke Albrecht of Mecklenburg, the father of the young
+Albrecht, in behalf of his son. He made a sudden assault upon Stockholm
+in 1363, capturing it. At the Stone of Mora, Albrecht the Younger was
+chosen king of Sweden. Magnus was defeated and made a prisoner at
+Enkœping.
+
+King Magnus was taken to Stockholm and there imprisoned for some time,
+heavily laden with chains. King Valdemar deserted his cause, but the
+common people of Svealand, with whom Magnus had always been exceedingly
+popular, rose in order to free him. Soon King Hakon reached the
+very gates of Stockholm with a Norwegian army, whereupon Magnus was
+released. But he had to abdicate his throne, leaving for Norway, where
+he died, through an accident, in 1374.
+
+_Albrecht_ was the rightful king of Sweden. At the death of Eric he
+became heir-apparent to the Swedish throne, but for having sped on
+the course of events in his own interest, neither he nor his father
+acquired any popularity. They surrounded themselves by a great number
+of Germans, who, through their licentiousness and overbearing manner,
+enraged the people. The country was practically in the hands of a few
+Swedish nobles, among whom the drotsete, Bo Jonsson Grip, through his
+high office and his immense wealth, bore the supremacy. Bo Jonsson
+is said to have been the wealthiest man who ever lived in the North,
+his possessions, fiefs and castles being of an astounding number, the
+most famous among the latter being Gripsholm in the Lake Mælar. He
+loaned money to the king against new castles and fiefs in security,
+and held Albrecht in the most humiliating relation of dependence.
+His enemies he persecuted without mercy, killing one before the high
+altar in the Franciscan church of Stockholm. When Bo Jonsson died, in
+1386, the king tried to better conditions by confiscating to the crown
+some of his possessions. But he met with opposition from the nobles,
+who claimed that he did so only to enrich his German favorites. The
+king was helpless against his councillors, to whom he had handed over
+all his power. They were in possession of all the fortified castles,
+and if one of them died, the king had no right to select a successor
+without their permission. The executors of Bo Jonsson’s will ended by
+offering the crown to Margaret, Valdemar’s daughter, and queen-dowager
+of Norway. She accepted, promising the nobles that they should remain
+in undisturbed enjoyment of their great privileges. Margaret sent
+an army into West Gothland, consisting of men from all three of
+the Scandinavian countries, under the command of the Swede, Eric
+Kettilsson. King Albrecht met with an army to a great extent composed
+of German troops, and was defeated and made a prisoner at Falkœping,
+February 24, 1389. Albrecht was imprisoned at Lindholm, in Scania, for
+seven years, later returning to Mecklenburg.
+
+To the Folkung period belongs one of the most remarkable and renowned
+of Swedish women, herself, on her mother’s side, a Folkung, _St.
+Birgitta_, the daughter of the legislator and first justice of Upland,
+Birger Persson. Her parents were both pious and devoted to ascetic
+practices. As a child she had visions, the holy Mary appearing to her.
+When thirteen years of age she was married to Ulf Gumundsson, later
+justice of Nerike, also a pious man, with whom she made a pilgrimage
+to Spain. Birgitta lost her husband shortly afterward. At the Swedish
+court, where she was the highest functionary of Queen Blanche, she
+had seen political life at close range, gathering a deep and strong
+indignation against the mighty and powerful in the world. Her husband’s
+death moved her deeply, and the religious mysticism of her youth now
+burst forth with increased strength, her visions becoming numerous and
+important. That she believed in them herself there is no doubt, and
+she made the world believe her. At first she hurled admonitions and
+curses against King Magnus and his court; but the wretchedness of the
+whole world attracted her to its spiritual centre, Rome, where she
+lived for twenty-three years in continual and open protest against
+the vices of the popes and priests. She died in Rome, in 1373, at
+the age of seventy, after a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, seeing the two
+great ambitions of her life fulfilled: the pope returning to Rome from
+Avignon, and her creation, the order of St. Salvator, sanctioned by
+the pope. Birgitta was canonized by the pope in 1391, through the
+influence of Queen Margaret.
+
+Birgitta was the greatest political-poetic genius of the mediæval
+North. Her revelations fill eight volumes. She wrote them in Swedish,
+and had a priest translate them into Latin. Some of her original
+Swedish work is preserved. Birgitta appears to have thought in artistic
+images, and these images are of plastic form, often of consummate
+beauty, sometimes witty, sometimes avowedly comic, always effective.
+The melancholy charm of Sweden’s nature suffuses all her writings and
+renders to her peculiar mediæval mysticism a national temperament. From
+Swedish sceneries and animal life she borrows her most beautiful images.
+
+St. Birgitta has by some been considered as a reformer before Luther,
+but not quite correctly. Luther reformed the institutions; Birgitta
+aimed at reforming their upholders, and used against the pope and the
+priests a language almost as strong as Luther’s. Some of her ideas
+were not strictly in harmony with the Catholic dogmas; she insisted on
+a close personal union with God, without the mediation of priests or
+saints, fought for a universal knowledge of the Bible and the preaching
+of the Gospel in the popular vernaculars, and considered the sale of
+indulgences a mortal sin. Four hundred and seventy convents of her
+order, in which men and women were to collaborate for the instruction
+and spiritual guidance of the people, were after her death founded in
+the Scandinavian countries, Germany, Esthonia, Poland, Italy and the
+Netherlands, one existing in England up to the time of Elizabeth. The
+mother institution at Vadstena, in East Gothland, was of the greatest
+importance to the cultural development of Sweden and the North. One
+of the greatest libraries of the Middle Ages was reared, and the first
+book-printing establishment of Sweden founded there in 1490. Within
+its walls a considerable literary activity prevailed, the religious
+literature of the time being copied, or translated into Swedish,
+and many original works written. The Swedish language, used by the
+Birgittine school of writers, tried, by approaching Danish forms, to
+establish a common literary language in the North, the Norwegian having
+approached the Swedish during the time of the close relations between
+the courts of the two countries. These efforts, for a time furthered by
+political relations, were unfortunately soon to be abandoned forever.
+
+Birgitta was a great genius in fetters. Her rare gifts were kept back
+in their development through the idiosyncrasies of her period. She was
+of an indomitable, aristocratic spirit, always remaining the noblewoman
+to whom it was natural to speak the truth to the princes of State and
+Church, because she considered herself their equal through the best
+blood of the North, of which she had her share. This religious mystic
+was a true child of her aristocratic age, which gave to Sweden two
+parallel lines, sometimes identical, of great legislators and weak and
+indulgent princes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+_Unionism versus Patriotism--Margaret, Engelbrekt and Charles Knutsson_
+
+
+Queen Margaret, the successor of Albrecht, for the first time in
+history united the three Scandinavian countries and their dependencies
+under one rule. Born in a prison in which King Valdemar of Denmark had
+placed his consort, Queen Hedvig, there remained in the character of
+Margaret something of the rigor and chill of her uncomely birthplace.
+When she was seven, she was engaged to King Hakon of Norway, and
+married to him at eleven years of age. In Norway, her education
+was continued for several years after her marriage under the stern
+supervision of Dame Martha, a daughter of St. Birgitta, who often
+applied corporal punishment to the young queen. Margaret early gave
+evidence of self-control and power of reflection, and her mind
+developed at the expense of her heart. Her son Olaf became king of
+Denmark upon Valdemar’s death, in 1375, and king of Norway upon that of
+Hakon, in 1380. Upon his death, in 1387, Margaret succeeded him, and
+two years later laid Sweden under her sceptre.
+
+Albrecht was captured, but the Germans still were in possession of
+several Swedish strongholds. These yielded to Margaret, one after
+the other, except Stockholm. In the capital, the German influx of
+soldiers and merchants had made the foreign population exceedingly
+large. They now acted as oppressors. A secret league was formed which
+captured a great number of prominent Swedish citizens, who were cruelly
+tortured with wooden saws and then thrown into an old shed on the
+islet of Kæpplingeholm. The shed was ignited and the poor prisoners
+suffered a terrible death. German freebooters, especially the Vitalen
+or Victuallen Brotherhood, who provided the fortress of Stockholm with
+victuals, were plundering in the Baltic and Lake Mælar, and were the
+allies of the Germans of Stockholm. Margaret was powerless against
+them until she entered into an alliance with the Hanseatic towns. This
+ended the war; Stockholm surrendered and peace was made, in 1395.
+The plunders by sea-rovers in the Baltic were put an end to during
+Margaret’s reign, but cost heroic efforts and much money, while the
+influence of the Hansa grew into menacing proportions.
+
+Margaret was anxious to place the dynasty of the North firmly within
+her line of descent. In 1389, she selected her sister’s grandson,
+Eric of Pomerania, then six years old, her successor, and he was thus
+proclaimed in Norway. In 1395, Eric was chosen king of Denmark and,
+in 1396, of Sweden. At his Swedish coronation in Kalmar, in 1397,
+Queen Margaret, who remained at his side as the real ruler, had the
+outline drawn of an _Act of Union_, which should forever unite the
+three Scandinavian kingdoms under one ruler. Each country was to
+preserve its constitution, laws and traditions unmolested, but they
+were to support each other in times of war. When a king was to be
+chosen, representatives of equal numbers from each country were to
+meet in Halmstad, the sons of kings to be favored by choice. This Act
+of Union was never carried into effect, according to legal forms. The
+sketch or outline of it, such as it is still preserved, was signed by
+representatives of the three countries, although not in equal numbers;
+but why Queen Margaret never allowed it to be enlarged into a legally
+binding document is not known. Her favorite idea was therein embodied,
+and she appeared to have an all-powerful influence over those necessary
+to carry it through.
+
+Margaret made it her object to strengthen the crown and reduce the
+power of the nobles. She cared naught about keeping her promises to the
+latter, confiscating their castles and possessions, and annulling their
+privileges. When they complained, reminding her of her promises in her
+letters to them, she replied: “Keep my letters; I shall certainly keep
+your castles.” All nobles created by Albrecht were entirely deprived
+of their privileges if they could not prove their due qualifications.
+The majority of forts erected during the war were pulled down. No taxes
+were longer imposed, except through written order of the government.
+These reforms were all rigorously carried out, according to the
+“Restitution of Nykœping” of 1396. Margaret succeeded in a remarkable
+way in reducing to normal proportions the power and influence of the
+Swedish nobility. The nobles, who were all-powerful and absolutely
+unyielding in Albrecht’s days, bowed to her gracefully and received
+meekly her severe conditions. An explanation can be found in the fact
+that they had no leader of authority and power among them, after the
+death of Bo Jonsson Grip. Further, Margaret was careful not to fill the
+important offices of drotsete and marsk, when vacant, thus making the
+personal presence and interference of the sovereign necessary on all
+important occasions.
+
+The love of the Swedish people should have been Margaret’s reward
+for her abolition of aristocratic oppression, if she had not been
+in a position which necessitated the imposition of heavy taxes. The
+existence of the common people was made weary and troublesome through
+the payment of the “queen’s tax,” the “stake tax” on each hearth, the
+“rump tax” on each head of cattle, and, worst of all, the “Gothland’s
+release.” Bailiffs, often of foreign birth, collected these taxes
+with great severity. When the queen became aware of the complaints
+against her and her bailiffs, she asked in a letter to the archbishop
+that the people would forgive her in God’s name. “Some of it one has
+not been able to better; some we and they might well have bettered,
+although what is done is done.” Without doubt, there was due reason
+for the heavy taxes in the unsettled relations with other countries
+which existed during Margaret’s reign; the support of the Hansa and a
+war with Holstein, commenced by King Eric, were expensive. The island
+of Gothland had been captured by the so-called German Order in the
+last days of Albrecht’s reign. When the island was redeemed through
+the payment of Swedish money, Margaret made the mistake of installing
+there a Danish bailiff, and it thus for a long time remained a Danish
+province. Margaret believed in the Union and counted no Scandinavian
+a foreigner in either country. But it was contrary to Swedish law to
+install foreigners as bailiffs and vassals, and as she appointed a
+great number of Danes to Swedish fiefs, and never a Swede to Danish
+positions of the same or equal importance, the Swedish complaints, on
+this point, were justified.
+
+Margaret was as severe toward the ecclesiastics as toward the nobles.
+But when she noticed the forebodings of powerful resistance, she made
+important concessions. She was anxious to observe religious practices,
+joining the convent of Vadstena as a “worldly sister,” kissing the
+hands of all the monks and nuns on that occasion. She took interest in
+the conversion of the Laps, sending a baptized woman of their race, by
+the name of Margaret, to preach the Gospel among them.
+
+The war with Holstein concerning the possession of Schleswig had been
+brought to an armistice, and the queen sailed to Flensburg to conduct
+further negotiations. While still on board of her ship, death surprised
+her, in 1412.
+
+Margaret has been called the Semiramis of the North and well deserves
+her widespread fame. During her reign, the Northern countries, through
+her wisdom and strength, enjoyed a degree of order which they missed
+both before and after. She put an end to the foreign influence which
+had governed Sweden. Yet her rule was a disappointment, and the Union
+also. She paved the way for a new foreign influence, by making a
+German prince her successor and by leaning too much on the Hansa. The
+aristocratic oppression was crushed by her, but she introduced the
+oppression through royal bailiffs. She promised to preserve the old
+territory of Sweden unmolested, but placed the island of Gothland
+under Denmark. The Union of which Queen Margaret was the champion her
+successors were not able to grasp or uphold in the spirit of her good
+intentions. To Sweden it came in an inauspicious time when it was not
+fit to receive it. Foreign oppression had irritated the people to
+resistance, and discontent was to give life to patriotism. Sweden had
+recently developed into one joint constitutional body, the various
+provinces giving up their ancient laws for a state law, in which
+the old individual traits were gathered and recognized. We know how
+Sweden was settled, not by various tribes, but by pioneers who, from
+the old home of culture, Scania, penetrated to the wilderness above,
+settling one district after the other, which, one by one, developed
+into provinces, little states by themselves, later united into one
+realm with a common king. One by one these provinces had taken the
+lead in the political and cultural development, often the youngest
+before the oldest. Thus the Swedes, a younger branch of the Gauts, gave
+their name to the country and furnished the rulers, the Guts of the
+island of Gothland securing the commercial supremacy of the sea, and
+the Rus of the outskirts of Upland founding the Russian empire. Now it
+fell upon Dalecarlia, the most recently settled of Swedish provinces,
+to save freedom and independence to a newly regenerated state which
+was awakening to the consciousness of its solidarity of interests,
+aspirations and duties. From Dalecarlia came the first great political
+leader. From there he and his later successors received their chief
+support.
+
+_Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson_ is the earliest and greatest of the
+patriotic heroes of Swedish history. To the glory of his deeds and the
+noble simplicity of his character the death of a martyr gives added
+lustre. Engelbrekt was born at Kopparberg, in the mining district of
+Dalecarlia, where there were many German settlers. Possibly his early
+ancestors were among them; but for three generations at least they had
+been native-born Swedes, Engelbrekt’s father, as he himself, belonging
+to the Swedish nobility, although not of the influential families.
+Engelbrekt had received the chivalric education of his time at the
+courts of the great nobles, being next in rank to a knight, _væpnare_
+(squire), at the opening of his career. He was small of stature,
+but eloquent, courageous and of a lofty mind. The integrity of his
+character was absolute; his personal necessities were few and plain.
+
+King Eric was a highly educated and refined man, not without a certain
+ability, but entirely without discernment and patience for the various
+demands and conditions of the countries over which he was set to rule.
+His foreign bailiffs in Sweden, mostly Danes, with a fair sprinkling
+of Germans and Italians, were still less in sympathy with his Swedish
+subjects. They tried to manage them as they did the Danes and the
+inhabitants of more southern countries, for centuries accustomed to
+slavery, ignorant of the ancient spirit of independence of the Swedish
+yeomanry, abated but not suppressed. When oppression no longer kept
+within reasonable bounds, the Swedish patience came to an end, and
+first in the youngest and most solitary parts of the country.
+
+The most hated of Danish bailiffs was Jœsse Ericsson, of Westmanland
+and Dalecarlia. After having confiscated the horses of the peasants,
+he is said to have harnessed the men to plows and the women to
+grain-loads, once suffocating five peasants. Engelbrekt felt compassion
+for the misery of the suffering people and accepted the commission to
+seek the king, to make complaints in their behalf. He appeared before
+King Eric in Denmark, demanding punishment of the cruel bailiff and
+offering to go into prison or surrender his life if not speaking the
+truth, as was the custom of the time. The king gave him a letter to
+the Swedish council of state, demanding an inquiry which was promptly
+made. When Engelbrekt for a second time appeared with the corroboration
+of his statements from the Swedish councillors, the king sent him away
+in a fit of impatient rage. Upon his return, the Dalecarlians rose in
+a body, selecting Engelbrekt as their leader and marching south to
+Westeros. The councillors met and promised to have justice done in
+the case. But things remained the same until the following spring, in
+1434. At midsummer the Dalecarlians commenced operations. The fort of
+Borganæs and the castle of Kœping were destroyed. Engelbrekt asked the
+people of Westmanland to join him, which they did to a man, the nobles
+also joining upon evidence of the determination of the popular leader.
+In Upsala, Engelbrekt found the people of Upland ready to join, and he
+made clear to the great multitudes the mission he had undertaken. He
+now felt strong enough to take a hand in the affairs of state; with
+the consent of the leading nobles reducing the taxes by one-third.
+Engelbrekt called upon a young, high-spirited nobleman, Eric Puke,
+to bring Norrland to revolt and destroy the forts of that district,
+which commissions Puke fulfilled to the letter, thereupon reinforcing
+Engelbrekt with his men. In the meantime, the people of western
+Sœdermanland rose by their own determination, destroying Gripsholm;
+the bailiff of the castle escaping with his treasures in boats over
+Lake Mælar. In Vermland and Dal the people followed these examples
+of revolt. The commander of the Stockholm fortress agreed upon an
+armistice, other castles surrendering or promising to surrender.
+
+Engelbrekt met the council of state at Vadstena, escorted by 1,000 men
+of his best troops. Without fear or haughtiness, he pleaded the cause
+of his country, advising the councillors in firm and eloquent words
+to see to it that the foreign oppression came to an end. The council
+hesitated, Bishop Knut of Linkœping stating that the oath to the king
+could not be broken. To this Engelbrekt answered that the king had
+pledged many oaths but kept none, for which reason the people were
+freed from their oath. Upon a wholesome demonstration of force the
+councillors gave in and dictated a letter in which they broke their
+pledge to King Eric, yet giving as an excuse that they were compelled
+to do so. The revolt had now spread to all parts of the kingdom, at
+least 100,000 being armed to meet the emergency. But so carefully
+and quietly was the work of liberation performed that no harm was
+done in the parts where the peasant armies were moving. After having
+entered Halmstad, Engelbrekt returned to Westeros, where the army was
+scattered, but soon gathered again upon the report that the king with
+a fleet was approaching Stockholm. Upon his arrival, the king found
+Stockholm enclosed by a peasant army and returned to Denmark, forced
+to agree to an armistice. At a meeting in Arboga, Engelbrekt was
+elected regent. This was the first meeting in which representatives
+of the merchant class and the yeomanry took part, being thus the
+first _riksdag_ or parliament composed of the four Estates--noblemen,
+ecclesiastics, burghers, and yeomen.
+
+King Eric promised, upon his return to Stockholm, to govern the country
+according to its laws and through Swedish men, appointing Krister
+Nilsson Vasa drotsete, and Charles Knutsson Bonde marsk. But so badly
+did he keep his promises that he was once more dethroned. The nobles
+hastened to elect Charles Knutsson regent, but through pressure which
+the peasants brought to bear it was agreed that he should share his
+power with Engelbrekt and lead the siege of Stockholm, while the latter
+should free the country from the bailiffs reinstalled by the king.
+
+Upon his second tour through the country, Engelbrekt was seized by
+illness, but being called to Stockholm by an important state affair,
+he started over the lakes thither from Œrebro. One evening he stopped
+at an islet in Lake Hielmar for the night. When he saw a boat approach
+with Mons Bengtsson on board he staggered on a crutch down to receive
+him. This man sprang ashore and assaulted Engelbrekt, who tried to ward
+off the blows of the axe with his crutch, but failing to do so he was
+killed on the spot, in April, 1436. The perpetrator of this beastly
+murder was a son of a noble with whom Engelbrekt had been engaged in
+some controversy which he had recently settled to the satisfaction
+of both parties. The murderer escaped; but, although shielded from
+punishment by Marsk Charles Knutsson, he was shunned by everybody, his
+high-born and wealthy relations for several centuries refusing to carry
+the proud family name (Natt och Dag) upon which he had brought shame.
+
+The memory of Engelbrekt is one of the most honored and most beloved in
+Swedish history. He waged the first battle against the oppression which
+foreign intrigues had brought upon his country, and saved from the
+peril of slavery the ancient freedom and independence of the Swedish
+people.
+
+Through a remarkable coincidence, a cousin of Engelbrekt’s murderer,
+Nils Bosson, a young follower of the popular hero, who took his
+mother’s family name of Sture, was to become the father and grandfather
+of two of the most revered of Engelbrekt’s successors; Nils Bosson
+himself being as sympathetic and upright a type of nobleman as any
+time or country has produced.
+
+Charles Knutsson, after Engelbrekt’s death, was the most influential
+man in Sweden. But he was a very different man. Belonging to the
+highest aristocracy, he was himself of great wealth, highly talented,
+well read, and a great traveller. He was exceedingly handsome,
+dignified, amiable, eloquent, and possessed a voice of unusual charm
+and strength. But he was a prey to ambition, determined to make his
+way to the throne, but little careful in the selection of his means
+toward that end. He aroused the suspicion and hatred of Eric Puke,
+whom he irritated to revolt only to get him in his power. This noble
+but headstrong man was executed for treason, while Drotsete Krister
+Nilsson, who signed the death-warrant in the interest of Charles,
+himself was persecuted by the latter and deprived of all his fiefs save
+one. Charles showed great severity in punishing the peasants, who were
+Puke’s supporters, four of them being burned alive; thus losing the
+popular sympathy, while becoming an object of envy in the eyes of the
+nobles. These recalled King Eric, who was again found impossible and
+soon dethroned also in Denmark.
+
+_Christopher of Bavaria_, a nephew of Eric, was elected to succeed him
+(in 1440) by the nobles of Denmark and Sweden. He was a good-natured
+man, who allowed the aristocrats of Sweden to rule as they pleased,
+only keeping an eye on Charles Knutsson. Christopher died in 1448.
+During his reign a new state law was issued in 1442, called “King
+Christopher’s land’s law,” although the king probably had very little
+to do with its form or stipulations. It offered a few improvements, but
+in general so closely resembled the older state law that the one was
+often mistaken for the other and both remained valid until 1736.
+
+_Charles Knutsson (Charles VIII.)_ returned from Finland, which duchy
+had been held under his supremacy, four months after Christopher’s
+death, and was by an overwhelming majority elected king of Sweden.
+Shortly after his coronation at Upsala he was elected king of Norway
+and crowned at Drontheim, in 1449. His reign opened with a lucky
+expedition to the island of Gothland. But in the following year King
+Charles lost both Gothland and Norway to Christian of Denmark, with
+whom the Unionist party of Sweden entered into secret plots against
+the king. Invasions and intrigues followed. Christian invaded Smaland,
+East Gothland and Vermland, to which Charles responded by an invasion
+of Scania, destroying the old town of Lund with nineteen of its twenty
+churches, the cathedral alone being spared. Christian took revenge by
+an invasion of West Gothland, capturing Lœdœse. Another Danish army
+marched through East Gothland, but met defeat at Holaveden through an
+onslaught made by Swedish peasants. The valiant Tord Bonde, a cousin
+of King Charles, took the Danes by surprise, recapturing Lœdœse. An
+armistice of two years was agreed on, in May, 1453.
+
+In the battle against open and secret enemies things turned out badly
+for King Charles. The best supporter of his cause, his cousin Tord, was
+murdered by a Danish traitor in his service, in 1456, and a new and
+dangerous enemy was encountered in the Church. The king had confiscated
+to the crown a number of estates which the Church had gained in an
+illegal way. While preparing for an expedition to Œland, and having
+instructed the archbishop to gather troops for him, Charles learned
+that this man, Jœns Bengtsson Oxenstierna, had turned against him. The
+archbishop deposited his ecclesiastical robe at the high altar of the
+Upsala cathedral and started, sword in hand, with his forces to meet
+the king. Charles tried to surprise him, but was himself caught in a
+trap and met his enemy on the ice of Lake Mælar. The encounter proved
+a defeat to Charles, who in haste stored his treasures in a convent in
+Stockholm and sailed for Dantzic.
+
+_Christian_ of Denmark was called in by the archbishop and chosen king
+of Sweden. Christian was a sagacious ruler, but his great need of
+money, incurred by the redeeming of Schleswig and Holstein, made him
+unpopular. As the easy-going Christopher had been surnamed “Bark-king,”
+on account of dearth experienced in Sweden during his reign, when the
+people had to mix bark with their flour, thus Christian, on account of
+his avidity, was called “The Bottomless Purse.” During Christian’s war
+with Russia, the archbishop was commissioned to collect the increased
+taxes, but failing to do so, to the full extent demanded, he was
+imprisoned at the command of the king. This caused indignation.
+
+Kettil Karlsson Vasa, a nephew of the archbishop, and the bishop of
+Linkœping, revolted and defeated the king and his army at Haraker’s
+church, in Westmanland, in 1464. The victors then marched on Stockholm.
+The popular opinion of the country demanded the reinstallation of
+King Charles. The peasants wanted him “because Sweden was of old a
+kingdom, not a regent’s land or a diocese.” King Charles returned in
+the same year, but soon left the throne again on account of a conflict
+with Bishop Kettil. This latter turned to Christian, promising a
+safe return to the crown if he set free the archbishop. Christian
+immediately did so, the worthy bishops commencing operations against
+Charles, who, defeated and forsaken by all, abdicated his throne,
+January 30, 1465. The once upon a time richest man of Sweden was now
+deprived of all, Christian having taken his hidden treasures. He
+retired to Raseborg, a castle in Finland, which after some hesitation
+was granted him. “We have,” wrote he, “in such manner departed from
+Sweden, that never longeth us to return thither the third time.” He
+also complained of his misery in the following strophe of assonance
+verse:
+
+    While I was lord of Fogelwick
+    Then I was both mighty and rich,
+    But since made the king of Svea land
+    I am a poor and unhappy man.
+
+Great confusion reigned in Sweden during the next two years. Bishop
+Kettil, who styled himself regent, tried to conduct the government
+in common with the archbishop, but the great nobles did their own
+pleasure. At last one of them, Ivar Axelson Tott, who had the island of
+Gothland in fief, joined the party of Charles, marrying his daughter.
+His brother, Eric Axelson, was made regent. Nils Bosson Sture had
+been repeatedly asked to accept this dignity, as also the crown, but
+he refused. He and Sten Sture, of the original Sture family, who led
+the army under Bishop Kettil at Haraker, now made possible the second
+reinstallation of Charles, in 1467, the ambitious archbishop dying in
+the same year. But Charles was old and weary of the vanities of life,
+for which he had made so many sacrifices. It was only the valor and
+strength of the two Stures that made it possible for him to keep the
+crown and to die in the purple, in 1470. He designated Sten Sture as
+his successor at the rudder of state, but warned him not to seek the
+crown. “That ambition,” he said, “has crushed my happiness and cost my
+life.”
+
+Charles is very sympathetically dealt with in the New Rhymed, or
+Charles Chronicle, probably written by one of his men, who flatters
+him, as did the Old Chronicle the ill-fated Duke Eric. Still the
+Charles Chronicle and its continuations, the Sture Chronicles, are
+very important historic sources of these periods of Unionism versus
+Patriotism, from Margaret to Gustavus Vasa. The less reliable Prose
+Chronicle and the later historic works by Ericus Olai, Johannis Magnus
+and Olaus Petri, also throw light upon them. What all of these have
+in common is a fiery patriotic spirit, entirely lacking in the placid
+and artistic lines of the Old Chronicle as compared to the New. With
+the seeds of patriotism were sowed those of national hatred against a
+foreign foe. That the Dane and not the German was destined to be this
+national enemy was disastrous to the Union of the North, but probably
+a gain for the cultural development of Sweden. This period is rich
+in shorter poems on political men and conditions, all of a strongly
+democratic flavor. Among these the song about his friend Engelbrekt, by
+Bishop Thomas of Strengnæs, occupies a high place, but a still higher
+one the Song of Liberty, by the same high-minded patriot.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+_Unionism versus Patriotism--Uncrowned Kings of the Sture Families_
+
+
+Sten Sture the Elder was chosen regent by the council of state and
+elected by the people at the Riksdag of Arboga, in 1471. For more than
+half a century following upon the reign of Charles VIII., Sweden was
+governed by uncrowned kings, with the intermission of a few years.
+These regents had not any republican ideals in mind, nor were they
+secretly coveting the crown. Their ambition was simply to uphold
+a strong and firm national government by means of which foreign
+lordships could be made impossible, the people enjoy their rights and
+their liberty, and the government increase in power and authority
+at the expense of Church and nobility. The policy laid down by Sten
+Sture the Elder, and strictly adhered to by him and his successors,
+was of the broadly democratic spirit of Engelbrekt. This policy was
+strengthened by the high esteem in which the regents were held. Yet
+their position was a very difficult one, for although enjoying the full
+confidence of the people, they were regarded with envy and suspicion
+by the aristocracy, who never could be persuaded but that these noble
+uncrowned rulers were secretly scheming for obtainance of the royal
+crown.
+
+Sten Sture had the good fortune to inaugurate his reign with a
+glorious victory over King Christian, which put an end to Danish
+invasions during a whole generation. Christian arrived at Stockholm
+with a fine fleet and a magnificent army, taking his position at
+Brunkeberg, close to the north of the capital. Here a long and fierce
+battle was fought, October 10, 1471. Sten Sture commanded a large
+army of peasants, attacking Christian’s fortified position from the
+north, supported by Knut Posse, with burgher troops, from the south.
+At the third attack victory was won, Nils Bosson Sture arriving on the
+battle scene with an army of Dalecarlians. King Christian was wounded
+in the mouth; the famous Danish Oriflamme, Dannebrog, was captured,
+being surrounded by five hundred corpses of select Danish knights.
+Through the prestige of the great victory at Brunkeberg, Sten Sture
+managed to give Sweden ten years of undisturbed peace and comfort.
+Encouraged by the victory over the foreign invaders, the city of
+Stockholm took the lead in ridding the towns of undue influence, caused
+by the supremacy of German commerce. The town laws held a stipulation
+that half the number of councillors in each town council should be
+Germans. A petition headed by the burghers of Stockholm and circulated
+through the towns was acted upon, the council of state abolishing by
+law the stipulation in question. Free markets were established in
+the commercial centres Kalmar and Sœderkœping, and a new commercial
+town was founded on the Gotha River, to be called Gothahamn, although
+the name was changed to New Lœdœse. In spite of the supremacy of the
+Hanseatic League, commerce was good, the iron mines of Dalecarlia,
+Westmanland, Nerike and Eastern Vermland growing in importance, and
+silver being produced by various mines in Dalecarlia.
+
+Lord Sten gave careful and loving attention to the needs of the
+yeomanry and the common people. He kept an open and watchful eye on
+the bailiffs, and carried out the demands of justice with severity.
+Many farms, desolate and neglected during the times of war, were
+brought under cultivation. Lord Sten made no decision in any matter
+of importance without consulting the yeomen and the burghers, as well
+as the nobles, at _Riksdagar_, the parliamentary nature of which was
+further developed. With a firm hand he held the nobles down to order
+and the requirements of a national democratic policy. The powerful
+brothers Ivar and Eric Tott especially caused him annoyance, the former
+holding the island of Gothland, the latter the duchy of Finland, in
+fief. It came to open hostilities with Ivar Tott who, defeated and
+deprived of his castles, fled to Denmark, taking revenge by turning the
+much contested island over to said power.
+
+Lord Sten was a very pious man, but he held the ecclesiastics under
+strict surveillance on account of their unpatriotic tendencies. But he
+collaborated with them for the establishment of a state university at
+Upsala, in which the archbishop, Jacob Ulfsson, was greatly interested.
+Sanctioned by the pope, the university was opened in 1477, with great
+ceremonies. One of its earliest professors was Ericus Olai, the author
+of the first but rather uncritical work of Swedish history, Chronica
+Regni Gothorum, written in awkward mediæval Latin, but in a style
+attractive through its vivacity. Latin was chiefly used by the learned
+and literary men. The cloisters and the cathedrals had schools where
+the young people were trained for the learned professions, chiefly
+the Church. For a university education, the institutions of Cologne,
+Prague, Leipzig and Bologna, but chiefly Paris, the greatest of them
+all, had been sought. The Swedes had three _collegia_ in Paris, and the
+Scandinavians held there an honored position as scholars, the Swedes
+three times filling the office of rector or president of the Paris
+university, the highest dignity of learning in the world. Ingeborg
+Tott, the wife of Sten Sture, was a great friend of learning, having
+books printed at her expense and collecting a large library in the
+convent of Mariefred, founded by Lord Sten.
+
+The peace of the country was disturbed by a war with Russia. Attacks
+on the castle of Viborg had been made shortly after the battle of
+Brunkeberg, but warded off by Eric Tott, who in return invaded Russian
+territory. After his death the valiant Knut Posse was made commander of
+Viborg. The Russians, in 1495, made a violent attack upon the castle,
+damaging it considerably. But Posse led the defence with superior
+skill, repulsing the enemy with astounding force. This deed has become
+famous in popular traditions, both Swedes and Russians crediting Posse
+with an alliance of a supernatural order. The regent himself twice
+headed expeditions to Finland, forcing a new Russian army to retire
+over the frontier. Affairs were going badly on account of unsafety
+in Finland, and dearth and intrigues in Sweden. The council of state
+accused Lord Sten of not doing all he could for Finland while secretly
+fanning the discontent of the commanders, who made personal sacrifices
+of time and money by remaining with the army. It came to hot words
+between Lord Sten and the commander Svante Sture, the son of Nils
+Bosson. He returned home, although Lord Sten told him he was a deserter
+in so doing, “fleeing from the banner of state.” Svante Sture, who
+with Posse had made a glorious inroad upon Russian territory, now
+joined the aristocratic enemies of the regent, calling in King John
+(Hans) of Denmark. John succeeded Christian in 1482, and commenced
+intriguing for the Swedish crown. The Swedish nobles were anxious to
+have this good-natured monarch for ruler. Lord Sten was too sagacious
+to openly oppose them, when they, in the so-called _Recess of Kalmar_
+of 1483, declared _John_ king of Sweden, the king promising the island
+of Gothland to Sweden, and all old privileges to the nobles. By means
+of skilful diplomatic operations, Lord Sten delayed matters to such an
+extent that it took fourteen years before John II. was king of Sweden
+in anything but name. But the time was ripe for Svante Sture’s open
+conflict with Lord Sten. The council, the archbishop leading, broke
+their faith with the regent, offering King John the crown. He came with
+an army to Stockholm, taking his position at Brunkeberg. An army of
+Dalecarlians marched upon the capital at the solicitation of Lord Sten,
+who awaited them with another army. The operations took an unfavorable
+turn on account of misapprehended movements, Lord Sten with difficulty
+saving his life. King John understood that a continued struggle would
+lead to his ultimate defeat and made peace. Lord Sten retired, but
+with the greatest fiefs given to any Swedish man; viz., the whole
+of Finland, with large possessions besides. When the king entered
+Stockholm, in October, 1497, it was at the arm of Lord Sten, to whom he
+said jestingly: “Have you now prepared everything well for me at the
+castle, Lord Sten; the table set with meat and ale, so that my guests
+may make merry?” Lord Sten answered in the same light spirit, pointing
+to the Swedish nobles who had joined the royal retinue: “That these
+know best who stand there behind you. They have it all both baked and
+brewed.” Later the king remarked: “Lord Sten, it is a bad inheritance
+you have bequeathed on me in Sweden; the peasants whom God created
+slaves you have made into lords, and those who should have been lords
+you try to make slaves.” At his coronation in Upsala, the king bestowed
+knighthood upon many Swedish nobles (something that had been beyond
+Lord Sten’s authority to do), upon his return to Denmark appointing
+Lord Sten to take the reins of government with three state councillors
+at his side.
+
+King John’s reign in Sweden was of short duration. He failed to return
+the island of Gothland to the Swedish crown and lost his prestige
+through an unsuccessful war in Ditmarschen. Svante Sture, who had
+not been dealt with according to his expectations, declared war upon
+the king and joined Lord Sten, who was in an unenviable position and
+glad to shake off the Union with Denmark, which he did, in 1501, when
+made regent for the second time. With a peasant army siege was laid
+to the castle of Stockholm, held by the energetic Queen Christine,
+who capitulated after a heroic struggle. Three days later King John
+appeared with an army, but returned, seeing that he came too late.
+Lord Sten retained Queen Christine at Vadstena for some time, later
+escorting her to the Danish frontier. Upon his return he was taken ill
+and died suddenly at Jœnkœping, December 14, 1503. With him the older
+or original line of the Sture family became extinct. Lord Sten was the
+greatest ruler since Margaret, and his rule, being of a more patriotic
+and democratic tendency, was of greater benefit to Sweden than hers.
+
+_Svante Sture_ succeeded Sten. He was of the younger Sture line, the
+son of the noble patriot, Nils Bosson, who in the time of Charles
+VIII., as the friend of Engelbrekt and Bishop Thomas, had taken stand
+against the archbishop and the nobles, backed by the Dalecarlians,
+who adored him. Lord Svante was a very quick-tempered man, which led
+him into the conflict with Lord Sten. Unlike the regent and his own
+father, he never had experienced what Danish oppression meant, which
+accounts for his unwise decision in joining the Unionists. The war with
+Denmark lasted eight of his nine years of reign, which proves him an
+able soldier and a stanch patriot. His position from the start was less
+favorable than that of his predecessor, who could reign in the glory of
+his early victory at Brunkeberg.
+
+Lord Svante had in _Doctor Hemming Gad_ a patriotic adviser of rare
+attainments and great learning. He had studied in Rostock, was for
+twelve years Lord Sten’s representative in Italy, and later bishop of
+Linkœping, although never sanctioned and finally placed under ban by
+the pope. Hemming Gad was the first democratic agitator of Sweden,
+a warm admirer of the Stures, and a good soldier. His statecraft he
+had evidently learned in Italy with her traditions of Machiavelli.
+His literary style is very characteristic, the language of a learned
+ecclesiastic with the oaths of a soldier. Those of his writings which
+are still extant prove a great love for the common people, a love which
+was returned by them. Having organized the revolt against King John, he
+evinced great slyness and presence of mind at the death of Lord Sten.
+To preserve its secrecy until Svante was forewarned and in possession
+of the castle of Stockholm, he had a man dress in the clothes of the
+deceased regent and continue the journey to the capital with Sten’s
+retinue.
+
+The Unionist party was as ready as ever to offer the crown to King
+John, their representatives agreeing to pay a yearly tribute until
+he or his son Christian was chosen king. This agreement was made in
+1509, but it called forth a storm of indignation from the patriots and
+the people, and was never considered by the government. Lubeck opened
+hostilities against Denmark and was joined by Sweden, the Unionists
+recommencing deliberations whenever it looked favorable for Danish
+interests. Lord Svante made sure of peace and safety for Finland before
+taking up the conflict with the Danes. On the eastern shore, Hemming
+Gad led the operations against the town and castle of Kalmar, held by
+the Danes. The town was soon captured, but the castle not before the
+end of 1510. Ake Hansson (Natt och Dag) fought with great valor and
+considerable success against the Danes on the western and southern
+frontier, until this “Tormentor of Denmark,” as he was surnamed, was
+killed in battle in 1510. On the sea the Danes were superior, a fleet
+under the command of Otto Rud and Soren Norrby plundering Abo in
+Finland. But when Lubeck’s fleet appeared the Danes were forced back.
+Peace was made, but soon broken. Lubeck sent a fleet to invade the
+coast of the Danish isles; Hemming Gad, with several Swedish ships,
+taking part in the expedition. Denmark did her best to crush Swedish
+resistance by inducing Russia to break the peace, the emperor to
+declare Sweden the arch enemy of the German empire, and the pope to
+place her under ban.
+
+More unfortunate to Sweden than these intrigues was the fact that King
+John in his son Christian had an able warrior and a great organizer.
+Prince Christian put down a revolt in Norway against Danish oppression,
+entering West Gothland with a superior army. The Unionists assembled
+to force the regent to abdicate, but he firmly refused to do so. A
+rebellion seemed imminent, Lord Svante hastening to Westeros to confer
+with the people of the mining districts. Shortly after the opening
+of the meeting, Lord Svante died quite suddenly, after a stroke of
+paralysis, in January, 1512.
+
+The council of state selected Eric Trolle, a learned but unfit man
+of the Unionists, to succeed Lord Svante. But the popular opinion
+condemned him, and the council was forced to choose Svante’s son as his
+successor.
+
+_Sten Sture the Younger_ was barely nineteen years of age at his
+father’s death. Knighted when only five, he early distinguished
+himself as a warrior, winning fame for his chivalric spirit and
+noble character, and, like his illustrious namesakes, his father and
+grandfather, becoming the idol of the people. And he deserved their
+idolatry. More resembling his grandfather in the sweetness of his
+disposition than his sterner predecessors, he was as great a warrior as
+his father, to which he joined the sagacity and power of self-control
+characteristic of the elder Lord Sten. As a youth, he was made regent
+of a country in war, distress and peril. He was called away by death
+when only twenty-seven, leaving behind the memory of not one evil deed
+to soil the glory of his fair name, although continually placed in
+trying and dangerous positions of strife, rivalry, envy and rebellion.
+He made his will respected by high and low with a temperance in spirit
+and methods worthy of the highest admiration and the devoted love of
+the people. The young Lord Sten had a tender heart for the lowly and
+the suffering, never fearing to wring their rights from the oppressors,
+whosoever they were. He took great interest in the pursuits of peace,
+during the intervals allowed by his successful exploits in war. In
+spite of the plague and other contagious diseases, which, together with
+the destruction of war, ravaged the country, he left it in a better
+condition than he received it. In many ways more farseeing than his
+contemporaries, his name will live on for centuries as one of the most
+beloved in Swedish history.
+
+With the younger Lord Sten, other new actors appeared upon the stage
+of Scandinavian history. Christian II. succeeded his father upon the
+throne of Denmark and Norway. In Sweden, Archbishop Jacob Ulfsson
+retired and was succeeded by Gustavus Trolle, a son of Lord Eric. The
+new archbishop was of a hateful and jealous disposition. He resolved to
+avenge the treatment his father had received at the hands of Lord Sten
+and the Swedish people by placing Christian on the throne. The young
+regent made no less than four attempts to win over this formidable
+enemy, but all in vain. He opened up a court at Stæket, in Upland, more
+brilliant than that of Lord Sten, and accepted subsidies from Denmark.
+At last, fully aware of the secret deliberations going on, Lord Sten
+surrounded Stæket and called a Riksdag at Arboga, in 1517, where it was
+resolved that Christian should never become king of Sweden, and that
+the siege of Stæket should be continued. Christian sent a little army
+to support his ally, but Lord Sten met it at Ladugardsland, outside of
+Stockholm, completely routing it. A new Riksdag was called at Stockholm
+before which the archbishop appeared upon truce. His language was
+haughty and disdainful. He said he was in his full right to support
+King Christian’s claims with mitre and sword, the pope sanctioning his
+policy; and to the pope alone he was responsible. The indignant Riksdag
+resolved that the archbishop should be deprived of his seat, being
+guilty of high treason, and that his castle should be burned. The
+resolution was written down and signed by all the bishops, none daring
+to oppose the yeomanry. Bishop Brask, of Linkœping, managed to conceal
+in the wax of his seal a paper with the words: “To this I am forced by
+necessity.” The archbishop returned to defend Stæket, but soon had to
+flee with his followers. It was only by using all his authority that
+Lord Sten could save his enemy’s life from the irate people. Trolle
+was forced to resign his seat and was imprisoned in a convent at
+Westeros, while his castle was torn down. Lord Sten wanted to appoint a
+successor to Trolle, but Bishop Brask objected that the pope might not
+consent to his removal. To this Lord Sten uttered the following manly
+words, hardly in touch with the policy of Rome: “I think that our most
+holy father, the pope, and the canonic law should not tolerate as the
+leaders of the Church, and as the precepts or mirrors to the people,
+men who are infested by open treason, in particular against their own
+country.” The Church tried various means to gain a settled condition of
+things. When Sten refused the royal crown from its hand, he was at last
+placed under ban.
+
+The hostilities with Denmark recommenced. King Christian appeared with
+a fleet and an army, in June, 1518, laying siege to Stockholm. His
+attacks were valiantly repulsed, and Christian, fearing to be encircled
+by his enemies, marched away in a southeasterly direction, taking a
+firm position at Brennkyrka. A Swedish army met him from the south
+and gave battle one of the last days of July, 1518. It was a fierce
+conflict, ending with a victory for the Swedes. The chief banner was
+carried by the squire Gustavus Ericsson Vasa, who five years later was
+to become king of Sweden. Christian returned to attack Stockholm, once
+more in vain. He was to sail for Denmark, but was kept back by storms,
+great suffering being experienced by his men. Christian was forced to
+open deliberations, making very high demands. But Lord Sten refused to
+hold a meeting, postponing it to the following year. A few days later,
+King Christian sent word that he wanted the regent to visit him in his
+ship on important affairs. Lord Sten, always good-natured and ready to
+accept peace, thought that the king had changed his mind and was ready
+to go. But the burgomaster and council of Stockholm prevailed upon him
+not to go, sure that it would bring him into the enemy’s hands. Lord
+Sten took their advice and arranged for a meeting on land, sending six
+Swedish nobles as hostages to the king at his demand. Among these were
+Dr. Hemming Gad and Gustavus Ericsson Vasa. For two days Lord Sten
+waited in vain for the king to appear. Then he learned, to his dismay
+and indignation, that King Christian had sailed to Denmark, taking the
+hostages with him as prisoners, October 4, 1518.
+
+Christian collected all his forces and resources to crush Sweden.
+The whole of the following year was spent in preparations. Sweden
+was placed under ban by the pope, and Christian made himself his
+representative, the one who was to fulfil the heavenly punishment. In
+January, 1520, a large Danish army invaded Smaland and West Gothland.
+Lord Sten made an appeal to the people and gathered a peasant army,
+with which he met the superior force of the enemy at Bogesund, in
+West Gothland. The Swedish forces were arranged in line on the frozen
+surface of Lake Asund. Lord Sten rode in front of the line, encouraging
+his men, but was seriously wounded during the very first engagement
+and carried from the field. After two vain attempts, the Danes were
+victorious in overthrowing the Swedes. These gathered in the wooded
+hills of Tiveden for a last heroic resistance, which was broken; the
+Danes taking possession of the provinces to the north. Lord Sten,
+mortally wounded, died on the ice of Lake Mælar during his journey
+to Stockholm. Christian continued his march on Stockholm, the castle
+of which was heroically defended by Lord Sten’s consort, Christine
+Gyllenstierna, who also tried by support and exhortations to encourage
+other strongholds not yet surrendered to resist the Danes. The castle
+of Kalmar was defended by another heroic woman, Anna Bielke. But
+Christian won, through persuasions and deliberations, what he could
+not take by violence. His operations were carried on by Dr. Hemming
+Gad, who, for reasons unknown to history, had changed his old patriotic
+views and become a friend of Christian. In September, 1520, Christian
+won Stockholm by peaceful agreement. The 4th of November he was crowned
+by Trolle, the reinstalled archbishop. At this occasion it caused
+considerable surprise that only Danes and Germans were knighted, the
+herald proclaiming that the country was won by sword, for which reason
+no Swede could be thus honored. This was in striking contrast to
+Christian’s proclamation of having ascended the throne by right of his
+descent from St. Eric. Worse things were to follow.
+
+The 7th of November a great number of Swedish nobles were called to
+the castle of Stockholm, where they were brought before a tribunal,
+the king presiding. The archbishop asked for remuneration for the
+sufferings caused him during Lord Sten’s reign. A jury of bishops and
+nobles convened. Christine Gyllenstierna was the first to answer to the
+accusations, holding forth that the Riksdag of Arboga was responsible
+for the action taken against Trolle and bringing the signed document
+in evidence. The king answered by announcing that all who signed were
+under the ban of the pope; Bishop Brask was the only one acquitted,
+producing his written slip of reservation from under his seal, besides
+Bishop Otto of Westerns, who supported Trolle in his claims. In the
+evening all the accused were imprisoned and judgment passed on them the
+following morning.
+
+In the morning of November 8th, a solemn procession of convicts
+started from the castle to the grand square, hedged in by soldiers
+and executioners. The bishops Mattias of Strengnæs and Vincentius of
+Skara, in their ecclesiastical robes, came first, followed by thirteen
+noblemen and thirty-one town councillors and burghers of Stockholm.
+In the square, a Danish councillor of state from the porch of the
+court-house asked the masses not to be frightened. The archbishop,
+he said, had three times on his knees implored the king that justice
+should be done. Bishop Vincentius replied with great courage that the
+king had committed treason against the Swedes and called down divine
+punishment on him for such deeds. Two of the Swedish nobles followed
+the bishop with short addresses, admonishing the people not to believe
+in false letters and promises and to put down such tyranny as soon
+as within their power. King Christian, who from a window of a house
+facing the square looked down on the spectacle, now gave a sign for the
+executions to commence. First the bishops, then the state councillors,
+nobles and burghers were beheaded, among whom were two brothers of
+Christine Gyllenstierna and the father and brother-in-law of Gustavus
+Ericsson Vasa. Many burghers were captured in the street, or in their
+homes, and brought in to be executed, others being killed on the spot.
+Not less than eighty-two persons were that day executed, the number
+being increased during the following days by people killed in various
+ways. Olaus Petri, the reformer, who was an eyewitness, in his history
+gives a graphic description of the terrible scenes. He adds: “Yes, this
+was a horrible and cruel murder, such as no other prince who carried
+a Christian name ever committed before.” The corpses were burned, the
+remains of Lord Sten and one of his sons being taken from their graves
+and thrown into the flames. Christine Gyllenstierna, and the mother
+and sister of Gustavus Vasa, were with several other ladies carried
+to Copenhagen and thrown into a miserable dungeon. The mass murder
+has been called the Carnage of Stockholm, but it was extended also to
+Finland--where Dr. Hemming Gad was executed at Raseborg--and to the
+provinces. Christian marked his return through the Swedish mainland to
+Copenhagen by executions and mass murder everywhere; six hundred are
+estimated to have been killed through his order during his short stay
+in Sweden.
+
+Archbishop Trolle had taken a terrible revenge, and Christian thought
+he had crushed forever the stubborn Swedish resistance. But through
+this excess of cruelty the Union became insupportable, and the Swedish
+people resolved to throw off forever the connection with any foreign
+ruler. In the woods of Dalecarlia a man was hiding who soon was to step
+forward to lead the work of liberation and independence.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+_Revolution and Reformation--Gustavus Vasa_
+
+
+Gustavus Ericsson Vasa, the man whom Providence had selected to save
+his country from anarchy and ruin, belonged to a noble family of
+Unionist sympathies, his great-grandfather being Drotsete Krister
+Nilsson Vasa. But the Vasa family had joined the cause of the
+patriots during the reigns of the Stures, simultaneously losing some
+of its earlier importance. The Vasas prided themselves on being the
+descendants of St. Eric and his line, and of St. Birgitta and the
+Folkungs. Its coat-of-arms consisted of a simple vase, or bundle of
+sticks. Gustavus Vasa was born May 12, 1496, at Lindholmen in Upland,
+at the mansion of his parents, Eric Johansson Vasa, state councillor,
+and Cecilia of Eka, a sister of Christine Gyllenstierna. His earliest
+years were spent with his mother at Rydboholm, another estate of his
+father’s, beautifully situated on an arm of the Baltic, only ten miles
+north of Stockholm. When a mere boy he was sent to the court of his
+granduncle, Sten Sture the Elder, who was childless. King John of
+Denmark noticed the bright little boy during a visit paid to Lord Sten.
+Young Gustavus took the command of all the other children at play and
+appeared to be a born leader. The king called the boy to him and asked
+him what his name was. Gustavus answered frankly. King John smilingly
+placed his hand on the boy’s head, saying: “Certainly thou shalt become
+a man in thy day if preserved in life.” The king intimated that he
+wanted to take him along to Copenhagen to supervise his education. But
+Lord Sten, who did not like this idea, hurriedly had Gustavus sent
+away, so that he could tell the king upon a second inquiry that the
+boy had returned to his parents. The young Gustavus was described as
+“attractive and welcome with everybody.” Gustavus was sent to Upsala
+to study at the age of thirteen. The University of Upsala was at that
+period in a state of stagnation. The first teacher who came in contact
+with Gustavus was a Dane named Master Ivar. According to the Prose
+Chronicle, he was a man who “was mean to everybody and who gave Gustavo
+drubbings.” It seems that the patriotic spirit early woke in the
+breast of this youth, who already in these days foreshadowed his own
+mission in the following words: “I will betake myself to Dalecarlia,
+rouse the Dalecarlians and batter the nose of the Jute.” When eighteen
+years of age, he was accepted as a squire at the court of Sten Sture
+the Younger, and Christine Gyllenstierna, his own aunt. He followed
+the younger Lord Sten in all his expeditions of war, taking part in
+the siege of Stæket and a battle of Dufnæs, and carrying the banner of
+state at Brennkyrka.
+
+A second time in his life it came to pass that Gustavus Vasa was
+considered a person whom the Danish king was desirious of carrying
+away. This time the king was Christian II., who gained his object by
+treachery and violence. Gustavus was one of the Swedish hostages who
+were offered to King Christian and by him carried away to Denmark.
+
+Gustavus was handed over to Eric Banér, a relative of his, who held
+in fief the castle of Kallœ in Jutland. The latter was placed under a
+heavy fine in case he allowed his prisoner to escape. Gustavus received
+a kind and generous treatment. He ate at the table of the lord and was
+allowed to wander at liberty in the close neighborhood of the castle.
+But the danger that menaced his country never left him in peace. He
+heard repeatedly of the great preparations made by Christian II. to
+crush the resistance of Sweden, and of the acts of violence to be
+perpetrated. Gustavus remained at Kallœ for a year, when he resolved
+to flee from a captivity which had become insupportable. One morning
+at sunrise, Gustavus Vasa put on the garb of a peasant and disappeared
+from the castle. He made good speed, reaching a seaport and escaping
+to Lubeck with a merchant vessel. In this friendly Hanseatic centre
+Gustavus expected armed support. Such was not granted, but he was
+shielded against Danish pursuit. Eric Banér arrived, having followed
+up his tracks, but his demands to have Gustavus surrendered were
+refused. After eight months of delay in Lubeck, Gustavus obtained leave
+and arrived in Sweden on board a German ship. He landed at Stensœ,
+a promontory outside of the town of Kalmar, while Christian II. was
+laying siege to Stockholm. Gustavus was resolved to do his utmost to
+rouse the people to active resistance against the invaders. The castle
+of Kalmar, next to that of Stockholm the firmest stronghold of Sweden,
+was in charge of Anna Bielke, the widow of the last commander. Gustavus
+strengthened the courage of the inhabitants of town and castle, but
+finding it impossible to accomplish anything for the defence himself,
+and unsuccessful in his attempts to bring the hired German troops up
+to a point of enthusiasm for the Swedish cause, he left Kalmar and
+continued his way through Smaland. But the population of this province
+had no patience to listen to his appeals for a revolt. The peasants
+answered him that if they remained faithful to the Danish king they
+were never to be in want of herring and salt. Some of them in their
+indignation sent arrows flying after the young patriot. In September
+he reached the Terna estate in Sœdermanland, where his sister and
+her husband, Joachim Brahe, resided. Lord Joachim had just received
+an invitation to be present at the coronation of King Christian in
+Stockholm. The attempts made by Gustavus to persuade the couple to
+abandon their intended journey to Stockholm were futile. Reaching
+his paternal estate of Ræfsnæs in Sœdermanland, he remained there in
+concealment for some time. He visited the old archbishop Jacob Ulfsson,
+who, after his retirement, lived in the neighboring monastery of
+Mariefred. The old prelate tried his best to persuade him to seek mercy
+and grace of King Christian, but the resolution of the young squire to
+free his country was only strengthened into an iron-cast determination.
+One of the servants who had followed Lord Joachim to the capital
+managed to make a safe return to tell Gustavus the terrible news of
+the Carnage of Stockholm. He was also told that a high price had been
+placed on his own head.
+
+Gustavus at once prepared for flight. Accompanied by a single servant
+he secretly left Ræfsnæs one day toward the end of November, travelling
+on horseback northward to Dalecarlia. He arrived at Kopparberg in
+Dalecarlia, where he had his hair close cropped and put on peasant’s
+clothes. Putting an axe over his shoulder, he went about looking for
+employment. The first man whom he tried was Andrew Persson, a wealthy
+mine owner at Rankhytta. Gustavus found employment with him, taking
+part in the threshing. But the other servants soon detected that the
+new man had a carriage and habits different from their own, and they
+commenced to watch him closely. They noticed that he was not accustomed
+to the work, and one of the servant girls saw a collar of silk above
+the coarse blouse. Andrew Persson called before him the suspect, and
+was highly surprised when recognizing in him a comrade from the time
+of his student days at Upsala. He was favorably disposed, but was
+afraid of sheltering Gustavus, advising him to flee to the less thickly
+settled parts of the province, and to change often from one place to
+another. Gustavus continued his way in a westerly direction, following
+the shore of a lake named Runn, and arrived at Ornæs the following day.
+He knew he had an old comrade and friend in the owner of the place.
+This man, Arendt Persson, received him in the most hospitable manner,
+but was in his heart desirous of obtaining the price placed upon the
+head of the young squire. Gustavus went to bed in the attic, not
+suspecting treachery. The host himself accompanied him to his resting
+place, according to the mediæval custom. This done, Arendt travelled
+in great haste to one of his neighbors, the much-respected Mons
+Nilsson of Aspeboda. Arendt asked him to assist in capturing Gustavus
+Vasa; but Mons Nilsson flatly refused, taking no pains to hide his
+indignation. Arendt left and went past his own home to Sætra, which was
+the residence of the Danish bailiff. He started for Ornæs the following
+morning, accompanied by the bailiff and twenty men ready to capture
+the fugitive. But Arendt’s wife, Lady Barbro Stigsdotter (Swinhufwud),
+had not been inactive. Her suspicion was aroused when she noticed
+her husband travelling back and forth to disappear in the direction
+where the bailiff resided. She divined that the safety of her guest
+was threatened and decided to take action. Lady Barbro went to the
+attic, roused her sleeping guest and told him of the impending danger.
+Gustavus let himself down to the ground by means of towels fastened to
+the window-sill, assisted by Lady Barbro, who had a horse and sleigh
+in readiness for him, in charge of a faithful servant. He reached the
+residence of John, the priest of Sværdsjœ. Arendt was enraged when he
+found that Gustavus had made his escape. It is said that he from that
+day refused to ever see Lady Barbro again.
+
+The priest of Sværdsjœ held Gustavus in concealment for three days,
+but advised him to seek a more secure hiding place. He sent Gustavus
+to Swan Elfsson, a hunter to the king, who dwelt in Isala, a short
+distance from the church of Sværdsjœ. Gustavus had hardly reached this
+place before the men sent after him by the bailiff arrived. Gustavus
+stood by the oven warming himself after the ride. The wife of Swan
+Elfsson was busy baking bread. The men entered, asking if any stranger
+had been noticed in the neighborhood. The woman of the house saved
+the situation by resolutely dealing a blow with the bread spade to
+Gustavus, who was turning his back to her. In an irritated voice she
+said: “Why dost thou stand here gaping at the strangers? Hast thou
+never seen people before? Get thee at once out to the barn and do some
+threshing.” The men did not suspect in the snubbed servant the noble
+fugitive for whom they were looking. But Swan Elfsson was not sure
+of the safety of his guest if he remained in Isala. So he concealed
+Gustavus in a load of hay and left his house with the great unsettled
+districts as his destination. He met some Danish spies on the way.
+These suspected the peasant and pierced the load of hay with their
+lances repeatedly. Gustavus was wounded in the leg, but kept his breath
+and lay perfectly still. The spies were satisfied that everything was
+right and told Swan Elfsson to move on. But the peasant noticed that
+blood was dripping from his load, leaving scarlet tracks on the snow.
+He quickly drew his knife and cut his horse a deep wound in one foot.
+After a while the spies noticed the bloody tracks. They returned and
+commanded Swan Elfsson to halt, inquiring about the blood. Swan Elfsson
+pointed to the injured foot of his horse and succeeded in making them
+believe that the horse had met with an accident.
+
+Swan Elfsson left Gustavus at the village of Marnæs, situated in the
+Finn woods, where he was received by other hunters. These escorted the
+noble outlaw to a place further away in the woods, where he for three
+days remained in concealment under a big fallen fir tree. The peasants
+in the neighborhood brought food to him. The still hunt seemed to be
+at an end, and so Gustavus risked a visit to the church of Rettvik,
+situated on the eastern shore of Lake Siljan. He spoke to the yeomanry
+collected around the church after divine service, reminding them of
+the stanch patriotism and manliness of their ancestors, and imploring
+them to save their country from destruction. The yeomen of Rettvik gave
+a satisfactory answer, telling him that they were ready to resist the
+Danes. But as they had not heard the opinion of the people of the other
+parishes, there was nothing to be done for the moment.
+
+Gustavus continued his way to Mora, one of the most densely populated
+parishes of Dalecarlia and situated on the northern shore of Lake
+Siljan. The priest of the parish was afraid to hide the outlaw, but
+confided him to a peasant, Tomte Mats, in the village of Utmeland.
+Gustavus remained for several days concealed in a vaulted cellar, which
+was reached only through a hole in the floor of the cottage above. One
+day the bailiff’s men entered to search for Gustavus. The woman of the
+house was busy brewing the Christmas ale. She saved Gustavus by quickly
+placing a big barrel over the hinged door, which covered the opening
+to the cellar. One of the holidays during Christmas Gustavus addressed
+the peasants of Mora when coming from church. He stood on a small hill
+near the churchyard. The noonday sun was shining brightly over the
+snowy landscape and a fresh northerly wind was blowing. Gustavus spoke
+in a loud voice and with great eloquence. He asked the men to reflect
+on what kind of government foreigners always had given Sweden, and to
+remember what they had themselves suffered and risked for the liberty
+of their country. He thought that the memory had not died either of
+the deeds of violence perpetrated by Jœsse Ericsson or of the deeds of
+heroism done by Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson. He then told them of the
+treacherous villany of King Christian and of the Carnage of Stockholm.
+“My own father,” he said, with tears in his eyes, “rather wished to
+die with his brethren, the honest lords, in the name of God, than to
+be spared and live in dishonor after them.” If the Dalecarlians wanted
+to save Sweden from thraldom, he was ready to offer himself as their
+leader in the name of the Almighty. The speech of Gustavus made a deep
+impression upon the men of Mora, and some of them were anxious to rise
+at once. The majority ruled, deciding that no action should be taken
+before the other parishes of Dalecarlia had been heard from. They
+advised Gustavus to seek a safer hiding-place further up in the woods.
+Gustavus left Mora utterly discouraged, seeking the paths that led
+along the Dal River into desert wilds.
+
+At New Year of 1521 Lars Olsson, a soldier who had done good service
+in the times of the Stures, arrived at Mora, bringing particulars of
+the doings of King Christian. He told the peasants that the king had
+ordered gallows to be erected at every sheriff’s residence to mark
+the way of his Eriksgata. The peasants were touched to the quick and
+regretted having sent away the young nobleman. Lars Olsson advised
+them to call him back. Two expert ski runners were sent after Gustavus
+Ericsson, and after a ride of a night and a day through the woods, they
+overtook him close by the Norwegian frontier, which he was ready to
+cross in despair.
+
+Gustavus returned to Mora and was made the leader of the peasants in
+that locality. With these men he started his work of liberation, which
+was the commencement of one of the most remarkable of revolutions
+that the world ever saw. In the beginning of February, 1521, Gustavus
+marched southward with a few hundred men. At Falun he captured the
+bailiff of the mines, confiscating the royal taxes. Returning to the
+starting point, he left it again, with an army of 1,500 men. Entering
+Norrland, where he was joined by the peasants of Gestrikland, and the
+burghers of Gefle, while the people of Helsingland asked for time
+to consider the matter, he learned upon his return how one of his
+commanders, Peder Swensson, had won a glorious victory over a Danish
+army 6,000 strong at the ferry of Brunnbæck, by the Dal River. Gustavus
+began training his troops, enforcing severe discipline and providing
+them with better arrows and longer lances. He declared war upon
+Christian in a formal way and marched on Westeros, where the Danish
+troops had centred. The town and castle were captured in spite of a
+force of superior Danish cavalry.
+
+Gustavus shifted his army into divisions which marched in various
+directions to capture the castles of surrounding provinces. The people
+of Upland reinforced the Dalecarlians, who were sent home to tend
+to their sowing. The Upland forces captured the archbishop’s seat
+during his absence, and were joined by Gustavus at Upsala, who made
+an exceedingly severe speech to the ecclesiastics, asking them to
+decide their nationality, whether they were Swedes or not. They asked
+permission to consult Archbishop Trolle, which was granted. “I will
+bring the reply myself,” said Trolle, starting from Stockholm with
+a splendid body of German troops. Gustavus was near being taken by
+surprise, but gathering troops he fought the archbishop, whose force
+met with a crushing defeat, and he escaped with difficulty to Stockholm.
+
+At midsummer, 1521, Gustavus arrived at Brunkeberg, laying siege to
+Stockholm. The capital was strongly fortified, and Norrby with a
+Danish fleet supported and relieved it. Twice the Danes routed the
+Swedish troops with the intermission of one year, but Gustavus provided
+reinforcements. He travelled through the country, visiting the forces
+who laid siege to the various Danish strongholds, these surrendering
+one by one. It was not a chain of glorious exploits, this work which
+Gustavus carried to a successful end, but one of infinite patience and
+sagacity, saddened by the news that the revengeful Christian had ended
+the lives of his captive mother and sister in the miserable Danish
+dungeon. Bishop Brask was scared into submission, turning his castle
+Stegeborg and part of his troops over to Gustavus, who at a Riksdag at
+Vadstena was elected regent in August, 1521.
+
+Gustavus entered into an alliance with Lubeck, and it sent a fleet
+to Stockholm, thus encircling it also from the sea. Norrby left with
+his ships and was nearly caught in the ice in the following spring.
+In Denmark, Christian’s reign came to an end. With his usual violence
+he attacked the nobles and the ecclesiastics in order to better the
+conditions of the peasants, for whom he had a tender sympathy. In so
+doing, he brought the nobles to open revolt against his rule. He left
+his throne in April, 1523. Now Gustavus found the opportune moment to
+accept the Swedish crown offered him. He called a Riksdag at Strengnæs,
+in June, 1523, where Gustavus was chosen king of Sweden “by the
+councillors of state with the consent of the common people.” At this
+occasion a tax was agreed on to pay the German troops engaged in the
+siege of Stockholm, and to Lubeck for its timely support. In that very
+month Stockholm surrendered, and Gustavus held his proud entry into the
+capital on the eve of Midsummer day.
+
+The position of the king was a most difficult one. The crown was ruined
+through the previous state of anarchy and the expense of war. The
+Church was in undisturbed possession of its wealth, but not willing
+to yield any of its power or income. Christian was preparing a plan
+by which to recapture his lost crowns. Norrby, who had aspirations of
+becoming Christian’s regent in Sweden, tried to persuade Christine
+Gyllenstierna, lately set free from her prison, to marry him in order
+to obtain the prestige of the Stures. The common people, whom Gustavus
+so recently used to free the country, grew restive and rebellious when
+he could not at once grant them guarantees of comfort and prosperity
+in return. In a marvellous manner Gustavus understood how to face the
+situation and how to use to the utmost the resources within reach.
+
+When the outlawed youth of twenty-four spoke of revolt to the peasants
+at Mora, Martin Luther was burning the ban placed on him by the pope.
+There were several warm friends of Luther in Sweden, principally Olaus
+Petri, himself a pupil and friend of the German reformer, his brother,
+Laurentius Petri, and Laurentius Andreæ. Olaus was a soul of fire and
+enthusiasm. He was lacking in self-control, but possessed a power which
+if not restrained would have led him and his work of reform further
+than the goal set by Luther. The two Laurentii were, like him, men of
+learning and, in addition, of greater sagacity. The king took interest
+in these men. He was contemplating a reduction of the ecclesiastical
+power, and they were to prepare the soil by freeing the people from
+undue respect for the Roman Church and its worldly power. Laurentius
+Andreæ was made the king’s chancellor, and Olaus Petri secretary to
+the town council of Stockholm, later pastor of the Cathedral Church.
+Olaus preached in the Stockholm Cathedral fiery sermons against Rome
+and the pope, responded to sometimes by irate monks, sometimes by
+various projectiles from the audience. Gustavus took pains to fill the
+vacancies of the Church, which were many, by appointing able men. But
+he made two serious mistakes in making Master Knut, dean of Westeros,
+archbishop, and Peder Sunnanvæder, formerly secretary to Svante Sture,
+bishop of Westeros. He came in possession of a correspondence, which
+proved that Bishop Peder tried to bring the Dalecarlians to revolt, and
+when accusing him and finding Master Knut on the side of the defence,
+Gustavus deprived them of their new dignities. The king commanded that
+a new bishop should be appointed and himself selected Johannes Magni as
+archbishop. This prelate, a very learned man, was the representative
+of Sten Sture in Rome, returning to his native land as a papal legate.
+Gustavus had a rupture with him when, according to his instructions,
+he demanded that Trolle should be reinstated as archbishop. Archbishop
+Johannes was lacking in moral courage; brushed aside by the tide of
+Reformation, he retired to Rome, where he died after writing the
+history of Sweden in Latin, _Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus_.
+Master Knut and Peder Sunnanvæder turned their steps to Dalecarlia,
+fanning the brewing malcontent and opening connections with Norrby,
+who styled himself the betrothed of Christine Gyllenstierna and made
+ready to attack Gustavus from the sea. Berndt von Melen, a German
+commander, in whom Gustavus placed much confidence, was to chase
+Norrby away from his stronghold, the island of Gothland, but turned a
+traitor, joining Norrby instead, in 1524. Gustavus called a Riksdag
+at Westeros, in 1525, resolved to use his diplomacy to the utmost.
+Upon receiving a letter from the Dalecarlians, in which they stoutly
+swore off their allegiance to him on account of heavy taxes, foreign
+influence and disregard for the Church, the king offered to abdicate.
+The representatives at the Riksdag persuaded him to remain, whereupon
+the king sent the Dalecarlians a sagacious letter, promising to improve
+the state of things as much as possible, but pointing out the two
+prelates as traitors in conspiracy with the Danes. The Dalecarlians
+were pacified, Knut and Peder finding it safest to leave for Norway.
+In the following year the king met the revolting peasants of Upland
+at Old Upsala, where he in a fiery speech unfolded his policy toward
+the Church. The peasants resented; they wanted to keep their monks
+and their masses. The king commanded one of his followers to make a
+speech in Latin, the peasants shouting that they did not understand.
+“Why do you, then, love so dearly your Latin mass?” the king asked
+them smiling. A few days later Gustavus made a crushing speech against
+lazy and worthless ecclesiastics before the chapter of Upsala. The
+archbishop was sent away on diplomatic errands to Poland and Russia
+never to return. After his departure Bishop Brask became the chief
+representative of papal interests. He was patriotic, but never yielded
+an inch of the worldly power of the Church except to force, opposing
+the Reformation with his whole strength.
+
+The king followed up his policy by demanding for the crown two-thirds
+of the ecclesiastic tithe and by placing the ecclesiastics under the
+duties of _russtienst_, in 1526. The ex-prelates, Knut and Peder, were,
+upon the king’s request of an extradition, given up and sentenced to
+death for high treason. The king arranged for their triumphal entry of
+mockery into Stockholm in a most humiliating fashion, for which he has
+been criticised; also for the consummate manner in which the judges
+were appointed and judgment passed. But he set an example of warning
+to obnoxious and intriguing prelates that was appreciated by his
+contemporaries.
+
+Gustavus gained the triumph of his policy by the famous Riksdag of
+Westeros in 1527. It was nothing else than a coup d’état, a revolution,
+which, with the establishment of the Reformation, gave his throne
+solidity and resources. The Diet was called under the pretext of taking
+measures against a new revolt in Dalecarlia and for the regulation of
+dogmatic questions. There were present sixteen state councillors, four
+bishops, one hundred and twenty-nine knights and nobles, one hundred
+and five peasants, besides various priests, burghers and miners, but no
+representatives from Finland or Dalecarlia. In the great hall of the
+monastery the meeting was held, opening with a written address by the
+king, read by his chancellor, in which the situation of the country
+was set forth. The king refused to continue at the government, asking
+to be remunerated for personal losses and expense, and given a fief
+like any ordinary bailiff responsible to the crown. Only if fundamental
+reforms were made would he remain, not being able otherwise to cover
+the inevitable deficit of the treasury. Bishop Brask responded with the
+statement that he for his part was in duty bound to the king, but that
+Rome and its demands must, in the first place, be obeyed; showing by
+his remarks that he understood that the question was one of reducing
+the ecclesiastical power. The king rose and said in a burst of passion:
+“We have no further desire, then, to be your king. Verily, we had
+counted on quite another treatment at your hands. We now no longer
+wonder at the perversity of the people, since they have such advisers.
+Have they no rain, they blame us for it. Have they no sun, likewise.
+For dearth, hunger and plague we are responsible, as if we were not a
+man, but God. Yea, though we labor for you with our utmost power, both
+in spiritual and in temporal affairs, you would gladly see the axe
+upon our neck, but no one dares to grasp the handle. Monks and priests
+and all the creatures of the pope are to be placed above us, though we
+have little need of them. In a word, you all would lord it over us.
+Who under such circumstances would desire to govern you? Not the worst
+wretch in hell would wish the post, far less any man. Therefore we,
+too, refuse to be your king. We cast the honor from us, and leave you
+free to choose him whom you will. But be so kind as to let us leave the
+land. Pay us for our property in the kingdom, and return to us what
+we have expended in your service. Then we declare to you that we will
+withdraw never to return.” With tears of anger and emotion the king
+left the hall, leaving the assembly in consternation.
+
+After four days of pandemonium and deadlock, the representatives
+decided to give in and ask forgiveness of the king, who long
+disregarded the appeals made for his return. When re-entering he was
+greeted by commotion and the humblest demonstrations of respect and
+repentance. The next day, Midsummer day, votes were taken upon his
+propositions, each Estate of representatives sending up their vote
+with a written construction of the propositions. These were then
+revised by the state councillors in their final form, called “Westeros
+Recess,” with amendments called “Westeros Ordinantia.” The startling
+revolutionary stipulations of the “Recess” were chiefly these:
+Authority for the king (1) to take in possession the castles and forts
+of the bishops, whose retinues he was to fix as to numbers; (2) to
+dispose of the superfluous income of the clergy and to superintend the
+administration of the monasteries; authority for the nobility to resume
+title to all their property which had come in the possession of the
+Church since 1454; authority to have the Gospel preached all over the
+country in undefiled purity. Among the “Ordinantia” the most important
+were: (1) Vacancies in the parish churches were to be filled by the
+bishop under the supervision and right of suspension of the king; (2)
+the king was to fix the amount of revenue due the bishops, chapters
+and clerks, and be entitled to use the surplus for the crown; (3) the
+priests were in secular suits to be responsible to secular courts; (4)
+the Gospel should be read in the schools. The king asked the bishops in
+person to surrender their castles, to which demand they all agreed.
+
+We may feel inclined to smile upon the drastic manner in which Gustavus
+enacted this important drama of Revolution, but must bear in mind his
+solitary position. He had no statesmen of ability at his side, nor men
+of great intellect and power to sustain him. He stood alone, and few
+knew as yet his superior qualities as a statesman and an organizer.
+The tame opposition, soon yielding to the appeals of the burghers and
+peasants, can only be explained through lack of leaders. Ture Jœnsson
+(Tre Rosor), the aristocratic chief of the opposition, was a vain and
+cowardly man. Bishop Brask, the head of the clergy, was old and more
+of a diplomatist than a man of action. The latest stanch Romanist, he
+gave up his cause, finding a pretext to leave the country and dying in
+his self-imposed exile. The ecclesiastical reforms were definitively
+arranged at a church meeting at Œrebro in the following year.
+
+It was one of the evils which beset the reign of Gustavus that revolts
+constantly occurred in various provinces and for various reasons.
+Dalecarlia took the lead. The inhabitants were not able to bear the
+distinction won by their great patriotic services in the times of
+Engelbrekt, the Stures, and Gustavus. Their complaints were mostly
+unreasonable, sometimes ridiculous, as when they tried to prescribe the
+kind of cloth and colors to be used at court, and so forth. There was
+no fable, however stupid, which was not readily believed by them and
+the responsibility placed on the king. Particularly was everything
+eagerly swallowed which spoke of injustice committed against the
+descendants of the Stures. A daring pretender took advantage of this
+fact. He was born of the lowest peasant class, serving on an estate
+in Westmanland, where he had stolen a sum of money from his master.
+Appearing in Dalecarlia, where he claimed that he was a son of Lord
+Sten and Christine Gyllenstierna, he gained a great deal of support
+among the yeomen, who cried with him like children when he spoke
+of his noble father and asked them to pray for his soul. The false
+pretender had his instructions from Peder Sunnanvæder; he married in
+Norway a woman of noble birth, and, upon his return to Dalecarlia,
+surrounded himself with a regular court. An end was put to his career
+by a letter from Christine Gyllenstierna, written at the request of
+the king, in which she told the Dalecarlians that her son Nils, whom
+the pretender impersonated, had recently died, and that an impostor
+was misleading them. The false Nils Sture answered by claiming that he
+was born before marriage, the would-be-reason why his mother did not
+acknowledge him. This even the Dalecarlians found was a stretching of
+truth. The pretender, who had been stamping coins with his image and
+held the demeanor of a ruling prince, fled to Norway and thence to
+Rostock, where he was captured and beheaded. No blood was shed during
+this period of revolt; but the king, who was crowned at Upsala in 1528,
+proceeded from his coronation to Dalecarlia with an army of 14,000 men.
+He commanded the Dalecarlians to meet him, and forgave them after a
+severe sermon of reproach, making them surrender the chief supporters
+of the “Daljunker,” who were executed on the spot.
+
+No better was the outcome of a revolt prepared by some nobles of
+West Gothland in the following year. They tried in vain to make the
+population join with them. The king managed to obtain their secret
+correspondence, and had the guilty ones arraigned before a meeting at
+which he scrutinized and repudiated the false charges made against him.
+The nobles asked forgiveness and were pardoned, with the exception
+of two, who were beheaded. But the originators of the revolt had
+fled. They were Ture Jœnsson and Bishop Magnus of Skara. The former
+joined the deposed King Christian, who, in 1532, prepared an attack on
+Sweden in his attempts to recapture his crowns. With him were other
+such distinguished traitors as Gustavus Trolle and Berndt von Melen.
+Gustavus I. sent a splendid army to meet Christian near Kongelf.
+Christian withdrew in disappointment, leaving Ture Jœnsson behind in
+the streets of Kongelf, minus a head. Christian was imprisoned by his
+uncle, Frederic of Denmark, and died in captivity.
+
+In order to pay the debt to Lubeck it was decided at a meeting at
+Upsala, in 1530, that the bells of the churches should be taken to be
+melted down. Concessions to do so were asked and obtained from the
+various communities. But upon the surrender of the bells discontent
+grew up. In Dalecarlia it came to revolt and open violence. The people
+refused to give up their bells or took the surrendered ones back
+with force. Threatening letters were sent to the king, who at first
+pretended to ignore the whole matter. Christian was preparing his last
+attack, and prudence deemed advisable. The inducements made by the
+Swedish traitors to support Christian’s claims were scornfully repulsed
+by the Dalecarlians, who still continued with their insulting letters
+to the king. Gustavus answered them in a peaceful way. In 1533, at
+New Year, he suddenly appeared with an army in Dalecarlia, where the
+revolters also this time received a severe reproach and were forced to
+give up their leaders. These were executed, and that ended the last
+revolt of Dalecarlia.
+
+In the following year Sweden was forced into a war which lasted up to
+1536, the so-called “Feud of the Counts,” the chief participants being
+the counts of Holstein, Oldenburg and Hoya. Sweden sided with Christian
+of Holstein, who fought for his rights to the throne of Denmark after
+his father Frederic, being opposed by the other counts and by Lubeck.
+Hard and repeated pressure was brought to bear on Svante Sture, a son
+of Lord Sten and Christine Gyllenstierna, to appear as a pretender
+against Gustavus; but the noble youth, who was sojourning in Germany,
+firmly withstood these temptations. His mother had married John
+Turesson, a son of the traitor Ture Jœnsson, who was as able a man as
+his father was a bad one, being the successful commander of a Swedish
+army which invaded the Danish provinces held by the count of Oldenburg.
+A Swedish fleet, created through sacrifices of nobles and peasants,
+distinguished itself repeatedly. The war ended in the defeat of Lubeck.
+
+Gustavus had, since the end of the work of liberation, crushed the
+power of the Church, punished the revolting peasants, kept the
+aristocracy within bounds, and put an end to the supremacy of Lubeck.
+But he went still further, trying to deprive the Church of its last
+vestige of authority, to introduce a minute administration of the
+provinces and to enforce the absolute power of the crown. To these
+plans he was led by two foreign advisers, Georg Norman and Konrad
+Pentinger. But it must be said to the credit of the king that their
+influence vanished when he saw that their “reforms” were not acceptable
+to the people. From this period of his reign, one noteworthy and
+wholesome measure remains, the reintroduction of the former hereditary
+order of succession to the throne. It was formulated and accepted
+at the Riksdag of Œrebro (Jan. 4, 1540), memorable also through
+death sentences pronounced upon two of the apostles of the Swedish
+Reformation. The king had long regarded his chancellor and the two
+brothers, Olaus and Laurentius Petri, the latter archbishop of Upsala,
+with suspicion. The climax was reached when a conspiracy by German
+burghers of Stockholm against the king’s life was discovered, and it
+was proved that Olaus Petri and Laurentius Andreæ were conscious of
+its purport, without making it known to the king. They were condemned
+to death, Archbishop Laurentius being forced to take a seat as one of
+the judges, but pardoned at the request of the burghers of Stockholm,
+on the grounds that the ministers had received their knowledge on
+the pledge of secrecy through confession. Laurentius Andreæ lost his
+position as the king’s chancellor. In the following year each church in
+the country was presented with a copy of the complete translation of
+the Bible, the work of the two reformers.
+
+The greatest, most serious and most expensive of peasants’ revolts
+was that called the Dacke Feud (1542 and 1543), after its leader Nils
+Dacke, a peasant born in Bleking, emigrated to Smaland, which became
+the scene of his revolt. The peasants were resolved to make war on the
+royal bailiffs, the nobles and the new religion, and found in Dacke
+an excellent leader, ferocious, daring and of some military ability.
+The forces sent by the king to meet him were repeatedly routed. The
+king was seriously alarmed, particularly since the revolt attracted
+attention abroad and was encouraged by Emperor Charles V., in the
+interests of the deposed Christian, his brother-in-law, and by several
+German princes. The emperor wrote to Nils Dacke a letter, preserved to
+this day, although it never reached its destination, in which Charles,
+with pride, recalls his Gothic (that is, according to the views of his
+time, Swedish) origin: “Sumus et nos de gente Gothorum.” Nils Dacke’s
+plan was to place Svante Sture on the throne. He wrote him a letter to
+this effect, which the noble Sture handed over to the king, together
+with the messenger who brought it. After much effort the king gathered
+an army of considerable strength, which was ordered against Dacke, who
+was defeated at Lake Asund. He fled and was pursued by the troops into
+Bleking, where he was captured and shot. This revolt cost Gustavus
+dearly, but was a good lesson in regard to the more immature of his
+reforms, against which it, to a great extent, was directed.
+
+Now the storms and trials of his reign were at an end, and Gustavus
+allowed to gather the fruit of his wise management, which itself
+grew wiser with his old age. In 1544 the Union of Succession of 1540
+was confirmed at Westeros. In matters of finance Gustavus laid the
+foundations of the modern state. The bailiffs were multiplied and
+made to give close accounts of the revenues. Fiefs granted to nobles
+before were now kept by the crown. The great nobles who held fiefs
+were placed under stricter control. The bloody Christian did useful
+work for the crown by ridding it of many unruly heads. The privileges
+granted by Westeros Recess were enforced, but the king saw to it that
+the nobility received back only what was properly due. But when the
+crown was concerned, property was taken from the Church to the greatest
+tension of these privileges, and likewise for the king’s private
+rights, by means of which less scrupulous tactics both the state
+and the king were enriched. The former came in possession of 12,000
+farms, the latter of 4,000, in his case called “inherited estates.” As
+Gustavus was a great economizer, he left a treasury replete with money
+and uncoined silver, in spite of elaborate pomp on state occasions,
+expensive royal marriages and wooings, and a feud with Russia. From
+which of the two treasuries in his care expenses were paid, Gustavus
+was not overparticular. He set a good example as a practical farmer
+and agriculturist, the dairy at Gripsholm standing under the personal
+supervision of the queen, with twenty-two less ladylike assistants.
+
+Gustavus created the nucleus to a standing army of hired troops,
+of natives and foreigners, about 15,000 in numbers, and provided
+Sweden with a considerable and well-equipped fleet. He encouraged the
+mining industry by supporting the silver mines of Sala and the copper
+mines of Falun. He introduced the working of iron, according to new
+methods, calling in German experts whose work he superintended in
+person. Putting an end to the supremacy of the Hanseatic commerce,
+he made treaties of commerce with the Netherlands and France, making
+Helsingfors in Finland the centre of the trade with Russia. On the
+western coast he founded the new town of Elfsborg, and ordered the
+inhabitants of New Lœdœse to move thither. To the common people
+Gustavus held an attitude which shows evidence of love and confidence.
+Many of his letters and messages to them abound in hints at practical
+methods in farming. The schools were improved and partly reorganized
+through the spirit of Reformation, while the University of Upsala lost
+in importance and prestige, the students again going abroad.
+
+The war with Russia, commencing in 1554, and marked by mutual
+invasions, offered no aspect of importance, and was ended by a treaty
+of peace in 1557.
+
+The founder of the famous royal line of Vasa was, personally, a man
+of prepossessing appearance, tall, and of commanding presence, having
+blond hair and beard, sharp blue eyes, full lips, rosy cheeks and a
+fine frame. He was fond of costly garments, and the styles of his
+day were becoming to him. Gustavus was of an amiable and cheerful
+disposition, although of a quick temper. He had a rare gift of winning
+the goodwill and confidence of all classes by addressing everybody
+according to their compass of intellect and conversation. He was fond
+of music, and played and sang. The lute was his favorite instrument,
+which he liked to play in his evenings of solitude. Gustavus possessed
+a rare intellect and a remarkable memory. Well aware of his own
+weakness to give way to his quick temper, he generally postponed
+all decisive action in matters of importance until sure of his full
+power of discernment. He was not a brilliant genius, but a typical
+prince of the Renaissance epoch, never afraid of taking action in
+instances without a precedence, or of the consequences of his actions.
+His letters and addresses evince an unusual degree of common sense,
+clothed in a language of manly vigor, terseness and humor, and are
+fine specimens of the modern Swedish, such as it meets us in this its
+period of rejuvenation, brought about by the spirit of the Reformation.
+There is something in the oral and literary eloquence of Gustavus Vasa
+which makes it easy to believe that he was a descendant of Birgitta.
+Gustavus did not possess the fine erudition of his sons, who were
+considered to be men of learning in their time, for he early left
+his university studies for the court and the war; but he was able
+to pass such good opinions upon subjects of art and science that he
+astonished many who had made these a special study. He had the power of
+recognizing people whose faces he once had noticed after ten to twenty
+years of absence, and was also skilled in divining what character dwelt
+behind every face. What he once heard he never forgot. Where he had
+travelled once he could never mistake the road, and knew not only the
+names of the villages but also the names of the peasants whom he had
+met. His life was led by the unswaying principles of an earnest piety
+and high morals. His nephew, Peter Brahe the Elder, who in a chronicle
+has given the above picture of Gustavus Vasa, adds: “_In summa_, God
+had bequeathed him, above others, with great ability, high intellect
+and many princely virtues, so that he was well worthy of carrying
+sceptre and crown. For he was not only sagacious and kind above others,
+but also manly and able. He was sharp and just in passing sentences, in
+many cases being charitable and merciful.”
+
+The royal court was characterized by a joyous and elevated spirit.
+Every day after dinner all the courtiers collected in the dancing hall.
+The lady of ceremonies then entered with the ladies of the court, and
+the royal musicians dispensed music for dancing. Every other or third
+day the king went out hunting or horseback riding with the gentlemen
+and ladies of his court. The youths of the nobility once a week held
+exhibitions of fencing and other knightly sport, the king taking an
+interested and active part. Those who excelled received prizes in the
+form of rings of gold or chaplets of pearls and led the dance of the
+evening.
+
+Gustavus I. was three times married. His first consort was young
+neurotic Catherine, princess of Saxony-Lauenburg, whom he married while
+the “Revolt of the Bells” was going on in Dalecarlia, and who died four
+years later, leaving him a son, Eric, of her own hysteric temperament.
+Shortly after the death of Catherine, the king married a young lady
+of the highest Swedish nobility, Margaret Leijonhufvud, with whom
+he lived in a long and happy union, ended by her death in 1551, and
+blessed by ten children, among whom the sons John, Magnus and Charles.
+Lady Margaret had been in love with the oldest son of Christine
+Gyllenstierna, Svante Sture, whom she renounced, and who married her
+younger sister Martha. Queen Margaret was a tender and high-minded
+woman, who won the love and absolute confidence of her royal consort,
+on whose quick temper she exerted a quieting influence, comforting him
+in hours of trouble and distress. She preserved as queen the plain and
+severe habits of her youth, having a personal superintendence over
+the dairies of the royal castles, especially those of Gripsholm and
+Svartsjœ. She was interested in brewing, baking and other household
+affairs, often making with her own hands the clothes of her children.
+When the king referred to Queen Margaret, he always called her “our
+dear mistress of the house.” The king remained a nobleman of his day
+in the purple. Royal splendor was displayed on great occasions only.
+Simplicity was the principle of every-day life. When entertaining his
+friends, the king took great pains to please and arranged many details
+himself. Upon one occasion of this kind at Gripsholm, Queen Margaret
+carried in the sweetmeats and cookies, while the king served the wine
+and asked his guests to be glad and make merry.
+
+Queen Margaret was suddenly taken ill while partaking in a pleasure
+trip on Lake Mælar, and died in 1551, after a touching farewell to her
+consort. In the following year the king married the young Catherine
+Stenbock, a daughter of Gustavus Stenbock, an intimate friend to the
+king, and Lady Brita Leijonhufvud, a sister of Queen Margaret. In the
+lives and fate of Catherine and Margaret there are several remarkable
+coincidences. Like Queen Margaret, Catherine was secretly in love with
+some one else when the royal proposal was made. Strange enough the
+object of Catherine’s secret affection was, like Margaret’s, a son of
+Christine Gyllenstierna, Gustavus Johnsson Tre Rosor. This young man
+was the grandson of conceited Ture Jœnsson and the son of able John
+Turesson, the second consort of Christine Gyllenstierna. The family
+name was Tre Rosor, after the coat-of-arms, which consisted of three
+roses. As her aunt Margaret must renounce the hero of her dreams, so
+also Catherine. Like his half-brother, Svante Sture, Gustavus Tre Rosor
+married the sister of his first love, and this marriage, like that of
+Svante, turned out a happy one. There was a last coincidence in the
+life of the two queens. When Margaret heard that the royal sponsor
+was coming, she knew his errand and concealed herself in an oak chest
+in a distant part of the castle of Ekeberg. Catherine, upon a similar
+occasion, ran down in the gardens of Torpa and hid herself behind a
+bush. The third marriage of the king was a happy one, in spite of the
+great difference in years between the consorts. The clergy tried to
+raise objections, holding that Gustavus and Catherine were too nearly
+related to make the marriage a legal one. After some severe pressure
+these objections were finally dropped.
+
+Queen Catherine thus expressed the state of her feelings after her
+marriage: “Gustavus is dear to me, but I shall never forget the Rose.”
+
+The king gave scrupulous attention to the education of his children.
+They were brought up in simplicity and sternness, but received a
+manifold training and a great amount of instruction. While they were
+studying at Upsala, hams and butter were sent them from the royal
+estates to make part of their breakfasts and suppers. In spite of these
+patriarchal endeavors, Eric and John grew up to be typical Renaissance
+princes, fond of extravagance and luxury. The king wrote once to Duke
+Magnus: “Our dear Lady Catherine sends thee five shirts which thou
+must bear in mind to take good care of; _item_, to keep thy head clean
+and not ride or run too much.” When his sons grew older, King Gustavus
+used to admonish them orally before the hearth or at the table, or by
+letters. His wise counsel recalls the terse and sharp advice of Havamal
+in the Edda: “Ye shall weigh all matters carefully, perform them
+quickly and stand by it, putting nothing off to the morrow; counsel
+not followed up in due time is like clouds without rain in times of
+dearth.” “To speak once and stand by it, is better than to talk one
+hundred times.” “Surround ye ever with able men of pure living; one
+shall believe of ye what one knows about them.” Duke Eric early caused
+him trouble by stubbornness, defiance and vanity. Duke John, the
+oldest child of Queen Margaret, long remained his favorite, but ended
+by causing him grief through disobedience and secret conspiracy with
+Eric. In his old age, King Gustavus suffered through failing health
+and melancholy. He complained because the fate of his country seemed
+uncertain on account of the unstability of his sons, and because his
+old friends, like John Turesson and Christine Gyllenstierna, passed
+away before him, leaving him alone in the world.
+
+When King Gustavus felt that the end was drawing near, he sent word to
+the four Estates or representative classes of the country, the nobles,
+clergymen, burghers and yeomen, to meet him at Stockholm around the
+Midsummer of 1560. He made known to the Estates his will, which his
+sons pledged themselves by oath to fulfil. Eric should inherit the
+crown, according to the will, but the three other sons were to receive
+duchies which they should govern with a good deal of authority. It
+became evident that the king had taken pains to provide liberally for
+his sons. But it appears as if he intended to make them all responsible
+in the maintenance of the work of their father, by distributing the
+power between them.
+
+When the Estates had collected in the hall of state the old monarch
+entered with his sons. After greeting those present he delivered his
+farewell address:
+
+“I respect the power of God, which with me has reinstalled the ancient
+royal line on the throne of Sweden. Ye have without doubt learned,
+and those of you who are somewhat advanced in years have seen for
+yourselves, how our dear fatherland, already for ages in distress and
+misery through foreign lordship, at last suffered the same through
+the grim despot King Christian, and how it pleased God to liberate us
+from this tyranny through me. For this it behooves us, high and low,
+master and servant, old and young, never to forget that same divine
+help. For what of a man was I to set myself against a mighty king,
+who not only ruled three kingdoms, but who also was related to the
+powerful emperor Charles V. and the noble princes of Germany. But God
+has performed the work, made me the worker of his miracle, and been my
+help and comfort during a reign of forty years, the cares of which have
+hastened me on with gray hairs to the grave. Forsooth, I could liken
+myself to King David,” and the tears came to his eyes, “whom God from
+a shepherd made to a reigning king over his people. I could not divine
+that glory, when I in woods and desert fells must needs conceal myself
+from the bloodthirsty swords of my enemies. Grace and blessing have
+in a wide measure been granted both me and you through the knowledge
+of God’s true Gospel, also in the shape of material abundance, which
+is evident all through the land, thank the Lord. If during my reign
+anything good has been accomplished, give ye God the glory of it. But
+for what there has been of failure and fault, I beg you, as faithful
+subjects, to forbear and forgive. God is my witness that it has not
+been by meanness, but by human weakness, that I have not been able to
+do better. My ambition has always been the improvement and welfare of
+the people of my country. I know full well that I have been a severe
+king in the eyes of many. Yet that day shall come when the children of
+Sweden willingly would dig me up from under the sod if that they could.
+My time soon is at an end. I need not in the stars or other signs
+search for my last moment; my body is to me the trustworthy messenger
+that I soon shall stand before the severe King of kings, to give
+account for the glorious but earthly crown of Sweden which I have worn.”
+
+The Estates listened with great emotion to the words of the old
+monarch. After the king had ceased speaking and his will had been
+sanctioned, Gustavus left the assembly supported by his sons and
+nodding his farewell to those standing near. Three months later he was
+taken ill, and September 29, 1560, the great liberator, revolutionist
+and organizer of his country expired.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+_Reformation and Reaction--The Sons of Gustavus I._
+
+
+Eric XIV. succeeded his father in 1560, commencing his reign under the
+most brilliant of auspices. But the old King Gustavus had foreseen that
+his sons would cause danger to the realm which he with infinite care
+had built up. After his forty years’ work of construction followed
+forty years of destruction which his elder sons brought to bear upon
+it. Fortunately, that work was so solid that it withstood this bravely,
+to rise rejuvenated when loving hands anew were laid to it.
+
+King Eric was one of the most gifted monarchs of his time, handsome,
+eloquent, learned, a fine linguist, a musician and artist. But
+his sharp reason carried him to the excess of suspicion, his
+artistic temperament into hysterics, and he was vain, overbearing,
+quick-tempered, licentious and cruel. His leaning toward mysticism made
+him devoted to astrology.
+
+Eric’s first ambition was to reduce the power of the dukes, convoking a
+Riksdag at Arboga, in 1561, where the “Arboga Articles” were formulated
+for such purpose, the dukes being forced to acquiesce. In order to
+reduce the distance between the dukes and the nobility, King Eric, at
+his coronation--celebrated with a lavish display of pomp at Upsala
+in June of the same year--instituted hereditary dignities of counts
+and barons. Svante Sture, Peter Brahe the Elder and Gustavus Johnsson
+Tre Rosor were created counts, the first and third one the sons of
+Christine Gyllenstierna, Peter Brahe being a cousin of Gustavus Vasa.
+Among the barons were Sten Leijonhufvud, Gustavus Stenbock, relatives
+of the dukes, and Clas Kristersson Horn (of Aminne). Only small
+fiefs were given with the new dignities, which were nothing but an
+outward sign of the distinction existing between a higher aristocracy
+already extant and the lower nobility. In order to strengthen his
+connection with the nobles, Eric made the estate on which a noble
+fixed his domicile exempt from _russtjenst_. He was jealous of his
+power and dignity, for which reasons he held sharp supervision over
+his officials. He instituted a supreme court, consisting of twelve
+men of low birth, who every three years made a tour of the country to
+hold court in the name of the king. These justices were the creatures
+of Eric, and soon brought on themselves discredit and hatred through
+their servile and cruel acts. Among these justices was Gœran Persson,
+an able and powerful man, revengeful and cruel, who soon rose to be the
+favorite and influential adviser of his master.
+
+Eric was intent upon making a great match, wooing Elizabeth of England,
+Mary Stuart of Scotland, Renata of Lothringia and Christine of Hesse,
+with more or less success, overlooking Margaret of Valois, who was
+anxious to marry him. His mistress, Carin Monsdotter, a child of the
+people, but beautiful and of a noble character, for whom he had formed
+a secret attachment, finally was made his queen.
+
+The German Order which held Esthonia and Livonia suffered during this
+period considerably through Russian invasions. The town of Reval,
+with a large part of Esthonia, was ceded to Sweden in 1562, upon
+the receipt of a loan, Eric immediately giving his attention to the
+depressed and enslaved peasants of that section. Later the grandmaster
+of the Order turned Livonia over to the king of Poland, who, in need
+of money, placed seven castles of this province at the disposal of
+John, duke of Finland. John had tendered a loan to the Polish king
+and married his sister Catherine. Eric considered these negotiations
+as harmful to his royal authority, and he asked his brother to give
+account of them in person. John refused, making the royal emissaries
+his prisoners. The Swedish Riksdag condemned John to death for high
+treason, and an army was despatched to Finland, which carried back Duke
+John and his consort as prisoners. John’s sentence was commuted to
+imprisonment at Gripsholm, proud Catherine choosing to share the fate
+of her husband (1563). The prison life of the ducal couple at Gripsholm
+was not an unpleasant one. They enjoyed a great deal of liberty and
+luxury at the splendid castle in Lake Mælar, King Eric sending his
+brother a copy of Boccaccio’s “Decamerone” in German, to read for a
+pastime. The duke read the work and translated it into Swedish. The
+room called “king John’s prison,” which is still preserved with the
+artistic decoration which Duke Charles later bestowed on it, served as
+sleeping apartment for the prisoners, and there Catherine gave life
+to two children, one of whom was to become the founder of the Polish
+line of Vasa kings. It is said that Duke Magnus became a prey to the
+disposition of insanity latent in his family, by being forced to
+sign the death sentence of his brother John, King Eric being anxious
+of having him share the responsibility. Magnus lived until quite an
+advanced age, but was never cured of his mental ailment. Even in his
+best hours he was not of very bright intellect. While sojourning at
+the castle of Vadstena, by the Lake Vetter, he had the vision of a
+mermaid, who coaxed him to follow her. The duke jumped from the window
+of his apartment into the moat below. He did not sustain any serious
+injury, but the incident made the unhappy prince famous in tradition
+and song.
+
+In May, 1560, a war commenced with Denmark which, with several
+intermissions, lasted for seven years. It has been called The Seven
+Years’ War of the North. About the same time that Eric became king
+of Sweden, the young ambitious Frederic II. ascended the throne of
+Denmark. In the days of Gustavus I., Christian III. had appropriated
+the Swedish emblem of three crowns for the Danish seal of state, as
+if by this proclaiming that the Union was considered still extant or
+that it could be re-established at the opportune moment. King Gustavus
+had protested, but with no result. When King Frederic kept up the
+irritating fact of preserving the Swedish emblem, King Eric answered by
+placing the emblems of Denmark and Norway in the Swedish seal of state.
+This made things worse and served as a nominal cause for war. The
+principal interest at stake was the supremacy in the Baltic provinces.
+The diocese of Œsel, which had accepted a Danish protectorate, was
+governed by a brother of the Danish king, who had entered into an
+alliance with Poland against Sweden, Denmark also joining it.
+
+In May, 1563, a Swedish fleet, commanded by Jacob Bagge, left Sweden
+to bring Princess Christine of Hesse, the promised bride of King Eric.
+A Danish fleet met them, at the island of Bornholm, and greeted the
+Swedish ships with some shots from their sharply loaded cannon. The
+Swedes returned the fire and a naval battle followed, which ended
+in a defeat for the Danes, who lost their flagship. When Jacob Bagge
+arrived in Rostock, where he was to meet the princess, her father was
+found unwilling to let her sail on account of the insecurity brought
+about by the commencing naval hostilities. This would under ordinary
+circumstances have enraged the vain and sensitive king, but Eric forgot
+his rage in his delight at the naval victory. Jacob Bagge was rewarded
+with a triumphal entry into Stockholm upon his return. He entered
+the city on foot with a golden chain round his neck, followed by his
+sub-commanders and surrounded by the banners taken during the battle.
+The prisoners followed, in chains and with shaved heads. The king’s
+fool was dancing in front of them, playing on his fiddle. A Danish
+herald soon afterward reached Stockholm, declaring war with great pomp
+and ceremony on behalf of his royal master. The city of Lubeck sent a
+messenger to Stockholm on a similar errand, but was not received by the
+king. “Since he is sent by the mayor and council of his town and other
+similar lard-mongers, let him be heard and answered by the mayor and
+council of Stockholm,” was the royal order.
+
+Jacob Bagge was ordered to sea with the Swedish fleet later in the
+summer of the same year. He met the united fleets of Denmark and Lubeck
+at the island of Œland, in the Baltic. A terrible battle ensued, which
+lasted until the fleets were separated by the darkness of the night,
+without victory being won by either side. Jacob Bagge started out
+with his fleet again in the spring of the following year, commanding
+a new flagship, “The Matchless,” which carried two hundred cannon,
+most of them made out of church bells confiscated by Gustavus Vasa. A
+new battle was delivered between the islands of Gothland and Œland.
+The majority of the Swedish ships had by a gale been separated from
+the admiral and his flagship, but Jacob Bagge fought valiantly for
+a whole day, continuing the battle the next morning. A catastrophe
+brought it to a close. “The Matchless” caught fire through some act of
+negligence, a barrel of powder exploding between the decks. Jacob Bagge
+then surrendered, and was taken on board one of the ships of Lubeck.
+The enemies took possession of the “The Matchless” in order to plunder
+it, but the immense ship exploded with a tremendous roar, sinking with
+everybody who was on board. Jacob Bagge did not long remain in Danish
+captivity. He returned, to be greeted with the greatest distinction,
+and died as governor-general of Stockholm.
+
+The war on land was at the beginning carried on only through mutual
+invasions, both sides giving proofs of cruelty and vandalism. Elfsborg
+surrendered to the Danes. A Swedish army, commanded by King Eric in
+person, entered the province of Halland, pillaging and plundering
+and laying siege to the town of Halmstad. King Eric suddenly raised
+the siege, when news came that King Frederic was approaching with an
+army. The Swedish troops scattered in various directions, one division
+being met and defeated by the Danes. The whole of Northern Norway
+was invaded by Swedish troops and temporarily subjugated. The entire
+kingdom of Norway was very near being altogether absorbed by Sweden.
+This would have been a happy solution of the Scandinavian question.
+Norway would have become one in language with Sweden and would have
+shared her glorious epoch of political grandeur which was to follow.
+The best families of Norway would have been entered side by side with
+the Swedish nobility at the knightly chapterhouse of Stockholm, and
+the countries would have had their later democratic and cultural
+development in common. But King Eric was too restless and undecided to
+make any lasting conquest, or union, possible. When Claude Collard, a
+young French nobleman, who was the conqueror of Northern Norway, was
+taken by surprise and captured, King Eric, to avenge this, devastated
+forty church parishes in Norway. The Danes invaded and plundered the
+provinces of West Gothland and Smaland, while the Swedes pillaged
+Bleking and Scania. The king had given orders that the population of a
+whole district should be killed. He wrote later about the fulfilment
+of this cruel command: “God granted luck, so that thousands of men
+were killed on the road and in the woods.” The province of Scania
+was devastated to a distance of one hundred miles from the Swedish
+frontier. A new invasion into Halland was made, in 1565, when Duke
+Charles, then fifteen years of age, commanded the artillery. The town
+of Varberg was attacked, but valiantly defended by the Danes. The young
+duke upon this occasion gave the first proof of his indomitable energy.
+He led the attack and persuaded the Swedes, by word and action, not to
+give it up. At last the walls were taken, the town being pillaged and
+burned. All men who could carry arms were killed, except a force of
+one hundred and fifty men of hired troops who entered Swedish service.
+A young French captain, Pontus de la Gardie, of a noble family of
+Languedoc, was among the latter. This man and his descendants were
+destined to play an important part in Swedish history.
+
+Clas Kristersson Horn was made commander of the Swedish navy after
+Jacob Bagge, in which position he covered his name with glory. He won a
+naval battle at Œland (in 1564) which lasted for two days. In the next
+year he added several victorious battles to his record, among which
+the principal ones were fought at Buchow, by the coast of Mecklenburg,
+and at the island of Bornholm. When he went to sea in the spring of
+1566 no enemy dared appear. The united fleets of Denmark and Lubeck at
+last started out, but were defeated by Clas Horn at the island of Œland
+after a vehement battle. The vanquished fleets were caught in a gale in
+which sixteen ships perished with seven thousand men. Clas Horn with
+his Swedish fleet was master of the sea. In the following year no fleet
+appeared to meet his. The efforts of Gustavus I. to set the Swedish
+fleet in good order thus proved to be of the greatest consequence.
+
+The Danes were superior in the hostilities on land during the latter
+part of the war, thanks principally to their eminent commander, Daniel
+Rantzau. He made an unsuccessful attempt to recapture the town of
+Varberg, but gained, at Axtorna, a battle over a superior Swedish army
+(in 1565). When Rantzau saw the Swedes approaching for an attack, he
+held prayer with his troops, whereupon he arranged them for resistance.
+The Swedish infantry captured the Danish stronghold and artillery,
+but the hired German troops of the Swedish wings turned into flight.
+Rantzau made an attack upon the deserted infantry, and was victorious
+when nightfall ended the battle. The Swedes lost thirty cannon, and
+Nils Sture, the son of Count Svante Sture, was able to save the banner
+of state only by severing it from the pole and hiding it on his person.
+In the following year, Rantzau pillaged Smaland and West Gothland, and
+in 1567 he penetrated as far as East Gothland, where he was very near
+being caught in a trap by the Swedish troops. The interior struggle of
+Sweden caused hostilities to cease for some time.
+
+The sad fate of his brother Magnus also befell King Eric. Evidences
+of approaching insanity were frequent and brought on horrible
+consequences. By licentiousness, mysticism and astrological speculations
+his mind became unsettled. It had been predicted that a blond man would
+dethrone him. Eric at first made his brother John the subject of his
+suspicions. After the duke’s imprisonment he suspected a rival in Nils
+Sture, who also was a blond. Eric accused him of ill behavior in the
+battle of Axtorna. The king’s court sentenced him to death, but Lord
+Nils escaped with a contumelious entry of mockery into Stockholm, on a
+miserable horse, and a crown of straw on his head. But frightened at
+the indignation aroused by his shameful act the king tried to undo it,
+and sent Lord Nils on an embassy to Lothringia, to bring the king’s
+proposal to Princess Renata.
+
+In the commencement of 1567, the king had several of the nobles
+arrested, on the suspicion of conspiracy, and carried to the castle
+of Upsala, where a Riksdag was convoked. Nils Sture arrived with the
+consent and betrothal ring of Princess Renata, but was thrown into
+prison. The king asked the Riksdag to pass a sentence of death upon the
+accused nobles. When this was refused, he was seized by fear and rage.
+Rushing into the prison of Nils Sture, he wounded him in the arm. Lord
+Nils drew out the weapon, a dagger, kissing its handle and returning it
+to the king, with a prayer for mercy, but was killed by the soldiers at
+the command of the king. Eric’s disposition immediately was changed,
+and he darted into Count Svante’s prison, begging forgiveness at his
+feet. The aged Sture’s answer was that he would forgive all, granted
+that no harm was done to his son. The king fled in despair from the
+castle and town, followed by some of his soldiers, one of whom he
+sent back with an order to kill all the nobles, “except Lord Sten.” As
+there were two by that name, these were spared, but Count Svante and
+his son Eric Sture, Abraham Stenbock and Ivar Ivarsson were killed. The
+Riksdag was forced to pass sentence for high treason upon the murdered
+men, at the instigation of Gœran Persson, whose perfidious advice
+had continually inflamed the sickened brain of his master. King Eric
+was for several days missing, and at last found wandering about in a
+peasant’s garb. Cared for by Carin Monsdotter, he slowly regained his
+reason, showing evidence of repentance by declaring the murdered nobles
+innocent and promising to compensate their families. During this spell
+he set free his brother John and dismissed Gœran Persson. But soon his
+evil disposition returned, and the resolution of his brothers to free
+the country from his rule must be acknowledged as a beneficent one. The
+nobles were brought to revolt, when Eric, in July, 1568, proclaimed
+Carin as his consort, and had her solemnly crowned Queen of Sweden. The
+dukes John and Charles were at first unsuccessful in their efforts,
+the king defeating their troops repeatedly. But in 1569 Stockholm was
+captured, Gœran Persson killed and the king forced to abdicate. The
+sentence passed upon Eric, by the Estates of the Riksdag, stipulated
+that he should be “imprisoned, but sustained in a princely manner, for
+the rest of his days.”
+
+Eric was at first held imprisoned in his own apartments at the
+royal castle, but was transferred to two of the vaults, called the
+“apartments of Lord Eskil.” They had served as a treasury during the
+reign of Gustavus I., but now stood empty. Queen Carin and her children
+were his company. After an unsuccessful attempt at flight, one room
+was taken away from him and the windows in the remaining one reduced
+in size. The table of the royal prisoner was well provided for, but
+he was unmercifully treated by his warders. The cruel Olof Stenbock
+once deprived him of all his clothes. In a struggle which followed,
+he shot Eric in the arm and let him remain senseless in his blood for
+several hours. Some of the members of the former body-guard of Eric
+once attempted, but in vain, to set free the unhappy prisoner. In
+1569 Eric was removed to Abo in Finland, where he was locked up in a
+secure prison. Two years later he was taken to Castellholm, in the
+archipelago of Aland, for fear that the Russian czar would liberate him
+by violence. Shortly afterward he was removed to the lovely castle of
+Gripsholm, where he had spent some of the happiest days of his youth,
+and where he once upon a time held his brother John imprisoned. At
+Gripsholm there is a gloomy dungeon which is said to have served as
+the prison of King Eric, but this is not authentic. Eric was treated
+comparatively well while at Gripsholm, enjoying the company of his
+family, a good table and plenty of servants. The recording books of the
+castle from this period speak of “the court of King Eric.” King John
+was, in the meantime, irritated by Russian hostilities and intrigues,
+the old supporters of Eric joining in the latter. The appeals of Duke
+Charles for the improvement of the condition of his poor imprisoned
+brother roused the suspicion of the king, who fostered dark plots
+against the prisoner. Eric was removed from Gripsholm and its pleasant
+associations, separated from his family and put in hard prison at
+Westeros. The warders received instructions to take his life if
+necessary. The state council and the archbishop sanctioned this order
+of the king. The last prison of the unhappy King Eric was Œrbyhus,
+where he suddenly died, exactly at a time when King John’s fears of a
+revolt had reached a climax. Rumors that Eric had been poisoned were
+current, and Duke Charles also gave utterance of his belief that such
+was the case. In spite of the wars, cruelty and evil deeds of King Eric
+XIV., the Swedish people of his time had a good deal of devotion for
+him and his faithful consort. The country enjoyed good years during his
+reign and profited by the wise measures of his father.
+
+Gustavus, the son of Eric XIV. and Carin Monsdotter, was born, in
+1568, at Nykœping. When Queen Carin was separated from her imprisoned
+consort, her children, Gustavus and Sigrid, followed her to Finland,
+where she resided at Abo. In 1575 the young prince was harshly taken
+away from his mother, at the command of the state council, and sent
+to Prussia. The jealous and uneasy King John made him the subject of
+cruel persecutions. In spite of these he received a fine education,
+and is known to have embraced the Catholic religion. He was kindly
+received by King Sigismund of Poland, his cousin, at whose coronation
+in Cracow he is said to have been present, in the disguise of a beggar.
+A relation of intimate friendship existed between the outlawed prince
+and Emperor Rudolph of Austria, both of whom were devoted to the study
+of alchemy. King John refused to listen to the appeals for grace and
+support which Gustavus repeatedly made to him. Gustavus was not allowed
+to see his mother until the year of 1596, when the two had a touching
+meeting at Reval. He later made his home in Thorn, but left for Russia,
+in 1600, upon an invitation from Czar Boris. He was received in Moscow
+as a reigning prince; but when he refused to appear as a pretender to
+the Swedish throne, he was imprisoned. At the fall of Boris, Gustavus
+was set free, but again put in prison by Dimitri. At the fall of the
+latter, in 1607, Gustavus once more regained his liberty, but died in
+Casijn, in the same year. This unhappy Gustavus Ericsson Vasa was a man
+of fine erudition and pure morals. He was a dreamer and of a sensitive
+disposition, being an ardent Catholic and fondly devoted to the country
+which had outlawed him.
+
+Sigrid Vasa, the daughter of Eric XIV., was twice married to members
+of the Swedish nobility. Ake Henricsson Tott, her son of the first
+marriage, was a distinguished warrior in the times of Gustavus II.
+Adolphus. Queen Carin died, in 1612, beloved and highly respected, at
+the beautiful estate of Liuksiala in Finland, given her in fief by King
+John.
+
+_John III._ succeeded Eric, without sharing his power with his younger
+brother Charles, as he had promised. John was as learned and highly
+talented as Eric, and as vain, restless and unreliable. But while Eric
+was a mystic and a sceptic by turns, John was a Catholic, or leaning
+toward Catholicism, and a hypocrite who, under the pretence of meekness
+and piety, tried to hide his vanity, bad temper and utter selfishness.
+Like Gustavus I. and all his other sons, John was devoted to the
+fine arts, particularly to architecture, with an ardor that reached
+the vehemence of a passion. He planned a vast number of churches and
+castles, which he completed, utterly regardless of cost. The Swedish
+Castle Renaissance which was established by John and his brothers is
+influenced by contemporary Flemish art, severe and majestic in outline,
+graceful and profuse in interior decoration. Good specimens of it were
+the earlier castles of Stockholm and Svartsjœ, the castle of Vadstena
+remains so and, to a great extent, the beautiful and memorable castle
+of Gripsholm.
+
+At his coronation, John issued hereditary privileges to the nobility.
+_Russtjenst_ became no longer essential. Legal offices were preserved
+for the nobles, the king’s supreme court being abandoned. John’s
+policy was to win the support of the aristocracy against Charles, who,
+indignant and sulky, kept within his duchy, consisting of the provinces
+of Sœdermanland and Vermland, with the town of Œrebro in addition.
+
+In 1570, an unsatisfactory peace was made with Denmark, Sweden ceding
+all the Norwegian and Danish territory in her possession, together
+with the island of Gothland, and agreeing to pay something like one
+hundred and fifty thousand dollars for the return of Elfsborg, held
+by the Danes. A friendly relation to hostile Poland commenced with
+John’s reign, but a long and bloody war with Russia began in 1570. The
+Russians tried repeatedly, but in vain, to capture Reval, plundering
+and killing the population of Esthonia, who remained faithful to
+Swedish rule. Henric Horn and Clas Tott won laurels for their heroic
+deeds, while the war was changed into more modern methods and to a
+successful issue by the Swedish general Pontus de la Gardie, who
+captured the provinces Keksholm and Ingermanland and the town of Narva.
+
+John III. had set two goals for his ambition: to return the Swedish
+church to Catholicism and to make his son Sigismund king of Poland.
+The latter he reached at the death of King Stephan in 1589, Sigismund
+succeeding him upon the throne. The former ambition John never
+attained, after years of stubborn and unreasonable perseverance giving
+up this pet idea. John made some attempts to bring order in the
+confused conditions of the church, but left it in a worse state of
+confusion than he found it. The crown and the aristocracy had deprived
+the church of nearly all its property and withheld its income from
+it. Archbishop Laurentius Petri complained of the miserable state of
+things, the ministers often being useless wretches and the service in
+some churches impossible to uphold for sheer lack of money. In 1572
+the ecclesiastical matters were arranged at a meeting in Upsala, when
+a new church law was introduced, demanding higher qualifications for
+the ministers, who were to be elected by their congregations, and
+enforcing a school law. Laurentius Petri died in 1573 and was succeeded
+by Laurentius Petri Gothus. The new archbishop willingly subscribed
+to a set of rules, laid before him by the king, which reintroduced
+monasteries, worship of saints and the ceremonies of the Roman church.
+Jesuits were invited to the country, but met with little encouragement
+from the people. The very climax of John’s reactionary movements was
+formed by the introduction of his ritual, Liturgia, which was nothing
+else than an adaptation of the Catholic ritual. It was accepted by the
+Riksdag of 1577, but Charles refused to accept it for his duchy. The
+king had many conflicts with his brother, the latter always giving
+in to his wishes, except on this point. Ministers and university
+professors who refused to conform to the new ritual, or attacked it,
+were sheltered by the duke and, in many instances, given high offices.
+The king grew angry, but the duke remained firm and unyielding. When
+Queen Catherine died, in 1583, John’s Catholic fervor suffered a
+relapse, and ceased altogether after his marriage to young Protestant
+Gunilla Bielke, in the following year. He stubbornly stuck to his
+Liturgia for some time yet, but exiled the Jesuits, and dismissed with
+contumely ministers who had joined the Roman Church. During the last
+years of his reign, he said it was best to leave everybody a free
+choice in religious matters, regretting his Liturgia--which he once
+considered the gem of his own theological system--because it had caused
+so much trouble and confusion.
+
+Sweden suffered a great deal through the slack and unsteady government
+of King John. He spent unreasonable sums on his court and his craze for
+architectural marvels, while always short of funds for the necessities
+of war and internal improvements. Commerce and industries suffered and
+were brought to a standstill by dearth, hunger and pest. The population
+decreased; the towns were made bankrupt and many farms abandoned. Bad
+and greedy officials and the recommencing war with Russia increased the
+evils. After unsuccessful attempts to have his son leave Poland, where
+he had met with many difficulties, John entered into more intimate
+relations with his brother, who came to wield a beneficial influence on
+the government. John III. died 1592, malcontent and tired of life, his
+death being little regretted by the people.
+
+One of the most famous love episodes of Sweden dates from the reign
+of John III. It has no bearing upon the affairs of state, but is not
+devoid of value as an illustration of the history of civilization,
+giving us a glimpse of the private life of the nobles of that period
+and the standard of morals of their lives. The episode is told by
+Countess Anne Banér in a manuscript by her hand with the title: “In
+the following manner my blessed mother’s sister, Lady Sigrid Sture,
+lady of Salestad and Geddeholm, related what took place when Lord Eric
+Gustafson Stenbock carried away our blessed mother’s sister, Magdalen
+Sture, from Hœrningsholm.”
+
+The dowager-countess, Martha Sture, resided at the castle of
+Hœrningsholm, enlarged to a four-story structure and fortified with
+four corner towers by her consort. She was a sister of Queen Margaret,
+the second queen of Gustavus I., and was married to the renounced lover
+of that sister, Count Svante Sture. The countess was called “King
+Martha,” partly because of her stern power and great authority, partly
+because it was known to have been her ambition to see her husband’s
+family grace the throne of a country which their forefathers had ruled
+as uncrowned kings. She had lived to see her husband and two sons
+killed by the insane Eric XIV., but she had yet two sons who would
+carry high the glorious name, on which there was not a stain of any
+kind. There were five daughters, Sigrid and Anne, married to members of
+the influential Bielke family, and Magdalen, Margaret and Christine, as
+yet unmarried. There was another young lady at Hœrningsholm, besides
+the daughters, the little Princess Sigrid Vasa, the daughter of King
+Eric XIV. and Carin Monsdotter, who had received a home with the stern
+“King Martha” while her mother was following the tracks of the deposed
+monarch from prison to prison.
+
+Between Magdalen Sture and Lord Eric Stenbock a passionate love sprang
+up. Lord Eric was a very fine young man, of an influential family and
+the brother of the queen-dowager, Catherine, third consort of Gustavus
+I. But, unfortunately, he was the nephew of Countess Martha, and, as
+a cousin of Magdalen, considered to be too closely related to her to
+make a marriage possible. Countess Martha was unwilling to listen
+to any appeals, and she was strengthened in her resolution by the
+old Archbishop Laurentius Petri, who still held the same opinions as
+when he, once upon a time, refused to grant his consent to a marriage
+between King Gustavus I. and young Lord Eric’s sister, because she was
+a niece of Queen Margaret. The years passed by, but no change came in
+the stubborn resistance of “King Martha.” Christmas eve of 1573, Lord
+Eric visited Hœrningsholm to remain until New Year. He brought with
+him costly presents which he offered as New Year’s gifts to Countess
+Martha, her daughters, chaplain and servants. He left to return on Palm
+Sunday with his sister Cecilia, the wife of Count Gustavus Tre Rosor.
+One morning a few days later, Lady Sigrid Bielke, who was visiting
+her mother, entered the so-called rotunda, a large room in one of
+the towers which Countess Martha and her daughters used as sleeping
+apartment. She was surprised to find her sister Magdalen kneeling and
+in tears. Lady Sigrid greeted her: “God bless you, you have a good
+deed in mind!” “God grant it were good,” answered Magdalen, rising.
+“Certainly it is good to make one’s prayers amid tears,” Sigrid said.
+Magdalen caught the hands of her sister and said: “My darling sister,
+if all the rest forsake me, you will not turn away your faithful heart
+from me.” Sigrid found the words and emotion of her sister strange,
+but did not suspect anything. “Why do you use such words to me?” she
+answered. “I do not believe that you are going to make an evil-doer
+out of yourself; there are none in the Sture family who have carried
+themselves in a way to make us turn our hearts away from them.” Tears
+came again to the eyes of Magdalen, but Sigrid was called into an
+interior room by her mother. Magdalen went to play with one of her
+little nieces, when Lord Eric entered. “Dear lady,” he said, “would you
+like to see the horse that I have given you? It is now waiting in the
+court.” Magdalen rose and left, escorted by her cousin. They met two
+of the women of the household, whom Eric commanded to follow them. A
+horse and sleigh stood in the vaulted entrance. Magdalen was placed
+between the two servants, while Eric took his position back of them
+on the runners, holding the reins. In the castle court they met the
+chaplain and several of the servants, who thought it a pleasure ride
+and let them pass. When they rode down on the frozen lake, the two
+servants in the sleigh grasped the importance of the situation for the
+first time, and commenced praying Lady Magdalen to return. Lord Eric
+silenced them by displaying his short musket. A few moments later they
+were surrounded by a force of one hundred men on horseback, who formed
+an escort. They were a loan to Lord Eric by Duke Charles.
+
+The excitement at Hœrningsholm was great when the elopement was
+discovered. Margaret Sture happened to look through the window at the
+moment when the sleigh reached the lake. At her outcry Countess Martha
+and Sigrid joined her. The old countess fainted on the stairs when
+making for the court, and Sigrid was ordered to follow up the eloping
+couple. Countess Cecilia found her aunt on the stairs and hastened
+to assure her of the mortification that she felt at the daring and
+unsuspected deed of her brother, also expressing some surprise at the
+bad manner in which it was accepted. But then the old countess became
+wroth, exclaiming: “Go to the devil, and may God punish both you and
+your brother! And if you have any part in his scheme of robbing me of
+my dear child, betake yourself after him, so that no shame or dishonor
+may happen.” Countess Cecilia hastened to her sleigh and reached
+Sværdsbro, where her brother was stopping, ahead of Sigrid.
+
+When Lady Sigrid arrived at Sværdsbro, she was admitted through the
+lines of soldiers only after some difficulty, finding tailors and
+seamsters busy cutting and sewing precious stuffs for clothing for Lady
+Magdalen and her servants, “for she left with uncovered head such as
+she went and stood in her mother’s house.” Sigrid tried to persuade her
+sister to return to her mother, who in her great sorrow was willing to
+forgive all if she only came back. Magdalen sat silent for a long time.
+Finally she said: “If you can vouchsafe me, that the lady, my mother,
+will grant that we shall belong to each other, since I have so dearly
+pledged myself to him, I shall return.” This Sigrid could not do, and
+Magdalen added, weeping sorely: “The last complication is then as bad
+as the first.” Lord Eric entered with his sister Cecilia. When Sigrid
+asked where he intended to bring Magdalen, he answered: “To Visingsœ,
+to the Countess Beatrix, my sister, where she shall remain until we
+obtain the consent to marry of the lady, her mother.” It was arranged
+that Cecilia should accompany Magdalen, and Sigrid try her best to win
+her mother’s consent. Magdalen sent home to her mother a piece of horn
+of the fabulous unicorn; “the only thing I have carried with me from
+my father’s house,” she added. This horn, which really was taken from
+the incisor of the narwhal, was in those days generally thought to be
+authentic and of miraculous power.
+
+Countess Martha was, in her grief and dismay, taken ill. She soon
+gathered strength enough to write to King John, her nephew, pleading
+her cause. King John at once took action in the matter, calling Lord
+Eric to account, and issuing a command to all ministers of the kingdom,
+prohibiting them to unite in marriage the two cousins. Eric Stenbock
+was on his way to Stockholm when he received the order of the king.
+Upon his arrival at the capital, he was imprisoned and deprived of all
+his offices. But Lord Eric had powerful friends in Duke Charles and
+the Stenbock family. As the king himself did not wish to be without
+his service, he was soon set free and reinstalled in his offices. He
+succeeded in obtaining the goodwill of the whole Sture family, but
+“King Martha” remained irreconcilable. More than a year had passed
+since the elopement. One day Lord Eric suddenly appeared at the castle
+of Visingsœ. He made, with Magdalen and his aunt, Lady Anne, a journey
+into the province of Halland, where a Danish minister joined the two
+cousins in marriage. The wedding was celebrated at the home of Eric’s
+father, Baron Gustavus Stenbock of Torpa. But Lady Magdalen was not
+happy. She grieved because of her mother’s hostile attitude, and
+continued to dress in black colors, as she had done ever since she left
+her mother. Duke Charles, the queen-dowager, the royal princesses, and
+all the members of the state council, yea, the king himself, wrote
+letters to the indignant countess, whose ire was rather increased than
+diminished thereby.
+
+Finally, after another year and a half, “King Martha” gave in to
+the tears and prayers of her daughters. Lady Magdalen returned to
+Hœrningsholm after three years of absence. She was not allowed to come
+up to the castle at first, but had to dwell in the building occupied by
+the baths. As the winter was approaching, and Lady Magdalen was soon
+to give life to a child, her brothers and sisters prevailed upon their
+mother to receive Lord Eric and his wife at the castle. The event was
+arranged in a conspicuous way. Countess Martha was seated in the place
+of honor in the great hall of the castle, surrounded by her daughters
+and sons-in-law, when Lord Eric entered with Magdalen. When the mother
+saw her pale and thin features, she was moved to tears, exclaiming:
+“Thou unhappy child!” Magdalen approached her on her knees, and the
+countess embraced her, stammering her forgiveness between tears.
+Magdalen remained at the castle, where she bore her husband a son, who
+was called Gustavus. Lady Martha invited the king, the duke and the
+princesses to be present at the baptism, at the same time granting
+Magdalen an equal share of inheritance with the other daughters. Lady
+Magdalen continued to dress in mourning as a self-imposed punishment
+for her disobedience to her mother. One day she was preparing to leave
+for a wedding, when her mother asked her the reason why she dressed
+thus. When “King Martha” learned why, she took a costly cross of
+diamonds intended for the bride and placed it on her daughter’s breast,
+telling her to put aside her black dresses. From that day joy and
+happiness seemed to return to Lady Magdalen, who commenced to put on
+lighter colors and to wear diamonds. Of Magdalen Stenbock--a child of
+these Stures, who so often had protected and preserved Sweden--Count
+Magnus Stenbock was a lineal descendant, he who during the reign of
+Charles XII. saved his country in the hour of its greatest peril and
+distress.
+
+_Sigismund_, the son and successor of John III., was not apt to become
+more popular than his father. Born at the pleasant prison of Gripsholm,
+which yet was a prison, he was of a cold, unsympathetic disposition,
+a king of few words and hard to approach. At John’s death, Sigismund
+was twenty-six years of age and had reigned several years in Poland.
+Charles stepped to the front as the head of the government until
+Sigismund’s arrival.
+
+The Protestants, fearing the worst from their new Catholic king,
+decided to take firm and early action. The duke ordered a Riksdag at
+Upsala in February, 1593, the deliberations being held by the clergy
+alone. The Liturgia was abolished with the majority of Catholic church
+ceremonies, Luther’s catechisms, L. Petri’s ritual, church visitations,
+etc., being reintroduced. Abraham Angermannus was elected archbishop,
+and decision made for the re-establishment of the Upsala University.
+The duke had not been present at the deliberations, and appeared
+displeased because not consulted. He, who was secretly accused of being
+a Calvinist, pointed out more Catholic ceremonies to be abolished,
+whereupon the decisions won the sanction of the duke, the state council
+and the bishops. By this act the Lutheran Church was re-established,
+the Augsburgian Confession being laid down by the meeting as its
+corner-stone. When this action had been taken, the chairman, Nicolaus
+Bothniensis, a young Upsala professor, exclaimed: “Now Sweden has
+become _one_ man, and we all have _one_ God.”
+
+In August, 1593, King Sigismund arrived in Sweden, surrounded by
+Jesuits and Polish nobles, and with a sum of money wherewith to pay
+the expenses of a Catholic revival. To the demands made to sign the
+decisions of the Upsala meeting he gave a flat refusal. The conditions
+in Stockholm grew perilous, Jesuits and Lutheran ministers preaching
+denouncements upon each other in the churches and conflicts between
+the Polish troops and the populace taking place. In January, 1594,
+Sigismund, accompanied by the state councillors and the members of
+the Riksdag, came to Upsala for his father’s funeral and his own
+coronation. Duke Charles arrived with 3,000 men, whom he quartered
+in the neighborhood. He dismissed the papal legate, Malaspina, and
+his Jesuits from the funeral procession, before it entered the
+cathedral, and told the king, in behalf of all, that no coronation
+would take place before the confessional liberty of the Lutheran Church
+was confirmed. The Estates declared themselves ready to sacrifice
+their lives for the pure faith. The king still refused his sanction,
+whereupon the duke replied that the Riksdag would be dismissed within
+twenty-four hours if he insisted. Sigismund gave in, upon the advice of
+the Jesuits, who told him that pledges to Lutherans were not binding.
+Sigismund was crowned and returned suddenly to Poland.
+
+The king had left matters in an unsatisfactory condition, placing six
+governors with great authority in various districts, but leaving the
+government to be conducted by the duke and the state council in common.
+This little pleased the energetic Charles, who soon called a Riksdag
+at Sœderkœping, in 1595, forcing the councillors to sanction this act
+and follow him to the Riksdag. In Finland, the governor, Clas Fleming,
+had tried to have a peace agreement with Russia postponed as an excuse
+to keep the navy and army at his disposal in the interest of the king.
+At Sœderkœping, Charles had himself chosen regent, the last vestige of
+Catholicism abolished, and the punishment of Fleming decided on. In
+consequence, the Catholics were dealt with in a merciless way through
+the instigation of the archbishop, whom the duke called an executioner
+on account of his recklessness. The convent of Vadstena was closed, its
+eleven nuns scattered and its property confiscated. In Finland a bloody
+revolt against the oppression of Fleming cost 11,000 people their
+lives. It was called the “War of Clubs,” on account of the rude weapons
+used by the peasants. The state council refused to consent to Fleming’s
+punishment, whereupon the duke suddenly resigned. But he convoked a
+Riksdag at Arboga, in 1597, at which the councillors and nobles were
+absent, also the burghers. The peasants and clergy were abundantly
+represented and cheered the propositions of the duke to the echo. It
+was then decided that the king should be asked to return, until which
+event the duke was to remain regent, and that peace should be restored
+in Finland. Fleming died in the meantime and was succeeded by Arvid
+Stolarm, who also was one of the duke’s enemies. The Riksdag at Arboga
+was the first in the deliberations of which the state council had not
+taken a part. The councillors were disposed to punish the duke; but,
+not agreeing as to means, they left the country to seek the king.
+
+King Sigismund arrived in the summer of 1598 with an army of 5,000
+Poles, gathering a good deal of strength by reinforcements from
+Gothaland. The duke had his stronghold in Svealand, the Dalecarlians
+rising to join him. The Uplanders warded off an attempt made by Stolarm
+to land with his army; they were led by Nicolaus Bothniensis, the
+Upsala professor, who called his exploit “a crusade.” The two princes
+met in East Gothland, near Stegeborg. The duke and his peasant army
+were surrounded by the king’s cavalry, and would have been doomed if
+not for the outcry of one of the king’s followers that his subjects
+would be killed on either side. The king gave order to stop the attack,
+feeling pity at the sight. The duke was deeply moved by this act and
+offered to leave the land with his family. But the deliberations which
+followed were without result.
+
+On the 25th of September a battle was fought at Stongebro, near
+Linkœping, ending in the defeat of the royal army. An armistice
+followed. The conditions of peace were that the king should remain
+in Sweden, dismissing his foreign troops, and take charge of the
+government. No one should be punished except five of the nobles,
+to be placed before a jury of ambassadors. The king agreed to the
+conditions, but soon left Sweden never to return. A meeting of nobles
+and clergymen, in 1599, accepted him as reigning king if willing to
+return within four months. In July, a Riksdag was called at Stockholm,
+which declared Sigismund dethroned and his son Vladislav king if sent
+to Sweden to be educated in the Lutheran faith. Sigismund took no heed
+of these stipulations, planning to regain his throne by force.
+
+Charles followed up the punishment with such unprecedented severity
+that it has left a stain upon his memory. Three nobles were beheaded
+after Kalmar was taken, and proceeding to Finland, the duke applied
+capital punishment to a wide extent, in more than twenty cases at Abo
+alone. At a Riksdag in Linkœping, in 1600, the duke appeared as an
+accuser against the five imprisoned nobles and several others, eight
+state councillors being among them. The accused, thirteen in number,
+were sentenced to death for high treason, but the majority were
+pardoned upon confession of guilt. The councillors Gustavus Banér, Eric
+Sparre, Sten Banér and Ture Bielke were beheaded. They were all men
+of learning and great ability, who had faithfully served their king.
+During John’s reign they had already suffered years of imprisonment for
+intrigues against a hereditary kingdom and a strong government.
+
+_Charles IX._ was chosen king at the bloody Riksdag of Linkœping, and
+his son Gustavus Adolphus heir-apparent. The hereditary rights of
+Duke John, second son of John III., were acknowledged, and a duchy,
+consisting of East Gothland and Leckœ Castle, granted him; but he was
+passed over as too young and too closely related to Sigismund. Measures
+to strengthen the financial administration and the army were passed.
+
+Sigismund prepared, by alliances with Catholic powers, to gather
+support, Charles turning to England and France for the same purpose. A
+conflict was unavoidable, and Charles decided to invade the disputed
+province of Livonia, which he captured, only to be ousted by the
+Polish general, Zamoisky. The castle of Volmar was long and heroically
+defended by the Swedes under Jacob de la Gardie, a son of General
+Pontus, and Charles Gyllenhielm, an illegitimate son of Charles IX.
+After their surrender the former received for five years a tolerable
+treatment, the latter a most severe one for twelve years. After
+attempts to place conditions on a better footing in Finland, where the
+peasants had long suffered through aristocratic oppression, Charles
+increased the army still further and invaded Livonia once more, in
+1604. He met with a crushing defeat at Kerkholm, close by Riga, at the
+hands of the Pole, Chodkiewitz, losing 9,000 men. But the Poles did not
+understand how to use their victory, and the centre of the conflict
+changed to Russia.
+
+On Russian territory, the troops of Sigismund and Charles were to meet.
+The line of Rurik became extinct in 1598, its last descendant, Dimitri,
+being murdered. Great complications ensued with usurpers and two “false
+Dimitris” in succession. Sigismund supported the false Dimitris in
+order to gain ground and place the royal line of Vasa upon the throne
+of Russia after that of Rurik. Charles sided with Vassili Schuisky
+against the second false Dimitri. In 1607 an agreement was made that
+Sweden, upon the receipt of the province of Kexholm, should send an
+army to Russia to support Czar Vassili. In 1609, a small Swedish army,
+consisting of Swedes, Finns and some hired troops, entered Russia,
+under command of Jacob de la Gardie. It was received at Novgorod with
+the blaze of cannon and tolling of church bells. A victory was won at
+Tver over the pretender, but further progress was impeded by mutiny
+among the hired troops, the stubborn Finns returning home. With his
+1,200 faithful Swedes, reinforced by hired troops to 5,000, De la
+Gardie made a daring march eastward to Moscow, scaring away the Polish
+army, attacking it and making a triumphant entry into the Russian
+capital. Sigismund was at Smolensk, and met De la Gardie at Klusina,
+winning the battle on account of renewed mutiny of the hired troops in
+the Swedish army. De la Gardie was given free leave with 400 men, upon
+pledge not to support Czar Vassili, and later captured the promised
+Kexholm, while Sigismund’s son Vladislav for a short time became czar
+of Russia.
+
+Although the short reign of Charles IX. was filled with continual
+warfare, the king never for a moment lost interest in the peaceful
+development of the country. He continued his father’s work in
+furthering the mining industry, and tried to build up the commerce and
+trade relations. He founded the city of Gothenburg, on the western
+coast, in the island of Hising, opposite Elfsborg, also founding
+the towns of Karlstad, Christinehamn, Mariestad and Philipstad. The
+aristocracy looked upon his administration with coldness. It received
+sanction of the privileges granted by John III., but nothing more,
+except in return for additional _russtjenst_. The peasants were his
+favorites and he was surnamed the “Peasant King.” To the Church,
+Charles stood in a good relation, supporting its re-established
+Reformation with his whole authority. Also the University had in him
+a patron, although he severely criticised the too conservative spirit
+in both, exchanging a series of pamphlets with the archbishop on
+theological questions, firm in his Calvinistic tendencies. To make
+the government stronger it was stipulated that four members of the
+state council were always to hold the four principal offices, with the
+titles of drotsete, kansler (chancellor), admiral and treasurer. The
+greatest economy was enforced at court and throughout the whole system
+of government, various minor country offices being established for the
+enforcement of order, justice and economy. The king was liberal only
+with severe orders and harsh words, the artistic tendencies of his
+youth succumbing to the cruel necessities of his reign.
+
+In private he was as severe as in public life. His first consort,
+Maria of the Palatinate-Zweibrucken, had a quieting influence upon
+him, but the second, Christine of Holstein, stern and sharp like the
+king, strengthened the harshness and violence of his disposition.
+During the last years of his reign, Charles gave his attention to
+the critical European situation, desiring to join the Netherlands,
+England, France and the Protestant German princes into an alliance
+against the forming Catholic league. This man, so assured of his power
+to reign and so unscrupulous as to his means, was very careful not to
+do any act of importance without the sanction of his people, and for
+a long time refused to be called king. In 1604 he agreed to accept
+that name, but was in 1606 ready to cede it to Duke John. Still, after
+his coronation he admitted the hereditary right of his nephew, who
+was a good-natured man without the qualifications of a ruler. At the
+Riksdag of Norrkœping, in 1604, the crown was made hereditary among
+the descendants of Charles, also in the female line, provided that
+the monarch confessed the Lutheran faith and had not accepted the
+government of, or residence in, any other country.
+
+The stress placed upon Charles was greater than his originally strong
+health could carry. In 1609 he suffered a stroke of paralysis, which
+deprived him of his full power of speech. He still stood firm at the
+head of the government, with Prince Gustavus Adolphus, now sixteen
+years of age, at his side, who took part in the affairs of State and
+spoke for the paralytic king. The young and ambitious Christian IV.
+of Denmark thought that the opportune moment was come to turn down
+the rising power of Sweden. He declared war, in April, 1611, in spite
+of the efforts made by King Charles to avoid the conflict, pointing
+to Germany, where their joined forces would be needed. Christian
+captured the town of Kalmar, while its castle withstood his attacks,
+being handed over to him by treason. In his wrath and disgust, Charles
+sent word to Christian to meet him in a duel face to face, which the
+latter refused to do in a letter of abusive contempt. Gustavus Adolphus
+had made a dash into Bleking, capturing the store of provisions at
+Christianopel. In the autumn, the war came to a temporary standstill.
+
+Charles started for Stockholm from Kalmar, but was taken ill during
+the journey and died at Nykœping, October 11, 1611, surrounded by his
+sons and councillors. To his death-bed came the news that Jacob de
+la Gardie had captured the important city of Novgorod, and that the
+Russians offered the crown to either of his sons, Gustavus Adolphus or
+Charles Philip. With Charles died the only worthy son of Gustavus I.
+Vasa. In strength of intellect and stern power, he stands first among
+Swedish rulers. Devoted to the work of his great father, he educated
+the Swedish people, through hardships and sacrifices, to its political
+grandeur.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+_Period of Political Grandeur--Gustavus II. Adolphus_
+
+
+Gustavus II. Adolphus is the greatest figure of Swedish history,
+revered and beloved as one of the noblest of heroes, a genius in whom
+the qualities of the great statesman and warrior were blended with
+the faith of a man ready to sacrifice his life for the loftiest of
+causes--religious liberty. Gustavus Adolphus was, by his own triumphant
+deeds and through his school of discipline, which turned out men
+worthy to follow up his work, destined to bring his country up to the
+fulfilment of its mission in the history of human progress, and to
+open for it an era of glory and political grandeur which its limited
+resources made it impossible to preserve, but which was fruitful of
+results for its later cultural evolution.
+
+The secret of Sweden’s success in solving the stupendous conflict
+between Catholicism and Protestantism, between reaction and progress,
+rested in the fact that this little country was eminently ready
+to wage a war for religious liberty. It had been more perfectly
+rejuvenated by the spirit of Protestantism than had, at the time, any
+other country. The mediæval state, completed later in Sweden than on
+the continent, also gave way there sooner and more completely than
+elsewhere. The yeomanry, never fully suppressed, had preserved its old
+spirit of independence, fostered and guided by patriotic leaders of
+the nobility, with or without a crown. The population was suffering,
+hungering, bleeding, but free, indomitable, and devoted to its once
+more hereditary kings of Swedish birth and to their new faith, which
+had made strong in them their old individuality of views and life.
+
+When Gustavus Adolphus ascended the throne, the country was in the
+greatest peril and distress, and had many a lesson to learn before
+entering the universal conflict of the Thirty Years’ War.
+
+Gustavus Adolphus was born, Dec. 9, 1594, at the castle of Stockholm.
+When six years old, he followed his father to devastated Finland,
+returning through Norrland, for the settlement and future of which
+territory great plans were made. At ten, he was ordered to be present
+at the deliberations of the state council; at thirteen, he received
+petitions and complaints, rectifying wrongs and soothing suffering.
+His father said of him, in speaking of the fulfilment of great works,
+placing his hand on the curly blond head: “_Ille faciet._” The prince
+received a severe and carefully supervised education, led by Johan
+Skytte. He acquired knowledge of a considerable number of languages,
+probably all in a mechanical way, except the Swedish and German, with
+both of which he was made equally and thoroughly familiar, speaking
+and writing the latter language with greater ease and perfection than
+the emperor Ferdinand, or Maximilian of Bavaria. In the sciences of
+economics and war he was well read, himself inaugurating novel theories
+in both. In him the best traits of the Vasa dynasty were admirably
+blended and enlarged. He possessed an acute intellect, far-reaching
+views of almost prophetic discernment, a mastery and patience in
+detail, and an indomitable strength of will. To the ceaseless and
+painstaking care of the welfare of his subjects, characteristic of
+his father and grandfather, were in him added a harmony of endowment
+and a gentleness of disposition which made him their superior. In him
+the turbulent blood of the Vasas was held in noble self-restraint.
+After his rare outbursts of passion, he made good his faults in a most
+royal manner. His youth was not without the temptations which beset
+all richly endowed natures, but they were vanquished as he grew up to
+the importance of his grand mission. He stood in the paternal attitude
+to his people so becoming to his grandfather, but lacked the fiery
+democratic tendencies and the sympathy for the untitled, unpretentious
+and lowly, so strong in his stern father. To his relatives he was as
+gentle as to his subjects, treating his resolute and ambitious mother,
+Christine of Holstein-Gottorp, with love and respect; on her demand
+sacrificing the love of his youth and intended bride, Ebba Brahe,
+who became the consort of victorious Jacob de la Gardie. Also to his
+brother Charles Philip he stood in an exemplary relation; but firmly
+refused to grant him privileges for his duchy of Vermland which could
+be injurious to the country at large.
+
+Gustavus Adolphus was a man of commanding presence, tall and of a heavy
+frame. The color of his face was clear and light, his eyes blue, his
+hair and beard blond. Foreign contemporary authors called him “the
+golden king of the North.” He carried his head high, and his open,
+frank eye, and the clear voice of manly resonance, gave added charm to
+his noble appearance. Gustavus Adolphus possessed a majestic dignity of
+bearing coupled with the unfeigned kindness of a noble heart.
+
+Charles IX. had left his son the Danish war as an inheritance. It was
+carried on in the provinces of the frontiers, and consisted chiefly
+in small conflicts, which caused fatigue and detriment without being
+decisive. The Danes entered the interior of Smaland during the first
+days of the year 1612. Gustavus Adolphus, in his turn, moved from the
+fort of Ryssby into the province of Scania, destroying by fire the town
+of Væ and several castles belonging to the wealthy nobility. During
+a smaller conflict which then took place, Gustavus Adolphus was in
+imminent danger of his life.
+
+The Swedes had made a camp for themselves at the cemetery of Vittsjœ,
+when suddenly surprised by a force of Danish cavalry. The Swedes fought
+with determination, but found it necessary to leave their camp. They
+took a firm stand on the frozen waters of the adjoining lake, but were
+forced to leave that position also. A tumult ensued, during which the
+ice gave way on the spot where the king found himself, for the moment,
+alone and without an escort. Per Banér, a son of Gustavus Banér, who
+was executed at Linkœping at the command of Charles IX., perceived
+the king in the moment of greatest danger, and hastened with Thomas
+Larsson, a trooper from Upland, to rescue him. When in safety, the king
+at once unbuckled his silver belt, and, handing it to the trooper,
+said: “I shall remember thee with a piece of bread, which neither thou
+nor thy children shall ever find lacking.” Thomas Larsson received in
+the following year a farm in the province of Westmanland, which has
+remained in the possession of his descendants to this very day. Per
+Banér received in fief the estates which had been in the possession of
+his uncle, Sten Banér, also executed at Linkœping, and rose to the
+dignity of a state councillor during the minority of Queen Christine.
+
+It was the ambition of Christian IV. of Denmark to cut Sweden off from
+any communication with the North Sea. As Bohuslæn and Halland both
+were parts of the Danish dominion, there was only the small strip of
+territory surrounding the mouth of the Gotha River to conquer. The
+island of Hising constituted the larger part of it, and was the site
+of the new town of Gothenburg, which was defended by the fortress of
+Elfsborg. The town of New Lœdœse was situated on the opposite shore,
+some few miles up the river, defended by the fort of Gullberg. The
+Danish king approached Gullberg from Bohus, having with him a smaller
+force, which he considered sufficient in numbers. Gullberg was only a
+poor little nest, but it was valiantly defended by Morten Krakow and
+his wife, the stanch Lady Emerentia Pauli. One day the Danes made a
+violent attack. The ladders which they placed against the walls were
+crushed by heavy beams which the Swedes let fall down on them. In spite
+of this, the Danes succeeded in forcing the gates of the place. The
+position was a critical one for the Swedes. The commander had met with
+an accident and was unable to lead the defence. But Lady Emerentia
+resolved to take the command. She gave orders to the wives of the
+soldiers to fill up the vaulted passage of the gates with barrels,
+washtubs, timber, etc. When the Danes stormed on in a compact body,
+they were received by a downfall of scalding-hot lye, which the women
+kept pouring down on them from behind their barricade. The daughter
+of Lady Emerentia thus graphically describes the effect: “They lay in
+the vault and around the gates like scalded hogs.” Lady Emerentia had
+placed two pieces of artillery on the top of a small building fronting
+the gates. They were loaded with broken horseshoes and the like and
+sent out a disastrous fire. The few surviving Danes fled hurriedly for
+their lives, leaving Lady Emerentia in proud possession of the fort. A
+second attack which was made later on proved as futile as the first.
+King Christian then gave command to abandon the plan of taking the
+fort. The Danish army collected in a field in front of Gullberg. But
+Lady Emerentia was vigilant. From the walls of the fort she espied a
+man of prepossessing appearance who rode a white horse. “Shoot that
+man!” was her immediate command to the nearest soldier. The shot took
+effect, killing the white horse, whose brains and blood spattered the
+king. For the man on horseback was King Christian. “That devilish crow
+does never sleep!” exclaimed the king, referring to the commander.
+
+King Christian turned on New Lœdœse, killing without mercy all the
+male inhabitants of the town. West Gothland was invaded, the province
+appearing to be an easy prey because the Swedish army, commanded by
+Duke John, had just left it to march into Halland. But the bailiff of
+Hœjentorp called on the peasants to rise, which caused the Danes to
+recede. The Danes next made an attack on the fortress of Elfsborg,
+commanded by Olof Strole. Elfsborg was defended with heroism, but when
+fire threatened to destroy the towers, Olof Strole at last surrendered.
+On account of their valiant conduct the commander and his men, who were
+reduced to 200, were granted free passage with their music and banners.
+The able Morten Krakow of Gullberg had been promoted to the fortress of
+Vaxholm. His successor surrendered Gullberg to the Danes shortly after
+the fall of Elfsborg. King Christian planned a series of invasions in
+the year 1612, but, thanks to the vigilance of Gustavus Adolphus, he
+failed to accomplish the desired effect.
+
+Gustavus Adolphus wanted peace with Denmark, and such was made at
+Knerœd in 1613, after a war of mutual invasions and without any
+decisive battles or conquests of territory. The frontiers were to
+remain the same as before the war; the Danish king was allowed to
+keep the emblem of three crowns, but had to resign his claims upon
+the Swedish crown. The fortress of Elfsborg remained in the hands
+of the Danes for six years, until $1,000,000, an exorbitant sum in
+those days, was paid for it. It cost the people of Sweden very dear
+to pay this sum, sacrifices being made by the king and his friends
+to contribute to it. But Elfsborg, the only approach to the North
+Sea, was indispensable. It was returned in a miserable condition, and
+Gothenburg, on the opposite side of Gotha River, destroyed. Gustavus
+Adolphus ordered Gothenburg to be moved to its present site, on
+the mainland, and endowed it with extensive commercial privileges,
+encouraging Dutch merchants to settle there.
+
+The war with Russia began once more in 1614. Gustavus Adolphus not
+having been found willing to accept the crown for his brother Charles
+Philip, the negotiations were dropped. Count de la Gardie resumed
+control of the movements, although the king was present in person. The
+Swedes won a great victory at Bronitz and captured the fortress of
+Augdof. An attempt to take Pskof was unsuccessful, Evert Horn, the hero
+of a hundred battles, losing his life; but the Russians were willing
+to make peace. Through the honorable peace of Stolbova, in February,
+1617, Russia gave up all claims on Esthonia and Livonia, and ceded to
+Sweden Ingermanland and Kexholm. This cut off the Russians from the
+Baltic, fixed the Swedish frontier on the lakes Ladoga and Peipus, and
+left Sweden in peace with the mightiest of her enemies during almost a
+century. The armistice with Poland ended in 1616, but after two years
+of insignificant movements it was continued up to 1620.
+
+Gustavus II. Adolphus with untiring energy continued the work of
+building up the new state founded by Gustavus I. At the death of
+his father, the royal youth had won everybody by his gentleness and
+generosity. His first act was perhaps the wisest of all, in selecting
+among the councillors the young, highly talented Axel Oxenstierna as
+his chancellor. This couple have no peers in history, being united
+by the firmest of friendships and rising simultaneously to the
+highest ability of statesmanship, the gifts of the one wonderfully
+supplementing those of the other. The chancellor was cooler and slower
+than his royal friend. He placed supreme the duties to his country,
+but was of very aristocratic tendencies, through his influence leading
+the king still further away from the democratic principles of his
+father. To the nobility were granted the old privileges, with others
+in addition, which became menacing to the ancient freedom of the
+peasantry. The management of internal affairs and all branches of
+the administration were placed under various departments. They were
+presided over by the high functionaries and their offices chiefly
+filled by noblemen. A permanent supreme court was established in
+Stockholm, with the Drotsete as president, in 1614. In 1623, a supreme
+court for Finland was established and a governor-general for that
+grandduchy appointed, who was also to be president of the court.
+In 1630, a supreme court for the Baltic provinces was established
+at Dorpat. The Riksdag, governed by the new rules of 1617, was to
+convene yearly, and to consist of the four Estates of the kingdom: the
+nobility, clergy, bourgeoisie and yeomanry, each divided into various
+classes. These latter were as yet not quite distinct or organized,
+except those of the nobility, who, in 1625, formed a knightly chapter,
+the Riddarhus, which kept a register of the legitimate noble families
+of Sweden and Finland and watched over the interests of its members.
+The Estate of the nobility was divided in three classes, lords,
+knights and squires. To the first belonged the holders of counties
+and baronies, to the second those whose ancestors held the rank of
+state councillors, and to the third the rest of the nobility. As each
+class had one vote in the Riksdag, the supremacy of lords and knights,
+called the “higher nobility,” was secure, when standing united, over
+the more numerous third class, the “lower nobility.” The king appointed
+the speaker of the nobility, the _landtmarskalk_, who also was the
+president of their chapter. The Swedish church had its greatest
+epoch during the period of political grandeur, being characterized
+by a remarkable strength of faith and by a praiseworthy energy and
+earnestness. The clergy, high and low, set beautiful examples of
+piety, learning and patriotism. It was beloved by the people and spoke
+in their behalf with authority and courage. Not able to win Gustavus
+Adolphus over to more democratic views, it won his admiration, and he
+surnamed the ministers “tribunes of the people.” The burghers, touched
+by the patriotic spirit, developed great energy during this period,
+trade and commerce having a devoted patron in the king, who, besides
+the new Gothenburg, founded twelve other towns in Sweden and Finland.
+The miners occupied of old an uncertain position between burghers and
+yeomen. They were strengthened and encouraged by the personal interest
+which the king took in the mining industry. He visited the mines
+repeatedly, descending into the bowels of the earth to inspect the ore
+and the new methods introduced from abroad by foreign miners. Among the
+latter the immigrated Dutchman, Louis de Geer, exerted a beneficial
+influence upon that industry. The factories producing clothing and
+weapons for the army were also encouraged. The yeomen occupied a
+difficult, almost desperate position between the increasing privileges
+of the nobility and the increasing taxes of the crown. Their burdens
+were doubled and their rights reduced; yet sustained by the church, and
+believing in the lofty ideals of the king, they persevered, fulfilling
+their duties with a high degree of patriotism.
+
+No Swedish king has done so much for education as Gustavus Adolphus.
+To the University of Upsala he donated 300 of his hereditary estates,
+founding its library, improving its courses, banishing misrule, and
+appointing his old teacher, John Skytte, its chancellor. He created the
+German University of Dorpat in Esthonia, in 1632; later for some time
+moved to Pernau. Colleges were established in the larger towns. The
+king was, through his thorough studies of Swedish laws and conditions,
+in a position to take an active part in the reforms which he
+promulgated, never resting long in one place, but travelling from one
+point to another, where his presence was most necessary; shaping plans
+and reforms by his own judgment, to have them indorsed by the next
+Riksdag, and then enforcing them himself. Especially the army passed
+through an evolution, thanks to new methods, devised by the king, who
+was to win his victories through the introduction of improved tactics
+and divisions, by means of which the troops were easier to move and the
+co-operation between the various weapons increased.
+
+In 1618 the “Thirty Years’ War” began. The dethroned Frederic of the
+Palatinate turned, among others, to Gustavus Adolphus for support,
+which the latter was not able to give in a direct way. But he promised
+to attack Poland as soon as the armistice was at an end, thereby making
+it impossible for Sigismund to support Emperor Ferdinand with troops.
+In 1621, Gustavus Adolphus commenced operations against Poland, taking
+the command himself. Riga and Mitau were captured, the former important
+commercial centre regaining its privileges, but sending representatives
+to the Swedish Riksdag and accepting a Swedish governor. After having
+conquered Livonia, Gustavus Adolphus entered Courland the following
+year, when an armistice was agreed to. Gustavus followed the events
+in Germany with increasing interest, forming the plan of an alliance
+between the Protestant powers. Learning that the emperor was willing
+to support Sigismund, Gustavus Adolphus offered to invade Silesia.
+But as Christian IV. of Denmark was anxious to lead the Protestant
+forces, Gustavus Adolphus quietly withdrew, resuming action against
+Poland. After a victory at Wallhof, he entered Polish Prussia, where
+he was dangerously wounded at Dirschau. The Poles were reinforced by
+imperial troops, but suffered a defeat at Gurzo; the Swedish general,
+Herman Wrangel, winning the day. When the considerable reinforcements
+of 10,000 men joined the Poles, the Swedes receded in good order. A
+smaller conflict occurred at Stuhm, famous because Gustavus Adolphus
+was twice in danger of his life during the struggle, which otherwise
+was of no importance. An imperial trooper caught him by the belt and
+tried to drag the king with him. According to the report of Axel
+Oxenstierna, the king loosened the belt and let it go. In so doing, he
+also lost his hat, which was carried to Vienna and preserved as a token
+of the “great victory.” Another trooper, shortly afterward, caught the
+king by the arm, aiming at the head with his sword. In the critical
+moment, Eric Soop, the colonel of a Swedish cavalry regiment, appeared,
+killing the trooper with a pistol-shot. Gustavus Adolphus referred to
+this struggle as the “hottest bath” that he was ever in.
+
+In September, 1629, an armistice was agreed to, at Altmark, to
+last for six years, during which period Sweden was to keep Livonia
+and the Russian towns of Elbing, Braunsberg, Pillau and Memel. The
+new acquisition of territory was small, but the revenue from these
+commercial towns, and from Dantzic, Libau and Windau, was considerable,
+and went to pay for the army expenses of the German campaign. The
+new temporary possessions in Prussia were formed into a Swedish
+governmental section, over which Axel Oxenstierna was appointed
+governor-general.
+
+What follows belongs to one of the most noted chapters of universal
+history. The unbroken chain of Swedish victories, the noble character
+of the king and the severe discipline upheld among his men, who
+commenced and ended their battles with prayers and hymns, astounded
+the world. The exalted nobility of Gustavus Adolphus appears to us
+all the more striking, contrasted with the faithlessness, vanity and
+cowardice of the contemporary reigning princes of Germany and Denmark.
+His victories appear all the more remarkable because the greatest
+warriors of the age--Tilly, Wallenstein and Pappenheim--were his
+adversaries. He was received by the people of Germany as a liberator,
+and his memory is blessed by every thinking German, who admits that
+the Swedes, Gustavus Adolphus and Axel Oxenstierna, completed the work
+which the Germans, Luther and Melanchthon, created. The loftiness of
+the ideals which inspired Gustavus Adolphus have been doubted, but
+not with justice. He was brought up in a severely Christian home and
+the sincerity of his piety is unmistakable. His father’s clairvoyant
+views upon the coming religious conflict were familiar to him since his
+early youth, while he was, through his mother, related in blood to the
+majority of Protestant princes. Thus apparently predestined, as the
+greatest statesman and warrior of his age, to take up the cause of his
+persecuted brethren, he did not do so before the ambitious Christian
+IV. had utterly failed in his attempts and with contumely been forced
+to retire. It is not probable that Gustavus Adolphus ever thought of
+placing the crown of the Roman empire upon his head, but plausible to
+suppose that he had in view the formation of a strong union of the
+Protestant countries of Northern Europe.
+
+Before leaving Sweden, Gustavus II. convoked the representatives of
+his people, holding on his arm his little daughter Christine, four
+years old, for whom he asked their pledge of allegiance. His farewell
+speech was touching in its simplicity and the premonition of his tragic
+end. Not for worldly glory, but to save his country from peril and his
+brethren from distress, he undertook this risky war. “Generally,” he
+said, “it happens thus that the vessel hauls water until it goes to
+pieces. With me likewise, that I, who in so many perils for the weal
+of my country have shed my blood, and yet until this day have been
+spared through the grace of God, now at last must lose my life. For
+that reason I will this time commend you, the collected Estates of the
+realm, to the hand of God, the Supreme One, wishing that we, after this
+our miserable and burdensome life, according to the will of God, may
+meet again, to dwell in the celestial and infinite.” These words do not
+resemble the terse, striking speeches of his grandfather, but they bear
+the stamp of sincerity, and by them Gustavus Adolphus, his work and his
+purpose, are judged by the Swedish people.
+
+Midsummer Day, 1630, Gustavus Adolphus landed with his troops at the
+island of Ruden, on the coast of Pomerania. Two days later he proceeded
+to the larger island of Usedom. His troops consisted of 13,000 men.
+Gustavus Adolphus was himself the first to land. He knelt on the shore
+and prayed to God in a loud voice; his prayer moved those surrounding
+him to tears. When the king noticed it he said: “Do not cry, but pray
+to God with fervor. The more of prayer, the more of victory; the best
+Christian is the best soldier.” Then he took hold of a spade and
+commenced to assist personally in the work of building a camp. When
+it grew dark, the heavens were illuminated by the fire of burning
+villages, giving evidence of the manner in which the enemy conducted
+his warfare.
+
+The supercilious Wallenstein had been dismissed by the emperor at the
+time when Gustavus Adolphus landed in Germany, but his wild hordes were
+pillaging Pomerania. Yet Gustavus Adolphus had great difficulty in
+persuading the old duke of Pomerania to accept the alliance he offered
+him. But when this was done, it took the Swedes only a short time to
+clear the duchy of its enemies. The young landgrave of Hesse and the
+free city of Magdeburg were glad to accept an alliance with Gustavus
+Adolphus. A treaty was made with France, which country promised to pay
+subsidies to Sweden as long as the German war lasted. Tilly, who was in
+command of the imperial troops, approached Magdeburg. Gustavus Adolphus
+sent proper provisions to Magdeburg with an experienced commander, as
+he could not go himself, because the elector of Saxony refused to let
+him pass with his army through Saxon territory. Magdeburg was captured
+by Tilly, who sacked and destroyed it by fire in a most barbarous way.
+
+The discipline and moderation of the Swedish troops formed a great
+contrast to the reckless behavior of the imperial army. The Swedes
+left the peaceful inhabitants in undisturbed possession of their lives
+and property; the strictest order was maintained within the army; each
+regiment held morning and evening prayers in the open air; gambling,
+carousing and plundering were sternly prohibited. For these reasons the
+Swedish king and his army were received by the poor downtrodden people
+as saviors and liberators. Gustavus Adolphus deeply mourned the fall of
+Magdeburg, whose fate it had not been in his power to prevent. He took
+a fortified position at Werben, where the river Havel is joined by the
+Ube. Tilly entered Saxony with a hostile demeanor, not satisfied with
+the lukewarm friendship of the elector. Burning villages marked the way
+of his army. The poor elector, not knowing what to do, in his despair
+turned to Gustavus Adolphus, whom he had treated so coldly and begged
+him for help. The king at once was ready to forget past differences,
+and, joining forces with the elector, he marched toward Leipsic.
+
+Tilly, with 35,000 men, occupied an advantageous position near the
+village of Breitenfeld, not far from Leipsic, at the summit of a long
+ridge of sandy hills. The infantry and the greater part of the cavalry
+were grouped in heavy divisions, forming one single line of battle with
+artillery behind at the very top of the hills. Tilly himself commanded
+the centre, while his able and fiery sub-commander, Pappenheim, had the
+command of the left wing, being in hopes to encounter the Swedish king
+personally. The Swedish army consisted of 22,000 men, who were joined
+by 11,000 Saxons.
+
+Early in the morning of September 7, 1631, the Swedes started toward
+Breitenfeld. Tilly turned pale, it is said, when he saw the order and
+firmness with which the Swedes marched up to take their positions on
+the narrow slips of ground between the Lober brook and the reach of the
+imperial cannon. The Swedes were arranged in a double line of battle,
+infantry in the centre and cavalry on the wings. Between the squadrons
+of cavalry divisions of musketeers were placed. The regimental
+artillery was distributed over a number of places. The king commanded
+the right wing in person, with John Banér as sub-commander. Teuffel led
+the centre and Gustavus Horn the left wing. The king had no confidence
+in the Saxons, for which reason he had arranged them by themselves at
+some distance to the left of the Swedish army. When everything was
+arranged, the king rode to the front. With his head uncovered, and
+his sword pointing to the ground, he prayed: “Almighty God, thou who
+holdest victory and defeat in the hollow of thy hand, turn thine eyes
+unto us, thy servants, who have come hither from distant dwellings to
+fight for liberty and truth, for thy holy Gospel. Give victory unto
+us for the glory of thy hallowed name! Amen!” The prayer of the king
+could be heard by almost every man of the army, and all were touched
+and strengthened by his pious trust in a righteous cause. The Swedes of
+the right wing were soon attacked by Pappenheim and his cavalry. But
+the horses of the imperialists were frightened by the flashing fire of
+the musketeers, and the attack failed to have an effect. It was ended
+as quickly as it was begun. Pappenheim concluded to make an attempt
+to surprise the Swedes from the left side. But the king divined his
+plan. He ordered John Banér with the second line to make a movement by
+which to turn at an angle with the first and face the attack from the
+side. Pappenheim was surprised to find a new line facing him. A bloody
+struggle ensued. Seven times his men made an inroad on the Swedish
+line and were seven times repulsed, badly damaged by the fire of the
+musketeers. The Swedes, in their turn, made an attack which scattered
+Pappenheim’s forces from the field in wild flight.
+
+Tilly had with his light cavalry attacked the left wing of the Swedes.
+His men were mostly made up of Croats and other semi-barbarous people.
+When repulsed by the Swedes they concentrated their forces to crush
+the Saxons. These withstood the first assault, but the second routed
+them completely. The imperialists then made a second attack upon the
+left Swedish wing, made up of only 2,500 men. Gustavus Horn acted
+with coolness and great presence of mind. He let the first line close
+in on the second till it was able to take a firm stand against the
+heavy force of the attacking enemy. The Swedes never for a moment lost
+their position, in spite of the frightful onslaught. The king arrived
+and remained for some time with the left wing. He ordered the Scotch
+brigade of hired troops to support him. The Scotch had cannon hidden
+behind their lines. These had a telling effect upon the attacking
+imperialists, who were thrown back, suffering great losses. Everywhere
+the battle was fought with frenzy, the clouds of dust and smoke
+changing the day into night.
+
+The king made sure that the left wing of the enemy’s army was engaged
+in continued flight. Then he commenced an attack with his own right
+wing upon the imperial artillery, which had kept up a steady fire
+against the Swedish centre. Tilly’s cannon were captured at the first
+attempt and turned on the imperial troops, causing consternation.
+Horn opened an attack on his side and the king hastened to support
+him with his troops. Tilly tried in vain to lead his troops into the
+battle. Pappenheim had returned and gave brilliant proofs of personal
+courage. The defeat of the imperial army was unavoidable; it scattered
+in helpless confusion. Tilly lost his horse and was near being captured
+himself. Four of his best infantry regiments took a stand and tried
+to resist the conquering foe. These imperial soldiers, who never had
+suffered a defeat, preferred death to surrender. Tilly fled at last,
+followed by only 600 men. After five hours of fighting the Swedes had
+won a glorious victory. They finished the day with prayer and remained
+on the battlefield over night, arranged in order of battle. The
+following morning they entered the deserted camp of the enemy where a
+rich booty awaited them.
+
+The progress of Gustavus Adolphus along the shores of the river Main to
+the towns of Frankfort and Mayence was a march of triumph. In capturing
+Mayence, the Swedes fought the Spanish allies of the emperor. The towns
+surrendered to violence or by their own consent. Gustavus Adolphus made
+their inhabitants pledge their fidelity to him and strengthened his
+power with the rich resources of the Frankish country. Then he turned
+against Maximilian of Bavaria. Tilly, who was to defend Bavaria, was
+again encountered and defeated at Lech. He was carried from the battle
+mortally wounded and died soon afterward. Gustavus Adolphus made his
+triumphal entry into Munich, with Frederic of the Palatinate at his
+side. The danger to the crown lands of the emperor was imminent.
+
+Wallenstein was the most famous of German generals. Reticent and
+secretive, he appeared to be unable to feel mercy. He was devoted to
+the secret doctrines of astrology, which in him had taken the place
+of religion. He cared naught for the cause of religious liberty or
+the fall of the German empire, looking only for occasions to satisfy
+his own ambition and the means of obtaining power and wealth. He had
+served the emperor, who had raised him to the dignity of a duke of
+Mecklenburg, but had been dismissed and deprived of his dignities
+at the time of the arrival of Gustavus Adolphus on German soil. His
+downfall was caused by complaints of his insolence and recklessness,
+made by Maximilian of Bavaria and other German princes. Wallenstein
+retired to Prague, at the castle of which town he surrounded himself
+with princely luxury and comfort, scheming for revenge. His plan was
+to join the enemies of the emperor. He approached Gustavus Adolphus
+for such purpose, before the battle of Breitenfeld, and was delighted
+to hear of the defeat of Tilly. Gustavus Adolphus seemed at first
+inclined to take up relations with Wallenstein, but at the point where
+an agreement was to be made he suddenly changed his attitude. The
+king probably hesitated to accept the services of a man who had no
+other aim than to satisfy his own ambition. The emperor was placed
+in a bad predicament, at the second defeat of Tilly, for want of an
+army to defend his lands and a commander to lead it. There was only
+one way out of the difficulty, and that was to pacify the mortally
+offended Wallenstein, and to persuade him to re-enter the service of
+the emperor. The emperor resigned himself to accept this humiliating
+condition, and Wallenstein agreed to resume command, but only at a
+high price. The name of Wallenstein was enough to bring thousands
+of warriors under the imperial banners, and Wallenstein was soon at
+the head of an army of sufficient proportions. His doctrine was that
+“the war should support itself,” according to which his soldiers were
+allowed to sack and plunder at will the countries through which they
+were passing. He cared naught for the recklessness of his subordinates,
+if they only showed blind obedience to him.
+
+Wallenstein expelled the Saxons who had invaded Bohemia. But he showed
+disinclination to assist the elector of Bavaria, who was compelled to
+leave his country. At Eger, Wallenstein was reinforced and marched on
+Nuremberg with an army of 60,000, prepared to meet Gustavus Adolphus.
+He was confident of his superior force. “Within four days,” he said,
+“it shall become evident whether I or the Swedish king is the master of
+Germany.” Gustavus Adolphus hastened to relieve Nuremberg, taking his
+position in the immediate neighborhood of said town. He had only 18,000
+men with him, but he surrounded this army with solid fortifications,
+and Wallenstein dared not risk an attack, in spite of his superior
+force. Wallenstein took his position at the summit of three steep
+hills, surrounded by trenches and ramparts. His intention was to
+cut off the Swedes from all sources of supplies and force them to
+surrender by starvation. “I shall teach the Swedish king,” he said, “a
+new method of warfare.”
+
+For nine weeks the two armies were facing each other. The suffering
+became great in both camps. The Swedes suffered most, although the
+inhabitants of Nuremberg tried their utmost to supply them with food.
+When the provisions were diminishing, the bonds of discipline were
+loosened. Especially the Germans of the Swedish army made themselves
+conspicuous by licentiousness and plunder. Gustavus Adolphus decided
+to try an attack on Wallenstein’s camp, in order to put an end to the
+critical state of things. He was so much more anxious to risk it, as
+his army had been considerably reinforced and was almost equal to
+Wallenstein’s in numbers. At noon, August 24, 1632, the Swedish army
+made ready for battle. The attack was first made on Burgstall, the most
+important one of the three hills occupied by the enemy. The battle was
+a fierce and bloody one, the whole mountain being clothed in fire and
+smoke. Several of the most distinguished of the Swedish officers were
+killed or captured. A bullet passed through the boot of the king; an
+officer was killed at his side. The Swedes were thrown back on one
+hand, while on the other, Duke Bernhard of Weimar, one of the German
+commanders of the king, succeeded in capturing one of the forts built
+on the Burgstall. But as the day was over and the army exhausted,
+the Swedes were not able to profit by their success. A heavy rain
+commenced, continuing through the night. This made it impossible to
+haul any cannon up to the captured fort, which was then abandoned. The
+Swedish army returned to the camp. This unsuccessful attack cost the
+Swedes almost 2,000 men. Gustavus Adolphus wrote in regard to it: “It
+was too much to be considered a page’s trick, but too small to be of
+real earnest.” Wallenstein wrote of it. “Never in my life have I seen a
+more desperate fire, but I hope that the Swedes have lost their horns
+in this conflict.”
+
+The king broke camp a fortnight later, arranging his army into a line
+of battle. For four hours he waited for Wallenstein to come forward,
+but the latter did not risk an attack. Gustavus Adolphus intended
+to enter Swabia, to complete the conquest of Southwestern Germany.
+But Wallenstein, who soon afterward also broke camp, invaded Saxony.
+This caused the king to change his plans. He was obliged to follow
+Wallenstein in order to protect his ally and to avoid the danger of
+being cut off from the connections with his own empire. Wallenstein
+marked his way by cruel devastation, and the appeals of the unhappy
+population persuaded the king to take an early decision.
+
+The people of Saxony received Gustavus Adolphus with great enthusiasm,
+of which they gave evidence in the most exultant manner. People were
+seen kneeling everywhere on his way, imploringly stretching their hands
+toward him. The king was not content with their exaggerated devotion.
+“I fear that God is offended by their vain demonstrations of joy and
+soon shall show them that the one whom they adore as a god is naught
+but a weak and mortal man.”
+
+Wallenstein was in the neighborhood of Leipsic, at the little town of
+Lutzen. He had sent away Pappenheim, his best sub-commander, to Halle
+with a considerable force. Gustavus Adolphus found this circumstance
+favorable and decided on an attack.
+
+It was the 6th of November, 1632. A heavy mist covered the spacious
+fields around Leipsic. Wallenstein was, with the right wing of his
+army, close on Lutzen, the little town being set on fire, in order not
+to shield a clandestine attack. The flame of the conflagration appeared
+dull but magnified through the mists of the early morning. In front of
+the imperial army was the highway. Musketeers were stationed in and
+above the ditches, which were made deeper and provided with ramparts.
+The musketeers were so arranged that higher lines could shoot over the
+heads of the lower ones. Behind them was another chain of musketeers.
+The artillery was placed partly behind the musketeers, partly on the
+sides of a hill where some windmills were situated. The cavalry was
+placed on the wings, the infantry in the centre, both arranged in great
+square divisions. A courier had been sent to recall Pappenheim, as the
+army without his force counted only 18,000 men. The Swedish army was
+20,000 strong and was arranged according to a plan similar to the one
+followed at Breitenfeld. It was arranged in two lines. Musketeers were
+interspersed among the cavalry. The regimental artillery was placed
+before the front. The king commanded the right wing, Nils Brahe the
+centre, Kniephausen the second line of the centre, and Duke Bernhard
+the left wing.
+
+The king, who for the time being had none of his best officers around
+him, spent the night in a wagon, together with Duke Bernhard and
+Kniephausen. He rose in the morning, dressed, without armor, in a
+blouse and a gray coat, and mounted his usual white charger, without
+having tasted food. He conducted in person the morning prayers of the
+army, when Luther’s psalm, “Eine feste Burg ist unser Gott,” was sung.
+After the song had ceased, the king made a short speech in Swedish,
+which he repeated in German. He said: “There you have the enemy. He is
+not now at the top of the hill or behind intrenchments, but in the
+open field. You know well how eagerly he has sought to avoid a conflict
+and that he is forced to fight because he cannot escape us. Fight,
+then, my dear countrymen and friends, for God, your country and your
+king. I will reward you all. But if you flinch, you know well that not
+a man of you will ever see his country again.” Then the psalm, “Versage
+nicht du Hæuflein klein,” the words of which were written in German by
+Gustavus Adolphus himself, was sung. The king gave the sign of attack
+by waving his sword over his head and cried: “Forward in God’s name;
+Jesu, Jesu, Jesu, help us to-day to strive to the honor of thy holy
+name!”
+
+It was eleven o’clock, and the mists had, to a great extent, scattered.
+The Swedish centre, with the battery behind, marched toward the
+highway. The left wing made an attempt to penetrate between the burning
+Lutzen and the batteries below the windmills. A terrible fire from
+muskets and cannon met the attacking Swedes. Whole lines of infantry
+were killed. The left wing suffered in particular. But when the Swedes
+reached their destination, the centre moved on with great force,
+cleaning the ditches of musketeers, capturing seven pieces of artillery
+and making two of the great squares of imperial infantry retire from
+their position. While fighting the third, the Swedes were surprised by
+the reserve and cavalry forces of the enemy, and had to abandon what
+they had taken, retiring into the open field.
+
+The king had, in the meantime, with the cavalry of the right wing,
+forced the ditches. When notified of the danger in which the centre
+was placed, he hurried to assist his infantry. At the head of his
+Smaland cavalry he moved on so quickly that he was separated from the
+rest of his forces. The king was near-sighted and the mist once more
+thickening. For these reasons he happened to ride close up to the
+lines of the imperial cuirassiers. His horse was wounded, and the king
+himself received a pistol shot in the arm. He turned to one of his
+companions, Duke Frantz Albrecht, of Sachsen-Lauenburg, with a request
+to be escorted out of the battle, but was at that instant wounded in
+the back, immediately falling off his horse. Duke Frantz Albrecht, only
+thinking of saving his own life, fled from the spot. But a German page,
+eighteen years of age, who accompanied the king, jumped from his horse
+and tried to assist the king in mounting it. Some imperial cavalrymen
+passed by. They inquired for the name of the wounded lord. The page
+tried to hide his identity, but Gustavus Adolphus answered: “I was once
+the king of Sweden.” One of the imperialists attempted to drag the king
+with him, but seeing some Swedish soldiers approaching, he sent in
+leaving a bullet through the wounded hero’s brain.
+
+The Swedes had been thrown back from the highway all over the line.
+The white horse of the king, with empty saddle and stained with blood,
+was seen galloping before the front. The message of mourning spread
+with lightning rapidity through the army, causing universal sorrow
+and anger. The ambition to avenge the death of the beloved king was
+kindled in every breast. Duke Bernhard at once assumed supreme command
+when notified of the catastrophe. The sagacious Kniephausen thought
+the battle lost and considered it best to retire in good order. The
+duke answered: “Here is not the question of retreat, but of revenge in
+victory or death.” The Swedish line of battle soon moved forward once
+more and with redoubled strength. The right wing, commanded by the
+valiant Stolhandske, threw back the imperial troops who had caused
+the fall of the king. Nils Brahe once more carried the troops of the
+centre across the highway and captured for a second time the seven
+pieces of artillery. The left wing, commanded by Duke Bernhard, also
+moved forward victoriously, capturing the batteries at the windmill
+and pointing the cannon toward the enemy. When simultaneously some
+wagons loaded with powder for the imperial artillery exploded with a
+tremendous roar, the whole army of Wallenstein was thrown into a state
+of confusion. It was thought that the Swedes had made an attack from
+the rear. The cavalry fled in great numbers with the cries: “We know
+the king of Sweden! He is worst toward the end of the day.”
+
+But now another cry was heard: “Pappenheim is coming! Pappenheim is
+coming!” And so it was. Pappenheim arrived with his valiant cavalry at
+this important juncture. “Where is the king of Sweden to be found?”
+was his first question. When told that Gustavus Adolphus had been
+seen leading the right wing, he hurried thither, not knowing the fate
+that had befallen his royal enemy, and desirous of fighting him face
+to face. The imperialists recommenced the battle with renewed vigor.
+The scattered forces of cavalry and infantry were collected once more
+and were joined by the fresh troops of Pappenheim. The attacking
+Swedes met a stanch resistance. The latter were almost tired out, but
+preserved their courage. A contemporary writer says that a battle was
+never fought in a better way by troops who had for such a long stretch
+been in the fire. The Swedish losses were exceedingly heavy. The royal
+standard and several other banners were taken. The able Nils Brahe was
+killed, and the division of which he was the head fell to the very last
+man. But Pappenheim, who rushed forward blindly, in his eagerness to
+meet the king of Sweden, was also killed, according to tradition, by a
+bullet from Stolhandske. “Pappenheim has fallen! All is lost!” shouted
+his men, and drew back discouraged. Wallenstein still thought there was
+a chance to hold the field against the exhausted enemy.
+
+Kniephausen had preserved the second line of battle in good order,
+resolved to cover the retreat he thought unavoidable. He had sent
+away smaller divisions to support the first line, but not in numbers
+enough to disturb the order of his own troops. Now he commanded his
+men to the front, to fill all the gaps of the first lines. When this
+was done, the Swedes made a third attack. The evening sun pierced
+through the mists for a moment, and Wallenstein in this light saw the
+Swedish army approach in a mighty solid line as at the opening of the
+battle. He was greatly surprised. This time the Swedes were resolved
+to conquer or die. Soldiers were heard to promise each other to stand
+by that resolution. For a third time the Swedes passed the highway and
+recaptured, after a bloody struggle, the disputed cannon. The wings of
+Wallenstein’s army were both in a state of dissolution. But his centre
+preserved two divisions which offered a stubborn resistance until
+sunset, when they were ordered to retreat. The Swedes had won the day,
+but were too tired to pursue the enemy. Following their custom, they
+rested over the night on the battlefield they had bought by their blood.
+
+The loss of troops had been heavy on either side, amounting to about
+6,000 men altogether, or about one-third of the whole number of men
+engaged in the battle. The excitement was so great on both sides that
+no prisoners were made. The corpse of Gustavus Adolphus, bruised and
+mangled, was found during the night under a heap of dead soldiers. A
+large monumental stone, with inscription, now marks the spot where the
+hero king lost his life. The Gustavus Adolphus Society of Germany is a
+living monument to his memory.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+_Period of Political Grandeur--Queen Christine_
+
+
+Christine was six years old when she succeeded her father. Her armies
+stood scattered through foreign lands, surrounded by enemies and
+faithless allies. Her country was covered with glory, but in direst
+distress. The most remarkable aspect of her father’s greatness now was
+to become apparent. Gustavus Adolphus had left behind men whom he had
+educated as statesmen, and generals capable of bringing his work to a
+successful end. First among the former was the state chancellor, _Axel
+Oxenstierna_, the friend and adviser of the hero king. He managed to
+keep the Swedish allies together and to establish harmony and unity of
+action between the Swedish commanders, supplying funds to carry on the
+war and strengthening the government at home with his courage and his
+wisdom. Oxenstierna was a statesman of considerable power before the
+death of the king; after it he grows in grandeur to carry the burden
+of unlimited responsibility placed on his shoulders. His coolness and
+dignity were a source of constant irritation to Richelieu, who said
+there was “something Gothic and a good deal of Finnish” about his
+proceedings in diplomatic affairs, while Mazarin said that if all the
+statesmen of his time were to be put aboard of one vessel, Oxenstierna
+should be placed at the helm. The great chancellor always upheld the
+dignity of his country. When French diplomatists forgot themselves thus
+far as to use, in correspondence, their own language, instead of Latin,
+the recognized language of diplomacy in that day, Axel Oxenstierna gave
+instructions that they should be answered in Swedish.
+
+After the death of Gustavus Adolphus, the war in Germany lost more
+and more of its original aspect. The cause of Protestantism was
+dropped out of sight for political interests. The battles of Sweden
+were, to a great extent, and sometimes altogether, fought by foreign
+troops; but Swedish were the generals and statesmen who led the
+operations of the armies and the diplomatic deliberations. The success
+of Sweden, at first, seemed to have passed away with her great hero
+king. The imperialists won a great victory at Nœrdlingen in 1634.
+The young archduke, Ferdinand, had succeeded Wallenstein as their
+commander-general, the latter having been murdered at the request of
+the emperor. Ferdinand marched on the town of Nœrdlingen with an army
+of German and Spanish troops, the experienced Piccolomini being at
+his side. Duke Bernhard, who with an army had been taking possession
+of Franconia in his own personal interests, hastened to support
+the town and was joined by Gustavus Horn, who, with another army,
+had been stationed in Elsass. Count Horn gave the advice to await
+reinforcements, but the excitable Duke Bernhard opened an attack on
+the enemy, which necessitated an immediate battle. After eight hours
+of hard fighting, the imperialists, who were 30,000 strong, entirely
+routed the Swedish army of 18,000 men, not a single Swedish regiment
+being among them. Horn was made a prisoner. Duke Bernhard, who soon
+afterward with his troops entered French service, acknowledged his
+fault, saying: “I was a fool, but Horn a wise man.” Sweden lost through
+this terrible defeat an army and two able generals. The Swedish
+conquests in South Germany were lost, and the German allies were
+scattered, the elector of Saxony joining the cause of the emperor. The
+armistice with Poland came to an end in 1635, and it was renewed for
+twenty-six years, at the cost of the Prussian seaports, with their
+lucrative revenues, which had paid for the expenses of the German war.
+Oxenstierna returned to Sweden to gather means wherewith to continue
+the war. The ordinary resources of Sweden were drained, and great
+sacrifices were needed. The Riksdag declared itself willing to “risk
+life, blood and means, until God grants a peace equal to the dignity of
+Sweden.”
+
+John Banér was the man who re-established the success of the Swedish
+arms. He resembled Gustavus Adolphus in greatness of mind and ability
+in war, paying back the execution of his father under Charles IX.,
+by loyalty to the illustrious son of the latter. Banér was a typical
+soldier of the Thirty Years’ War, amiable, but licentious, and cruel
+to his enemies. An able tactician and strategist of inexhaustible
+resources, he had distinguished himself in the Polish war and later
+held many important commands. The death of Gustavus Adolphus stirred
+this strong man to the very depths of his soul. He left his army in
+Bavaria and arrived at Wolgast, resolved to leave the army. At the
+sight of the body of his beloved king, he was overcome by a paroxysm of
+grief. Axel Oxenstierna persuaded him to resume his command in order to
+bring the work of their dead master to completion. He marched with his
+army through Silesia to Bohemia, encamping before Prague. After the
+battle of Nœrdlingen he retreated to Saxony, whose deceitful elector
+he reproached with harsh words. Intrigues by the latter to bring the
+German troops in Swedish service to mutiny were frustrated by Banér,
+who had only 2,000 Swedes and Livonians with him. The Saxon army
+followed Banér into Mecklenburg, but suffered a defeat at Dœmitz. Banér
+marched eastward and joined the Swedish force, which met him, from
+Prussia, commanded by Lennart Torstensson. The elector of Brandenburg
+also declared war on Sweden, Banér answering by invading his country.
+From the vicinity of Berlin, Banér continued his way through Saxony
+back to Mecklenburg, his German troops marauding with such cruelty that
+they were sharply remonstrated with by Banér, who said he found it
+strange that God did not instantly punish them.
+
+Banér was followed by the united armies of Austria and Saxony, but,
+having received reinforcements of Swedish troops, he turned on his
+tracks and met the enemy at Wittstock, in Brandenburg, September 24,
+1636. The Swedish army consisted of 20,000 men, while the opposing
+force was much larger and occupied a favorable position on a hill.
+Banér won a glorious victory, thanks to a skilfully executed manœuvre.
+It grew dark, and the right wing of the Swedes was leading an almost
+forlorn hope against the overwhelming forces, when their left wing,
+after a difficult roundabout move, attacked the enemy from behind. Of
+the hostile armies every man was killed except a detachment less than
+1,000 strong. The baggage, artillery and banners were taken, even the
+table silver of the elector and the imperial generals falling into the
+hands of the Swedes, who by this victory had regained their supremacy
+on German soil.
+
+Banér had commenced the siege of Leipsic, when, upon news of an
+approaching army of the imperial allies, he was forced to undertake the
+famous “Retreat from Torgau,” which made him more celebrated than any
+of his great battles. He with his army was near being surrounded at
+the river Oder, but saved himself through a series of movements of the
+highest strategic skill. Cardinal Richelieu wrote that “this retreat,
+by means of which Banér saved 14,000 men, less a few fugitives and
+wounded, with cannon and baggage, against an army 60,000 strong, is to
+be compared to the most glorious deeds in history.” The enemy prided
+itself on having “caught Banér in a bag.” “Yes,” said Banér later,
+“surely they had me there, but they forgot to tie the string around.”
+
+In Pomerania, Banér received the reinforcements from Sweden which
+he had awaited, and once more invaded Saxony, where he won a grand
+victory at Chemnitz, in 1639. The Swedish army invaded Bohemia, cruelly
+devastating the country. Banér made a daring attack upon Regensburg
+in order to make the emperor and the whole German diet his prisoners.
+Sudden thaws frustrated the plans, making it impossible for the Swedes
+to cross the Danube. A superior force was sent to meet Banér, who saved
+his army by another famous retreat back to Saxony. On the way Banér
+was attacked by a fever and died at Halberstadt, in 1641. When the
+imperialists learned of the death of the Swedish Leonidas, they thought
+they could easily defeat his army. The Swedes saw the approaching enemy
+and collected around the coffin of their dead hero, offering solemn
+pledges to fight for the glory of his name. They then made a sudden
+attack upon the imperial army, which suffered a thorough defeat at
+Wolfenbuttel. John Banér, triumphant in death like his great master,
+was buried in the Swedish Pantheon of the Riddarholm.
+
+Banér had expressed the wish that Lennart Torstensson should succeed
+him as commander-general of the Swedish armies. Lennart Torstensson was
+a greater warrior even than John Banér; no Swedish general, Gustavus
+Adolphus not excepted, ever reaching higher skill or perfection in the
+science of war than this crippled hero. Torstensson was of a noble
+although not influential family. He entered the service of Gustavus
+Adolphus as a body page to the king, later distinguishing himself as an
+artillery commander. Torstensson took an honorable part in the battle
+of Breitenfeld, but made a prisoner at Nuremberg, he lost his health,
+during one year’s captivity, in a miserable dungeon. During his later
+brilliant career he suffered greatly from rheumatism, and was mostly
+carried around in a litter throughout the battles which covered his
+name with undying fame. He was a pious man of a gentle and cheerful
+disposition, who tried his utmost to reintroduce among his troops the
+excellent moral behavior and severe discipline which had been lost
+after the death of Gustavus Adolphus.
+
+Torstensson with rigor suppressed the intrigues against Sweden which
+were secretly carried on within the army. Brandenburg received a new
+elector in Frederic William, who, ambitious and far-seeing, entered an
+alliance with the victorious power of the North. Torstensson now was
+enabled to invade the imperial crown lands, commencing with Silesia;
+but finding it necessary to force a battle he met the imperialists
+at Breitenfeld. October 23, 1642, the second great victory of
+Breitenfeld was won by Swedish arms. Archduke Leopold and Piccolomini
+led the imperial army, the latter general fighting as a common
+soldier to inspire courage by his example, but with no effect. The
+Swedes captured the baggage, cannon and banners of the enemy, taking
+5,000 prisoners and leaving as many dead imperialists on the field.
+Torstensson conquered Leipsic on the following day.
+
+Torstensson marched through Bohemia and Moravia with the rapidity which
+characterized all his military movements, and penetrated to the very
+gates of Vienna, the emperor with difficulty saving himself from being
+made his prisoner. But suddenly he left and marched through Silesia
+to North Germany. He had received an order from the state council to
+attack Denmark. The great chancellor was out of patience with the
+perfidy and intrigues of Christian IV., who stood in secret connection
+with every one of Sweden’s enemies. No previous declaration of war was
+made. Torstensson captured the Danish duchies of Schleswig and Holstein
+before any one could prevent it, his army then taking possession of all
+Jutland. Gustavus Horn invaded Scania, almost completely capturing the
+whole province in spite of bands of freebooters among the peasants,
+called _Snaphaner_.
+
+Denmark was in danger of its very existence, but King Christian IV.
+did not forget his old wish to destroy the town of Gothenburg, whose
+growing prosperity caused him envy. He approached Gothenburg with
+a fleet, and viewed the town from the overlooking mountain of the
+Ramberg. His demands for a surrender were refused. Patriotic Louis de
+Geer had ordered from Holland a fleet at his own expense, which was
+to go to the support of Gothenburg. It did not arrive in time, but
+King Christian left to meet it, and it later proved of great value in
+the Swedish movements at sea, joining the Swedish fleet in the Sound.
+The latter, consisting of twenty-two ships under the command of Clas
+Fleming, sailed to the Danish waters, capturing the island of Femern,
+supported by Torstensson. An invasion of the island of Funen was
+planned, but could not be effected. A great naval battle between the
+Swedish and Danish fleets was fought July 6th. It caused great loss on
+either side, without being decisive. King Christian, who commanded his
+naval forces, lost one eye and received over twenty different wounds.
+The Swedes kept the place of battle, but sought the Bay of Skiel for
+repairs, where they were hedged in by the Danish fleet. Clas Fleming
+encouraged his followers to cut through the line, in which they were
+successful. A month later he was killed by a shot from the coast of
+Holstein, where the Danes had erected a fort. The Swedes avenged the
+death of their valiant commander by destroying the fort and killing
+its defenders. Fleming was succeeded by Charles Gustavus Wrangel, who
+saved the fleet to Sweden, returning to Femern in the autumn, joined
+by the Dutch fleet of Louis de Geer. The Danish fleet was met with
+October 13th, and at once scattered. The swift-sailing Dutch ships went
+in pursuit and destroyed all the seventeen Danish ships but two, which
+brought the news of the disaster to Copenhagen.
+
+King Christian, who had in vain expected support from the emperor,
+found himself defeated on every point, and had no other choice than
+to make peace. The treaty was signed August 13, 1645, at Brœmsebro,
+Denmark ceding the provinces of Jemtland and Herjedal and the islands
+of Gothland and Œsel. The province of Halland was to remain for thirty
+years in the possession of Sweden, which country was exempt from duties
+of toll for the traffic in the Sound. Denmark disavowed all claims of
+supremacy over Holstein, the duke of said country two years later
+formally placing himself under Swedish protection.
+
+Lennart Torstensson had fulfilled his task in Denmark and returned
+to Germany. At Jueterbogk, in Brandenburg, he met the imperial army,
+which had been sent to cut off his retreat from Denmark, and entirely
+routed it. After this victory Torstensson hastened to Bohemia, resolved
+to “attack the emperor in his heart and force him to make peace.” At
+Jankowitz, in Bohemia, Torstensson administered a new and crushing
+defeat to the imperialists, in 1645. The emperor, who himself had
+ordered his army to battle, had arrived in Prague to witness the defeat
+of the Swedes, which the Holy Virgin had promised him in a dream. He
+soon learned the news, which was quite different from that expected.
+The imperial commander-general, five generals and eight colonels were
+made prisoners by the Swedes, who captured the artillery and baggage of
+the enemy. The health of Torstensson was at that moment so good that he
+was able to lead the movements on horseback. He said that such a bloody
+battle would not be seen for a long time.
+
+Torstensson invaded Moravia, the fortresses surrendering and the
+inhabitants fleeing in terror. For a second time he stood at the walls
+of Vienna. The very fortifications which protected the bridge across
+the Danube were captured by the Swedes. The enemy, whom the elector
+of Saxony had promised to chase out of Germany, was now knocking at
+the gate of the emperor, who heard the report with consternation. But
+Lennart Torstensson was forced to surrender to a perfidious enemy, who
+came to his door without knocking. His rheumatic ailment returned with
+such violence that he was obliged to renounce his command and return
+from the fields where he had led none but victorious armies. He was
+succeeded by Charles Gustavus Wrangel. The latter had to give up the
+siege of Vienna, but maintained, in connection with the French, the
+supremacy in Germany until an honorable peace was won. Upon his return
+to Sweden, Lennart Torstensson was covered with distinctions, being
+made a baron and a count on one and the same day. He was appointed
+governor-general of West Gothland, Vermland, and the lately conquered
+Halland, with his seat at Gothenburg, where he built himself a palace
+(still the official residence of the governor of Gothenburg and
+Bohuslæn). Lennart Torstensson died in 1651, leaving behind the fame of
+one of the greatest warriors known to history, and a spotless memory.
+
+The treaty of peace of Westphalia was signed in October, 1648. The
+representatives of Sweden were John Oxenstierna, a son of the great
+chancellor, and Adler Salvius. Sweden received, as a reward for her
+decisive and glorious part in the Thirty Years’ War, the following
+possessions: West Pomerania, with the islands of Rugen and Usedom;
+the western part of East Pomerania, with the island of Wollin; the
+town of Wismar, with surrounding territory, and the bishoprics of
+Bremen and Verden. With these German possessions followed three votes
+at the German Diet. The Swedish government was to receive a sum of
+several millions to defray the army expenses, of which Queen Christine
+recklessly ceded the larger part.
+
+Through these glorious conditions of peace Sweden rose to the rank
+of one of the mightiest of European empires, which held the balance
+of power in Northern Europe. Her possessions made the Baltic almost
+an “inland lake of Sweden,” and efforts soon followed to make it
+completely so. Sweden exerted a beneficent influence throughout her
+large possessions, which, from a cultural point of view, hardly can
+be overestimated. Her methods of planting the seeds of culture, by
+establishing Swedish and German universities, and by abolishing serfdom
+in the conquered lands, are worthy of the highest respect. But with
+her new political grandeur Sweden acquired formidable enemies; she had
+not the resources to sustain or defend her great possessions, and the
+development of the mother country was for a time misdirected by dreams
+of vain glory.
+
+The government of Sweden during Christine’s minority, according to the
+directions left by her father, consisted of the five highest officials
+of the realm. Among these the chancellor, through his experience and
+his former intimacy with Gustavus Adolphus, was the leading spirit,
+king in all except the name, and deserving the honorable surname of
+“our greatest civilian,” given him by Swedish historians. Unlike the
+majority of other uncrowned or crowned rulers, he did not use his power
+to secure wealth or distinction for himself and his family until upon
+his retirement. Offers to make him a ruling prince of Germany, and the
+young queen his son’s consort, were coldly refused. While the war was
+going on he strengthened the foundations of the centralization of the
+state by the government regulations of 1634. At the side of the supreme
+court of Stockholm another was established at Jœnkœping, for Gothaland,
+with a state councillor as president. The system of various government
+departments was enlarged upon.[2] The most important of these was the
+chancery, in which all business to come before the government was
+prepared. Departments for commerce and for mining were established.
+Sweden was divided into eleven administrative districts, _læn_,
+later increased to sixteen, each of these having a governor. Finland
+was divided into five districts. Count Peter Brahe the Younger, as
+governor-general of Finland, did more for this neglected country than
+was ever done before to right wrongs and foster prosperity. Livonia and
+Ingermanland received each their governor-general, the latter province,
+by repeated wars brought into a devastated condition, serving as a
+place of deportation. This system of administration won the admiration
+of the Continent and was in many instances copied as a pattern of
+perfection. The Swedish army was considered the finest in the world,
+and troops better trained or more victorious did not exist. At the end
+of the Thirty Years’ War about 100,000 men were under Swedish command.
+The majority of these were foreigners, who afterward were enlisted
+for continual service. Their officers were raised in great numbers to
+the rank of nobles and endowed with dignities and estates. The army
+was divided into twenty regiments, seven of which were Finnish. The
+town and coast population regularly furnished able men for the navy.
+Much was done to improve the interior communications by means of new
+roads and canals. A postal route was established between Stockholm and
+Gothenburg, and others followed. A Swedish postmaster in Hamburg had
+charge of the foreign mails. Newspapers were published, the government
+shaping for itself an organ for official announcement which is yet
+published.
+
+Great improvements were made in the mining industry, thanks principally
+to the efforts of the noble immigrant, Louis de Geer and his Walloons,
+who made the mines of Dannemora a source of riches. Weapons and cannon
+were manufactured not only for the army, but for exportation also. The
+brass foundries were excellent. The towns began to flourish, especially
+Stockholm and Gothenburg, through commerce with Holland and the Baltic
+States. A Swedish colony, planned by Gustavus Adolphus through the
+South Company, created by him in Gothenburg, was founded in North
+America. In 1638 two ships, “Kalmar Nyckel” and “Fogel Grip,” arrived
+at the mouth of the Delaware River, where territory was procured
+through honest purchase from the Indians. The Dutch in neighboring
+colonies tried to persuade the Indians to oust the newcomers, but the
+Swedish governor, Peter Menuet, won their goodwill by fair dealing. The
+members of the colony of New Sweden were honest, upright people, who
+dwelt in peace with the natives. They accepted a governor appointed
+by the government, in the person of John Printz, but refused to
+tolerate among themselves criminals who later were despatched to their
+colony, and these had to be taken back. New Sweden after a few decades
+became the prey of the Dutch, but many American families point with
+justifiable pride to their descent from these honest and industrious
+Swedish settlers. A Swedish colony on the coast of African Guinea
+existed between 1650 and 1663, but was through treacherous dealings
+turned over to the Dutch.
+
+Much was done to build up the educational system, several new
+colleges were established, and regulations made to instruct the
+peasants. Peter Brahe founded the University of Abo, in 1640, while
+in Finland, and the German University of Greifswald, in Swedish
+Pomerania, was re-established. Swedish men of learning began to
+attract attention, such as John Skytte, who was considered the most
+brilliant Latin scholar of Europe in his day, Stiernhœk, the jurist,
+Bureus and Messenius, the historians, and Georg Stiernhielm, poet and
+antiquarian. The old Icelandic literature was discovered and began to
+exert a strong influence on literature and science, to a great extent
+strengthening their chauvinistic spirit. The Swedish poets Stiernhielm,
+Runius, Holmstrœm, Lucidor and the poetess Brenner, from the Eddic
+songs, which contain some of the oldest humorous poems in existence,
+learned how to write in a humorous vein, something entirely unknown in
+the German and French literatures of that day.
+
+The excellent government, of which Axel Oxenstierna was the leading
+spirit, had its defects. In its perfect system of administration, which
+in the main features stands unshaken to this day, there appeared to be
+no room for the people themselves to be governed. On account of the
+great allowances made to the nobles it was necessary to increase the
+taxes of the peasants. Many had to leave their homes and farms for
+want of resources to pay their taxes; others were forced away from
+their property by the nobles. There was danger of the destruction of
+the free, self-dependent yeomanry. A hatred against the nobility grew
+up. The great lords returned from the wars laden with booty, erected
+fine castles, and continued the high living to which they had become
+accustomed while abroad. The power of the nobility was increased by
+lavish donations from Queen Christine and by the appropriation of
+other crown lands which the government was forced to sell or mortgage
+on account of the wars. The clergy were the spokesmen of the peasant
+class at the Riksdag, every year demanding with greater emphasis a
+restitution to the crown of its property, which was held by the nobles.
+
+Queen Christine herself took the reins of government, in 1644, at the
+age of eighteen. She had inherited from her illustrious father some
+of his genius, and from her mother, Marie Eleonore of Brandenburg, a
+peculiar nervous disposition. Her mother took no interest in her until
+the death of Gustavus Adolphus, when a flood of exalted tenderness
+suddenly was let loose over her. Count Jacob de la Gardie took the
+lead in opposing the undesirable and unstable character of this
+relation, Christine being separated from her mother and educated by
+the Countess-Palatine Catherine, a pious and noble woman, the older
+sister of Gustavus Adolphus. Greatly offended, Marie Eleonore left the
+country never to return. Queen Christine showed a remarkable faculty
+of absorbing knowledge. Well versed in a great number of languages,
+and well read in various sciences, particularly mathematics, she soon
+acquired fame as the most learned woman of her time. She was of frank
+countenance, slept little, cared little for dress, and was passionately
+fond of hunting and riding on horseback. Queen Christine possessed
+a sharp intellect, was daring and resolute, but headstrong, fickle,
+extravagant, and but little particular in her choice of favorites. Her
+vanity and egotism knew no bounds. At the beginning of her reign she
+took pains to give serious attention to the affairs of state. The great
+chancellor had been her instructor in economics and statecraft, but
+she repaid him by open coldness and secret antagonism. Her ambition to
+surround herself with scientists of note, particularly foreigners who
+flattered her vanity by blowing her fame to the four corners of the
+earth, killed her interest for politics. Later she was seized by the
+evil spirit of frivolity, abandoning herself to empty pleasures and to
+excesses of extravagance when her learned admirers were forgotten for
+unworthy favorites. Among the latter, Count Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie
+was for a long time all-powerful. The grandson of General Pontus and
+a daughter of John III., he was the son of Count Jacob de la Gardie
+and Ebba Brahe, and one of the most brilliant noblemen of Europe. In
+his youth he formed an intimate friendship with the dauphin of France,
+later Louis XIV., who throughout his life honored him with the title
+of “Mon Cousin,” or “Mon cher Cousin.” His ambition to become Queen
+Christine’s consort was never satisfied, nor was he allowed to accept
+the rank of a prince from the German emperor, but the queen made him
+the richest man in her realm. Magnus de la Gardie did not possess the
+sterling qualities of his ancestors, but was of great patriotism and
+lavishly liberal toward educational institutions, in this respect
+without a peer in Swedish history. In 1666 he founded the Academy of
+Antiquities, which was the first archæological institution in Europe,
+the Swedish antiquarians of the day, principal among them Bureus and
+Stiernhielm, doing valuable antiquarian research. In 1664, Count de la
+Gardie donated to the University Library of Upsala a highly valuable
+collection of manuscripts and books, chiefly from Iceland. In the
+collection was also the Gothic Bible translation of Bishop Wulfila
+in the only copy extant. Liberal with his silver, Count de la Gardie
+gave to the precious book a silver binding, as he had in earlier years
+presented to Queen Christine a silver throne (which is still in use).
+This book has an interesting history of its own.
+
+Codex Argenteus, the silver book, thus called on account of its
+silver binding, contains fragments of the four Gospels in the Gothic
+language. The translation was made from the Greek original by Bishop
+Wulfila (b. 318-d. 388), the apostle of the Goths. The writing is done
+in so-called encaustum (printing with heated stamps) of gold and
+silver letters on vellum of scarlet color. This copy is considered to
+have been made toward the end of the fifth or in the beginning of the
+sixth century, when the East Goths still held sway in Italy. Its early
+fortunes are unknown, but it is supposed that the book was found in
+the possession of the Visigoths (or West Goths) when their empire was
+seized by the Franks, and donated to the monastery of Verden by some
+munificent Frankish chief. Here, in the Benedictine abbey of Verden,
+on the river Ruhr, in Westphalia, the book was discovered at least as
+early as 1554, when the scholars Cassander and Gualther of Cologne are
+known to have had copies which can have been made from no other source.
+
+After the outbreak of the Thirty Years’ War, the Codex was transmitted
+to Prague for safety. In the year of 1648, Prague, or rather the older
+portion of the town, was captured by the Swedish general, Count Hans
+Christopher Kœnigsmark, who, among the vast treasures of the Bohemian
+capital, found also the Codex Argenteus which he presented to Queen
+Christine. All the books and manuscripts of the queen were in the care
+of her librarian, Isaac Vossius, a learned but eccentric scholar of
+Dutch parentage. Vossius was at first Queen Christine’s teacher of
+Greek, not a very agreeable position, for the queen called him to the
+castle at three o’clock in the morning for her first hour. In 1650 he
+had to leave court and country on account of a quarrel with that light
+of learning, Claude de Saumaise (Salmasius), another one of the foreign
+scholars in favor with the queen. In 1653 he was called back, and again
+took charge of the books of the queen, but soon returned to Holland.
+Before his departure he gathered several costly books and manuscripts,
+among which Codex Argenteus, with or without the queen’s private
+permission, taking them with him. In 1670, Vossius came to England,
+where he died, in 1688, as court chaplain at Windsor. King Charles II.
+of England said of him: “Vossius believes in anything but the Bible.”
+
+When in Holland, the Codex Argenteus passed out of the hands of Vossius
+after his uncle Franziskus Junius had made a complete copy of it.
+Junius, called the “grandfather of modern philology,” published the
+first edition of Codex Argenteus at Dortrecht, in 1665, providing the
+beautiful fac-simile with parallel Old English texts and a Gothic
+glossary. In Holland the Codex changed hands repeatedly until found
+in Brabant by Samuel Pufendorff, in 1661, who, in the following year,
+bought it for Count de la Gardie, paying a sum of something like $1,200
+for it.
+
+Once more in Sweden the Codex Argenteus was made the subject of close
+attention, a new edition of it being published, in 1671, by Georg
+Stiernhielm, the innovator of Swedish language and literature.[3]
+That Bishop Wulfila’s Bible should ultimately harbor in Sweden does
+not seem out of place, for of all languages now spoken the Swedish
+comes closest to the language of the Goths as crystallized during its
+classical epoch. The interest taken by Swedish scholars in the book has
+always been great and fruitful of results, in times when it was thought
+to be written in the mother tongue of all the Teutonic languages, as
+well as later, when Gothic was found to be, not the mother, but the
+oldest sister in the family.
+
+At the Riksdag of 1649 considerable dissatisfaction was directed
+against the nobility and the extravagance of the queen in deeding over
+to favorites all the possessions of the crown, in form of counties and
+baronies. The nobility sided against the queen, desirous of reducing
+her power. But Queen Christine received gracefully the complaints
+made, and promised to institute a reduction of taxes and payments. In
+the following year the commotion increased when the same taxes were
+asked as in time of war. The queen continued her policy of earnestly
+considering the requests of the lower Estates, thus gaining the
+controlling power. The nobility, suffering strife between its various
+classes, was forced to seek a shelter in the royal power it desired
+to crush, and humiliated itself before the queen. Christine received
+a joint appeal from the lower Estates for a restitution to the crown
+of all property illegally turned over to the nobility, but she managed
+to have the reform postponed upon promise of some minor privileges and
+a reduction of taxes. She refused the appeals of the nobility to have
+the clergymen and others punished who had used hard language against
+the aristocrats. But the discontent was spreading and turned against
+the queen personally. The ministers preached against the wrongs and
+violence of the mighty ones; the nobles and the peasants threatened
+each other. Peasants in Finland refused to work for aristocratic
+masters, and a general rebellion seemed imminent. In the meantime
+Queen Christine was crowned at Upsala amid great display and elaborate
+festivities, the count-palatine Charles Gustavus, her cousin, being
+installed as heir-apparent to the throne.
+
+But Queen Christine was not able to still the storm around her. The
+finances of the crown were utterly ruined by her extravagance, and
+she dared not take by violence from the nobility what she had given
+by grace. In 1651 she declared it to be her intention to leave the
+government, but was persuaded to remain. Her cousin was placed in a
+very difficult position, apparently taking no interest in what was
+going on, but following everything with the keenest attention. The
+son of John Casimir, count of Palatinate-Zweibrucken, and Princess
+Catherine, he was born at Nykœping in Sweden, in 1622, and designated
+as the future consort of Queen Christine. Charles Gustavus was
+educated in simplicity and rigor, and was, as his father before him,
+utterly neglected by Axel Oxenstierna and the government. He slept in
+a room without wallpaper, and when through with his lessons he sawed
+wood with his teacher, Professor Lenæus. Burning with ambition, and
+perhaps also in love with his brilliant cousin, he proposed to her
+repeatedly, but in vain. After several years of extensive travel he
+joined Lennart Torstensson, refusing a command and working himself up
+through the military degrees. He took an honorable part in the victory
+at Jankowitz, and was appointed supreme commander of the Swedish armies
+shortly before the close of the German war. When the opposition against
+Christine reached its climax a good deal was expected from Charles
+Gustavus, which he, on account of his singular position, could not
+undertake to do. A petition replete with abusive language about the
+queen was sent him, asking him to take hold of the government. Charles
+turned the document over to the queen. Its author, the promising young
+Arnold Messenius, and his father, an able historian, suspected as
+having inspired his son, were accused of high treason, condemned to
+death and executed.
+
+This act of force produced an impression, and the new taxes demanded
+at the next Riksdag were granted without opposition. But the queen
+felt that the discontent was only subdued, not suppressed, and, having
+no further means to keep up a luxurious court, she did the wisest act
+of her reign, that of resigning, at Upsala, in June, 1654, Charles
+Gustavus being crowned the same day. The scene of her abdication was
+very impressive, Queen Christine carrying herself with noble and lofty
+dignity, an inheritance from her father which she made use of when she
+saw fit. Leaving the crown and the royal emblems, one by one, to the
+Riksdrotset, she descended the throne, from the lowest steps of which
+she spoke an eloquent and touching farewell to the four Estates of the
+Riksdag. She suddenly left the country after having secured for herself
+a princely income. At Innsbruck, the daughter of Gustavus Adolphus
+joined the Catholic church, thereby, and by her fame as a learned
+woman, creating a sensation. She died in Rome in 1689, after having
+made two unsuccessful attempts to regain her Swedish throne, and one
+equally unsuccessful to succeed the last king of the Polish line of the
+Vasa dynasty, and was buried in the church of St. Peter.
+
+Among the many learned men who at one time surrounded Christine were
+Vossius, Heinsius, Salmasius, Huet, Freinshemius, Loccenius, Meibom,
+Bœclerus, Ravius, Schefferus, and others. The greatest of them all, the
+philosopher Cartesius (René Descartes), died in Stockholm, in 1650.
+
+After the love-story of Gustavus Adolphus had come to an end, he long
+felt a disinclination to marry. His sister Catherine is said to have
+tried to rouse him to the necessity of choosing a consort. His answer
+was always: “Never mind, dear sister, you shall yourself bring up a
+son to inherit the crown and continue my work.” This son of Catherine
+became Queen Christine’s successor.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+_Period of Political Grandeur--Charles X. and Charles XI._
+
+
+Charles X. was one of the most ambitious men ever placed upon a
+throne, and Europe was soon to realize that a new war-lord was come.
+His ambition, so long unsatisfied and secreted, burst forth with
+uncontrollable strength, in compass only to be equalled by his rare
+gifts of mind and heart. Charles Gustavus had suffered a good deal of
+neglect, coldness and hatred, but when ascending the throne he seemed
+to have forgotten all this. Oxenstierna died a few months after the
+abdication of Queen Christine, deeply impressed by the magnanimity
+and genius of the new sovereign. Charles Gustavus was one of the most
+highly gifted of Swedish monarchs. He had a great deal of interest in
+and rare discernment for the requirements of a peaceful development.
+But reared in the most warlike of times, when a reputation could
+be made only by winning so and so many “victorias” for the firm
+establishment of a hero’s “gloire,” Charles Gustavus thought that only
+the monarch favored by “Fama” would have the prestige to lead firmly
+the fate of his people. He often expressed the wish to rest from his
+campaigns in order to contemplate his work and make it beneficial to
+his people, but such a rest he never gave himself time to enjoy during
+his short and remarkable reign.
+
+Charles burned with desire to gain fame in war, taking for pretext
+that the king of Poland, by his repeated claims to the Swedish throne,
+made peace treacherous and impossible. But such was the condition of
+affairs that something must be done to quiet the malcontent people,
+restore peace between the quarrelling classes, and reimburse the empty
+state treasury. At a Riksdag in Stockholm, in 1655, a restitution was
+proposed by the king and agreed to, according to which all estates
+which in earlier times had been rendering dues to the direct support
+of the court, army, fleet, or administration, should be confiscated to
+the crown; also one-fourth of the estates given away since the death of
+Gustavus Adolphus, and all estates fraudulently obtained. A committee
+to enforce the restitution was appointed, to be presided over by the
+able Herman Fleming. The restitution, far from radical in itself, was
+not completely carried through, thanks to the opposing nobles. But it
+proved effective for the moment, the king securing the goodwill of the
+people, temporary quiet and means to carry on the proposed war, to
+commence which Charles Gustavus received the somewhat reluctant consent
+of the faithful people whose financial state was a most despairing
+one. Charles X. thought in new conquests to find means to better their
+condition. Shortly after his coronation he married Hedvig Eleonore of
+Holstein-Gottorp.
+
+John II. Casimir of Poland, the younger son of Sigismund, like
+Vladislav, styled himself king of Sweden and had claims to Livonia.
+For this he should be punished. It was not the original intention of
+Charles X. to make himself king of Poland, but he was probably the
+first who ever devised a division of that unhappy country. The success
+of Charles X. was without a parallel. The strong fortresses were
+captured, the armies surrendered and registered in Swedish service.
+After two months Charles X. entered the old capital of Cracow, John
+Casimir fled from his country, and, carried away by the frenzy of
+success, Charles Gustavus had himself crowned king of Poland. West
+Prussia was captured, and the elector of Brandenburg, who held East
+Prussia in fief, and the duke of Courland were forced to become the
+vassals of Sweden, in 1656.
+
+But Charles X. had roused an enemy that few invaders, however great,
+have been able to successfully encounter, the spirit of patriotism.
+The Poles, enticed to revolt by the Catholic clergy, found a leader in
+the noble Czarniecki, who commenced a war of liberation on the Swedish
+usurper. King John Casimir returned, and armies were gathered. Charles
+Gustavus was yet to do wonders of strategy, which aroused the amazement
+and fear of all Europe, but he was glad, when finding a good excuse,
+to extract himself from the affairs of Poland. In 1656 he defeated
+Czarniecki at Golumbo, undertook the adventurous crossing of the river
+of San, and captured, and recaptured, the capital of Warsaw. The “three
+days’ battle of Warsaw” (18th-20th of July, 1656) is one of the most
+famous in modern warfare, by which the reputation of Charles X., as one
+of the greatest warriors of his time, was firmly established. Charles
+X. had joined forces with the “great elector” of Brandenburg, who up to
+the last moment was unwilling to risk a battle of 22,000 men against
+an enemy twice as strong. Charles Gustavus was unyielding and turned
+it into a great victory. But his position became precarious, Russia,
+Germany, Holland and Denmark being hostile, joined by Brandenburg,
+the ambitious “great elector” not being satisfied with the Swedish
+supremacy in East Prussia. To save himself from the dilemma with
+untarnished glory, Charles X. decided to fight Denmark, which country
+had declared war without suspecting the possibility of an attack.
+
+Lennart Torstensson, his master of strategy, had shown Charles X. how
+Denmark was to be attacked. With an army of only 8,000, but consisting
+of the choicest and most victorious troops in all Europe, Charles X.
+hastened in rapid marches through Pomerania and Mecklenburg, recaptured
+Bremen, and invaded through friendly Holstein all of Schleswig and
+Jutland, defeating the larger but inexperienced Danish army and
+capturing the strong fortress of Fredericia.
+
+Yet the new position was as precarious as the one in Poland, and
+Charles had to use all the skill of his diplomacy to save his little
+army from an assault by inimical Europe. France and England seemed
+unwilling to render him effective help. But when the elector of
+Brandenburg, who had taken upon himself the leadership of Sweden’s
+enemies, turned to the emperor, emphasizing the necessity of crushing
+the Swedish power in one blow, he received the following surprising
+answer: “The king of Hungary has no reason to be the enemy of the king
+of Sweden.” Charles had reached a secret understanding with Austria. By
+this move he gained time. Through what seemed almost a miracle, he was
+not only to save his army but lead it on to victory after a strategic
+deed, in originality and daring unique in the history of the world.
+
+The year of 1658 commenced with severe frosts. Charles X. conceived the
+daring plan of attacking the Danish isles by leading his army over the
+frozen sounds. He concluded to cross the sound of Lille Belt, opposite
+the islet of Brandsœ. His quartermaster-general, Eric Dahlberg, an
+engineer of great genius, ascertained that the ice was safe. One frosty
+winter morning, the 30th of January, the Swedish army, reinforced to
+9,000 men, marched down on the ice, safely reaching Brandsœ at sunrise.
+A Danish army, arranged in order of battle in the island of Funen,
+was defeated. While crossing over to Funen, the ice cracked under two
+squadrons of cavalry, those who followed not daring to proceed. The
+king himself hurried past the dangerous place, pointing out a safe
+course, and the troops followed him.
+
+The most dangerous part remained to cross, the much wider sound of
+Store Belt, in order to reach Seeland. Charles first thought of taking
+the direct route of two miles, but commissioned Dahlberg to explore
+the condition of the ice across to the smaller islands to the south.
+Dahlberg did so, and said he would wager his head for its perfectly
+safe condition. In enthusiasm, Charles clapped his hands exclaiming:
+“Now, brother Frederic, we will converse in good Swedish!” In the
+night between the 5th and 6th of February, the Swedish army marched
+from Svendborg in Funen over the ice to Langeland. “It was terrible,”
+wrote an eye-witness, “to march through the night over this frozen sea,
+where the horses’ hoofs had thawed down the snow on the ice, which
+was below two feet of water, and where we, in every moment, were in
+fear of striking the open sea.” At dawn the army landed in Langeland.
+During the rest for breakfast, frozen beer was chopped and distributed
+in pieces to the soldiers. The march continued over the still wider
+sound to Laaland, Eric Dahlberg in front, directing the march. Reaching
+Grimsted in Laaland at three o’clock in the afternoon, and proceeding
+to Nakskov, Charles Gustavus was met, at midnight, by the burgomaster
+and council of said town, who surrendered its keys. The 9th of
+February, the army stood in Falster, and a few days later was collected
+at the captured castle of Vordingborg in Seeland. Peace was hastily
+offered and agreed to on the 17th, and the treaty of peace signed
+the 28th of February, 1658, at Rœskilde. The conditions were severe,
+Denmark ceding the provinces of Scania, Halland, Bleking and Bohuslæn,
+the whole district or diocese of Drontheim in Norway, and the island
+of Bornholm, and agreeing to hold the Baltic closed to hostile fleets
+with the help of Sweden. The last clause was a piece of a Scandinavian
+policy devised by the Swedish king.
+
+Charles X. now prepared to meet Brandenburg and Austria, once more
+siding against Sweden. It was necessary to keep Holland out from
+the Baltic, and when Charles X. found Denmark unwilling to keep the
+conditions of the recent treaty on that point, the war-lord became
+wrathful, dooming obnoxious Denmark to lose her very existence. But the
+spirit of patriotism, which so often had saved Sweden in instances of
+extreme danger, now sided with Denmark, as it had already sided with
+Poland. King Frederic declared he would die like a bird in its own
+nest, and roused the patriotism of the population of Copenhagen, which,
+badly defended, was hurriedly fortified at the news of an intended
+attack. Contrary to the advice of Eric Dahlberg, Charles X. made no
+instantaneous attack, but commenced a siege, although he did not bring
+with him the necessary means. The castle of Kronborg by Elsinore
+was captured and its cannon used against Copenhagen. The greatest
+enthusiasm prevailed in the Danish capital; the king slept in a tent by
+the fortifications, and especially the students and Norwegian sailors
+distinguished themselves by their valor and patriotism. Charles X.
+found it impossible to take Copenhagen and retired to some distance
+from the capital. What caused Charles to retire was the arrival of a
+Dutch fleet. It had been met by the Swedish fleet, under command of
+Charles Gustavus Wrangel, the hero of Fredericia and Kronborg. After
+six hours of hard fighting the Dutch forced the entrance to the Sound.
+Before leaving, the Swedish king resolved to make a desperate effort
+to capture Copenhagen, defended by 13,000 troops and by a patriotic
+population, with his 8,000 Swedes. The attack was made in the night
+of February 11, 1659, but the city, forewarned by traitors, tendered
+the Swedes a warm reception, consisting of artillery fire, stones, and
+scalding hot water. The Swedes lost 600 men and suffered their first
+and only defeat under the command of Charles X.
+
+The situation was grave. The Swedish army in Jutland was forced to
+retire; the troops of 5,000 men in Funen were defeated and made
+prisoners; a revolt took place in Bornholm, and the Danes recaptured
+the district of Drontheim. The powers united in their efforts to force
+Sweden and Denmark to a treaty of peace on the basis of the Rœskilde
+stipulations. Charles still held his head high, declaring that he
+would crush the fleets of the allies if they tried to interfere in
+the affairs of the North, striking a sharply discordant note in the
+concert of the powers. To Denmark he was willing to cede the district
+of Drontheim, but prepared to occupy that of Akkershus instead, when he
+was taken ill at the convening Riksdag at Gothenburg, dying February
+11, 1660, in the palace erected by his friend Lennart Torstensson.
+
+Charles X. Gustavus was one of the most remarkable men of his day,
+whose wonderful deeds of bravery and genius caused amazement through
+their brilliancy, and anxiety through their recklessness. At the first
+glance his appearance gave no idea of the real man. He was short,
+and of an unusually square and clumsy build, with a head of coarse
+proportions. But there was the fire of genius in his sharp blue eyes;
+under the black hair, and below the thin black mustache, there was a
+mouth of firm and resolute lines. In the versatility of his endowment,
+he stands as one of the first among Swedish kings, the rich gifts of
+the Vasas and the Wittelsbachs being united in him. As a warrior he was
+great, yet more of a tactician than a strategist. As a statesman his
+views were almost as clairvoyant as those of his grandfather, Charles
+IX., but he gave way to the impressions and impulses of the moment. He
+failed to make the Baltic a Swedish inland lake, but gained for his
+country the inestimable gift of a natural frontier to the east and
+south, by the acquisition of Bohuslæn, Halland, Scania and Bleking,
+provinces more valuable to Sweden than a whole empire south of the
+Baltic.
+
+_Charles XI._ was a child of four years at the death of his father;
+his country at war with a world, and in a sorely afflicted condition.
+In the will of Charles X., the queen-dowager, Hedvig Eleonore, was
+named to preside over the government, with two votes, and the brother
+of Charles X., the duke Adolphus John, was to take a seat with her as
+Riksmarsk. This arrangement displeased the nobility, understanding that
+it was directed against their influence, and they had the duke excluded
+from the government. The lower Estates of the Riksdag sided with the
+duke, but soon gave up his cause as they found that he was utterly
+vain, quick-tempered, and without stability or genius. Lars Kagg, a
+good warrior, was appointed Riksmarsk in his place. Herman Fleming,
+the able state treasurer, was removed as disagreeable to the nobility,
+his ill-health being taken as an excuse, and was succeeded by Gustavus
+Bonde. Peter Brahe remained Riksdrotset, Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie
+state chancellor, and Charles Gustavus Wrangel state admiral. Kagg died
+in 1661 and was succeeded by Wrangel, Gustavus Otto Stenbock becoming
+state admiral.
+
+The first duty of the new government was to make peace for the bleeding
+country. This was effected in 1660 through the treaties of Oliva and
+Copenhagen, and in a most satisfactory manner, speaking high for the
+diplomatic ability of the governing ones, but also of the ignorance of
+the powers of the utter helplessness of Sweden, in great contrast to
+her outward political grandeur. Poland ceded Livonia to Sweden, and
+Denmark all the territory gained by Charles X., except the district of
+Drontheim and the island of Bornholm, while Russia was satisfied with
+the boundaries set by Gustavus Adolphus.
+
+The government, with care and consideration, made the necessary
+arrangements to have the new provinces intimately connected with the
+country. Representatives were sent to the Riksdag of 1664, and the
+University of Lund, in Scania, was founded in 1668. If to this is added
+that a good deal was done to encourage art and science, principally
+through Count Magnus de la Gardie, who was the Mæcenas of Sweden, the
+meritorious deeds of the government during Charles XI.’s minority are
+enumerated. The less that is said of it in addition, and of its leading
+men, the better for these. They were men of some patriotism, but,
+through their exceedingly aristocratic views and lack of stability,
+unable to further the interests of their country, so badly in need
+of reform. There was not one of them who possessed the abilities of
+a statesman. They lived like princes in their counties, each holding
+court and possessing various considerable castles, all the members
+of the higher aristocracy upholding the same standard of luxury and
+power, appointing clergymen and judges, founding towns, and discussing
+the necessity of having mints and coins of their own. Magnus de la
+Gardie, count of Leckœ, and married to a sister of Charles X., was
+the greatest of these lords. Close to him came Peter Brahe, count of
+Visingsborg, and Charles Gustavus Wrangel, count of Skokloster. The
+barons approached the counts in their display of wealth. The lower
+nobility, whose members often served at the courts of the great lords,
+were not satisfied with this state of affairs. But in the contempt and
+oppression in which they held the lower classes, they agreed with the
+higher nobility, who made no secret of their intention to reduce the
+peasants to slaves. The peasantry, suffering and neglected, became the
+prey of a superstition which was shared by the more educated members of
+society, accusations and legal executions of witches becoming numerous.
+
+The government was not agreed between themselves upon many questions
+and turned to the state council for support. The old privileged class
+of councillors forced their influence upon the government, and the
+position between the two became quite intimate, at the same time
+difficult to define. The state council was as divided in its opinions
+as the government, which fact had a disastrous influence upon state
+politics and administration. Great negligence was shown in the various
+departments, the records of receipts and expenditures being imperfect,
+and a constant lack of funds existing. Forgery and thefts were
+committed by high and low officials. Administrative orders were not
+obeyed. The army and the navy suffered utter neglect.
+
+During such a state of affairs the abominable practice of receiving
+“subsidies” came into use. The government received, now from one
+foreign power, now from another, a large sum of money to back its
+respective interests with the military forces or the diplomatic
+influence of Sweden. This practice, ignoble in itself, injured the
+dignity of the state and had a demoralizing influence. Thanks to it,
+Sweden sided sometimes against, but mostly with, France, her old ally,
+who, in Count de la Gardie, had an enthusiastic friend. In 1662,
+Sweden schemed with France for the election of a French prince as king
+of Poland; in 1667, she formed, with England and Holland, a triple
+alliance against France. Louis XIV. soon won back the friendship of the
+government of Sweden, thus having this country as his only ally when
+reaching the climax of his success. At last the Swedish promises to
+send an army against the elector of Brandenburg were fulfilled. It was
+under the command of the old and invalid Count Wrangel, and suffered
+defeats at Ratenau and Fehrbellin, in 1675. These were of little
+importance, or extension, in themselves, but they injured the prestige
+of Sweden, so long supremely victorious on German soil, and caused
+her enemies to combine their efforts in order to regain their lost
+possessions.
+
+Charles XI. was declared of age at seventeen, in 1672, when he himself
+took charge of the government, yet for a few years standing under
+the influence of Count de la Gardie. King Charles was, as a child,
+physically weak, and the astrologers had prophesied that he would
+die an infant. For this reason the queen-dowager, a very ordinary
+woman, gave all her attention to have her son develop a strong and
+sound constitution. The child was given its own way in everything,
+casting aside books and rules for his individual pleasures. King
+Charles grew up an ignorant self-willed and headstrong youth, who
+delighted in hunting and reckless riding on horseback. His companions,
+manners and language were not of the choicest order, and he remained
+all his life shy and awkward in demeanor. From his thirteenth year he
+was made acquainted with the routine of state affairs, but he lacked
+the qualifications to grasp them in detail. He surrounded himself
+with members of the lower nobility, but was well at ease only among
+ministers, burghers and peasants. Charles XI. was all his life of an
+unrestrained temper and an indomitable will, coming to the throne the
+most ignorant king Sweden had had for centuries. But he was pious,
+sincere and just, and his morals pure and severe. Through the hardest
+of lessons, Charles XI. was to develop his great uncultivated gifts,
+to become the liberator of his people and one of its most remarkable
+rulers.
+
+Sweden had to encounter many enemies after the battle of Fehrbellin,
+and a chain of disasters followed, nearly crushing the young king under
+their weight. Holland, Austria, Brandenburg and Denmark attacked the
+Swedish possessions, which were all captured, one after the other.
+Charles was not able to send reinforcements, the navy being in a
+miserable condition, and when rejuvenated, through strenuous effort,
+defeated by the excellent admirals Juel, of the Danish, and Tromp,
+of the Dutch, navy. The treasury was empty, the administration in
+disorder, and mistrust and strife reigned supreme. But the young king
+showed that he wanted to be obeyed, and managed, by hard work, to
+establish order, the Riksdag sacrificing means to organize the defence.
+
+The Danes were successful in their first expeditions on land also,
+their army having undergone a reorganization. King Christian V. marched
+into Scania, while his general, Gyldenlœve, invaded Bohuslæn and
+West Gothland. The hostile fleets captured the islands of Œland and
+Gothland. Charles XI., in a sinister state of mind verging on despair,
+at last had his army collected, and entered Halland, where Danish
+troops were encountered and defeated at Halmstad. This gave courage to
+the Swedes, who soon thought themselves invincible, when commanded by
+the young king himself. Charles received reinforcements through peasant
+troops, and was desirous to meet Christian in open battle. But the
+Danish army in Scania retreated until forced to meet the enemy near
+Lund. Here a bloody and decisive battle was fought, more than 8,000 men
+being killed, and resulting in a victory for the Swedes, who took 2,000
+prisoners, fifty-one cannon, and the whole hostile camp, December 3,
+1676.
+
+In the following year Sweden suffered two defeats at sea, through the
+hands of Juel, but won another victory on land, at Landskrona, when the
+Danes lost 3,000 men.
+
+While Charles XI. fought with the courage of despair, Louis XIV. was
+supremely victorious over his enemies, soon appearing as the dictator
+of Europe, when peace was made at Nimwegen, in 1679. Finding Charles
+XI. resolved not to cede any of his territory, King Louis took a
+similar standpoint in his behalf, but contemptuously neglected to let
+the Swedish ambassadors take any active part in the deliberations.
+Louis XIV. made peace with the emperor, Brandenburg and Denmark
+on behalf of Sweden, which country only ceded a small part of East
+Pomerania to Brandenburg. Charles XI. deeply felt the insolence of the
+benevolent dictator, and forced Christian V. to sign a treaty of peace
+at Lund, in 1680, as if Louis XIV. had no part in it. An agreement was
+made that Charles XI. should marry the sister of Christian V., the
+beautiful Ulrica Eleonore. Through her gentleness, piety and great
+benevolence, she soon acquired fame as one of the noblest queens of
+Sweden. Ulrica Eleonore led a quiet life, seldom being seen at court,
+where the vain and despotic queen-dowager held the first place. She
+was never able to win the affection of her consort until during her
+last illness. King Charles then, for the first time, understood what a
+treasure he had held unappreciated at his side, and watched over her
+with infinite care, bringing peace and sunshine into her last days.
+After her death, in 1693, the king became a prey to deep sorrow and
+remorse, which threw added gloom over his dark countenance. The queen
+had been active in upholding a good relation between the Scandinavian
+countries, often bitterly opposed by the queen-dowager, in the
+interests of Holstein.
+
+When peace was made, Charles XI. immediately took action in the matter
+of reform. He saw his country at the verge of utter ruin and the crown
+unable to help it. The peasants were losing their rights, one by one,
+and five-sixths of the crown lands were in the possession of the
+nobles. Brought up in ignorance and isolation, finding rottenness and
+incapability everywhere, it was no wonder that the king became strongly
+imbued by the spirit of absolutism, which pervaded all Europe. He
+followed the example of the monarchs of France and Denmark, learning
+from them how, by secret agitation and pressure, to make the lower
+classes fervently appeal to him to take the absolute power in his
+hand. His principal adviser was _John Gyllenstierna_, a man of old,
+celebrated stock, but belonging to the lower nobility. Gyllenstierna
+was one of the greatest and most patriotic statesmen of his day. He
+first attracted attention as a champion of the lower nobility against
+the great lords for the restitution of crown lands. Raised to dignities
+and a high station, he never changed his position to the aristocrats
+in power, who thought they could win him over by favors. Seeing
+the absolute impossibility of reform, with the help of the nobles,
+Gyllenstierna turned to the king, whose whole confidence he won,
+inspiring him with plans of a Scandinavian peace policy, and a reform
+through the destruction of the aristocracy. Gyllenstierna died after
+having brought to the king his bride, a union which was the work of
+this able statesman.
+
+The Riksdag was convoked to meet October 5, 1680. Everything commenced
+quietly. No royal proposition was made; but a strong agitation had been
+set in motion among the four Estates, the three lower ones sending in
+a petition to make the royal power absolute, to have a restitution
+of crown lands made, and the government, during the king’s minority,
+brought to answer for their acts. Similar requests were sent up
+from the nobility, after many stormy scenes at the Riddarhus. Thus,
+toward the end of the Riksdag, with the petitions in, came the royal
+propositions which, when accepted, in one blow crushed the aristocracy,
+as a ruling class, and the antiquated state council, as an institution,
+and established the absolute power of the king.
+
+According to the resolutions of this memorable Riksdag, which marks a
+new era in Swedish history, a “grand commission” was selected which
+fulfilled its duties with the greatest severity. The members of the
+former government and state council were made responsible for their
+administration, and themselves, or their heirs, sentenced to pay
+smaller or larger sums. Two-thirds of the whole amount was afterward
+given up, but the fines were nevertheless great. Count Nils Brahe,
+the heir of both Peter Brahe and Charles Gustavus Wrangel, and the
+wealthiest man in Sweden, had to pay something like $600,000 in fines,
+an immense sum in those days, and was reduced almost to poverty. The
+restitution department, assisted by two commissions, did equally
+thorough work under the pressure of the king. Ten counties and seventy
+baronies, with a great number of other crown lands of various classes,
+were confiscated. It cost the higher nobility dearly; Count Magnus
+de la Gardie, the all-powerful favorite of three monarchs, lost his
+immense wealth and died on a little estate left him, with one single
+servant out of his former princely retinue. The work of restitution was
+carried on without cruelty or injustice.
+
+A second restitution was to follow. The propositions were arranged at
+the Riksdag of 1682, in the same way as in 1680. This time the lower
+nobility was to suffer. All crown lands rendering less than $600 a
+year of income had been spared; now these were confiscated, without
+exception. In 1686 followed another blow. The dividends on the state
+loans were reduced, and a stipulation made that holders of bonds must
+refund what they, up to that date, had received above the new schedule.
+The same principle was applied in the redemption of mortgaged state
+lands. These new harsh measures were enforced with a great deal of
+severity, with incidental cases of injustice. The king showed clemency
+only to certain parties in stringent need. The discontent of the nobles
+caused many of them to leave the country, as, for instance, Count Otto
+William von Kœnigsmarck, son of the conqueror of Prague, and himself
+the valiant defender of Pomerania against the hostile allies. Their
+example was followed by many nobles of Livonia, the measures of the
+restitution entirely crushing the nobility of that province, while its
+peasants, who were slaves, gained their liberty, and had every reason
+to bless the Swedish government.
+
+The power of absolutism grew steadily stronger. The king decided all
+matters alone, and prepared in advance the measures he proposed to the
+Riksdag, of whose sanction he was as independent as of that of the
+old state council. All officers and institutions were also changed in
+name from “state” to “royal” servants and instruments. The university
+professors were instructed to impress the students with the necessity
+and divine rights of an absolute ruler. The nobles were alone in their
+discontent. The other classes, especially the peasants, looked with
+satisfaction and approval on the work which crushed the enemies of
+their liberty and prosperity, and submitted willingly to the absolute
+power because it was in the hands of a patriotic king.
+
+Charles XI. used the revenues of the restitutions principally for
+the reorganization of army and navy. For the former he reintroduced
+a system which Gustavus Adolphus had applied, the so-called
+_Indelningsverk_ (work of division), which, elaborated upon and firmly
+established by Charles XI., became the foundation of the Swedish army
+system. The whole country was divided into small sections, which were
+each to support an infantry soldier, or a seaman, and larger ones to
+support a cavalry soldier. This soldier received a hamlet with earth
+to till within his section, paying for it by work to the farmers or
+squires, while these paid for his equipment. In times of war the state
+paid his expenses. This changed the troublesome army element into
+useful members of state in times of peace. The officers were given
+small estates by the crown for their support. The army consisted, at
+the death of Charles XI., of 65,000 men, well equipped. On the coast of
+Bleking extensive navy yards were built by Count Hans Wachtmeister and
+Eric Dahlberg, in a new town called Carlscrona. At great expense, the
+best fleet ever under Swedish command was constructed by Wachtmeister,
+who enjoyed the full confidence of the king. His excellent means
+wherewith to conduct a successful war, Charles XI. used to maintain
+a dignified peace, of which his country was badly in need. Bengt
+Oxenstierna held the reins of diplomacy, which had no attraction for
+Charles XI. The old alliance with France was broken off and close
+connections with William of Orange established for the maintenance of
+peace. Sweden regained its prestige, rising to a power whose support
+was sought by all. When William became king of England, Sweden was a
+member of the alliance against Louis XIV., but contributed to the great
+European war only a few thousand soldiers, according to agreement,
+preserving, together with Denmark, an armed neutrality. Charles XI.
+lived to the proud moment when the powers selected Sweden as an arbiter
+in the deliberations for peace in Riswick, a worthy satisfaction gained
+over the earlier insolence of Louis XIV.
+
+Charles XI. improved the administration by filling the offices of
+the excellent institutions with excellent men. This he obtained by
+enforcing the necessity of obeying orders, supplying officials of all
+ranks, from the lowest upward, with new regulations which must be
+obeyed, also regulating their salaries. Sweden never had a greater
+lover of law and order than Charles XI., and he used his absolute
+power in their interests, trying to remold the old laws to suit modern
+requirements, and having a new church law, a masterpiece in its line,
+introduced. The church itself and its men had in Charles XI. an
+interested friend. New catechism, hymn book and ritual were prepared,
+and a new translation of the Bible completed, being published after
+his death. Commerce and mining industries were encouraged, while
+agriculture improved with the improvement of the financial conditions
+of the peasants. Charles XI. was not only a “peace king,” but a
+“peasant king,” who was ardently devoted to the improvement of the
+education and financial circumstances of the country population. He was
+of broadly democratic inclinations, finding his delight in moving among
+the humble and lowly as one of them. The peasants, who had been brushed
+aside by the great and powerful, were now brought to the front and took
+an active and important part in the affairs of state. Charles ruled
+over them with a stern husbandry, and asked great sacrifices of them
+for the maintenance of an armed defence; but no king has accomplished
+more in their true interest than he, or remains more clearly in their
+memory and traditions. He travelled continually through the country,
+avoiding the places where he would be received with ceremony, stopping
+in the houses of the farmers, and enjoying heartily what comfort these
+offered. In his appearance he was far from prepossessing. His features
+were not devoid of beauty, but gloomy; his figure strong and vigorous,
+but not impressive. Through an accident while hunting he became
+slightly lame. Although dearth and hard times set in during the last
+years of his reign, causing terrible losses of life through hunger
+and prostration, he could plainly tell the beneficent results of his
+administration. Charles XI. took the reins of state when disastrous
+war ravished a country which seemed doomed to destruction. He left it
+reformed, reorganized, rejuvenated and prosperous at his death, in 1697.
+
+The Period of Political Grandeur in Swedish history falls within
+the epoch of the history of art which has been called _Barocco_, an
+unbalanced offspring of the Renaissance, and a style characterized by
+great complicity, pretensions and ambitions, a renaissance in wigs
+of formidable proportions. After the great victories of the Thirty
+Years’ War, it seems as if the interchange of influences between art,
+literature, science, politics and religion was increased. The whole era
+becomes a Barocco period of bombast and chauvinism, the climax being
+reached in the form of the absolute monarchy of the age.
+
+In Sweden, as elsewhere, there was no lack of men of ability and
+brilliant genius; but, influenced by the spirit of their time, the
+works of most of them were bombastic and chauvinistic, like the
+artistic and political aspirations of the era. The artists were, as
+were at first the scholars, mostly foreigners. The native and imported
+scholars were characterized by great learning and versatility, but
+abused their genius by Utopian theories and vainglorious dreams, and
+violated the laws of history and sound research.
+
+Olof Rudbeck was not only the most learned and brilliantly gifted
+scholar of his day, but his genius also embodies the eccentricities
+of the period in gigantic outlines. He was born at Westeros, in 1630,
+his father being the learned bishop, Johannes Rudbeckius. As a boy, he
+gave evidence of rare artistic and mechanic talents. He made drawings
+of exquisite designs, constructed clock mechanisms of wood, and was a
+skilled musician. His character was proud and violent. At sixteen he
+was through with his college course and ready to enter the university.
+The youth could not stand the change from his coarse jacket and fur
+coat into a coat of broadcloth with buttons such as the students wore,
+and was for his overbearing manner punished by his severe father with
+an additional year of college work. At the University of Upsala he
+caused from the start great surprise by his knowledge in all subjects.
+He devoted his attention chiefly to natural science, which, in that
+day, was a neglected study, and soon excelled his professors.
+
+At twenty, Rudbeck made a scientific discovery of great importance,
+which caused a stir in the whole learned world. By his discovery and
+theory of the lymphatic ducts, the blood circulation of the human body
+received a satisfactory explanation. Before the circle of scholars
+which surrounded Queen Christine, Rudbeck was allowed to demonstrate
+his anatomical discoveries, in 1652. Queen Christine, who earlier had
+been an admirer of his beautiful voice and musical abilities, loaded
+him with praise and gave him the means for a journey abroad. Rudbeck
+returned, in 1660, to Sweden, and was appointed professor of medicine
+at the University of Upsala. He planned the first botanic garden in
+the country, donating it to the university. He had illustrations made
+of the native plants and commenced a learned work on botany. The first
+hall of anatomy was erected according to his proposition. As rector
+of the university, he established several important reforms, in spite
+of opposition, but supported by the chancellor, Magnus Gabriel de la
+Gardie, who was his friend and protector. To the stupendous mastery of
+all sciences, Rudbeck added a skill and cleverness in various branches
+of practical activity which made him carry, with honor, the nickname of
+“master at all trades.” He was an excellent financier, who succeeded
+in restoring the sound economy of the university. He built a fish
+pond, from which the tables of the learned professors were regularly
+supplied with fish. A book store and a book-printing establishment
+were erected by him, and for a time run at his expense. He repaired
+windmills, built houses, provided the university town with water works
+and street pavement, also arranging its postal service. Rudbeck was one
+of the finest composers and singers of his day, conducting the musical
+exercises at the university. He made fireworks and compasses for the
+Swedish navy, built fountains and organs, was a good poet and painter
+and an excellent etcher and drawer.
+
+Rudbeck does not owe his great renown to his mastery of any of these
+trades, arts or sciences, nor to any discovery, reform or invention by
+his versatile genius. It was his monumental work, “Atland or Manheim,”
+generally called “The Atlantica,” which made him world-famous. For
+centuries one had believed in the statement made by Jordanes, and
+based upon traditions current among his people, that the Goths who
+conquered Rome had migrated from the North, and that their ancestors,
+from the remotest period, were inhabitants of Sweden. Johannes Magnus
+constructed a line of Swedish kings, beginning with Magog, the son of
+Japhet, on the basis of which the sons of Gustavus Vasa, Eric XIV.,
+and Charles IX., had accepted their high ordinals. In the time of
+Rudbeck it was considered a supremely praiseworthy effort to glorify
+the fatherland by strengthening its claims to a high antiquity.
+Rudbeck, the remarkable savant and able poet, got his head turned by
+the political grandeur of his country. He had in his youth read the
+story of Atlantis, found in Plato. Rudbeck undertook to prove, in
+“The Atlantica,” that the lost island, with its ancient ideal state
+from which the gods of antiquity were supposed to hail, was identical
+with Sweden. The work, in four large volumes, was written in Swedish
+and Latin of parallel columns. The first volume was printed in 1675,
+Rudbeck having made the types himself. In Sweden the work was greeted
+with an enthusiasm which had no bounds. The second volume was published
+by funds which Charles XI. with great generosity placed at the author’s
+disposal. The third volume was dedicated to the youthful Charles XII.,
+a true child of the chauvinistic epoch, who hailed the book with
+delight. The fourth volume was in press when Upsala was destroyed by
+fire, in 1702. The aged Rudbeck led the battle against the ravaging
+element, by supreme exertions saving the university halls, at the
+expense of his home, his press and manuscripts, and the rest of the
+town. Rudbeck died in the autumn of the same year.
+
+The elaborate construction which Rudbeck had completed by means
+of ingenious deductions and learned guesswork succumbed with the
+political grandeur of Sweden. “The Atlantica,” which once had its
+place beside the Bible on the tables of the mighty ones, was ridiculed
+and forgotten. On the continent of Europe, where similar books had
+been written in Germany and Holland, making for these respective
+countries similar claims, “The Atlantica” was at first received with
+surprise and admiration, later with doubt and criticism. The work, in
+spite of its mistakes, proved a foundation for archæological research,
+which gradually was developed into a science. In order to support the
+boldest and most impossible theories, the almost unparalleled power
+of combination of an eminent genius has brought together material
+which for the first time gave the suggestion of relationship between
+the Teutonic and the classical languages of Greece and Rome. Rudbeck
+was also the first to point out the unmistakable resemblance of the
+Old Norse and classical mythologies, as to the origin of which modern
+scholars have reached no absolute certainty, but radically different
+conclusions. The importance which Rudbeck placed upon popular customs
+and traditions was too great, but it has favorably influenced later
+students of ethnography and folk lore.
+
+If Rudbeck had limited himself to the demonstration that Sweden has
+been not the cradle of all races, but the original home of the Teutonic
+branch of the Aryan race, he might have been able to offer a theory,
+the truth of which modern science lacks, and forever may lack, the
+resources to disprove.
+
+Rudbeck had not been entirely without opponents in Sweden. The most
+noted among them was John Peringskiold, who criticised the opinion
+expressed by Rudbeck that the Runes were the oldest alphabet of the
+world. Peringskiold was a fine Icelandic scholar, and the first editor
+of Snorre Sturleson’s “Heimskringla.”
+
+A typical and highly valuable illustrated work from this period is
+the “Svecia Antiqua et Hodierna,” by Eric Dahlberg, the renowned
+quartermaster of Charles X. The text, written by Dahlberg and
+translated into Latin by several scholars, was never published, the
+magnificent engravings not before 1716. The latter give an impressive
+portrayal of architectural Sweden during the reigns of the three
+Charleses, but are not quite reliable, as some of the castles and
+palaces in this work are provided with additions and embellishments
+which were never more than projected.
+
+There is no family who has wielded a greater influence over the Swedish
+church than that of Benzelius. The founder of the house, Eric Benzelius
+the Elder, and three of his sons were archbishops of Sweden, and two
+of his grandsons bishops of the state church. The first Archbishop
+Benzelius, born in 1632, was the son of a peasant, and took his name
+from the farm of Bentseby, of Lulea parish, in Norrland, where he was
+born; he and the three of his seven sons who were archbishops refused
+to be ennobled, the other members of the family adopting the name of
+Benzelstierna. The earlier generations of the family produced men of
+great talent and power, to whom the third one, although consisting
+of able men, could not be compared. The influence of this family in
+matters of religion, science and culture was strongly felt during the
+period of more than one century. The most remarkable member was Eric
+Benzelius the Younger, one of the most learned, active and patriotic
+men ever born in Sweden. Like the other members of the family, he
+perfected his education at foreign universities and made the personal
+acquaintance of Leibnitz, Thomasius, Malebranche, and other celebrated
+scholars. He was a historian, literary critic and philologist of
+merit, writing a history of Sweden and preparing an edition of Codex
+Argenteus, published in London after his death. He was highly
+appreciated by Charles XII., and was a friend of Polhem and Swedenborg,
+being married to a sister of the latter. Eric Benzelius was appointed
+archbishop, but died, in 1742, before he had entered office.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+_Period of Political Grandeur--Charles XII_
+
+
+Charles XII., the most famous of Swedish kings, was a boy of fifteen at
+the death of his father. He was born June 17, 1682, at the castle of
+Stockholm. The astrologers declared that Sweden was to receive a new
+war-lord, and that time they were not mistaken. Charles XII. was born
+in the same year as the absolute monarchy of Sweden, which power he
+was to abuse in such a great measure. Shortly after his birth, one of
+the speakers of the knightly chapter house, Justice Gyllencreutz, said
+while warning against the consequences of an absolute power: “A king
+may come who follows his own will, being more fond of war than peace,
+or utterly extravagant. History proves that changes of the constitution
+generally are beset by dangerous consequences; yea, that they often
+have brought destruction to the country and its people.” These words
+were prophetic.
+
+The early education of Charles was supervised by his mother, sweet
+Ulrica Eleonore, who taught him piety, modesty, gentleness and justice
+by her own example. He participated with earnestness in the morning and
+evening prayers, kneeling before the only Lord he ever acknowledged
+as his superior. His mother died when Charles was seven years of age,
+but the devotion in which he held her he fixed upon his sisters,
+Hedvig Sophie and Ulrica Eleonore, but especially upon the former. His
+religious feeling was deep and sincere, and he evinced early a love
+of truth, justice and pure morals which, like his brotherly devotion,
+followed him through life. The most remarkable trait in a son of
+Charles XI. was his power of self-control; but he was his father’s
+superior also in intellectual gifts, such as a ready memory, a good
+apprehension and a sharp discernment. His faults were early developed,
+and met, after the death of his parents, no restraint. He was taciturn,
+unapproachable, proud, self-willed and headstrong. He had from his
+grandfather inherited an ambition for the vain glory of war, which
+was led astray by his unrestrained power of imagination. From the age
+of five he was taught by the learned professor, Andreas Norcopensis,
+ennobled under the name of Nordenhielm, to whom he was very devoted
+and under whose guidance he received a good general education. The
+plain, able scholar influenced the young prince in a wholesome manner.
+When his teacher asked him how an honest man ought to be, the pupil,
+then seven years of age, answered: “He should be gentle but of great
+courage; fierce like a lion to his enemies, gentle like a lamb to those
+at home.” To the question if it were not better to avoid dangers in
+order to save one’s life, the little Charles answered: “No, it would be
+a shame to live in such a manner.”
+
+Charles XI. had drawn an outline of the course which the education of
+his son was to follow. The first place was given to study of the Bible
+and the Christian doctrines and the severe practice of religion. The
+prince was to learn Swedish and German early, to receive instruction in
+the laws and constitution of his country, and in the science of war,
+and to be trained in the arts of military drill, fencing and riding on
+horseback. He soon acquired the faculty of speaking Latin fluently, in
+the ordinary mechanical way, and learned some French. When his first
+governor, Eric Lindskiold, tried to interest him in the latter language
+by pointing out its usefulness in diplomatic intercourse with the
+French ambassador, the prince answered: “If I meet the king of France
+I will converse with him in his own language. When a French ambassador
+comes here, it is more appropriate that he learns Swedish on my
+account than I French on his.” His favorite studies were strategy and
+mathematics, which he made under the Swedish general, Charles Magnus
+Stuart. He often said that the one who was ignorant of mathematics
+was only a half human being. Charles was fond of riding the horses of
+his father, and followed the latter on his adventurous journeys and
+hunts. When only twelve years of age he killed his first bear. He early
+developed the reckless courage which made him so famous. Charles was
+exceedingly fond of reading the Eddic poems and the old hero Sagas of
+the North. He said he wanted to resemble the ancient hero kings, and
+wished he had, like many of them, a brother who would remain at home to
+rule the country in peace, while he, with his warriors, made a tour of
+the world. The prescription, made by his father, that the prince should
+be taught to make a moderate use of his absolute power, was, if carried
+out, of little consequence. Charles mourned deeply the losses of his
+mother and of his first teacher, Nordenhielm, which followed close
+upon each other, seeking, after that, more the company of his father.
+Charles XI. had a long private conversation with his son shortly
+before his death, pointing out the men in whom he could confide.
+Among these Charles Piper occupied a conspicuous place. He remained
+ever the adviser of Charles XII., but never had his full confidence.
+The enigmatic king confided in nobody, and passed through life without
+opening his heart to any one.
+
+Charles XI. had appointed a government to reign during the minority
+of his son, to be presided over by Queen-dowager Hedvig Eleonore. But
+the Estates of the Riksdag, at the request of the nobility, declared
+Charles XII. of age when only fifteen. The young king placed the crown
+upon his head with his own hands at the coronation, and took charge
+of the government in November, 1697. Bengt Oxenstierna remained at
+the head of foreign affairs as the president of the chancery, while
+Charles took personal interest in continuing the life work of his
+father, the restitution of crown lands, which still went on. Charles
+Piper, who had been quite active in obtaining an early majority for the
+king, was raised to the dignity of a count, and became one of the most
+influential members of the state council. Charles was not influenced
+by anybody in spite of his youth. He listened to what the councillors
+had to say, then announced his resolutions with terse independence. He
+refused firmly the appeals of the nobility to reduce the demands of the
+work of restitution. He abolished the practice of torture, in spite of
+the unanimous vote of the state council to the contrary. When the aged
+Bengt Oxenstierna was anxious to have annulled a treaty with France,
+already signed, the young king answered tersely: “You have heard my
+opinion; I am the one who signed the treaty.” Charles took, in general,
+little interest in foreign affairs, except those concerning Holstein,
+to the duke of which country his elder sister was married.
+
+The exuberant spirits of the youthful Charles found an outlet in daring
+exploits and plays of war. The somewhat older man, Count Arvid Bernhard
+Horn, the commander of the royal body-guard, took an active part in
+these as the most intimate comrade of the king. They went bear-hunting
+together, with wooden forks as their only weapon, fought naval battles
+with hand-spurts, made breakneck rides on horseback, etc. When the
+king was near being drowned in one of these “naval battles,” the only
+ones that Charles XII. ever fought, he was saved by Arvid Horn, who
+pulled him up by the hair. When Horn in some other game was badly hurt
+and taken ill, the king kept the night watch at his bedside. Upon the
+visits of Duke Frederic of Holstein, the two young princes indulged
+in escapades of the wildest kind, if one were to believe the reports
+made by the foreign ambassadors at Stockholm to their respective
+governments, and chiefly founded upon hearsay. His application to
+state affairs was almost constant and very arduous, for which reason
+these reports of the escapades and adventures of the youthful king are
+probably wild exaggerations, or mere fables.
+
+The reports of a young inexperienced king who gave up his time to
+sport and pastimes spread abroad, and the enemies of Sweden were led
+to believe that an opportune moment was come for an attack on the
+empire which held the balance of power in Northern Europe. Peter the
+Great, one of the most remarkable men of modern history, was czar of
+Russia. Engaged in his heroic task of reorganizing his barbarous empire
+to a modern European state, he was desirous of obtaining harbors on
+the coast of the Baltic, from which sea he was cut off by the Swedish
+possessions. August, a cousin of Charles XII., who was elector of
+Saxony and king of Poland, was anxious to take possession of Livonia.
+King Frederic IV. of Denmark, also a cousin of Charles, wished to
+suppress the duke of Holstein, who had gained independence, thanks
+to the assistance of Sweden. Czar Peter and King August entered into
+a secret alliance with each other. While negotiations for continued
+peace with Sweden were still pending, the Russians secretly crossed the
+boundary in Ingermanland, Saxon troops entered Livonia, and the king
+of Denmark took possession of Holstein. The Swedish council of state
+was amazed at this triple danger. Charles simply remarked that it was
+strange that both of his cousins wanted war, and expressed the hope
+that God would support him in his righteous cause.
+
+Charles XII. was eighteen years of age when he entered this stupendous
+conflict. He was tall and slender, but broad-shouldered; he had a
+sympathetic face, dark-blue eyes, thin brown hair, and a carriage
+expressing courage and an indomitable spirit. Upon entering actual
+warfare, Charles renounced all pleasures and comforts. Sharing the
+severe discipline of his soldiers, he slept in a tent, ate of their
+rude food, and drank nothing but water. The wig, considered so
+indispensable in those days, was laid aside and he dressed, like the
+men of his body-guard, in a coat of coarse blue cloth with large brass
+buttons and yellow lining. His long sword was hung at a yellow leather
+girdle. He wore high boots and yellow trousers made of skin. In battle
+he was always found where the danger was most imminent.
+
+Charles turned first against Denmark. A Swedish fleet of forty-eight
+ships joined the naval forces of equal strength which the Swedish
+allies, England and Holland, had sent to meet it in the Sound. A
+more powerful combination has never been seen before or after in
+Scandinavian waters. Charles embarked with his troops on one hundred
+Scanian ships and landed at Elsinore, August 4, 1699. He was impatient
+to reach shore, jumped into the water, which reached to his arms,
+and was followed by his troops, who carried their weapons high above
+the water. A sudden attack was made on the Danish troops on shore,
+who turned and fled. The Swedes made a temporary camp and prepared
+themselves for a march on Copenhagen. King Frederic was struck with
+terror and hastened to make peace with the duke of Holstein, who was
+left in undisturbed possession of his country through the treaty of
+peace at Traventhal. Charles withdrew his troops at once, although
+reluctantly, having wished to crush the power of Denmark. He had
+maintained the strictest discipline in his camp, and treated the
+inhabitants of the country with gentleness. The Danish peasants, who
+abundantly brought necessary provisions, said to the king: “You do us
+no harm because you are the son of our pious Ulrica Eleonore.” The king
+answered: “What I have done I have been forced to do. But rest assured
+that I shall from this day be the upright friend of your king.”
+
+Charles now turned against Russia. With an army of somewhat more than
+8,000 men he sailed for Ingermanland to attack the invaders, at least
+five times as many in numbers, who were laying siege to the town of
+Narva. The majority of the Russian troops consisted of serfs who were
+taken directly from their work and were without any military training.
+This army of undisciplined serfs was to a great extent commanded by
+foreign adventurers. The news of the approach of the Swedish troops
+brought consternation. Several of the Russian officers shed tears,
+while the czar quickly left his army to gather more troops. The
+remarkable battle of Narva was fought November 20, 1700. King Charles
+offered the enemies a battle in the open field, but when they refused
+to accept or to come out, he attacked them in their trenches, which
+formed a semi-circle around the town of Narva, with the wings touching
+the river of the same name. The war-cry of the Swedes was: “With the
+help of God!” Their attack was favored by a snowstorm, which blew in
+the faces of the Russians, blinding them. The enemies could tell that
+the Swedes were few in numbers, but thought that reinforcements must
+be on the way. The trenches were filled with bundles of fagots, the
+ramparts were mounted, and the Russians thrown into confusion. The
+Russian cavalry fled at the opening of the artillery fire. The rest,
+crushed in between the walls of the town and their aggressors, tried to
+escape on every side. The Swedes soon had cut the immense Russian line
+of troops in twain at the centre. The half which consisted of the right
+wing moved down to the bridge over the Narva River. But the bridge gave
+way under the weight of the first 3,000 men, who found their graves in
+the river below. The rest of the right wing was hedged in between the
+Swedes and the river. The regiments of the Russian guards, who were
+the most experienced of the troops, fought bravely for some time, but
+great confusion ensued among the others, the soldiers wanting to kill
+their foreign officers, whom they blamed for the catastrophe. The chief
+commander, Duke de Croi, with several other foreigners, for this reason
+surrendered to the king.
+
+The Russian soldiers of the right wing, abandoned by their superior
+officers, made heroic efforts to defend themselves behind barricades
+which they erected for the moment. King Charles hastened to the spot,
+but was very near losing his life in passing through a swamp. He sank
+so deep that the water rose to his neck, and he could save himself
+only by leaving his horse, his sword, and one of his heavy boots
+behind in the mud. Without in the least improving his condition, the
+king took another horse and sought his way to the heart of the battle.
+The Russians were killed in masses, but did not surrender before King
+Charles had taken a Russian battery, thus depriving them of the last
+hope of being reunited with the left wing. The latter, who kept in the
+vicinity of their trenches, had fought with a good deal of courage. At
+nightfall two officers were sent from the right wing to ask the king
+for an armistice, which was granted. King Charles spent the night in
+his wet clothes, by the bivouac fire, on the ground, his head resting
+in the lap of one of his soldiers. In the morning, before dawn, two
+Russian generals arrived, demanding free leave for the remainder
+of the right wing. This was granted, but the superior officers had
+to remain as prisoners of war. The commander of the left wing also
+opened negotiations. Free leave was granted them upon the surrender
+of their arms. It must have been an impressive sight to see the body
+of 12,000 Russians, with heads uncovered, who passed in line by only
+half as many Swedes, depositing their banners and arms at the feet of
+Charles XII. It was a wise plan to keep as prisoners only the superior
+officers, for the Swedes had not the means at hand to watch and feed so
+many prisoners as those who were allowed a free leave. In the battle
+of Narva 18,000 Russians were killed or captured; the hostile camp,
+baggage and artillery fell into the hands of the victors. Charles
+XII. made his solemn entry into Narva, where Te Deum was sung in the
+cathedral. Charles with his own hand crossed out all expressions of
+vainglory over the success or disdain of the vanquished which occurred
+in the official account of the victory to be sent to Stockholm.
+
+In the following year Charles XII. turned against his third enemy, King
+August. Saxon troops, 10,000 strong, were joined by 19,000 Russians,
+and had taken a strongly fortified position on the southern shore of
+the river Dvina. Charles decided to cross the river from Livonia and
+attack the enemy. The famous crossing of the Dvina was planned in all
+details by Eric Dahlberg, the venerable hero and engineer from the wars
+of Charles X. and Charles XI. Baron Dahlberg died not long after this
+memorable event. It was June 27, 1701. The Swedish infantry was carried
+across in prams, the cavalry on fleet-bridges provided with wooden
+walls on hinges, which, when erect, were a protection against the fire
+of the enemy, and, when let down, formed gangways for the landing.
+In front of all boats loaded with hay and straw were sent out, which
+were ignited, sending a thick, disagreeable smoke in the face of the
+enemy. The artillery in the prams kept up a disastrous fire. Charles
+XII. was one of the first to land, and opened the attack when only half
+of his infantry had reached the shore. The Russians soon scattered in
+wild flight. The Saxons withstood three powerful attacks, but at last
+followed the bad example set by their allies. The battle was fought and
+won before the Swedish cavalry had reached the shore. The bountiful
+provisions of the scattered army were captured. The crossing of the
+Dvina was executed under the direction of Charles Magnus Stuart and
+Count Magnus Stenbock.
+
+The victories of the young hero king and his valiant soldiers aroused
+the admiration of all Europe, and much sympathy was expressed for
+Sweden, who had so successfully warded off a deceitful and unjust
+attack. Charles XII. received offers of peace from his enemies, but he
+did not accept them. He did not believe that his treacherous neighbors
+would keep their promises, and he was no doubt right. He ought to have
+crushed Russia first, but his victory over Czar Peter had been too
+easily acquired to make him realize the genius, power and resources
+of this semi-barbarous enemy. Charles considered King August a more
+formidable opponent, which was a mistake; but his suspicion that the
+latter would attack him from behind if he entered Russia would probably
+have proved to be well founded had circumstances permitted. So Charles
+invaded Poland, resolved to gain by the interior conflict which was
+disturbing the peace of that country. He wanted to dethrone August and
+select a prince who would keep faith with Sweden.
+
+The Polish empire had not taken any active part in the war against
+Sweden, but Charles XII. demanded that the Poles should prove their
+good faith by dethroning August and by choosing a native king. When
+they refused, he let his army enter Poland. For four years King Charles
+remained there, marching from one part of the country to the other.
+He conquered the Polish capitals of Warsaw and Cracow, and several
+other fortified places, winning over a considerable group within the
+nobility. In 1704 the Diet of Warsaw was called, at which the Polish
+nobles, in the presence of Swedish troops under the command of Count
+Arvid Horn, were compelled to deprive August of his crown and elect a
+new king according to the instructions of King Charles. The new king
+chosen was the noble, but incapable Stanislav Leczinski, who belonged
+to an aristocratic family of little influence and few connections. He
+was an upright and highly educated man, but lacked energy. King August
+was not willing to abdicate, for which reason King Charles pursued him
+into his hereditary land. The line of march to Saxony went through
+Silesia, a neutral country belonging to the empire of Austria. As the
+army of August had been allowed to pass this country, Charles argued
+that the same right must be granted him and his troops. At the river
+Oder, Charles was met by a number of persecuted Protestants, who,
+kneeling and weeping, prayed for his assistance in pleading their cause
+before the emperor. Charles promised them to do so, and kept his word.
+
+The Swedish army entered Saxony in the year 1706. The inhabitants, who
+had in a clear memory the acts of recklessness and cruelty committed
+by the troops of John Banér, fled for their lives, taking along all
+the property that could be moved. To their great surprise, they saw
+the Swedes encamp themselves as quietly as in time of serenest peace.
+No violence was committed. Nothing was taken, except in exchange for
+money. But a heavy war tax was imposed, which made both August and his
+people inclined to seek an early end of the war.
+
+Thanks to the means raised in this manner, the Swedish army was
+provided with an entirely new outfit of clothes and furnished with
+necessary provisions. Every regiment established a savings bank of
+its own, in which the soldiers deposited their earnings. The castle
+of Alt-Ranstædt was the headquarters of Charles XII., situated close
+by the memorable battlefield of Lutzen. The sojourn of Charles XII.
+in Saxony was an incident of universal importance to the history of
+Europe. He had with his soldiers approached the scene of a conflict
+which was shaking the whole of Western and Southern Europe. The
+situation was such that it for the moment hung at the point of the
+victorious sword of Charles XII. The great question was whether he was
+resolved to take an active part in the universal conflict. Charles
+was besieged at his headquarters by princes, warriors and statesmen,
+who came to pay their respects, desirous of winning his favor and of
+getting an idea of his plans. The Swedish invasion of Saxony was highly
+beneficial to the interests of France, and Louis XIV. was the first
+to admit it, anxious to make the stay of Charles as long as possible,
+because it had caused a standstill in the hostilities against France.
+The Duke of Marlborough was among the visitors of Charles XII. He
+brought a letter of courtesy from Queen Anne, who wrote that the letter
+“came not from her chancery but from her heart, and was written by her
+own hand.” She longed to meet the famous king personally. The duke’s
+errand was to find out whether Charles was to join the fighting forces
+of Western Europe or to attack Russia. He was glad to learn that the
+latter move was the one which the king had in mind. Although the two
+great warriors expressed mutual admiration, neither was sympathetically
+impressed by the other. Charles XII. thought Marlborough looked “too
+fine” for a soldier, while the latter thought the rude simplicity of
+the king an affectation by which to obtain notoriety. On account of
+the great influx of distinguished visitors, the style of living was
+quite different at the royal headquarters of Alt-Ranstædt to what
+it was during the Polish and Russian wars. But the king kept up the
+heavy military drills and long individual expeditions on horseback,
+which he thought indispensable. One of the first ones of the latter
+which he undertook was to visit the battlefield of Lutzen. The king
+remembered distinctly all that he had read about the famous battle, and
+made clear to his generals the various positions of the two armies. At
+Schwedenstein, the place where Gustavus Adolphus fell, he lingered for
+a long while in silence. At last he said: “I always have tried to live
+as he did. May God grant me the grace of dying in like manner.”
+
+King August was satisfied to conclude a treaty of peace, which was
+signed at Alt-Ranstædt. He renounced the crown of Poland and recognized
+Stanislav Leczinski as the legitimate king. August turned over John
+Reinhold Patkul, a Livonian traitor, who during the reign of Charles
+XI. had made himself disagreeably conspicuous, and who had been
+intriguing against Sweden ever since. Charles XII. was, in gentleness
+and justice, far in advance of his contemporaries, but he made an
+exception to his ordinary course of clemency in the case of Patkul,
+who was executed according to the cruel practice of the time. When the
+Swedish army left their camp, after peace was made, the regiments were
+for many miles followed by the grateful inhabitants, who, with tears in
+their eyes, gave evidence of their friendship. The reason was that the
+good-natured soldiers of the regular army had followed the habits of
+their country in assisting their temporary hosts in their various rural
+pursuits. The Swedes were greeted by the people of Silesia with great
+enthusiasm, out of gratitude for the improved conditions which the
+emperor had granted them, at the request of the king. Charles XII. thus
+made good, in a measure, the acts of violence committed by the Swedish
+army during the Thirty Years’ War, and proved that he had at heart the
+cause of religious liberty.
+
+Czar Peter was now to be punished, when it was too late. The Russians
+had invaded the Baltic provinces and captured the fortress of Nœteborg,
+which Czar Peter gave the new and significant name of Schluesselburg.
+The new Russian capital of St. Petersburg, with formidable fortresses,
+was founded in 1703. The laborers were carried away by force from
+the various parts of the immense empire. They died in great numbers
+of prostration and of fevers, the Swedes also doing their best to
+impede the progress of the work. The vacancies were rapidly filled by
+new multitudes. While the Swedish king was fighting in Poland, the
+provinces of Ingermanland, Esthonia and Livonia were overrun by the
+Russians, who devastated the country with acts of cruelty. Dorpat was
+captured and Narva fell after a bloody conflict, being bravely defended
+by Rudolph Horn. The Russians destroyed the Swedish navy of the Lake
+Peipus and penetrated to the province of Courland where Charles XII.
+had left a considerable detachment of troops. The plan of Czar Peter
+to conquer Courland and cut off Charles from the connections with his
+empire was frustrated by General Adam Louis Lewenhaupt.[4] He met a
+formidable Russian force, several times as numerous as his own, at
+Gemauerthof, near Mitau, which he routed, in 1705.
+
+Sweden stood alone in her struggle with Russia. The old alliance with
+England and Holland was no longer in existence. The continental powers
+were too busily engaged in the West to assist in checking the rising
+power of the Eastern giant. For the limited resources of Sweden he was
+too big already. Charles XII. had with him a stately and well-equipped
+army of 44,000, which, by contemporary authors, was pronounced to
+have consisted of the finest soldiers of the world. Charles was to
+attack Russia from Poland, for the devastated Baltic provinces could
+no longer support an army with the necessary provisions. General
+Lewenhaupt was to join him from Livonia with an army of 12,000 men and
+ample provisions. Another Swedish commander, General Lybecker, was to
+attack and destroy St. Petersburg, with an army of the same size, from
+his headquarters in Finland. The total of Swedish troops distributed
+in various directions amounted to 100,000, the largest regular army
+Sweden ever had put up. Charles had concluded to engage semi-barbarous
+allies in a battle against a semi-barbarous enemy. In 1707 he entered
+into an alliance with Turkey, and, about the same time, another with
+Mazeppa, an old ambitious Cossack leader who wanted to establish his
+supremacy over the steppes of Russia. The plans of Charles XII. for the
+invasion of Russia have often been severely criticised, but competent
+judges of our day have declared that they were not only elaborate but
+highly ingenious. They miscarried on account of arrangements which
+could not be made according to expectations, and on account of Czar
+Peter’s practice of laying bare and waste the parts of his own country
+through which the invaders were to pass. Furthermore, Charles had sent
+home to Sweden several of his best generals, such as Arvid Horn and
+Magnus Stenbock. This was done after the successes in Poland, and was
+a good thing in itself, for the men mentioned were exactly those who
+were destined to save the very existence and honor of a country which
+was deprived of its political grandeur through the heedlessness of
+King Charles. But without them he was surrounded by inexperienced men
+only. Charles Gustavus Rehnskiold was the most conspicuous of these, a
+valiant but reckless man, who only understood certain details of the
+elaborate expedition.
+
+When the Swedes were approaching Russian territory, Czar Peter made
+offers of peace which the French ambassador urged Charles to accept.
+Charles answered: “He does not mean it. He wishes the world to believe
+that he wants peace and I war.” Czar Peter had organized his army
+through a wonderful exertion of energy, built new fortresses and
+strengthened the old ones, enforced discipline and gathered ammunition.
+Able officers had been trained in the repeated conflicts with the
+Swedes. These took the lead of the army movements.
+
+Charles left Poland with somewhat more than 30,000 men, entering
+Lithuania and chasing the Russians before him. A last great victory
+was won by Charles XII. at Holovzin in Lithuania, in 1708. The Swedish
+army crossed the Dniepr and marched to Mohilev. Charles lingered in
+this place for a month, anxiously awaiting the arrival of General
+Lewenhaupt. The latter remained in Livonia during all this time, the
+letter ordering him to join the central army not reaching him in due
+time. The march was continued toward Smolensk, but King Charles thought
+that he could only reach Moscow over that route with the greatest
+difficulty, and changed his course, marching toward the Ukraine to
+join Mazeppa and the Tartars. Mazeppa had been vexed by the long
+delay, and was, besides, not able to gather the forces which he had
+promised. Czar Peter captured his stronghold, and Mazeppa reached the
+Swedish army more like a fugitive than an ally. The expedition of
+General Lybecker against St. Petersburg proved a failure. Lewenhaupt,
+who had at last received his order, moved into Russia. At Liesna he
+met a hostile army considerably larger than his own. After a fierce
+battle, which involved a great loss of life, Lewenhaupt broke through
+the Russian lines. He had been forced to destroy the great amount of
+provisions which he had gathered, and reached the army of King Charles
+in a very different state than was anticipated. The king found himself
+in a difficult position, being cut off from all connections with his
+country and in want of provisions.
+
+The battle of Pultowa, which was fought June 28, 1709, decided for
+centuries the contest over the political supremacy of Northern Europe.
+Charles XII., with his army, which had been reduced to 18,000 men,
+laid siege to the important town of Pultowa, by the river Vorskla.
+The Russian army, 50,000 strong, under the command of Czar Peter,
+hastened toward the enemy. The fear of the terrible Swedes was as
+yet so strong in them that they did not risk an attack, but built a
+strongly fortified camp. King Charles, with his army in distress,
+further reduced to only 12,000 men, and in want even of ammunition,
+saw no other way than to fight. He was himself wounded in the foot
+and unable to take command in person. General Rehnskiold, who led the
+cavalry, acted as general commander during the battle, which position
+he was not able to fill; Lewenhaupt commanded the right wing with
+decided success. He forced the enemy to abandon three of its seven
+forts, and saw it once inclined to leave in flight. The left wing of
+the Swedish army was brought into disorder and receded. King Charles,
+who suffered greatly from his wounded foot, was carried on a litter
+between the lines, encouraging his soldiers and dealing out new orders.
+The litter was soon shattered, and the horse which the king mounted was
+shot under him. He saved himself by accepting the horse of one of his
+officers. Rehnskiold, who appeared nervous and confused, offered only
+a lame assistance with the cavalry. While riding back and forth in his
+heedless anxiety to be useful, without obtaining his object, he rode
+into the Russian lines and was made a prisoner. The same fate befell
+Count Piper, the aged adviser of King Charles. Lewenhaupt kept up his
+heroic struggle on the right wing, but his forces were greatly reduced
+by the fire of the Russian artillery. The Swedes had lost the battle.
+Their infantry had especially suffered great losses. A great number of
+the ablest officers were killed or made prisoners. As an illustration
+may be quoted the fact that among the killed were twenty-two officers
+of the Wrangel family. The Russians made no fierce pursuit, and the
+remnants of the Swedish army were given time to recede to the shore
+of the Dniepr where this river is joined by the Vorskla. The change
+of route toward the Ukraine had been made contrary to the advice of
+Count Piper; the march to the Dniepr was made contrary to that of Count
+Lewenhaupt. The Swedish troops were in fact shut in between the mighty
+rivers, which they lacked the means to cross, and the surrounding
+mountains, lined with Russian artillery. Charles was unwilling to leave
+his army, but Lewenhaupt persuaded him to save his life. Mazeppa had
+crossed the Dniepr with his troops. Charles followed in the night
+of July 1st with 1,000 of his men. With 500 Swedes Charles reached
+the Turkish town of Bender, where he was at first resolved to remain
+only until his wound was healed. Lewenhaupt, who now was in command,
+surrendered to the Russians the following morning, with all the rest of
+the army. This course was inevitable; another battle would only have
+caused new and useless sacrifices of human lives.
+
+A sad fate awaited the Swedes in Russian captivity. Only a few saw
+their homes again, after years of suffering. Rehnskiold was among
+these. The majority, like Lewenhaupt and Piper, died in captivity.
+Considerable information about the experiences of the Swedish prisoners
+in Russia is found in their memoirs and note-books, preserved to
+this day. It appears that the treatment which they received varied
+greatly, according to circumstances. Czar Peter wished to keep the
+Swedish captives in the country as long as possible, with the object
+of favorably influencing his barbarous subjects by their superior
+abilities and culture. He had commanded clemency in their treatment;
+but his orders must have been disobeyed, for many Swedish soldiers
+are known to have perished in the sulphur mines. In Tobolsk and other
+towns of Siberia, Swedish majors and captains were in great numbers
+occupied in the humble pursuits of teachers, barbers, tailors, painters
+and blacksmiths. Some kept shops and others made articles of the
+Swedish sloyd, in which there was no competition in the market. The
+pastimes were music and theatricals. There were, among these thousands
+of prisoners, 9 generals, 17 colonels, 27 lieutenant-colonels, 38
+majors, 494 captains, 975 lieutenants, 67 ministers of the Gospel,
+etc. A good many of these were Swedish subjects of German descent,
+or foreigners in Swedish service. The prisoners tried their best to
+make it as pleasant for themselves as possible. They formed a little
+community of their own in Moscow, with Piper and Rehnskiold as their
+highest officials. Georg Nordberg, pastor of the body-guards, was made
+the president of a chapter-house, which held church conferences, issued
+texts for special services, examined and consecrated ministers. Czar
+Peter tried to attract some of the ablest officers to him by promises
+of liberty and remunerative positions. Many of the captives, seeing
+no prospect of freedom, decided to remain in the country, entered the
+Greek church and married Russian women. Some who could not endure
+captivity made a revolt at Kasan, killing the armed troops, and making
+an attempt to reach their own beloved country. The plot was frustrated
+and was of sinister consequences, for the Swedish captives commenced
+from that time, 1711, to be transported to Siberia in great numbers.
+This was only to move the important work of civilization eastward. The
+captives, instead of succumbing to the severe climate, unfolded the
+great energy of their race, cheerfully accommodating their lives to
+the new requirements and devoting their time to travels for scientific
+research, or mercantile purposes, in Russian service, or on their
+own responsibility. They made accounts and maps of undiscovered and
+unexplored parts of Siberia, gathering results which have been of great
+importance to later explorers, geologists and ethnographers. Principal
+among these scientists are Philip John von Strahlenberg, whose great
+book on Siberia was published in Leipsic in 1730, and John Anton Matérn
+and Peter Schœnstrœm, his collaborators; John Gustavus Renat, made a
+prisoner by the Kalmucks, whom he taught the secrets of manufacturing
+cannon and bombs, and of printing books with movable types; Lorenz
+Lange, who was secretary of several Russian embassies to the imperial
+court of China, about which country he has given valuable information;
+John B. Muller, John Schnitscher and Ambjœrn Molin. Tobolsk was the
+centre of the Swedish colonies in Siberia, where a peculiar sect
+grew up among those of deep religious sentiment. A sectarian school,
+with more than 100 pupils, was established, and the German pietist,
+Aug. Herrman Francke, for some time supported the movement. Governor
+Gagarin, who wanted to make himself ruling sovereign of Siberia,
+arranged a formidable conspiracy. It was discovered, the governor was
+hanged, and the Swedish captives who were involved in it were sent
+still further away to Nerschinsk.
+
+If Charles XII., up to the date of the terrible battle of Pultowa,
+has deserved our sympathy, in spite of his faults and mistakes, it is
+impossible to look upon him in the same charitable light for the rest
+of his career. The great defeat and the loss of his army he described
+in letters to his sister, Ulrica Eleonore, and the state council, as
+small misfortunes, without consequence, which he was soon to repair.
+Instead of trying his utmost to obtain peace on the best possible
+conditions for his poor country, and instead of saving his unhappy army
+from the miseries of captivity, he made plans for new campaigns and
+demands for a new army. Czar Peter expressed more correct views of the
+situation. A few hours after the battle of Pultowa he wrote to Admiral
+Apraxin: “Now rests at last secure our city on the Neva.” And he was
+right. The period of the political grandeur of Sweden was at an end.
+
+Great was the renowned heroism of Charles XII. and his warriors. Still
+greater, although less renowned, the heroism with which his poor and
+neglected country suffered the disasters which these glorious deeds
+brought upon it. The regular troops of the army created by Charles
+XI. had not been sufficient. New regiments were, one after the other,
+created by means of increased taxes and repeated enlistments, until
+it appeared as if the whole male population was to be sent out in the
+endless wars, to be killed or imprisoned, and the distressed country
+doomed to inevitable destruction. Plague, hunger and emigration
+threatened to make away with those spared from military service. Swedes
+of the nineteenth century have difficulty in apprehending how the
+country was able to endure such terrible hardships.
+
+The consequences of the defeat at Pultowa soon became manifest. The
+enemies of Sweden had formed a better idea of the resources of the
+country than had its own ruler, and were resolved to profit by it.
+King August at once declared the treaty of Alt-Ranstædt to be null
+and void, and entered Poland, where he in a short time recovered
+his lost authority. Stanislav fled and sought a refuge on Swedish
+territory. King Charles later gave him his little hereditary land
+of Palatinate-Zweibrucken. King Frederic of Denmark declared war
+upon untenable grounds and had an army of 16,000 men invade Scania.
+Helsingborg was captured without difficulty. Great consternation was
+caused by this assault upon the unhappy and apparently defenceless
+country. The state council was brought to despair. The situation was
+saved by Count Magnus Stenbock, the able general. After having served
+as quartermaster-general of the Swedish army in Poland, he was sent
+back to Sweden, being governor-general of Scania at the time when this
+province was invaded. He had not with him the necessary troops to meet
+the enemy, but left for Smaland, where he gathered an army of peasants,
+chiefly consisting of inexperienced but sturdy youths in wooden shoes
+and coats of goatskins. From Vexio, where he had met his new mustered
+troops, Stenbock returned to Scania, in February, 1710, obtaining the
+reinforcements of a few additional regiments, which swelled his army
+to the number of 14,000 men. The well-equipped Danish force, which,
+after an expedition into Bleking, returned to Scania, made a good deal
+of fun of the “Stenbuk og hands Gededrenge” (the mountain buck and his
+goatherds). Governor Stenbock understood how to gain the confidence and
+rouse the patriotism of his “goatherds.” He was soon sufficiently sure
+of their ability to risk a battle, which was fought at Helsingborg,
+February 28, 1710. The Danes, commanded by George Rantzau, were routed,
+and sought a refuge behind the walls of the town. The Danish losses
+were 4,000 killed and wounded and 3,000 prisoners, with their camp,
+artillery and baggage. A few days later the Danes evacuated Scania,
+returning to Seeland. The victory of Helsingborg was the most glorious
+of the battles fought by Magnus Stenbock. It saved Sweden in the hour
+of direst distress, rekindling the hope which the battle of Pultowa had
+extinguished. It was the last time in Swedish history that the Danes
+entered Scania as enemies.
+
+The victory at Helsingborg was only one bright star in a night of
+darkness. In the Baltic provinces the disasters followed close upon
+each other. Count Nils Stromberg, the governor-general of Livonia,
+was forced to surrender the town of Riga, July 1, 1710, after having
+fought the Russians for months with great bravery. The enemies which
+forced the able Stromberg to give up his cause were hunger and
+plagues. Not less than 40,000 Russians had lost their lives outside the
+walls of Riga. Within a few months Duenamuende, Pernau and Reval also
+surrendered. This made complete the Russian conquest of the Swedish
+empire in the Baltic provinces. The operations against Finland, begun
+earlier, were continued with success. The town and fortress of Viborg,
+which never had been occupied by foreign troops, were captured in June,
+and Kexholm in September. The country was unmercifully devastated, in
+spite of solemn promises to the contrary.
+
+That under such circumstances discontent against the absolute ruler
+was fostered seems only natural. During the first few years of the
+Carolinian campaign the noise of the great victories was stronger than
+the voices of discontent and complaint. When the glorious battles were
+not followed by treaties of peace, the grumbling voices grew louder.
+The king was at first not the object of the growing discontent, but
+the state council, which was considered to make greater demands than
+were necessary. The king was supposed to fight for a righteous cause
+against treacherous enemies, but the truth dawned on a good many that
+a government invested with absolute power was the cause of the misery.
+The battle of Pultowa brought to a mature state the thoughts of a
+change in the constitution, thoughts which for years had occupied the
+ablest men of the country. The double government was to a great extent
+responsible for the bad state of affairs. The king tried to rule with
+absolute power from his headquarters in Saxony, Poland and the Ukraine,
+with Piper as his adviser. At home the state council held the reins of
+government and sometimes acted in direct opposition to the instructions
+or intentions of the king. Charles XII. was very jealous of his power,
+and the state council, foremost in which were a few men of the very
+highest ability, like Count Arvid Horn, was on this account sometimes
+unable to carry out its best endeavors. Charles by his methods brought
+confusion and uncertainty into the deliberations and acts of the
+government, injuring the commonwealth and the principles of an absolute
+monarchy as well. The king was not able to supervise the details of his
+administration, and unrighteous officers profited thereby, by their
+unlawful collections of taxes, causing open revolts of the suffering
+population in various parts of the country.
+
+The state council took no pains to hide the truth from the king, rather
+using strong colors in their descriptions of the critical condition
+in order to obtain the much-sought-for and needed peace, or at least
+the gratification of seeing the armies of the country used exclusively
+for the defence of its own possessions. King Charles considered the
+members of the state council as a body of weaklings, cowards and fools,
+who painted the devil on the wall because they lacked the courage
+and endurance to await the final and infallible triumph of his royal
+arms in a righteous cause. The climax was reached after the arrival
+of Charles at Bender. The state council commenced to negotiate for
+peace on its own responsibility. It also convoked a committee of the
+Estates of the Riksdag to a meeting for deliberations on measures
+which would better the hopeless conditions of the state and people.
+King Charles learned of it and sent from Bender a remarkable order, in
+which he absolutely forbade such meetings, “especially because the last
+convention of the Estates,” he wrote, “had no other consequence than to
+let them still plainer discover their impoverished condition.”
+
+King Charles lingered in Bender, fascinated by the plans made by
+several Turkish princes of an armed support against his enemies, or
+at least an escort of troops for his return through Poland. The king
+succeeded in his efforts to force the sultan of Turkey to an attack on
+Russia. The Turks, 200,000 strong, made an invasion, according to plans
+drawn up by Charles, and were successful in completely surrounding a
+Russian army, commanded by Czar Peter in person, at the shores of the
+river Pruth. The czar saved himself by a supreme effort, sacrificing
+all his gold and the jewels of the czarina as bribes to the grand
+vizier, who commanded the Turkish army. This dignitary let the Russians
+escape, thus spoiling the plans of the whole campaign. To Charles it
+was a great disappointment. His hope to see the Russian giant crushed,
+and the defeat at Pultowa avenged, was gone forever. His plan of
+reaching Poland with Turkish troops to join Stenbock and a Swedish army
+was shaken with the loss of confidence in his barbarous allies. The
+perfidious grand vizier was punished, but the agreement of peace which
+he had made with the czar was sanctioned by the sultan, in 1711.
+
+The Swedish state council was quite reluctant to obey the repeated
+orders of the king for a new army, hesitating to impose new burdens
+upon the suffering people. The king grew impatient and there was no
+escape possible. Magnus Stenbock, the most popular man in all Sweden,
+set an example of personal sacrifices which was followed by many
+others, and a new army of 9,000 men was at last equipped with a navy to
+carry it across the Baltic to Pomerania. Stenbock landed in the island
+of Rugen, in September, 1712, and increased his army to 14,000. He
+abandoned the idea to march toward Poland because the king remained at
+Bender, and entered Mecklenburg after having skilfully avoided meeting
+a superior force of Russian and Saxon troops, which followed him at a
+distance. Negotiations of peace had been commenced before the arrival
+of Stenbock, between the dethroned Stanislav of Poland, who was then in
+Pomerania, and King August. This caused a standstill in the operations,
+an armistice of a fortnight having been agreed to, with a prospect of
+renewal. The Danes made an end to it, entering Mecklenburg in December.
+When the armistice was at an end, Stenbock hastened with his troops
+to Gadebusch, where the Danish army was encamped, by this rapid move
+preventing the latter from joining the Russian and Saxon forces. Only a
+detachment of Saxon cavalry had succeeded in reaching the Danish camp.
+The battle of Gadebusch was fought December 9, 1712, and was the last
+of the great victories on land that a Swedish army ever won on the
+Continent. The Danes were crushingly defeated, and their allies found
+it safest to return to their former fortified positions. The Swedish
+artillery, commanded by Charles Cronstedt, distinguished itself in
+this battle against an enemy of superior strength. But Stenbock could
+not for any length of time keep up the struggle against the armies of
+three countries, not receiving any support from Sweden, nor sufficient
+provisions in Mecklenburg. When the Danes burned the town of Stade,
+Stenbock in revenge burned Altona, toward the end of the year. His
+army was reduced for lack of provisions, and Stenbock saw no other
+course to take than to shut himself up with his troops in the fortress
+of Tœnning, in the possession of the young duke of Holstein-Gottorp.
+Stenbock persevered in his hopes for support from Sweden, or friendly
+powers, in vain. Efforts were made in Sweden to send him troops and
+provisions, but did not prove successful. When death from starvation
+was impending, the valiant general concluded to surrender. May 6, 1713,
+it was agreed that Stenbock and his army of 11,000 men should become
+Danish prisoners, but that they should be exchanged at the earliest
+opportunity. King Frederic IV. of Denmark dishonestly neglected to
+fulfil this agreement, repeatedly and flatly refusing to exchange
+any of the prisoners. The hero of the victories at Helsingborg and
+Gadebusch at first received a tolerably good treatment in Danish
+captivity, which later was changed in a horrible manner. After years
+of cruel suffering, he died in a miserable dungeon, in 1717, one year
+prior to the death of Charles XII. This great descendant of Eric
+Stenbock and Magdalen Sture tried to kill the time of his captivity by
+carving in ivory, some articles of exquisite design by his hand still
+being preserved.
+
+At the surrender of Tœnning, Sweden lost her last army and her ablest
+general. Her king dwelt among the Turks in circumstances fraught with
+increasing dangers, and her enemies on every side stood ready for
+attack, the country being a prey to discontent and despair. Still her
+measure of misery and contumely was not filled.
+
+Charles XII. persevered in his strange sojourn at Bender, being
+a guest who caused the sultan continual worry through his great
+political influence. The king was resolved to leave Turkey only in one
+manner, and that was escorted by a Turkish force. He was successful
+in persuading the sultan to declare war on Russia once more, but
+Czar Peter hastened to make so many concessions that peace was made
+before any campaign was begun. King Frederic of Prussia offered
+Charles an alliance on the condition that he should at once return
+to Sweden. Charles seemed at last inclined to do so, but then a
+conspiracy was brought to his notice, disclosing a plan by which the
+perfidious Turkish princes of his intended escort were to deliver
+him into the hands of King August of Poland. King Charles refused to
+leave Poland, and the conspirators effected an order from the sultan
+to attack Charles with an army of 10,000 men, and bring him, dead
+or alive, to Adrianople. The order was executed February 11, 1713,
+Charles defending himself with his few hundred Swedes and some Poles
+of his escort against the overwhelming force of Turks and Tartars. The
+house of the king, near Bender, had been strongly fortified for the
+occasion. When the trenches were taken most of his men surrendered,
+but Charles remained with fifty Swedes in the house, which was built
+of wood, warding off the attack and putting the enemy to flight with
+a heroism vividly recalling the tales of the ancient Sagas. The Turks
+returned toward evening and ignited the building. The Swedes valiantly
+continued their struggle, fighting with their swords against the Turks,
+surrounded by heavy fire and by the smoke of the burning building. The
+king at last was forced to leave the house and tried to make his way
+to the neighboring chancery building, which was of stone and better
+fit to withstand an attack. Charles stumbled and fell, and was at once
+made prisoner, together with his followers. This peculiar incident,
+which has been called the Kalabalik, or Popular Tumult, of Bender,
+aroused universal surprise and dislike. Charles was conducted to a
+Turkish pasha, who treated him with respect. He was under supervision
+first at the town of Demotika, later at the palace of Timurtasz, both
+in the vicinity of Adrianople. Charles considered it incompatible
+with his royal dignity to call on the grand vizier. For this reason
+it was given out that he was ill, and in his miraculous stubbornness
+he persevered in keeping his bed for a whole year! During all this
+time, Charles followed up his policy of governing Sweden from afar
+with absolute despotism. He prepared new rules for the chancery,
+attempting to change the form of administration from one of faculties,
+or colleges, to one of departments, or bureaus. He made negotiations
+of peace in the same spirit as of yore, viz., without being willing
+to make any concessions, and planned new campaigns. For recreation he
+played chess and listened to music.
+
+In Sweden the peculiar Turkish adventures of Charles XII. were not
+understood or appreciated, and the country seemed forsaken by all,
+even by the king, who by many was thought to be insane. The state
+council saw no possibility of maintaining a government without the
+consent and goodwill of the people. Plans for a new constitution,
+a reduction of the royal power and a peace at any cost were in the
+air. Princess Ulrica Eleonore was called as a member of the state
+council and a Riksdag was convoked, to meet toward the end of 1713.
+The Estates declared that they were, in case of necessity, ready to
+seek peace under the auspices of the princess and the state council,
+and were in favor of appointing the princess to the regency. Arvid
+Horn, the leading spirit of the state council, used the utmost of his
+influence in keeping the Riksdag from the revolutionary acts which
+would be involved in making Ulrica Eleonore regent, but he saw to it
+that the declaration of the Riksdag, of intended peace-making through
+the princess and state council, was communicated to the king. Hans
+Henric von Liewen, one of the state councillors, was selected to
+carry this communication to the king, together with letters from the
+queen-dowager and the state council. Count Liewen gave a full and true
+account to the king, telling him in plain words that if he did not
+return home without delay his kingdom would be lost to him.
+
+King Charles at last decided to return to his country. He sent an
+embassy of seventy-two people to officially announce his departure to
+the sultan at Constantinople, made a loan of a considerable sum of
+money, and left Demotika with a large escort. In Wallachia he left the
+Turks behind, and continued on his way through Hungary and Germany,
+followed by two Swedish officers. The emperor of Germany, who was
+desirous of winning over the Swedish king for his plans, prepared a
+hospitable reception, but Charles passed Vienna _incognito_ as Captain
+Peter Frisk. He rode on, through night and day, taking care of his own
+horse and never changing his clothes. Charles arrived at the gate of
+Stralsund, in Swedish Pomerania, in the night of November 11, 1714,
+accompanied by one officer. In a fortnight he had, on horseback,
+traversed a stretch of 1,300 miles.
+
+The situation at the arrival of Charles XII. in Stralsund was beset
+with new dangers and complications. Prussia had ceased to be friendly
+and was planning to seize the Swedish possessions in Germany. Hanover,
+united with England under the same ruler, had the same ambition. The
+dilapidated fortifications of Stralsund were attacked by Saxons and
+Danes, commanded by their respective kings, August and Frederic. For
+more than a year, Charles, with admirable heroism, withstood the siege.
+Once, while the king was dictating a letter to a secretary, the latter
+sprang to his feet in consternation, a bomb having shattered the roof
+of the building. “The bomb, your majesty, the bomb!” exclaimed the
+scribe. Charles answered: “What connection is there between the bomb
+and my letter?” quietly continuing his dictation. The king found it
+at last impossible to keep up the defence of Stralsund, leaving it a
+stormy December night, and arriving safely in the town of Trelleborg,
+on the southernmost point of Sweden, December 15, 1715.
+
+What a different country that Sweden was which Charles XII. left in
+August, 1699, at the very summit of her political grandeur, to the
+impoverished and suffering Sweden in which he had now landed! And
+what a different man he had himself become during these sixteen years
+of absence! Sweden had won a new hero king, of greater fame than any
+of his predecessors or successors, but lost her prosperity for the
+time being and her political grandeur forever. The people received
+the king with demonstrations of joy and with reviving hope for an
+honorable peace. The state council and the intelligent few received
+him with badly concealed hopelessness and indifference. They knew that
+although the young ambitious king had changed to a world-famous hero,
+prematurely aged in victory and defeat, the unyielding stubbornness and
+the never satiated desire for glory had remained unchanged in Charles
+XII. Charles was met by a message from the dying queen-dowager, his
+grandmother, with an ardent prayer for peace. Charles answered to hopes
+and prayers, to silent indifference and despair, with a command of
+more money and more troops! He wanted peace, but as he spoke in the
+same terms as when he was the victorious commander of an apparently
+invincible army, nobody cared to consider his demands in earnest. The
+absolute power reached its last stage of development, a military
+despotism which had no other policy than war, no other administration
+than the one requisite to maintain and provide the requirements of war.
+The state council fell in deepest disgrace, and its functions ceased,
+in 1715.
+
+During the last years of his reign, Charles XII. took no advice of
+Swedish men. Foreign adventurers and schemers were in charge of the
+affairs of state, principal among whom was Baron George Henric Gœrtz.
+This man was a minister of state of the young duke of Holstein-Gottorp,
+in whose service he remained, and in whose interests, as a successor
+to Charles XII. on the throne of Sweden, he zealously worked, while
+developing into the all-powerful minister of the Swedish king. Charles
+granted him authority to act in his name in almost every branch of
+the government, interior as well as foreign. Gœrtz was a genius, but
+utterly reckless. For his acts the king was responsible, not he.
+Gœrtz was a foreigner and working for the cause of a foreign master.
+He tried to obtain loans abroad, made compulsory loans within the
+country, placed a tax on articles of luxury, and put in circulation
+coins of copper which were a kind of “promissory notes,” worthless in
+themselves, but each representing a Swedish dollar. At first these
+“coins of need” were issued to the amount of a sensible sum, but were
+soon increased in number at the command of Charles XII. himself, so
+that they represented higher sums than the crown could redeem, and thus
+lost their value. The people refused to take them, while the prices of
+everything in the market rose to an astounding height. The government,
+in order to save itself from this difficulty, took possession of all
+coined money and uncoined silver, and gave the “coins of need” in
+exchange, perpetrating several other scandalous acts of violence
+against the rights of private property.
+
+The situation grew almost insupportable. Commerce and industry, injured
+by the war, ceased entirely because nobody was inclined to sell, only
+to receive in exchange worthless coins. Wars and hard years combined in
+creating misery and distress everywhere. The peasants were recklessly
+treated, and a disregard for moral obligations grew out of the bad
+examples set by the government. The students and scientists had in
+great numbers been carried away by the bloody wars, and the interest
+in the fields of culture was slackened by the power of financial
+depression. The wealthy and well-to-do saw their means daily diminish,
+and, losing their interest in public welfare, they tried to save the
+remnants of their own property. The members of the state council were
+threatened by investigations which Gœrtz and his friends were scheming
+to institute against them. In the nobility, the plans for a change of
+the constitution matured, the leaders in this movement being Count Per
+Ribbing and the old Gyllencreutz, who had prophesied the outcome of an
+absolute monarchial government.
+
+Charles XII., in spite of his all-absorbing passion for war, did not
+lack interest for the pursuits of peace. He encouraged several men
+of genius, of whom two were eminently worthy of distinction; viz.,
+Nicodemus Tessin, Junior, the architect, and Christopher Polhem, the
+engineer.
+
+Nicodemus Tessin was born in Nykœping in 1654. His father and namesake
+belonged to an old Pomeranian family, and had come to Sweden during
+the reign of Queen Christine. Nicodemus Tessin, Senior, was an able
+architect, who built the castle of Drottningholm for Queen-dowager
+Hedvig Eleonore, a moderately gifted but art-loving woman. The latter
+gathered around herself artists and architects at her castle of
+Drottningholm, in Lake Mælar, among whom were Ehrenstrahl, a famous
+artist of German birth, who founded the first school of Swedish
+painters. The younger Tessin belonged to this circle and was, in their
+respective times, in the favor of Charles XI. and Charles XII., acting
+as court architect to both. The work which won for him an immortal fame
+is the royal palace of Stockholm, an architectural creation worthy of
+the admiration of all Europe, and, in Sweden, standing unsurpassed
+to this day. It was planned and commenced by Tessin, but completed
+according to his plans a hundred years after his death. Charles XI.
+ordered a reconstruction of the old castle, which enterprise Tessin
+undertook. Shortly after the death of Charles XI., both the old and
+the reconstructed parts of the palace were burned, and the body of
+the king with difficulty saved from the conflagration. Charles XII.
+ordered Tessin to build an entirely new palace. The work was commenced
+in 1698, but was gradually abandoned during the war times, to cease
+shortly before the battle of Pultowa. Charles was highly interested in
+it and wrote from Turkey to Tessin about his views. Tessin intended
+to decorate the exterior according to the taste of his day, but
+Charles raised opposition, finding the severe beauty of the stern yet
+graceful outlines perfect in themselves. The work on the new palace
+was recommenced after the death of Charles XII. King Adolphus Frederic
+was the first who took up his residence within its walls. Tessin rose
+high on the social ladder. From Turkey, the king made him a count and
+chancellor of the University of Lund; after his return to Sweden he
+appointed him marshal-colonel. Tessin stood in strong opposition to
+Baron Gœrtz, and after the death of King Charles joined the leaders of
+the revolutionary nobles. He was of universal fame.
+
+Christopher Polhem was the first of great Swedish engineers and
+inventors. He was born at the ancient town of Visby, in the island
+of Gothland, in 1661, and was the son of a merchant, who died when
+Christopher was a child. When only twelve years of age he had to make
+his own living. As secretary to a widow of wealth, he early developed
+his genius as a mechanician, building his own shop of carpentry, sloyd,
+etc., making watches and devising smaller inventions. His want of a
+classical education was detrimental to him, and he commenced, when
+twenty-four years of age, to study Latin with various ministers in the
+country, in exchange for works of his genius and handicraft. At last he
+was able to enter the University of Upsala by means of recommendations
+from his last teacher. Soon after his arrival he created considerable
+attention and admiration by a proof of his ingenuity. Behind the
+high altar in the Upsala Cathedral there was a clock of the finest
+workmanship, devised in mediæval times by a monk of the monastery of
+Vadstena. It was out of order, and not for a hundred years had anybody
+attempted to set it right. Polhem undertook to reconstruct the whole
+work, connecting with the main mechanism all the hands which pointed
+out the hours of the day, the eclipses of the moon and the motions
+of the “ruling” planets, according to the system of the astrologers.
+Polhem succeeded in his task, and was allowed to test his invention of
+automatic haulers of ore in the mines. The college of mining, before
+which the invention was successfully demonstrated, accepted it, and
+Charles XI. appointed Polhem a mining engineer. In 1694, Polhem made
+an extensive journey through England and the Continent. In Paris
+he learned that several mathematicians were in vain endeavoring to
+construct a clock which would simultaneously show the time of the day
+in various countries and strike the hours at the same time. Polhem
+announced through the Swedish ambassador in Paris that he was willing
+to solve the problem. He constructed a model which gave universal
+satisfaction. Louis XIV. had a clock made after this model and gave it
+as a gift of honor to the Turkish sultan. Upon his return he proposed
+the founding of a _laboratorium mechanicum_, which in several respects
+served as a pattern for the later technological institutes of Stockholm
+and Gothenburg. The youthful Charles XII. embraced the idea with
+interest, but the promising institution came to a standstill during the
+wars. Among Polhem’s more remarkable inventions was one for the leading
+of water-power, to be used at considerable distances. Charles XII. said
+that a man like Polhem was not to be had for several centuries, and
+that for this reason he ought to be made useful as long as he lived.
+A task of gigantic proportions was intrusted to him--the construction
+of a dock for the navy yards at Carlskrona. The great engineer filled
+it in an admirable way, and was appointed councillor of commerce and
+ennobled under the name of Polhem, his original name having been
+Polhammar, which to modern ears sounds just as fine and a good deal
+more suggestive.
+
+Another gigantic task worthy of the genius of Polhem was the
+construction of a navigable route from the North Sea across the great
+inland seas of Sweden to the Baltic, but he was not allowed to finish
+it. Charles XII. intrusted the work to Polhem, who was to have it
+ready in five years. In 1718, Polhem commenced by forming an immense
+sluice, by means of explosions in the rock at Trollhetta. The great
+waterfalls of said place were to be avoided and the work of completing
+the sluice was begun, when it was all destroyed by unknown enemies,
+who dropped beams and planks in the river above, which carried away
+the dam. The death of King Charles and the impoverished condition of
+the country made it impossible to continue the work on the great canal
+system, which had to wait for more than a century for its ultimate
+completion. With the death of Charles XII. the era of ambitious
+enterprises came to an end; but Polhem was employed in various works
+of mechanic improvements in the interest of agriculture, industry and
+manufactures. Czar Peter of Russia, King George I. of England, and
+several other monarchs made brilliant offers in order to win Polhem
+for their countries. He executed several works and inventions abroad,
+but loved his own country too much to leave it. Polhem exerted a
+great influence in the interest of his science, both by instruction
+and by the publication of technical works. Active to the last, he
+died in 1751. Polhem was a man of a harmonious endowment, amiable
+and dignified, and preserved his plain mode of living throughout his
+brilliant career.
+
+Gœrtz led with superior skill the negotiations for peace, while the
+impoverished country suffered untold miseries as a consequence of his
+unscrupulous financial schemes. He tried to benefit by the sudden but
+lasting enmity between Czar Peter and George I., desiring to gain the
+support of either against the other. The deliberations were held in the
+archipelago of Aland, with Gœrtz as the representative of the Swedish
+government. Czar Peter wanted to keep Ingermanland, Esthonia and
+Livonia, but was ready to cede Finland, which country he occupied, and
+to assist King Charles with troops in an attack on Denmark. Norway was
+to be the compensation for the lost Baltic provinces, and the attack on
+Denmark was to be made from Germany. Charles XII. had no confidence in
+the czar as an ally and had commenced the conquest of Norway directly
+and without his aid. No decision was reached in the negotiations with
+England.
+
+In February, 1716, Charles XII., from Bohuslæn and Vermland, made an
+invasion into Norway, penetrating over the Glom River to Christiania.
+He captured the capital, where he held his headquarters for several
+weeks, but was not able to take the fortress of Akershus, which, with
+its artillery, commanded the city. The Swedish army, 10,000 strong,
+suffered a great deal from want of provisions and through a guerilla
+war, skilfully conducted by the Norwegians. Charles was in danger
+of being surrounded by the enemy, and with difficulty retreated to
+Sweden, over the Strait of Svinesund. The dangers were increased by
+the Norwegian naval hero, Peter Tordenskiold, who, with some Danish
+ships under his command, had destroyed a flotilla of Swedish transport
+vessels. An invasion into Scania by Denmark and her allies was planned
+for the summer, but did not materialize. King Charles took up his
+headquarters at Lund.
+
+The war offered no aspect of interest during the year 1717, except some
+unsuccessful attempts made by Tordenskiold to capture the towns of
+Strœmstad and Gothenburg. Charles prepared another attack on Norway,
+and, by draining the last resources of his country, managed to equip
+an army of 60,000 men. In August, 1718, a smaller army, under the
+command of Charles Gustavus Armfelt, was sent through Jemtland over the
+mountains into the diocese of Drontheim. King Charles, with an army of
+30,000 men, invaded Norway from Bohuslæn, Dal and Vermland, and took
+in possession the country east of the Glom River. Within a few days
+the king laid siege to the fortress of Fredericsten, close by the town
+of Fredricshall. November 27th the fort of Gyldenlœve was captured,
+and the Swedes moved their trenches ever closer to the fortress, which
+seemed doomed to surrender. In the evening of November 30th the king
+was seen in one of the trenches watching the work of his soldiers, and
+leaning against the rampart. He remained there a long time, not heeding
+the appeals of his officers, who grew uneasy on account of the apparent
+danger to his person. Suddenly his head sank down on his breast. A
+bullet from the fortress had reached him, penetrating his temples and
+causing instant death. He met death in the manner he most desired it,
+although not while engaged in battle.
+
+Charles XII. was of an enigmatic character, which attracts, through
+its strength and superiority over his contemporaries, but which
+is repulsive through its tenacity, unyielding sternness and
+inaccessibility to reason or persuasion. His moral greatness has won
+admiration. It had its limitations, but was superior to the standards
+of his time. His ideals were pure and lofty, but, through lack of
+contact with the realities and facts of life, only assumed a tragic
+grandeur, without proving beneficent to mankind. His faults were such
+that his education and experience as an absolute monarch aggravated
+them. Charles XII. was the most remarkable man of his age and one of
+the greatest soldiers that ever lived. He was also a great general,
+although the proper balance between the soldier and the field marshal,
+perhaps, was to some extent lacking. The influence of his personality
+and example had a miraculous effect upon his soldiers. He suffered his
+one great defeat in open battle when wounded, suffering, and not able
+to exert his usual influence to its full extent.
+
+Charles XII. has been idolized by his countrymen of all ages, who
+in him have recognized an impersonation of all their chief national
+virtues, with a few of their national faults, enlarged into the image
+of a patriotic hero of almost supernatural grandeur. The Swedish people
+were forced to accept absolute power as a salvation from the impending
+thraldom of oligarchy. In Charles XII. it saw to what a climax of abuse
+this power could attain, even in hands which were deemed righteous
+and free from stains. With Charles XII. the political grandeur and
+the absolute monarchy of Sweden came to an end, although attempts to
+restore both were to be made. A new phase of her development, with
+new improvements and new evils, commenced with the reign of Ulrica
+Eleonore.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+_Period of Liberty--The Aristocratic Republic_
+
+
+Ulrica Eleonore succeeded her brother Charles XII as the sovereign
+of Sweden. She was proclaimed queen by birthright, and called the
+Riksdag, willing to cede the absolute power. When the Riksdag convened
+a disagreeable surprise met her. The Estates refused to acknowledge
+her right to the crown, stating that both she and her older sister had
+deprived themselves of their rights of succession by marrying without
+the consent of the Estates of the Riksdag. Princess Hedvig Sophie was
+dead, but her son, the young Duke Charles Frederic of Holstein was
+in Sweden, ready to claim the throne. Ulrica Eleonore was compelled
+to yield gracefully. She sent a note to the Riksdag disclaiming her
+hereditary right, but declaring herself willing to accept the crown,
+with restriction of the absolute power. She was at once elected
+queen by the Riksdag of 1719, which then proceeded to pass a new
+constitution. Such a constitution had been formulated in advance by a
+new party, chiefly consisting of nobles, who aimed at introducing a
+royal government, restricted in its power by the state council and the
+Riksdag. They were successful in their efforts, but unfortunately lost
+their ablest leaders at the start, Per Ribbing dying soon after the
+first Riksdag, and Arvid Horn retiring from the government and council
+on account of a conflict with the queen. Thus the new government did
+not open up under favorable auspices. Baron von Gœrtz was captured and
+put to death for high treason without being granted the privilege of
+an appropriate legal defence. The queen overstepped her limit of power
+in being the active force in this illegal execution, anxious to rid
+herself of Gœrtz because he was the ablest man among the supporters
+of Duke Charles Frederic of Holstein. The duke gave up his chances
+and left for Russia, where he married a daughter of Czar Peter. The
+arrangements made to establish order in financial matters were not
+satisfactory. The management of the war with Denmark was miserable. The
+army was recalled from Norway and little done to protect the coast from
+attacks by the Danish fleet under Admiral Tordenskiold. This valiant
+naval hero, of Norwegian birth, who, during the reign of Charles XII.,
+had made unsuccessful attacks on Strœmstad and Gothenburg, through
+cunning captured the strong fortress of Carlsten, but was unable to
+take New Elfsborg. Danckwardt, the commander who surrendered Carlsten,
+was executed by the Swedish government. The Swedish army of 6,000
+men, which had entered the district of Dronthiem by the command of
+Charles XII., perished from hunger and cold when returning through the
+mountains of Jemtland. Only a few hundred survived to tell the terrible
+tale. The Russians sent a fleet to the Swedish shores with 40,000 men,
+and burned, in two expeditions, twelve Swedish towns in the middle
+and northern parts of the country. They avoided open battle, and when
+landing in great numbers were effectively repulsed.
+
+Under such conditions Sweden was anxious for peace. In compensation
+for various sums of money, Bremen and Verden were ceded to Hanover
+in 1719, Pomerania, south of the river Peene, with Stettin, Usedom
+and Wollin to Prussia, in 1720, and Ingermanland, Esthonia, Livonia,
+with Viborg and Kexholm, and surrounding Finnish territory, to Russia,
+in 1721. Denmark had to give up all territory captured from Sweden,
+but received a sum of money in exchange for Carlsten, in 1720. Thus
+the Baltic empire of Sweden was swept away. It had been of importance
+during the time of the German war and for the shielding of new
+conquests in the Scandinavian Peninsula itself. Now its loss was a gain
+for Sweden, as it allowed her to concentrate her attention upon the
+interior development of the country.
+
+The tendency of Ulrica Eleonore to exert more power than was within
+her authority had created dissatisfaction, and when she commenced
+an agitation to have her consort, Prince Frederic of Hesse, share
+the throne with her, the crown was granted him only upon her own
+resignation from the government.
+
+Frederic I. was crowned in 1720 and Ulrica Eleonore retired from
+the government. Frederic left the Reformed and entered the Lutheran
+Church. The crown was to be inherited by his male issues only, in the
+union with Ulrica Eleonore. He showed a tendency for mixing in the
+affairs of state to further his own interests, but soon gave in to his
+easy-tempered, pleasure-loving nature, occupying himself exclusively
+with his hunts and his mistresses.
+
+The real ruler of Sweden, during the first two decades of Frederic’s
+reign, was _Arvid Horn_, one of the greatest of Swedish statesmen.
+His was not the work of building up the government of a strong and
+influential nation, like that of Oxenstierna or Gyllenstierna, nor were
+his their grand, far-reaching views. But his mission was to raise
+from the dust his bleeding, downtrodden country, and to reinstall
+it in the honor and respect, not only of itself but of the world.
+Count Arvid Bernhard Horn was an opportunist, but one of the noblest
+kind, who by means of peace found the only way in which to protect
+and further the financial and cultural development of Sweden. He was
+an able soldier and a skilled diplomatist. The son of an illustrious
+but poor family, of the Finnish nobility, he entered the military
+service after a university course at Abo. He served in foreign armies,
+but was with Charles XII. in Stockholm as the best companion of his
+youth. As the commander of the royal body-guard he took an honorable
+part in the early victories of Charles XII., later being chosen to
+fulfil the delicate task of making the Polish nobles elect Stanislav
+king, in which he was eminently successful. After a short captivity he
+was released and returned to Sweden, where he became a member of the
+state council and president of the state chancery. In this position
+he repeatedly sent letters to Charles XII., in which he described the
+distress of the country, in eloquent words pleading its need of peace.
+Upon his return Charles XII. removed him from office with the other
+councillors, although he was the one who had saved the tottering throne
+for the king. Of this Ulrica Eleonore was aware and was glad to accept
+his resignation; when reinstated in his position he found that he
+could not preserve it with dignity in the face of the irregularities
+committed by the queen. Count Horn was responsible for the exclusion
+of Ulrica Eleonore from the government at King Frederic’s ascendency,
+but the latter was forced to accept Horn in his former position as the
+controlling power of the government. With due reason, the peaceful and
+honorable decades of Frederic’s reign have been named the “Period of
+Arvid Horn.”
+
+The new form of government introduced by Ribbing, Horn and others was
+nothing else than that of an aristocratic republic. The rights of
+the monarch, reduced in 1719, were still further reduced in 1720. He
+had two votes in the state council and a deciding vote in deadlock,
+but besides the authority to appoint councillors from the candidates
+nominated by the Riksdag, and to appoint all higher officials, no
+other rights. The government was in the hands of the state council,
+consisting of sixteen members. The Riksdag decided all questions of
+taxes and legislation, and settled issues of peace and war. Each of the
+four Estates was represented in the committees, except in the “secret
+committee,” for international affairs, to which no yeoman could be
+chosen. Each Estate had its speaker. The president of the chancery was
+the minister of foreign affairs and consulted the secret committee
+on important questions, being the only head of a department who was
+allowed as a member of the state council. The nobility held the balance
+of power, much to the opposition of the lower Estates, who tried, by
+repeated agitation, to invest the king with the authority held by him
+before the days of absolute power. The nobility had done away with its
+three classes, and, with these abandoned, it was the majority, viz.,
+the lower nobility, who were the governing class. The aristocracy tried
+its best to regain the privileges enjoyed during the reign of Queen
+Christine and Charles X., but Horn forced it to be satisfied with
+those granted by Gustavus Adolphus. The power of the higher nobility
+was forever crushed by the loss of their immense possessions. The
+friction between the nobility and the lower Estates of the Riksdag was
+constant, Horn siding with the former, but keeping them all in check.
+
+Arvid Horn led with superior skill and gentleness the management of
+foreign affairs. All influences from the powers and from the restless
+nobles to involve Sweden in a conflict of war were unsuccessful. A
+treaty was never entered into with any one power without another one
+formed with a power of the opposite continental party to counterbalance
+it. Thus England, France and Russia were unable to make Sweden an
+obedient ally, Horn upholding her independence, maintaining peace and
+inspiring respect. Utterly refusing to accept the bribes which were
+freely offered and considered the indispensable means of obtaining
+diplomatic influence in that day, Horn himself distributed bribes
+to gain his patriotic purposes. Horn’s great mistake was to refer
+the decision of foreign affairs in which he was opposed by members
+of the state council to the Riksdag and its secret committee. The
+latter commenced to act independently in important foreign matters. By
+signing an agreement with France, through which Sweden lost its former
+privilege of an independent policy, the committee ultimately caused his
+downfall, in 1738. Arvid Horn then retired, at the age of seventy-two,
+and died a few years later.
+
+During Horn’s peaceful administration the financial conditions
+improved, the state debt was reduced and the peaceful trades and
+industries were furthered. The great deed accomplished was the
+completion of a new state law which was published in 1734 and is in
+force to this very day. Arvid Horn was a perfect type of the great
+Carolin era, of pure and severe morals and modest requirements. In a
+day of increasing scepticism and levity, he ostentatiously preserved
+the rigid religious practices of his youth. He showed unreserved
+indignation at the unworthy and immoral conduct of the king, for
+which reason strained relations existed between them. Count Horn was
+of impressive form and carriage, controlling the quick temper of the
+warrior beneath the smooth and dignified bearing of the statesman.
+
+The decades which followed upon the fall of Arvid Horn were stormy
+ones and full of miseries. The friends of peace were called Caps and
+the warlike party Hats. The latter, now in power, commenced a war
+against Russia, which turned out badly, the Swedes being defeated at
+Vilmanstrand, in 1741, and at Helsingfors, in 1742. The government and
+secret committee felt ashamed of their work and had the poor generals,
+Charles Emil Lewenhaupt and Buddenbrock, executed for their lack of
+martial skill and good fortune. Peace was made with Russia in 1743, the
+towns of Fredericshamn, Vilmanstrand and Nyslott, in Finland, being
+ceded by Sweden, and the river Kymene made the boundary line.
+
+Next the Hats had to face a rebellion. In order to please Elizabeth of
+Russia, Czar Peter’s daughter, they had selected Charles Peter Ulric,
+her nephew and the son of the duke of Holstein, as heir-apparent to the
+Swedish throne, to which he was the nearest in right, Ulrica Eleonore
+dying without issue, in 1741. But when chosen as Elizabeth’s successor
+in Russia, the Hats selected Adolphus Frederic, prince bishop of
+Lubeck, who on his mother’s side was a descendant of Gustavus Adolphus.
+This caused popular discontent, the people, forgetful of past enmities,
+desiring to make Crown Prince Frederic of Denmark heir-apparent. The
+peasants at the Riksdag of 1742 proclaimed loudly their desire of a
+personal union with Denmark-Norway, which would establish Scandinavia
+as one solid power against Russia. The peasants of Helsingland and
+Dalecarlia revolted. They gathered, and marching down to Stockholm,
+placed the government in a dangerous position by demanding the
+election of Crown Prince Frederic of Denmark and the execution of the
+two imprisoned generals. In that very moment peace was obtained with
+Russia, and the government persuaded the leaders of the rebellion, who
+had obtained admission to the Riksdag, that Adolphus Frederic must be
+chosen, since it was a part of the treaty of peace. Later the rebels,
+3,500 in number, were forced to surrender. Their principal leader was
+executed.
+
+The Hats were at first led by Count Gyllenborg, who was succeeded
+by the brilliant Count Charles Gustavus Tessin, a son of the great
+architect, Nicodemus Tessin the Younger. Although not a statesman of
+any higher ability, Charles Gustavus Tessin was able to shake the
+oppressive influence of Russia. He was assisted by Prince Adolphus
+Frederic, who said he would rather resign than be a Russian vassal. A
+war seemed imminent, but was averted, Finland in the meantime being
+effectively fortified. The unconquerable fortress of Sveaborg was
+built near Helsingfors, and was the creation of Augustinus Ehrensverd.
+The Hats were eager in their attempts to encourage industry and
+manufacture, but did so at the expense of agriculture, and placed
+immense taxes on imported goods. A pioneer of industry was John
+Alstrœmer, who, in his town of Alingsos, built factories of various
+kinds. King Frederic died in 1751.
+
+_Adolphus Frederic_ was a good-natured and gentle man. He was not
+averse to an increased royal authority, but was not energetic enough
+to exert a controlling influence or to push his claims. His consort
+was the ambitious and brilliantly gifted Louise Ulrica, the sister of
+Frederic the Great of Prussia. She tried to inspire the king to action.
+Continually occupied by ambitious schemes, she spoiled them herself,
+through lack of caution and stability. As crown princess, she stood
+close to Count Tessin, whom she hoped to win over for her plans. They
+devised the institution of the knightly orders of the Seraphim, the
+Sword and the North Star, the credit of their introduction being given
+to King Frederic I. Adolphus Frederic was forced to subscribe to the
+same minimum of royal privileges as those enjoyed by Frederic I. At
+court a party was formed which supported the king, who soon commenced
+to oppose the state council. In 1755 this went so far that he refused
+to sign a document from the council. The case was brought before the
+Riksdag, where, in spite of strong opposition from the peasants, a
+resolution was passed indorsing the action of the state council. Count
+Tessin, in friction with the court, resigned from all his positions.
+The Riksdag tried to reinstall him as governor of the royal princes,
+but gave in upon the request of Tessin. The Riksdag went to the extreme
+of having a stamp made of the king’s signature, to use in cases where
+he refused to sign, and also took upon itself to engage and dismiss
+teachers for the royal princes. At court indignation rose high, and a
+conspiracy was formed to take possession of the capital, with the state
+council and the speakers of the four Estates, in order to bring about
+a revolution with increased power for the king. The conspiracy was
+discovered, and Count Eric Brahe, Count Jacob Horn and six others of
+its leaders executed.
+
+A new humiliation to the court was Sweden’s alliance with Austria,
+Russia and France against Frederic the Great of Prussia. The plans laid
+out by the Swedes were as elaborate as those for the Russian war. But
+on account of poor equipment and repeated change of commanders nothing
+effective was done. When peace was made at Hamburg, in 1762, Sweden
+neither lost nor gained anything. The Swedes had fought no battles, and
+Frederic the Great said he would call the Swedish invasion of Pomerania
+a private fight at the frontier.
+
+The great expense of the profitless war gave the Caps an occasion
+to gain in influence, and at the Riksdag of 1765 they overthrew the
+power of the Hats, in their turn summarily dismissing the councillors
+of their opponents. They introduced perfect liberty of the press
+in 1766, but went too far in their policy of economy, dangerously
+injuring the new industries by the withdrawal of loans and subsidies.
+The expensive factories came to a standstill and skilled workingmen
+emigrated. Popular opinion turned against these repeated changes and
+the endless strife of the parties, and felt inclined to criticise a
+Riksdag which had attained such power without giving a prosperous and
+secure administration in return. Foreign powers, encouraged by the
+court, tried to gain adherents of their various policies by bribes
+to councillors and members of the Riksdag, thus demoralizing state
+politics.
+
+The king received a valuable supporter in the crown prince Gustavus,
+who in 1767 became of age. He prevailed upon the king to resign when
+the state council refused to call an extraordinary Riksdag for the
+granting of added royal authority. The king did so, and the country
+was without a monarch for six days (December 15-21, 1768). The crown
+prince notified the presidents of the different administrative offices
+in Stockholm that his father had ceased to reign. The state council
+persisted; but had to give in, when the colonels of the regiments
+reported that they could no longer answer for their troops, since also
+the paymaster’s office was closed. The Riksdag convened in Norrkœping
+in 1769. The Caps suffered defeat in spite of strenuous efforts made
+for their preservation by the secret agents of the powers, anxious to
+see the anarchic condition of the government continue. But the court
+party failed in the exertions to have the royal privileges augmented.
+The intrigues of the foreign powers continued, and the crown prince
+left for France to insure her support in case of war. While the Hats
+were once more in power, Adolphus Frederic died suddenly in February,
+1771.
+
+Gustavus was to put an end to the party strife of the “Period of
+Liberty,” as it has been called. His own reign belongs properly to it,
+for he reaped the benefit of the seed it had been sowing. The Period of
+Liberty, with all its faults, forms an important chain in the cultural
+and political development of Sweden. Its form of government made
+necessary a varied and active part in public affairs, educating all
+classes of officials to a high degree of efficiency and the people at
+large to self-government. The Riksdag, through parliamentary activity
+and importance, developed an authority which, although too composite
+to govern itself, was enabled to act as a shield of steel against
+all abuse of the executive power. The national life never gathered a
+richer harvest of men of genius who worked for the progress of their
+country and for that of the world. The heroism of the Swedish people
+during the preceding period of suffering and distress bore fruit in
+men like Emanuel Swedenborg, the inventor, naturalist, philosopher
+and founder of a new religion; Charles Linnæus; the founder of modern
+botany; Andrew Celsius, Junior, the inventor of the centigrade
+thermometer; John Ahlstrœmer, the pioneer of industry; John Ihre, the
+able philologist, and Olof von Dalin, the poet, humorist, and, with
+Sven Lagerbring, the first modern historian of Sweden. The Period of
+“Liberty,” viz., of an Aristocratic Republic, was the golden era of
+Swedish science, the latter for the first time becoming of universal
+fame and of universal importance. The scientists of this period
+belong to the fathers of modern research, basing their conclusions
+upon personal observation, in strong contrast to _their_ fathers and
+precursors of the chauvinistic barocco period.
+
+Emanuel Swedenborg, the most remarkable man whom Sweden has ever
+brought forth, was born in Stockholm, June 29, 1688. His father was
+Jesper Svedberg, bishop of Skara, in West Gothland, and his mother Sara
+Behm. The tendency toward mysticism, an inheritance from his father,
+was noticed in him at an early age. He has told of himself that between
+the age of four and ten his thoughts were exclusively occupied with
+religious subjects. While in prayer, he sometimes entered a somnambulic
+condition, revealing things which surprised his parents, who said that
+angels spoke through him. As a child, he had the idea of God as one,
+without any conception of a Trinity. Later he received instruction in
+the systematic theology of his day. His father gave him a thorough
+training in the Oriental and classical languages. The early mysticism
+of the boy was supplanted by a thirst for knowledge of the phenomena of
+life and nature, coupled to a burning desire to illustrate his reading
+by practical experiments. Having entered the University of Upsala, he
+at first devoted himself to the study of the classical languages and
+literature, later to that of mathematics and natural science. When the
+university was visited by the plague in 1710, and almost all courses of
+instruction were interrupted, Swedenborg made a journey for scientific
+purposes to England, Holland, France and Germany. He returned in 1714,
+enriched with valuable results. In 1716-18 he published the first
+scientific journal of Sweden, “Dædalus Hyperboreus,” treating subjects
+of mathematics and physical science. In 1716 he came in close personal
+contact with Charles XII. at the university town of Lund. The king,
+being deeply impressed by his great learning and practical ability,
+appointed him assistant assessor of the college of mining. Swedenborg
+had, by the scholar Eric Benzelius, been made acquainted with the idea
+of the old Bishop Brask, of the time of Gustavus I., to “cut up the
+land” between the North Sea and the Baltic to make a navigable route
+through Sweden. Swedenborg gave close attention to this scheme, and
+communicated his plans to Charles XII., who became very much interested
+in them. Christopher Polhem was selected to build the great canal, and
+Swedenborg was made his assistant. We know from the sketch of Polhem’s
+life why the great work failed of accomplishment. Swedenborg gave a
+proof of his superior genius as a practical engineer during the siege
+of Fredericshall. Tordenskiold made the sea unsafe and had hedged in
+the Swedish fleet at Iddefiord. The Swedish boats and galleys were then
+carried overland to the town of Strœmstad, travelling the main road
+for fifteen miles on rolling machines devised by Swedenborg. After the
+death of Charles XII., whom he highly respected, Swedenborg travelled
+to Saxony and Hungary to study the mining industry of these countries.
+Returning in 1722, he entered for the first time upon his work of the
+college of mining, becoming assessor a few years later. In 1719 he was
+ennobled with his brothers and sisters, when the change of name from
+Svedberg to Swedenborg was made. In 1724 he declined to accept the
+chair of mathematics at the University of Upsala, dividing his time
+between his official work and his studies, until 1747, when he resigned
+from his position with a pension of the same amount as his salary. His
+religious works were commenced in 1745, and after that time he made
+repeated journeys to London or Amsterdam to have these printed, as they
+could not be published in Sweden on account of the strict and highly
+orthodox censure of that period.
+
+In 1744 the event occurred which Swedenborg in various places of
+his works has described as the opening of his spiritual sight, or
+the manifestations of the Lord to him in person. He had not, by
+geometrical, physical and metaphysical principles, succeeded in
+grasping the infinite and the spiritual, or their relation to the
+nature of man, but he had touched on facts and methods which seemed
+to conduct him in the right direction. He thought that God had led
+him into the natural sciences in order to prepare him for his later
+spiritual development. The visions of his boyhood returned, now
+conceived by a nature enriched by the experiences of a life spent in
+ardent and scientific research. The great seer remained a man whom
+everybody loved and respected. People who did not believe in his
+visions feared to ridicule them in the presence of this august savant.
+His manner of life was simple, his diet chiefly consisting of bread,
+milk and large quantities of coffee. He made little distinction between
+night and day, and sometimes lay for days in a trance. His servants
+were often disturbed at night by hearing him engaged in what he called
+conflicts with evil spirits. His intercourse with spirits was often
+perfectly calm, in broad daylight, and with all his faculties awake.
+He held that every man and woman has the same power of spiritual
+intercourse, although not developed in the same degree as it was found
+in him.
+
+The work which established the scientific reputation of Swedenborg was
+published, in 1734, in three massive folios, at the expense of Duke
+Ludvig Rudolph of Brunswick. The second and third volumes describe
+the best methods employed in Europe and America in the manufacture
+of iron, copper and brass. The first volume contains a philosophical
+explanation of the elementary world which has aroused admiration as a
+beautiful, daring and consistent creation of human genius, worthy of
+being placed side by side with the works of Newton, and replete with
+remarkable ideas and anticipations of later discoveries. Swedenborg
+indicated the existence of the seventh planet forty years before Uranus
+was discovered by Herschel. He was the first to form an idea of the
+development of nebulæ from chaotic masses to concrete heavenly bodies,
+a hypothesis later perfected by Herschel, and the first to offer the
+theory, later developed by Buffon, Kant and La Place, of the solar
+origin of the planets and their satellites. As in astronomy, so also in
+physics and geology he preconceived great discoveries. His experiments
+and theories in physics have been confirmed by the discoveries
+of the polarity of light and the galvanometer and its magnetic
+properties. Swedenborg discovered before anybody else the great
+importance of magnetism and the fact that magnetism and electricity
+are manifestations of the same power. He made observations concerning
+air and water which have been confirmed as to their correctness by
+Priestley, Cavendish and Lavoisier, who long were supposed to have been
+the first discoverers. In geology, he was the first to demonstrate
+that the Scandinavian peninsula, except the southern part of Scania,
+was a rising continent, proving the earlier level of the sea to have
+been much higher and the inland lakes to have stood in connection with
+the sea. Through his remarks on bowlders, he gave rise to the later
+theories of Berzelius and Sæfstrom of a bowlder period. Upon these
+researches followed great and remarkable works of anatomy, which, by
+later anatomists of the first rank, have been declared to be classics
+in the literature of physiology. His immense work, “Arcana Cœlestia,”
+and other theosophical writings which he has placed as a foundation
+for the New Church, and on which his present fame rests, were not so
+celebrated in his days as his scientific works. Like the latter, they
+were all written in Latin.
+
+The new religion, founded by Swedenborg, more spiritual than the old,
+has proved equally attractive to the individual and idealistic thinkers
+of all sects, Protestants and Catholics, Unitarians and Theosophists.
+Swedenborg made no attempt to establish a sect, and the New Church as
+an organization is the result of a movement which was started after his
+death.
+
+In his personal appearance Swedenborg was a middle-sized man of strong
+constitution. His head was of a fine shape, the color of his face
+somewhat dark and its expression pensive, but his blue eyes were large
+and radiant. His disposition was amiable. He was a man of the world,
+fond of music and society, especially of that of cultured women, and
+was often seen at court. He had a tendency to stutter when speaking
+fast, for which reason he used a slow diction, characterized by choice
+and mature expressions. In his youth, he frequented the house of
+Christopher Polhem and fell in love with his daughter Emerentia. Both
+Polhem and Charles XII. favored the idea of seeing them united, the
+young girl of fourteen giving her consent. But young Emerentia was
+secretly in love with somebody else, and her health and disposition
+suffered under the strain. When Swedenborg discovered the truth, he
+gave his betrothed freedom from her allegiance. He ceased to visit the
+house of Polhem and never entered any other relation of love.
+
+In 1770, at the age of eighty-two, Swedenborg for the last time
+visited Amsterdam. John C. Cuno, who then saw him, thus described the
+impression which the aged visionary and thinker made upon him: “He
+looked so touchingly pious, and when I gazed into his smiling eyes of a
+heavenly blue, it always seemed to me that truth itself spoke from his
+lips.” Swedenborg left Amsterdam for London, where, on Christmas eve,
+1772, he was struck by hemiplegia. After a few weeks he recovered his
+speech, and his faculties were clear to the last. The chaplain of the
+Swedish legation asked him if he had not formulated the doctrines of
+his new religion in order to gain fame, and if he wished to recall it
+all before he died. The yet partly paralyzed man raised himself into
+a sitting position, saying: “As true as it is that you see me here in
+front of you, as true is also all that I have written, and in eternity
+you will find a confirmation of it.” The chaplain asked him if he
+wanted to receive the sacrament. Swedenborg answered: “I need it not;
+for I am already a member of the other world; but your intention is
+good, and I will with joy receive the sacrament in token of the bond
+of unity between heaven and earth.” Swedenborg died March 29, 1772, and
+was buried in the Lutheran church of London.
+
+Swedenborg was shrewd in worldly affairs and discussed politics and
+finance in the Swedish Riksdag for nearly a score of years after his
+visions and theological writings had begun to occupy most of his time.
+
+If the theological works of Emanuel Swedenborg at first were apt to
+discredit the results of his manifold scientific research in the eyes
+of those who did not share his theosophical views, the renown of the
+great religious thinker in later times has outshone the fame of which,
+as the versatile scholar and philosopher, he was so eminently worthy.
+With his younger contemporary, Charles Linnæus (or Carl von Linné), the
+case was different. There was in his career no radical change to divert
+or throw an umbrage over the fame he had won as a scientist of the very
+first rank.
+
+Charles Linnæus, the most celebrated of Swedish scientists, was born
+at Rashult, in Smaland, in 1707. His father was a minister of a very
+subordinate charge of the state church. The neighborhood in which the
+young Linnæus grew up was not fertile, but rich in flowers, which were
+the toys and comrades of his childhood. He made but little progress at
+his work in the college of Vexio, being more fond of collecting and
+examining plants than of studying Greek and Latin. It was the wish of
+his parents that he should become a minister and the assistant of his
+father; but the youth had so little inclination to pursue the life or
+studies of a clergyman that he at last found it necessary to tell his
+parents so. He had found a friend and protector in Doctor Rothman,
+a district physician, who encouraged him to follow his ambition of
+becoming a naturalist and physician. Doctor Rothman supervised his
+studies in botany and succeeded in teaching him Latin by giving him
+the natural history of Pliny to study. In this manner Linnæus, who at
+college showed utter dislike for the classical languages, learned to
+write and speak Latin with ease. His teachers, who at first had advised
+his parents to let him quit the book, in order to take up some trade,
+were made aware of his gifted nature, but as he was found deficient in
+the regular courses, their recommendation, necessary for his admittance
+to the University of Lund, was very carefully worded. “The youths
+in our colleges may be likened unto little trees in a plant school,
+where it happens, although but rarely, that young trees upon which the
+greatest care have been lavished do not turn out well, but resemble
+wild stems, yet, when removed and transplanted, change their wild
+nature and develop into beautiful trees of agreeable fruit. Likewise,
+and for no other purpose, this youth is sent to the university, where
+he may venture into a climate favorable to his growth.” There was
+an accurate but unconscious prophecy concealed in this beautiful
+“recommendation,” which, curiously enough, has chosen the similes which
+were considered indispensable in the artificial language of the period
+from the world of plants, when speaking of the future flower king of
+the North.
+
+The young Linnæus made his way to the university town of Southern
+Sweden, walking the whole distance from Vexio to Lund, with a heavy
+knapsack and a light pocket-book. He was in hopes to win the protection
+of his uncle, the influential dean of the cathedral. Upon entering
+Lund, he heard all church bells tolling, and, upon inquiry, learned
+that they rang for the funeral of his uncle, the dean! A former
+teacher of his managed to have him enrolled at the university without
+having to turn in the diplomatic recommendation from his college. He
+took his bachelor’s degree and was kindly encouraged by Professor
+Chilian Stobæus, at whose house he was stopping. The mother of Stobæus
+told him to look after the young man from Smaland, who was in the habit
+of going to sleep with his candle left burning, thus liable to “lead
+the whole house into adventure.” When the learned professor looked into
+the matter he found his own works in the hands of the youth, who spent
+his nights reading them. After that all the books and the heartfelt
+sympathy of the scholar were at the command of Linnæus.
+
+In 1728 Linnæus, so advised by his earliest protector, changed his
+place of study to the University of Upsala, which at the time was
+better equipped and provided with a fine botanical garden. The young
+scholar endured a great deal of suffering for lack of funds, his
+father no longer being able to provide for his support. His diet was
+very light, and he wrapped his benumbed feet in paper to keep them
+from peeping out of his ragged shoes. His father called him home to
+reconsider his resolution as to a ministerial calling. Linnæus was
+ready to leave and paid a farewell visit to the botanic gardens. He
+lingered in melancholy thoughts before a rare flower which he intended
+to pluck. A harsh voice behind commanded him to leave the flower alone.
+Linnæus turned and stood face to face with the dean, Olof Celsius the
+Elder. In the interview which followed the young man surprised the
+dean, who was an able and enthusiastic botanist, by his exceptional
+knowledge of plants. Celsius inquired about his circumstances and ended
+by taking him into his house and providing for his future. Shortly
+afterward Linnæus published a short but important treatise on the
+sexual life of plants, which he handed in to Professor Olof Rudbeck
+the Younger. This able scholar was forcibly struck by the ingenuity
+of the thoughts in the work, which contained the nucleus to the grand
+scientific system which Linnæus later developed. When, in 1730, Rudbeck
+obtained a vacation he had Linnæus installed as a lecturer of the
+botanic gardens. Shortly afterward Linnæus received the commission to
+pay a visit of botanic research to Lapland, on the plants of which he
+published a remarkable work. The journey was made on horseback, the
+young scholar returning deeply impressed by the grandeur of natural
+sceneries in the extreme North.
+
+Linnæus had to fight poverty and adversity for some time still. His
+mother, who always had regretted that he should “turn out a surgeon
+instead of a minister,” was elated over his first triumph when opening
+the field of a new science by his sexual system of plants. He suffered
+all the more at her death, which he was forced to conceal because he
+could not afford a mourning garb. Envious comrades put an end to his
+lectures at Upsala by having enforced, through petitions, an order
+against the filling of temporary vacancies by men who had not taken
+the doctor’s degree. It was found necessary for Linnæus to go abroad,
+and some money was subscribed by his friends for that purpose. In
+Holland he met the learned Professor Boerhave, who, on being made
+acquainted with his system of botany, which Linnæus then for the first
+time published, received him with tokens of unlimited admiration and
+friendship. It was by Boerhave that the continental fame of Linnæus
+was founded. The latter found, in the arranging of the great gardens
+of Hartekamp intrusted to him, a work both agreeable and instructive.
+In London, Linnæus broadened his experience with study of the rich
+collections of plants and naturalia which were made accessible to
+him by the celebrated scholar Hans Sloane, later the founder of the
+British Museum. The letter of recommendation from Boerhave was somewhat
+different to the one Linnæus had received at Vexio: “Linnæus, who
+hands you this letter, is the only one worthy to see you, and to be
+seen by you. Those who see you together look upon two men the peers of
+which the world does hardly possess.” After a stay in Paris, where the
+greatest scientists of France treated him with distinction, he returned
+to Holland, to find his friend Boerhave dying in Leyden. Linnæus kissed
+the hand of the dying man, who insisted on kissing the hand of Linnæus
+in return, pronouncing him the greater genius, of whom the world should
+expect and receive more.
+
+Linnæus, the celebrated founder of a new science, returned home as an
+unknown man. His ability as a physician, acquired at the University of
+Leyden, and his growing continental fame soon made him distinguished.
+In 1741 he was appointed professor of medicine at Upsala, but changed
+chairs with the professor of botany. The study of the latter science
+was highly developed through the continued research of Linnæus, and
+became very popular, while giving a great impetus to the study of
+medicine. The grace and animation of Linnæus as a lecturer caused
+students and scholars to flock around him in hundreds. The botanic
+excursions led by Linnæus resembled daily marches of triumphs, the
+multitude of students escorting their beloved teacher back to the
+botanic gardens with flowers in their hats and with music of drums
+and French horns. Sweden, with Upsala as a centre, was for the first
+time in history considered a home of scientific culture, to which
+naturalists gathered from all parts of the world, America included.
+Pupils of ability and distinction were sent by Linnæus to strange and
+unknown quarters, from which they returned with new and unfamiliar
+plants, which were examined and classified by the flower king of the
+North. Linnæus was honored by his contemporaries in such a superlative
+manner as no one of his countrymen, before or after, and few other
+scientists of any age or country. Count Charles Gustavus Tessin has the
+credit of having encouraged him in his work and improved his career
+upon his return from the Continent. When ennobled, Linnæus changed his
+name to Von Linné, the earlier form being the more familiar to English
+readers. King Gustavus III. presented him with the estate Hammarby,
+where he liked to dwell, surrounded by his flowers and his family,
+resting from the fatigue caused by the endless stream of distinguished
+pilgrims who came to visit his flower court at Upsala. The offers of
+foreign monarchs to have him come and dwell with them were many and
+liberal. In 1739 he married the love of his youth, Maria Elizabeth
+Moræus, “and never since felt an inclination to leave Sweden.”
+
+Linnæus in many respects resembled Swedenborg, being convinced that
+his acceptance of truth was the correct one and disliking disputes.
+Like Swedenborg, he was pious, modest, benevolent and sincere. Of his
+own exterior and disposition Linnæus has himself given the following
+characteristic account: “Linnæus was not tall, not small, lean,
+brown-eyed, light, quick, walked briskly, did everything promptly,
+disliked slow people, was sensitive, easily moved, worked continuously
+and could not spare himself. He was fond of good food and drank good
+drinks, but never to excess. He cared little for exteriors, considering
+that man should adorn his dress and not vice versa. Faculty meetings
+were not his delight, or business, for he was made for quite other
+things, and had other things in mind than those which there were
+discussed and decided upon.” In the preface to the late edition of his
+principal work, “Systema Naturæ,” the following noteworthy paragraph
+is found: “I saw the shadow of the Supreme Being go past me, and I was
+seized with respect and admiration. I searched for His footsteps in
+the sand--what power, what wisdom! I saw how the animals existed only
+by means of the plants, the plants by means of the lifeless particles,
+and these in their turn constitute the earth. I saw the sun and stars
+without number hanging suspended in the air, held by the hand of the
+Being of beings, the artist of this grand masterpiece.”
+
+Linnæus died January 10, 1778, and was buried in the cathedral of
+Upsala. His botanic system has been superseded by others, but the
+influence that his researches and discoveries have exerted on the
+natural sciences and medicine, has not ceased to be benignantly felt,
+nor have the utmost results of his researches been as yet attained.
+
+Andrew Celsius, professor of astronomy at Upsala, acquired fame as
+a writer on astronomy and was successful in his efforts to have
+an observatory built at the university. In 1742 he introduced his
+invention, the Celsius or centigrade thermometer, which is of almost
+indispensable practical value in all physical and chemical experiments.
+Olof Celsius, Senior, the able botanist, Orientalist and patron of
+Linnæus, was his uncle, he thus being a cousin of Olof Celsius, Junior,
+whose brightly written histories of Gustavus Vasa and Eric XIV. were
+translated into contemporaneous French and German.
+
+John Ahlstrœmer accomplished more for the resurrection of the
+downtrodden industry of his country than any one else, and therefore
+justly deserves the name of the Father of Swedish Industry. This man,
+who occupies an honored place in Swedish history, was born in 1685, of
+poor parents, at the town of Alingsos, in West Gothland, his original
+name being John Toresson. He worked himself up in various mercantile
+positions in Stockholm and other towns, later coming to London, where
+he engaged in business of his own and became an English citizen. He
+saw with regret that his countrymen sent their money abroad to obtain
+articles which they could manufacture at home, and was seized with the
+ambition to introduce into Sweden the industries which constitute the
+foundation of England’s mercantile wealth.
+
+When Charles XII. returned to Sweden, Ahlstrœmer went there also,
+trying to win the king to his industrial plans. He did not succeed,
+but found in Christopher Polhem a man who listened to and appreciated
+them. Ahlstrœmer intended to return to England, but was captured by the
+Danes during the journey. On account of his English citizenship he soon
+regained his liberty, visiting England and the Continent, and carefully
+selecting everything which he had in view of sending to Sweden as the
+requisite instruments for his plans. This work sometimes involved great
+danger, as the buying of looms for hose and ribbon, fulling vats, dyes,
+etc.; for the great manufacturing countries were keeping jealous watch
+that the secrets of their industries should not become known abroad. In
+a town in Holland, Ahlstrœmer barely missed being pelted with stones
+by the mob. Pursued by the revenue authorities, he managed to escape
+with his ship, arriving safely in Gothenburg with the valuable cargo
+and skilled laborers in his employ. Shortly afterward he arrived in
+his native town of Alingsos, where the industrial enterprises were
+established. The Riksdag at first was unwilling to grant him the
+necessary concessions, the clergy especially being averse to allow so
+many foreign workingmen free confession of their Catholic religion. In
+1724 the concessions were at last obtained, and Ahlstrœmer began his
+course, which he was resolved should result in the fostering of the
+same industrial activity in his impoverished country, which he, with
+surprise, had noticed in England and on the Continent.
+
+In establishing his enterprises, Ahlstrœmer exhausted his resources,
+and when he tried to form a company to keep them going he was met with
+stubborn resistance, caused by ignorance and jealousy. He succeeded at
+last in obtaining the financial backing of some wealthy mine owners
+of Vermland, who took shares in his enterprises. The Riksdag of 1726
+encouraged him by placing high protective or prohibitive tariffs
+on foreign articles which could be produced in the country. In the
+following year King Frederic paid a visit to Alingsos, spending a
+whole day in looking over the mills and factories. The king said that
+he would rather own the stock of goods of Ahlstrœmer than the largest
+arsenal in his kingdom, and saw to it that his servants were dressed in
+broadcloth manufactured at Alingsos.
+
+Alingsos saw its population suddenly increase from 300 to 1,800 and
+entered upon an era of prosperity. Ahlstrœmer’s factories formed almost
+a little town of their own beside the older one. There were twelve
+looms for the manufacturing of broadcloth, forty-five looms for
+wool, and, besides, cotton mills, dye works for wool and silk, hose
+factories, an English tannery and various other industrial works. Also
+a foundry, with eight communicating shops, where all kinds of household
+articles of simple and composite metals were manufactured. Alingsos
+was made a kind of normal school of industry for the whole country.
+The foreign master workmen, who at the beginning had charge of the
+factories, instructed in time a great number of native apprentices, who
+later found employment elsewhere, thus distributing to various parts
+the experience obtained at Alingsos. Wool was the principal material
+in the factories, and in order to obtain a refined quality, Ahlstrœmer
+imported stocks of foreign breeds. He commenced with English sheep, the
+Riksdag of 1727 granting him the use of the royal estate Hœjentorp for
+the purpose. Angora goats were later imported and seemed to thrive.
+
+Ahlstrœmer did his country a great service by introducing the
+cultivation of potatoes. The first shipment of this useful plant
+arrived in 1723, with workingmen imported from France. As soon as
+the plant was seen to stand the climate, larger quantities were sent
+for. Potatoes were cultivated in the vast fields around Alingsos
+at a period when they were exhibited in the botanic gardens of the
+Continent as rare plants from Peru. Prejudice at first interfered,
+but when the soldiers returned home from Pomerania with the habit of
+eating potatoes, and planted such around their cottages, the popularity
+of the Peruvian plant was assured. Ahlstrœmer also introduced the
+cultivation of tobacco and several dye plants. The coal mines, near
+Helsingborg, in Scania, commenced to be operated at his instigation.
+When the Academy of Science was instituted, in 1739, Ahlstrœmer was
+made one of its members. The Academy of Science served originally and
+in that era of utilitarianism a more practical purpose than later. The
+Cap administration of Arvid Horn gave comparatively little attention
+to the enterprises of Ahlstrœmer, having more in view to develop
+agriculture than industry. When the Hats got into power the conditions
+were reversed. Count Charles Gyllenborg, the successor of Arvid Horn
+as president of the chancery, in order to set a good example, always
+dressed in broadcloth of Swedish manufacture. Ahlstrœmer was made a
+councillor of commerce, and ennobled, while his bust was placed in the
+Exchange of Stockholm and medals issued in his honor by the Academy of
+Science.
+
+Ahlstrœmer was a middle-sized man of a strong constitution. He was
+amiable, courteous and hospitable, ever ready to conduct visitors
+through his factories and warehouses. His energy was as great as his
+kindness, and he refused to recognize an enemy in anybody. The large
+profits of his plants he mostly spent on other patriotic enterprises,
+leaving hardly any other inheritance to his sons than an excellent
+education. During the last few years of his life he suffered the
+consequences of a stroke of paralysis. He died in 1761, and thus was
+saved from witnessing the destruction which was caused to the new
+factory industry and his own works at Alingsos by the reckless policy
+of the new Caps.
+
+Olof Dalin is the principal poet and writer of the Period of Liberty,
+strongly influencing not only the creative minds of his own day, but
+also those who with more or less right have been counted as belonging
+to the Gustavian Period. Dalin was the son of a minister in the
+province of Halland and a relative of Professor Andrew Rydelius of
+Lund, a historian of the older generation, who conducted the course of
+his studies. He came to Stockholm in 1726, where several positions in
+various state departments afforded opportunity for study in libraries
+and archives. Dalin, from the year 1732 to 1734, published a magazine
+called “The Swedish Argus,” which, with the English “Spectator” as
+a pattern, contained articles on public and individual morals, with
+allusions to the facts of contemporary life. This publication caused a
+great stir and became very popular on account of the acute logic and
+excellent language of its editor. Dalin was appointed royal librarian
+by the Riksdag, and, on the recommendation of Count Tessin, teacher to
+the young crown prince Gustavus.
+
+Dalin was an enthusiastic admirer of the glorious epoch of Swedish
+history and of the character of Charles XII., which caused him to join
+the party of the Hats. When the latter utterly failed in their attempts
+to restore the political grandeur of the past, and Dalin witnessed the
+excesses of the rivalling parties, he joined the secret agitators for
+an increased royal power. In the literary and artistic circle of the
+brilliant Queen Louise Ulrica, Dalin was the leading spirit. He was
+not unaware of the conspiracies and intrigues of the queen, and is
+supposed to have been the author of several of the sharp notes which
+the king added to the records of the state council. The Hats, who
+took offence at his sharp satires, made him resign from his position
+as the teacher of the crown prince. After the conspiracy of the court
+party was detected, Dalin was called before a committee of the Estates
+and by order dismissed from the court. Dalin used the time of his
+compulsory isolation for the writing of a history of Sweden. This
+work, which never was carried further than to the end of the Period
+of Reformation, is characterized by an attractive style, but is not
+reliable as to facts.
+
+Dalin was allowed to return to the court in 1761. He stood in great
+favor and was covered with testimonials of appreciation. He died in
+1763, at the moment when King Adolphus Frederic was resolved to make
+him a state councillor. Dalin was the first writer who made Swedish
+history popular, and exerted, by his poems and his magazine, and by his
+education of Gustavus III., a considerable influence upon the history
+of his own time.
+
+In point of scientific research the historical works of Sven Lagerbring
+have a much higher value than Dalin’s history, although they lacked the
+literary excellence of the latter. Lagerbring, who, born in Scania, was
+professor of history at the University of Lund, carried his work to the
+times of Charles VIII. A shorter history of his was translated into
+French and long formed the chief source of continental knowledge of
+Swedish history.
+
+As a poet Dalin had a rival in the somewhat younger Hedvig Charlotta
+Nordenflycht, one of the most interesting characters in Swedish history
+of literature. Her works, chiefly consisting of lyrics and idyls,
+show a long chain of development from the taste of the Carolinian
+period to that of the Gustavian epoch. In her deep emotional nature
+and enthusiasm for all cultural movements she stands without a
+rival. Receiving an annuity from the government, she was after many
+adversities able to maintain a literary salon. The men who met there,
+like Gustavus Philip Creutz and Gustavus Frederic Gyllenborg, were the
+founders of an academic style in poetry, as was Charles Gustavus Tessin
+in eloquence.
+
+John Ihre is perhaps the most highly gifted of Swedish philologists
+and the first whose research had a lasting scientific value. He stood
+at the summit of contemporary European study of language, and rose a
+head or more higher than the philologists of his own country in that
+day. The period was characterized by a movement for the purification
+and analyzation of the language, Dalin expressing his wish to speak the
+truth to the Swedes in pure Swedish, and the Academy of Science taking
+pride in publishing their important papers in the mother tongue. Eric
+Benzelius, an able critic of the Gothic, and interested in Swedish
+dialect research, was one of the precursors of Ihre; and so was Olof
+Celsius, Senior, professor of Greek, later of Oriental languages, who
+was the first to fix the age of the majority of Runic inscriptions as
+dating from the Christian era.
+
+John Ihre was born, in 1707, in Lund, where his father was a professor
+of theology, a talented, witty and learned man. The young Ihre lost his
+father in 1720, after which time his uncle, Archbishop Steuchius of
+Upsala, had charge of his education. He later studied modern languages
+at the University of Jena, made the acquaintance of the contemporary
+philologists of Holland, and also studied at the universities of
+London, Oxford and Paris. After an absence of three years he returned,
+soon to be connected with the University of Upsala, where he remained
+for forty-two years as professor of rhetoric and politics. Ihre was
+a liberal, outspoken man, who was severely censured for his opinions
+upon political and religious subjects, once by the Riksdag being
+sentenced to pay fines and receiving a warning from the chancellor
+of the university. When the clergy upon another occasion warned the
+philosophers not to mix in theological subjects, Ihre defended himself
+in the following terms in a letter to the chancellor, Count Charles
+Gustavus Tessin. “Gracious lord! I teach _eloquentiam_, _politicam_
+and the states, with all things pertaining to them. To become a heretic
+I possess neither genius nor stupidity enough, less an evil purpose.
+Therefore I am willing to forego all theology, if only an allowance
+of it be made large enough for my private practice and edification in
+Christianity. I never intended to go any further.”
+
+Ihre left religion and politics alone, and received many high
+distinctions in return for his great scientific merits. When ennobled,
+he kept his old family name, stating that he was “somewhat known abroad
+under the name of Ihre,” while if he changed it to Gyllenbiorn or
+Vargstierna, it would take “some time to announce this new disguise.”
+He was renowned for his ready wit, and wielded a considerable influence
+in academic circles. Ihre was satisfied with his position and his
+science, and was not willing to exchange them for a political career.
+
+Ihre was led to the study of the Teutonic languages in their oldest
+forms by his desire to find a consistent spelling and correct
+understanding of the words in his own language. He was desirous of
+freeing it from foreign words, but only when those substituted were as
+expressive and comprehensible as the old. Ihre was a pioneer in the
+field of dialect lexicographers, publishing the outline of a Swedish
+dialect dictionary in 1766, and wrote a number of works pertaining to
+the historic forms of Gothic, Lappish, Finnish and Old Norse. Special
+importance is due to his epoch-making research concerning the language
+of the Codex Argenteus. He once for all settled the controversy,
+proving the Codex to contain the Gothic Bible translation of Bishop
+Wulfila against the assertions of M. Lacroze of Berlin, who claimed
+that it was written in Frankish. In regard to the Edda of Snorre
+Sturleson, he declared it to be intended as an introductory study
+of poesy, a handbook of poetics for young scalds, an opinion which
+has been fully established in a much later time. By these and other
+theories Ihre attained a much higher standpoint as a scientific critic
+than his contemporaries. He spoke of the resemblance between the
+Teutonic and the classical languages, without being able to find the
+reasons. He even to some extent anticipated the great discovery which
+after its formulator has been called Grimm’s Law, by pointing out “a
+certain regularity of consonant shift” in the Teutonic languages.
+
+The monumental work of Ihre and the crowning effort of his life was
+prepared between the years 1750-1759. This Glossarium suiogothicum,
+published at the expense of the government, is the best Swedish
+dictionary of the eighteenth century. Ihre by his severe critical
+method kills the wild etymologies of the “Rudbeckian philology,”
+turning to Old Swedish for the derivations, and, where this gave no
+satisfaction, to the Old Icelandic, “because this language nine hundred
+years ago was separated from our own and has remained undisturbed
+by foreign influence.” From the Old Northern dialects he turned to
+Old High German, Old English and Gothic, the last mentioned of which
+he considered the mother of the Teutonic languages. Many of Ihre’s
+etymologies have not been able to withstand the scrutiny of later
+criticism, but his great etymological dictionary is the product of
+versatile knowledge and unusual insight, and has not only exerted a
+profound influence upon his own period but also served as a model for
+later epochs of philological research.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+_Gustavian Period--Gustavus III. and Gustavus IV. Adolphus_
+
+
+Gustavus III., with his brilliant endowment, one of the most
+illustrious, and, in spite of his glaring faults, one of the most
+beloved, of Swedish monarchs, was the first king since Charles XII.
+who was born in Sweden. For this very reason, and on account of his
+amiable and charming disposition, he had won for himself the sympathy
+of the people even before his succession to the throne. This nephew
+of Frederic the Great of Prussia had inherited the genius, ambition
+and pride of his gifted mother, all enlarged and intensified, and the
+gentleness and good nature of his father. He was in every particular
+a child of his time, and every inch a king. Gustavus was decidedly
+French in education, taste and superficiality, but had by his first
+teacher Dalin been inspired with a deep love of his country, its
+history, language and traditions. He handled the Swedish and French
+languages with equal skill, and a more eloquent monarch has never
+graced a throne. He was passionately fond of theatricals and impressive
+ceremony, and, like his mother and illustrious uncle, he surrounded
+himself with men of genius. Gustavus was betrothed to Princess Sophie
+Magdalene of Denmark when only four years of age, and married her when
+twenty. This union was arranged by the Riksdag, contrary to the wish
+of Gustavus’s parents. Gustavus appeared at first to be deeply in
+love with the gentle and unpretentious princess, but she soon found
+herself as neglected by her consort as she was detested by his mother.
+The crown prince early began to hate the form of government which had
+brought so much humiliation to his parents. This absolutism of the
+Riksdag, which could be bought and sold through bribery by foreign
+powers, he considered dangerous to the independence and welfare of the
+country, and was resolved to change the balance of power to the hands
+of the king, of whose dignity and importance he held an exalted opinion.
+
+At the death of his father, Gustavus was in France, returning with
+the agreement of a secret alliance. At the Riksdag of 1771, where the
+Caps once more came into power, Gustavus III. signed a pledge with new
+restrictions of the royal authority. But while the king officially
+seemed to desire a pacification of both parties, and his time was
+principally occupied with theatricals, embroideries and costumes, he
+was secretly arranging a conspiracy. He was crowned in May, 1772,
+and in August the news of a revolt in Scania, led by John Christian
+Toll, reached the capital. The king feigned surprise, but waited for
+similar news from Finland, whence Jacob Magnus Sprengtporten was to
+bring troops to Stockholm. As Sprengtporten’s movements were somewhat
+delayed, the king had to take action himself. In the morning of
+August 19th he entered the officers’ hall of the body-guards, where
+he delivered a patriotic address, asking the officers to follow him
+as their ancestors had followed Gustavus Vasa and Gustavus Adolphus.
+He was greeted with an enthusiasm which soon spread throughout the
+capital, assuring the king of perfect loyalty. The state councillors
+were quickly arrested and order given that no one should be allowed to
+leave the capital. The Riksdag was called together August 21st, and
+addressed by the king in an eloquent speech which gave a striking view
+of the situation and its perils. He declared that he was not going
+to touch liberty, only to abolish misrule by the establishment of a
+firm administration. Then was read the proposition for a constitution
+which the king had prepared. The king alone was to be the executive,
+appointing higher officials and councillors, making alliances with
+foreign powers, but not commencing any war of attack without the
+consent of the Riksdag. The state council was to consist of seventeen
+members with deliberative, but no executive, power. The Riksdag was
+to convene at the order of the king, taxation and legislation to be
+decided on by the king and Riksdag in common. The judicial power of
+all committees was to be abolished. The Riksdag accepted the royal
+propositions, and one of the most smoothly and skilfully managed _coups
+d’état_ ever attempted was accomplished, much to the dismay of Russia,
+Prussia and Denmark. During half a score of years the country enjoyed a
+happy peace, the king winning the love of his people and being active
+in administrative improvements.
+
+Gustavus III. was intensely interested in literature and art, and a
+writer of considerable ability, composing dramatic works of French
+pattern but with patriotic subjects. In his best creations he is
+influenced by Shakespeare. Among the poets whom he encouraged were
+Kellgren, Leopold, Creutz, Gyllenborg, Oxenstierna, Adlerbeth, the
+creators of a classical school of Swedish poetry and drama, influenced
+by the contemporary French writers. Above these towers Charles
+Michael Bellman, who, with his composite and rich endowment, became
+the first great national poet, and of an originality as remarkable
+as that of any genius in the literature of the world. The humor
+introduced into Swedish literature through the contact with the songs
+of the Edda, in Bellman reaches its perfection, while his poetry
+in exquisite and triumphant grace of form outrivals that of his
+classical contemporaries. His poems were almost all produced under
+the inspiration of the moment, even if later remodelled, and sung
+to the lute to melodies of the day, or of his own composition. His
+impressionistic power of description leads the thought to the modern
+artists, while his ambition to unite the arts of poetry, music and
+plastics makes him a precursor of Neo-Romanticism. There is not one
+accent of chauvinism, not even a note of patriotism, in his songs, yet
+he is the most beloved of Swedish poets, recognized as the highest
+exponent of the lyrico-rhetorical temperament of his people, a mixture
+of melancholy humor and exuberant joy in a graceful yet stately form.
+Anne Marie Lenngren was a highly talented poetess, who preserves the
+classic form for her verse, in which she ridicules the faults and
+vices of her period. Thorild and Lidner were men of great genius,
+but of somewhat bizarre and neglected literary form, influenced
+by contemporary Romanticism in Germany. Sweden continues to add a
+number of names to the galaxy of men distinguished in the service of
+natural science, those of Bergman and Scheele, the founders of modern
+chemistry, being the most renowned. To the Academy of Science and
+Academy of Art, established during the Period of Liberty, Gustavus
+added a Swedish Academy and a National Theatre for the encouragement
+of poetry, eloquence, music and drama. It is during this period that
+the Swedish language developed the beauty and plasticity for which it
+holds the first rank among Teutonic dialects, and is considered one
+of the most musical languages of the world. Of artists, the painters
+Hœrberg, Hillestrœm and Roslin rose to great continental fame, while
+Sergel, through the genius and tendencies of his works one of the most
+remarkable sculptors of modern times, won renown for his name, but
+hardly the very highest perfection within his possibilities. His statue
+of Gustavus III. is the finest monument of Stockholm.
+
+Sweden, so rich in great poets, artists and scientists, is poor in
+philosophers, content with the systems of thinkers in more favored
+countries. Swedenborg is an important exception to this rule. Not
+satisfied with an original system, with pure reason as the fundamental
+principle, he divined a system in which philosophy and religion are
+inseparably united. Kant, when made acquainted with Swedenborg’s
+earlier system, was utterly astonished, expressing fear that he
+himself had been an object of thought-transference, when writing his
+celebrated work, “Kritik der reinen Vernunft.” The system of Descartes
+was followed by Swedish philosophers of the Carolinian epoch. During
+the Period of Liberty and the reign of Gustavus III., Locke, Voltaire
+and Diderot were supreme. At the close of the eighteenth century, Kant
+began to exert great influence, Benjamin Hœijer being his talented and
+individualistic disciple, and enjoying the reputation of having been
+Sweden’s greatest original thinker. Charles August Ehrensverd, an able
+warrior and statesman of the Gustavian epoch, devised an attractive and
+novel, although slightly dilettantic, system of his own, the Philosophy
+of Fine Arts.
+
+The suspicions that Gustavus III. was not satisfied with the share of
+power which he obtained in 1772, and that he was anxious to gain fame
+by the means of war, were found to be justified. In 1786 he called a
+Riksdag, at which most of his propositions, to his great surprise,
+were stubbornly opposed. Catherine II. of Russia was intriguing with
+the Finnish nobles for the purpose of establishing the independence of
+Finland under Russian protection. But she was careful not to commence
+hostilities. Attempts made by Gustavus III. to bring the Norwegian
+people in revolt against Denmark failed. And so Gustavus, who had no
+authority to begin a war of attack, arranged for a simulated Russian
+assault on the Finnish boundary, executed by Finnish peasants in
+disguise. He declared war on Russia, in June, 1788, although nobody
+was found willing to believe in the feigned cause of it. The actual
+hostilities were opened by a brilliant naval battle at Hogland, fought
+with success by the Swedish fleet under command of Prince Charles, the
+brother of the king, against the Russians. The king had arrived in
+Finland resolved to attack St. Petersburg, which plan he was obliged
+to change. All further operations came to a sudden standstill through
+mutiny among the Finnish officers in the royal camp at Anjala, 113
+of them signing a document in which they pledged themselves to force
+the king to make peace and to convoke the Riksdag. Another document
+offering peace and a union of Finland to Russia was despatched to St.
+Petersburg with Jægerhorn, one of the leaders. The officers received
+a favorable answer from Russia, which was handed to the king, and the
+whole army was made acquainted with the proceedings. The king found
+himself in a most perilous position, out of which he was saved as by
+a miracle. Denmark declared war, and the king hastened to embrace the
+opportunity to leave with honor the trap in which his life and liberty
+were in danger.
+
+Gustavus III. sent word to several provinces, asking the inhabitants to
+rise in defence of their country. He went himself to Dalecarlia, where
+he addressed the peasants when coming from church, as had Gustavus
+Vasa. Everywhere the population rose in arms. The king hastened to
+Gothenburg, which was threatened by the Danes, and had the city
+strongly fortified. England and Prussia sided with Sweden, and the
+Danes found it best to retire from Swedish territory.
+
+Gustavus had won the game. Now for the stakes! He called a Riksdag in
+1789. Through his personal courage and patriotism, Gustavus III. had
+recaptured the love of his people. The nobility was hated and despised
+on account of its responsibility for the mutiny at Anjala and for its
+intrigues with Russia. Gustavus III. consequently stood exceedingly
+well with the three lower Estates of the Riksdag, but lost their
+respect through the many violations of the law which he committed in
+forcing upon the Riksdag a new constitution which made him a ruler
+with almost absolute power. The nobility stubbornly refused to accept
+any change in the constitution. There were many stormy scenes, both
+among the nobles and in the presence of the king, who also paid a
+visit to the Riddarhus, which he left with the statement that the
+nobles were willing to subscribe, the latter loudly protesting. Axel
+von Fersen the Elder and several other aristocratic leaders were held
+in a prolonged arrest. Archbishop Troil told the king that he did not
+wish to be the first archbishop after Gustavus Trolle to sell the
+liberty of his country, and begged to be excused from being present at
+the deliberations. The poet and royal favorite Adlerbeth, himself a
+nobleman, pleaded in the Riksdag the right of his Estate to take action
+on the royal propositions. These were in private signed by the speakers
+of the four Estates and pronounced by the government as accepted, and
+were called an “Act of Union and Security.” This new constitution gave
+almost absolute power to the king. The state council was once more,
+and forever, swept away and not even mentioned in the constitution. It
+was divided into a supreme court and a department for “the preparation
+of public affairs.” By taking half of their members only from the
+nobility, the greatest privilege of that class was annulled. To the
+peasants was extended the privilege of buying land originally belonging
+to the nobility. By hard pressure, and in opposition to the nobles, the
+king forced the Riksdag to take the responsibility for the state debt,
+which had increased considerably.
+
+Gustavus III. opened the Riksdag as the most popular man of the
+country. He closed it as an absolute sovereign who had lost the love
+of his people and aroused the revengeful hatred of the nobility.
+Gustavus III. was now enabled to continue the Russian war at will. His
+sub-commander Stedingk won a victory over the Russians at Porosalmi,
+the latter being led by Sprengtporten, the former supporter of Gustavus
+III., now a soldier of Empress Catherine. He was killed in the battle.
+Prince Charles won a victory at Œland, but was by negligence of his
+sub-commander detained from reaping its benefits, Charles August
+Ehrensverd defeated a superior Russian naval force at Svensksund with
+the “Skerry Fleet,” the creation of his father, Augustinus Ehrensverd.
+At the order of the king, he then met a still larger fleet and was
+defeated. Dissatisfied with the king and the result, the valiant hero
+and philosopher made his report in the following laconic phrase:
+“Your majesty has no longer any Skerry Fleet,” and resigned from his
+position as admiral-general. In the following year, 1780, the combined
+naval forces of Sweden were shut up by the Russian fleet in the bay
+of Viborg, and seemed doomed to destruction. But the king gave orders
+that all the ships should force a passage, and this heroic effort was
+successfully made, through the lines of colossal Russian warships
+chained together. The Russian losses were great, and also those of
+the Swedes, on account of an explosion on board one of the ships. The
+Russians were anxious to gain the victory that escaped them at Viborg,
+and decided on July 9th, the day of Empress Catherine’s coronation, as
+an appropriate date. The battle was fought at Svensksund, and turned
+into a humiliating defeat, the Russians losing 53 ships, 643 cannon
+and 14,000 men, and the imperial flag of state; twenty-six of these
+ships were entered in the Swedish navy. Peace was made at Værælæ a
+month later. No change of territory was involved, but an end was put to
+Russian intrigues, and Sweden had once more and forever demonstrated
+her power of taking care of her independence.
+
+The revolution in France made a deep impression upon the factions which
+in Sweden were secretly continuing their struggle. The nobility, in
+their aristocratic republicanism, sided with the revolutionists, while
+the king, an intimate friend of Louis XVI., tried to save the monarchy.
+Gustavus III. left Sweden in the summer of 1791, in order to receive
+Louis XVI. and his family at the frontier, while Count Axel von Fersen
+the Younger, a son of the old aristocratic party leader who had taken
+part with distinction in the American revolutionary war, was very near
+to saving the royal family through a flight from Paris. King Gustavus
+III. waited in vain for the royal fugitives, but commenced active
+operations for the forming of an alliance between Sweden, Russia,
+Prussia, Austria and Spain against republican France. Sweden and Russia
+made a treaty of mutual defence, but the negotiations for a general
+alliance were not at a favorable point when Gustavus III. himself fell
+by the aristocratic republicans of his own country.
+
+A conspiracy between the nobles had been formed, the majority being men
+of the highest station. Jacob John Anckarstrom, a retired officer, was
+found willing to commit the deed of killing the hated despot. After
+several unsuccessful attempts, the act was accomplished at a mask ball
+in the Royal Opera, the king being shot through the hip. All of the
+accomplices present were arrested, and, much to their disappointment,
+the king not dying instantly, their plan for a revolution was thus
+frustrated. Gustavus III. was shot March 16, 1792, and died March 26,
+1792, suffering his fate with fortitude and great presence of mind.
+He appointed his brother Charles and his favorite, Charles Gustavus
+Armfelt, members of the government during the minority of his son,
+Gustavus Adolphus.
+
+The devotion of his country returned to Gustavus III. at his deathbed,
+never to leave him. In spite of his superficiality, violation of the
+law, disregard for a constitutional government, and adventurous and
+expensive wars, solid reasons remain to love and respect his memory.
+His noble patriotism, frank heroism, brilliant genius and great
+generosity are worthy of high praise. His revolution of 1789 brought
+disastrous consequences, but he furthered the progress of democracy by
+annihilation of the aristocratic republic and saved his country from
+the tragic fate of Poland. Even if the Period of Liberty is to be
+credited for a great deal of the cultural development during his reign,
+Gustavus has a large share therein, and Esaias Tegnér is right in his
+eulogy when he says:
+
+    “There rests o’er Gustav’s days a golden shimmer,
+    Fantastic, foreign, frivolous, if you please;
+    But why complain when _sunshine_ caused the glamour?
+    Where stood we now if it were not for these?
+    All culture on an unfree ground is builded,
+    And barbarous once the base of patriotism true;
+    But wit was planted, iron-hard language welded,
+    The song was raised, life more enjoyed and shielded,
+    And what Gustavian was, is, therefore, Swedish too.”
+
+In the mixture of patriotism and unreserved cosmopolitanism, true
+genius and superficiality, earnestness and recklessness in the
+character of Gustavus III., the Swedes have recognized peculiarities
+of their own national temperament, for which they are tempted to love
+him as dearly, although not considering him to be as great, as his two
+predecessors and namesakes on the Swedish throne. By his eloquence, wit
+and amiability, his personality charmed even his enemies. In contrast
+to the sombre autocrats of the Barocco period, Gustavus III. was a
+typical Rococo monarch, and he tried to give the charms and grace of
+the Rococo epoch to his surroundings. In appearance, he was of middle
+size, slender and graceful, with a face which bespoke genius, and eyes
+of unusual size and brilliancy.
+
+_Gustavus IV. Adolphus_ was a boy of thirteen at the death of his
+father. His uncle, Prince Charles, was regent in name, but Baron
+Reuterholm, the latter’s favorite, was the real head of the government.
+Compared to the eccentric but energetic, generous and liberal
+despotism of Gustavus III., Reuterholm’s was a rule of pettiness,
+incapability, revenge and hypocrisy. Prince Charles was a good
+soldier, but early lost all energy through dissipation and a natural
+tendency to mysticism, secrecy and simulation. Reuterholm was a good
+worker, but of no ability as a statesman, sharing and increasing the
+love of mysticism and superstition characteristic of his master. The
+new policy was to estrange the friends and favorites of Gustavus III.
+as much as possible, they all being sent away under various pretexts.
+Prince Charles had from the start declared invalid the postscript of
+the king’s will, according to which Count Armfelt was to take part in
+the government. Later a conspiracy, with Armfelt as the leader, was
+detected, when he, who was abroad and later entered Russian service,
+was declared to have forfeited his property, rank and life. A young
+woman, Lady Madelaine Rudenschiold, who was one of the conspirators,
+was punished by being exhibited to the mob on the place of execution
+and afterward imprisoned.
+
+Prince Charles was criticised for the leniency shown toward his
+brother’s murderers, perhaps without justice, for the dying king had
+pleaded clemency in their behalf. Only Anckarstrom was executed, the
+other conspirators all receiving surprisingly mild sentences. This was
+contrasted to the petty and revengeful hatred shown the opponents of
+the new government, and one now recalled the fact that Gustavus III.
+in his last moments had refused to see the prince. That Charles also
+had aspirations of his own seems evident from the fact that he had the
+young king examined by physicians, raising doubt as to his physical and
+mental fitness to ever take a hand in the government.
+
+Reuterholm made himself hated and ridiculous by his pettiness. Thus
+restrictions were placed on extravagance in food and clothing, the use
+of coffee for some time being entirely prohibited. The Swedish Academy
+was disbanded because it did not make Reuterholm a member. The liberty
+of the press was extended and then suddenly restricted. Thorild, the
+writer and poet, was exiled for agitation against the old division
+of the Riksdag into four houses, “because its four Estates always
+have been bringing about one unsettled state.” Characteristic of the
+opinion of Reuterholm’s administration are the words which the warrior
+and philosopher, Charles August Ehrensverd, gave him in the course
+of a quarrel between the two: “Monsieur is ambitious to govern, but
+monsieur does not know how.” The best things accomplished during this
+period were the establishment of a military academy at Carlberg, and
+improvements of the Bible translation and the ritual and hymn-book of
+the church.
+
+The attitude toward France was changed with the change of government,
+Sweden being the first power to recognize the French republic. With
+that country and Denmark close intimacy was formed, which enraged
+Russia and England. In order to pacify the empress, old negotiations
+for a marriage between King Gustavus Adolphus and Alexandra, a niece of
+Empress Catherine II., were reopened and a decision reached. The king
+left for St. Petersburg. When the great ceremony was to take place, the
+empress sat there waiting with her brilliant court for several hours.
+No Gustavus Adolphus appeared. In the last moment he had been asked by
+a priest to grant his future consort, Alexandra, liberty to practice
+her Greek Catholic faith in public, which he refused to do, thus
+dropping the whole matter. The indignant empress was suddenly taken
+ill and died a few weeks later. Soon afterward the king married the
+beautiful princess Frederica of Bade.
+
+Gustavus IV. Adolphus was declared of age and took charge of the
+government when eighteen (in 1796). Reuterholm was dismissed, and
+Prince Charles retired. The king surrounded himself with the friends
+of his father, Armfelt and Toll being recalled, the latter taking
+excellent care of foreign affairs, as far as his authority went. But
+Gustavus IV. ruled alone, without favorites or influential advisers.
+This was most unfortunate, for he was entirely without the gifts of a
+regent. He was a lover of order, economy, justice and pure morals, but
+through lack of mental and physical strength his good qualities were
+misdirected. His father’s tragic fate had a sinister influence upon
+his mind, the equilibrium of which was shaken also by the outrages of
+the revolutionists in France. Of a morbid sensibility, and without
+inclination to confide in any one, his religious mysticism led him into
+a state close to insanity. He imagined himself to be a reincarnation
+of Charles XII., while in Napoleon he recognized the monster of the
+Apocalypse, which he himself was sent to fight and conquer.
+
+Gustavus IV. went to an extreme in his fear of liberal movements,
+placing severe censorship on the periodical press, book market and
+universities. Benjamin Hœijer, the great philosopher, for some time
+left his chair at Upsala and the country. A man who was resolved to
+“go even to the doors of hell in search of truth” could not be in
+sympathy with the bigot despot. Hard times, produced by failure of
+crops and fisheries, and by maritime losses during the war between
+England and France, threw added umbrage over the reign of Gustavus IV.
+He convoked a Riksdag, in 1800, in order to raise money to cover the
+debts involved by his predecessor. He never repeated the experiment.
+The nobles sanctioned the absolute rule, but stormy sessions ensued
+over the royal propositions, six nobles resigning from titles and
+privileges, six others their seats in the Riksdag. The peasants, almost
+as unyielding, were pacified by Toll. By his own authority, the king
+mortgaged the Swedish city of Wismar, in Mecklenburg, to the ruler of
+said duchy for a period of one hundred years, in receipt for a sum of
+some two million dollars.
+
+There was no question in which the insanity of the king became more
+apparent or disastrous than in his foreign policy. An alliance of armed
+neutrality between Sweden, Russia and Denmark came to naught through
+the inactivity of Gustavus IV., and he stubbornly refused to accept
+the repeated offers of Napoleon of an alliance with France in the
+combat with the powers. Things took a sinister aspect when an intimate
+alliance was effected between Napoleon and Alexander of Russia, in
+1807. Napoleon had lost patience with the lunatic king, and tried to
+call forth a catastrophe by urging Alexander to capture Finland, which
+he at first was unwilling to do. The French invaded Swedish Pomerania,
+and Toll was able to save the little Swedish army of 10,000 only by
+means of a most skilful diplomacy. Denmark, attacked by England,
+declared war against Sweden. Gustavus IV. made great preparations,
+sending Armfelt with one army to the Norwegian frontier and Toll with
+another to Scania. The regular army counted 100,000 men, and a great
+force of militia was organized. But through gross incapability of
+the government the majority of troops were never used, the militia
+suffering immensely through neglect and hunger.
+
+Czar Alexander at last decided to capture Finland. He called it
+himself an act of bad faith and treason against a relative and
+ally, and in a treacherous way he carried on his preparations. The
+Swedish ambassador was misled as to the object of the latter, and
+when informed received exaggerated accounts as to the force which
+was to invade Finland. Gustavus IV. was alarmed and gave the old and
+incapable field-marshal, Klingspor, appointed to command the army in
+Finland, directions to save his troops in the best way possible. And
+so commenced, in February, 1808, the war which after a heroic struggle
+was to separate the Finns from their Swedish brethren. Not only were
+the Finnish troops possessed of the noblest patriotic spirit, but
+they had also courageous and distinguished commanders, who, if duly
+supported and intrusted with more authority, would probably have been
+able to ward off the attack. Conspicuous among the latter were C. J.
+Adlercreutz, born in Finland, the hero of Siikajoki, Lappo and Oravais;
+G. C. von Dœbeln, the victor of Juutas, and J. A. Sandels, the hero of
+Pulkkila, Indensalmi and Virta, all three of them veterans from the war
+of Gustavus III.
+
+The aged General Klercker commanded a Finnish army at Tavastehus, where
+Klingspor arrived with his royal orders, which were for retreat and
+evacuation of the country. The troops were deprived of their hopes of
+a battle and forced to make a retreat of nearly 600 miles, suffering
+from cold and hunger. The retreat continued without interruption for
+two months, until the army, in April, found itself between Brahestad
+and Uleoborg. A battle was fought at Siikajoki, April 18th, the
+sub-commander, General Adlercreutz, receiving instructions to make a
+stand against the enemy until the safety of the army supplies could
+be insured. After five hours of fighting, the Finns won a glorious
+victory over the Russians. But royal orders for a continued retreat
+arrived, and the Russians took possession of Siikajoki.
+
+As long as Sveaborg, the Gibraltar of the North, was safe, the final
+outcome of the struggle must remain undecided. Sveaborg, the creation
+of Augustinus Ehrensverd, is situated on seven islets and consists of
+several strong works partly cut out of the rock and in an admirable
+way protecting and supplementing each other. The fortress was defended
+by 6,000 men, with 1,000 cannon and ample provisions of all kinds;
+in the harbor a division of the Swedish navy was at anchor. Olof
+Cronstedt, the commander, was dissatisfied with the king and a secret
+supporter of Prince Charles. His sub-commander, Jægerhorn, a brother
+of the leader of the Conspiracy of Anjala, was a traitor, probably in
+understanding with the Russians even before the war. A little army of
+4,000 Russians under the command of Van Suchtelen was sent against
+Sveaborg. This force was too small to make a serious attack; it was
+not able to capture any of the fortifications; the naked rocks made it
+impossible to build any earthworks. What the Russians could not effect
+by force they accomplished by treachery, winning over the commanding
+officers of Sveaborg through threats and promises. When the Swedish
+and Finnish soldiers saw the queer behavior of their officers they
+planned a mutiny; but this was not carried out on account of lack of
+leadership. The officers tried by the most shameful lies to pacify
+the soldiers, Jægerhorn taking the leading part in these proceedings.
+Sveaborg surrendered May 3d, all Swedes being made prisoners of war,
+but the Finns given free leave. When the troops saw the small force of
+Russians and their miserable equipment they were enraged, breaking
+their weapons and tearing their banners to pieces. Cronstedt, Jægerhorn
+and the other commanding officers became Russian citizens, and received
+high outward distinctions; but by both Russians and Finns they were
+ever treated with cold contempt on account of their shameless treason.
+
+With the fall of Sveaborg, all hope of saving Finland was lost. In
+the summer of 1808, her army fought several glorious battles under
+the command of Adlercreutz, Dœbeln and Sandels, but in the autumn it
+was attacked by a superior Russian force and was nearly closed in
+between Old Carleby and Vasa. Gripenberg stood with one division at
+Old Carleby, furthest to the north, Dœbeln lay prostrated by illness
+at New Carleby, and Adlercreutz stood with the central body of troops
+at Oravais, about twenty miles south from the latter town. The Russian
+army attacked the force which was with Dœbeln, resolved to cut off
+Adlercreutz from a retreat. One attack was already made at Juutas,
+near New Carleby, when Dœbeln, alarmed by the news and heedless of
+his serious illness, was seen approaching. His men received him with
+enthusiasm, collected their scattering forces and proved victorious
+over the attacking enemy. The Russians retreated and Adlercreutz was
+saved.
+
+The famous battle of Oravais was fought the following day, September
+14th. The Swedish army was arranged on a promontory in the sea, with
+artillery on a hill to the north, close to which a detachment of the
+regiment of Helsingland was arranged in an excellent position. Another
+detachment of the same regiment was by a little brook at the south
+base of the promontory, with two cannon, under the command of Count
+William von Schwerin, a boy of sixteen years. At this latter point the
+battle was begun at five o’clock in the morning. The Russians, 8,000
+strong, with twenty cannon and commanded by Kamenski, approached
+a bridge leading over the brook. The 400 Swedes offered a plucky
+resistance to the overwhelming force. Every time the bridge was filled
+by Russians, Schwerin swept it clear with the fire from his two cannon.
+This heroic struggle was kept up for four hours, when the Helsings had
+no more cartridges for their guns wherewith to support the artillery
+fire. The aide-de-camp Biornstierna, who was despatched thither by
+Adlercreutz, saw a pitiable sight. Most of the officers of the 400
+Swedes were killed and the Russians were storming across the bridge
+in heavy masses. “Now, count,” cried Biornstierna, “let us see what
+your artillery amounts to!” Schwerin let the Russians approach until
+only fifty feet from the cannon, when he ordered: “Fire!” The whole
+first fine of the Russian column fell. Schwerin gave command to have
+the cannon dragged a hundred yards back and then fired, with the same
+disastrous effect. Thus the retreat was made from hill to hill. At last
+the young hero received a mortal wound and his men were surrounded on
+every side. With a final effort he rose to his feet, broke through the
+lines with his valiant Helsings, and died in the midst of the Swedish
+troops.
+
+Adlercreutz closely watched the movements of the Russians, and saw an
+opportunity to break through their centre, which was successfully done,
+the enemy turning into flight. It looked like an overwhelming defeat
+for the Russians, when reinforcements arrived in the last moment, and
+the exhausted Swedes had to stop fighting on account of the darkness of
+the night. After a battle of fifteen hours the Swedes had lost 2,600
+men, or nearly one-third of their forces, but not one single cannon
+or banner. The remnants of the army followed the “royal orders of
+retreat,” crossing the Swedish frontier. Finland was lost and Sweden
+proper in danger.
+
+Only a revolution could save the country. The republican aristocrats
+were the ones to bring it about. A conspiracy among them was formed,
+George Adlersparre and Ch. H. Anckarsverd being the leaders. When it
+was rumored that the former, with the western army division, of which
+he was the commander, had left the Norwegian frontier and was marching
+on Stockholm, Gustavus IV. sent order to Toll in Scania to meet him
+with his troops, while the king seemed to make preparations to leave.
+Great excitement reigned in Stockholm, and General Adlercreutz, who
+recently had been received in the capital with enthusiasm, resolved
+to take action in preventing the king’s departure. Accompanied by
+half a dozen officers, he entered the king’s bedchamber the morning
+of March 13th, and took possession of the king in person, who made a
+struggle and later a frustrated attempt to escape. The body-guards were
+persuaded to remain inactive. Prince Charles was proclaimed regent.
+Neither this fact nor the arrest of the king seemed to impress the
+population, who received the news with ice-cold reserve. The king was
+conducted to Drottningholm, and later to Gripsholm, where he signed the
+document of abdication, finally to be escorted out of the country with
+his family, never to return. He died in St. Gallen in 1837.
+
+The regent’s first duty was to ward off the Russian invasion of
+Norrland and to obtain peace. Napoleon congratulated Sweden on having
+got rid of the “supremacy of a fool,” and sanctioned an armistice,
+granted by his general Marshal Bernadotte, who commanded an army in
+Seeland, ready to attack Sweden. Peace was made in Paris, Sweden
+receiving back Pomerania in return for a promise to close its own
+harbors against English ships. Peace with Denmark was made, with no
+change of territory on either side. Attempts to rout the Russian
+army of invasion at Ratan, in West Bothnia, were unsuccessful, but
+it withdrew by its own choice. In the treaty of peace signed at
+Fredericshamn, September 17, 1809, Finland, the archipelago of Aland
+and a part of Swedish Bothnia were ceded to Russia, the rivers of Torne
+and Muonio to form the boundary line.
+
+Finland, since time immemorial in intimate relations with Sweden, from
+whom she had received a portion of her population, had for 600 years
+with her mother country formed integral parts of the same realm. Sweden
+had given to Finland her religion, constitution, laws, privileges and
+culture, and in return received her fidelity and a host of patriotic
+men eminent in affairs of war and peace. Together the Swedes and Finns
+had fought on the battlefields of Europe for the political grandeur
+of their country and the religious liberty of the world. United to
+Russia, Finland preserved her institutions and privileges unmolested,
+and has, up to date, enjoyed a peaceful development greater than would
+perhaps have been her share under Swedish rule. The mother country
+was after this great loss forced to concentrate her energy on a more
+solid material progress, and has, according to the prophecy of Esaias
+Tegnér, “within the boundary of Sweden reconquered Finland.” The Finns
+have proved themselves to be one of the most talented and energetic
+of nations. Out of the two million inhabitants of Finland, two-fifths
+are Swedish, forming the nobility and the majority of the cultured
+classes. Already at the time of the separation from Sweden was born the
+national singer of Finland, John Ludvig Runeberg, who was to become
+the greatest poet that ever wrote in the Swedish language and one of
+the greatest that ever lived. In his immortal songs of “Finland’s
+latest war,” the two countries have a great common inheritance. Sweden
+dreamed of reconquering Finland as soon as a good warrior ascended the
+throne. This hope was given up forever. But the most intimate sympathy
+still reigns between the two countries. In case that harm to Finland
+or her home-rule should be done, and her independence be lost, the
+Swedish people would not be in a position to avenge such a crime, but
+it would cause profound grief and indignation, and would be considered
+a shameful act of violence which the glory of no peace emperor would
+suffice to cover.
+
+By the revolution of 1789, Sweden for a second time in her history
+surrendered her liberty into the hands of an energetic and patriotic
+ruler only to see the absolute power utterly abused by an incompetent
+successor. The loss and suffering were almost as great as at the death
+of Charles XII., but the era of democracy, peace and prosperity so much
+closer at hand. It was the spirit of the aristocratic republicanism
+which caused the timely downfall of absolute monarchy, but it was
+in its turn destined to fall for the spirit of democracy and a
+constitutional government.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+_The Constitutional Monarchy--Charles XIII. and the early Bernadottes_
+
+
+Charles XIII. succeeded his nephew. He was chosen king after a new
+constitution had been formulated and accepted by the Riksdag of 1809.
+Charles XIII. was one of the most unsympathetic of Swedish kings, but
+his reign marks a new period in Swedish history, commencing the era
+of constitutional government. The new constitution to which the king
+subscribed was not a radical document; it only reduced the power of the
+king. Hans Jærta, one of the nobles who had renounced their privileges
+and been active in the conspiracy against Gustavus IV., was the leading
+spirit of the constitutional committee and was appointed secretary
+of state in the new cabinet. Urgent appeals of the peasant Estate to
+reduce or abolish the privileges of the upper classes were of no avail,
+no reform of state or society yet being made. A proposition by Count
+von Platen to introduce a compulsory militia defence was voted down.
+This Riksdag, which lasted for a year, gave fuller liberties to the
+press, which at once used it to voice the popular dissatisfaction with
+the state of affairs. It was necessary to select an heir to the throne,
+as the old king was childless, Prince Christian August of Augustenborg
+being chosen, much in opposition to the nobles, who wanted the son of
+Gustavus IV.
+
+The prince of Augustenborg, who was Danish governor-general of Norway,
+accepted, and was adopted by the king, changing his name to Charles
+August. He was a plain, resolute and active man, unattractive in
+appearance, but of a kind and noble character. Beloved by the lower
+classes, who had effected his selection, he was treated coldly by the
+Gustavian aristocrats and by Queen Hedvig Elisabeth Charlotte (Princess
+of Oldenburg), who all favored the selection of young Gustavus,
+the son of exiled Gustavus IV. Reports of attempts to poison the
+heir-apparent were in circulation even before he arrived in Sweden.
+Prince Charles August himself often said that he thought he would die
+young by some stroke of paralysis, but he paid no attention to the
+warnings given him. During a parade of troops at Qvidinge, in Scania,
+he was suddenly seen to lose consciousness and dropped dead from his
+horse. Peculiarities in the investigation of the corpse, led by his
+physician, caused a second post-mortem examination, in which the
+celebrated chemist Berzelius took part. The report seemed in favor of
+the supposition that the death was caused by poison. The indignation
+of the populace knew no bounds. The friends of the government tried to
+coin political money by insinuating that the Gustavians, particularly
+Count Axel von Fersen the Younger and his sister, Countess Piper, were
+the responsible parties. At the burial of the dead prince the mob of
+Stockholm perpetrated one of the most hideous murders of a man who was
+without doubt innocent. When Count Fersen, in the capacity of marshal
+of the realm, was to open the procession, he was warned not to do so,
+but in pride and sense of duty resolved to meet his fate. Approaching
+the church of Riddarholm, his carriage was pelted with stones, Fersen
+himself seeking shelter in various places, but being pursued by the mob
+and killed. Fersen had sought protection in a body of troops, whose
+officers commanded them to turn him over to the mob. Thus perished a
+man who, with Curt von Stedingk, had received the order of Cincinnatus
+from the hands of George Washington, and who once was so near saving
+Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette from their cruel fate. Fersen’s brother
+was saved only by mere chance and his sister by a flight in disguise.
+The mob now was resolved to attack Countess Piper, who was thought to
+be at the castle, and the queen herself. But the authorities, who had
+brought shame on themselves by their unwillingness to save Fersen,
+interfered, directing a few shots of cannon against the mob, dispersing
+it and killing many (June 10, 1810).
+
+Sweden was once more without an heir-apparent to the throne. Frederic,
+the brother of Charles August, was favored by the king. Frederic
+VI. of Denmark was a candidate, but the old national hatred against
+the Danes was still too strong to make his selection possible. A
+count of Oldenburg was also mentioned by some. The Gustavians, to
+whom Adlercreutz belonged, dared not openly push their candidate of
+the old royal line. The patriotic noblemen in power were anxious to
+see some great general chosen, regardless of a royal pedigree, who
+could recapture Finland. King Charles sent two emissaries to Napoleon
+to notify him of the death of Charles August and the selection of
+his brother. Then one of the most original and daring schemes ever
+attempted on such a line was carried through by Count Otto Mœrner, one
+of the emissaries. On his own responsibility, he inquired of Marshal
+Bernadotte, one of Napoleon’s ablest generals, if he would consent to
+become heir-apparent to the Swedish throne. Bernadotte consented, and
+the consent of Napoleon was obtained through the Swedish ambassador
+in Paris. Upon his return, Mœrner was ordered to leave the capital by
+the minister of state, who blamed him for his unauthorized action. But
+from Upsala Mœrner led an eager agitation, with the result that the
+Riksdag of Œrebro selected Bernadotte, who was represented by a secret
+emissary. Thus the two generals who, at the abdication of Gustavus IV.,
+were, one in Norway, the other in Denmark, with troops ready to attack
+Sweden, both within one year were chosen to succeed Charles XIII.
+
+Jean Baptiste Jules Bernadotte was born at Pau, in South France, in
+1764. The son of a lawyer, he worked himself up in the army and was by
+the Revolution enabled to reach the high military stations for which
+his eminent genius had destined him. Next to Napoleon the ablest of
+French generals, he opposed the imperial tendencies of the latter,
+but was later repeatedly used by the emperor to fulfil important
+duties as a warrior, diplomatist and statesman, receiving the rank of
+a marshal of France and the title of Prince of Ponte Corvo. Related
+by marriage, the two were never on terms of intimacy, and the Swedish
+politicians who thought to please the emperor, and gain a strong point
+with him by the selection of Bernadotte, were mistaken. Bernadotte
+joined the Lutheran church at Elsinore and landed in Sweden October
+20, 1810. By his impressive appearance, his amiability and his genius,
+he soon won all hearts. As he never acquired the Swedish language,
+and as his superior ability as a statesman and warrior was not always
+comprehended, he suffered often through misunderstandings by his new
+countrymen, who never ceased to admire his eminent genius. Prince
+Charles, or Charles Johann, as he called himself henceforward, was
+of a commanding presence and had an interesting face, surrounded by
+black curly hair. His fascinating ways and winning disposition held
+captive the admiration even of his political opponents. Prince Charles
+refused to submit to the undue influence with which Napoleon tried to
+fetter him, and always carried high and with patriotic independence the
+interests of his adopted country.
+
+Napoleon soon found reason to be offended with Sweden. Through the
+peace of Paris, Sweden had agreed to close its harbors to England, but
+in Gothenburg, which town had suffered destruction by fire and was
+recently rebuilt, a lively traffic was secretly carried on, connecting
+England with Northern Europe and enriching Gothenburg. Napoleon was
+enraged and forced Sweden to declare war on England, which power,
+realizing the circumstances, did not open any hostilities, and allowed
+the commercial traffic to continue, although more secretly. Prince
+Charles, who from the start exerted a strong influence upon the
+government, effected an approach to Russia and England to save the
+dignity of Sweden, much to Napoleon’s dismay. He also put the army in a
+satisfactory condition by recruiting. This caused a revolt in Scania,
+which was subdued with severity. The Riksdag of 1812 passed a law for
+the establishment of a compulsory militia, all men between twenty-one
+and twenty-five years old being registered in classes according to age
+and instructed in military tactics and discipline.
+
+Napoleon tried by various methods to subdue and humiliate the
+independence of his Swedish ally, which, when fruitless, led him
+to acts of hostility. Prince Charles made peace with England and an
+alliance with Russia, who promised 20,000 men to assist in the conquest
+of Norway. When Napoleon and Alexander of Russia commenced war against
+each other, popular opinion in Sweden sided with the former, but
+Prince Charles, who knew in detail the nature of Napoleon’s power and
+its lack of a solid foundation, tried to make his views clear. He met
+Alexander personally, agreeing with him on plans of mutual action,
+at Abo in 1812. After Napoleon’s unsuccessful march against Russia,
+Swedish opinions changed and Bernadotte had free hands to follow up his
+policy. England formed an alliance with Sweden, agreeing to support the
+conquest of Norway and ceding the island of Guadeloupe (later sold to
+France by Sweden). In 1813, 25,000 Swedish troops were sent to Germany,
+joining the continental allies, who, divided in three armies, were to
+attack Napoleon, according to plans mostly mapped out by Prince Charles
+of Sweden. The latter was to command the Northern army of 100,000
+men, Swedes, Prussians, Russians and English, but his position was
+a difficult one, for his superior tactics were misunderstood by his
+subordinates and by Blucher, the valiant but headstrong commander of
+50,000 Prussians, who formed the Silesian army. But through the battles
+of Grossbeeren (August 23d), Dennewitz (September 6th), and Leipsic
+(October 16-19), the eminence of Bernadotte’s genius was fully brought
+out, his leadership and the Swedish troops taking honorable part in
+each. Napoleon and his armies were defeated and pursued by the allies.
+The monarchs voted a resolution of thanks to Prince Charles, who, with
+his army, marched northward to carry out the ultimate object of his
+policy, the conquest of Norway, the plans of which had been made by
+Count Platen and handed him before he ever left Paris.
+
+Denmark had declared war on Sweden and sided with Napoleon. By turning
+against Denmark the former Marshal Bernadotte saved himself from the
+necessity of making an attack on the country of his birth. Lubeck
+surrendered, the Danes were defeated at Bornhœved, Kiel and Glucksburg
+were captured, and the whole of Holstein occupied. An armistice was
+agreed to. Denmark offered the diocese of Drontheim, but Prince Charles
+was resolved to expel Denmark from the Scandinavian Peninsula. January
+14, 1814, peace was made at Kiel, Denmark ceding to Sweden the whole
+of Norway, except Iceland and Fero Islands, and receiving Swedish
+Pomerania and the island of Rugen in compensation.
+
+Norway, united with Denmark ever since the days of Queen Margaret,
+in a relation of more or less neglected conditions, during which her
+original independence was lost, had of late not been satisfied to
+remain under Danish supremacy. The governing class of officeholders was
+to a great extent of Danish origin and tendencies, and the patriotism
+of the population at large dates from a later period. Among the more
+cultured classes the revolution in France and close relations with
+England had fostered a desire for political independence. The Danes
+made use of this fact in order to try to maintain the relation with
+Denmark in some way. The Danish crown prince, Christian Frederic, was
+in 1813 made governor-general of Norway. He was a man of some brilliant
+gifts, but without any great ability. By journeys in the country he
+acquired popularity and adherents. In February, 1814, a meeting was
+held at Eidsvold by men of prominence, who declared the prince regent.
+May 17th a constitution was adopted and Christian Frederic elected
+king of Norway. His courteous offer of extending his rule to Sweden
+was there met by derision. After a triumphal return to Stockholm,
+Prince Bernadotte gathered his forces and attacked Norway both by land
+and sea, the aged King Charles XIII. having command of the navy. An
+army of 20,000 Swedes entered Norway under command of Von Essen, who
+captured the fortifications at Svinesund. The navy took possession of
+the islands in the archipelago outside of Fredericstad, which town
+was captured, with the fortress Kongsten, 100 cannon and considerable
+stores of weapons and provisions. The Norwegian army of 30,000 men was
+located in various places with the central body of troops at Moss. The
+plan of Prince Charles was to enclose it from all sides. A smaller
+Swedish force of 3,000 men was repulsed by the Norwegians in two
+conflicts at Lier and Medskog, celebrated by the latter as important
+victories. In the meantime the Swedish army proceeded northward and the
+fleet penetrated to the bay of Christiania. The plan to enclose the
+Norwegian army at Moss was being carried into effect in order to finish
+the war by one single battle, when negotiations for peace were begun.
+
+Prince Charles was anxious to have the conflict brought to a rapid
+close because he feared that the powers, envious of Sweden’s good
+fortune and dissatisfied with the refusal of Prince Charles to join
+in an attack on France, might take unfavorable decisions at the
+approaching congress of Vienna. Prompted by these reasons, and perhaps
+influenced by his experience of revolutionary movements, Prince Charles
+offered to sanction Norway’s constitution only with such changes
+as were necessary for a union with Sweden, besides demanding the
+abdication and speedy departure of Christian Frederic. On these terms
+peace was made at the convention of Moss, August 14, 1814. At the first
+meeting of the Norwegian Storthing, or Diet, the terms of peace were
+sanctioned and Charles XIII. chosen king of Norway. At the Congress of
+Vienna, in 1815, treaties were signed between Sweden and Prussia and
+between Denmark and Prussia, according to which Swedish Pomerania and
+Rugen were ceded to Prussia on the payment of about $2,000,000, and the
+duchy of Lauenburg ceded to Denmark. In the relation between Sweden and
+Norway no change was made, and Denmark lost all hope of the restitution
+of the latter country.
+
+The great moderation shown by Prince Charles in the acquisition of
+Norway has been criticised in various ways, but none of the arguments
+used against it have themselves been able to bear a critical test.
+The idea of uniting the two countries as independent states was
+older in Sweden than the very constitution of Norway which Prince
+Charles accepted. It was the idea of the leading men in Sweden who
+had dethroned Gustavus IV. in 1809. The Scandinavian Union is not the
+best imaginable, has brought Sweden no added power or security, and
+has placed her king in a difficult position. The only bond of union
+is the king, the two countries each having their constitution, diet
+and cabinet. There is only one department in common, the one of which
+the Swedish minister of foreign affairs is the head and which settles
+all relations with other countries for both Sweden and Norway. Three
+members of the Norwegian cabinet are residents of Stockholm, to prepare
+affairs pertaining to the Norwegian administration and to partake in
+affairs involving both countries. These stipulations are made by
+the Act of Union, accepted in 1815 by the Diets of both countries.
+According to the Norwegian constitution, the king can use no greater
+force than 3,000 men outside the Norwegian boundary, except with the
+special consent of the Diet. Thus Sweden cannot in case of war expect
+any solid support from her sister country. The loose connections of the
+Union did not become apparent during the reigns of Charles XIII. and
+his successor, and the powers of Europe were not aware of them. Thus
+the Union served its purpose as offering a solid front of unity and
+strength to the powers who were dividing and redividing almost every
+territory on the map of Europe.
+
+Charles XIII. died in February, 1818, at the age of seventy, and his
+talented queen followed him a few months later.
+
+_Charles XIV. Johann_ was fifty-four years of age when ascending
+the throne, but a man in his prime. To the dignity of the crown he
+brought a great personal influence, and his fame as a warrior, which
+spread throughout Europe. The firm diplomatic relations with Russia
+were continued, but approaches to England were also made. Charles
+XIV. gave close personal attention to the administration, being
+especially interested in the defence, finances, canals and roads.
+With his brilliant genius, quick temper and sense of superiority, the
+king sometimes reigned more alone and by his own decision than was
+considered advisable; but in the majority of cases he was influenced
+by the able men of his cabinet--Wetterstedt, Rosenblad, Skjœldebrand,
+Cederstrom and Wirsén. An intimate friend of the king was Count
+Magnus Brahe, who, though not a member of the cabinet, influenced the
+government more than was thought compatible with its dignity. Count
+Brahe, the head of one of the most distinguished of aristocratic
+families, used his great influence over the king mostly in a noble
+way, himself being raised to the highest dignities of the state. He
+was blindly devoted to the king, followed him like a shadow, taking
+infinite care of him during his last illness, and dying only a few
+months after his royal friend.
+
+One of the most remarkable works carried on during the reign of Charles
+XIV. was the Gotha Canal system, which was brought to completion.
+The old bishop Brask had spoken of a connection between the lakes
+of Venar and Vetter, and the great Oxenstierna thought of a canal
+between the North Sea and the Baltic across Sweden. Charles XII. had
+ordered Polhem to make a trafficable passage around the waterfalls
+of Trollhetta, which was done after new plans during the reign of
+Gustavus IV. During the Period of Liberty, Daniel Thunberg had made
+plans for the whole canal system. But Count Balzar von Platen was the
+man to make the great work a realized fact, devoting his whole life
+to it, conquering distrust, opposition and lack of funds. He spent
+six years in preliminary surveys before taking up the agitation for
+the realization of his plans. During the whole progress of the work,
+his efficient activity in looking after every detail could only be
+compared to his constant agitation in the Riksdag for the support of
+the immense enterprise and his scrupulous attention to the financial
+part of it. When the great canal was opposed as an unpatriotic scheme,
+endangering the defence of the country, Platen answered by completing
+plans for a colossal fortress in the heart of the canal system, which,
+when erected, became the strategic stronghold of Sweden, and was named
+Carlsborg. Platen died as governor-general of Norway, seeing his great
+life-work nearing completion. The Gotha Canal is the most remarkable
+of its kind in Europe, being 259 miles long, with 74 locks, many of
+which have been cut out of solid granite hills. It is of great value to
+commerce and affords a most picturesque scenic tour.
+
+Charles XIV. met with a power in politics which, from the start not
+strong enough to carry away victory, ended by attaining its goal. It
+was the liberal opposition in the Riksdag, supported by a liberal
+press. Charles XIV., in his native country, had seen to what an infamy
+the abuse of liberal forms of government could lead, and he was
+sternly resolved to antagonize any movement which aimed to introduce
+more democratic principles in the handling of state affairs and in
+the remodelling of the system of representation. Charles XIV. was in
+a delicate personal position. He was the only one of the Napoleonic
+marshals who preserved his throne after the fall of the emperor, and
+the strong continental reaction looked askance at this new man who
+wore one of the oldest crowns of Europe. But his great reputation as a
+warrior and statesman, and his persistent peace policy, ought to have
+been to him sufficient guarantees of the fidelity of his subjects.
+Charles XIV., in the agitation against the self-willed cabinet, saw
+an enmity against himself. By a network of secret detectives, the
+king tried to uncover conspiracies and plots which existed in his
+imagination only, or in that of those who were aware of his weakness
+and sought to gain personal favors by making use of it. The severity
+with which the press was censured and its members punished created
+a bitterness against the king personally, which ceased only during
+the few last years of his reign. With the new constitution a law
+establishing full liberty of public utterance in print was enacted, but
+a temporary restraint had been placed on this liberty, in 1812, on
+account of violent newspaper attacks upon Russia. The government still
+made use of this restraint, which caused many severe legal sentences
+and subsequent bitterness.
+
+Among the press organs of that period the “Argus” and “Aftonbladet”
+were the most conspicuous in their attacks upon the conservative
+government; Lars Hierta, one of the ablest of Swedish editorial
+writers, was the publisher of the latter. His paper was repeatedly
+confiscated. Anders Lindeberg was the publisher of “Stockholmsposten.”
+In an agitation against the royal monopoly in theatrical affairs,
+Lindeberg threw out the accusation that the king, for purely economical
+reasons, opposed a reform in those matters. He was arraigned and a
+sentence of death passed upon him, which was commuted to three years’
+imprisonment. But Lindeberg refused to accept any clemency, declaring
+himself ready and resolved to die. The government, who dared not take
+his life, was in a delicate predicament, but saved itself and Lindeberg
+by announcing pardon of “political criminals,” at the anniversary of
+the king’s first arrival in Sweden. Jacob Crusenstolpe, a novelist
+and writer of note, was one of the intimate friends and supporters of
+the government, but turned liberal, attacking the king in a pamphlet.
+He was sentenced to three years’ imprisonment, which created great
+commotion and a revolt in Stockholm, not subdued except after a bloody
+conflict with the troops (July, 1838). Crusenstolpe continued writing
+from his prison.
+
+The principal leaders of the opposition in the Riksdag were L. Boye,
+F. B. von Schwerin and C. H. Anckarsverd among the nobles, and
+Anders Danielsson among the peasants. This opposition criticised the
+government for negligence, extravagance and incompetency. Its policy
+was an entire reconstruction of the state, politically, socially
+and financially, on the basis of a constitutional government. The
+opposition commenced by establishing the right of free deliberations
+in the Riksdag. At the Riksdags of 1827 and 1828 the government was
+severely taken to task on account of the sale of ships to the Spanish
+insurgents in South America. The king was inclined to join England
+against Spain, but had to recede on account of pressure from Russia and
+the continental powers. The sales were partly annulled and the Swedish
+government experienced a considerable financial loss. Cederstrom was
+the responsible party, but upon his resignation his able successor
+Wirsén was able to cover up his tracks.
+
+If Sweden was forced to change her policy in the South American affair
+she was found unyielding in the settlement of the boundary questions
+with Russia. This power was anxious to obtain a slice of the Norwegian
+Finnmark, with excellent ice-free harbors at the bay of Varanger. In
+the ultimate settlement with Russia, in 1826, a great territory was
+ceded, but not any of the important harbors.
+
+In 1840 the opposition had waxed strong enough to effect one of its
+most desired reforms, the constitutional reconstruction of the cabinet.
+This body was made to consist of ten members, of whom seven were to be
+the heads of the various state departments, those of justice, foreign
+affairs, army, navy, civil service, finance and ecclesiastics.[5] As a
+consequence of this change in the constitution, several cabinet members
+resigned and were succeeded by men more in touch with the opposition.
+
+The greatest of contemplated reforms was a new system of representation,
+but the opposition was not able to carry it through. At the first
+revolution of Gustavus III., Stedingk favored a reconstruction of the
+Riksdag after the model of the English parliament. Gustavus III, was
+afraid to cause complications by the introduction of such a novelty,
+but considered it gravely at the time of his second revolution. In
+1830, the idea was taken up by the opposition, and Anckarsverd and the
+eminent lawyer Richert made up a plan for a new Diet, according to
+the plan of the Norwegian Storthing. This plan, with the idea of one
+chamber, instead of two, was repeatedly discussed at the Riksdag of
+1840, but not adopted. This remarkable Riksdag, which lasted seventeen
+months, did considerable for the improvement of education and was
+ultimately dismissed by Charles XIV., in a speech of a conciliatory
+spirit, which went far toward restoring the old popularity of the king.
+
+Charles XIV. died March 8, 1844, at the age of eighty-one. During the
+last years of his reign he received strong and repeated evidence of the
+love of his people, especially upon the occasion of his twenty-fifth
+anniversary as king of Sweden. “No one has made a career like mine,”
+he said shortly before his death. He was a child of the revolutionary
+epoch, favored by its opportunities to receive a high station, without
+being sullied by any of its vices. If it be true that his position
+often was made difficult through lack of appreciation by his new
+subjects, it is not less true that he, through lack of intimacy with
+the Swedish language, national character and traditions, was unable to
+further the development of his new country, in the same degree as would
+a native provided with such rich endowment. The sun of Charles XIV.,
+which rose in brilliancy, set in the glory of full appreciation.
+
+The reign of Charles XIV. produced a new line of eminent scientists and
+was the golden age of Swedish literature. The remarkable genius of J.
+J. Berzelius remolded the science of chemistry, placing it on a basis
+where there are hardly any limits to its scope. Elias Fries devised a
+new system of botany. Sven Nilsson, a distinguished zoölogist, also
+became the founder of a new science, comparative archæology. K. J.
+Schlyter edited a complete collection of the old provincial laws, a
+work of equal importance to philology and jurisprudence. P. H. Ling
+invented the Swedish system of gymnastics and founded the Central
+Institute of Gymnastics in Stockholm, where the Swedish massage or
+movement cure has won a scientific development worthy of its world-wide
+fame. E. G. Geijer, as a philosopher, was a noble follower of Hœijer,
+while as a historian he is the greatest genius of his country. As a
+poet and composer Geijer is also noteworthy. Professor of history at
+Upsala, he was once accused of heterodoxy, but acquitted. His political
+career was remarkable. Geijer was a firm supporter of the government
+and conservative principles, until fifty-seven years of age, when he
+joined the opposition.
+
+The world of letters was divided in parties as bitterly opposed to
+each other as those of the political world. The old Gustavian school,
+of which Leopold remained the last representative, was attacked by
+the “New School,” which, inspired by German Romanticism, was brimful
+of inspiration, imagination and feelings, but very little that was
+original, clear or national. Of this so-called “phosphoristic” school
+Atterbom was the distinguished leader. Stagnelius, a poet of rare
+attainments, but who died early, belongs in this group. The New School
+was in turn attacked by the “Gothic Society,” a school of national
+Swedish Romanticism, which introduced a cult of the Old Northern
+spirit of individuality, terseness and power. Ling and Geijer were
+among the leading men of this school, whose enthusiasm for everything
+national had a lasting influence upon the research for, and gathering
+of, folk lore, songs, traditions, customs, and every trait of the
+popular culture of bygone days. In Franzén and Wallin, Sweden had
+two religious poets of the very first rank. More famous than any of
+these was Esaias Tegnér, the second great national poet of Sweden,
+whose “Frithiof’s Saga” was destined to become the most celebrated
+literary work of all Europe in its day, appearing in a vast number of
+translations in a great number of languages. Tegnér was in sympathy
+with the old Gustavian school, but a member of the Gothic Society, and
+by his choice of subjects in harmony with the national school. There is
+a wonderful richness of sparkling life and wit in Tegnér’s poems, but
+they are sometimes overladen by the vivid ornamental images in which
+they abound. Tegnér was a man of extremely broad and liberal views on
+every phase of human life and effort. He hated with the whole power of
+his fiery soul the mysticism, obscurantism and morbid sensualism of his
+age. He was the sworn enemy of the “Holy Alliance” and the reactionary
+powers in state, church and literature. In his chivalrous spirit and
+love of the great individuals, he became the admirer of Charles XIV.,
+whose policy he therefore supported. Tegnér is not the one who in the
+grandeur and faultlessness of his creations has attained the very
+highest rank among Swedish poets, but is the greatest and most unbiased
+thinker among them, and has as such exerted a beneficial influence
+upon the national consciousness and cultural development. Tegnér’s
+judgment upon one of his Gustavian precursors may be repeated in his
+own case: “Perchance the greatest not as poet, but as genius.”
+
+_Oscar I._ was forty-five years of age at the death of his father. He
+was the only son of Charles XIV. and Queen Desideria, the latter a
+daughter of a French merchant by the name of Clary. Oscar was, in 1823,
+married to Princess Josephine of Leuchtenberg, a granddaughter of the
+French empress of the same name. It was a difficult position, the one
+held by the heir-apparent. Charles XIV. was jealous of his own power
+and popularity and suspected his son of being in sympathy with the
+opposition. The prince, distanced as far as possible from the affairs
+of state, devoted himself to the study of social and economic subjects.
+He gave a great deal of attention to the study of prisons and the care
+of prisoners, seeking by pamphlets to spread his sympathies for the
+latter and to improve their conditions. Oscar I. was fondly devoted
+to the fine arts, himself a talented painter and composer. He did not
+possess his father’s brilliant genius or power of personal influence,
+although an upright man of great talent and exceedingly prepossessing
+in appearance. Oscar was of a mild, sagacious disposition, who liked to
+go into detail and take time for investigation and decision. He was not
+a man of action, and lacked somewhat consistency in carrying out plans
+of a wider scope. Oscar I. had a little of the autocrat of the father
+in him and often acted on his own judgment, without taking the advice
+of his cabinet. Being the loyal, highly cultured and patriotic man that
+he was, he in various ways furthered the development of his country.
+
+Few kings have ascended a throne under such enthusiasm and joyful
+aspirations on the part of the people as King Oscar I. Several
+important reforms were enacted at the Riksdag which met in 1844, and
+the king gave his sanction to them all. It was decided that the Riksdag
+should meet every third instead of every fifth year, the liberty of
+the press was augmented, and to women were given equal rights in the
+stipulations of inheritance and marriage. The last-mentioned reform was
+bitterly opposed by the nobles, who feared it would, to a great extent,
+annul their privileges. The law was passed by the three lower Estates,
+in spite of the nobles, and was sanctioned by the king. Oscar I. took
+great pains to have the industries freed from the restraint under which
+they had been suffering during the reign of his predecessor.
+
+King Oscar surrounded himself with men of a more modern type than
+his father’s advisers. They were in touch with the principles of the
+opposition, although far from radical, and more respected for their
+character than for their ability. The opposition, which had been
+so harsh during the administration of Charles XIV., was toned down
+considerably; but complaints were soon heard that the new government
+was neither consistent nor resolute in its liberal policy and that
+courtiers and young officers won an unduly rapid promotion. Soon an
+opposition of a new order was organized against the administration.
+The conservatives, finding that it leaned too much on the liberal
+principles, attacked it for this reason. A powerful conservative
+party at the Riksdag was organized, with Hartmansdorff as the leader
+among the nobles and Archbishop Wingard among the clergy. Attacked by
+liberals and conservatives alike, and not supported by either, the
+government was of an undecided and vacillating tenor.
+
+The French revolution of 1848 influenced Swedish politics in several
+ways. The “friends of reform,” viz., the party desiring a parliamentary
+reorganization, were incited by the republican tendencies. The
+masses of Stockholm on one occasion gave vent to their feelings by
+demonstrations which were of a menacing character. Great crowds
+collected outside the place where a “reform banquet” was held. There it
+was resolved to attack the houses of Hartmansdorff and several other
+leading conservatives. The owners placed themselves in safety, but the
+windows of the houses were broken by the mob, who also threw stones at
+the troops. The tumult was quenched, but not without bloodshed. The
+press was greatly agitated for a long time afterward, using language
+against the government that was by no means choice. The liberals in the
+Riksdag commenced to take an attitude as decided as the one held by the
+conservatives. From this time on King Oscar showed great coldness to
+the liberals, and surrounded himself with advisers more in harmony with
+the conservatives.
+
+The proposition for a reorganization of the Riksdag, made in 1840,
+was not accepted, but a committee was appointed in 1848 to make a new
+proposition, which failed to please either government or Riksdag. The
+king then had a new proposition prepared, based upon general elections.
+The liberals did not think the royal proposition democratic enough and
+offered one of their own. Both of these were defeated at the Riksdag
+of 1850, thanks to the opposition of nobility and clergy. A third
+one was made by Hartmansdorff, but also failed to please, not being
+conservative enough for the nobles. Hartmansdorff aroused so much
+hatred among his fellow nobles that they refused to be seated on the
+same bench with him during the sessions. After a period of perfect
+isolation the old conservative leader was judged with greater leniency
+by his former followers. Shortly before his death, in 1856, he sent
+them the following greeting: “Ask the nobles not to stand up so long
+for their privileges, they will lose nothing by surrendering them.” It
+seemed as if the interest for parliamentary reform had died out during
+the latter part of King Oscar’s reign, but such was not the case; it
+only gathered force in the quiet, and the king was right when defining
+it as a “question which could never fall.”
+
+The influence of the revolution of 1848 also was felt in the foreign
+relations of Sweden. The German population of Holstein and Schleswig
+tried to sever their connections with Denmark in order to effect a
+union with Germany, Prussia taking upon herself to liberate said
+provinces. Denmark made various efforts to gain the active support of
+Sweden. The so-called “Scandinavism” was a good means to obtain this
+end. This movement, which aimed at the establishment of a closer union
+between the three Scandinavian countries, based upon the fact of the
+common origin of their inhabitants, had originated at the University
+of Copenhagen. The meetings of scientists and students, in 1842 and
+1843, at Stockholm, had given growth to this movement, which was of
+a very high-strung nature, but, as far as the Danes were concerned,
+also of an egotistical motive. Charles XIV. had been averse to this
+“students’ policy,” but Oscar I. was sympathetically impressed by it.
+“Scandinavism” rose high in 1848, especially at the universities, and
+King Oscar sent a communication to the Prussian government to the
+effect that he was resolved to oppose any attack on the Danish isles.
+An army of 20,000 men was ordered to Scania to give weight to this
+statement. A smaller division of it was even for a time quartered in
+the island of Funen. The German troops which had invaded Jutland soon
+retired and hostilities ceased for some time. King Oscar effected an
+armistice of seven months in August, 1848. As a result of the war
+between Denmark and Germany during the next few years an agreement
+followed, according to which Holstein and Schleswig would for some time
+remain under Danish supremacy.
+
+King Oscar had, from the commencement of his reign, tried to meet all
+demands for reform made by his Norwegian subjects, who were anxious to
+demonstrate to the world the perfect independence of their country.
+The king himself took the initiative steps to give Norway a national
+flag of its own, the two countries up to the reign of Oscar having had
+one common official flag. He also instituted the Norwegian knightly
+order of St. Olaf in resemblance to the older Swedish orders of
+Seraphim, Vasa, etc., and gave permission to place the name of Norway
+before that of Sweden in the Norwegian royal title. For these reasons
+public opinion in Sweden expected Norwegian concessions in regard to
+the Act of Union, which seemed in need of revision. A committee of
+men from both countries was appointed to make the revision, but the
+Norwegian members opposed all measures involving any change, expressing
+themselves in such emphatic terms that it was found best to leave the
+deliberations of the committee unpublished. In 1854 the Norwegian
+Storthing decided to abolish the office of a governor-general. King
+Oscar refused to sanction this law, but allowed the office to remain
+vacant during the rest of his reign.
+
+Intemperance had grown to be an evil from which the Swedish people
+greatly suffered since the reign of Gustavus III., when alcohol began
+to be produced in great quantities by the common people. The king
+encouraged the temperance movement, which was very fruitful in results.
+In 1853 the Riksdag abolished the free and unrestrained production
+of alcohol, which was changed into a regular industry and placed
+under heavy taxation. From 1855 onward, the principles of free trade
+were adopted for commerce and trade through the influence of J. A.
+Gripenstedt, the minister of finance, and seemed to have beneficial
+results in every branch of industrial and commercial activity. The
+state revenues were greatly increased and the surplus spent in
+improvements of the widest scope. The means of interior communications
+were vastly improved. In 1853 the network of the state electric
+telegraph began to spread and now embraces every part of the country.
+The agitation for the construction of railways had long been an active
+one. The first one constructed was a private railway between Œrebro
+and Arboga. In 1854 the Riksdag decided on the construction of trunk
+lines in Southern Sweden, to be built and controlled by the state. The
+Riksdag of 1856 appropriated a sum of $5,000,000 for that purpose.
+The railways were rapidly and solidly built under the supervision of
+Baron Nils Ericsson, the highly talented brother of John Ericsson, the
+world-famous inventor of the propeller, the caloric engine, the steam
+hose and the “Monitor.”
+
+The relations with Russia were not the best during the latter part of
+King Oscar’s reign. The Russian claims on the harbors at the bay of
+Varanger were repeated in 1847, and when deliberations for a settlement
+were opened, in 1851, Russia showed a tendency to take possession of
+the desired places. In the conflict between Russia, on one hand, and
+Turkey, supported by England and France, on the other, Sweden sided
+with the latter, especially after Russia had failed to recognize an
+alliance of neutrality under arms formed by Sweden-Norway and Denmark.
+In 1855 Sweden entered an agreement with France, promising not to cede
+any territory to Russia in case of a conflict. In 1856 peace was made
+at Paris; the only favor won by Sweden was a pledge made by Russia not
+to fortify the archipelago of Aland.
+
+King Oscar was a very hard worker and also fond of the pleasures of
+life. His health was injured through illness, in 1857, and he never
+recovered. The premature death of his second son, Prince Gustavus, a
+talented composer and highly popular, had a disastrous influence on
+him. King Oscar I. died July 8, 1859, after a long illness, beloved by
+the two nations who, during his reign, had enjoyed the happiest epoch
+of their history.
+
+Romanticism in literature had an important second blossom during
+the reign of King Oscar I. and his successor. With the exception of
+Runeberg and Almquist, it offers no name of the very first rank. But
+Runeberg, the Homer of the North, does not belong to Sweden alone, and
+Almquist, the only great Romanticist, had made his appearance during
+the preceding epoch. Charles John Ludvig Almquist was a genius of great
+versatility and exceptional endowment. He wrote with equal force in all
+branches of literature; besides the poet, dramatist and prosaist, being
+a good philologist and well versed in a number of practical pursuits.
+He anticipated the ideas of which George Sand became a champion, and
+wrote charming peasant idyls long before Auerbach and Bjœrnson. His
+most important work is an ambiguous creation, conceived somewhat in
+the form of Boccaccio’s “Decamerone,” but much larger, and containing
+productions in every imaginable artistic form. It is called _Tœrnrosens
+bok_ (The Book of the Wild Rose). Almquist has not, like Bellman and
+Tegnér, crystallized the Swedish national character in a lyrical form,
+but he remains, in spite of glaring defects, the most versatile and
+supremely gifted genius of Swedish literature.
+
+Nybom, Bœttiger, Malmstrœm, Sætherberg and Strandberg were talented
+lyric poets of this epoch, Von Braun, Sturzen-Becker and Sehlstedt
+good humorists, while Bœrjesson, Blanche, Jolin, Dahlgren and Frans
+Hedberg wrote successfully for the stage. Swedish women were destined
+to win fame for themselves by bringing the novelistic form to a
+richer development; principal among whom were Frederica Bremer,
+Sophie von Knorring, Emilie Carlén and Sophie Schwartz, while the men
+Crusenstolpe, Sparre, Mellin, Ridderstad and Starbæck cultivated the
+field of historical fiction, for which Swedish history offers such a
+wealth of appropriate subjects.
+
+Swedish composers of note were becoming numerous, although the field in
+which they chiefly excel is the rather limited one of lyric song, the
+most spontaneous medium of expression for the lyrico-rhetoric Swedish
+temperament. As the composer of “lieder” or _visor_, Adolphus Lindblad,
+an intimate friend of Mendelssohn, occupies a revered place in the
+history of music. Close to him stand Crusell, Nordblom and Josephsson,
+while Hæffner, Otto Lindblad, one of the noblest composers in this
+line, Prince Gustavus and Vennerberg are famous principally for their
+part songs.
+
+The cultivators of dramatic and orchestral composition have as yet
+been comparatively few. Chief among them is Bervald; further, Norman
+and Hallstrœm. In a later contemporary epoch, Hallén, Aulin, Sjœgren,
+Stenhammar have considerably brightened this aspect of cultural
+development. Gunnar Vennerberg occupies an honored place as a poet,
+humorist and composer in one. There seems to be a deeply rooted
+tendency in the Swedish national temperament to unite the various
+branches of artistic creation, which would stamp it as romantic in
+its very essence if there did not run a vein of stunningly realistic
+portrayals through the works of such composite nature. In the art of
+Bellman this tendency has found its highest exponent. Bellman selected
+for his subjects the life of the lower middle classes in the Swedish
+capital of his day. His Fredman sings of the experiences of himself
+and his friends. Vennerberg has chosen the student’s life at the
+University of Upsala as the subject of his duets between two students,
+“Gluntarne,” in which are mirrored as faithfully, and sometimes as
+artistically, as by Bellman the humorous and pathetic scenes which have
+fascinated the poet and composer.
+
+Swedish song for the first time acquired universal fame through Jenny
+Lind, who has had many successors, but no peer as a dramatic singer.
+Contemporaneous with Jenny Lind were a number of highly talented
+histrionic artists, principal among whom were Lars Hjortsberg,
+Nils William Almlœf, Olof Ulric Torsslov, Emilie Hœgquist and Carl
+Georg Dahlquist. The Swedish stage has set a good example for the
+preservation of the highest standards of the language, and in this line
+exerted a great cultural influence.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+_Parliamentary Reform--Charles XV_
+
+
+Charles XV., the eldest son of Oscar I., succeeded his father, having
+for two years presided over the government during king Oscar’s last
+illness. King Charles was of gigantic stature, exceedingly handsome
+and of a manly and noble bearing. There dwelt a fiery soul within him,
+conscious of its power, longing for heroic deeds and in sympathy with
+all that was noble in life and art. The king possessed an abundance
+of youthful energy and vivacity. He was a passionate hunter and a gay
+companion, who surrounded himself with men equally boisterous and gay.
+He was fond of jokes and merry pastimes, and took no pains to hide his
+weaknesses, which were of a convivial nature. In his social intercourse
+the king was exceptionally open and frank, treating everybody alike
+in a good-natured, hearty manner, winning the whole heart of his
+people. He understood better than any king since Charles XI. how to put
+himself in cordial relation with the masses of the people. But fond of
+playing practical jokes on high and low, he did not like to receive
+in the same measure. Charles XV. was devoted to the pursuits of art.
+Especially in his youth, he wrote poetry and distinguished himself as
+a landscape painter through his love for typical Swedish sceneries.
+Sweden did not at first know what to expect of her new ruler, and no
+one was able to predict the course of his policy. There were fears that
+his youthfulness and his fiery southern temperament might lead him to
+feel satisfied with the exterior of things or that he might give way
+to the impulses of the moment. These fears soon proved to be without
+foundation. The king had chosen as his maxim “Land shall with law be
+built,” from the old provincial law of Upland, and he remained, with
+very rare exceptions, true to the constitutional spirit of these words.
+He had the good fortune to find highly capable advisers, in whose hands
+he placed the details of the administration, and, in contrast to his
+father, was satisfied to give his attention exclusively to matters of a
+more general importance. He gave his unreserved support to his cabinet,
+occupying a position above all party interests. Charles XV. often
+sacrificed, sometimes only after considerable internal struggle, his
+own personal sympathies and inclinations at the request of the advisers
+when he saw that the welfare of his country and his own royal dignity
+demanded such a sacrifice. On account of this, his true constitutional
+spirit, he deserved as a ruler the blind adoration of his people. His
+summer residence, the castle of Ulricsdal, in the neighborhood of
+Stockholm, he changed into an artistic abode, with choice collections
+in various lines. Charles XV. had, in 1850, married Princess Louise of
+the Netherlands, of the royal house of Orange. Their daughter, Louise,
+was married to the crown prince of Denmark, and is still in life, while
+King Charles had to suffer the premature losses of his only son and of
+his consort.
+
+The cabinet which surrounded Charles XV. was one of the strongest
+bodies of its kind that ever controlled the government of Sweden.
+During his regency, Crown Prince Charles appointed Baron Louis de Geer
+minister of justice and Ludvig Manderstrœm minister of foreign affairs.
+These men continued their duties during the reign of Charles XV.,
+while Gripenstedt, as minister of finance, followed up his beneficent
+activity for the emancipation and development of the national
+industries. The historian, Frederic Ferdinand Carlson, had been the
+teacher of King Charles and had successfully continued the monumental
+work of Swedish history, left unfinished by Geijer. Carlson occupied,
+during the greater part of the reign of Charles XV., the position of
+minister of ecclesiastics (church and education), in which capacity
+he did great work for the improvement of educational affairs. The
+high schools and colleges were reorganized through new regulations of
+1859, being the work of Carlson before his appointment to the cabinet.
+Carlson also improved the public, or common, schools. King Charles was
+a warm friend of public instruction. In one of his speeches from the
+throne he said: “This is my ambition that a true and living culture
+shall penetrate our people and with its blessings reach the humblest of
+its cottages.”
+
+The relations between Sweden and Norway, during the first few years
+of the reign of Charles XV., were strained. The Norwegian Storthing
+once more voted the abolition of the office of a governor-general.
+It was thought that the king, who earlier, as viceroy of Norway, had
+spoken in a spirit of acquiescence upon this question, would sanction
+the vote of the Storthing. But in Sweden great indignation was felt.
+It was known and understood that the Act of Union contained nothing
+in regard to the office in question, but was created by a stipulation
+in the constitution of Norway which admitted the possibility of its
+being filled by a Swede. The Norwegian view was that the Storthing
+had exclusive right to decide the question, while the Swedish view
+was that it was a question concerning the Union and to be decided on
+by the diets of the two countries. Practically the Swedes were right;
+theoretically, and from a purely patriotic standpoint, which considered
+necessary the development of a perfect national independence even at
+the expense of the Union, the Norwegians were right. Ankarsverd, well
+known since the days of Charles XIV., made a motion, at the Swedish
+Riksdag of 1859, for the revision of the Act of Union on the basis of
+the treaty of Kiel, which motion in Norway was accepted as an insult.
+V. F. Dalman made a motion that the Estates should ask the king not
+to render a decision in the question of a Norwegian governor-general
+before the Riksdag had had an opportunity to look into the international
+aspect of the question. Great was the commotion caused by this issue,
+both in the diets and the press of the two countries. Swedish pamphlets
+were circulated which accepted the possibility of a dissolution of
+the Union. But in Norway, where the security of a union with Sweden
+had become apparent, especially during the conflict with Russia, such
+utterances were repudiated. Both of the motions in question were passed
+by the four Estates of the Riksdag, but put in such a shape that a
+request to have a revision of the Act of Union made was sent up to the
+king, with the demand for a royal proposition on that issue. The king
+was then asked to consider the question of a Norwegian governor-general
+in connection with that revision. As there was a difference of opinion
+also in the cabinets of the two countries, the final decision rested
+with the king alone. The sagacity and discernment of which King Charles
+gave evidence saved the situation and is worthy of praise. He declared
+in the Norwegian cabinet that he could not sanction the abolition of
+the office of a governor-general. Shortly afterward, he gave in the
+Swedish cabinet as his opinion the advisability of postponing, for the
+time being, all deliberations of a revision of the Act of Union. By
+doing so, the king quieted the high feelings in both countries, and
+peace returned. It had become apparent to both Swedes and Norwegians
+that the Union was the result of great political foresight because
+it was preserved through the increasing feeling of faith and of the
+necessity of mutual protection. That great obscurity existed in regard
+to the affairs regulating the Union had also become evident.
+
+The reforms and improvements which were effected during the reign of
+Charles XV. were highly important. New criminal and maritime codes
+were made at the Riksdag of 1862, and sanctioned by the government.
+Through the new regulations passed in the same year the foundations
+for increased municipal home rule were laid. Such home rule was as
+old as the country itself, but, in the same degree as the state
+organization, had attained a higher development, and the centralization
+of the administration was realized; it had weakened and was in peril
+of being entirely lost. Now the time was come for the powers of state
+to give municipal home rule new strength, adapting its old forms
+and creating new ones, in accordance with modern requirements. Laws
+were made which gave the towns the right to elect members to local
+assemblies (_stadsfullmœgtige_), with authority to act in behalf of
+their communities. Similar institutions (_kommunalstæmmor_) were
+arranged for the country communities. _Landsting_ were instituted
+in every governmental district, or _læn_, at which representatives,
+elected by the people, were to take action on the public affairs of
+the district, especially on such that pertained to sanitary conditions,
+communications, etc. The conditions for suffrage and elective franchise
+in municipal affairs were based on personal income. The old class
+distinctions were thus disregarded and a return made to the still older
+democratic institutions of the ancient Teutonic communities, in which
+every free man is entitled to his word and vote in public affairs.
+But those only are considered “free” who by their work can gain
+enough to pay their taxes in return for the privileges of a citizen.
+The church got a representation of its own in the clerical assembly
+(_kyrkomœtet_), which meets every fifth year and consists of equal
+numbers of ministers and laymen.
+
+The government in the municipal reforms found a basis for the
+reorganization of the Riksdag. The royal proposition for a new
+parliamentary representation, placed before the Estates in 1862, was
+built upon the municipal suffrage and the Landstings or district
+assemblies, the latter being authorized to elect the members of
+the senate, or First Chamber. The old system of representation
+corresponded as little with the new municipal home rule as with the
+general tendencies in politics and social life. The nobility had
+lost its old importance. It was no longer advisable for the clergy
+to take a leading part in political affairs. A new industrial class
+of wealth and prominence had formed and demanded a representation in
+the burgher class. The peasants had ever since 1809 been carrying on
+their agitation for a reduction of taxes and abolition of the class
+privileges. They had met with an overwhelming opposition, which would
+fall with the old system of representation. A parliamentary reform
+had been fervently discussed ever since 1840. The municipal home rule
+reforms of 1862 had brought the question closer to a solution. The
+burghers and peasants at the Riksdag of 1860 petitioned the government
+to present a royal proposition for the reorganization of the Diet.
+Baron Louis de Geer, the minister of justice, was the author of this
+proposition, which was presented in 1862 and placed on the table
+until the next Riksdag. The great question was acted upon at the
+Riksdag of 1865. There was a great deal of commotion on account of
+the opposition which was expected from the nobility and clergy. The
+discussions in the periodical press and in pamphlet form were lively.
+The country population preserved its peaceful and sensible demeanor,
+but the excitement in the towns was considerable and increased as
+the decision drew nearer. The majority of towns and several rural
+communities in their close proximity sent deputations to Stockholm,
+who tendered their best wishes to the able minister of justice for the
+success of his proposition. The commotion in Stockholm was so great
+that troops were ordered ready in case of an emergency. The 4th of
+December the proposition was voted on by the burghers and peasants.
+At the question of the speaker, whether they were willing to accept
+the royal proposition, the peasants rose to their feet in a body and
+gave their answer with one laconic yea. A few of the burghers spoke
+against the proposition, but it was carried also in their Estate, and
+by an overwhelming majority. Long and heated discussions took place
+among the nobility and clergy. The clergymen were generally opposed
+to the parliamentary reform, but feared to be found remaining as the
+only opponents in the storm of disapproval which would follow. For
+this reason they postponed their decision until the nobility had taken
+action upon the proposition.
+
+There rested a spirit of real grandeur over the deliberations at
+the Riddarhus upon this occasion, when the question of a voluntary
+surrender of the aristocratic privileges was to be decided. The
+Swedish nobility had its class instincts and prejudices, but very
+rarely it had been found lacking in men of the loftiest patriotism and
+highest attainments, ever ready to take the lead in the defence of the
+independence of their country or to follow up faithfully the ambitions
+of their great rulers. Arrangements had been made to allow noblemen
+from distant parts and of very limited means to be present, if not
+during the time of the discussions, which lasted four days, at least at
+the casting of the vote. Never in the memorable history of the knightly
+chapterhouse had more eloquent language or loftier thoughts been heard
+than upon this occasion. Both supporters and opponents of the royal
+proposition spoke with great sagacity and discernment. The former
+spoke of the inadvisability of a representation by Estates and by
+hereditary privileges, and of the dangers of a further postponement of
+the needed reform. The latter nicely scrutinized the royal proposition,
+which was considered to give too great influence to the peasants, to
+weaken the executive power and to depend upon municipal reforms as yet
+untried. They further considered the upper house, or First Chamber, too
+homogeneous with the Second to be able to exert the conservative or
+retaining power expected from it. The members of the cabinet all spoke
+with fervor and persuasive power in favor of the royal proposition,
+especially De Geer, Gripenstedt and Carlson. The outcome was that the
+royal proposition was accepted by a vote of 361 yeas against 294 nays.
+The nobility as a class thus left the political arena voluntarily
+and with honor. Now the turn was come to the clergy, who unanimously
+accepted the royal proposition without further discussion. The
+result was accepted with outbursts of enthusiasm from all over the
+country, but especially from the towns. The four Estates adjourned
+June 22, 1866, forever, and the law of the new system of parliamentary
+representation was sanctioned the same date.
+
+The royal proposition, which became the law of a new Diet, is based
+upon the principle of general elections. The Riksdag meets at the
+commencement of every year. It is divided into two houses or Chambers.
+The members of the First Chamber, or upper house, are elected for a
+term of nine years, partly by the Landstings, or district assemblies,
+partly by the assemblies of towns which do not take part in a
+Landsting. Elective to the First Chamber are those who have a yearly
+income of at least $1,000 from some business or enterprise, or as the
+interest on a capital of their own. These members, or senators, must be
+at least thirty-five years of age; they do not enjoy any compensation.
+The members of the Second Chamber, or lower house, are elected by
+every judicial district in the country which has no more than 40,000
+inhabitants and by every 10,000 inhabitants of a town. Towns which have
+a population of less than 10,000 inhabitants are joined into election
+districts of from 6,000 to 12,000 inhabitants. Elective to the Second
+Chamber are those who pay taxes on an income of at least $200 a year
+and who are twenty-five years of age. These members are compensated for
+the time spent at the Riksdag. The ordinary Riksdag, which meets every
+year, lasts for a period of at least four months. The extraordinary
+Riksdag is called by the king whenever he finds it necessary. The
+members of the cabinet are elective as members of the Riksdag, and
+should, during all sessions, be present at the deliberations of the
+Chambers. The standing committees remain the same as during the time
+of the old system. Special and temporary committees are appointed when
+considered necessary. When the two Chambers end in a conflicting vote
+upon one and the same subject, the committee which prepared it for
+discussion should try to obtain a satisfactory solution. If such fails,
+the question is dropped for that year. The expenses of state, the state
+appropriations and the management of the national bank, when involved,
+form exceptions to this rule and are voted upon by both Chambers
+together, the majority of votes from both making the decision.
+
+A new era in Swedish history opens up with the acceptance of the
+parliamentary reform. The constitution itself had suffered no change,
+except in points of contact with the new rules of the Riksdag. But
+the powers of state no longer held to each other the same position as
+of yore. The government hitherto had, in the very division into four
+Estates, a support against powerful class and party interests. An
+equally solid support was not to be expected from a Riksdag of only two
+Chambers, which in questions of state appropriations is practically
+one. For this reason many would have preferred the establishment of a
+system which, instead of abolishing the mediæval arrangement of four
+Estates, would have added as many classes as there are really extant in
+the modern state, to gain the desired equilibrium through a manifold
+and dynamically operating representation. As things shaped themselves
+after the two Chamber system, the government ought more than ever to
+have a conservative, retaining power in order to preserve the proper
+balance. But such was not the case, for the Riksdag had been placed in
+a position to watch and control the executive power much closer than
+before, thanks to its authority to fix for each year the appropriations
+and expenditures of the state. The stipulation that the members of the
+cabinet are to take part in the deliberations of the Chambers gives
+another pillar of strength to the Riksdag. If the ministers of state
+are to exert any influence upon the decisions of the Riksdag, it is
+requisite to have its full confidence. The king is forced to select for
+his cabinet such members as are supposed to have an influence with the
+representatives of the people. The influence of the Riksdag has been
+steadily increasing ever since 1867.
+
+While the issue of a parliamentary reform occupied the attention of all
+public-spirited men, the interest in the political situation of Europe
+was hardly less intense. The sympathy with the unhappy Poles was almost
+feverish. In 1863 two motions were made at the Riksdag to petition the
+government to take an active part in the restoration of the kingdom
+of Poland, by means of diplomatic intervention. The position of the
+government was a difficult one. The complications between Denmark
+and Germany had recommenced, and it was important to stand in good
+relations to Russia. The Swedish public did everything to make these
+relations precarious, by demonstrations of various kinds in favor of
+Poland, warlike newspaper articles and subscriptions of money to the
+leaders of the revolt. Thanks to the sagacity and tactful demeanor
+of Manderstrœm and the common sense of the Riksdag the motions in
+question were defeated and a dangerous conflict avoided. Complications
+of a more serious nature arose on account of the reopened conflict
+between Denmark and Germany. The Danish government had failed in its
+efforts to make a satisfactory arrangement in the relations between
+the crown and the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. The Germans
+repeatedly mixed themselves up in the interior affairs of Denmark,
+and the Danes themselves were divided into several parties. King
+Frederic VII. at last concluded to give up the idea of gathering in
+the duchies as integral parts of the kingdom, satisfied to sacrifice
+the ultimate connection of Holstein and Lauenburg with the crown, but
+resolved to connect the originally Danish Schleswig with Denmark.
+The purely German parts were, through the so-called “March Patent”
+of 1863, separated from the rest of the monarchy, while Schleswig
+was reunited with it, according to the constitution. This policy was
+approved by the Scandinavian party in Sweden and Norway, supported by
+Swedish diplomacy, and, in the first place, by Charles XV. himself.
+King Charles was inspired by general sympathy with the Scandinavian
+movement and by personal friendship for Frederic VII. to follow up the
+Scandinavian policy of his father. The two Scandinavian monarchs met
+twice during the summer of 1863 and influenced the Swedish-Norwegian
+and Danish cabinets to draw the outline of a treaty of defence on the
+basis of the river Eider as the Danish boundary to the south. The
+Danish government made the proposition for a new constitution according
+to which Schleswig was to be united to Denmark. This was contrary
+to the promise made by King Frederic to the German powers in 1852.
+The proposition for a new constitution was placed before the Danish
+Diet and accepted. Two days later, November 15, 1863, King Frederic
+suddenly died, before he had sanctioned the new law. This was a severe
+blow. The popular king left his beloved people in a most inopportune
+moment, fraught with peril and disastrous mistakes. The people of
+Schleswig and Holstein renewed an old contention in regard to the right
+of succession. The new Danish king, Christian IX., gave in to the
+pressure brought to bear on him by his cabinet and the inhabitants of
+Copenhagen. He signed the new constitution, which gave to the German
+powers a valid excuse to interfere. The Prussian and Austrian troops
+crossed the river Eider to make good the agreements of 1852.
+
+The Swedish-Norwegian government was placed in an embarrassing
+position. The alliance of defence that was planned was to a great
+extent based upon the relations of personal friendship between Charles
+XV. and Frederic VII. Sweden was not legally pledged to shield Denmark
+as a consequence of the acceptance of the new constitution. But Sweden
+had taken a conspicuous part in the deliberations, for which reason a
+change of policy could not be made without considerable difficulty. The
+liberal organs of the Swedish press, headed by “Aftonbladet,” whose
+editor was August Sohlman, did everything in their power to make such
+a change an impossibility. But Sweden was not prepared to make war on
+two of the great powers of Europe, especially as no other power was
+willing to join in an alliance in behalf of Denmark. The change must be
+made; and was effected, principally because of the persuasive arguments
+and resolute demeanor of Gripenstedt. King Charles resolved to take
+the painful measures of a retreat. The standpoint of his government
+he gave to the Riksdag in the following words: “It cannot be expected
+from us that we should place our sword on the scale of justice without
+considering if the object can be attained with the resources at our
+command.” It was a supreme sacrifice that Charles XV. made when, for
+the safety of his countries, he was forced to draw back the hand of
+support and comradeship which he had offered a brother in distress.
+The noble-hearted king, in one of his poems, has given a touching
+expression of the sorrow he felt in being unable to assist Denmark
+in her hour of peril. King Charles might, with proper resources at
+his command, have proved a formidable enemy. He had given evidence
+of possessing all the qualities requisite for the make-up of a great
+general, without doubt an inheritance from his two grandfathers,
+Prince Bernadotte and Eugene Beauharnais. A few hundred Swedish and
+Norwegian volunteers took an honorable part in the Danish war, which
+was the only practical result of the Scandinavian policy. The Swedish
+press was violent in its attacks upon the government for its change of
+policy. In March, 1864, the mob of Stockholm assailed the residences
+of Manderstrœm, Gripenstedt and other cabinet members, breaking the
+windows with stones.
+
+Poor Denmark was left alone. Napoleon III. made the mistake of not
+attempting to defeat Prussia before she had reached her climax of
+strength. He was tied up with his Mexican adventure and unwilling
+to help Denmark. Charles XV. could not endure to see Denmark thus
+deserted. Privately he offered Christian IX. an alliance which
+stipulated that the three Scandinavian kingdoms should be joined into
+a union with one common foreign policy and common defence. Charles was
+also willing to make the succession one, if necessary. This alliance
+was to embrace only such parts of Denmark which were not to enter
+the German union. Sweden-Norway would do their utmost to prohibit a
+separation between Denmark and Schleswig. Denmark refused to accept
+this offer. Her leading statesman, Monrad, held stubbornly to the idea
+of an undivided Danish monarchy. For this reason, Denmark was for a
+second time abandoned to fight out alone her uneven battle. It ended
+in the loss of Holstein, Lauenburg and the greater part of Schleswig,
+through the treaty of Vienna, October 30, 1864. In Denmark a hard
+feeling against the Swedes and Norwegians sprang up as a consequence
+of the disastrous war fought without allies; and the Scandinavian
+policy and enthusiasm had received a blow from which they have never
+fully recovered. Charles XV. did all in his power to revive them. He
+had the pleasure of uniting the efforts of Sweden, Norway and Denmark
+in a peaceful work of great significance, the first Scandinavian
+Exposition of Industry and Art, which was opened at Stockholm in June,
+1866. The consequence was a perfect Norwegian conquest of Sweden, in
+a cultured sense. The painters Tidemand and Gude captured the prizes.
+The composers Kierulf and Nordraak took the lead in song and music.
+Ibsen and Bjornson became the craze in literature. The literary contact
+with Norway was begun in 1861, when Lorenz Dietriechson was appointed
+a docent at the University of Upsala, and for the first time made the
+contemporary Norwegian and Danish poets acquainted in Sweden. What
+Sweden received from Norway was a quaint, late-born Romanticism of a
+strong national flavor. When this Romanticism was changed into stern
+Realism its influence upon Swedish culture, especially her literature,
+was only increased, Swedish literature receiving strong realistic
+impulses from the neighboring Scandinavian countries. The Norwegian
+influence ceased, when the Swedes at last became aware that there was
+in it a deeply pessimistic trait, akin to the stern Norwegian and
+Scotch Christianity, which is incompatible with the Swedish national
+temperament, slightly inclined to melancholy, but of a robust and
+irrepressible desire to live and enjoy.
+
+Charles XV. followed up his practical Scandinavian policy by marrying
+his only daughter Louise to Crown Prince Frederic of Denmark. King
+Charles was as unsuccessful in his noble efforts to unite more closely
+his two kingdoms as in his foreign policy. The king allowed some time
+to pass in order to let the ill-feeling, caused by the conflict of 1859
+and 1860, die out. In February, 1865, he considered that the moment
+had arrived to institute the review of the Act of Union. He appointed
+a committee of Swedes and Norwegians to prepare the proposition of a
+new Act of Union, on the basis of perfect equality and right to decide
+separately all matters, except such pertaining to the Union. The
+committee performed the work, but their proposition was defeated at
+the Norwegian Storthing of 1871, at the instigation of John Sverdrup
+and K. Motzfeldt. The Swedish Riksdag for this reason also failed to
+accept it. At the close of the Riksdag, King Charles made the following
+utterance in regard to the defeated proposition: “What has now failed
+to attain success shall perhaps win out without difficulty when the two
+nations once have learned to place confidence in each other, as the
+result of a more intimate intercourse.” He saw with great satisfaction
+the completion of a railway which forever unites the Swedish and the
+Norwegian capitals with ties of steel.
+
+The administration of Charles XV. persevered in its liberal policy
+concerning questions of economy and jurisprudence. This was particularly
+noticeable in commercial matters. The idea of free trade had won
+ascendency in Europe. Napoleon III. had entered a treaty of commerce
+with England, in strict opposition to the protective system. Other
+nations were one by one admitted into the free-trade system by means
+of new treaties. Sweden made a treaty of commerce and navigation in
+1865. This step was severely criticised by the Riksdag of 1865-1866,
+both from a constitutional and financial point of view. Gripenstedt was
+accused of leading the way over demolished industries, but he defended
+his position with great eloquence. The treaty was ratified in spite of
+the powerful opposition in the Riksdag. The press condemned both the
+treaty and the government in the most violent language.
+
+The first Riksdag of the new parliamentary system met January 19, 1867.
+The “Landstings” had sent to the First Chamber the most prominent
+men of the country. It was a truly representative gathering, a house
+of peers elected by the people. Lagerbielke, the landtmarshal of the
+preceding Riksdag, was appointed speaker. The Second Chamber counted a
+larger number of peasants as representatives than of any other class.
+Anton Nicolaus Sundberg, then bishop of Carlstad, now archbishop of
+Sweden, was made speaker of the Second Chamber. The power of the
+peasants made itself felt at once. There was formed a strong and
+influential party, the _landtmanna_, or countrymen’s party, consisting
+of small landowners. The peasants constituted the majority, but the
+party also counted many titled and untitled country gentlemen in
+interests united with them. The founder of the party was Count Arvid
+Rutger Posse, later minister of state. Emil Key and the peasants
+Charles Ifvarsson and Liss Olof Larsson were among the leaders of the
+party. The policy of the Landtmanna party demanded simplification
+of the administration, economy in the matter of appropriations and
+a solution of the questions of the defence and taxation in harmony
+with the interests of the owners of the soil. The party followed up
+its policy with stern consistency from Riksdag to Riksdag, until in
+perfect control of the whole government. The opposition consisted
+of “the Intelligence” or intellectual party, which, without a solid
+constitution or a fixed policy, has in vain fought the spreading
+influence and power of the Landtmanna party. The latter has gone
+almost too far in its endeavors for economical reform, but has also
+given evidence of appreciation of the material needs of a cultural
+development, appropriating large sums for the benefit of science and
+education.
+
+The army question was the most important issue of Swedish politics. The
+events of 1866 had made it evident that a strengthening of the defences
+was necessary. King Charles was anxious to have the question solved in
+a satisfactory manner, finding therein the only reliable safeguard for
+the future independence of Sweden. It was apparent that any attempts to
+settle the question in accordance with the system adopted by Charles
+XI. would be devoid of result. It was based upon direct taxation of the
+soil and must be opposed by the strong majority of small landowners of
+the Landtmanna party. A compromise policy was for this reason begun in
+1867, the question of an abolition of the land tax being connected with
+the army question, although the two ought to have had no connection.
+The question was started with promises of a reduction or exemption of
+the duties of the old army system as compensation for the acceptance
+of a new arrangement for the country’s defence. The government made an
+army proposition to the Riksdag of 1869, promising several reductions
+to the landowners who furnished soldiers according to the old system
+(_indelningsverket_). The proposition was prepared by a committee,
+of which the new minister of war, Gustavus Rudolph Abelin, was the
+chairman. It was based upon the preservation of the old system for the
+furnishing of the body force of officers and men. The larger force was
+to be provided for through militia. The militia was to be drilled in
+the neighborhood of their various homes during sixty days of the year.
+The proposition was not accepted. The militia compulsory service, as
+the duty of every citizen for the defence of his country, had nothing
+to do with the regular army as provided by the stipulations of the old
+system. But the majority of the Second Chamber confused the two and
+refused to allow the establishment of the former on a wider basis,
+because the offers made to reduce the burdens of the old system did
+not appear to them liberal enough. In 1871 another proposition was
+made by Abelin to the Riksdag. It was similar to the first one, and
+its cause was eloquently pleaded by Abelin, Axel Gustavus Adlercreutz,
+minister of justice, Peter Axel Bergstrœm, minister of civil service,
+and Gunnar Vennerberg, minister of ecclesiastics. They warned against
+the mistake of attaching impossible conditions to the acceptance of
+the proposition. The proposition for an extended militia service was
+accepted by both Chambers. But when the Second Chamber raised, as a
+condition for its acceptance, the suspension, for fifteen years, of the
+old system which provided for the regular army, the government found it
+impossible to grant this, and the proposition was dropped.
+
+King Charles was grieved and vexed with the fate of the army bills.
+The Franco Prussian war made it, in his opinion, of added importance
+to Sweden to have her defences remodelled. He called an extraordinary
+session of the Riksdag, in the autumn of 1871, when Abelin brought
+out a third proposition. It was chiefly of the same contents as the
+preceding ones. But a remarkable change in the public opinion had now
+taken place, as to the advisability of retaining the old system. Men
+who looked upon the question more from a military than an economic
+point of view entertained doubts as to the practical value of the
+old regular army as the body force of a compulsory militia. Military
+officers commenced to attack the old system as the basis of a new army.
+The Landtmanna party persevered in the request for an abolition of the
+old system, and this killed the army bill at the extraordinary Riksdag.
+
+Together with the request for an abolition of the old army system,
+demands for redemption from other burdens placed upon the owners of
+the soil made themselves heard. The land-tax was the principal one of
+these burdens and caused as much difference of opinion as the army
+system. The Landtmanna party considered the land-tax to be of the
+same nature originally as other taxes, which ought to be more evenly
+distributed and shared by all classes in the same proportion. The
+Intelligence party was of the opinion that the land-tax in the course
+of time had come to be rents or mortgages which always were taken into
+consideration at the exchange of property, as reducing the stock value
+of the property in question. To free a present generation from the
+payment of land-tax, was in the eyes of the opposition, an injustice
+to the other classes whose taxes thereby were to be increased. The
+Landtmanna party had, in 1869, commenced an agitation for the reduction
+of the land-tax for shorter periods and on a small scale at first, but
+with increasing demands at every new Riksdag.
+
+The government, whose members had been the champions of parliamentary
+reform, was soon disregarded by the triumphant party, while its old
+opponents never forgot it. The earlier advisers of the king retired
+one by one when they saw their influence in the Riksdag vanish. King
+Charles himself took the defeat of the army bills deep at heart. His
+health commenced to fail in 1871, and when his faithful consort died,
+in the same year, having exposed her own health in her attempts to
+improve the condition of the king, the latter grew worse. After a trip
+abroad for his health, King Charles XV. died at Malmœ, September 18,
+1872, deeply mourned by the two nations. In the following year his
+youngest brother Nicolaus August, duke of Dalecarlia, died, leaving
+only two of the children of Oscar I., Oscar Frederic, duke of East
+Gothland, and Princess Eugenie. The history of Charles XV. carries the
+principal traits of his character. His sweeping reforms in social,
+political and economical matters, and his great plans for the future,
+even if sometimes immature, or high-strung, were always characterized
+by loftiness of purpose. A typical Swede both in his merits and his
+faults, this was the secret of the immense popularity of King Charles,
+which always followed him, although he never sought it.
+
+The philosopher Christian Jacob Bostrœm is the most popular of Swedish
+thinkers and the first who founded a national system and school of
+philosophy, idealistic and rational, and in strict opposition to the
+system of Hegel. Bostrœm was born in Pitea, in 1797, was the teacher of
+the sons of Oscar I., and succeeded the able philosopher Samuel Grubbe,
+a talented follower of Hœijer, as professor of philosophy at the
+University of Upsala. Bostrœm was a highly fascinating and suggestive
+teacher, while he neglected his literary production, which is neither
+exhaustive nor quite representative of his philosophy. He exerted a
+considerable influence by his outline of a philosophical state, which
+pleased the conservatives, while a much more widespread and lasting
+impression was produced by his criticism of the doctrines of a hell and
+a devil. A whole literature sprang into life, discussing vehemently
+the existence or non-existence of the fiend. To this literature and
+the works and writings of Bostrœm is to be credited the spirit of
+religious tolerance which characterized life and literature during the
+reign of Charles XV. It fostered in the cultured few a leaning toward
+Unitarianism or Theosophy, while it gave rise to a shallow materialism
+and religious indifference in the less cultured classes and individuals.
+
+The artistic, literary and musical life bore a decided resemblance
+to the intellectually interested but dilettantic king. Charles XV.
+was surrounded by a great number of painters who, although possessing
+a good deal of talent, succeeded only in the smaller field of genre
+painting. Remarkable exceptions are J. F. Hœckert, Marcus Larsson and
+C. H. L. D’Uncker, who possessed sterling genius and acquired great
+fame. Several promising painters, like George von Rosen, developed
+later the full scope of their power. The sculptor J. P. Molin was
+highly talented, a worthy follower of B. E. Fogelberg, who had enriched
+Swedish art with a number of highly important sculptures.
+
+In the world of letters, the spirit of dilettantism was more strongly
+felt than in art, Swedish literature, after its several glorious
+epochs, experiencing one of its most stagnant periods. A veritable
+giant among pygmies was Victor Rydberg, whose remarkable novel, “The
+Last Athenian,” appeared in 1859, but whose principal productivity as a
+poet and scientist belongs to a later period. So do, to a great extent,
+the best works of the poets Eduard Beckstrœm, also an able dramatist,
+and Count Carl Snoilsky. Zacharias Topelius, the Walter Scott and
+Hans Christian Andersen of Finland, must be mentioned here. Writing
+in the Swedish language, and for his principal work using subjects of
+Swedish history, he was as highly beloved in Sweden as in Finland. His
+excellent series of historical novels, called “The Surgeon’s Stories,”
+have been translated into several languages. His juvenile stories are
+not characterized by the same degree of inventive power as are the
+tales by Andersen, but Topelius had the latter’s ability of placing
+himself in intimate contact with the pure minds of all ages.
+
+In the most national of Swedish cultural elements, the song, the epoch
+of dilettantism found its most beautiful and lasting expressions. The
+quartet and chorus singing at the universities of Upsala and Lund was
+cultivated to the highest standards of excellence and had a splendid
+repertory in the songs of Otto Lindblad, Vennerberg, Prince Gustavus,
+Josephsson, Crusell, Cronhamn, etc. The Upsala students caused a
+great sensation by their singing at the Paris Exposition of 1867,
+and have repeated their successes at the Paris Exposition of 1878,
+and in Berlin in 1898. Swedish quartets of men’s and women’s voices
+have travelled all over the world and made a lasting fame for this
+minor but bewitching branch of musical art. As dramatic singers of
+the first rank, Louise Michaëli and Christine Nilsson have been the
+worthy successors of Jenny Lind. To this period, as well as to the
+next, belongs Elisa Hvasser, the greatest and most versatile actress
+Sweden has ever had. This artist was equally at home in the farce
+and melodrama, but excelled in the tragic parts of the Shakespeare,
+Schiller, and Ibsen repertory. Indispensable in their positions at the
+Royal Theatre of Stockholm, Michaëli, the songstress, and Hvasser, the
+tragedienne, did not travel, thereby losing the fame a world would have
+been only too glad to give them.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+_Progress and Prosperity--Oscar II_
+
+
+Oscar II. ascended the throne at a moment when universal peace was
+restored after the great conflict between France and Germany, and when
+an age of commercial prosperity for Sweden seemed to have begun. King
+Oscar had received the same superior education as his older brothers,
+is as brilliantly gifted as they were and of a more scholarly mind.
+As a writer on scientific subjects, a poet and an orator, Oscar II.
+had distinguished himself before his succession to the throne. The new
+king offered the best of securities for a sound administration in his
+thorough and versatile knowledge, wide experience in public affairs,
+and rich and harmonious endowment. Oscar II. still did not find it easy
+to gain the love and admiration of the Swedish people, of which he is
+so eminently worthy. He was the successor of one of the most popular
+of rulers that the country ever saw, but King Oscar has lived to see
+his own popularity almost outrival that of his predecessor. King Oscar
+is, at seventy, a handsome, spirited gentleman, with that dignity which
+age, rare attainments, high intelligence and a noble soul grant their
+common possessor. This the most learned and popular monarch of Europe
+is of a tall, commanding figure, six feet three inches in height, of a
+handsome, expressive face, with cheeks of a ruddy color and mild blue
+eyes.
+
+Oscar II. has shown great discernment in his arrangement of dynastic
+matters. Himself married to the fervently religious Princess Sophie
+of Nassau, the king has married his oldest son, Crown Prince Gustavus
+Adolphus, to Princess Victoria of Bade, a granddaughter of Emperor
+William I. of Germany, and a great-granddaughter of Gustavus IV. of
+Sweden. His third son, Prince Charles, duke of West Gothland, is
+married to Princess Ingeborg of Denmark, a granddaughter of Charles
+XV. of Sweden. These unions are well calculated to accentuate the
+increasing political, commercial and cultural intimacy with Germany,
+the Scandinavian policy of his predecessor and the desire of King Oscar
+to see the descendants of the old royal line of Sweden as heirs to the
+crown. In giving his consent to the marriage of his second son, Prince
+Oscar (Bernadotte), to Lady Ebba Munck, of the Swedish nobility, King
+Oscar has given evidence of the fact that he is not a match-maker
+regardless of the feelings of the parties involved. Prince Oscar,
+formerly Duke of Gothland, upon renouncing his share of inheritance to
+the two thrones, was allowed to marry the choice of his heart. King
+Oscar has tried to heal the wounds of the past by opening the vaults of
+the church of Riddarholm to the sarcophagi of Gustavus IV. and his son,
+and by giving Queen Carola of Saxony, the only living granddaughter of
+the former, repeated proofs of esteem and considerate distinction.
+
+King Oscar with his crowns had received as an inheritance two important
+problems to be solved--the reorganization of the Swedish army and the
+settlement of the difficulties in the relations between the two states
+of the Union. The latter has not yet found a satisfactory solution,
+although the king has devoted to it his most strenuous attention and
+the best of his efforts, in honest application to his royal motto: “The
+Weal of the Brother Nations.”
+
+The reorganization of the Swedish army was not effected until after
+twenty years of parliamentary struggle. The road of a compromise policy
+which was opened in 1867 was followed up at the Riksdag of 1873, in all
+the long chain of years royal army bills being repeatedly rejected.
+In 1885 the government and Riksdag agreed on a remission of thirty
+per cent of the military taxes of landowners in exchange for new
+regulations for the militia compulsory service. In 1887 the Riksdag
+sanctioned the total abolition of the “indelta,” or cantoned troops,
+as far as the navy was concerned, which was the first step toward the
+reorganization of the navy, and the same year the militia law of 1885
+went into effect.
+
+The old Landtmanna, or agrarian party, in 1888 gave place to a new
+protectionistic party. A contested election of twenty-two members
+from Stockholm gave a sudden majority to the protectionists, O. R.
+Themptander, the able minister of state, resigning. The army bill did
+not fare well at first. In spite of the fact that the Landtmanna party
+was brushed aside, the old enemies of an army reform, the landowners,
+nobles and peasants alike, still being strong enough to successfully
+oppose it. The Riksdag of 1888 passed a grain tariff, which went into
+effect February 14th of the same year, enforcing several other points
+of a protective tariff system.
+
+King Oscar called an extraordinary, or special, session of the Riksdag,
+October 18, 1892, when royal propositions were offered and accepted.
+The land-tax was abolished and a new army bill passed. According
+to the stipulations of the latter, the _beværingstid_, or period of
+liability for every citizen to bear arms, was extended to embrace
+twenty years instead of twelve, viz., eight years in the first ban of
+the _landtværn_, or militia, four years in the second ban, and eight
+years in the _landstorm_, or final levy. The first ban of militia is in
+time of war to form an integral part of the first fighting line, the
+second ban forming a reserve for the first fighting line. The final
+levy is to be called out for garrison duty exclusively, and for the
+defence of the country against foreign invasion. Six military districts
+have been established, five distributed along the entire coast of
+Sweden, the sixth inland in the western provinces to be a reserve
+ready to be used at the point and moment most needed. The reorganized
+army in active service is composed of _værfvade_, or enlisted troops,
+and _indelta_, or cantoned troops, the expenses also of the latter
+being paid by the government. The royal guards, chasseurs, hussars,
+artillery, and engineers are enlisted for two years up to eight. The
+militia troops are distributed among both the enlisted and the cantoned
+troops, the length of service with the colors being ninety days in time
+of peace. The infantry in which all the cantoned troops serve consist
+of twenty-six regiments and two battalions. The line is armed with
+Remingtons of 8.8 millimetres calibre. There are eight regiments of
+cavalry and six regiments and six batteries of field artillery, forty
+batteries in all, with 240 cannon. The effective of the active army,
+in 1896, was 1,953 officers, 571 employees, 1,779 non-commissioned
+officers, 1,641 musicians and 38,802 men, with 6,852 horses. The war
+effective is 272,994 men, besides 180,000 in the _landstorm_. The chief
+fortifications of Sweden are Carlscrona, on the south coast; two
+fortresses outside of Stockholm, viz., Vaxholm and Oscar Fredericsborg;
+and, in the interior, Carlsborg, near Lake Vetter. The navy comprises
+4 turret ships, with 10-inch armor, armed each with 2 10-inch and
+4 5.9-inch guns, and having a total displacement of 12,450 tons; 4
+armor clad monitors, 9 armored gunboats, 3 corvettes, 9 first-class
+and 5 second-class gunboats, 2 torpedo cruisers, 7 first-class and 9
+second-class torpedo boats, 5 torpedo launches, and 12 school ships.
+The navy is manned by 267 officers and about 4,500 sailors, not
+including conscripts to the number of 8,500 men. The entire cost of the
+defence of Sweden exceeds ten million dollars a year.
+
+The movement for a reorganization of the defences has not been caused
+by any change in the policy of peace, which has faithfully been carried
+out by all the rulers of the Bernadotte dynasty. The ruler of Sweden
+and her people desire peace, but not as a gift of mercy from the great
+powers, but as a self-chosen right which can be effectively defended
+if necessary. The ever-increasing armament of the European powers
+has made a strengthening of the Swedish arms unavoidable, but the
+Swedish government was the first to announce its readiness to accept
+the invitation of Czar Nicholas II. of Russia to a conference for the
+discussion of a general reduction of the regular armies. Germany was
+made the pattern for the reorganization of the army and navy, the
+Swedish government having followed the German also in the treatment of
+the labor question, with schemes of accident and old-age insurance,
+accepted by the Riksdag.
+
+King Oscar, at his succession to the throne, gave evidence of his
+desire to meet the reasonable demands of his Norwegian subjects. He
+sanctioned, in 1873, the abolition of the office of a governor-general
+of Norway, the government at Christiania to be presided over by a
+Norwegian minister of state. To the later Norwegian demands for a
+separate flag, consular service and ministry of foreign affairs,
+King Oscar has been unyielding. The flag question is of subordinate
+importance. King Oscar, in 1899, has refused to sanction the resolution
+of the Storthing, three times passed, for a flag without the mark
+of Union, for the reason that the flag with that mark was offered
+to Norway by his father, Oscar I., and gratefully accepted when the
+country had no colors at all, except the Swedish. The Swedish people
+will carry their old flag with the mark of Union, irrespective of any
+changes made in the Norwegian colors. More serious are the questions
+of consular and diplomatic service. In 1893, the Swedish government
+offered to compromise by establishing a common ministry of foreign
+affairs whose head might be indifferently a Swede or a Norwegian. This
+was rejected by the Norwegian Storthing. The same offer was made in
+1837, when the dispute first arose, provided that the Norwegian troops
+should share the duty of the common defence of both kingdoms. The
+Swedish Riksdag of 1893 passed a resolution, in compliance with which
+King Oscar for a second time refused to sanction the bill of Norwegian
+consulates.
+
+The diametrically opposite views which are held in regard to the
+relations of Sweden and Norway are, to a great extent, caused by
+a misconception of the nature of the Union. In lack of a Union
+parliament, it has by many been considered to be only a personal union
+of two countries under the same king. Such is not the case. It is
+true that the two countries are both free and independent states and
+that the king is the only visible bond between them, according to
+the Act of Union, but the Union is nevertheless an _actual_ and not a
+_personal_ one. If it was only personal, the king could at will, or
+when forced to do so, resign his power in one of the countries and
+continue his reign in the other. The Act of Union cannot be changed
+except upon a resolution, enacted in both of the respective diets,
+and with the sanction of the king in behalf of the Union. A change
+can be made at the same Swedish Riksdag at which it is proposed, at
+the Norwegian Storthing not until the next regular session. As a
+consequence the Union cannot be dissolved by the representatives of
+either country alone, and the king cannot dissolve it by exercising
+any power of his own. The king cannot abdicate one throne without
+abdicating the other, for the first paragraph of the Act of Union
+stipulates that the two countries shall be indissolubly and irrevocably
+united under the rule of the same king. No abdication can be granted,
+except by common consent of the two diets in joint session. When the
+two thrones are empty, without an heir-apparent, a new king shall be
+elected by the two diets in common. What underlies the Norwegian claims
+of a separate foreign ministry is, besides to own an outward sign
+of the country’s independence, a desire for a closer constitutional
+control of diplomatic affairs. From the Swedish side the desirability
+of a Union parliament and a greater authority for the Union government
+has been expressed. The Swedes have been found unwilling to grant any
+change of the constitution of the Union, except the right be added
+for the Union government to dispose of the military forces of both
+countries, in equal proportion, for the common defence. King Oscar’s
+standpoint in the Unionist conflict has contributed much to increase
+his popularity in Sweden, where his firm refusal to sanction any
+measure which would cause a weakening to the Union has been received
+with the highest approval.
+
+A committee to review the relations of the Union and propose a revision
+of its charter was appointed in 1897, but failed to accomplish
+anything, the views of the Swedish and Norwegian members differing
+too radically in their opinions. It is to be hoped that the ultimate
+solution of the unionist conflict, whensoever it come or whatsoever it
+be, will bring the two countries of the Scandinavian peninsula closer
+together, without any great sacrifice on either side, least of all of
+their independence.
+
+During the more than eighty years of peace which Sweden has enjoyed
+under the rule of the Bernadotte dynasty, she has developed her
+constitutional liberty and her material prosperity in a high degree.
+The dreams of glory by conquest belong to days gone by, but in the
+fields of peaceable industries she has attained a greatness which the
+world begins to realize. At the expositions of Paris in 1867, 1878
+and 1889, of Vienna in 1873, of Philadelphia in 1876 and of Chicago
+in 1893, Swedish industry and art have taken part with honor in the
+international competition. The railways of Sweden have incessantly spun
+a more and more extended network of steel over the country, opening
+connections for enterprises in new districts and furthering commerce
+and industrial art in a wide measure. Oscar II. is an enthusiastic
+friend of railway improvements, the state having built and acquired
+a quite considerable length of road at his initiative. The length
+of Swedish railways, in 1896, was 6,145 miles, of which 2,283 miles
+belonged to the state, compared to a total of 1,089 miles of Norwegian
+railways.
+
+The post-office, which was made a government department by Axel
+Oxenstierna, in 1636, annually transmits 130 million letters and
+parcels. The telegraph lines have not reached a very high state of
+development; still there are 14,600 miles of telegraph. The telephone
+has made much more progress, far surpassing that of any other country
+in Europe. The total length of the connections exceeds 40,000 miles,
+and the number of apparatus is more than 25,000. Stockholm makes the
+widest use of the telephone of any city in the world, with her 300,000
+inhabitants having a telephone for every thirty. Sweden has developed
+into a commercial country of no inconsiderable rank, notwithstanding
+her isolated position. Exports and imports each exceed yearly in
+value $100,000,000, the imports being 344,290,000 kronor and the
+exports 311,434,000 kronor in value, in 1895, a Swedish krona being
+about twenty-eight cents. The commercial value of the foreign trade
+amounts to thirty-nine dollars in yearly average for each inhabitant
+of Sweden, which is about as much as in France. The imports chiefly
+consist of coal, coffee, salt, cotton and wool, while the exports are
+timber products, about forty per cent of the whole, iron and steel,
+the best in the world, machinery, butter, cattle, matches, etc. The
+inland navigation and commerce are very lively. The state finances are
+in a prosperous condition. The budget of 1898 showed total receipts of
+120,086,000 kronor, of which 14,229,000 was surplus from proceeding
+budgets.
+
+Thanks to the well equipped and regulated system of instruction, the
+general education has been so highly advanced that Sweden, in this
+respect, holds the very front rank among the nations. Besides the
+national universities of Upsala and Lund and the state medical college
+of Stockholm, city universities at Stockholm and Gothenburg have been
+recently founded which are quickly developing. All study at the
+universities consists of post-graduate work, there being about thirty
+colleges in various parts of the country which lead their pupils as far
+as the demands requisite for entering the universities. The Swedish
+university courses are of unexcelled thoroughness and completeness.
+The so-called Peasant High Schools are peculiar to Scandinavia, having
+originated in Denmark. There are twenty-five such high schools in
+Sweden, which give to young men and women of the peasant class a higher
+education than is available in the common schools, of which latter
+there are 10,702, with 692,360 pupils and 13,797 teachers.
+
+Scientific research progresses with energy and success, and Sweden
+possesses to-day a great number of eminent scholars, even if the epoch
+of men of universal genius appears to be a thing of the past there
+as elsewhere. Swedish scientists have opened closer relations with
+their co-workers in all parts of the world. The energy of King Oscar
+has brought about several congresses of science at Stockholm. In the
+natural sciences, Sweden still holds an honored place, in physics
+offering two great names, Eric Edlund and A. J. Angstrœm, the latter
+celebrated for his work on the solar spectrum, which forms the basis
+for the spectral analysis. Death has claimed these men and also J. A.
+H. Gyldén, an eminent astronomer; J. G. Agardh, C. W. Blomstrand, H.
+O. Nathorst, J. E. Rydquist, able botanist, chemist, agriculturist,
+and philologist, respectively; Pontus Wikner, the most remarkable of
+the disciples of the philosopher Bostrœm, and Victor Rydberg, the
+philosophical poet, novelist and polyhistor.
+
+Among the most noteworthy of living Swedish scholars are Adolph Norén,
+Axel Koch and Esaias Tegnér, Junior, philologists; Hans Hildebrand and
+Oscar Montelius, archæologists; P. Fahlbeck, Nils and Magnus Hœjer,
+Martin Weibull, Ernest Carlson, historians; A. M. Mittag-Leffler,
+mathematician; Hugo Hildebrandsson, meteorologist; E. A. H. Key, E. O.
+T. Westerlund, Anton Wetterstrand, F. J. Biornstrœm, T. F. Hartelius,
+Curt Wallis, prominent in various branches of medical science.
+
+King Oscar with fervent interest and unfailing liberality has
+encouraged various scientific explorations, and has had the satisfaction
+to see the greatest geographical discoveries of the century successfully
+made by Swedes, the circumnavigation of Asia and Europe, and the
+discovery of the Northeast Passage by Baron N. A. E. Nordenskiold,
+and the exploration of Central Asia by Sven Hedin, which has forever
+settled the learned disputes of ages. A third expedition, the most
+daring of scientific exploits ever attempted, still keeps the world
+in suspense as to its final outcome. July 11, 1897, S. A. Andrée,
+a scientifically experienced aëronaut, with two companions, Nils
+Strindberg and Knut Frænkel, started in a balloon constructed for
+the purpose, and with provisions for three years, from an island
+of Spitzbergen, with the purpose of reaching the North Pole. The
+daring aëronauts have not been heard from since their departure, but
+authorities like Baron Nordenskiold have expressed the best of hopes
+that they may have reached Franz Joseph’s Land in safety, whence they
+might regain settled regions.[6] S. A. Andrée belongs to a class of
+men, the Swedish engineers, who have won distinction for their ability,
+and on whom the examples set by Christopher Polhem and John Ericsson
+have had a stimulating influence. There are among them two inventors
+of the very first rank, who belong to the reign of Oscar II., Alfred
+Nobel (d. 1896), the inventor of dynamite, and Gustavus de Laval,
+the Swedish Edison. The latter is world-famous for his separator and
+other inventions, which have revolutionized the dairy industry. Alfred
+Nobel, the disciple of John Ericsson, has not only the glory of having
+invented one of the most useful helpers of mechanic and industrial
+progress, but also that of having set aside his vast fortune, amounting
+to something like $12,500,000, for public purposes. The money is so
+invested as to constitute a fund the interest of which shall be applied
+to five equal annual prizes, to be awarded for the most important
+discovery or improvement in chemistry, physics or medicine, for the
+work in literature highest in the ideal sense, and to the one who shall
+have acted most and best for the fraternity of nations, the suppression
+or reduction of standing armies, and the constitution and propagation
+of peace congresses. The first prize, physics and chemistry, shall be
+awarded by the Academy of Science of Sweden; that for physiology and
+medicine by the Carolin Institute of Stockholm; the literary prize
+by the Swedish Academy; and that for the propagation of peace by a
+commission of five members elected by the Norwegian Storthing. He
+especially directed that in distributing these prizes no consideration
+of nationality shall prevail, so that he who is most worthy of it shall
+receive the reward, whether he be Scandinavian or not. It seems that
+the sum of each of the five annual prizes thus instituted will amount
+to $75,000. The inventor of dynamite was deeply interested in all
+that was done to promote peace by congresses and societies. He always
+considered that by improving war material, and thus increasing the
+dangers of war, he was contributing his share toward the pacification
+of the world. Alfred Nobel has, by the manner in which the Norwegian
+Storthing is made an active party in the disposition of his will,
+indicated _his_ view upon the Union of Sweden and Norway and his hopes
+for a peaceful solution of their conflicts.
+
+Swedish literature, after the period of dilettantism and epigones, has,
+during the reign of Oscar II., twice been rejuvenated and continues its
+development on broadened paths and with a wider scope. The eighties
+were characterized by a strong realistic movement, which went far in
+daring truth of description and brought problems of a social, religious
+and political nature under discussion in works of a novelistic or
+dramatic form. In naturalism, it never went to the extremes of the
+other Scandinavian literature. The movement was to a great extent
+brought on by Norwegian and Danish influence, and soon subsided for
+want of solid and fascinating art to maintain it. The Swedish champion
+of this movement, although without the restrictions of any school,
+was August Strindberg, a genius of extraordinary endowment. Through
+the versatility and power of his talent, he created new forms for the
+Swedish drama, novel, short story and essay. In his battle against
+reactionary conservatism he went too far; an excitable nature, led
+into extremes, but he has had the manly courage to confess and regret
+his mistakes. Strindberg, who is an able historian, ethnographer,
+naturalist and sinologue, is the most versatile and prolific of
+contemporary writers. In the wide scope of his genius and originality
+of his methods, Strindberg is one of the most remarkable dramatists
+that ever lived. His autobiographical works are of supreme importance,
+both to the students of literature and psychology. Among his
+masterpieces are “Master Olof,” the great historic drama of his youth,
+“Swedish Fates and Adventures,” and “Utopia Realized,” two series of
+short stories, and “The Father,” a modern drama of unsurpassed tragic
+grandeur.
+
+Several women took an active part in the literary discussion of social
+problems, with more or less justice considered as the champions of
+women’s rights. Among these Anne Charlotte Leffler, duchessa di
+Cajanello, in spite of her premature death, developed into a novelist
+of merit who will be placed side by side with Bremer, Knorring and
+Carlén.
+
+The golden lyres of Romanticism were silenced and the epigones were
+hushed by the sarcasms of Realism. Count Snoilsky and Victor Rydberg
+were the only poets of the earlier period who sang with inspiration and
+were listened to. After the realistic movement of the eighties came
+a romantic reaction with new lyrics and new novelists, who avoided
+the ruthlessness of the realists, but had profited by their merits.
+This new movement cannot be called a school, for it is marked by its
+great versatility of subjects and great elasticity of treatment. If
+the definition of realistic art be “a piece of nature seen through a
+temperament,” that of the new movement may be “an artistic temperament
+attuned to pieces of nature,” a sensitive and supple talent which has
+an almost unlimited capacity to tell every story just in the vein its
+particular subject demands. Pre-eminent in this movement stand Ola
+Hansson, Selma Lagerlœf, Verner von Heidenstam, Gustaf af Geijerstam,
+Peter Hallstrœm, Thor Hedberg, Oscar Levertin, all fine novelists,
+almost all good poets, and Geijerstam, an able dramatist. One of the
+most interesting and supremely gifted poets Sweden has ever had is
+Gustaf Frœding, who generally excels, sometimes abuses, his remarkable
+versatility in finding a true lyric expression for the very widest
+range of subjects. Sigurd Hedenstierna is the most popular humorist,
+witty in his sketches, but impossible as a novelist. The greatest
+humorists are August Strindberg and Gustaf Frœding. Contemporary Sweden
+has very few and no great literary critics, but some good literary
+historians in Henric Schueck, Karl Warburg and Oscar Levertin. She has
+a number of able journalists, most distinguished among whom is their
+Nestor, S. A. Hedlund, of Gothenburg, a fiery but dignified champion
+of a liberal government, religious tolerance, social evolution and
+cultural progress.
+
+Swedish literature has a long pedigree compared to Swedish art, which
+is hardly more than two centuries old. All the more remarkable, then,
+is its rapid growth and high degree of excellence. The first school
+of Swedish painters was founded by the German Ehrenstrahl, giving to
+Swedish art the cosmopolitan character it has preserved to this day,
+influenced by continental but chiefly French art. Swedish painters
+early attracted attention abroad. Gustavus Lundberg, with a picture of
+Boucher and his wife, won the greatest success of the Salon of Paris,
+in 1743. Peter Adolphus Hall, “painter to the king and the children
+of France,” has been called the Van Dyck of the miniature painters.
+He resided in Paris up to the time of the revolution and took part
+in the storming of the Bastile. Alexander Roslin was, from the year
+1760, installed in the Louvre as painter to the king and councillor
+of the French Academy. In 1771 he carried home a prize which the
+immortal Greuze could not capture, much to the dismay of Diderot, and
+died as the most famous and wealthy artist of the period. In a later
+period, Italy attracted many Swedish artists, and later still, in the
+sixties of the present century, the influence of Germany, especially
+of the Dusseldorf school, was strongly felt. John Frederic Hœckert
+won the first prize of the Paris Exposition of 1855 with his large
+picture “Divine Service in the Lapmark.” When the glories of Hœckert
+were almost forgotten at home, Edward Wahlberg, in the seventies, was
+ushered into celebrity as one of the greatest landscape painters of
+modern times, equally appreciated in Germany, as later in France, and
+new French laurels were won by Hugo Salmson, William von Gegerfelt
+and August Hagborg. Since then French influences have become solidly
+established, with a few important artists of the Munich school, like
+C. G. Hellquist and Julius Kronberg. The climax of artistic honors
+was reached by Nils Forsberg, whose picture, “The Death of a Hero,”
+carried home the first prize of the French Salon in 1888 (not an
+exposition medal), a distinction which no Swede and exceedingly few
+non-French artists ever won. The repeated successes which Swedish
+painters have won at expositions of Europe were more than duplicated by
+the enthusiastic approval granted it at the World’s Fair in Chicago in
+1893. The truth is that Sweden possesses a number of eminent painters
+in every branch of painting, except the marine, which has been but
+sparingly represented since the days of Marcus Larsson. The most
+famous among them are, besides those already mentioned, Richard Bergh,
+Oscar Biorck, Eva Bonnier, Gustavus Cederstrœm, Prince Eugene, Eugene
+Jansson, Ernst Josephson, Nils Kreuger, Carl Larsson, Bruno Liljefors,
+Charles Nordstrœm, Allan Œsterlind, Georg and Hanna Pauli, George von
+Rosen, Robert Thegerstrom, and A. L. Zorn. It has been said of the
+Swedish painters, by way of complaint, that they are not, as their
+brethren in Denmark and Norway, in any marked degree national. Swedish
+art has, for its characteristic boldness and superiority in modern
+technique, loftiness of purpose, great individuality of expression and
+depth of feeling. Be these characteristics national or cosmopolitan,
+the Swedish painters are certainly a great credit to their country. To
+King Oscar it must be in a high degree satisfactory to see the artistic
+tendencies of his family culminate in the works of his youngest son,
+Prince Eugene, who, being in the front line of the advance corps of
+art, paints, from dreamy, inner life, pictures which are the delight of
+artists and true connoisseurs.
+
+The sculptors are less numerous, but the art of Sergel, Fogelberg and
+Molin have found worthy perpetuators and innovators in Per Hasselberg,
+John Bœrjesson, Frithiof Kjellberg, Alfred Nystrœm, Christian Ericsson,
+Th. Lundberg and Ingel Fallstedt. To the art of metal engraving on
+coins and medals Sweden has offered some works of the very highest
+value by J. E. Ericson, P. H. Lundgren, Lea Ahlborn and Adolphus
+Lindberg.
+
+Architecture cannot boast of any continuous chain of brilliant
+development. Since the days of Nicodemus Tessin there have been few
+great architects until in very recent times, when architecture has
+received a sudden impetus which has made its progress and results as
+remarkable, or almost more so, than that of the other arts. To Helgo
+Zettervall a number of elaborate national works of construction and
+restoration have been intrusted and, as a rule, carried through in a
+meritorious manner, although sometimes giving occasion for serious
+criticism. An important influence was exerted by Frederic William
+Scholander, more by his teaching than by his works. It is principally
+his pupils who in the last few decades have almost revolutionized
+the building methods and architectural aspect of the capital, and
+endowed Gothenburg and other towns with works of architectural
+distinction. Pre-eminent among modern architects are I. G. Clason,
+Gustavus Wickman, K. F. von Gegerfelt, Adrian Peterson, Hans Hedlund,
+Valfried Karlson, A. F. Anderberg, E. Lallerstedt. The Vasa, or Swedish
+Castle Renaissance, which with good effect has been reintroduced for
+monumental buildings, seems to lead architecture on to a wholesome
+national development, combining impressive outlines and solidity with
+elaboration and grace of interior decoration.
+
+The foremost composers of orchestral music have been mentioned
+above. Sweden maintains her reputation as being the country of song
+through the compositions by Hedenblad, Kœrling, Svedbom, Sjœgren and
+Arlberg, while Sœderman has brought the form of the ballad, based on
+national folk music, to the highest development. The royal opera of
+Stockholm recently moved into new and elegant quarters erected on the
+site of the old opera house built by Gustavus III. It possesses, in
+Caroline Œstberg, Mathilde Linden, Arvid Œdman, C. F. Lundquist and J.
+Elmblad, dramatic singers of high rank, while Sweden, in Louise Pyk,
+Mathilde Grabow Taube and Solomon Smith, owns concert singers of great
+eminence. The international firmament of song has two Swedish stars of
+considerable magnitude in Sigrid Arnoldsson-Fischhoff, a colorature
+songstress, and Ellen Nordgren-Gullbrandson, a Wagner singer. The
+greatest actor is Emil Hillberg, a noble creator of Ibsen and
+Strindberg rôles, while the country recently lost its ablest comedian
+in the death of Knut Almlœf.
+
+Sweden of to-day offers an attractive picture of a country in a high
+degree cultured and prosperous, but no country or period is entitled
+to reap only benefits or enjoy undisturbed happiness. No progress
+is obtained without struggle and relapses, and a good must give way
+for something better. Beneath a surface generally smiling and serene
+formidable religious and social forces are in motion. The Swedish
+state church is divided into two camps, which resemble a high and
+a low church, out of which the whole may come forward strengthened
+and rejunevated. The various sects are not all satisfied with the
+degree of liberty they enjoy. A shallow materialistic movement of
+anti-religious tendencies, which styled itself Utilitarian, caused
+some sensation in the latter eighties and early nineties, more through
+the somewhat too severe manner in which it was suppressed than
+through any of its own merits. There are agitators for a separation
+of state and church who are opposed by some of the stanchest friends
+of a constitutional monarchy. A separation of educational and church
+affairs seems desirable. The yeomen have regained the predominant
+position in political life which was theirs in the time of the ancient
+Teutonic communities, using their power in a way which is not always
+beneficial to the other classes or the state at large. The great class
+of country population, which has been in vain striving to rise to the
+privileged class of landowners, if even on the smallest scale, have
+emigrated in vast numbers. The emigration, which has given America
+at least 1,200,000 inhabitants of Swedish birth or parentage, is one
+of the most astounding phenomena of the century. It has, to a large
+extent, subsided, but may be revived if the pressure for social
+improvement is found of no avail. The workingmen are resolved to
+gain a representation and are striving to attain the introduction
+of general suffrage. The weapons they use are principally strikes,
+but may also turn to wholesale emigration. In 1893 the advocates
+of universal suffrage arranged for the election of a convention by
+popular vote, the first Folksriksdag, which addressed an appeal to
+the legal Riksdag, to consider an amendment for the extension of the
+suffrage. The liberals and radicals are interested in this agitation,
+and brought out their full vote to the Folksriksdag. The conservative
+party ignores the whole movement, probably not wisely. The towns are
+seeking an extended representation and bitterly oppose the curtailment
+of the rights already enjoyed, fearing the reactionary tendencies
+of the conservatives, who have their strength in the large agrarian
+population. Anarchism is something unknown in Sweden. The socialistic
+agitation, which is spreading among the classes without a political
+representation, is carried on without any great bitterness and entirely
+without lawless means.
+
+Any practical or theoretical agitation for a republic there is none
+in Sweden, the population as a whole not finding salvation from the
+defects of government or society in any outward change of rule. Civil
+service is enforced to the letter, and the social pressure from above
+downward is of a nature caused by financial or educational supremacy
+only and would remain the same under republican rule. The Swedes
+are proud of their history and the long and unbroken chain of their
+political and social development. Their neighbors accuse them of
+having traces of the chauvinism of bygone days, but not altogether
+with justice. The national anthem of Sweden can be quoted in their
+justification. It speaks, in one instance, of the country as enthroned
+on memories of a glorious past when its name filled the world; but
+that name is the North, to whose grandeur and loveliness of nature the
+whole song is a panegyric. The name of Sweden is not even mentioned, a
+fact which does not point to a narrow or antiquated form of patriotism.
+There is in the nature of the Swedes a tendency to delight in the
+display of dignified luxury, which was known to Tacitus. The Swedes
+love to see the crown of one of the oldest states of Europe carried
+with dignity as an emblem of their ancient independence. The Swedish
+king has in reality less power than the President of the United States,
+but the Swedes have an inherited faculty of confidence and loyalty of
+which their king receives his full share. The Swedes become excellent
+citizens of a republic for that very reason: reverence for, and loyalty
+to, the institutions and historial development of the country in
+which they dwell. Among the Scandinavian nationalities, the Swede has
+been characterized as the nobleman or aristocrat, on account of his
+love of luxury and the joys of life, his dignity, diplomatic talent
+and lyrico-rhetoric temperament. It is true that his dignity seldom
+forsakes the Swede; when it does, something of the soldier of the
+Thirty Years’ War comes to the surface. To her diplomatic talent, more
+than to her glorious victories, Sweden owes her superiority in size,
+prosperity and political importance, as compared to her Scandinavian
+neighbors.
+
+The fundamental laws of the kingdom of Sweden are: 1. The constitution
+of June 6, 1809; 2. The amended regulations for the formation of
+the Riksdag of June 22, 1866; 3. The law of royal succession of
+September 26, 1810; and on the liberty of the press of July 16, 1812.
+According to these statutes, the king must be a member of the Lutheran
+church, and have sworn fealty to the laws of the land. His person
+is inviolable. He has the right to declare war and make peace after
+consulting the state council. He nominates to all higher appointments,
+both military and civil; concludes foreign treaties, and has a right to
+preside in the supreme court of justice. The princes of the blood royal
+are excluded from all civil employments. The king possesses legislative
+power in matters of political administration, but in all other respects
+that power is exercised by the Riksdag, in concert with the sovereign,
+and every new law must have the assent of the crown. The right of
+imposing taxes is vested in the Riksdag. The executive power is in the
+hands of the king, who acts under the advice of a cabinet or state
+council, the head of which is the minister of state. It consists of ten
+members, seven of whom are ministerial heads of departments and three
+without departments. All the members of the cabinet are responsible for
+the acts of the government.
+
+Eric Gustavus Bostrœm is minister of state, holding office since 1891,
+after the protectionists had got into power and the compromise cabinets
+which followed were a thing of the past. The other ministers without
+departments, Baron A. L. E. Akerhielm and S. H. Wikblad, have remained
+in office since the days of compromise cabinets. The other members who
+have been in office from five to eight years are as follows: Count
+L. V. A. Douglas, minister of foreign affairs; P. S. L. Annerstedt,
+minister of justice; Baron A. E. Rappe, minister of war; J. C. E.
+Christerson, minister of marine; J. E. von Krusenstierna, minister of
+interior; Count H. Hansson Wachtmeister, minister of finance; G. F.
+Gilljam, minister of education and ecclesiastical affairs.
+
+King Oscar II., in the jubilee year of 1897, which marked the
+completion of a quarter of a century of his reign, received innumerable
+proofs of the love of the two nations under his rule and of the
+high esteem in which he is held by the governments and citizens of
+foreign countries. The occasion was celebrated by a large and highly
+successful Scandinavian exposition at Stockholm in the summer, Russia,
+with Finland, also taking part, and by a series of festivities about
+September 21st, the date of his succession to the throne. King Oscar
+has always given sympathetic attention to the United States, especially
+to their citizens of Swedish birth. Several deputations from America
+called upon the king in the jubilee year. Among these was a male chorus
+of fifty-four members, belonging to the American Union of Swedish
+singers. The singers were invited to the royal castle and received
+and feasted by the aged monarch with cordial simplicity, in all royal
+splendor, without any of its pomp or ceremony. To the hearty songs of
+his unpretentious guests, King Oscar responded with one of the eloquent
+speeches for which he is so justly famous, assuring them that, although
+citizens of another land, they were still followed by the loving
+interest of their mother country and her monarch. When the singers
+intoned one of the songs by Prince Gustavus, the king joined them with
+his sonorous tenor voice, smilingly calling their attention to the
+fact that he had not forgotten his students’ songs. The anniversary of
+the seventieth birthday of Oscar II. was celebrated January 21, 1899,
+a slight gloom being cast over it on account of the temporary illness
+of the king. Oscar II. fully recovered after a few months of rest and
+recreation and bears every indication of attaining the same advanced
+age, with the same unimpaired activity, as his grandfather, which
+would mean another decade added to the era of undisturbed peace. Crown
+Prince Gustavus Adolphus, who is yet little known in Norway, enjoys
+great popularity in Sweden, where his harmonious, sagacious nature and
+resolute energy are highly respected.
+
+The reign of Oscar II. in Sweden has been marked by reactionary
+movements in Church and State, but the king has been in such close
+contact with his people that they have recognized in him a sovereign
+who stands above the parties. The king has used the conservative
+elements of his country to strengthen her defences and to maintain the
+Union with Norway, which have been the great goals of his policy of
+peace. To sum up King Oscar’s standpoint in the Norwegian question,
+he is willing to grant Norway home rule in its fullest extent, but
+refuses to grant her separate control of foreign affairs, which he
+considers incompatible with the idea of the Union. In this standpoint
+King Oscar is backed by the convictions of the overwhelming majority
+of Swedes, who see in the dissolution of the Union a danger to Sweden,
+Norway, or both countries, of sharing the fate of unhappy Finland,
+which the civilized world is now deeply deploring. The danger which
+menaces the sons of Suomi has touched all Scandinavians to the quick,
+and it would seem that the new century shall witness a restoration of
+the Scandinavian policy. If the movement to bring this about meets with
+success, it is to be hoped that, from the start, it shall have rather
+the actual wants than the ideal rights of the independent Scandinavian
+states in view. From the point of view of citizens of the United States
+we cannot but sympathize with a movement which may establish a union
+of independent states into a realm of imperial government, less an
+emperor. Let there rather be two or three kings in the North, with one
+solid union government and a common and equal defence in case of war,
+than two or three foreign ministers with as many different policies and
+a divided and unequal defence.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+[1] The ancient name of this province, Viken, probably is the key to
+the disputed etymology of the word _Viking_.
+
+[2] These were not departments in the sense of bureaus, but _collegia_.
+
+[3] Through the efforts of the Swedish scholar, Eric Benzelius, Junior,
+a third edition was published at Windsor in 1750. J. K. Kohn’s edition
+dates from 1805, founded on the works of the Swedish scholars Sotberg
+and Ihre. Of later editions, the one by Professor A. Uppstrœm, of
+Upsala, of 1854 to 1857, is considered to be the standard one. A fine
+American edition has, in recent years, been published by Dr. G. H.
+Balg, of Mayville, Wis. The history of Codex Argenteus, after once for
+all being placed in the University Library of Upsala, has not been
+altogether uneventful. In 1834 ten of the 187 leaves were stolen and
+remained missing for twenty-three years. One of the trusted janitorial
+attendants of the library had taken them in the hope of obtaining a
+great sum of money for them, but later dared not dispose of them. On
+his death-bed he surrendered the stolen leaves.
+
+[4] Lewenhaupt is a German translation of the old Swedish family name
+of Leijonhufvud, and carried by a branch whose members held the dignity
+of counts. Almost similar is the derivation of Von Rosen from Tre
+Rosor, etc. During the Period of Political Grandeur, and later, it was
+a habit of certain branches of the old Swedish nobility to translate or
+Germanize their names in this way. The burghers and clergymen followed
+the custom when being ennobled, Archaic spelling was preserved, or
+adopted, in most cases.
+
+[5] The ecclesiastic department is also the department of education.
+
+[6] A. C. Nathorst, an able scientist and explorer, started in the
+summer of 1899 with an expedition to Greenland in search of Andrée and
+his companions.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+ A
+
+ Abelin, G. R., 408-410.
+
+ Abo, 89, 122, 171, 172, 186, 232, 313, 370;
+   peace treaty (in 1743), 316, 317.
+   University of Abo (see Universities).
+
+ Absolutism, Absolute Monarchy, 255-258, 260, 268, 293, 298, 300-301,
+     302, 308, 309, 310, 314, 344, 349, 350, 357.
+
+ Academic style, 339.
+
+ Academy, of Antiquities, 235;
+   of Art, 346;
+   of Science, 336-337, 340, 346;
+   Swedish, 346, 355;
+   French, 428;
+   Military, 355.
+
+ Adalvard, 68;
+   the Younger, 68.
+
+ Adam of Bremen, 63.
+
+ Adlerbeth, G. G., 345, 350.
+
+ Adlercreutz, C. J., 358, 360-361, 362, 367;
+   A. G., 409.
+
+ Adlersparre, George, 362.
+
+ Admiral, 189;
+   State, 250.
+
+ Adolphus Frederic of Sweden, 303, 316, 317-320, 339.
+
+ Adolphus John, Duke, 249.
+
+ Adrianople, 297-298.
+
+ Africa, 232.
+
+ Aftonbladet, 377, 403.
+
+ Agardh, J. G., 423.
+
+ Agne, 36.
+
+ Agnefit, 36.
+
+ Agriculture. See Sweden.
+
+ Ahlborn, Lea, 430.
+
+ Ahlstrœmer, John, 317, 321, 334-337.
+
+ Akerhielm, A. L. N., 435.
+
+ Akkershus, district of, 248, 307;
+   fortress of, 307.
+
+ Aland archipelago, 171, 388;
+   peace deliberations at, 306.
+
+ Albrecht the Elder, duke of Mecklenburg, 95;
+   the Younger, king of Sweden, 95, 96-97, 100, 102, 103.
+
+ Alemannians, 29.
+
+ Alexander I. of Russia, 357-358, 370.
+
+ Alexandra, princess of Russia, 355-356.
+
+ Alexandria, 27.
+
+ Alf, 36.
+
+ Alfred the Great, 43.
+
+ Alingsos, 217, 334-337.
+
+ Alliance, 187, 189, 202, 206, 225, 259, 273, 283, 296, 315, 319, 344,
+     352, 357, 370, 388, 404;
+   Triple, 252.
+
+ Alliterative prose, 66;
+   verse, 61, 66.
+
+ Almlœf, N. V., 390;
+   Knut, 432.
+
+ Almquist, C. J. L., 388-389.
+
+ Alnsnœ, meeting at, 86.
+
+ Alof, 38.
+
+ Alps, 21.
+
+ Alrek, 36.
+
+ Altmark, armistice of, 203.
+
+ Altona, 295.
+
+ Alt-Ranstædt, 279-281;
+   peace treaty signed at, 281, 290.
+
+ Alvastra, 74, 77.
+
+ Ambassadors, 254, 269, 272, 305, 358, 368.
+
+ Amber, 17, 24.
+
+ America, 232, 324, 332, 351, 432, 436;
+   South America, 378.
+
+ American Union of Swedish Singers, 436.
+
+ Amsterdam, 323, 326.
+
+ Anastasius, 28.
+
+ Anatomy, 262, 325;
+   hall of, 262-263.
+
+ Anckarstrœm, J. J., 352.
+
+ Anckarsverd, C. H., 362, 377, 379.
+
+ Anderberg, A. F., 431.
+
+ Andreæ, Laurentius, 141, 150.
+
+ Andrée, S. A., 424.
+
+ Ane, or Aune, King, 37.
+
+ Angermanland, 5.
+
+ Angermannus, Abraham, 183, 184.
+
+ Anglii, 47.
+
+ Anglo-Saxon, 58, 62.
+   See also Old English.
+
+ Angstrœm, A. J., 423.
+
+ Anjala Conspiracy, 348-349, 359.
+
+ Anne of England, 280.
+
+ Annerstedt, P. S. L., 435.
+
+ Ansgar, 41, 53-55.
+
+ Antiquarian, 233, 235.
+   See also Archæology.
+
+ Anund, Swedish kings: Brœt-Anund, 39;
+   Anund, 42;
+   Anund, or Jacob, 62-63.
+
+ Apocalypse, 356.
+
+ Apostles, Swedish, 41, 53-55, 58.
+
+ Apraxin, Admiral, 289.
+
+ Arabs, 49, 50.
+
+ Arboga, 108, 115, 124, 127, 161, 185, 387.
+
+ Arboga articles, 161.
+
+ Arcana Cœlestia, 325.
+
+ Archæan rocks, 6.
+
+ Archæology, 20, 235, 265, 423-424.
+
+ Archbishop, 54-55, 70, 72, 74, 78, 82, 87, 103, 111, 117, 124, 127,
+     139, 143, 150, 175, 183, 189, 266-267.
+
+ Architecture, 173, 176, 265-266, 302-303, 430-431.
+
+ Arctic explorations, 424;
+   Sea, 24;
+   Stone Age, 15, 16.
+
+ Ardan. See Jordanes.
+
+ Ardgard, 54.
+
+ Argus, 377;
+   the Swedish, 338.
+
+ Aristocracy, 65, 66, 101, 104, 115, 119, 174, 175, 188, 199, 238-239,
+     250-251, 256, 257, 314, 375.
+
+ Aristocratic republic, republicans, 314, 321, 352.
+   See also Nobility, higher.
+
+ Arlberg, Fritz, 430.
+
+ Armfelt: Charles Gustavus, 308;
+   Gustavus Maurice, 352, 354, 356, 357.
+
+ Army. See Sweden.
+
+ Arnoldsson, Sigrid, 431.
+
+ Aros, East (see Upsala).
+   Aros, West (see Westeros).
+
+ Aryan race, 265.
+   See also Indo-European.
+
+ Asa, Princess, 40.
+
+ Asa creed, 31-34.
+
+ Asia, 16, 34, 424.
+
+ Askold, 49.
+
+ Aspeboda, 134.
+
+ Astrology, 161, 169, 252, 268, 304.
+
+ Astronomy, 324, 333.
+
+ Asund, Lake, 126;
+   battle of, 151.
+
+ Atland, Atlantica, 263-265.
+
+ Atlantis, 264.
+
+ Atterbom, P. D. A., 380.
+
+ Atterdag. See Valdemar.
+
+ Attundaland, 39.
+
+ Aude, 35.
+
+ Audils, 37-38.
+
+ Auerbach, B., 388.
+
+ Augdof, fortress of, 198.
+
+ Augsburgian Confession, 183.
+
+ August II., elector of Saxony and king of Poland, 272, 277-279, 281,
+     290, 295, 297, 299.
+
+ August, Prince Nicolaus, 411.
+
+ Aulin, Tor, 390.
+
+ Aune. See Ane.
+
+ Austria: Swedish empire in the Baltic provinces, 40, 51-52.
+
+ Austria-Hungary, 172, 223, 245, 247, 253, 279, 319, 352, 403.
+
+ Avignon, 97.
+
+ Axelsson. See Tott.
+
+ Axtorna, battle of, 168, 169.
+
+ Aztec, 18.
+
+
+ B
+
+ Bade, 356, 415.
+
+ Bagge, Jacob, 164-166, 167.
+
+ Bailiffs, 88, 103, 104, 106, 107, 109, 114, 137, 138, 150, 151, 197.
+
+ Baltic dominion, 40, 51-52, 55, 57, 164, 199, 229, 249, 292, 312.
+
+ Baltic Provinces, 52, 78, 198-199, 200, 232, 282, 283, 291-292, 307.
+
+ Baltic Sea, 5, 21, 24, 25, 26, 49, 51, 75, 101, 130, 199, 229, 249,
+     272, 294, 305, 322, 375.
+
+ Ban, Militia, 417;
+   Papal, 77, 94, 121, 126.
+
+ Banér, Sten, 170, 185, 195;
+   Anne, 176;
+   Eric, 131;
+   Gustavus, 185, 195;
+   Per, 195;
+   John, 207-208, 222-225, 279.
+
+ Banner of State, 116, 118, 125, 168.
+
+ Barangoi, 52.
+
+ Barbro, Stigsdotter, 134-135.
+
+ Bark-king, 112.
+
+ Barn-lock, 86.
+
+ Barocco, 261, 321, 353.
+
+ Barons, Baronies, 162, 200, 238, 251, 257.
+
+ Bastile, 428.
+
+ Bavaria, 193, 210, 211, 222.
+
+ Beauharnais, Eugene, 404.
+
+ Beckstrom, Edward, 412.
+
+ Behm, Sara, 321.
+
+ Bellman, C. M., 345-346, 389, 390.
+
+ Bells, revolt of. See Revolts.
+
+ Belt, Lille, 245-246.
+
+ Belt, Store, 246-247.
+
+ Bender, 287, 293, 294, 295;
+   Kalabalik of, 297.
+
+ Benedictine monastery, 235.
+
+ Bengt, Duke, 86.
+
+ Bengtsson, Jœns. See Oxenstierna.
+
+ Bentseby, 266.
+
+ Benzelius: Eric the Elder, 266;
+   Eric the Younger, 237 note, 266-267, 322, 340.
+
+ Benzelstierna. See Benzelius.
+
+ Beowulf, 30, 31, 37.
+
+ Bergh, Richard, 429.
+
+ Bergman, T. O., 346.
+
+ Bergstrœm, P. A., 429.
+
+ Berlin, 223, 341.
+
+ Bernadotte, 365, 367, 418, 421;
+   Prince Oscar, 415.
+   See also Charles XIV.
+
+ Bernard of Clairvaux, 71.
+
+ Bernhard, duke of Weimar, 211, 214, 216, 217, 221.
+
+ Bervald, F. N., 390.
+
+ Berzelius, J. J., 325, 366, 380.
+
+ Beværingstid, 417.
+
+ Bible, 237;
+   Gothic (see Gothic);
+   translations of, 98, 150, 260, 355.
+
+ Bielke, Anna, 127, 132;
+   Gunilla, queen, 175;
+   Sten, 170;
+   Ture, 185.
+
+ Bielo-Jesero, 47.
+
+ Biœrkœ, 55.
+
+ Biœrn, Swedish kings, 42, 54, 55.
+
+ Biorck, O., 429.
+
+ Biornstierna, M. F. F., 361.
+
+ Biornstrœm, F. J., 424.
+
+ Birger, Brosa, 76, 77, 79;
+   Jarl, 77, 78-83, 86, 88;
+   King, 84, 87, 88-91, 92;
+   Persson, 89, 97.
+
+ Birgitta, St., 97-99, 100, 130, 154.
+
+ Birka, 42, 55, 71, 75.
+
+ Bishops, 71, 78, 86, 87, 112-113, 127, 128, 145-146, 183.
+
+ Bjœrnson, B., 388, 405.
+
+ Black Death, 94.
+
+ Blanche, queen of Sweden and Norway, 93, 97.
+
+ Blanche, August, 389.
+
+ Bleking, 5, 29, 63, 67, 93, 95, 150, 151, 190, 247, 249, 259, 291.
+
+ Blenda, 72.
+
+ Blomstrand, C. W., 423.
+
+ Blot-Sven, 69, 73.
+
+ Blucher, General, 370.
+
+ Bo Jonsson. See Grip.
+
+ Boccaccio, 163, 413.
+
+ Bœclerus, 240.
+
+ Bœrhave, 330-331.
+
+ Bœrjesson, John, dramatist, 389;
+   John, sculptor, 430.
+
+ Bœttiger, C. V., 389.
+
+ Bogesund, battle of, 126-127.
+
+ Bohemia, 210, 222, 224, 226, 228.
+
+ Bohus, fortress of, 196.
+
+ Bohuslæn, 5, 13, 17, 46, 58, 62, 196, 229, 247, 249, 254, 307, 308.
+
+ Bologna, 117.
+
+ Bonaparte. See Napoleon.
+
+ Bonde, Charles Knutsson (see Charles VIII.);
+   Tord, 111;
+   Gustavus, 250.
+
+ Bonnier, Eva, 429.
+
+ Borgannæs, 107.
+
+ Boris of Russia, 172.
+
+ Bornhœved, battle of, 371.
+
+ Bornholm, 21, 164, 247, 248, 250;
+   naval battle of, 168.
+
+ Bosphorus, 49.
+
+ Bosson, Nils. See Sture.
+
+ Bostrœm, C. J., philosopher, 411-412, 423.
+
+ Botany, 262, 321, 330, 331-333, 380, 423.
+
+ Bothnia, Gulf of, 5.
+
+ Bothnia, West, 363.
+
+ Bothniensis, N. O., 183, 185.
+
+ “Bottomless Purse,” 112.
+
+ Botvid, St., 58.
+
+ Boucher, 428.
+
+ Bourgeoisie. See Burghers.
+
+ Boye, L., 377.
+
+ Brabant, 237.
+
+ Brage-bowl, 39.
+
+ Brahe, Joachim, 133;
+   Peter, the Elder, 154, 162;
+   Ebba, 194, 235;
+   Nils, the Elder, 214, 217;
+   Peter, the Younger, 231, 232, 240, 250, 251, 257;
+   Nils, the Younger, 257;
+   Eric, 318;
+   Magnus, 374-375.
+
+ Brahestad, 258.
+
+ Brandenburg, 223, 228, 234, 244, 247, 253, 255;
+   Elector of, 223;
+   Great Elector of, 225, 244, 245, 252.
+
+ Brandsœ, 245-246.
+
+ Brask, Bishop Hans, 125, 128, 139, 143, 144, 146, 322, 375.
+
+ Braun, V. A. D. von, 389.
+
+ Braunsberg, 203.
+
+ Bravols, battle of, 41, 56.
+
+ Breitenfeld, battles of. See Leipsic.
+
+ Bremen, 54, 63, 70, 229, 245, 311.
+
+ Bremer, Frederica, 389, 427.
+
+ Brenner, S. E., 233.
+
+ Brennkyrka, battle of, 125, 131.
+
+ Bridget, St. See Birgitta.
+
+ Bring. See Lagerbring.
+
+ Britain, 24, 25, 45, 60.
+
+ British Isles, 60;
+   Museum, 331.
+
+ Brœmsebro, peace treaty at, 227.
+
+ Brœt-Anund. See Anund.
+
+ Bronitz, battle of, 198.
+
+ Bronze Age, 11, 13, 16-20.
+
+ Brunbeck, battle of, 138.
+
+ Brunkeberg, 139;
+   battles of, 116, 119.
+
+ Buchow, naval battle of, 168.
+
+ Buddenbrock, M. H., 316, 317.
+
+ Budget. See Sweden.
+
+ Buffon, 324.
+
+ Bulgaria, 50.
+
+ Bureus, John, 232-235.
+
+ Burghers, 108, 128, 144, 146, 158, 185, 200, 201, 253.
+
+ Burislev, 75.
+
+ Byzantium, Byzantine, 22-23, 27, 28, 49, 50, 51.
+
+
+ C
+
+ Cabinet, 373, 403;
+   Swedish (see Sweden).
+
+ Cadet School. See Carlberg.
+
+ Calmar. See Kalmar.
+
+ Caloric engine, 387.
+
+ Calvinism, 183, 189.
+
+ Canute the Great, 57, 58, 62.
+
+ “Caps,” 316, 319, 320, 337, 344.
+
+ Carelia, 88, 94.
+
+ Carin Monsdotter, queen, 162, 170-173, 177.
+
+ Carl. See Charles.
+
+ Carlberg, 355.
+
+ Carleby, Old, 360;
+   New, 360.
+
+ Carlén, Emelie, 389, 427.
+
+ Carlsborg, fortress of, 375, 418.
+
+ Carlscrona, navy yards at, 259, 305.
+
+ Carlson, F. F., 393, 398;
+   Ernest, 424.
+
+ Carlstad, 188, 407.
+
+ Carlsten, fortress of, 311, 312.
+
+ Carnage of Stockholm, 128, 129, 133, 137.
+
+ Carolin Institute, 425.
+
+ Cartesius. See Descartes.
+
+ Casijn, 173.
+
+ Caspian Sea, 50.
+
+ Cassander, 236.
+
+ Castellholm, 171.
+
+ Castles, 96, 102, 146, 173, 233, 251, 266.
+
+ Catechismus, 183, 260.
+
+ Catherine, Countess Palatine, 234, 239.
+
+ Catherine (queens of Sweden), of Saxony-Lauenburg, 155, 156, 157;
+   Stenbock, 156, 157, 177, 181;
+   Monsdotter (see Carin Monsdotter);
+   Jagello, 163, 175.
+
+ Catherine II. of Russia, 348, 350, 351, 355-356.
+
+ Catholicism, Catholic, 98, 172, 173, 174, 182-184, 187, 189, 192, 240,
+     244, 325, 335.
+
+ Cavendish, 325.
+
+ Cederstrom, O. R., 374, 378;
+   Gustavus, 429.
+
+ Celibacy, 79.
+
+ Celsius, Andrew, 321, 333;
+   Olof, Senior, 329, 333, 340;
+   Olof, Junior, 333-334.
+
+ Celtic swords, 21;
+   tribes, 21.
+
+ Chambers (of the Riksdag), 396, 398, 399-401, 407.
+
+ Chancellor, of State, 87, 189, 199, 220, 250
+     (see also President of the Chancery);
+   king’s, 14, 144, 150;
+   of the University, 263, 340;
+   the Great (see Axel Oxenstierna).
+
+ Chancery, 297, 298;
+   president of the, 271, 313, 314, 317, 337.
+
+ Charles (kings of Sweden): VII. Sverkersson, 73, 74, 75;
+   VIII. Knutsson, 108-114, 121, 339;
+   IX. 155, 157, 158, 163, 167, 170-174, 176, 179, 181-191, 204, 222,
+     249, 264;
+   X. Gustavus, 239-241, 242-249, 251, 277, 314;
+   XI. 249-268, 269, 270-271, 277, 391, 408;
+   XII. 182, 264, 267, 268-309, 310, 313, 322, 326, 334, 338, 343, 356,
+     364;
+   XIII. 348, 350, 352, 353, 356, 362, 365-374;
+   XIV. 367-373, 374-380, 382, 383, 404;
+   XV. 391-413, 415.
+
+ Charles, Bishop, 77.
+
+ Charles, Jarl, 77.
+
+ Charles Philip, son of Charles IX., 190, 194, 198.
+
+ Charles, son of Oscar II., 415.
+
+ Charles V., emperor, 151, 158.
+
+ Charles II. of England, 237.
+
+ Charles’s Chronicle, 114.
+
+ Charles Frederic of Holstein-Gottorp, 295, 301, 310, 311.
+
+ Charles Peter Ulric of Holstein-Gottorp, 316.
+
+ Chauvinism, 261, 264, 321, 346, 433.
+
+ Chemistry, 333, 346, 380, 423, 425.
+
+ Chemnitz, battle of, 224.
+
+ Chicago, 421, 429.
+
+ China, 289.
+
+ Chodkiewitz, 187.
+
+ Christerson, J. C. E., 435.
+
+ Christian (kings of Denmark): I. 111-113, 116;
+   II. 122, 124-129, 131, 132, 133, 137, 138, 140, 148, 151, 158;
+   III. 149, 164;
+   IV. 190, 196-198, 204, 226-227;
+   V. 254, 255;
+   VIII. 371-373;
+   IX. 403-404.
+
+ Christian August (Charles A.), Prince, 365-367.
+
+ Christian Frederic, Prince. See Christian VIII.
+
+ Christiania, 307, 372, 419.
+
+ Christianity, 31, 42;
+   influence of, 52;
+   introduction of, 53-55, 58;
+   opposition to, 58-61.
+
+ Christianopel, 190.
+
+ Christine (queens of Sweden), 189, 194, 204;
+   196, 204, 220-241, 242, 262, 302, 314.
+
+ Christine of Denmark, 120.
+
+ Christine of Hesse, 162, 164-165.
+
+ Christinehamn, 188.
+
+ Christopher, kings of Denmark, 81, and of Sweden, 110, 111, 112.
+
+ Christopher’s, King, Land Law. See Sweden, State Law.
+
+ Chronica regni gothorum, 117.
+
+ Chronicles, prose, 114, 131;
+   rhymed, 80, 114.
+
+ Church, 76, 77, 78, 85, 87, 88, 89, 111, 115, 117, 125, 140, 141, 142,
+     144, 146, 149, 152, 174-176, 183, 188, 200, 201, 260, 266, 396,
+     432, 437;
+   law, 93, 146, 175.
+   See also Clergy, Bishops.
+
+ Cimbrian Peninsula, 26, 27.
+   See also Jutland.
+
+ Cincinnatus, Order of, 367.
+
+ Cistercians, 71.
+
+ Civil service, 433.
+
+ Clary. See Queen Desideria.
+
+ Clason, I. G., 431.
+
+ Clergy, 93, 104, 108, 117, 139, 143, 145-146, 156, 158, 183, 185, 186,
+     200, 239, 251, 334, 340, 341, 396, 397, 398-399.
+
+ Codania, Codanian Bay, 25.
+
+ Codex Argenteus, 235-238, 266;
+   Bildstenianus, 9;
+   Bureanus, 9.
+
+ Coffee prohibited, 355.
+
+ Coins, 60, 62;
+   of need, 301-302.
+
+ Collard, Claude, 167.
+
+ Colleges, 201, 232.
+
+ Collegia, 118, 230 note.
+
+ Cologne, 117, 236.
+
+ Colonies, Commerce, Communities, Constitution. See Sweden.
+
+ Constantine Porphyrogenitus, 48.
+
+ Constantinople, 295.
+
+ Continent. See Europe.
+
+ Copenhagen, 129, 131, 227, 274, 385, 403;
+   siege of, 247-248;
+   peace treaty of, 250.
+
+ Corvey, 53, 54.
+
+ Cossacks, 283, 285.
+
+ Council, Councillors, State (or royal), 87, 92, 106, 107, 108, 115,
+     116, 120, 122, 128, 183, 184, 185, 189, 190, 196, 199, 200, 230,
+     251, 257, 258, 271, 272, 289, 290, 292-293, 298, 300, 301, 310,
+     313, 314, 318, 320, 338, 339, 344-345, 350, 435.
+
+ Council, Town, 116, 126, 128, 165.
+
+ Councillor of Commerce, 337.
+
+ Counties, counts, 162, 200, 238, 251, 257.
+
+ Courland, 52, 202, 244, 282.
+
+ Cracow, 244, 278.
+
+ Creutz, G. P., 339, 345.
+
+ Croats, 208.
+
+ Croi, Duke de, 275.
+
+ Cronhamn, J. P., 413.
+
+ Cronstedt, Charles, 295;
+   Olof, 359-360.
+
+ Crown prince, 316, 317, 319, 320, 371, 392, 406, 415, 437.
+
+ Crown lands, 238, 255, 257;
+   restitution of, 96, 102, 111, 233, 238, 243, 256-258, 271.
+
+ Crusades, 70, 73, 77, 78, 94, 185.
+
+ Crusell, B. F., 89, 413.
+
+ Crusenstolpe, M. J., 377, 389.
+
+ Cuno, John C., 326.
+
+ Czar (see Russia), Czarina, 289.
+
+ Czarniecki, Stefan, 244.
+
+
+ D
+
+ Dacke “Feud,” 150-151.
+
+ Dacke, Nils, 150-151.
+
+ Dag, 36.
+
+ Dahlberg, Eric, 245-246, 247, 259, 265-266, 277.
+
+ Dahlgren, Frederic Aug., 389.
+
+ Dahlquist, C. G., 390.
+
+ Dal, province of, 5, 107, 308;
+   River, 5, 138.
+
+ Dalecarlia, Dalecarlians, 5, 16, 105, 106, 107, 108, 116, 119, 121,
+     131, 133-139, 146, 147, 148, 149, 155, 185, 317, 349.
+
+ Dalin, O. von, 321, 337-339, 343.
+
+ Dædalus Hyperboreus, 322.
+
+ “Daljunker,” 147.
+
+ Dalman, V. F., 394.
+
+ Danckwardt, Henric, 311.
+
+ Danes, Danish. See Denmark.
+
+ Danielsson, A., 377.
+
+ Dannebrog, 116.
+
+ Dantzic, 112, 203.
+
+ Danube, 22, 28, 224, 228.
+
+ David, St., 58.
+
+ Dearth, 118, 176, 261.
+
+ Decamerone, 163, 413.
+
+ De Geer. See Geer.
+
+ De la Gardie. See Gardie.
+
+ Delaware River, 232.
+
+ Democracy, Democratic, 64, 65, 66, 114, 115, 117, 120, 121, 199, 200,
+     260, 352, 364.
+
+ Demotika, 297, 299.
+
+ Denmark, 6, 10, 12, 13, 21, 29, 30, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 52, 53,
+     54, 56-57, 58, 60, 62, 63, 70, 72, 76, 77, 81, 83, 89, 90, 91, 95,
+     100, 103, 105, 106, 108, 111, 116, 117, 120, 121, 122, 124, 125,
+     126-127, 128, 131, 133, 135, 136, 148, 149, 164, 166, 167, 168,
+     174, 195-198, 203, 226-228, 244, 245-248, 250, 253-255, 259,
+     273-274, 290, 295-296, 299, 307, 311, 312, 316, 343, 345, 348-349,
+     355, 357, 363, 366, 367, 368, 371-373, 385-386, 388, 392, 401, 405,
+     406, 415, 426, 430.
+
+ Dennewitz, battle of, 370.
+
+ Descartes, René, 240-241, 347.
+
+ Desideria, Queen, 382.
+
+ Diderot, 347, 429.
+
+ Diet, 374, 379, 392, 402.
+   See also Riksdag and Norwegian Storthing.
+
+ Dietriechson, Lorenz, 405.
+
+ Dilettantism, 412, 426.
+
+ Dimitri, 173, 187;
+   false Dimitris, 187-188.
+
+ Diplomacy, 252, 259, 313, 315, 367, 402, 434.
+
+ Dir, 49.
+
+ Dirschau, 202.
+
+ Ditmarschen, 120.
+
+ Dniepr River, 284, 286, 287;
+   cataracts of the, 48.
+
+ Dœbeln, G. C. von, 358, 360.
+
+ Dœmitz, battle of, 233.
+
+ Dolmens, 13.
+
+ Domalde, 35.
+
+ Domar, 36.
+
+ Dorpat, 200, 281, 282;
+   University of (see Universities).
+
+ Dortrecht, 237.
+
+ Douglas, L. V. A., 435.
+
+ Drama, 345, 346, 388, 389, 390, 412, 413, 426-427, 431-432.
+
+ Dramatic singers, 390, 413, 431.
+
+ Drontheim, diocese or district of, 58, 112, 247, 248, 250, 308, 311,
+     371.
+
+ Drotsete, Drotset (Riks-), 87, 91, 96, 102, 108, 189, 199, 240, 250.
+
+ Drottningholm, castle of, 303, 362.
+
+ Duchies, 82, 158, 161, 185-186.
+
+ Duenamuende, 292.
+
+ Dufnæs, battle of, 131.
+
+ D’Uncker, C. H. L., 412.
+
+ Dusseldorf School, 429.
+
+ Dutch, Dutchman. See Holland.
+
+ Dvina, crossing of the, 277.
+
+ Dygve, 36.
+
+
+ E
+
+ Eadgils. See Audils.
+
+ East Gothland. See Gothland.
+
+ Ebo, 54.
+
+ Ecclesiastics. See Clergy.
+
+ Edda, Eddic songs, 61, 66, 157, 233, 270, 346;
+   Snorre’s, 34, 342.
+
+ Edlund, Eric, 423.
+
+ Edsœre laws, 82, 86.
+
+ Education, 117, 201, 232, 260, 379.
+
+ Eger, 211.
+
+ Egil, 37.
+
+ Egino, 68.
+
+ Ehrenstrahl, D. K., 303;
+   School of Painters, 303, 428.
+
+ Ehrensverd, Augustinus, 317, 350, 359;
+   Ch. A., 347, 350-351, 355.
+
+ Eider, River, 402.
+
+ Eidsvold, meeting held at, 371.
+
+ Eka, Cecilia of, 129, 130.
+
+ Ekeberg, 156.
+
+ Elbing, 203.
+
+ Elective kingdom. See Kingdom.
+
+ Electricity, 324.
+
+ Elfsborg, 152, 166, 174, 188, 196, 197, 198;
+   New, 311.
+
+ Elfsson, Swan, 135-136.
+
+ Elgaros, battle of, 76.
+
+ Elisabeth of Russia, 316.
+
+ Elizabeth of England, 98, 162.
+
+ Elmblad, Johannes, 431.
+
+ Elsass, 221.
+
+ Elsinore, 93, 247, 368.
+
+ Emigration, 290, 319, 432-433.
+
+ Emund, 63, 67, 68.
+
+ Engelbrekt, Engelbrektsson, 105-109, 110, 115, 121, 137, 146;
+   song about, 114.
+
+ England, English, 22, 40, 52, 58, 82, 98, 187, 189, 237, 245, 252, 259,
+     283, 299, 305, 306-307, 315, 322, 334, 349, 355, 356, 357, 363,
+     369, 370, 371, 374, 379, 388.
+
+ Eric (Danish kings): Ejegod, 69;
+   Glipping, 83, 84;
+   Menved, 89, 91;
+   of Pomerania (see Swedish King Eric XIII.).
+
+ Eric, Norwegian Jarl, 57.
+
+ Eric (Swedish kings): 36; 36-37; 54;
+   Edmundsson, 52, 55;
+   Biœrnson Segersæl, 55-57; 68;
+   Arsæl, 69, 71;
+   IX. (St. Eric), 73-74, 75, 78, 80, 127, 130;
+   X. 67, 77;
+   XI. 77-79, 80;
+   XII. 94-95, 96;
+   XIII. 101-110;
+   XIV. 155, 157, 158, 161-173, 177, 264, 334.
+
+ Eric (Swedish princes): Birgersson, 83;
+   Magnusson, 87, 89-92;
+   Valdemarsson, 83, 84.
+
+ Eric’s Chronicle, 80, 85, 89, 114.
+
+ Ericson, J. E., 430.
+
+ Ericsson, Joesse, 106, 137;
+   John, 387, 424, 425;
+   Nils, 387;
+   Christian, 430.
+
+ Eriksgata, 71, 93, 138.
+
+ Erimbert, 55.
+
+ Eskil, St., 58.
+
+ Eskil’s apartments, 170.
+
+ Essen, H. H. von, 372.
+
+ Estates, 108, 158, 159, 184, 200, 204-205, 238, 240, 249, 256, 271,
+     278, 293, 310, 314, 318, 338, 349, 350, 355, 383, 394, 398-399,
+     400.
+
+ Esthonia, Esthonians, 39, 52, 75, 77, 98, 162, 174, 198, 201, 282,
+     307-312.
+
+ Ethnography, 265.
+
+ Ettak, battle of, 84.
+
+ Eugene, Prince of Sweden, 429, 430.
+
+ Eugenie, Princess, 411.
+
+ Euphemia, Princess, 95.
+
+ Europe, 6, 12, 16, 17, 28, 44, 82, 93, 189, 204, 229, 235, 242, 245,
+     254, 255, 259, 264, 272, 278, 285, 303, 324, 334, 335, 336, 363,
+     369, 374, 376, 381, 401, 414, 424, 429.
+
+ Expositions, Scandinavian, 405, 436;
+   World’s, 413, 421, 429.
+
+ Eyfórr, 48.
+
+ Eystein, 38.
+
+
+ F
+
+ Fahlbeck, P., 424.
+
+ Falkœping, battle of, 97.
+
+ Fallstedt, I., 430.
+
+ Falster, 247.
+
+ Falun, 138, 152.
+
+ “Father, The,” 427.
+
+ Father of Swedish Industry, 334.
+
+ Fehrbellin, battle of, 252, 253.
+
+ Femern, naval battles of, 227.
+
+ Ferdinand (emperors): II. 193, 202;
+   III. 221, 228.
+
+ Fero Islands, 371.
+
+ Fersen, Axel von, the Elder, 324;
+   the Younger, 351, 366-367.
+
+ Feudalism, 82.
+
+ Feud of the Counts, 149.
+
+ Fiedrundaland, 39.
+
+ Fiefs, 96, 103, 151, 162, 244.
+
+ Finance. See Sweden.
+
+ Fine Arts, Philosophy of, 347.
+
+ Finland, Finns, Finnish, 10, 15, 26, 35, 36, 48, 55, 71, 73, 75, 78,
+     81, 88, 89, 93, 111, 113, 118, 119, 122, 152, 163, 171, 172, 184,
+     185, 186, 187, 188, 193, 199, 200, 220, 231, 232, 238, 283, 292,
+     307, 312, 313, 316, 317, 348, 357-364, 367, 412-413, 436, 437;
+   language, 8, 341.
+
+ Finnmark, 378.
+
+ Finn woods, 136.
+
+ Fiolner, 35.
+
+ Fleming, Clas Ericsson, 184;
+   Clas Larsson, 227;
+   Herman, 243, 250.
+
+ Flemish art, 173.
+
+ Flensburg, 104.
+
+ Flower king of the North, 332.
+
+ Fogelberg, B. E., 412, 430.
+
+ Fogel Grip, 232.
+
+ Fogelwick, 113.
+
+ Folk lore, 265, 381.
+
+ Folksriksdag, 433.
+
+ Folkungs, 76, 78, 79, 81, 97, 130.
+
+ Folkung dynasty, 80-99.
+
+ Forsberg, Nils, 429.
+
+ France, French, 22, 45, 52, 68, 72, 152, 187, 189, 206, 221, 222, 229,
+     233, 245, 252, 255, 270, 271, 315, 318, 322, 331, 339, 343, 344,
+     345, 351, 352, 355, 356, 357, 368, 371, 372, 382, 388, 414, 422,
+     428, 429.
+
+ Franciscan, convent, 87;
+   Church (see Riddarholm’s Church).
+
+ Francke, A. H., 289.
+
+ Franconia, 221.
+
+ Franco-Prussian War, 409.
+
+ Frankfurt, 209.
+
+ Franks, Frankish, 29, 210, 236, 341.
+
+ Frantz, Albrecht, 216.
+
+ Franz Joseph’s Land, 424.
+
+ Franzén, F. M., 381.
+
+ Frederic I. of Sweden, 312-317, 318, 335.
+
+ Frederic (kings of Denmark): I. 148;
+   II. 164, 166;
+   III. 246, 247;
+   IV. 273-274, 290, 295, 299;
+   V. 316, 317;
+   VI. 367;
+   VII. 402, 403.
+
+ Frederic of Augustenborg, 367.
+
+ Frederic, crown prince of Denmark, 406.
+
+ Frederic of Holstein, 272-274.
+
+ Frederic of the Palatinate, 202, 210.
+
+ Frederic (kings of Prussia): I. 296;
+   II. (the Great), 318, 319, 343.
+
+ Frederic William, the Grand Elector. See Brandenburg.
+
+ Frederica, Queen, 356.
+
+ Fredericia, fortress of, 245, 248.
+
+ Fredericshall, 308, 322.
+
+ Fredericshamn, 316;
+   peace treaty at, 363.
+
+ Fredericstad, 372.
+
+ Fredericsten, 308.
+
+ Fredkulla. See Margaret.
+
+ Fredman, 390.
+
+ Free trade, 387, 407-408.
+
+ Freinshemius, John, 240.
+
+ Frey, 32, 34.
+
+ Friedland. See Wallenstein.
+
+ Fries, Elias, 380.
+
+ Frithiof’s Saga, 381.
+
+ Frode (Danish kings): 35, 37.
+
+ Frœding, Gustaf, 428.
+
+ Funen, island of, 227, 246, 248, 386.
+
+ Fuxerna, battles of, 69.
+
+ Fyris, River, 36.
+
+ Fyrisvols, battles of, 36, 37, 56.
+
+
+ G
+
+ Gad, Dr. Heming, 121, 122, 126, 127, 129.
+
+ Gadebush, battle of, 295, 296.
+
+ Gagarin, governor, 289.
+
+ Gallia, Gallic, 20.
+
+ Gardarike, 52.
+
+ Gardie, Pontus de la, 167, 174, 187, 235;
+   Jacob, 187-188, 190, 194, 198-199, 234, 235;
+   Magnus Gabriel, 234-235, 237, 250, 251, 252, 257, 263.
+
+ Gautland. See Gothaland.
+
+ Gauts, 28, 29, 30, 31, 47, 105.
+
+ Gauzbert, 54.
+
+ Geátas, 30-31.
+
+ Geer, Louis de, 201, 226-227, 231;
+   Louis, 393, 397, 398.
+
+ Gefle, 138.
+
+ Gegerfelt, K. F. von, 431;
+   William, 429.
+
+ Geijer, Eric Gustavus, 380, 393.
+
+ Geijerstam, Gustaf of, 427.
+
+ Geirthiof, 38.
+
+ Gellandri, 48.
+
+ Gellivara, 7.
+
+ Gemauerthoff, battle of, 282.
+
+ Geology, 324, 325.
+
+ George I. of England, 306.
+
+ George Sand, 388.
+
+ Gepidæ, 29.
+
+ Gerhard, Count of Holstein, 84.
+
+ Germania, 26.
+
+ Germans, Germany, 12, 21, 22, 54, 58, 75, 80, 81, 83, 85, 90, 93, 96,
+     97, 98, 100, 101, 104, 105, 106, 116, 122, 127, 132, 150, 151, 152,
+     158, 168, 189, 190, 193, 202, 203, 204, 205, 210, 213, 214, 221,
+     222, 223, 224, 226, 228, 229, 230, 233, 239, 244, 252, 264, 287,
+     299, 303, 307, 321, 346, 370, 380, 385-386, 401-405, 414-418, 428,
+     429;
+   emperor, 122, 151, 158, 193, 202, 209, 210, 211, 212, 224, 228, 235,
+     245, 281, 299, 415;
+   Order, 162-163.
+
+ Gestilren, battle of, 77.
+
+ Gestrikland, 5, 16, 138.
+
+ Gibraltar of the North, 359.
+
+ Giljam, G. F., 436.
+
+ Gisslan. See Hostages.
+
+ Glaciers, 6.
+
+ Glipping. See Eric (Danish kings).
+
+ Glom River, 307, 308.
+
+ Glossarium sviogothicum, 342.
+
+ Glucksburg, 371.
+
+ Gluntarne, 389.
+
+ Goertz, G. H., 301-302, 304, 306-307, 311.
+
+ Gœtar. See Gauts.
+
+ Gold finds, 22-23.
+
+ Golumbo, battle of, 244.
+
+ Gospel, 53-55, 104, 146, 207.
+
+ Gotha Canal, 305-306, 322, 375-376.
+
+ Gotha River, 10, 46, 116, 196, 198.
+
+ Gothahamn, 116.
+
+ Gothaland, 5, 14, 19, 24, 25, 28, 42, 43, 68, 83, 84, 185, 230.
+
+ Gothenburg, 10, 188, 196, 198, 200, 226, 229, 231, 232, 249, 254, 335,
+     349, 369, 422, 428.
+
+ Gothenburg University. See Universities.
+
+ Gothland, East, 5, 7, 17, 31, 39, 41, 71, 98, 111, 168, 185, 186;
+   West, 5, 7, 13, 17, 31, 37, 41, 46, 58, 59, 61, 67, 68, 70, 76, 77,
+     83, 84, 96, 111, 126, 148, 167, 168, 197, 229, 321, 334, 415;
+   Island of, 6, 21, 22, 25, 66, 82, 85, 95, 103, 105, 111, 113, 117,
+     120, 142, 165, 227, 254, 304, 415.
+
+ Goths, of Continental Europe, 22, 28, 30, 235-236, 263;
+   of Sweden (see Gauts);
+   Teutons, 43;
+   East, 29, 71;
+   West, 29, 70, 71.
+
+ Gothic, 151, 220, 238, 341, 342;
+   Bible, 67 (see further Codex Argenteus);
+   invasions, 28;
+   language, 235, 237-238;
+   society, 381;
+   glossary, 237.
+
+ Gothic law, West, 66, 67, 70.
+
+ Gotland, 43.
+
+ Gottorp. See Holstein-Gottorp.
+
+ Government. See Sweden.
+
+ Governor, 184, 202, 231, 232.
+
+ Governor-general, 199, 203, 229, 231, 290, 291, 371;
+   of Norway, 366, 375, 386, 394-395, 418-419.
+
+ Grabow, Mathilde, 431.
+
+ Grammar, 40.
+
+ Greece, Greek, 49, 50, 52, 235, 237, 265;
+   myths, 53;
+   church, 288, 355.
+
+ Gregory, VII. 69;
+   IX. 78.
+
+ Grimm’s law, 342.
+
+ Grimsted, 246.
+
+ Grip, Bo Jonsson, 96, 102.
+
+ Gripenstedt, J. A., 387, 393, 398, 403, 404, 407.
+
+ Gripsholm, 96, 107, 152, 155, 163, 171, 173, 182, 362.
+
+ Grossbeeren, battle of, 370.
+
+ Grubbe, Sam, 411.
+
+ Guadeloupe, island of, 370.
+
+ Gualther, 236.
+
+ Gude, 405.
+
+ Gudlaug, 36-37.
+
+ Guinea, African, 232.
+
+ Gullberg, fort of, 196-197.
+
+ Gullbrandson, Ellen, 431.
+
+ Gunilla, Queen. See Bielke.
+
+ Gurzo, battle of, 202.
+
+ Gustavian period, 337, 339, 343-364.
+
+ Gustavus, Adolphus Society, 219.
+
+ Gustavus (kings of Sweden): I. Vasa, 125, 126, 128, 129, 130-160, 161,
+     165, 168, 170, 173, 177, 178, 199, 263, 322, 334, 344, 349;
+   II. Adolphus, 173, 190, 192-219, 220, 222, 225, 230, 232, 234, 240,
+     243, 250, 258, 314, 344;
+   III. 319-320, 332, 334, 339, 343-353, 354, 379, 387, 431;
+   IV. Adolphus, 352, 353-362, 366, 373, 375, 415.
+
+ Gustavus (princes of Sweden): Ericsson (see Vasa);
+   Prince of Vasa, 366;
+   Frans G. Oscar, 388, 389, 413, 436;
+   Oscar G. Adolphus, crown prince, 414, 437.
+
+ Guta, Saga, 67.
+
+ Gutai, 28.
+
+ Gutnic, Guts, 67, 87, 105.
+
+ Gutorm, Jarl, 74, 76.
+
+ Guttones, 24, 25.
+
+ Gyldén, J. A. H., 423.
+
+ Gyldenlœve, general, 254;
+   fort of, 308.
+
+ Gyllenborg, Charles, 317, 337;
+   G. F., 339, 345.
+
+ Gyllencreutz, Charles G., 268, 302.
+
+ Gyllenhielm, C. C., 187.
+
+ Gyllenstierna, Christine, 127-129, 130, 131, 140, 142, 147, 149, 155,
+     158;
+   John, 256, 312.
+
+ Gymnastics, 380;
+   Central Institute of, 380.
+
+
+ H
+
+ Hadrian IV. See Nicolaus of Alba.
+
+ Hæffner, 389.
+
+ Hagbard, 36.
+
+ Hagborg, A., 429.
+
+ Hake, 36-37.
+
+ Hakon (Norwegian kings): 79, 81, 91, 92;
+   Magnusson, 94-95, 100.
+
+ Hakon, Swedish regent, 68.
+
+ Halberstadt, 224.
+
+ Haleygians, 36.
+
+ Hall, P. A., 428.
+
+ Halland, 5, 13, 43, 84, 93, 95, 167, 196, 197, 227, 229, 247, 249, 254,
+     337.
+
+ Hallén, Andreas, 390.
+
+ Hallstrœm, Ivar, 390;
+   Peter, 427.
+
+ Halmstad, 108, 166, 254.
+
+ Halsten, 68, 70.
+
+ Hamburg, 54, 63, 70, 81, 82, 83;
+   peace treaty of, 319.
+
+ Hammarby, 332.
+
+ Handbook. See Ritual.
+
+ Hanover, 299, 311.
+
+ Hans. See John II.
+
+ Hansa, Hanseatic, 81-82, 101, 103, 104, 116, 132.
+
+ Hansson, Ola, 427.
+
+ Haraker, battle of, 112.
+
+ Harald, king of Denmark, 56.
+
+ Harald (kings of Norway): Fairhair, 55;
+   Hardrade, 68.
+
+ Harald, Hildetand, king of Sweden and Denmark, 41, 51.
+
+ Hare’s Leap, 6.
+
+ Hartekamp, 331.
+
+ Hartelius, T. J., 424.
+
+ Hartmansdorff, J. A. von, 383, 384-385.
+
+ Hasselberg, Peter, 430.
+
+ “Hats,” political party, 316, 317, 319, 320, 337, 338.
+
+ Havamal, 157.
+
+ Havel River, 206.
+
+ Heathen Revival, 59-61.
+
+ Hedberg, Frans, 389;
+   Thor, 427.
+
+ Hedenblad, Ivar, 431.
+
+ Hedenstierna, A., 428.
+
+ Hedin, Sven, 424.
+
+ Hedlund, S. A., 428;
+   Hans, 431.
+
+ Hedvig, queen of Denmark, 100.
+
+ Hedvig, Eleonore, of Sweden, 243, 249, 253, 255, 271, 299, 300;
+   Elisabeth Charlotte, 366.
+
+ Hedvig, Sophie, Princess, 269, 310.
+
+ Heidenstam, V. von, 427.
+
+ Heimskringla, 31, 33-41, 265.
+
+ Heinrich (the Lion), 75.
+
+ Heinsius, 240.
+
+ Heir-apparent, 316-317, 365-366, 367, 368, 420.
+
+ Helga. See Olga.
+
+ Helge. See Oleg.
+
+ Helge, Danish king, 38.
+
+ Hellquist, C. G., 429.
+
+ Helsingborg, 290, 336;
+   battle of, 291, 296.
+
+ Helsingfors, 152, 317;
+   battle of, 316;
+   University of (see Universities).
+
+ Helsingland, Helsings, 5, 138, 317, 361;
+   regiment of, 360-361.
+
+ Helsingœr. See Elsinore.
+
+ Helvig, Queen, 84.
+
+ Henric, St., 73, 75.
+
+ Herger, 54.
+
+ Herjedal, 5, 227.
+
+ Herredag (-ar), 88.
+
+ Herschel, 324.
+
+ Herulians, 28, 29, 48, 66.
+
+ Hervadsbro, battle of, 81.
+
+ Hesse, 205.
+
+ Hessleholm, battle of, 91.
+
+ Heterodoxy, 380.
+
+ Hielmar Lake, 109.
+
+ Hierta: Hans (see Jærta);
+   Lars, 377.
+
+ Hildebrand, Hans, 423.
+
+ Hildebrandsson, H. H., 424.
+
+ Hillberg, Emil, 431.
+
+ Hillestrœm, Peter, 347.
+
+ Hiortsberg, L., 390.
+
+ Hising, island of, 188, 196.
+
+ Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus, 142.
+
+ History, Historians, 11, 24-32, 33-34, 44, 46-47, 48, 50, 64, 80, 114,
+     142, 232, 321, 333-334, 337-339, 380, 389, 393, 412-413, 423, 424,
+     426.
+
+ Hœckert, J. F., 412, 429.
+
+ Hœgquist, Emelie, 390.
+
+ Hœijer, B. C. H., 347, 356, 380, 411.
+
+ Hœjentorp, 197, 336.
+
+ Hœjer, Nils, 424;
+   Magnus, 424.
+
+ Hœrberg, Peter, 347.
+
+ Hœrningsholm, 176, 177, 178, 179, 181.
+
+ Hofva, battle at, 83.
+
+ Hogland, naval battle at, 348.
+
+ Holaveden (Holavid), battle at, 111.
+
+ Holland, 12, 198, 201, 226, 227, 232, 236-237, 245, 247, 248, 252, 253,
+     264, 283, 322, 330, 331, 334, 340.
+
+ Holmfrid, 58.
+
+ Holmgard, 52.
+
+ Holmger, 78.
+
+ Holmstrœm, 233.
+
+ Holovzin, battle of, 284.
+
+ Holstein, 103, 104, 112, 226, 227, 244, 255, 271, 273, 274, 385, 402,
+     405;
+   counts of, 84, 93, 149, 228, 271, 272.
+
+ Holstein-Gottorp, 243, 295, 301.
+
+ Holy Alliance, 381.
+
+ Holy Virgin, 228.
+
+ Horn: Clas Kristersson, Baron, 162, 167-168;
+   Henric, 174;
+   Evert, 198;
+   Gustavus, 207-208, 221-222, 226;
+   Arvid Bernhard, 272, 278, 284, 293, 298, 310-311, 312-316, 337;
+   Rudolph, 282;
+   Jacob, 318.
+
+ Hotuna, play at, 90-91.
+
+ Hoya, counts of, 149.
+
+ Huet, 240.
+
+ Hugleik (O. E. Hygelâc): Swedish king, 36;
+   Danish king, 38.
+
+ Humor, 233, 346, 389, 390, 428.
+
+ Hungary, 68, 245, 299, 322.
+
+ Husaby, 58, 62.
+
+ Hvasser, Elisa, 413.
+
+ Hvin. See Tiodolf.
+
+ Hygelâc. See Hugleik.
+
+
+ I
+
+ Iaroslaf, 48, 51, 62.
+
+ Ibn, Fosslan, 50.
+
+ Ibsen, H., 405, 431.
+
+ Iceland, Icelanders, Icelandic, 33, 52, 56, 60-61, 93, 235;
+   language, 9;
+   sagas, 40, 52, 67, 297;
+   scalds, saga men, 60-61.
+
+ Iddefjord, 322.
+
+ Ifvarsson, Charles, 407.
+
+ Igor, 48, 51.
+
+ Ihre, John, 321, 339-342.
+
+ Illrade. See Ingiald.
+
+ Imperial army: Imperialists, 202, 203, 209, 216, 217, 221, 224, 225,
+     228;
+   crown lands, 210, 225.
+
+ Imports. See Sweden.
+
+ Indelningsverk, Indelta, 258, 408, 417.
+
+ Indensalmi, battle of, 358.
+
+ Indians, 232.
+
+ Indo-European language, 8.
+
+ Industry, 176.
+
+ Inge (Swedish kings): the Elder, 68-70, 72;
+   the Younger, 70.
+
+ Ingeborg, duchesses, 91, 92;
+   princesses, 58, 78, 80, 89, 415.
+
+ Ingegerd, Princess, 61-62;
+   Queen, 76.
+
+ Ingemar, 84.
+
+ Ingermanland (Ingria), 174, 199, 231, 273, 274, 282, 307, 312.
+
+ Ingiald, Illrade, 39-40, 42, 64.
+
+ Ingria. See Ingermanland.
+
+ Ingvar. See Igor.
+
+ Innocent III., 77.
+
+ Intelligence party, 408, 410.
+
+ Interchanging dynasties, 74-79.
+
+ Interdict. See Ban.
+
+ Iron Age, 11, 19, 20-24.
+
+ Isala, 135.
+
+ Isborsk, 47.
+
+ Isiaslaf, 68.
+
+ Italy, Italians, 22, 98, 106, 121, 236.
+
+ Ivar, Master, 131.
+
+ Ivar, Vidfamne, 40, 51.
+
+ Ivarsson, Ivar, of Strœmstad, 170.
+
+
+ J
+
+ Jacob. See Anund Jacob.
+
+ Jacobi, Petrus. See Sunnanvæder.
+
+ Jægerhorn, G. H., 359-360;
+   J. A., 348.
+
+ Jærta, Hans, 365.
+
+ Jagello. See Catherine.
+
+ Jankowitz, battle of, 228, 239.
+
+ Jansson, Eugene, 429.
+
+ Japhet, 263.
+
+ Jarl, jarls, 42, 57-58, 74, 87;
+   of the realm, 74.
+
+ Jaroslaf. See Iaroslaf.
+
+ Jedvard, 73.
+
+ Jemtland, 5, 63, 70, 227, 308, 311.
+
+ Jerusalem, 97.
+
+ Jesuits, 175, 183, 184.
+
+ Jœnkœping, 120, 230.
+
+ Jœns, Bengtsson. See Oxenstierna.
+
+ Jœsse, Ericsson. See Ericsson.
+
+ Johannes, Magni (Johannes Magnus), 114, 142-143, 263.
+
+ John, archbishop, 75;
+   duke, 186, 189, 197;
+   prince, 72.
+
+ John (kings): I. 77;
+   II. Hans, 119-120, 122, 130-131;
+   III. 155, 157, 158, 163, 169, 170-172, 173-176, 180, 182, 186, 188,
+     235.
+
+ John, Casimir, count of Palatinate-Zweibrucken, 239.
+
+ John, Casimir, king of Poland. See Vasa.
+
+ Jolin, J. C., 389.
+
+ Jomsborg, 56.
+
+ Jordanes, 29, 34, 44, 263.
+
+ Jornandes. See Jordanes.
+
+ Jorsalafare. See Sigurd.
+
+ Jorund, 36-37.
+
+ Josephine, Queen, 382.
+
+ Josephsson, J. A., 389, 413;
+   Ernst, 429.
+
+ Juel, Niels, 253, 254.
+
+ Jueterbogk, battle of, 228.
+
+ Junius, Franziskus, 237.
+
+ Justinian, 28.
+
+ Jutland, Jutes, 26, 30, 31, 37, 43, 131, 132, 226, 245, 248, 386.
+
+ Juutas, battle of, 359, 360.
+
+
+ K
+
+ Kæpplingeholm, Massacre of, 101.
+
+ Kagg, Lars, 250.
+
+ Kalabalik of Bender. See Bender.
+
+ Kallœ, 132.
+
+ Kalmar, 93, 101, 116, 122, 132, 133, 190;
+   Nyckel, 232;
+   Recess of, 119;
+   Union of (see Union).
+
+ Kalmucks, 288.
+
+ Kamenski, M. K., 361.
+
+ Kansler. See Chancellor.
+
+ Kant, 324, 347.
+
+ Karelen. See Carelia.
+
+ Karin. See Carin.
+
+ Karl. See Charles.
+
+ Karlberg. See Carlberg.
+
+ Karleby, 71;
+   see also Carleby.
+
+ Karlskrona. See Carlskrona.
+
+ Karlson, Valfried, 431.
+
+ Karlsson. See Carlsson.
+
+ Karlstad. See Carlstad.
+
+ Kasan, 288.
+
+ Katarina. See Catherine.
+
+ Keksholm. See Kexholm.
+
+ Kellgren, J. H., 345.
+
+ Kerkholm, battle at, 187.
+
+ Kettilmundsson, Mattias, 91, 92.
+
+ Kettilsson, Eric, 97.
+
+ Kexholm, 174, 188, 199, 292, 302.
+
+ Key, Emil, 407;
+   E. A. H., 424.
+
+ Kief, 46, 49, 59.
+
+ Kiel, 371;
+   Bay of (see Skiel).
+
+ Kierulf, Halfdan, 405.
+
+ Kingdom, elective, 64, 65, 310;
+   hereditary, 65, 150, 151, 186, 189, 190, 310.
+
+ “King Martha.” See Leijonhufvud.
+
+ Kjellberg, F., 430.
+
+ Klercker, Charles N., 358.
+
+ Klingspœ, W. M., 358.
+
+ Klusina, 188.
+
+ Knaphœfde. See Ragnvald.
+
+ Knerœd, peace treaty of, 198.
+
+ Kniephausen, Dodo von, 214, 216, 218.
+
+ Knights, 200.
+
+ Knightly Chapter (see Riddarhus);
+   orders, 318.
+
+ Knorring, Sophie von, 389, 427.
+
+ Knud. See Canute.
+
+ Knut (Swedish kings), Ericsson, 74-76;
+   the Tall, 78, 81.
+
+ Knut, Folkung, 81;
+   Bishop, 108;
+   Master, 141-143.
+
+ Koch, Axel, 423.
+
+ Kœnigsmarck, von, H. C., 236, 258;
+   O. W., 258.
+
+ Kœping, 107.
+
+ Kœrling, Aug., 431.
+
+ Kol, king (Eric Arsæl), 69, 73;
+   pretender, 75.
+
+ Kolbrænna. See Anund Jacob.
+
+ Kollandsœ, 69.
+
+ Kommunalstæmmor, 395.
+
+ Konghæll, Kungkæll, 62, 69.
+
+ Konungafrid, 86.
+
+ Kopparberg, 105, 133.
+
+ Krakow, Morton, 196-197.
+
+ Kreuger, Nils, 349.
+
+ Kristian, Kristiern. See Christian.
+
+ Kristina. See Christine.
+
+ Kristofer. See Christopher.
+
+ Krivitchi, 47.
+
+ Kronberg, Julius, 429.
+
+ Kronborg, fortress of, 247, 248.
+
+ Krusenstierna, J. E. von, 435.
+
+ Kyrkomœtet, 396.
+
+
+ L
+
+ Laaland, 246.
+
+ Labor question, 418, 433.
+
+ Lacroze, M., 341.
+
+ Ladoga, Lake, 199.
+
+ Ladugardsland, battle of, 124.
+
+ Ladulas (Barn-lock). See Magnus.
+
+ Læn, 7, 231, 395.
+
+ Lagerbielke, Gustavus, 407.
+
+ Lagerlœf, Selma, 427.
+
+ Laholm, 84.
+
+ Lallerstedt, E., 431.
+
+ Landskrona (in Sweden), battle of, 254;
+   (in Finland), 88.
+
+ Landsting, 395-396, 399, 407.
+
+ Landstorm, 417.
+
+ Landtmanna party, 407-408, 410, 416.
+
+ Landtmarskalk, 200, 407.
+
+ Landtværn, 417.
+
+ Lange, Lorenz, 289.
+
+ Langeland, 246.
+
+ Languedoc, 167.
+
+ La Place, 324.
+
+ Lapland, Lapmark, Laps, 5, 10, 15, 16, 104, 330;
+   language, 8, 341;
+   “Divine service in the Lapmark,” 429.
+
+ Lappo, battle of, 358.
+
+ Lars. See Laurentius.
+
+ Larsson, Thomas, 195;
+   Liss Olof, 407;
+   Marcus, 412, 429;
+   Carl, 429.
+
+ Latin, 98, 117, 142, 220, 265, 328.
+
+ Lauenburg, 402, 405.
+
+ Laurentius. See Andreæ and Petri.
+
+ Laval, Gustavus de, 425.
+
+ Lavoisier, 325.
+
+ Laws. See Sweden.
+
+ League, Catholic, 189.
+
+ Lech, battle of, 210.
+
+ Leckœ, 187, 251.
+
+ Leczinski (see Stanislav), 427.
+
+ Leffler, A. M. (Mittag-), 424;
+   Anne Charlotte, 427.
+
+ Leibnitz, 266.
+
+ Leijonhufvud, 282 note;
+   Margaret (see Margaret, queens of Sweden);
+   Martha (King Martha), 155;
+   Sten, baron, 162, 170.
+
+ Leipsic, 117, 213, 224, 288;
+   first battle of, 206-209;
+   second battle of, 225-226.
+
+ Leire, 38.
+
+ Lena, battle of, 76.
+
+ Lenæus, J., 239.
+
+ Lenngren, Anne Marie, 346.
+
+ Leonidas, the Swedish, 224.
+
+ Leopold, C. G., 345.
+
+ Leopold I., emperor (1640-1705), 225.
+
+ Leuchtenberg, 382.
+
+ Levertin, Oscar, 427, 428.
+
+ Lewenhaupt, 282 note;
+   A. L., 282, 283, 284, 285-287;
+   C. E., 316, 317.
+
+ Leyden, 331.
+
+ Libau, 203.
+
+ Liberty, song of, 114;
+   period of, 310-342, 320-321.
+
+ Libraries, 99.
+
+ Lidner, Bengt, 346.
+
+ Liesna, battle of, 285.
+
+ Liewen, H. H. von, 298-299.
+
+ Liljefors, Bruno, 429.
+
+ Lind, Jenny, 390, 413.
+
+ Lindberg, A., 430.
+
+ Lindblad, A. F., 389;
+   Otto, 389, 413.
+
+ Lindeberg, A., 377.
+
+ Linden, Mathilde, 431.
+
+ Lindholm (-en) in Scania, 97;
+   in Upland, 130.
+
+ Lindskiold, E., 270.
+
+ Ling, P. H., 380, 381.
+
+ Linkœping, 71, 77, 80, 85, 108, 112, 121, 185, 186, 195;
+   conference at, 72.
+
+ Linnæus (von Linné), Charles, 327-333.
+
+ Literature. See Sweden.
+
+ Lithuania, 284.
+
+ Liturgia, 175-176, 183.
+
+ Liuksiala, 173.
+
+ Livonia, Livonians, 162, 163, 187, 198, 202, 203, 223, 231, 250, 258,
+     273, 277, 281, 282, 283, 290-291, 307, 312.
+
+ Lober Brook, 207.
+
+ Loccenius, John, 240.
+
+ Locke, 347.
+
+ Lodbrok. See Ragnar.
+
+ Lœdœse, 83, 84, 111;
+   New, 116, 152, 196, 197.
+
+ London, 267, 323, 326, 327, 331, 334, 340.
+
+ Longobardians, 28, 29.
+
+ Lord, 200.
+
+ Lothringia, 162, 169.
+
+ Louis le Débonnaire (the Pious), 48, 53;
+   XIV. 235, 252, 254-255, 259, 280, 305;
+   XVI. 351-352, 367.
+
+ Louise, Princess, 406;
+   Queen, 392, 411.
+
+ Louise Ulrica, Queen, 217, 338.
+
+ Lovisa. See Louise.
+
+ Lubeck, 75, 81, 82, 85, 122, 132, 140, 148, 165, 166, 168, 316, 371.
+
+ Lubetch, 49.
+
+ Lucidor, Lasse (Johansson), 233.
+
+ Ludvig Rudolph of Brunswick, 324.
+
+ Luitprand, 48.
+
+ Lulea, 266.
+
+ Lund, 10, 70, 111, 250, 304, 307, 322, 328, 329, 337, 340;
+   battle of, 254;
+   peace treaty at, 255;
+   University of (see Universities).
+
+ Lundberg, Gustavus, 428;
+   Theodor, 430.
+
+ Lundquist, C. F., 431.
+
+ Luther, Lutheran, 98, 140, 183, 184, 186, 190, 204, 214, 312, 327, 368,
+     435.
+
+ Lutzen, battle of, 213-219;
+   battlefield of, 279, 281.
+
+ Lybecker, George, 283, 285.
+
+ Lymphatic ducts, 262.
+
+
+ M
+
+ Machiavelli, 121.
+
+ Mæcenas of Sweden, 250.
+
+ Mælar, Lake, 5, 10, 55, 71, 96, 107, 112, 127, 156, 163.
+
+ Magdeburg, 205-206.
+
+ Magnetism, 324.
+
+ Magnus (Danish princes): M. Nilsson, 71;
+   M. Henricsson, 72-74.
+
+ Magnus, Bishop, 148.
+
+ Magnus (kings of Norway): M. Barfod, 69;
+   M. Lagabœte, 83.
+
+ Magnus (kings of Sweden): M. Ladulas, 82-88, 89, 90;
+   M. Ericsson, 84, 92-95, 97.
+
+ Magnus (princes of Sweden): Magnus Birgersson, 92;
+   M. Vasa, 155, 157, 158, 163-164, 169.
+
+ Magog, 263.
+
+ Main, River, 209.
+
+ Malaspina, 183.
+
+ Malebranche, 266.
+
+ Malmstrœm, B. E., 389.
+
+ Malmœ, 10, 411.
+
+ Manderstrœm, Count, 393, 401, 404.
+
+ Manheim. See Atland.
+
+ Margaret, missionary to the Laps, 104.
+
+ Margaret Fredkulla, Princess, 69, 71.
+
+ Margaret (queens of Sweden), 89;
+   Valdemarsdotter, 95, 96, 98, 100-105, 120, 371;
+   Leijonhufvud, 155, 156, 177, 178.
+
+ Margaret of Valois, 162.
+
+ Maria, queen of Sweden, 189.
+
+ Marie Antoinette, Queen, 367.
+
+ Marie Eleonore, Queen, 234.
+
+ Mariefred, 118, 133.
+
+ Mariestad, 188.
+
+ Marlborough, 280.
+
+ Marnæs, 136.
+
+ Mars, 31.
+
+ Marsk, 87, 102, 108, 249.
+
+ Martha, Dame, 100.
+
+ Massilia, 24.
+
+ “Master Olf,” 427.
+
+ Masudi, 50.
+
+ Matchless, The, 165-166.
+
+ Materialism, 412, 432.
+
+ Matérn, J. A., 288.
+
+ Mathematics, 270, 322.
+
+ Mattias, Bishop, 128.
+
+ Maximilian of Bavaria, 193, 210, 211.
+
+ Mayence, 209.
+
+ Mazarin, 220.
+
+ Mazeppa, 283, 285, 286.
+
+ Mechtild, Danish queen, 81.
+
+ Mecklenburg, 95, 97, 168, 210, 223, 244, 295, 357.
+
+ Medelpad, 5, 24, 303.
+
+ Mediæval. See Middle Ages.
+
+ Medical science, 262, 331, 333, 424, 425.
+
+ Meibom, 240.
+
+ Melanchthon, 204.
+
+ Melen, Berndt von, 142, 148.
+
+ Memel, 203.
+
+ Mendelssohn, 389.
+
+ Menuet, Peter, 232.
+
+ Meri, 47.
+
+ Messenius, John, 232;
+   Arnold J., 240;
+   Arnold, the Younger, 240.
+
+ Metals, 15, 16, 116.
+
+ Mexico, 18, 404.
+
+ Michaëli, Louise, 413.
+
+ Middle Ages, 45, 64-129, 134, 192, 400.
+
+ Midsummer, Midnight, sun, 7.
+
+ Miklagard, 52.
+
+ Mines, miners, mine owners, 123, 144, 152, 200-201, 305, 323, 335;
+   Mining, College of, 304-305, 322, 323.
+
+ Ministers, church, 175, 183, 253, 287, 304, 327, 337, 396;
+   state (secretary), 365, 401, 407, 416;
+   of foreign affairs, 373, 393, 435;
+   of justice, 393, 397, 409, 435;
+   of finance, 393, 435, 436;
+   of ecclesiastics, 393, 409, 436;
+   of war, 408, 435;
+   of civil service, 409;
+   of marine, 435;
+   of interior, 435.
+
+ Missionaries, 53-55, 58, 104.
+
+ Mitan, 202, 282.
+
+ Mœrner, Otto, 367-368.
+
+ Mohilev, 284.
+
+ Molin, Ambjœrn, 289;
+   J. P., 412, 430.
+
+ Monitor, 387.
+
+ Monrad, D. G., 404.
+
+ Mons Bengtsson. See Natt och Dag.
+
+ Montelius, Oscar, 423.
+
+ Mora, in Dalecarlia, 136-138, 140;
+   Stone of, in Upland, 92, 95.
+
+ Moravia, 226, 228.
+
+ Moræus, Maria Elis, 332.
+
+ Moscow, 172, 188, 284, 288.
+
+ Moss, Convention of, 372-373.
+
+ Motzfeldt, K., 406.
+
+ Muller, J. B., 289.
+
+ Munck, Lady Ebba, 415.
+
+ Munich School of Painters, 429.
+
+ Muonio, River, 363.
+
+ Music, 263, 346, 380, 382, 388, 389-390, 412, 413, 431;
+   national folk, 431.
+
+ Mutiny, 188.
+
+ Mysticism, 98, 99, 161, 169, 321, 354, 356.
+
+ Mythology, classical, 31, 265.
+   Swedish (see Sweden).
+
+
+ N
+
+ Nakskov, 246.
+
+ Namur, 93.
+
+ Napoleon I., 356, 357, 362, 367, 368, 369-371.
+
+ Napoleon III., 404, 406.
+
+ Narva, 174, 282;
+   battle of, 274-277;
+   river, 275.
+
+ Nassau, 415.
+
+ Nathorst, H. O., 423;
+   A. C., 424 note.
+
+ Natt och Dag, Mons Bengtsson, 109;
+   Nils Bosson (see Sture);
+   Ake Hansson, 122 (see also Sture).
+
+ Nerigon, 25.
+
+ Nerike, 5, 13, 39, 97, 116.
+
+ Nerschinsk, 289.
+
+ Nestor, 46-47, 49, 52.
+
+ Netherlands, 98, 152, 189.
+
+ Neva, 78, 93, 289.
+
+ New Church, 325.
+
+ New Rhymed Chronicle. See Charles Chronicle.
+
+ New School, 380-381.
+
+ Newton, 324.
+
+ Nicholaus II. of Russia, 418.
+
+ Nicolaus of Alba, 72.
+
+ Nils Bosson (Natt och Dag). See Sture.
+
+ Nils, king of Denmark, 71.
+
+ Nilsson, Mons, 134;
+   Sven, 380;
+   Christine, 413.
+
+ Nimwegen, peace treaty of, 254-255.
+
+ Niord, 34.
+
+ Nithard, 54.
+
+ Nobel, Alfred, 425-426.
+
+ Nobility, Nobles, 76, 86, 87, 88, 92, 95, 96, 102, 105, 108, 110, 113,
+     115, 117, 119, 120, 126, 127, 128, 144, 148, 150, 151, 158, 166,
+     169, 173, 174, 185, 186, 193, 199, 200, 231, 233, 238, 239, 243,
+     250, 255, 256, 258, 271, 302, 304, 310, 314, 349, 350, 352, 357,
+     365, 367, 383, 384, 385, 396, 397, 398, 416;
+   higher, 200, 251, 256-257, 314;
+   lower, 200, 251, 253, 256, 257, 314,
+   speaker of (see Landtmarskalk).
+
+ Nœrdlingen, battle of, 221, 223.
+
+ Nœteborg, 282.
+
+ Norcopensis. See Nordenhielm.
+
+ Nordanskogs, 5.
+
+ Nordberg, G., 288.
+
+ Nordblom, J. E., 389.
+
+ Nordenflycht, Hedvig Charlotta, 339.
+
+ Nordenhielm, Andreas, 269, 270.
+
+ Nordenskiold, Baron, 424.
+
+ Nordgren, Ellen, 404, 406, 431.
+
+ Nordraak, 405.
+
+ Nordstrœm, Charles, 429.
+
+ Norman, Normandie, 48, 52.
+
+ Norman, Georg, 149;
+   F. V. L., 390.
+
+ Norén, Adolph, 423.
+
+ Norrby, Sœren, 122, 139, 140, 142.
+
+ Norrkœping, 190, 320.
+
+ Norrland, 5, 6, 7, 14, 24, 43, 107, 138, 193, 266, 362.
+
+ North, the Scandinavian, 16, 21, 29, 35, 42, 43, 44, 52, 53, 54, 56,
+     59, 60, 61, 94, 96, 101, 104, 114, 225, 248, 263, 305, 330, 434,
+     438.
+
+ North Pole, 424.
+
+ North Sea, 5, 10, 196, 198, 322, 375.
+
+ North Star, Order of the, 318.
+
+ Northeast Passage, 424.
+
+ Northern language, common, 99;
+   oldest form, 8, 22;
+   tribes, 23;
+   industrial arts, 23;
+   literature, 36, 38, 41.
+
+ Northmen, 45, 52, 53, 59.
+
+ Norway, Norwegians, 5, 6, 10, 13, 21, 25, 33, 36, 38, 41, 43, 45, 52,
+     55, 57, 58, 60, 61, 62, 63, 67, 68, 69, 70, 75, 76, 79, 83, 89, 90,
+     91, 92, 94, 95, 96, 100, 111, 142, 147, 164, 166-167, 174, 247,
+     307, 308, 311, 348, 357, 362, 366, 370, 371-374, 375, 386, 393-395,
+     402, 404, 405, 418-421, 430;
+   governor-general question, 386, 393-395, 418-419;
+   constitution, 373-374, 393;
+   cabinet, 373, 394-395, 402;
+   consular and diplomatic service, 419, 420, 437;
+   defence, 419;
+   flag, 386, 419;
+   culture, 405;
+   government, 373;
+   king, 373-374;
+   Minister of State, 419;
+   railways, 421;
+   royal title, 386;
+   Storthing, 373, 379, 386, 393-394, 406, 419, 420, 425-426;
+   viceroy, 393.
+
+ Novgorod, 47, 52, 62, 188, 190.
+
+ Nuremberg, 211-212, 225.
+
+ Nurmanni, 47.
+
+ Nykœping, 82, 84, 172, 190, 239, 302;
+   Feast of, 90;
+   Restitution of, 102.
+
+ Nyslott, 316.
+
+ Nystrœm, Alfred, 430.
+
+
+ O
+
+ Oder, River, 21, 27, 224, 279.
+
+ Odin, 31-32, 34, 35, 37.
+
+ Œdman, A., 431.
+
+ Œland, island of, 5, 21, 22, 111, 254;
+   naval battles of, 165-166, 167-168, 350.
+
+ Œrbyhus, 171.
+
+ Œrebro, 109, 146, 150, 174, 368, 387.
+
+ Œsel, island of, 164, 227.
+
+ Œstberg, Caroline, 431.
+
+ Œsterlind, A., 429.
+
+ Ohio, 7.
+
+ Ôhthere. See Ottar.
+
+ Olaf (Norwegian kings) Tryggvasson, 57-58;
+   Haraldsson, 61-62, 67;
+   Hakonsson, 100.
+
+ Olai, Ericus, 114, 117.
+
+ Olaus, Petri (Master Olof). See Petri.
+
+ Oldenburg, 366;
+   counts of, 149, 367.
+
+ Old Chronicle. See Eric’s Chronicle.
+
+ Old Danish, 8, 22, 99.
+
+ Old English, 237, 342.
+
+ Old High German, 342.
+
+ Old Icelandic. See Old Norse.
+
+ Old Norse language, 8, 22, 99, 341, 342;
+   literature, 32, 232, 270;
+   mythology, 265.
+
+ Old Swedish language, 8, 9, 22, 24, 48, 49, 99, 342;
+   literature, 8, 9, 66-67, 80, 98, 114, 121;
+   laws, 48, 66-67, 380, 391.
+
+ Oleg, 48, 49, 51.
+
+ Olga, 48, 51.
+
+ Oligarchy, 309.
+
+ Oliva, peace treaty of, 250.
+
+ Olof (Swedish kings), 40-41, 42, 54, 55;
+   Skœtkonung, 52, 57-62;
+   Næskonung, 69, 70.
+
+ Olsson, Lars, 138.
+
+ Olustra, battle of, 78.
+
+ Opposition, Conservative, 383, 384;
+   Liberal, 376-378, 379, 380, 382, 383, 384.
+   See also Intelligence Party.
+
+ Orange, 259, 392.
+
+ Oravais, battle of, 358, 360-362.
+
+ Ordeals, 82.
+
+ Orientalists, 333, 340.
+
+ Ornæs, 134.
+
+ Orosius, 43.
+
+ Oscar Fredericsborg, 418.
+
+ Oscar (kings of Sweden): I. 382-390, 391, 411;
+   II. 411, 414-438.
+
+ Oscar, Prince. See Bernadotte.
+
+ Oslo, 92.
+
+ Ottar, 37-38.
+
+ Otto, Bishop, 128.
+
+ Oxenstierna, Jœns Bengtsson, 112-113;
+   Axel, 199, 203, 204, 220-221, 222, 226, 229, 230, 233, 234, 239, 242,
+     312, 375, 421;
+   John, 229;
+   Bengt, 259, 271;
+   John Gabriel, 345;
+   Oxford, 340.
+
+
+ P
+
+ Palæolithic Civilization, 12.
+
+ Palatinate-Zweibrucken, 189, 239, 290.
+
+ Pappenheim, 203, 207-209, 213, 214, 217-218.
+
+ Paris, 118, 305, 331, 340, 368, 371;
+   expositions, 413, 421, 429;
+   peace treaties, 362-363, 369, 388;
+   University, 118, 340.
+
+ Parliament, Parliamentary Reform, 108, 111, 376, 379, 384-385, 396-401.
+
+ Passage-graves, 13.
+
+ Patkul, J. R., 312.
+
+ Patriotism, 104, 114, 120, 130, 131, 200, 201, 235, 244, 247, 248, 250,
+     258, 309, 352, 358, 367, 398, 434.
+
+ Pau, 368.
+
+ Pauli, Emerentia, 196-197;
+   George, 429;
+   Hanna (Hirsch-P.), 429.
+
+ Peasant. See Yeoman.
+
+ Peasant High Schools, 423.
+
+ Peasant-king, 188.
+
+ Peene, River, 312.
+
+ Peipus, Lake, 199, 282.
+
+ Pentinger, Konrad, 149.
+
+ Peringskiold, John, 265.
+
+ Pernau, 201, 292.
+
+ Person, Andrew, 133-134;
+   Arendt, 134-135;
+   Gœran, 162, 170.
+
+ Peru, 336.
+
+ Peter Frisk, 299.
+
+ Peter’s Pence, 72.
+
+ Peter the Great, 272-273, 277, 282, 283, 284, 285, 287, 288, 289, 296,
+     306, 307, 311, 316.
+
+ Peterson, Adrian, 431.
+
+ Petri, Olaus (Master Olof), 86, 114, 128, 141, 150;
+   Laurentius, 141, 150, 175, 177, 183;
+   Laurentius P. Gothus, 175.
+
+ Philadelphia Exposition, 421.
+
+ Philip, king, 70;
+   Folkung, 81;
+   Duke (see Charles, Princes of Sweden).
+
+ Philipstad, 188.
+
+ Philology, 67, 237, 265, 266, 320, 339-342, 380, 388, 423.
+
+ Philosophy, 240-241, 321, 327, 340, 411-412, 423.
+
+ Phosphoristic School, 380-381.
+
+ Physical science, 322, 324-325, 333, 423, 425.
+
+ Physiology, 325.
+
+ Piccolomini, General, 221, 225.
+
+ Pillau, 203.
+
+ Piper, Charles, 271, 286, 287, 288, 292;
+   Louise Sophie, 366-367.
+
+ Pitea, 411.
+
+ Plague, 94, 124, 176, 290, 323.
+
+ Platen, Baltzar B. von, 365, 371, 375.
+
+ Plato, 264.
+
+ Pliny, the Elder, 25.
+
+ Poland, Polish, 98, 143, 163, 164, 174, 175, 182, 183, 184, 185, 187,
+     199, 202, 222, 243-245, 247, 250, 252, 273, 278-279, 281, 282, 283,
+     284, 290, 292, 294, 295, 297, 313, 401.
+
+ Polar Circle, 7, 8;
+   Sea, 93.
+
+ Polhammar. See Polhem.
+
+ Polhem, Christopher, 267, 302, 304-306, 322, 326, 334, 375, 424;
+   Emerentia, 326.
+
+ Poliané, 49.
+
+ Polotsk, 47.
+
+ Pomerania, 5, 7, 205, 224, 229, 232, 245, 255, 258, 294-295, 299, 302,
+     313, 319, 336, 357, 363, 371.
+
+ Pomponius Mela, 25.
+
+ Ponte Corvo, 368.
+
+ Pope, 69, 77, 78, 94, 97-98, 117, 121, 124, 126, 144.
+
+ Porosalmie, battle of, 350.
+
+ Porphyrogenitus. See Constantine P.
+
+ Portugal, 45.
+
+ Posse, Knut, 116, 118;
+   Arvid, 407.
+
+ Potatoes, 336.
+
+ Powers, Continental, 187, 248, 250, 252, 319, 320, 344, 345, 372, 374,
+     378, 403, 418.
+
+ Prague, 117, 210, 222, 228, 236, 258.
+
+ Press, 231, 365, 376-377, 383, 384, 396, 397, 403, 404, 407, 428;
+   law, 434-435.
+
+ Pretenders, 55-56, 74, 75, 78, 147, 187-188.
+
+ Priestley, 325.
+
+ Priests, 98, 144.
+
+ Primas of Sweden, 70.
+
+ Printz, John, 232.
+
+ Prisons, 382.
+
+ Prokopios, 28, 31.
+
+ Propeller, 387.
+
+ Prose Chronicle. See Chronicle.
+
+ Protective system, 406, 416;
+   protectionistic party, 416.
+
+ Protestantism, 175, 182-184, 189, 192, 202, 204, 221, 279, 281-282,
+     325.
+
+ Province, Provincial, 5-6, 64-65, 66, 86, 89, 93, 105, 149, 249;
+   laws (see Sweden).
+
+ Prussia, 172, 202, 203, 222, 223, 244, 296, 299, 311, 345, 349, 352,
+     370, 385-386, 403.
+
+ Pruth, River, 294.
+
+ Pskof, 198.
+
+ Ptolemy, 27.
+
+ Pufendorff, S., 237.
+
+ Puke, Eric Kettilsson (see Kettilsson);
+   Eric (Nilsson), 107, 110.
+
+ Pulkkila, battle of, 358.
+
+ Pultowa, battle of, 285-286, 289, 290, 291, 292, 294, 303.
+
+ Pyk, Louise, 431.
+
+ Pyteas, 24.
+
+
+ Q
+
+ Quaternary period, 12.
+
+ Qvidinge, 366.
+
+
+ R
+
+ Ræfsnæs, 133.
+
+ Ragnar, Swedish king, 41-42;
+   R. Lodbrok, sea-king, 41-42.
+
+ Ragnvald, jarl, 58, 61-62, 67;
+   king, 70-71;
+   prince, 70.
+
+ Railways. See Sweden.
+
+ Ramberg, 226.
+
+ Rankhytta, 133.
+
+ Rantzau, Daniel, 168;
+   George, 291.
+
+ Rappe, A. E., 435.
+
+ Raseborg, 113, 129.
+
+ Rashutt, 327.
+
+ Ratan, 363.
+
+ Ratenau, battle of, 252.
+
+ Ravius, 240.
+
+ Realism, 405, 426-427.
+
+ Reform Banquet, 384.
+
+ Reform, Parliamentary. See Parliament.
+
+ Reformation, Reformers, 98, 140-146, 150, 153, 339;
+   language, 9.
+
+ Reformed Church, 312.
+
+ Regensburg, 224.
+
+ Rehnskiold, C. G., 284, 285-286, 287, 288.
+
+ Renaissance, 153, 157, 261;
+   Swedish Castle, 173, 431.
+
+ Renat, J. G., 288.
+
+ Renata of Lothringia, 162, 169.
+
+ Restitution. See Crown Lands.
+
+ Rettvik, 136.
+
+ Reuterholm, G. A., 353-356.
+
+ Reval, 162, 172, 174, 292.
+
+ Revolts, 76, 78, 81, 84, 107-108, 121, 141-143, 146-151, 288, 293,
+     316-317, 344, 369;
+   of Bells, 148-149, 155.
+
+ Revolution, French, 351, 368, 384, 428;
+   Swedish, 138, 143, 146, 344, 345, 349-352, 362, 379.
+
+ Rheims, 54.
+
+ Ribbing, P., 302, 310, 314.
+
+ Richelieu, 220, 224.
+
+ Riddarholm’s Church, 87, 90, 96, 225, 367, 415.
+
+ Riddarhus, The, 166, 200, 256, 268, 398.
+
+ Ridderstad, C. F., 389.
+
+ Riga, 82, 187, 202, 291-292.
+
+ Rikissa, princess, 87;
+   queen, 71;
+   Birgersdotter, 79.
+
+ Riksdag, 88, 108, 115, 117, 124, 140, 142, 143, 150, 151, 161, 169,
+     170, 175, 183-184, 200, 201, 202, 222, 238, 240, 243, 248, 249,
+     250, 254, 256, 257, 258, 271, 293, 298, 310, 314, 315, 316, 317,
+     318, 319, 335, 336, 338, 340, 344, 345, 348, 349-350, 355, 356-857,
+     365, 368, 369, 376, 378, 383, 384, 387, 394-395, 396-401, 403, 406,
+     407-411, 416-418, 420, 433, 435;
+   regulations of the, 434.
+
+ Riksdrotset. See Drotsete.
+
+ Riksmarsk. See Marsk.
+
+ Rimbert, Archbishop, 52, 55.
+
+ Ring (“Sigurd Ring”), 41, 51.
+
+ Riswick, peace treaty of, 259.
+
+ Ritual and hymn-book, 175, 183, 260, 355.
+
+ Rock-carvings, 17, 18.
+
+ Rococo, 353.
+
+ Rœskilde, peace treaties of, 91, 247.
+
+ Rolf Krake, 38.
+
+ Romanticism (Neo-), 346, 380-381, 388-389, 405, 427.
+
+ Rome, Roman, 20, 21, 26, 27, 28, 72, 74, 97, 125, 141, 144, 175, 204,
+     263, 265.
+
+ Rosen, von, 282 note;
+   George von, 412, 429.
+
+ Rosenblad, M., 374.
+
+ Roslagen, 48-49.
+
+ Roslin, Alex., 347, 428.
+
+ Rosstjenst. See Russtienst.
+
+ Rostock, 121, 147, 165.
+
+ Rostof, 47.
+
+ Rothman, Dr., 327-328.
+
+ Royal offices, 87;
+   sanctity, 77, 85;
+   title, 84.
+
+ Rud, Otto, 122.
+
+ Rudbeck, Olof, the Elder, 261-265;
+   Olof, the Younger, 330.
+
+ Rudbeckius, J., 262.
+
+ Ruden, Island of, 205.
+
+ Rudenschiold, Madelaine, 354.
+
+ Rudolph, emperor, 172.
+
+ Rugen, Island, 229, 294, 371.
+
+ Ruhr, River, 236.
+
+ Runeberg, J. L., 364, 388.
+
+ Runes, 8, 21-22, 340.
+
+ Runius, 233.
+
+ Runn, Lake, 134.
+
+ Ruotsi, 48.
+
+ Rurik, 47-49, 51, 52, 187.
+
+ Rus, Rûs, 47, 50, 105.
+
+ Russia, Russians, 6, 12, 22, 26, 43, 46-52, 62, 63, 67, 68, 69, 78, 81,
+     88, 94, 105, 112, 118, 119, 122, 143, 152, 153, 162, 171, 172, 174,
+     176, 184, 187, 188, 190, 198, 199, 203, 244, 250, 272, 273,
+     274-277, 278, 280, 282-287, 291-292, 294, 295, 306, 311, 315, 316,
+     317, 345, 348-349, 350-351, 352, 357-362, 369, 370, 374, 377, 378,
+     387-388, 394, 401, 418, 436;
+   captivity, 287-289;
+   language, 8;
+   names, 48.
+
+ Russtienst, Rusttjenst, 86, 143, 162, 174, 188.
+
+ Rydberg, Victor, 412, 423.
+
+ Rydboholm, 130.
+
+ Rydelius, Andrew, 337-338.
+
+ Ryssby, 193.
+
+
+ S
+
+ Sachsen (Saxony)-Lauenburg, 155, 216.
+
+ Sæfstrom, 325.
+
+ Sætherbey, H., 389.
+
+ Sætra, 134.
+
+ St. Gallen, 362.
+
+ St. Olaf, Order of, 386.
+
+ St. Peter of Rome, 240.
+
+ St. Petersburg, 88, 282, 283, 285, 289, 348, 355.
+
+ St. Salvator, Order of, 98.
+
+ Sala, 152.
+
+ Salestad, 176.
+
+ Salmasius, 236, 240.
+
+ Salmson, H., 429.
+
+ Salon, French, 428, 429.
+
+ Salvius, A., 229.
+
+ San, River, 244.
+
+ Sandels, J. A., 358, 360.
+
+ Saxo, 51, 57.
+
+ Saxons, Saxonland, Saxony, 29, 38, 40, 206-208, 211, 213, 222, 223,
+     224, 228, 272, 273, 277, 279-282, 292, 295, 299, 322, 415.
+
+ Scandia, 25.
+
+ Scandinavia, Scandinavian, 14, 16, 24, 25, 28, 100, 101, 124, 166, 255,
+     317, 423, 437;
+   languages, 9, 99, 166;
+   peninsula, 5, 12, 25, 27, 93, 312, 325, 371, 421;
+   policy, 247, 402-406, 415, 437-438;
+   religion, 31.
+
+ Scandinavism, 385-386.
+
+ Scandza, 30, 44.
+
+ Scania, 5, 6, 10, 12, 13, 14, 18, 21, 25, 40, 43, 46, 84, 91, 93, 95,
+     97, 105, 111, 167, 195, 226, 247, 249, 254, 290-291, 307, 325, 336,
+     344, 357, 362, 366, 369, 386.
+
+ Scheele, C. W., 346.
+
+ Schefferns, 240.
+
+ Schleswig, 104, 112, 126, 245, 385, 386, 402, 404, 405.
+
+ Schluesselburg, 282.
+
+ Schlyter, K. J., 380.
+
+ Schœnstrœm, P., 288.
+
+ Scholander, E. W., 431.
+
+ Schools, school laws, 117, 146, 175, 393, 423.
+
+ Schueck, H., 428.
+
+ Schuisky, Vassili, 187-188.
+
+ Schwartz, Sophie, 389.
+
+ Schwedenstein, 281.
+
+ Schwerin, von W., 360-361;
+   F. B., 377.
+
+ Scotland, 208, 405.
+
+ Scylfingas. See Skilfings.
+
+ Secret Committee, 314, 315, 316.
+
+ Seeland, 246-247, 291, 362.
+
+ Sehlstedt, Elias, 389.
+
+ Semiramis of the North, 104.
+
+ Separator, 425.
+
+ Seraphim, Order of the, 318.
+
+ Seven Years’ War, of the North, 164-168;
+   Continental, 319.
+
+ Siberia, 287-289.
+
+ Sigfrid, St., 58.
+
+ Sigismund of Sweden and Poland, 174, 182-186, 187, 188, 202.
+
+ Signe, 36.
+
+ Signjótr. See Sineus.
+
+ Sigrid Storrada, 57.
+
+ Sigtuna, 35, 62, 68, 71, 75.
+
+ Sigurd, King, 41.
+
+ Sigurd Jorsalafare, 70.
+
+ Siikajoki, battle of, 358-359.
+
+ Silesia, 202, 222, 225, 226, 279, 281-282.
+
+ Siljan, Lake, 136.
+
+ Simon. See Gauzbert and Stenfi.
+
+ Sineus, 47, 48.
+
+ Sjœgren, Otto, 390, 431.
+
+ Skara, 59, 68, 84, 128, 148, 321.
+
+ Skee Finns, 28.
+
+ Skenninge Conference, 78;
+   meeting, 86.
+
+ Skerry fleet, 350, 351.
+
+ Skialf, 36.
+
+ Skiel (Kiel), Bay of, 226.
+
+ Skilfings, 33, 35, 37, 39, 40.
+
+ Skjœldebrand, A. F., 374.
+
+ Skokloster, 251.
+
+ Skytte, Johan, 193, 232.
+
+ Slavs, 28, 47-50, 54.
+
+ Sloane, Hans, 331.
+
+ Smaland, 5, 14, 29, 70, 72, 84, 111, 126, 133, 150, 166, 195, 215, 291,
+     327, 329.
+
+ Smith, S., 431.
+
+ Smolensk, 49, 188, 284.
+
+ Snaphaner, 226.
+
+ Snoilsky, 412, 427.
+
+ Snorre Sturleson, 33, 34, 35, 40, 41, 52, 265, 349.
+
+ Socialism, 433.
+
+ Sœderkœping, 116, 183.
+
+ Sœderman, August, 431.
+
+ Sœdermanland, 5, 9, 13, 23, 39, 58, 107, 133, 174.
+
+ Sohlman, Aug., 403.
+
+ Soop, Eric, 303.
+
+ Sophia (queens of Sweden), 81; 415.
+
+ Sophie Magdalene, queen of Sweden, 343.
+
+ Sound, the, 10, 93, 227;
+   naval battle of, 248.
+
+ South Company, 232.
+
+ Spain, Spanish, 45, 97, 209, 221, 352, 378.
+
+ Sparre, P. G., 389.
+
+ Sparrsætra, battle of, 78.
+
+ Spectator, 338.
+
+ Spitzbergen, 424.
+
+ Sprengtporten, J. M., 344, 350.
+
+ Squire, 106, 131, 200.
+
+ Stade, 295.
+
+ Stadsfullmægtige, 395.
+
+ Stæket, 124, 125, 131.
+
+ Stagnelius, E. J., 380-381.
+
+ Stanislav of Poland, 279, 281, 290, 295, 313.
+
+ Starbæck, George, 389.
+
+ Steam hose, 387.
+
+ Stedingk, C. von, 350, 367.
+
+ Stefan, 74.
+
+ Stegeborg, 139, 185.
+
+ Stellin, 312.
+
+ Stenbock (see Catherine, queens of Sweden), Brita, 156;
+   Gustavus, Baron, 156, 162, 181;
+   Olof,171;
+   Eric, 176-182, 296;
+   Magdalen (see Sture);
+   Cecilia, 178-180;
+   Beatrix, 180;
+   Anne, 181;
+   Gustavus, 182;
+   Gustavus Otto, 250;
+   Magnus, Count, 182, 277, 284, 290, 291, 294-296.
+
+ Stenfi (Stephan), 58.
+
+ Stenhammar, W., 390.
+
+ Stenkil, 67-68, 70.
+
+ Stensœ, 132.
+
+ Stephan of Poland, 174.
+
+ Steuchius, Archbishop, 340.
+
+ Stiernhielm, Georg, 233, 235, 237.
+
+ Stiernhœk, 232.
+
+ Stiklastad, battle of, 62.
+
+ Stobeus, Chilian. 329.
+
+ Stockholm, 10, 36, 74, 75, 82, 84, 87, 90, 92, 95, 96, 100, 101, 107,
+     108, 109, 112, 116, 119, 121, 124, 125, 126, 127, 130, 133, 139,
+     140, 141, 143, 150, 158, 165, 169, 173, 180, 186, 190, 193, 199,
+     231-232, 272, 313, 317, 320, 321, 334, 338, 344, 362, 366, 373,
+     377, 384, 391, 397, 405, 418, 422;
+   Royal Palace, 303;
+   City University (see Universities);
+   Exchange, 337;
+   Posten, 377;
+   Royal Theatre, 346, 352, 413, 431.
+
+ Stolarm, Arvid, 185.
+
+ Stolbova, peace treaty of, 198.
+
+ Stolhandske, Torsten, 216-217, 218.
+
+ Stone Age, 11-16;
+   cists, 13.
+
+ Stongebro, battle of, 185.
+
+ Strahlenberg, J. von, 288.
+
+ Stralsund, siege of, 299-300.
+
+ Strandberg, C. W. A., 389.
+
+ Strengnæs, 71, 114, 128, 140.
+
+ Strindberg, August, 426-427, 428, 431;
+   Nils, 424.
+
+ Strœmstad, 307, 322.
+
+ Strole, Olof, 197.
+
+ Stromberg, Nils, 291-292.
+
+ Stuart, Mary, 162;
+   Charles Magnus, 270, 277.
+
+ Stuhm, battle of, 202-203.
+
+ Sture, 130, 140, 146, 181, 182;
+   original line: Sten Sture, the Elder, 113, 114-120, 121, 123,
+     130-131;
+   Natt och Dag branch: Nils Bosson, 108-109, 116, 118, 120, 123;
+   Svante Nilsson, 118-123, 141;
+   Sten Sture, the Younger, 123-129, 131, 142;
+   Nils Stensson, 147;
+   Svante Stensson, Count, 149, 151, 155, 156, 162, 168, 169-170, 177;
+   Nils Svantesson, 168, 169;
+   Eric, 170;
+   Martha (see Leijonhufvud);
+   Sigrid, 176-182;
+   Magdalen, 176-182, 296;
+   Anne, 177;
+   Margaret, 177, 179;
+   Christine, 177.
+
+ Sture Chronicles, 114.
+
+ Sturzen-Becker, O. P., 389.
+
+ Styrbiœrn Starke, 55-56.
+
+ Subsidies, 252, 316, 319.
+
+ Succession, Royal, 150, 151, 190, 310;
+   law of, 434.
+
+ Suchtelen, von, 359.
+
+ Sud, 49.
+
+ Suevian Sea, 26.
+
+ Suiones, 26.
+
+ Sundberg, Archbishop, 407.
+
+ Sunnanskogs, 5.
+
+ Sunnanvæder, Peder, 141-143, 147.
+
+ Suomi, 437.
+
+ Supreme Court. See Sweden.
+
+ “Surgeon’s Stories,” 413.
+
+ Sværdsbro, 179.
+
+ Sværdsjœ, 135.
+
+ Svartsjœ, 155, 173.
+
+ Sveaborg, fortress of, 317, 359-360.
+
+ Svealand, 5, 14, 19, 24, 27, 58, 68, 69, 83, 185.
+
+ “Svecia,” 265-266.
+
+ Svedberg, Jesper, 321.
+
+ Svedbom, 431.
+
+ Sveijder, 35.
+
+ Svein, Norwegian jarl, 57-58.
+
+ Sven. See Blot-Sven.
+
+ Svend (Danish kings): Tjufvuskægg, 57;
+   Estridsen, 63;
+   Grade, 72.
+
+ Svendborg, 246.
+
+ Svensksund, naval battles of, 350-351.
+
+ Sverdrup, J., 406.
+
+ Sverker, the Old, 71-73, 75;
+   the Younger, 74, 75-77.
+
+ Sviar, 27, 35, 47, 64.
+
+ Sviatoslaf, 51.
+
+ Svinesund, 307, 372.
+
+ Svithiod, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41.
+
+ Svolder, battle of, 57-58.
+
+ Swabia, 29, 213.
+
+ Sweden, 5, 11, 21, 26, 27, 31, 34, 42, 58, 64, 75, 90, 105, 126, 188,
+     192, 214, 221, 222, 223, 229-230, 250, 265, 272, 289, 291, 296,
+     298, 300, 309, 320-321, 363-364, 374, 403, 418, 432-434;
+   administration (see Government);
+   agriculture, 15, 117, 152, 260, 306, 317, 423;
+   alcohol industry, 387;
+   architects (see Architecture);
+   army, 152, 186, 201-202, 203, 231, 258-259, 283, 290, 296, 307,
+     408-410, 415-418;
+   art, 261, 303, 347, 382, 391, 412, 421, 428-431;
+   botanists (see Botany);
+   broadcloth, 335, 336, 337;
+   budget, 422;
+   cabinet, 365, 374, 376, 378, 382, 383, 391-392, 394-395, 399-400,
+     402, 404, 435, 436;
+   canals (see Gotha Canal);
+   civilization (see Cultural Development);
+   climate, 7;
+   colonies, 232;
+   commerce, 81-82, 85, 105, 116, 152, 176, 188, 198, 200, 260, 288,
+     302, 376, 387, 406, 407, 414, 421, 422;
+   communications, 374, 387, 406, 421;
+   communities, 39, 42, 64, 105, 396, 432;
+   composers (see Music);
+   constitution, 64, 65, 105, 255-258, 268, 292-293, 302, 310, 314,
+     318, 344, 349-350, 366, 378, 400, 434;
+   court, 87, 146, 154, 189, 240, 255, 318, 319, 338, 339;
+   court party, 318-320, 338;
+   criminal code, 395;
+   crown, 144, 149, 174-175, 201, 239, 255
+     (see also Crown lands, restitution of);
+   cultural development, 14, 18, 23, 30-31, 59-61, 68, 71-72, 98-99,
+     105, 114, 117-118, 141-142, 173, 188, 201, 232-233, 261-267,
+     302-306, 313, 320, 321-341, 345-347, 353, 380-381, 382, 388-390,
+     393, 405, 408, 411-413, 422-433;
+   dairy industry, 152, 425;
+   defence, 254, 260, 293, 374, 375, 408, 417-418;
+   departments, state, 199, 230, 298, 314, 378, 421, 435
+     (see also Cabinet and Ministers);
+   dialect research, 340, 341;
+   electric telegraph, 387, 422;
+   emblem, 164, 197;
+   engineers, 424-426;
+   estates (see Estates);
+   exports and imports, 422;
+   finance, 94, 187, 239, 243, 301-302, 306, 311, 313, 315, 319, 374,
+     407, 408, 422;
+   forests, 7, 18;
+   fundamental laws, 434-435;
+   geographical discoveries, 288, 424;
+   geology, 8, 12, 325;
+   government, 64, 65, 74, 85, 87, 88, 91, 92, 93, 96, 101-104, 108,
+     114, 115, 123, 149-150, 152-153, 161-162, 174, 176, 188, 189, 190,
+     203, 230, 233, 249-252, 253, 256-257, 258, 259-260, 271, 292-293,
+     300-302, 310-311, 312, 313, 315, 816, 317, 319, 320, 345, 354-355,
+     374, 378, 383-384, 390, 391, 395-401, 403, 404, 407, 409, 410-411,
+     416,418, 419, 435;
+   graves, 18, 14, 16, 17, 19, 23, 27;
+   historians (see History);
+   industries, 302, 306, 317, 319, 334-337, 383, 387, 393, 407, 421;
+   inland seas, 305, 325;
+   inventors, 304, 321, 322, 425-426;
+   kings, 26, 31, 40, 41, 42, 64-65, 67, 84, 85, 87, 92, 96, 99, 115,
+     125, 145, 150, 158, 189, 190, 191, 201, 242, 249, 253, 263, 268,
+     300, 308, 343, 382-383, 391, 401, 411, 414, 415, 434-435;
+   land-tax, 408, 410, 416;
+   language, 8, 9, 15, 47-48, 99, 153, 237, 238, 330, 340, 346-347, 390;
+   legislation, 82, 85-86, 89, 93, 105, 110, 314, 315, 383, 395-401,
+     416-418;
+   literature, 66-67, 80, 89, 98, 99, 121, 155, 233, 237, 261, 263,
+     337-339, 345-347, 380-382, 388-389, 405, 412-413, 414, 426-428;
+   loanwords, 8, 47;
+   manufactures, 306, 317, 335-336;
+   maritime code, 395;
+   metal engraving (see Art);
+   migrations, 34;
+   military districts and divisions, 417-418;
+   militia, 357, 365, 369, 409, 410, 416, 417;
+   mining industry, 82, 116, 152, 188, 201, 230-232, 260, 336;
+   municipal government, 395-396;
+   mythology, 31-32, 53;
+   national anthem, 434;
+   national character and temperament, 9, 10, 98, 354, 389-390, 405,
+     433-434;
+   naturalists (see Science);
+   navigation, 407, 422;
+   navy, 94, 149, 168, 226-227, 231, 253, 258-259, 416, 418;
+   one realm, 39, 42, 43, 64-65, 105;
+   painters (see Art);
+   philologists (see Philology);
+   philosophers (see Philosophy);
+   political grandeur, 191, 192-309;
+   population, 5, 8, 16, 94, 176, 193;
+   possessions, 253, 272, 292, 293, 299, 312
+     (see also Territory, Finland, and Baltic Dominion and Provinces);
+   postal service, 231, 421;
+   proper names, 32, 47, 48;
+   provincial laws, 8, 66-67, 70, 89, 98, 380, 392;
+   railways, 387, 406, 421;
+   regent, 68, 79, 88, 91, 108, 109, 113, 115, 120, 122, 124, 126, 140,
+     184, 353-356, 362-364, 391, 392-393;
+   Riksdag (see Riksdag);
+   scenery, 6, 98, 330, 391;
+   science, 9, 232, 240, 261, 265, 288, 302, 304-306, 321, 324-325, 332,
+     339, 340, 346, 380, 408, 414, 421, 426;
+   sculptors (see Art);
+   seal of state, 164;
+   sects, 432;
+   singers, song (see Music);
+   sloyd, 287;
+   state, 8, 64-65, 151, 192, 199, 230;
+   state law, 67, 98, 105, 110, 315;
+   state treasurer, 189, 250;
+   statesmen, 82, 87, 89, 146, 192, 199, 204, 220, 251, 312, 315-316,
+     317, 368, 392-393, 437;
+   suffrage, 396, 399, 433;
+   supreme court, 162, 174, 199, 200, 230, 350;
+   taxes, taxation, 76, 88, 103, 107, 201, 288, 238, 240, 279, 290, 293,
+     314, 317, 387, 396, 408, 410;
+   telephone system, 422;
+   territory, 6, 93, 104, 434;
+   towns, 10, 75, 82, 85, 116, 152, 176, 188, 311, 395, 397, 399;
+   town laws, 116;
+   tribes, 66, 105.
+
+ Swedenborg, E., 321-327, 332, 347.
+
+ “Swedish Fates and Adventures,” 427.
+
+ Swinhufvud. See Barbro Stigsdotter.
+
+ Sword, Order of the, 318.
+
+ Systema Naturæ, 330, 333.
+
+
+ T
+
+ Tacitus, 26, 27, 30, 434.
+
+ Tartars, 285.
+
+ Taube, Mathilde. See Grabow.
+
+ Tavastehus, 77, 358.
+
+ Tavasti, Tavastland, 77, 78, 88.
+
+ Tchudi, 47.
+
+ Te Deum, 277.
+
+ Tegnér, Esaias, 353, 363, 381-382, 389;
+   Esaias, Junior, 423.
+
+ Telegraph. See Sweden.
+
+ Temperance movement, 387.
+
+ Terna, 133.
+
+ Tessin, Nicodemus, Senior, 302-303;
+   Nicodemus, Junior, 302-304, 317, 430;
+   Charles Gustavus, 317, 318, 332, 336, 339, 340.
+
+ Teuffel, General, 207.
+
+ Teutons, Teutonic, 8, 21, 22, 25, 26, 28, 44;
+   ancestors, 15;
+   languages, 8, 238, 342;
+   communities, 396, 432;
+   migrations, 20, 23, 44;
+   mythology, 30;
+   origin, 30, 265;
+   sea,25;
+   state, 64-65;
+   traditions, 29-30;
+   tribes, 30, 43.
+
+ Thegerstrom, Robert, 430.
+
+ Themptander, O. R., 416.
+
+ Theology, 340-341.
+
+ Theophilus, Emperor, 48.
+
+ Theosophy, 325, 412.
+
+ Thermometer, Centigrade, 321, 333.
+   See Celsius.
+
+ Thing (Assembly), 55, 56, 58, 61, 65, 72, 82, 86.
+
+ Thiodulf of Hvin, 33, 35, 41.
+
+ Thirty Years’ War, 193, 202-229, 231, 236, 261, 281, 312, 434.
+
+ Thomas, Bishop, 114, 121.
+
+ Thomasius, 266.
+
+ Thor, 30-31.
+
+ Thorild, T., 346, 355.
+
+ Thorn, 172.
+
+ Thorvald, Hialte, 56.
+
+ Thraldom, 82, 93, 137, 309.
+
+ Thule, 24, 25, 28, 29.
+
+ Thunberg, D., 375.
+
+ Tidemand, 405.
+
+ Tilly, 203, 206-209, 210-211.
+
+ Timutarsz, 297, 298.
+
+ Tiundaland, 39, 62.
+
+ Tiveden, 83, 127.
+
+ Tobacco, 336.
+
+ Tobolsk, 287.
+
+ Tœnnig, fortress of, 295-296.
+
+ “Tœrnroseus bok,” 389.
+
+ Toll, J. C., 344, 356, 357.
+
+ Tomte Mats, 137.
+
+ Topelius, Z., 412-413.
+
+ Tordenskiold, Peter, 307, 311, 322.
+
+ Toresson. See Ahlstrœmer.
+
+ Torgau, retreat from, 224.
+
+ Torgny, 62.
+
+ Tormentor of Denmark, 122.
+
+ Torne, River, 363.
+
+ Torpa, 156, 181.
+
+ Torsslov, O. U., 390.
+
+ Torstensson, Lennart, 223, 225-229, 239, 245, 248.
+
+ Tott, Eric Axelson, 113, 117;
+   Ivar Axelson, 113, 117;
+   Ingeborg, 118;
+   Ake, 173;
+   Clas, 175.
+
+ Traventhal, peace treaty of, 274.
+
+ Tre Rosor, 282 note;
+   Ture Jœnsson, 146, 148, 149, 156;
+   John Turesson, 149, 156, 158;
+   Gustavus Johnsson, Count, 156, 162.
+
+ Trolle, Eric, 123, 124;
+   Gustavus, Archbishop, 124-125, 127-128, 129, 139, 142, 148.
+
+ Trollhetta, waterfalls of, 306, 375.
+
+ Tromp, Admiral, 253.
+
+ Truso, 43.
+
+ Truvor, 47, 48.
+
+ Tryggve. See Truvor.
+
+ Turgot, 59.
+
+ Turkey, Turks, 283, 287, 293, 294, 296-298, 299, 303, 305, 388.
+
+ Tver, battle of, 188.
+
+ Tyr, 30.
+
+ Tyrol, 6.
+
+
+ U
+
+ Ube, River, 206.
+
+ Ukraine, 285, 286, 292.
+
+ Uleoborg, 358.
+
+ Ulf, jarls, 74; 78, 79.
+
+ Ulf Gudmundsson, 97.
+
+ Ulfhild, 71.
+
+ Ulfsson, Jacob, 117, 124, 133.
+
+ Ulrica Eleonore, queens of Sweden, 255, 268, 274; 269, 289, 298, 309,
+     310, 311, 312, 313, 316.
+
+ Ulricsdal, 391.
+
+ Union, Act of, 4, 92, 93, 94, 101-102, 104, 114, 120, 129, 151,
+     166-167, 317, 372-374, 393, 395, 420;
+   nature of the, 419-421, 437;
+   revision of the, 386, 394-395, 406, 421.
+
+ Union government, 420, 438;
+   defence, 420, 438;
+   parliament, 420, 438.
+
+ Unionism, Unionist party, 110, 111, 114, 120, 121, 122, 123, 130,
+     393-395, 415-416.
+
+ Unitarianism, 325, 412.
+
+ United States, 436, 437-438 (see also America);
+   President of, 434.
+
+ Universities, 117, 131, 153, 183, 189, 230, 235, 250, 304, 322, 327,
+     329, 339, 340-341, 356, 380, 385, 390, 405, 411, 413, 422-423.
+
+ Unne, 55.
+
+ Upland, 5, 10, 23, 35, 39, 48, 73, 78, 89, 90, 97, 105, 107, 110, 124,
+     139, 185, 391.
+
+ Uppstrœm, A., 137 note.
+
+ Upsala, 10, 33, 35, 37, 38, 39, 42, 51, 68, 71, 74, 107, 120, 131, 134,
+     139, 142, 143, 147, 153, 157, 161, 175, 183, 201, 235, 240, 262,
+     264, 304, 322, 323, 329, 330, 331-332, 340, 356, 380, 413;
+   cathedral, 82, 112;
+   meeting, 183;
+   University (see Universities);
+   University Botanical Garden, 329, 362;
+   Library, 201, 235;
+   Observatory, 333;
+   temple, 59, 60, 68, 71.
+
+ Uranus, 324.
+
+ Usedom, island of, 205, 229, 312.
+
+ Utilitarianism, 337, 432.
+
+ Utmeland, 137.
+
+ “Utopia Realized,” 427.
+
+
+ V
+
+ Vadstena, 98-99, 104, 107, 120, 140, 164, 173, 184, 304.
+
+ Værælæ, peace treaty of, 351.
+
+ Værend, 29, 58, 66, 72.
+
+ Værfvade, 417.
+
+ Væringar, 49.
+
+ Valdemar of Sweden, 80-84, 89.
+
+ Valdemar (kings of Denmark): Seier, 76, 77;
+   Atterdag, 95, 100.
+
+ Valdemar, Prince, 87, 89-91.
+
+ Vandals, 47.
+
+ Vanlande, 35.
+
+ Varanger Bay, 378, 387-388.
+
+ Varberg, 167, 168.
+
+ Variagi, Varangians, 46-53.
+
+ Varinians, 29.
+
+ Vasa dynasty, family, 130, 163, 187, 193, 194, 249;
+   Original line: Krister Nilsson, 108, 110, 130;
+   Kettil Karlsson, 112-113;
+   Eric Johansson, 128, 130;
+   Gustavus Ericsson (see Gustavus I.);
+   Eric (see Eric XIV.);
+   John (see John III.);
+   Magnus (see Magnus, Princes of Sweden);
+   Charles (see Charles IX.);
+   Gustavus Ericsson, 172-173;
+   Sigrid, 172-173, 177;
+   Sigismund (see Sigismund);
+   John, Duke (see John);
+   Charles Philip (see Charles);
+   Catherine (see Catherine, Countess-Palatine);
+   Gustavus Adolphus (see Gustavus II. Adolphus);
+   Christine (see Christine, queens of Sweden);
+   Polish line, 163, 240;
+   Sigismund (see Sigismund);
+   Vladislav, 186, 188, 243;
+   John II. Casimir, 243-244.
+
+ Vasa Renaissance. See Renaissance.
+
+ Vasa, town, 360.
+
+ Vassili, Czar. See Schuisky.
+
+ Vaxholm, fortress of, 197, 418.
+
+ Venar, Lake, 5, 69.
+
+ Vends, Vendish, 57, 63, 75.
+
+ Vennerberg, Gunnar, 389-390, 409, 413.
+
+ Verden, 229, 235, 312.
+
+ Vermland, 5, 40, 41, 43, 55, 68, 83, 107, 111, 116, 174, 194, 229, 307,
+     308, 335.
+
+ Vessi, 47.
+
+ “Verzage nicht,” 215.
+
+ Vettar, Lake, 5, 77, 164, 418.
+
+ Vexio, 71, 84, 291, 327, 328, 331.
+
+ Viborg, fortress of, 88, 118, 292, 312, 351.
+
+ Victoria, crown princess of Sweden-Norway, 415.
+
+ Vienna, 203, 226, 299;
+   Congress of, 372-373;
+   Exposition, 421;
+   peace treaty of, 405;
+   siege of, 228-229.
+
+ Viken 46.
+
+ Viking Age, Vikings, 8, 24, 41, 44-63, 66, 70.
+
+ Vilmanstrand, battle of, 316.
+
+ Vincentius, Bishop, 128.
+
+ Virdar, 29.
+
+ Virta, battle of, 358.
+
+ Visbur. 35.
+
+ Visby, 85, 95, 304.
+
+ Visigoths, 236.
+
+ Visingsborg, 251.
+
+ Visingsœ, 77, 87, 180.
+
+ Vistula, 21, 27, 31.
+
+ Vitalen, or Victualen Brotherhood, 101.
+
+ Vitesjœ, battle of, 195.
+
+ Vladimir, St., 51, 52.
+
+ Vladislav. See Vasa, Polish line.
+
+ Voldgæstning, 86.
+
+ Volga, 50.
+
+ Volmar, 187.
+
+ Voltaire, 347.
+
+ Vordingborg, 247.
+
+ Vorskla, River, 285, 286.
+
+ Vossius, 236-237.
+
+
+ W
+
+ Wachtmeister, Hans, 259;
+   Hans Hansson, 435.
+
+ Wahlberg, Edward, 429.
+
+ Wallachia, 22, 299.
+
+ Wallenstein, 203, 204, 210-218, 221.
+
+ Wallhof, battle of, 202.
+
+ Wallin, J. O., Archbishop, 381.
+
+ Wallis, Curt, 424.
+
+ Walloons, 231.
+
+ War of Clubs, 184.
+
+ Warburg, K., 248.
+
+ Warsaw, battle of, 244;
+   conquest of, 244, 278;
+   diet of, 278.
+
+ Washington, George, 367.
+
+ Weibule, M., 424.
+
+ Weimar. See Bernhard, Duke of Weimar.
+
+ Wendland, 43.
+
+ Werben, 206.
+
+ Westerbotten, West Bothnia, 5, 16.
+
+ Westerlund, Dr., 424.
+
+ Westeros, 71, 107, 108, 128, 124, 128, 139, 141, 143, 151, 171, 262;
+   Ordinantia and Recess, 145-146; 151.
+
+ West Gothland. See Gothland.
+
+ Westmanland, 5, 58, 106, 107, 112, 116, 147, 195.
+
+ Westphalia, 236;
+   Peace of, 229.
+
+ Wetterstedt, G. af, 374.
+
+ Wetterstrand, Dr., 424.
+
+ Wickman, G., 431.
+
+ Wikblad, S. H., 435.
+
+ Wikner, Pontus, 423.
+
+ William, Bishop of Salima, 78.
+
+ William I. of Germany, 415.
+
+ William of Orange, 259.
+
+ Windau, 203.
+
+ Windsor, 237.
+
+ Wingard, C. F. af, 383.
+
+ Wirsén, G. F. af, 374, 378.
+
+ Wismar, 229, 857.
+
+ Witches, 251.
+
+ Witmar, 54.
+
+ Wittelsbachs, The, 249.
+
+ Wittstock, battle of, 223.
+
+ Wolfenbuttel, battle of, 224.
+
+ Wolgast, 222.
+
+ Wollin, island of, 56, 229, 312.
+
+ Women’s rights, 383.
+
+ Wrangel, 286;
+   Herman, 202;
+   Charles Gustavus, 227, 229, 248, 250, 251, 252, 257.
+
+ Wulfila, 67, 235, 287, 341.
+
+ Wulfstan, 43.
+
+
+ Y
+
+ Yeoman, Yeomanry, 72, 73, 78, 106, 108, 111, 114, 186, 144, 146, 149,
+     158, 192, 199, 201, 233, 238, 251, 253, 255, 258, 260, 314, 316,
+     318, 350, 357, 397, 407, 416, 432.
+
+ Ynglinga Saga, 31, 33-41, 51.
+
+ Ynglingatal, 33-41.
+
+ Ynglings, Yngling kings, 33-41.
+
+ Yngvar, 38-39.
+
+ Yngve, Swedish kings, 35; 36.
+
+ York, 58.
+
+ Yrsa, 38.
+
+
+ Z
+
+ Zamoisky, 187.
+
+ Zettervall, H., 430.
+
+ Zoölogy, 380.
+
+ Zorn, A. L., 430.
+
+
+
+
+    Transcriber's notes:
+
+    Some entries in the index appeared out of alphabetical order. They
+    have been moved.
+
+    The following is a list of changes made to the original.
+    The first line is the original line, the second the corrected one.
+
+    Page 252:
+
+    in 1672, whon he himself took charge of the government,
+    in 1672, when he himself took charge of the government,
+
+    Page 429:
+
+    Prince Eugene, Eugene Jansson, Ernest Josephson, Nils Kreuger,
+    Prince Eugene, Eugene Jansson, Ernst Josephson, Nils Kreuger,
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Sweden, by Victor Nilsson
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Sweden, by Victor Nilsson
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Sweden
+
+Author: Victor Nilsson
+
+Release Date: January 8, 2014 [EBook #44624]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SWEDEN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Ann Jury, Paul Clark and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+    Transcriber's Note:
+
+    Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as
+    possible. Some changes have been made. They are listed at the end of
+    the text.
+
+    Italic text has been marked with _underscores_.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS]
+
+
+
+
+                      THE WORLD'S BEST HISTORIES
+
+                                SWEDEN
+
+                                  BY
+                         VICTOR NILSSON, PH.D.
+               AUTHOR OF "LODDFAFNISMAL, AN EDDIC STUDY"
+
+                          _WITH FRONTISPIECE_
+
+                 THE CO-OPERATIVE PUBLICATION SOCIETY
+                          NEW YORK AND LONDON
+
+
+                            COPYRIGHT 1899
+                       BY PETER FENELON COLLIER
+
+
+
+
+SWEDEN
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+ INTRODUCTION                                                          5
+
+
+ CHAPTER I
+
+ SWEDEN IN PREHISTORIC AND EARLY HISTORIC TIMES--ARCH�OLOGICAL
+    FINDS AND CLASSICAL TESTIMONY                                     11
+
+
+ CHAPTER II
+
+ DAWN OF SWEDISH HISTORY--HEIMSKRINGLA AND YNGLINGATAL                33
+
+
+ CHAPTER III
+
+ THE VIKING AGE--ANSGAR, THE APOSTLE OF SWEDEN                        44
+
+
+ CHAPTER IV
+
+ EARLY CHRISTIAN ERA--STENKIL'S LINE AND INTERCHANGING DYNASTIES      64
+
+
+ CHAPTER V
+
+ THE MEDI�VAL STATE--THE FOLKUNG DYNASTY                              80
+
+
+ CHAPTER VI
+
+ UNIONISM VERSUS PATRIOTISM--MARGARET, ENGELBREKT AND CHARLES
+    KNUTSSON                                                         100
+
+
+ CHAPTER VII
+
+ UNIONISM VERSUS PATRIOTISM--UNCROWNED KINGS OF THE STURE
+    FAMILIES                                                         115
+
+
+ CHAPTER VIII
+
+ REVOLUTION AND REFORMATION--GUSTAVUS VASA                           130
+
+
+ CHAPTER IX
+
+ REFORMATION AND REACTION--THE SONS OF GUSTAVUS I.                   161
+
+
+ CHAPTER X
+
+ PERIOD OF POLITICAL GRANDEUR--GUSTAVUS II. ADOLPHUS                 192
+
+
+ CHAPTER XI
+
+ PERIOD OF POLITICAL GRANDEUR--QUEEN CHRISTINE                       220
+
+
+ CHAPTER XII
+
+ PERIOD OF POLITICAL GRANDEUR--CHARLES X. AND CHARLES XI.            242
+
+
+ CHAPTER XIII
+
+ PERIOD OF POLITICAL GRANDEUR--CHARLES XII.                          268
+
+
+ CHAPTER XIV
+
+ PERIOD OF LIBERTY--THE ARISTOCRATIC REPUBLIC                        310
+
+
+ CHAPTER XV
+
+ GUSTAVIAN PERIOD--GUSTAVUS III. AND GUSTAVUS IV. ADOLPHUS           343
+
+
+ CHAPTER XVI
+
+ THE CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY--CHARLES XIII. AND THE EARLY
+    BERNADOTTES                                                      365
+
+
+ CHAPTER XVII
+
+ PARLIAMENTARY REFORM--CHARLES XV.                                   391
+
+
+ CHAPTER XVIII
+
+ PROGRESS AND PROSPERITY--OSCAR II.                                  414
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The kingdom of Sweden occupies the eastern and larger part of the
+Scandinavian peninsula, covering an area of one hundred and seventy
+thousand six hundred and sixty square miles, with a population of
+somewhat more than five millions. Sweden is of nearly the same width,
+from east to west, throughout her whole length. If the country were
+divided into four equal parts, the southernmost part would correspond
+to the district of Gothaland, the next to the district of Svealand,
+consisting of most of what is north of the lakes Venar and Vetter
+and what is south of the Dal River, while the two remaining parts
+together would make up the district of Norrland. Gothaland, in
+ancient times called _Sunnanskogs_ (South of the Woods), consists of
+the old provinces Scania, Bleking, Smaland and East Gothland by the
+Baltic, Halland and Bohusl�n by the North Sea, and West Gothland of
+the interior. Svealand, or _Nordanskogs_, consists of the provinces
+Soedermanland and Upland by the Baltic, south and north of Lake M�lar,
+respectively, Dal, Vermland and Dalecarlia on the Norwegian frontier,
+and Nerike and Westmanland of the interior. Norrland consists of the
+provinces of Gestrikland, Helsingland, Medelpad, Angermanland and
+Westerbotten by the Gulf of Bothnia, a branch of the Baltic, and
+Herjedal, Jemtland and the Lapmark on the Norwegian frontier. A great
+number of islands form part of the kingdom, of which the two largest,
+Gothland and OEland, are situated in the Baltic. One-twelfth of the
+area, or as much as the whole state of Denmark, consists of water.
+
+Sweden is politically united with Norway and ruled by the same king,
+these united kingdoms forming the largest realm in Europe next to
+Russia, Sweden herself ranking as the sixth in size.
+
+Sweden is a country which offers striking varieties in scenery and
+conditions. In the southernmost province of Scania, an ancient home of
+culture, the nightingale and the stork dwell in the fertile plains,
+and the walnut, mulberry and chestnut trees render ripening fruit.
+Central Sweden is a wooded plateau, rich in rocky hills and inland
+seas. Although barren lands occupy large areas, these parts are
+characterized by a loveliness and picturesqueness which are still more
+pronounced in the northern provinces along the coast. Only in the inner
+mountainous regions of Norrland is the scenery of real grandeur where
+the white-capped giants appear in vast groups, or in isolated peaks
+of six thousand to seven thousand feet in altitude, where a hundred
+glaciers with glacier rivers, moraines and erosions cover a surface
+almost as large as the glaciers of Tyrol, and where, in the turbulent
+course of mighty rivers, are formed tremendous waterfalls, one of them,
+The Hare's Leap, being the largest in Europe.
+
+Geologically considered, Sweden is situated around the centre of the
+ancient Scandinavian land-ice, and in the greater part of the country
+only two of the geological series, the oldest and the youngest, are
+represented. Thus the uneven, undulating surface of the Arch�an rocks,
+on which almost the whole country is firmly set, is in general covered
+with quaternary deposits of gravel and clay. The mountains are rich in
+iron ore, the streams and lakes in fish, the woods in game, but the
+soil, itself of a good quality, unfortunately rich in stones. This
+last-mentioned circumstance, together with the rather severe climate,
+which yet is a good deal milder than might be expected, especially in
+the southern and western parts of the country, makes agriculture, which
+is the most important industry, profitable only on the extensive plains
+of Scania, Upland and West and East Gothland. Still barley and rye are
+cultivated within the Polar Circle, ripening in remarkably short time
+under the nocturnal light of the Midsummer sun. Dense forests cover
+Sweden in the very same latitude in which Greenland is clad by eternal
+ice. The short summers are of a surpassing loveliness. In Norrland
+there is a Swedish _l�n_, or governmental district, of the size of
+the State of Ohio, on which, between the 5th of June and the 11th of
+July, the sun never sets. If the earth was perfectly plain and even
+one would be able to see the sun above the horizon continually during
+this period. But these northerly regions are very mountainous, and
+consequently you will have to climb a high peak in order to see the
+wonderful sight of a sun which stands still when it should set, and
+which marks the difference between night and day only by a rolling
+motion in the horizon. There is no country in the world where so many
+places for such observation are reached so easily as in Sweden. One may
+travel the whole distance from the southernmost point of the country to
+the very base of a mountain, Gellivara, Sweden's Klondike, from which
+the midnight sun can be seen for thirty-seven nights in succession.
+But although the sun itself is visible only from the mountain peaks
+above the Polar Circle, the nocturnal light steeps the whole realm in
+midsummer-night's dreams of magic colors and reflections.
+
+The Swedish people are of Teutonic stock and have lived in the land
+they still inhabit for at least four thousand years, during this entire
+period not having assimilated other nationalities, or at least to no
+extent worth mentioning, so that the Swedish nation is of an origin far
+purer than any other at present existing.
+
+The kingdom of Sweden is the most ancient of the states still extant in
+Europe, for all historical monuments prove that the Swedes have kept
+to about their present territory, perfectly independent of foreign
+nations, probably for a long time divided into lesser communities,
+but for the past twelve hundred years united in one single realm. The
+languages spoken in the Scandinavian North belong to the Teutonic
+family of Indo-European languages, and seem to have been one and almost
+homogeneous up to the time of the Viking Age (about 700-1060), when
+various dialects commence to be distinguished. The old uniform language
+has been preserved in Northern loanwords in the Finnish and Lap
+languages and in about one hundred of the oldest Runic inscriptions.
+The early Old Swedish, from the Viking Age to somewhat later than
+1200, did not differ much from the Old Norse (the Old Norwegian and
+Old Icelandic), while the difference from the Old Danish was almost
+imperceptible. The sources for the study of this language period are
+about two thousand later Runic inscriptions and nearly one hundred Old
+Swedish loanwords, almost all proper names, in the Russian language.
+The classical period of Old Swedish falls between 1200 and about 1350.
+Its most important monuments are the provincial laws and a manuscript
+collection of saintly legends, called Codex Bureanus. The language
+of this period offers a number of dialects, of which only one, the
+Gutnic, is strictly defined. In the next period of Old Swedish, from
+1350 to the Reformation, a universal language for the whole country
+is distinguished. The so-called Oxenstiern manuscripts and Codex
+Bildstenianus are the chief sources of our knowledge of this language
+period, mostly of religious contents. Modern Swedish dates from the
+Reformation, its later period being counted from the publication of
+the state law in 1734. The Swedish language seems to be based chiefly
+upon the dialect of Soedermanland, with influences from other dialects.
+Among the Scandinavian languages, Swedish ranks next to the Icelandic
+in point of purity, and is the foremost of them all in point of beauty.
+
+The Swedes are a hardworking, industrious and intelligent race, not
+fully conscious of their own rich endowment and slow to push their
+individual claims. In moments of danger and distress, this people
+give evidence of an active heroism, which offers a great contrast to
+their usual quiet and peaceful demeanor. The Swedish nation is endowed
+with an unusual inventive power, which has placed it in the first
+rank of scientific research, having produced a quota of initiative
+spirits, as originators, founders and innovators of sciences, which
+is considerably larger than that of any other modern country, in
+proportion to the population. The national temperament is, like the
+soil, composed of extremes. With the serene quiet and almost sullen
+tranquillity goes a patience of extraordinary endurance which, when
+it gives in, surprises by the passion which takes its place. To the
+melancholy trait in the Swedish character is contrasted a great desire
+for the pleasures of life and exuberant animal spirits. Under a quiet
+surface, the Swede conceals a rapid comprehension and an almost morbid
+sensitiveness, sometimes causing people of other nationalities to judge
+him slow of intellect or perfidious, when he is only slow of action or
+indisposed to show his feelings. The most valuable inheritance from
+his ancestors is his moral courage, while the ancient Northern trait
+of self-restraint is often carried to an extreme. Akin to both is his
+dignity. He possesses great musical and improvisatorial gifts which
+complete his lyric-rhetorical temperament.
+
+There are some 6,000 Laplanders and some 20,000 Finns living in the
+furthest North, and foreigners to the number of about 20,000 dwell in
+Sweden, mostly Norwegians, Finns and Danes. More than 99 per cent of
+the population consists of native Swedes, and 99.9 per cent belong to
+the Lutheran state church or the Protestant denominations.
+
+The principal towns are Stockholm, the capital, with 300,000
+inhabitants, enchantingly beautiful in situation, on the mainland and
+islands at the outlet of Lake M�lar into the Baltic; Gothenburg, with
+120,000 inhabitants, the chief commercial centre, at the mouth of the
+Gotha River, by the North Sea; Malmoe, with 60,000 inhabitants, in
+Scania, by the Sound. The university towns of Upsala, in Upland, and
+Lund, in Scania, have 25,000 and 17,000 inhabitants, respectively.
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF SWEDEN
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+_Sweden in Prehistoric and Early Historic Times--Arch�ological Finds
+and Classical Testimony_
+
+
+The Swedes, although the oldest and most unmixed race in Europe,
+realized very late the necessity of writing chronicles or reviews of
+historic events. Thus the names of heroes and kings of the remotest
+past are helplessly forgotten, and lost also the history of its
+earliest religion and institutions.
+
+But Mother Earth has carefully preserved most of what has been
+deposited in her bosom, and has repaid diligent research with
+trustworthy and irrefutable accounts of the age and various degrees
+of civilization of the race which inhabited Sweden in prehistoric
+times. Thus it has been proved that Sweden, like most other countries,
+has had a Stone Age, a Bronze Age, and an Iron Age. But there is
+absolutely no evidence to prove the now antiquated theories of various
+immigrations into Sweden by different races on different stages of
+civilization. On the contrary, the graves from the remotest times,
+through all successive periods, prove by the form of the skulls of
+those buried in them that Sweden has, through all ages, been inhabited
+by the same dolichocephalic, or long-headed, race which constitutes the
+overwhelming majority of her people to-day.
+
+Sweden, physically considered, is not of as high antiquity as some
+countries of Europe. Yet it has been inhabited during the last four
+thousand years, at least. In the quaternary period the Scandinavian
+peninsula was a centre of a glacial movement which spread its
+disastrous influences over Western Russia, Northern Germany and
+Holland. In that period no vegetable or animal life was possible in
+Sweden. From the fact that the earliest stone celts found in Sweden
+and Denmark are not polished, arch�ologists were led to suppose that
+the Stone Age of the North was contemporaneous with the Pal�olithic
+civilization in Western Europe. But this standpoint has been found
+untenable, because it has later become evident that the fauna
+surrounding the earliest inhabitants of the Northern countries was ours
+and not a quaternary one.
+
+The oldest types of finds of _the Stone Age_ in the North have been
+discovered in the refuse-heaps on the Danish coast. These refuse-heaps,
+consisting of stone implements, shells, bones, etc., do not occur in
+Sweden, but the implements characteristic of them are found scattered
+over some parts of the southernmost Swedish province of Scania. The
+shape of these earliest finds is exactly the same as of those of the
+later Stone Age, the only difference being that the former are not
+polished. But there are transitions between the classes, and the act of
+polishing must be regarded as an important phase of progress.
+
+The Stone Age of Sweden is quite remarkable. If the remains of the
+earlier period are scanty, the finds from the later one are all the
+more numerous. With the exception of Denmark and a part of North
+Germany, there is no European country which can boast of such rich and
+beautiful relics from the later Stone Age as the southern part of
+Sweden. The finds in the other countries mentioned are almost exactly
+like those of Sweden from the Stone and the Bronze Ages, both as far as
+implements and skulls are concerned, proving them to have been settled
+by the same race.
+
+The weapons and implements from the Stone Age consist of axes, daggers,
+spearheads, arrowheads, saws, and knives of flint; axes, gauges,
+handmills of stone; fishhooks and arrowheads of bone; earthenware,
+etc., etc. The graves of this period are dolmens, passage-graves, and
+stone cists, the last mentioned either uncovered or covered with a
+barrow. The different forms of burial places seem to indicate four
+successive stages of the period. Through their existence it becomes
+probable that the inhabitants of Sweden during the Stone Age had fixed
+dwelling places.
+
+A dolmen is a grave-chamber of which the walls are formed of large,
+thick stones set up edgewise, covered with one huge block of stone
+as a roof, all the stones being rough outside and smooth inside.
+The passage-graves are built in the same way, but are larger and
+distinguished by a long covered passage leading to it. These graves are
+surrounded by a low barrow, upon the top of which the huge roof-stones
+were originally visible. Dolmens and passage-graves occur in Sweden in
+considerable numbers along the coast of Scania, on the plains of West
+Gothland and in Bohusl�n, more sparsely in other parts of West Gothland
+and in Halland, with stray cases of graves of a similar construction in
+Nerike and Western Soedermanland. It is important to note the regions in
+which these graves have been found, for they must be identical with the
+parts of the earliest settlements. Such graves are also very common in
+Denmark, while only one has been found in Norway.
+
+The stone cists resemble very much the chamber of a passage-grave.
+They are larger and four-sided, and built of somewhat thinner stones.
+Stone cists standing partly visible above the barrow constitute a
+form peculiar to Sweden, occurring in great numbers in West Gothland,
+Bohusl�n, Dalsland and Southwestern Vermland, while the covered stone
+cists appear in the same provinces and in Nerike, East Gothland,
+Smaland, Bleking and the Island of Gothland.
+
+During the Stone Age the bodies were buried unburned, in a recumbent
+or sitting position. By the side of the dead body was usually placed a
+weapon, a tool, or some ornaments, sometimes also earthenware vessels,
+now filled only with earth. These vessels may once have contained
+food. The elaborate graves seem to indicate a belief in a future life.
+The food, if any such was placed by the side of the dead, would not
+necessarily point to the fact that such a future life was imagined
+merely as a continuation of earth life. The heathen Scandinavians of a
+later age believed that the dead remained for some time in their burial
+place before reaching their ultimate destination. For their possible
+wants during this intermediate state food was left with the dead body.
+
+The total number of relics of stone found in Sweden is 64,000. Of these
+only 4,000 belong to Svealand and Norrland, while of all the rest found
+in Gothaland 45,000 belong to Scania alone.
+
+In a much later age the Scandinavians were regarded as pure barbarians.
+For this reason it is important to observe that graves from the Stone
+Age show that the Swedes in that remote period had several domesticated
+animals, the dog, horse, ox, swine, sheep, and, perhaps, also the goat.
+Hence they were certainly a pastoral people, not living exclusively
+by hunting and fishing. But whether they practiced agriculture cannot
+be decided in the present state of our knowledge. The fact that the
+very oldest graves are found in the most fertile districts of Southern
+Sweden seems to speak in favor of the supposition that agriculture was
+known and appreciated.
+
+Of metals, even of gold, the people of the late Stone Age were entirely
+ignorant, also of the art of writing. Hence no monuments of their
+language will ever be found. Still it is highly probable that the
+Teutonic ancestors of the Swedes began to settle in the land from the
+beginning of the Stone Age.
+
+It is true that some skulls, very much like those of the Laps, have
+also been found in the graves of the Stone Age; but it must be borne
+in mind that these burial places, impressive through their size and
+the amount of work and mechanical skill necessary for their erection,
+can be believed to have been originally intended only for kings or
+chieftains, and their families. It was probably a custom, as in later
+heathen times, to bury with such distinguished people a number of
+slaves, dead or alive. The presence of skulls of a non-Scandinavian
+type can thus be explained, without the necessity of accepting the
+theory of an early mixture of two races.
+
+In the northern part of Sweden have been found relics of stone, usually
+of slate, which do not appear to have belonged to the people of the
+dolmens or passage-graves. They bear a close resemblance to those found
+in Finland and in other countries inhabited by Laps, Finns and peoples
+related to them. This seems to prove that these so-called Arctic stone
+implements are relics of the Laps and belong to the time when this
+people was still ignorant of the use of metal. Judging from the number
+of relics found on the coast, from Westerbotten to Gestrikland, and
+in Dalecarlia, the Laps dwelt also in somewhat more southerly parts
+of Sweden than at the present day. So far south as in the middle
+provinces, no Arctic stone relics have been found, still less in any of
+the southern provinces. This seems to indicate that the Laps and the
+Swedes did not dwell in the same parts of the country during the Stone
+Age, and their intercourse, if any, must have been of a very accidental
+and casual nature.
+
+That the Stone Age lasted a very long time in the North is proved by
+the fact that it reached a far higher development there than anywhere
+else in Europe. The best authorities think that it must have ended
+rather before than after 1500 B.C., or 3,500 years before our time.
+
+_The Bronze Age_ followed upon the Stone Age. Flint exists in Sweden
+and was easily found. There are also copper mines, but their working
+is of comparatively modern date. The copper of the Bronze Age must
+have been brought from abroad, and tin, necessary for the production
+of bronze, is foreign to Scandinavia. The knowledge of the working of
+any metal proves an immense progress. Yet there are strong grounds
+for the opinion that the beginning of the Bronze Age in Sweden was
+not connected with any great immigration of a new race, but that the
+inhabitants learned the art of working bronze by intercourse with other
+nations. The resemblance of the graves during the last part of the
+Stone Age and the early part of the Bronze Age points most strongly to
+such a conclusion. From Asia the knowledge of bronze, and the higher
+civilization dependent on it, had gradually spread itself over the
+continent of Europe, in a northerly and northwesterly direction, until
+it reached the coasts of the Baltic.
+
+The Bronze Age of Sweden began about 1500 B.C., and lasted for a
+thousand years, or until the beginning of the fifth century before
+Christ. The period has been divided into an Earlier and a Later
+Bronze Age, a division which has been questioned as to its absolute
+correctness. The works from the former are decorated with fine spiral
+ornaments and zigzag lines. The graves generally contain remains of
+unburned bodies. The antiquities of the Earlier Bronze Age, almost
+without an exception, appear to be of native workmanship. They are
+distinguished by artistic forms and point to a highly developed taste
+in the working of bronze. They generally surpass in this respect the
+relics of the Bronze Age found in almost all other European countries.
+The works belonging to the Later Bronze Age are characterized by a
+very different taste and style of ornamentation, though even they are
+often the result of great skill. The spiral ornaments are no longer
+predominant, but the ends of rings, knife-handles, and the like, are
+often rolled up in spiral volutes.
+
+During this period the dead were always burned. Buttons, sword-hilts,
+and other works of bronze were sometimes decorated with pieces of amber
+and resin inlaid. Objects are also often found overlaid with thin
+plates of gold.
+
+Remarkable are the rock-carvings from this period. The Swedes of the
+Bronze Age understood, by a kind of picture-writing, how to preserve
+the memory of important events, although an alphabet of any kind was
+unknown. The rock-carvings have been found abundantly in Bohusl�n
+(formerly a part of West Gothland) and East Gothland, but also occur
+in Scania and other parts of Sweden. At the time of the arrival of
+Cortez in Mexico the Aztecs were exactly on the same standpoint. In
+spite of their high civilization, they were in the Bronze Age and
+possessed a picture-writing, but were not acquainted with an alphabet.
+In Sweden, as in Mexico, there certainly once existed an oral tradition
+necessary for its interpretation, which, now lost, leaves little hope
+for their present or future explanation. Yet they throw considerable
+light on Swedish civilization during this remote period. Thus they
+show that horses were already used for riding and driving. Cattle are
+represented. In pairs these are harnessed to a plow, which is being
+driven by a man. Boats are depicted, generally very large ones, without
+masts, but with thirty pairs of oars or more. They are usually unlike
+at the two ends, sometimes adorned with an animal's head in the high
+and narrow stem, sometimes with a similar decoration also in the stern.
+
+The rock-carvings tell us nothing of the dwellings or the dress of
+the Swedes in the Bronze Age. All the instruments and tools necessary
+for the construction of wooden houses existed and appear to have been
+in use. The material was ever abundantly supplied by the Swedish
+forests, but it was not strong enough to withstand the influence of
+time. All the more surprising it is that articles of dress from such a
+remote period as the Earlier Bronze Age, 1000 B.C., should have been
+preserved to our time. Still such is the case, thanks to a combination
+of exceptionally favorable circumstances. These garments are of wool of
+a very simple substance; some have been worn by men, others by women.
+The man's dress consisted of an unbrimmed cap of thick woven wool, a
+wide circular mantle, a kind of tunic, kept together with a woollen
+belt, and some narrow strips of wool which probably covered the legs.
+In a man's grave was found a shawl of wool with fringes. The woman's
+dress consisted then, as it does now, chiefly of two garments, a jacket
+with sleeves and a long robe, the latter held together with a belt of
+wool, ending in ornamental tassels. Large mantles, of mixed wool and
+cow hair, were used as wraps. The women wore splendid bronze ornaments,
+such as finger-rings, bracelets, torques and brooches. From the finds
+it becomes apparent that many women in those days carried weapons, a
+dagger often being found at the side of the body.
+
+Besides swords and axes of beautiful workmanship, fishhooks, sickles
+and the different parts of harness have been found; also vessels of
+gold or bronze, evidently used for temple service. The Swedes of the
+Bronze Age were not acquainted with the art of forging the heated
+metal, but they possessed much technical skill in the art of casting.
+When the implement was taken out of the mold it was dipped in cold
+water, and very often the surface was ornamented by means of punches
+made of bronze. Their good taste was as highly developed as their
+skill. That the work was done in the North is proven by numerous
+finds of the very molds in which weapons and agricultural implements
+were cast. During the Stone Age only Gothaland and parts of Svealand
+were inhabited. The finds of the Bronze Age prove that the limits of
+the population were about the same during this period. The southern
+provinces continued to be the more thickly settled. Twenty times as
+many finds have been made in the soil of Scania as in the rest of the
+country. Norrland was hardly settled to any extent until the Iron Age,
+and has offered comparatively few finds from the Bronze Age, the total
+of which for the whole of Sweden amounts to about 4,000.
+
+_The Iron Age_ followed upon the Bronze Age. It lasts to this very day,
+we ourselves still living in the Iron Age; but the term is generally
+applied to that part of the period which commences with the close of
+the Bronze Age, and ends with the fall of heathendom. During the Iron
+Age, the Swedes first became acquainted with iron, silver, brass, lead,
+glass, stamped coins from foreign lands, and learned how to solder
+and gild metal. Arch�ologists have divided the period into two main
+parts, the Earlier and the Later Iron Age, both with subdivisions. The
+Earlier Iron Age includes the time from the fifth century B.C. to about
+the beginning of the fifth century A.D. The first half of the Earlier
+Iron Age is characterized by swords with both blades and sheaths made
+of iron, thin crescent-shaped knives, brooches of iron, collars, and
+decorative plates overlaid with bronze. The graves resemble those from
+the end of the Bronze Age, containing burned bones in urns, or laid
+together in a heap. This circumstance makes it more than probable that
+the first introduction of iron in the North was not connected with any
+immigration of a new people. The finds of the earliest Iron Age are not
+very rich, but they prove that the people who have left them behind had
+been subjected to a very strong influence from the Gallic tribes living
+close to the south of the Teutonic area of population. Then came the
+second half of the Earlier Iron Age, characterized by a strong Roman
+influence. It commences with the extension of the Roman empire toward
+the North, about the beginning of the Christian era, and winds up
+with the beginning of the fifth century, when Teutonic migrations and
+invasions put an end to the power of Rome. In the hostile or friendly
+relations between Romans and Teutons the Swedes were not involved.
+But by the peaceful ways of commerce the influence of Rome penetrated
+to the people of the North. Great numbers of Roman coins have been
+found in Sweden, and also vessels of bronze and glass, weapons, etc.,
+as well as works of art, all turned out of workshops in Rome or its
+provinces. Out of about 4,760 Roman coins of this time found in Sweden,
+no less than 4,000 were found in the remarkable Island of Gothland,
+in the southern half of the Baltic, 90 in the neighboring island of
+OEland, 650 in Scania, but only 23 on the mainland of Sweden, excluding
+Scania. About 250 were found in Bornholm, 600 in Denmark, but only 3
+in Norway. It becomes evident from these finds that there existed a
+regular traffic over the Baltic, through Germany, between the Island of
+Gothland and the Roman provinces, from the epoch of the Marcomannic war
+down to the time of Septimius Severus. Similar finds have been made on
+the southern shore of the Baltic, showing that the traffic came from
+the southeast, along the valleys of the Vistula and the Oder.
+
+One of the most important discoveries of this period was the art of
+writing, which the inhabitants of the North seem to have acquired soon
+after the beginning of the Christian era. The earliest alphabetic
+symbols in Sweden, and the only ones used there during the whole of
+heathen times, were _runes_. These were probably invented a little
+before the Christian era by a South Teutonic tribe, in imitation of
+the Roman writing which the Teutons received from one of the Celtic
+tribes living just to the north of the Alps. The Roman characters were
+adapted for the use of inscriptions in stone and wood, the curves being
+changed into straight lines. The Runic characters, in use among all
+Teutonic tribes, were twenty-four in number; these older runes were, by
+the Scandinavians, later simplified and reduced to sixteen. There is
+a number of inscriptions in older runes in Sweden, dating from about
+300 to 500 A.D. They are found chiefly on stones and gold bracteates,
+also in England, France, Germany, Wallachia and the west of Russia. All
+belong to about the same date, and are of Teutonic origin. The early
+Runic inscriptions do not contain any accounts of historically known
+persons or events. Yet they are of the greatest historical importance,
+for they show that during the Earlier Iron Age, in the fourth and fifth
+centuries, the language of Sweden, and consequently also the people,
+were Teutonic. These inscriptions in Sweden and neighboring countries
+give samples of the earliest known form of the Northern language,
+which is considerably different from its descendants, the Old Swedish,
+Danish, Norwegian and Icelandic, but very much resembling the language
+spoken by the Goths on the Danube during the same period.
+
+The Later Iron Age commences with the fifth century and stretches to
+the beginning of the eighth century A.D. When Italy had been overrun
+by the "barbarians," the centre of the old civilization shifted to
+Byzantium, and there are many traces of an active intercourse with the
+capital of the Byzantine rule in the finds made in Swedish soil. Most
+of these finds consist of gold coins of the fifth century, the majority
+of them having been found in the islands of OEland and Gothland. The
+stream of gold coming from Byzantium must have been quite considerable,
+having its source in the tribute which many of the Byzantine emperors
+had to pay to the Goths on the Danube. They are the very same emperors
+whose names appear on the coins found in Sweden. The great number of
+costly and beautiful ornaments of gold found in Sweden, and dating from
+this period, must have been made out of Roman and Byzantine coins,
+melted down. One of the largest hoards of gold ever found in Europe
+was discovered in the Swedish province of Soedermanland. Its weight was
+twenty-seven pounds, and it contained several ornaments of consummate
+workmanship.
+
+Remarkable are the graves from this period, discovered in the province
+of Upland. They are barrows containing the more or less mouldering
+remains of a large boat in which the dead man has been buried unburned
+with his weapons, horses, and other domestic animals. The swords found
+in these graves are of iron with hilts of beautiful designs in gilded
+or enamelled bronze. The shields and helmets are often of elaborate
+workmanship. Unlike the swords, which mostly, or perhaps always, are of
+foreign, generally of Celtic make, these ornaments and weapons are of
+domestic origin.
+
+It appears, from the many beautiful and artistic finds in Swedish
+soil, as if the inhabitants have benefited by their situation,
+aside and outside of the rest of the world. Continual migrations
+subjected the tribes of the continent to repeated changes and to a
+never-ceasing series of new and heterogeneous impressions. The tribes
+of the North remained on the same spot, and their whole development
+was slower but more consistent. The foreign influences penetrated
+slowly and gradually, without crushing the old civilization. The
+industrial arts blossomed not so often in the North as in the South,
+but steadier, giving a clearer expression of the national traditions
+and peculiarities. These circumstances make the study of Northern
+antiquities of absorbing interest.
+
+Before the end of this period, not only Gothaland and Svealand, but
+also the coast of Norrland, as far north as the province of Medelpad,
+were inhabited. As a whole, the first part of the Later Iron Age forms
+a transition between the Earlier Iron Age and the Viking Age, the
+arch�ological finds of which we must leave aside to take up the threads
+of the earliest history. The Viking Age is exceedingly rich in stones
+with inscriptions in the later runes, some of these inscriptions being
+quite lengthy, and containing strophes of alliterative verse in Old
+Swedish.
+
+Before entering into an account of early Swedish history, let us
+gather what information the classical writers of history have to give
+in regard to the countries of the North, or rather whatever of such
+information that has been preserved to our day.
+
+The Scandinavian countries are for the first time mentioned by the
+historians of antiquity in an account of a journey which Pyteas from
+Massilia (the present Marseille) made through Northern Europe, about
+300 B.C. He visited Britain, and there heard of a great country, Thule,
+situated six days' journey to the north, and verging on the Arctic Sea.
+The inhabitants in Thule were an agricultural people who gathered their
+harvest into big houses for threshing, on account of the very few sunny
+days and the plentiful rain in their regions. From corn and honey they
+prepared a beverage (probably the mead). By Thule is no doubt meant the
+Scandinavian peninsula, or rather the western coast of it. Pyteas also
+tells of the land of amber, or the southern shores of the Baltic, where
+the _guttones_ are dwelling. As the northern and southern shores of the
+Baltic from the very earliest period seem to have been inhabited by
+the same race which has shared the same development and civilization,
+there is every reason to recognize the name _guttones_ as identical
+with the one given to the inhabitants of the Swedish Gothaland and
+Island of Gothland.
+
+Several centuries pass without any notice of Scandinavia in the
+classical literature. In the still preserved manuscripts of the
+geographical work by Pomponius Mela, written in the middle of the
+first century A.D., is found a reference to Codania, a large and
+fertile island inhabited by Teutons. Codania is likely some scribe's
+misspelling of Scandinavia
+
+Pliny the Elder, who himself visited the shores of the Baltic in
+the first century after Christ, is the first to mention plainly the
+name of Scandinavia. He says that he has received advices of immense
+islands "recently discovered from Germany." The most famous of the
+many islands situated in the Codanian Bay was Scandinavia, of as yet
+unexplored size; the known parts were inhabited by a people called
+_hilleviones_, who gave it the name of another world. When he speaks
+of the British isles, Pliny again gives notice of islands, situated
+opposite Britain in the Teutonic Sea, without suspecting their identity
+with Scandinavia. He mentions Scandia, Nerigon, the largest of them
+all, and Thule. Scandia and Scandinavia are only different forms of the
+same name, denoting the southernmost part of the peninsula, and is yet
+preserved in the name of the province of Scania. Nerigon stands for
+Norway, the northern part of which is mentioned as an island by the
+name Thule. It is not surprising to find the classical writers ignorant
+of the fact that Scandinavia was not a group of large islands, but one
+great peninsula, as the northern parts were as yet uninhabited and
+their physical connection with Finland and Russia unknown.
+
+Tacitus is the first who mentions the Swedish name. In his work
+"Germania," of such great importance for the knowledge of the ancient
+Teutons, their conditions and institutions, and written about 100 years
+after Christ, the Baltic is described as an open sea called the Suevian
+Sea, shut out from the west by the Danish mainland of Jutland, by the
+Romans called the Cimbric Peninsula. The eastern shore is the country
+of amber. The Swedes are by Tacitus called Suiones, and he speaks of
+them thus:
+
+"Next occur the communities of the Suiones, seated in the very sea,
+who, besides their strength in men and arms, also possess a naval
+force. The form of their vessels differs from ours in having a prow
+at each end, so that they are always ready to advance. They make no
+use of sails, nor have they regular benches of oars at the sides: they
+row, as is practiced in some rivers, without order, sometimes on one
+side, sometimes on the other, as occasion requires. These people honor
+wealth; for which reason they are subject to monarchial government,
+without any limitations or precarious conditions of allegiance. Nor
+are arms allowed to be kept promiscuously, as among the other Teutonic
+nations: but are committed to the charge of a keeper, and he, too,
+a slave. The pretext is that the sea defends them from any sudden
+incursions, and men unemployed, with arms in their hands, readily
+become licentious. In fact, it is for the king's interest not to
+intrust a noble, a freeman, or even an emancipated slave, with the
+custody of arms."
+
+These remarks by Tacitus, in all their brevity, are of great
+importance. Boats, exactly corresponding to the description as given,
+have been found in Swedish graves of this period, and that they were
+used for river traffic, to bring the gold and products of Rome and
+Byzantium up the Vistula and Oder, is evident. The great opulence
+in dress and temple service of which the arch�ological finds bear
+witness, and of which later writers also speak as characteristic of the
+Swedes, is a proof of the wealth that at all times has attended naval
+dominion. Thus far all the statements being fully corroborated, one
+cannot but place great importance upon those that follow. The Roman
+historian tells us that, on account of the honor which the Swedes held
+for wealth, they were subject to a monarchial government, without any
+limitations; that is, the crown was hereditary, not elective. This
+coincides in every way with Swedish conditions of political affairs,
+such as we know them from later times. The important conclusions to be
+gathered from the statements of Tacitus, are that the Swedes already
+at the dawn of the Christian era held the political supremacy in the
+Scandinavian peninsula, or at least in its eastern and southern parts,
+and that the various lesser communities stood in allegiance to the
+hereditary king of the Sviar (Svear), or Swedes in a limited sense, the
+inhabitants of Svealand.
+
+The psychological conclusions made by Tacitus, on the basis of his own
+statements, hold good of the Swedes of to-day as well as of those of
+2,000 years ago. They still honor wealth and a monarchial government
+and consider the sea their best defence against foreign foes.
+
+Ptolemy, the Alexandrine geographer of the second century after Christ,
+speaks of the Scandinavian islands, situated east of the Cimbrian
+peninsula. The fourth and most easterly of these is the one originally
+called Scandeia. He enumerates six tribes which inhabit it, the names
+being unrecognizable, except the one of Gutai, Gauts or Goths, by him
+for the first time mentioned as dwelling in Scandinavia.
+
+To this information, gathered from classical authors, nothing is
+added for the next four hundred years in regard to the countries of
+the North. Only in the sixth century, when Rome has succumbed before
+the Gothic invasions, and the Teutonic tribes have divided between
+themselves the provinces of the West Roman empire, new information
+about Sweden is given by a Byzantine author, Prokopios, a contemporary
+of emperor Justinian. He mentions Scandinavia by the name Thule, and
+says he bases his statements upon information obtained from people "who
+come from there."
+
+Prokopios says that in the immense island of Thule, in the northern
+part of which the midnight sun can be seen, thirteen large tribes
+occupy its inhabitable parts, each tribe having its own king. One of
+the largest tribes is the Gauts (the Goetar, or the inhabitants of
+Swedish Gothaland). These tribes very much resemble the people of
+southern Europe, with the exception of the Skee Finns, who dress in
+skins and live from the chase.
+
+Prokopios tells a remarkable story about an immigration to Sweden of
+Herulians, a Teutonic tribe closely connected to the Goths on the
+Danube. In the beginning of the sixth century, it happened that the
+Herulians, after an unsuccessful war with the Longobardians, were
+divided into two branches, of which the one received land from the
+emperor Anastasius south of the Danube, while the other made a resolve
+to seek a home in the Scandinavian peninsula. When they had passed
+the Slavs, they came to uninhabited regions, whence they continued
+to the country of the Varinians, and later to that of the Danes. The
+Danes granted them a free passage and the use of ships, in which they
+crossed to the island of Thule. Here the Herulians went to the Gauts
+and were well received by them. Some decades later the Herulians in
+South Europe were in want of a king. They resolved to send messengers
+to their kinsmen who had settled in Sweden, hoping that some descendant
+of their old royal family might be found there who was willing to
+assume the dignity of king among them. The messengers returned with
+two brothers who belonged to the ancient family of rulers, and these
+were escorted by two hundred young Herulians from Sweden. That this
+immigration really took place there is no doubt. The district of Sweden
+where these kinsmen of the Goths settled was early distinguished
+from the surrounding ones, inhabited by the Gauts of Sweden, through
+the peculiarities of its laws and customs, of which some survived
+into the commencement of the nineteenth century. This district forms
+the southern part of the province of Smaland, called V�rend, its
+inhabitants Virdar, and the adjoining province of Bleking.
+
+The Gothic historian Jordanes, or Jornandes, called Master Ardan, who
+was a contemporary of Prokopios, has taken upon himself to explain
+the reason of the strange resolve of the Herulians to seek a home in
+Sweden. He speaks of the traditions of the East Goths, which tell of
+their descent from the people of the North. Similar traditions also
+have existed among the West Goths, Longobardians, Gepid�, Burgundians,
+Herulians, Franks, Saxons, Swabians and Alemannians. Thus Jordanes: "In
+the North there is a great ocean, and in this ocean there is a large
+island called Scandza, out of whose loins our race burst forth like a
+swarm of bees and spread over Europe." The island of Scandza, he says,
+has been _officina gentium_, _vagina nationum_--the source of races,
+the mother of nations. And thence also the Goths have emigrated.
+
+Material is lacking to prove the historical truth of the Teutonic
+traditions which point to Scandinavia as the cradle of the Teutonic
+tribes. But Jordanes, the first historian of Teutonic birth who speaks
+of Scandinavia, stands at the cradle of Swedish history, and, as a
+modern historian has expressed it, his shadow throws an umbrage across
+the whole field of Swedish historical research. The mistake, based upon
+Jordanes' history, of identifying the Swedish Gauts with the Goths has
+caused a great deal of mischief and ridiculous chauvinism, Gothic and
+Swedish history and royal lines being mixed up or put in connection
+with each other.
+
+In leaving aside the Teutonic traditions of the island of Scandza, or
+Scania, as the cradle of the race, let us quote a remark by Tacitus
+which seems to point to the conclusion that such traditions were
+current already in the first century of the Christian era: "I should
+think that the Teutons themselves are aborigines, and not at all mixed
+through immigrations or connections with non-Teutonic tribes. For those
+desiring to change homes did not in early times come by land, but in
+ships across the boundless and, so to speak, hostile ocean--a sea
+seldom visited by ships from the Roman world."
+
+The Old English poem of Beowulf must also be mentioned among the
+sources which throw light on early Swedish history. Whether the Ge�tas
+of Beowulf are identical with the Jutes of Denmark, or with the Gauts
+of Sweden, is a much disputed question. Although, phonetically, the
+Old English name Ge�tas corresponds to the Old Swedish _Gautar_,
+it seems most plausible to suppose that by this term is meant the
+Jutes, and not the inhabitants of Swedish West or East Gothland. This
+accepted, the poem does not contain much about the Swedes. But the
+information, therein given, of the Swedish kings is of great value,
+because it renders the service of a firm chronological support to the
+facts gathered from another source. This source, of vastly greater
+importance, is the Ynglinga Saga, or rather the poem around which it is
+spun, in Heimskringla, of which more in the next chapter.
+
+The first information of the religion practiced by the inhabitants of
+Scandinavia is given by Prokopios, who says that they worshipped many
+gods and spirits of the sky, air, earth, sea, and also some who were
+supposed to dwell in springs and rivers. Offerings were constantly
+made, the chief ones being of human beings, for which the first
+prisoner made in a war was destined. This sacrifice was made to "Mars,"
+who was the highest god. The statements of Prokopios without doubt
+are correct. The Scandinavian war-god who corresponds to the Mars of
+classical mythology was Tyr. Odin, originally the ruler of the wind,
+became the highest god during the Viking Age. He is an aristocratic
+god, the god of the select few, whose cult succeeded that of Tyr as the
+cult of the latter had succeeded that of Thor, the thunderer, as the
+highest god. The idea of a supreme God was probably unknown until the
+contact with Christianity, or at least not common. Thor, the peasant
+god, is probably the oldest of the gods of Teutonic mythology, the
+representative of stern power and law-bound order. Thor was the most
+popular god of the Swedes, to judge from the great number of ancient
+Swedish proper names of which his forms a part. Besides Thor, Odin and
+Frey were the most honored. All the other gods and goddesses mentioned
+in Old Norse literature were probably known, but few of them much
+worshipped in Sweden.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+_Dawn of Swedish History--Heimskringla and Ynglingatal_
+
+
+Snorre Sturleson, the great historian and poet of Iceland, of the
+earlier half of the thirteenth century, is considered to be the author
+of the history of the kings of Norway which, after the first words of
+the first chapter, has been called Heimskringla. As an introduction
+to the work he has put the saga of the Yngling kings of Sweden, of
+whom many of the Norwegian kings were supposed to be descendants. The
+Ynglinga Saga is a paraphrase to the much older song of Ynglingatal,
+a poem composed by the Norwegian poet Thiodulf of Hvin (who lived
+in the latter part of the ninth century) in praise of the supposed
+Swedish ancestors of the Norwegian king Ragnvald. The Ynglings were
+probably not identical with the kings of Upsala, who were of the
+race of the Skilfings, but of South Swedish or Danish origin. It is
+either out of ignorance, or out of sagacity, that the poet selected
+the Upsala rulers as originators of the Norwegian line of kings, but
+he has been unfortunate in the choice of a name for the dynasty. The
+poem itself is a trustworthy historical document, at least as far as
+the times are concerned which come comparatively close to the time
+of its own composition, the first part containing many traits of a
+mythical character. The saga spun around it is far from trustworthy.
+Of the poem evidently the first, or first few, strophes are missing,
+but the "historian" supplies the vacuum with stories of the gods Odin,
+Niord and Frey, whom he, according to the ideas of his time, changes
+from gods into historic kings, the first who ruled Svithiod (Sweden).
+Among learned men in Snorre's day there was a craze for tracing the
+pedigree of all nations of any renown back to some of the heroes of
+ancient Troy. Snorre serves us a saga of Odin's migration from Troy
+which, besides being confuse, would appear only ridiculous, if it
+had not wielded about as highly disastrous an influence upon correct
+conceptions of Swedish history as the work by Jordanes. This migration
+saga is found in a still more elaborate form in an introduction to
+Snorre's Edda, and is responsible for the erroneous opinion held by
+earlier Swedish historians, that the Swedes had migrated from Asia
+under the leadership of a chief who called himself Odin, and that the
+Swedes and the Gauts were, if not of different origin, at least of a
+habitation of differing age in their present locations.
+
+Based upon the information found in Ynglinga Saga we will give a review
+of the history of the early kings of Sweden, although the first dozen,
+and more, of these kings are of a doubtful "historic" character. At
+the dawn of history, Sweden was, like most other countries of Northern
+Europe, divided into petty communities, each ruled by a king. These
+communities seem to have been nearly identical with the "lands"
+or later provinces into which Sweden is yet divided, although the
+administrative divisions are different. In spite of the fact that it
+is about 1,200 years since these communities were united into one
+single realm, the inhabitants preserve to this day their respective
+peculiarities of customs and language.
+
+The most important among the chieftains of Sweden was, since time
+immemorial, the king of Upsala, who conducted the sacrifices and temple
+service at Upsala, the oldest and most celebrated place of heathen
+worship in the Scandinavian North. Originally, he had under his rule
+only one-third of the present province of Upland, the chief settlement
+of the Sviar, or Swedes in a limited sense. The Upsala kings belonged
+to the ancient royal race of Skilfings (or "Ynglings," according to
+Snorre), who traced their origin from the gods. The founder of the
+dynasty as accepted by Thiodulf and others was _Yngve_, who is said
+to have built the great temple at Upsala, moving thither the capital
+from the older Sigtuna and contributing to the temple all his lands and
+riches. Yngve's son was _Fiolner_. King Fiolner was drowned by accident
+in a huge vessel full of mead, during a visit paid to King Frode in
+Denmark.
+
+His son _Sveigder_ disappeared during a journey which he made in order
+to find Odin, the old. Both the names Fiolner and Sveigder appear to
+be mythical. Sveigder's son _Vanlande_ was a great warrior. He is said
+once to have taken up his winter abode in Finland, which, together with
+several arch�ological finds, point to an early intercourse between
+Sweden and Finland. _Visbur_ succeeded his father Vanlande, marrying
+the daughter of Aude (the Rich), whom he afterward left and took
+another wife, bringing on himself a curse by so doing. Visbur's sons
+fell unexpectedly over him, burning him in his house. _Domalde_, his
+son, succeeded him. During a great famine in Svithiod he was offered
+to the gods in order to obtain good seasons. Domalde's son and
+grandson, _Domar_ and _Dygve_, both reigned and died in peace. _Dag_,
+the son of Dygve, was so wise a man that he understood the language
+of birds. _Agne_, the son of Dag, was the ruler after him. One summer
+he invaded Finland with his army. When the Finns gathered there was a
+great battle, in which Agne gained victory, subduing all Finland. The
+daughter of a conquered chief, Skialf, was carried back to Sweden as
+his bride. But after a drinking feast, Agne was hanged in a tree by
+Skialf and her men. The place where this happened was called Agnefit,
+and is said to be identical with the site of Stockholm, the later
+capital of the country. _Alrek_ and _Eric_ became kings after the
+death of their father Agne. They got into a dispute one day while out
+walking. Having no weapons, they assailed and killed each other with
+their horses' bridles. Their successors, _Yngve_ and _Alf_, the sons
+of Alrek, shared a similar fate, killing each other in the royal hall
+by the high-seat. After them _Hugleik_, the son of Alf, became king of
+the Swedes. On the Fyrisvols, the plains by the river Fyris in Upland,
+Hugleik was killed in battle against a famous sea-king Hake, who
+subdued the country and became king of Svithiod. The saga mentions that
+this Hake was a brother of Hagbard, whose love for the king's daughter,
+Signe, cost him his life. This love story is one of the most famous in
+the North and much spoken of in saga and song. The spot where Hagbard
+was hanged in a tree is still pointed out. When Hake had ruled as king
+for three years, _Jorund_ and _Eric_, the sons of Yngve, returned
+with warships and warriors. They had grown up and become famous by
+conquering the king Gudlaug, of the Haleygians in Norway, whom they had
+met in Denmark. Now they met King Hake and his army at the Fyrisvols.
+In the battle, Eric was killed and Jorund fled to his ship. But King
+Hake was himself so grievously wounded that he ordered a warship to be
+loaded with his dead men and their weapons, and himself to be placed
+upon it. The sails were hoisted and the ship set on fire, and out it
+flew, with the dying king on board, between the skerries to the sea.
+Jorund now became king in Upsala. When he was one summer marauding in
+Jutland, he met a son of King Gudlaug, in the battle with whom he was
+overpowered, captured and hanged.
+
+King _Aune_ or _Ane_ was the son of Jorund. He was a wise man who
+made great sacrifices to the gods. Being no warrior he lived quietly
+at home. Twice he fled from Upsala, on account of Danish invasions,
+remaining in West Gothland twenty-five years each time, and holding
+sway at Upsala for an equally long time between his periods of exile.
+He lived to become 110 years of age. The secret of his longevity was
+that he sacrificed one of his sons to Odin every tenth year, and was
+granted in return a decade of prolonged life. When about to sacrifice
+his tenth son, the people interfered, and he died from old age. The
+last ten years of his life he was very feeble, drinking out of a horn
+like an infant. He was buried in a mound at Upsala.
+
+King _Egil_ was the son of Ane, and, like his father, no warrior.
+Under his reign and that of his son, king _Ottar_, Sweden suffered a
+good deal of trouble from Denmark. The Danish king Frode had helped
+Egil against the revolt of one of his subjects, and demanded from
+his son a scat, or tribute, in return. Ottar fell in battle against
+the jarls of Frode. Both he and his son _Audils_, who ruled Svithiod
+after him, are mentioned in Beowulf as �hthere and his son Eadgils
+of the royal Swedish line of the Scylfingas (Skilfings). This fact
+gives to Swedish history its first reliable date. The Danish king
+Hugleik, a contemporary of King Ottar, died in 515 A.D., which renders
+with a certainty Ottar's reign as falling in the first part of the
+sixth century. Audils ruled for a long time and often went on viking
+expeditions to Saxonland, Denmark and Norway. In Saxonland, Audils
+captured the household of King Geirthiof, among whom was a remarkably
+beautiful girl, called Yrsa. The king married her, but she was
+afterward taken to Denmark by King Helge of Leire after a successful
+plundering expedition in Svithiod. Helge had a son by her, Rolf Krake,
+but Yrsa returned to her first husband, after being told by Queen Alof,
+the wife of Geirthiof, that Helge was her father and Alof her mother.
+When Rolf Krake later became king his men once helped King Audils in
+one of his expeditions in Norway. King Rolf's men did not receive the
+compensation promised them, and Rolf came to Upsala to demand it for
+them. King Rolf was warned by his mother Yrsa that Audils was not well
+disposed, and he and his men made in haste for their ships. King Audils
+and his men started out in their pursuit. Then Rolf took a horn filled
+with gold, a recent gift of his mother, emptying its contents on the
+plain. Audils and his men stopped to pick up the gold, and Rolf thus
+made his escape. Rolf Krake is one of the most famous of Danish heroes.
+In the poetic language of the Old Northern literature, gold is often
+called "the seed of the Fyrisvols" or "Rolf Krake's seed." As King
+Audils once rode around the hall at a sacrifice his horse stumbled and
+fell, and the king was killed.
+
+_Eystein_, the son of Audils, ruled after him and was succeeded by his
+son _Yngvar_. Eystein was never able to defend his people against the
+Danes, while Yngvar was a successful warrior, both at home and abroad.
+But one summer when he was fighting in Esthonia he was killed by the
+Esthonians. He was buried in a mound close to the seashore.
+
+_Anund_ was Yngvar's son and successor. He went to Esthonia to avenge
+his father, ravaging the country and returning with great booty. In
+his time there were fruitful seasons in Svithiod. On this account, and
+because he made many roads, cleared the woods and cultivated the new
+land, he became one of the most popular of early Swedish kings. He was
+called _Broet-Anund_, viz., Anund Roadmaker.
+
+_Ingiald_, the son of Anund, became king in Upsala after his father. He
+was the most remarkable of all the Ynglings (Skilfings), for, through
+violence and cunning, he united all the communities of Sweden into
+one realm. When his father died, the king at Upsala was certainly the
+supremely powerful ruler in Svithiod, but not the only one, for there
+were many district-kings who were to a great extent independent. There
+were not only kings in East Gothland, Soedermanland, and Nerike, but
+in Upland there were, besides the Upsala king, also kings in each of
+the three "lands" into which this province was formerly divided; viz.,
+Tiundaland, Attundaland, and Fiedrundaland. Ingiald ordered a great
+feast to celebrate the fact that he had come to the throne after his
+father, and invited seven other kings, all of whom were present, except
+Granmar, king of Soedermanland. When the Brage-bowl, on which promises
+were made, was carried in, King Ingiald made a solemn vow to enlarge
+his dominions by one-half, toward all the four corners of the world,
+or die. In the evening Ingiald set fire to the hall, and all the six
+royal guests perished with their followers. Ingiald took possession
+of all the dominions belonging to the unfortunate kings. In the next
+year he surrounded the hall in which King Granmar found himself at the
+time, killing him and taking his land in possession. "It was a common
+saying," Snorre tells us, "that King Ingiald had killed twelve kings
+and deceived them all under pretence of peace; therefore he was called
+Ingiald Illrade (the evil-adviser)." His daughter, Asa, was of the same
+disposition as her father. She was married to Gudrod, king of Scania,
+but had to flee from the land after having caused the death of her
+husband and his brother. When it was learned that King Ivar, nephew of
+Gudrod, had entered Svithiod with an army, Asa counselled her father to
+set fire to the hall of the king after his men were drunk and asleep.
+Thus perished Ingiald Illrade with his daughter, very much in the same
+fashion in which he had killed so many of the petty kings.
+
+For the centuries following upon Ingiald's death, Snorre has a very
+short, or almost no account to give about Sweden and her rulers. What
+can be gathered from other sources, principally from late Icelandic
+sagas, is not trustworthy, mythical and fictitious elements being
+discernible.
+
+After Ingiald, _Ivar Vidfamne_ (the Far-stretching) is said to have
+ruled Sweden, "also Denmark, Saxonland, all of Austria and one-fifth
+of England." One account has it that Ivar was the head of a new
+dynasty in Sweden. As he was originally king of Scania, perhaps these
+were the real Ynglings. Another source claims for the succeeding
+Swedish kings descent from the old race of the Ynglings (viz., the
+Skilfings). Ingiald's son Olof, according to Snorre, fled to the woods
+of Vermland, until then uninhabited, and later came to Norway. But it
+is a misunderstanding of Thiodulf's lines which causes Snorre to say
+that King Olof was buried close by the Lake Venar, in Vermland. The
+province of Vermland was inhabited much earlier than in Olof's time,
+and the Olof who became the founder of a Norwegian dynasty was probably
+a Danish prince.
+
+_Harald Hildetand_ of Denmark is said to have succeeded Ivar, and to
+have ruled over as much territory as his mother's father. Several
+sources speak of King Harald and the battle of Bravols, in which his
+life was ended and which battle generally is taken as a historic
+milestone, marking the opening of the Viking Age. It was fought
+somewhere about the year 740. King Harald had become old and almost
+blind. In Svithiod and West Gothland, the kings Sigurd and Ring (by
+the sagas made into one hero by the name "Sigurd Ring") ruled under
+Harald, while he reigned himself over Denmark and East Gothland. The
+relations were good at first, but their aspect soon changed. After
+great preparations on either side, Ring met Harald on the plains of
+Bravik in East Gothland. The battle was a long and bloody one and the
+most renowned in song and saga. King Harald, too old to take an active
+part, mounted a chariot, which carried him into the midst of the fight.
+When King Ring at last saw the chariot empty, he understood that the
+aged king had fallen and gave the sign that the battle should come to
+an end. King Ring caused the remains of his fallen foe to be burned
+with great pomp and ceremony on a pile with his horse, weapons and many
+a costly treasure of gold and silver. King _Ring_ was said to have been
+ruler of Sweden and Denmark after King Harald. The sagas mention the
+hero, _Ragnar Lodbrok_, as his son and successor. While this great
+viking and sea-king appears to have been a historic personage in the
+earlier half of the ninth century, it is impossible that he could have
+been identical with King Ring's son _Ragnar_, or that he or his sons
+ever were kings in Upsala or Sweden.
+
+With the first attempts to introduce Christianity into Sweden (of which
+more later) a more definite knowledge of Swedish rulers and conditions
+is gained. When Ansgar, the apostle of Sweden, visited the country
+for the first time, about 830, the ruling king was _Bioern_. Shortly
+afterward King _Anund_ is mentioned. He fled from his land, but was
+reinstated with the help of the Danes. King _Olof_ was on the throne
+at the time of Ansgar's second visit to Sweden, about 850. These kings
+must have been of the same family as those who held the throne up to
+the middle of the eleventh century, for their names all occur again in
+the line of later Swedish kings, the reigns of whom fall in the broad
+light of history.
+
+We have seen how Ingiald Illrade joined the various communities into
+one single realm. Although there is doubt whether this realm from the
+start embraced all Sweden, there is no historical evidence or any
+reliable traditions whatever to show that Sweden was ever divided into
+smaller kingdoms after the death of King Ingiald. When Ansgar reaches
+Sweden he travels through half of the country in order to reach the
+commercial centre of Birka, where the king of Sweden is dwelling.
+No other king, great or petty, is spoken of, while the contemporary
+Icelanders mention jarls (earls) in Gothaland, which proves that the
+once independent kings in that district were made away with.
+
+Of particular importance is the account of a journey which a certain
+Wulfstan made to the North, at the close of the ninth century. This
+account is given in an Old English translation of Orosii Historia,
+credited to King Alfred of England. Thus it runs: "Wulfstan said that
+he went from Schleswig to Truso in seven days, that the ship was all
+the way running under sail. Wendland was on his right, but Langeland,
+Lolland, Falster and Scania on his left, and all these lands belong
+to Denmark, and then Bornholm was on our left, which has a king of
+its own. Then after Bornholm, the lands of Bleking, Moere, OEland, and
+Gotland, were first on our left, and these lands belong to Sweden."
+
+Wulfstan's account, besides furnishing evidence to prove the political
+consolidation of Sweden, also gives a good idea of the size of the
+country in this period. The once independent province of Scania, which
+had kings of its own, already belongs to Denmark. So does also the
+province of Halland, while Bohusl�n belongs to Norway. Dal and Vermland
+are contested provinces between the kings of Sweden and Norway, while
+great parts of Norrland are yet uninhabited, except by Laps, who ramble
+from one place to another, without a fixed dwelling place. In King
+Alfred's Orosius, Danish Jutland and Swedish Gautland (Gothaland) are
+alike called _Gotland_, which recalls the supposition of the majority
+of modern scholars that Gotland was in the earliest times the common
+Teutonic name of the North, and Goths the common name of its Teutonic
+inhabitants.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+_The Viking Age--Ansgar, the Apostle of Sweden_
+
+
+"In the North there is a great ocean, and in this ocean there is a
+large island called Scandza, out of whose loins our race burst forth
+like a swarm of bees and spread over Europe." These were the words the
+Gothic historian Jordanes put on parchment, inspired by the popular
+traditions of a Teutonic migration from the North. Historic evidence is
+lacking to prove or disprove the truth of these words. But they may be
+applied to the phenomenon which has given its name to the _Viking Age_.
+
+The Viking expeditions seem to stand in connection with the great
+Teutonic migrations, at least to be related to them in nature. The
+Teutons of the North were not directly affected by the migrations, but
+at the close of the eighth century the same restlessness and desire of
+expansion appear to have taken possession of the Northmen as in earlier
+times of their relatives in more southerly lands. And it was a timely
+move, for the energy and strength with which these had in their time
+suffused Europe were dying out. Europe was in need of new blood and
+iron to wake her from her an�mia and to build up new institutions. The
+North was freed from a turbulent and lawless element and was brought in
+closer contact than ever before with the learning and culture of the
+world. For centuries the Northmen had through their southern kinsmen
+been in contact with continental culture. But now they came out to see
+for themselves, to make themselves a place in a wider and richer world,
+or to bring home from there what they most desired of beauty, riches
+and culture. They were not delicate as to means. Violence was with them
+as natural as their freedom of individuality was indispensable. Yet
+they were to play a most important part in the cultural development
+of Europe, furnishing her with institutions of imperishable iron and
+changing the darkness of the Middle Ages into an era of chivalry in
+spirit and in deeds.
+
+The Viking expeditions were always undertaken by free men, and were
+in the North, from remotest times, considered not only an honest but
+an honorable occupation. Slaves and freed men were excluded. The
+leaders--often kings or their sons--were always men of noble descent or
+of importance. As the Viking expeditions took on larger proportions,
+they became more and more organized; from random expeditions,
+undertaken by individuals, they developed into national undertakings,
+led by the king or his chieftains, not for a pastime, but in completion
+of a national policy. On account of this latest aspect, it is but
+just to divide the field in which the Northmen were active according
+to their respective nationalities. With such a division applied, the
+Viking expeditions to the West, to Britain, France, Portugal and Spain
+do not pertain to Swedish history, for they were planned and undertaken
+principally by Danes and Norwegians. It is true that there were many
+Swedish participants also in these expeditions, as the sagas and the
+memorial stones on Swedish soil tell us; also true that some of the
+later Swedish provinces, like Bohusl�n[1] and Scania, sent out their
+large contingents of Vikings and sea-kings to the West, and that one of
+the oldest Swedish homes of culture, West Gothland, had an appropriate
+channel to the West, by way of the mighty Gotha River, through which
+without doubt many a Viking expedition was sent; yet the leaders were
+in a majority of cases Danish or Norwegian chieftains. For similar
+reasons the Viking expeditions to the East belong by right to Swedish
+history. In them the participants and chieftains were Swedes, to an
+overwhelming majority, and, from time immemorial, Swedish districts
+from which the expeditions were started.
+
+To Russia the Swedes first went on marauding expeditions; but after the
+countries of the North had been shaped into three large monarchies,
+they came to Russia upon special invitation, in order to found there a
+realm of strong and consistent government. This becomes evident from
+the testimony of the Russian historian Nestor, a monk in Kief, who
+lived in the latter part of the eleventh century. About the founding
+of the Russian empire by the Swedes he has the following remarkable
+statements:
+
+"In the year 6367 (after the creation of the world, which is the 859th
+after the birth of Christ) the Variagi (or Varangians) came across the
+sea, taking tribute from the Tchud and the Slavs," etc.--"In the year
+6370 (862 A.D.) they chased the Variagi back across the sea, giving
+them no tribute and commencing to govern themselves, but it turned out
+badly with legal affairs, tribe rose against tribe, causing strife,
+and a rebellion was started. Then they said between themselves: 'Let
+us seek a prince who will govern us and reason with us justly!' And
+they went across the sea to the Variagi, to the Russians, for thus
+were the Variagi called, just as others were called Sviar, others
+Nurmanni, others Anglii, and others Goths. And the Tchudi (the Slavs
+of Novgorod), the Slavs, the Krivitchi and the Vessi said to the
+Russians, 'Our land is great and fruitful, but it lacks order and
+justice; come and take possession, and govern us!' And three brothers
+with their followers were selected, and they took the whole of Rus with
+them and came. And the oldest, Rurik, took his abode in Novgorod, the
+second, Sineus, his in Bielo-Jesero, and the third, his in Isborsk;
+his name was Truvor. After two years Sineus and his brother Truvor
+died. Rurik then took the whole power into his hands and gave towns
+over to his men, giving to one Polotsk, to another Rostof, and to a
+third Bielo-Jesero. And into these towns the Variagi have migrated; the
+earlier inhabitants in Novgorod were Slavs, in Polotsk, Krivitchi, in
+Rostof, Meri, and in Bielo-Jesero, Vessi."
+
+That the Variagi were of Swedish descent, and that it was they who
+gave the name of Russia to the Slav countries, is proved beyond the
+possibility of a doubt. A most weighty argument is the large number of
+Swedish names in the list of Variag princes who reigned in Russia. It
+would not have been possible for Nestor to devise the more than one
+hundred leading names of Swedish origin which occur in his chronicle.
+Furthermore, it has been shown that there are fifteen Swedish loanwords
+in Russian. This is very much. Great and powerful nations have left
+behind a good deal less in modern languages, the Vandals three words,
+the Burgundians four or five, the Herulians one. Although the Swedes in
+Russia had no literature in their ancestral language, they have left
+behind more words than the majority of Teutonic tribes founding states
+and nations. The Old Swedish equivalents to some of the most important
+proper names which meet us in early Russian history are as follows:
+Rurik--Hroerekr, Sineus--Signj�tr, Truvor--Tryggve, Oleg--Helge,
+Olga--Helga, Igor--Inge, Ingvar.
+
+For two hundred years after Rurik, all the leading men in Russian
+history carry Swedish names, and all the czars of Russia were the
+descendants of Rurik, up to the year 1598. The emperor and historian
+Constantine Porphyrogenitus, speaking of Russia, makes the distinction
+between the Slavs and the Russians proper. In his description of the
+cataracts of the Dniepr, he gives to each the Russian and the Slav
+name, and these Russian names are nearly all understood by reference
+to old Swedish roots. Examples are Gellandri (Gellandi)--the Noisy,
+Eyf�rr--the Always Turbulent. Luitprand, the Italian chronicler,
+speaking of the Russians, says: "The Greeks call them Russians, we call
+them properly Northmen." The annals of St. Bertinus tell how Emperor
+Theophilus recommended some Russian envoys to Louis le D�bonnaire, but
+how he, taking them for Norman spies, threw them into prison. The first
+Russian Code of Laws, compiled by Iaroslaf, presents a striking analogy
+to the Old Swedish laws.
+
+The Slavs must have originally borrowed the name Russian from the
+Finns, who, up to the present day, call the Swedes _Ruotsi_. The name
+is in Sweden connected with a part of the coast of Upland still called
+Roslagen. The etymology of the name is Old Swedish _rodr_ (rudder)
+and _ro�smenn_ (oarsmen). Roslagen means "associations of oarsmen."
+The district is famous for its large peculiar rowboats. By the term
+Russians, the Slavs originally meant people from Roslagen, later Sweden
+in general. But when these Russians had become the founders of a new
+empire, south of the Baltic, it became necessary to devise a new name
+for the inhabitants of Sweden. This name was found in Variagi. Only
+the Swedes seeking employment as sworn warriors in the service of the
+new Russian dynasty, or in the body-guard of the Byzantine emperors,
+were originally thus called. But when the name of the new nation of
+Swedes and Slavs became Russians, the Swedes, and the Scandinavians
+in general, became known as Variagi. The etymology of the word has
+been given as the Old Swedish _v�r_ (_sacramentum_) and _v�ringar_
+(_sacramentarii_, soldiers bound by oath). The same name applied to
+Swedes, or Northmen, occurs frequently in slightly altered forms in
+Greek and Arabic manuscripts.
+
+While Rurik and his brothers were building towns, which probably
+means the fortifying of ancient villages, two other Variagi, Askold
+and Dir, who were not of the family of Rurik, went down to Kief, and
+reigned over the Polian�. It was they who began the expeditions against
+Byzantium in 865. In speaking of this, Nestor calls the Bosphorus
+_Sud_, an Old Swedish word meaning a sound. The Bosphorus is also
+called Sud on a Swedish memorial stone over a man who was killed in a
+similar expedition.
+
+Oleg, the fourth brother of Rurik, was his successor, his son Igor
+being yet a minor. He was an energetic man and a great administrator.
+
+Smolensk, Lubetch and Kief were captured, and Askold and Dir put to
+death. Between the years 879-912, Oleg organized the Russian empire.
+For the sake of commerce, he tried to preserve peace with the Greeks,
+but when difficulties arose he called in new armies from Sweden and
+great expeditions started against Byzantium. But these Variagi were
+an unruly element, and, in order to satisfy their desire for war and
+booty, the Russian rulers always let a plundering expedition to the
+Caspian Sea follow every unsuccessful attack upon Byzantium; also when
+war with the Greeks was avoided through decrees of peace, expeditions
+to the Caspian Sea took place.
+
+These expeditions against the Arabs, who inhabited the coasts of the
+Caspian Sea, were neither in any marked degree successful. Masudi
+is the first author among the Arabs who mentions the expeditions of
+the Swedes. They came down the river Volga in their ships. The Arabs
+describe the "R�s" as blond and "tall as palm-trees." The burial of a
+R�s is described by Ibn Fosslan, who visited Bulgaria in 921. "The hero
+was burned in a ship with weapons, horses, dogs and a woman." In 965,
+the Israelite, Ibrahim Ibn Jakub, made a journey to Germany. He tells
+that the Arabs in his day with R�s (Russians) meant partly the Swedes
+of Sweden, "who often came in ships from the West to plunder," partly
+the Swedes settled in Russia, "who speak the language of the Slavs, on
+account of admixture with them."
+
+It was the destiny of the Swedes in Russia to exchange their language
+for that of the Slavs and finally to absorb Slav customs. Such might
+not have been the case if they had been greater in numbers, or if their
+coming had been deferred to a later, Christian period, when to a strong
+form of government would have been added a strong Church organization.
+Yet their influence was greater than that of the Vikings in any other
+country, for the Russian empire was entirely a Northern creation.
+
+To follow further the Rurik dynasty would lead us away from Swedish
+into Russian history. But let us mention that Oleg was succeeded
+by Rurik's son Igor, who also was a great war-lord, and undertook
+the third expedition of Russians and Variagi against Byzantium. His
+widow was the celebrated Olga, who was converted to Christianity
+and afterward canonized. She reigned during the minority of her son
+Sviatoslaf, whose conversion she was never able to effect. Sviatoslaf's
+son and grandson, Saint Vladimir and Jaroslaf the Great, were the
+Clovis and the Charlemagne of Russia.
+
+After the conquest of Kief, Oleg commanded a tribute to be paid to the
+Variagi "for the preservation of peace." This tribute to the Swedes
+was paid up to the death of Jaroslaf, who in 1019 gave assurance to
+the king of Upsala that it should be paid regularly, Vladimir having
+neglected to do so. This tribute could be nothing else than a scat
+paid to the king of Sweden by the rulers of Russia during the ninth
+and tenth centuries. Sweden possessed in those days a large territory
+south of the Baltic, which paid scat to the king of Upsala. It was
+called Austria (_Austerike_), and reference to it under this name is
+often made in sagas, chronicles and inscriptions. Ynglinga Saga gives
+incidents of close Swedish connections to Finland and the Baltic
+provinces, and arch�ological finds point to Swedish settlements in
+Finland, already in the prehistoric period. Memories of conquests are
+preserved in statements by the Icelanders and by Saxo, the Danish
+historian, about the Austria of which the Swedish kings Ivar Vidfamne,
+Harald Hildetand, "Sigurd" Ring and Ragnar "Lodbrok" were rulers.
+Closest to an exact statement comes Snorre, who says that King Eric
+Edmundson of Sweden ruled over Finland, Carelia, Esthonia, Courland
+and "wide over all Austria." These countries belonged to Sweden until
+King Olof Skoetkonung "let all his scatlands get away from him." The
+chronicler Rimbert says that Courland, by which he means the Baltic
+provinces, in 850 belonged to Sweden. Shortly after this date fall,
+according to Nestor, those of the first Swedish contact with interior
+Russia (859) and of the founding of the Russian empire by Rurik (862).
+The Swedish dominion in the Baltic provinces, as well as the early
+Russian empire, must consequently have held a position similar to the
+one of Normandie to France and England.
+
+The old Swedish name for Russia was Gardarike, for Novgorod Holmgard
+and for Byzantium Miklagard, which mean "Country of towns," "Island
+town," and "Great town," respectively.
+
+Vladimir of Russia, in 980, sent a number of Variagi to the emperor.
+But already the emperors had probably surrounded themselves with
+a small standing army of Variagi or Barangoi, as they were called
+by the Greeks. They were treated with a good deal of respect and
+consideration, and in the North it was considered a distinction
+to have served in Miklagard, which even the sons of kings eagerly
+sought for. Soon not only Swedes, but also Norwegians, Danes and
+Icelanders were attracted, and Icelandic sources have a good many,
+in part wildly exaggerated, accounts of the Variagi and their
+experiences in Miklagard. The Northmen were relied upon to support the
+tottering empire, and were despatched to the points where the hardest
+combats were fought. They had officers of their own nationality,
+and the strictest discipline was maintained. About the year 1050
+a detachment of Variagi were accepted into the body-guard of the
+emperor, surrounding his person on all great occasions and in public;
+also keeping watch over the imperial palace. When the emperor died,
+they had, according to Snorre, the privilege of passing through his
+treasury, each taking along all he could carry off. Another privilege
+of theirs was that they were allowed to keep their heathen faith in the
+midst of the Christian surroundings.
+
+Many and various as the reasons for the Viking expeditions must have
+been, the principal cause that led to their abolition was the contact
+with Christianity abroad, and the introduction of its teaching in the
+heathen North. The first missionaries to Sweden were sent by Louis the
+Pious, but Christianity was not entirely unknown before their arrival.
+For centuries, the Swedes had through commercial expeditions stood
+in direct or indirect contact with the Christian world, and this had
+brought home some knowledge of "the white Christ" and his gospel of
+peace. Many Northmen had been baptized while dwelling in foreign lands,
+and many must the Christian thralls have been who continually were
+brought into the country. The influence these elements exerted probably
+could be traced to the ennobling and developing of heathen myths,
+rather than to direct Christian conversions. And a similar influence of
+Roman and Greek myths, without doubt, exerted upon the North in earlier
+historic times.
+
+Ansgar, a learned and pious monk from the convent of Corvey, became the
+apostle of Sweden. He had spent two years in Denmark as a missionary
+when called upon by Emperor Louis to visit Sweden. Louis the Pious had
+received the assurance by Swedish emissaries that the new faith would
+not meet with any obstacle, and that many were willing to embrace it.
+Ansgar started in the year of 830, accompanied by Witmar, also of the
+Corvey convent. They were well received by King Bioern, and were able
+to comfort many Christians in Swedish captivity, besides converting
+some of the inhabitants. Among the converts was the powerful Jarl
+Herger, who for a long period was the chief supporter of Christianity
+in Sweden. After about a year and a half, Ansgar and Witmar returned
+to the emperor, who, satisfied with the result of their mission,
+erected a special archbishopric in Hamburg for the spiritual needs of
+the North. Ansgar was made the archbishop and, with Ebo, archbishop
+of Rheims, apostolic legate among Swedes, Danes and Slavs. At the
+same time, Gauzbert was made the first bishop of Sweden under the
+name of Simon. He went to Sweden and was well received by its king
+and people. But a revolt against the new faith soon rose among the
+heathens, not issuing from the king but from the people. Gauzbert
+was captured and with contumely escorted out of the country, while
+his relative, Nithard, was killed, thus becoming the first Christian
+martyr in Sweden. For seven years the country was without a preacher
+of the Gospel, until Ansgar sent thither a new missionary, Ardgar,
+who stayed there preaching until the death of Herger. In the meantime
+Vikings had destroyed Hamburg, and not before its bishopric had been
+united to that of Bremen was Ansgar in a position to visit Sweden for
+a second time. This he effected early in the fifties of the ninth
+century, coming this time as a kind of ambassador from the kings of
+Denmark and Germany to give more importance to his mission. The heathen
+partisans, who recently had accepted the departed King Eric among the
+gods, resented, and the reigning king, Olof, dared not grant Ansgar
+the right to preach. The difficulty was solved through the ancient
+custom of throwing dice. Ansgar was successful in the proceedings,
+and his cause was then brought before the Thing (or Assembly) for
+deliberation. The people decided that permission should be granted to
+preach the Gospel, principally on the grounds set forth by an old man
+who rose to remind the Thing that the new God had already helped a good
+many, and that it was a good thing to have him to fall back on when
+the old gods failed. After having built churches and baptized a great
+number, Ansgar returned home, leaving behind Erimbert, a relative of
+Gauzbert's. Archbishop Rimbert was Ansgar's successor, himself visiting
+Sweden. After his death, the archbishops of the North seem to have
+ceased taking interest in Swedish missions. The little church, left
+to itself, soon succumbed. When at last one of the archbishops, Unne,
+woke up to the necessity of visiting Sweden, he found that the Gospel
+was forgotten. He was himself surprised by death while in Sweden, and
+buried in the town of Birka, in 936. Numerous graves of the earlier
+Christians in Sweden have been found on the site of the old commercial
+centre of Birka in the island Bioerkoe, in the Lake M�lar, unburned
+bodies in wooden coffins, and the graves without mounds.
+
+King _Eric Edmundson_ was a contemporary of Rimbert. He was engaged in
+building up a Swedish dominion in Finland and on the southern shores
+of the Baltic. With King Harald Fairhair of Norway he was disputing
+the supremacy over the province of Vermland. He was succeeded by his
+son _Bioern_ who is said to have reigned for fifty years. _Olof_ and
+_Eric_, Bioern's two sons, succeeded him, the former dying suddenly at
+a banquet. His young son, _Styrbioern Starke_ (the Strong), one of the
+most famous of Swedish heroes, demanded his share of the kingdom when
+only twelve years old. When King Eric told him he was yet too young,
+Styrbioern two springs in succession installed himself on the mound of
+his father, by so doing making claim upon his inheritance, according
+to old usage. But when he came to the Thing to demand his share in the
+government he was chased away with stone-throwing. King Eric gave him
+sixty ships with men and weapons to try his luck in Viking expeditions.
+Styrbioern won great fame during several years of continual warfare in
+the Baltic, capturing the mighty Jomsborg, a celebrated Viking nest in
+the island of Wollin, later turning his weapons upon Denmark, where he
+made the Danish king Harald Gormson Bluetooth a prisoner. He now felt
+strong enough to attack his uncle, King Eric. Harald Bluetooth was to
+help him, but failed to do so. Styrbioern sailed with a fleet to Sweden;
+after having landed he burned his ships to make a return impossible.
+King Eric met him at the Fyrisvols and fought a battle which was said
+to have lasted for three days. Styrbioern fell, and with him the larger
+part of his army. His uncle, the king, was after this called _Eric
+Segers�ll_ (the Victorious). After the battle the king ascended a high
+mound, promising a great compensation to the one who could compose a
+song in praise of the victory. The Icelander Thorvald Hialte, who never
+previously or afterward appeared as a scald, came forth and recited
+two strophes which are preserved to our day, receiving a costly armlet
+of gold as reward. This battle--next to the one at Bravols, the most
+famous in the heathen North--was fought in 988.
+
+King Eric invaded Denmark and took possession of the country, making
+the son of Harald Bluetooth an exile, to which facts Saxo, the Danish
+historian, testifies. In Denmark Eric was baptized, the first Swedish
+king about whom this is said. But upon his return to Sweden he also
+returned to the old gods. Eric Segers�ll was king of Sweden and Denmark
+until his death, which occurred in 994. His first consort, Sigrid
+Storrada (the Proud), from whom he later separated, played quite an
+important part in the history of her time. After the death of Eric,
+she married the exiled Svend Tjufvusk�gg (their son being Canute the
+Great), who through this matrimony came to the throne of Denmark.
+
+_Olof Skoetkonung_, the son of Eric and Sigrid, succeeded his father.
+His surname is supposed to mean "the lap king," but he was no longer
+a minor at the death of King Eric. King Olof was not a powerful or
+energetic ruler, like the father. He let go, one after the other, the
+lands of his crown. Denmark regained its independence, and he lost
+also the scat-paying dominions south of the Baltic. Shortly after Olof
+ascended the throne, the Norwegian king, Olaf Tryggvason, had demanded
+Sigrid Storrada in marriage and obtained her consent. But when King
+Olaf asked her to become a Christian, she refused to change faith,
+whereupon he insulted her. Sigrid told him that this should cause his
+death. Two years later, when Sigrid was the wife of King Svend of
+Denmark, she prevailed upon her son and her husband to join hands in
+assailing Olaf Tryggvason, who was expected back from an expedition
+to the lands of the Vends. The compact was made, and the Norwegian
+jarls, Eric and Svein, entered it. These all collected an immense
+fleet, which assailed the unsuspecting Olaf at Svolder, close by the
+coast of Pomerania. The Norwegian king lost the day and his life. This
+famous battle was fought in 1000, the kings of Sweden and Denmark also
+taking a personal part in it. Norway was divided between the victors.
+The Swedish king received as his share the districts of Drontheim and
+Bohusl�n. These he granted to Jarl Svein, who was the betrothed of
+his sister Holmfrid. Fifteen years later they were recaptured by the
+Norwegian king.
+
+Olaf Tryggvason had been a devout Christian. His sister Ingeborg was
+married to Jarl Ragnvald of West Gothland, who was baptized and invited
+Christian missionaries to Sweden. Through such influences King Olof
+Skoetkonung was at last converted and baptized by Sigfrid, a German
+missionary, at Husaby in West Gothland, in the year 1008. Sigfrid, who
+has been supposed to be of English parentage and a bishop of York,
+evidently came from Germany. He preached for a long period in West
+Gothland and V�rend, in the latter district once being attacked by
+heathen men, who killed three of his companions. King Olof himself saw
+to it that the murderers were punished, and Sigfrid continued his noble
+work without molestation. He was later worshipped as a saint. Among
+other missionaries who were active in converting the various provinces
+may be mentioned the Anglo-Saxon St. David, the apostle of Westmanland,
+the Anglo-Saxon St. Eskil and the Swede St. Botvid, the apostles of
+Soedermanland, and the German Stenfi, or Simon, the apostle of Norrland.
+St. David was a contemporary of St. Sigfrid, while the others were a
+few generations younger. It was first through influence from England
+and Denmark, during the reign of Canute the Great, that Swedish
+conversions became more widespread and general.
+
+King Olof's conversion met with a great deal of opposition, especially
+in Svealand, which longest remained heathen. Upsala, with its temple,
+was the heathen stronghold of the North, and there the king had always,
+as one of his principal duties, to preside over the great sacrifices.
+King Olof was forced to accept the decision of a Thing which granted
+him freedom to select some part of the kingdom wherein to build
+churches and perform the duties of the new cult, but which forbade
+him to use his influence toward the conversion of his subjects. For
+this reason Olof dwelt principally in the more and more christianized
+West Gothland, in the capital of which province, Skara, a bishop
+was installed. The name of the first bishop was Turgot. Only after
+more than two centuries of endeavor was the Christian Church firmly
+established in Sweden, in the middle of the eleventh century; but
+even at that time the great mass of the people were heathen in name.
+The heathen party was so strong that it could for a long time, and
+occasionally with success, keep up the battle against Christianity. It
+took yet another century before the complete victory of Christianity
+was an assured fact.
+
+The reasons for the slow progress of Christianity in Sweden were many,
+the principal one not being an opposition to the Christian doctrines.
+The superstitious change easily from one cult to another. The sceptics
+do not believe more in one god than in another. Of heathen sceptics
+there were a great many in the North who believed in nothing else
+than their own strength. But it was the Christian morals which were
+so difficult for the Swedes to accept. Accustomed to great personal
+liberty, they could not endure the restraint which Christian morals
+placed upon the individual. The very spirit of Christianity, with its
+kindliness and meekness, was not attractive to the Northman, who
+in his own mental and physical force found a tower of strength. The
+period of the first attempts at conversion was not well chosen. The
+whole North was inflamed by the Viking rage for war and plunder. Then
+followed a period of disinterestedness when the good seed was sown but
+the field neglected. Later the too arduous zeal of the priests called
+forth criticism and resistance from the Swedes, so tardy in making a
+decision and so careful in weighing reasons for and against.
+
+To this must be added the great prestige of the Upsala temple as the
+heathen arc of worship in the North, and the influence of the scalds
+and saga men of Iceland. Iceland was discovered in 870, and settled
+principally by Norsemen from the British Isles and from the western
+coast of Norway, but also to some extent by Swedes and Danes. Sudden
+and brilliant was the rise of Icelandic culture, and Icelandic scalds
+overran the whole territory of the North. At the court of every king
+and jarl these were at home, sometimes in great numbers, and soon
+to the exclusion of the native poets. For their poetry, both as to
+contents and form, they were chiefly dependent upon the heathen myths
+and traditions, and the result of their popularity must have been a
+perfect heathen revival in those days of growing scepticism. Through
+intercourse with Christians in Britain, the Icelanders had borrowed
+many a noble trait, and their taste found admirers in the old North,
+where such influence must have been felt through centuries of indirect
+contact with lands of classical or Christian culture. We are told
+of the great number of southern coins found in Swedish soil. Which
+travel further and faster, thoughts or coins, and which are the more
+impressionable? So although it would be unjust to deprive the Icelandic
+poetry, the impressive and grand Eddic songs and the more artificial
+court-poetry, of any of its beauty or originality, it is not right to
+ascribe all the culture, whose blossom it is, to Iceland, or Iceland
+and Norway, to the exclusion of Sweden and Denmark, or the Teutonic
+world at large. Good epic poetry has been written all over Teutondom.
+In Sweden strophes in the very metre of the majority of Eddic poems
+have been found on tombstones. In the same manner with the contents
+of the Eddic poems. Granting important exceptions, we think that the
+heathen myths have been the same in the East as in the extreme West.
+The very fact that Icelandic court-poetry was accepted and enjoyed by
+continental chieftains presupposes a thorough knowledge and mastery of
+the more popular poetry of Eddic songs of gods and heroes.
+
+Hence the revival of heathendom in the North, by which a king like Olof
+Skoetkonung for a long time was influenced, finding his chief delight in
+the association with poets and saga men.
+
+In Norway, Olaf Haraldson had ascended the throne, and he put an end to
+Swedish dominion in the Norwegian districts. This caused strife, and
+also considerable annoyance to the provinces touching the frontier.
+Popular feeling rose high in Sweden, when the demands for a peace
+guarantee with Norway were disregarded by King Olof. Jarl Ragnvald
+sided with the people, desiring a union between the Norwegian king and
+King Olof's daughter Ingegerd. At a great Thing held in Upsala, in
+1018, King Olof listened to Norwegian emissaries pleading for peace
+and a royal marriage. Jarl Ragnvald complained of the annoyance caused
+to his people of West Gothland. King Olof became indignant, but was,
+through the forcible yet dignified appeal for peace by Torgny, the
+_lagman_ (justice) of Tiundaland, compelled to a promise of peace and
+a concession of marriage. But the king did not keep his promises. A
+betrothal was arranged but soon annulled by Olof, and the Norwegian
+king was in vain expecting his promised bride. At the instigation of
+Jarl Ragnvald, Olaf Haraldson married King Olof's illegitimate daughter
+Astrid. As this was done without the consent of her father, Ragnvald
+dared not remain in Sweden. He went to Gardarike (Russia), where he
+died shortly afterward, in 1019, his widow, the princess Ingegerd, in
+Novgorod becoming the wife of the Russian ruler Jaroslaf.
+
+In Sweden, trouble was brewing against the king, who had broken faith
+with his people, and in order to avoid open revolt King Olof was
+forced to divide his power with one of his sons, who, although yet
+a minor, was solemnly elected king. He had in baptism received the
+name of _Jacob_, which so displeased his heathen subjects that it
+was changed to _Anund_. King Olof also agreed to maintain peace with
+Norway, meeting his son-in-law at Kongh�ll, in Bohusl�n, in 1019, for
+a peace agreement. King Olof died two years later and was buried by
+the church of Husaby, where he was baptized. He was the first king who
+introduced coinage into Sweden. The earliest coins were made of silver
+by Anglo-Saxons settled in Sigtuma, and resemble closely Anglo-Saxon
+coins of the same period.
+
+After the death of his father King Anund ruled alone. He entered into
+an alliance with his brother-in-law of Norway against Canute, who now
+was king both of Denmark and England. During Canute's absence, Anund
+and Olaf invaded Denmark. In the subsequent strife between Olaf and
+Canute, Anund took no active part. King Olaf had to flee to Russia.
+Upon his return he gathered an army in Sweden, with the help of Anund,
+and entered Norway through Jemtland. At Stiklastad he met the much
+superior Norwegian army, and lost his battle and his life, in 1030.
+After his death, the sentiment in Norway changed radically, and he was
+worshipped as a saint throughout the North.
+
+Of Anund's reign little is known. Adam of Bremen, an ecclesiastic,
+whose history of the diocese of Hamburg and Bremen, during the period
+788-1072, is one of the most important sources of Swedish history
+in heathen times, says of Anund: "Young in years, he excelled in
+wisdom and piety all his predecessors; no king was more beloved by
+the Swedish people than Anund." The historian gives as his authority
+the Danish king Svend Estridsen, who as an exile stayed at Anund's
+court. Anund died in 1050 and was succeeded by his older half-brother
+_Emund_, surnamed _the Old_. He was the son of a freed woman, the
+daughter of a Vendish chief. For this reason he had been passed over
+at the first election. Emund was educated by his mother's relatives,
+was baptized, but was not much of a Christian. He was popular neither
+with the new Christian church nor with the people at large. Emund's
+unpopularity with the masses was caused by an agreement with Denmark in
+regard to the boundaries when he ceded the province of Bleking. Emund
+died in 1060. With him the old royal line became extinct. A new line
+comes to the throne of Sweden, where, with the general acceptance of
+Christianity, a new era commences.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+_Early Christian Era--Stenkil's Line and Interchanging Dynasties_
+
+
+The sources of Swedish history during the first two centuries of the
+Middle Ages are very meagre. This is a deplorable fact, for during that
+period Sweden passed through a great and thorough development, the
+various stages of which consequently are not easily traced.
+
+Before the year of 1060 Sweden is an Old Teutonic state, certainly of
+later form and a larger compass than the earliest of such, but with
+its democracy and its elective kingdom preserved. The older Sweden,
+such as it had existed at least since the days of Ingiald Illrade,
+was in regard to its constitution a rudimentary union of states. The
+realm had come into existence through the cunning and violence of the
+king of the Sviar, who made away with the kings of the respective
+lands, making their communities pay homage to him. No change in the
+interior affairs of the different lands was thereby effected; they
+lost their outward political independence, but remained mutually on
+terms of perfect equality. They were united only through the king, who
+was the only centre for the government of the union. No province had
+constitutionally more importance than the rest, no supremacy by one
+over the other existed. On this historic basis the Swedish realm was
+built, and rested firmly until the commencement of the Middle Ages.
+In the Old Swedish state-organism the various parts thus possessed a
+high degree of individual and pulsating life; the empire as a whole was
+also powerful, although the royal dignity was its only institution. The
+king was the outward tie which bound the provinces together; besides
+him there was no power of state which embraced the whole realm. The
+affairs of state were decided upon by the king alone, as in regard to
+war, or he had to gather the opinion of the Thing in each province; any
+imperial representation did not exist and was entirely unknown, both
+in the modern sense and in the form of one provincial, or sectional,
+assembly deciding for all the others. The latter form is one of
+transition, the modern form the ripe fruit, both brought out by the
+historic development. In society there existed no classes. It was a
+democracy of free men, the slaves and freed men enjoying no rights.
+The first centuries of the Middle Ages were one continued process of
+regeneration, the Swedish people being carried into the European circle
+of cultural development and made a communicant of Christianity. With
+the commencement of the thirteenth century Sweden comes out of this
+process as a medi�val state, in aspect entirely different to her past.
+The democratic equality among free men has turned into an aristocracy,
+with aristocratic institutions, the hereditary kingdom into an
+elective, or, at least, into one close upon turning into an elective,
+kingdom, while the provincial particularism and independence have
+given way to the constitution of a centralized, monopolistic state. No
+changes could be more fundamental.
+
+For lack of sources the historians were, until quite recently, led
+to the belief that the change was due to one tribe in gaining the
+ascendency over another, the political supremacy changing from one part
+of the country to another. The epoch was called "The Struggle between
+Swedes and Goths," "The Struggle about the election of kings between
+Swedes and Goths." Now it is generally admitted that the struggle was
+between principles, not between tribes. The circumstances sometimes
+were such that one section or province opposed others, but these
+divisions never were identical or at all depended upon racial or tribal
+conditions. It was a struggle between heathendom and Christianity,
+democracy and aristocracy, provincial particularism and centralized
+state unity.
+
+The old provincial laws of Sweden are a great and important inheritance
+which this period has accumulated from heathen times. The laws were
+written down in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, but they bear
+every evidence of high antiquity. Many strophes are found in them of
+the same metre as those on the tombstones of the Viking Age and those
+in which the songs of the Edda are chiefly written. In other instances
+the text consists of alliterative prose, which proves its earlier
+metrical form. The expressions have, in places, remained heathen,
+although used by Christians, who were ignorant of their true meaning,
+as, for instance, in the following formula of an oath, in the West
+Gothic law: "Sva se mer gud hull" (So help me the gods). The laws show
+a good many individual traits and differences, but these are not of
+such a serious character as to give evidence of having been formulated
+by tribes of different origin. A remarkable exception is formed by
+the laws of matrimony and inheritance for the inhabitants of V�rend
+and Bleking, who, it will be remembered, are the descendants of the
+Herulian immigration in historic times. In lieu of a missing literature
+of sagas and poetry, these provincial laws give a good insight into
+the character, morals, customs and culture of the heathen and early
+Christian times of Sweden. From the point of philology they are also
+of great value, besides forming the solid basis of later Swedish law.
+How the laws could pass from one generation to another, without any
+codification, depends upon the facts that they were recited from memory
+by the justice (_lagman_ or _domare_), and that this dignity generally
+was inherited, for centuries being carried by the descendants of one
+and the same family.
+
+Interesting is the appendix to the law of the island of Gothland,
+the Guta Saga, being the fragment of a history of the island and its
+first contact with Christianity through a visit by St. Olaf of Norway.
+The style is the same simple and serene one as in the Icelandic
+sagas; while the Gutnic dialect, in which it is written, more closely
+resembles the Gothic of Bishop Wulfila in vowel sounds than the
+language of any other known dialect. Quite an important appendix is
+found in the older form of the West Gothic law, consisting of lines of
+the kings of Sweden, with short but highly valuable accounts of their
+reigns and characteristics.
+
+_Stenkil_ was the name of King Emund's successor. He was a jarl and
+married to Emund's sister. The statement that he was born in West
+Gothland is not confirmed by the authorities. His father's name was
+Ragnvald, and it seems likely that this Ragnvald was identical with the
+jarl spoken of above, who died in Russia. Stenkil had close relations
+with Russia, for his son Inge was called in from that country to
+succeed his father. If Jarl Ragnvald was Stenkil's father, this only
+made his selection as king more plausible, being then the half-brother
+of Isiaslaf of Russia and the brother-in-law of the reigning kings of
+Hungary, France and Norway. King Stenkil was a devout Christian, but
+of a sagacious disposition, careful not to offend his heathen subjects
+by any Christian propaganda. He was a giant in size, and although
+phlegmatic, an ardent sportsman. Adalvard, exiled by Emund, returned
+and did active work as bishop of Skara, also converting the population
+of Vermland. Even among the heathen of Svealand, Christianity got a
+foothold, Adalvard the Younger being established as bishop in Sigtuna,
+close by the pagan centre of Upsala. But when he, in conjunction with
+Egino, of the newly erected bishop's chair of Lund, schemed for the
+destruction of the heathen temple of Upsala, he was removed by the
+command of the king, who found that such a plan, if carried through,
+would prove disastrous to both Church and throne.
+
+During the short reign of Stenkil there was a conflict with Norway, an
+exiled Norwegian jarl having been granted possessions in Vermland. King
+Harald Hardrade invaded Gothaland, punishing this insult by a victory
+over the Swedes. No further complications ensued, perhaps on account of
+the close family relations of the two rulers.
+
+Stenkil died in 1066, leaving two sons, _Halsten_ and _Inge_, both
+minors. During their minority two men, both named _Eric_, relatives of
+Stenkil and the old royal line, fought for supremacy, and both fell
+in the contest for the crown. Hakon of West Gothland took hold of the
+reins of state and kept them for thirteen years, until King Halsten
+became of age, Hakon himself dying. Halsten was a devout Christian
+like his father, but less sagacious, trying to force the new faith
+upon the heathen of Svealand. For this reason he was dethroned, and
+his brother Inge called in from Russia. But King Inge was a Christian
+enthusiast like his brother, and was subsequently driven away by
+the irate inhabitants of Svealand, who now called to the throne his
+brother-in-law _Sven_, surnamed _Blot-Sven_ (_Sven, the Sacrificer_),
+of heathen faith. The royal brothers dwelt undisturbed among the
+Christians, but after three years King Inge, in old heathen style,
+surrounded and set fire to the domicile of Blot-Sven, who with all
+his household perished within. King Inge resumed his reign, likely
+very much in his old spirit, for two other pretenders, although less
+formidable, appeared: _Olof N�skonung_ (_Nose-king_) and a son of Sven,
+called _Kol_ or _Eric Ars�ll_. Two papal documents are preserved from
+Inge's reign. They consist of letters from Gregory VII., making appeals
+for closer relations between the pope and the Swedish king.
+
+An invasion was made from Norway, whose king, Magnus Barfod, subdued
+the inhabitants of the province of Dal. King Magnus built a fortified
+place on the island of Kollandsoe in Lake Venar, close to the shore of
+West Gothland, but it was captured by King Inge, who set its occupants
+free, but without their weapons. Two battles were fought at Fuxerna,
+the Norwegians being victors in the first, the Swedes in the latter.
+Peace was effected at a meeting between the two kings at Kungh�ll in
+the summer of 1101, when it was agreed that the frontiers should remain
+as they were before the war. King Eric Ejegod was also present at
+the meeting, where the betrothal between King Magnus and King Inge's
+daughter Margaret was agreed upon. On account of the original nature of
+the meeting the Swedish princess was surnamed Fredkulla (Peace-Maiden).
+
+In 1103 the bishopric of Lund was raised to the dignity of an
+archbishopric, yet not becoming perfectly independent of the
+archbishopric of Hamburg-Bremen. The archbishop of Lund received the
+title of Primas of Sweden, preserved long after Sweden had obtained its
+own archbishop.
+
+King Inge died in 1111, receiving, by the appendix to the West Gothic
+law, credit for "having ruled Sweden with manliness, without breaking
+the law which governed each province." About his brother Halsten,
+who died before him, the same source says: "He was sagacious and
+good-natured; the cases brought before him were bettered, and Sweden
+became worse through his death." At the time of Inge's death, Jemtland
+was persuaded to pay scat to the Norwegian king, but it remained in
+connection with the church of Sweden.
+
+Inge's son Ragnvald died before him, and Halsten's sons, _Philip_ and
+_Inge the Younger_, ascended the throne. They were of a more peaceful
+disposition toward the heathen than their predecessors, Christianity
+making great progress during their reigns. Philip died in 1118, Inge
+following him in 1125; his death was said to have been caused by
+poison. The epitaph over the two runs thus: "Sweden fared well while
+they lived," in the terse language of the source quoted above. With
+them the race of Stenkil became extinct in the male line.
+
+In 1123 the Norwegian king, Sigurd Jorsalafare, undertook a crusade
+to the eastern parts of Smaland, which were still heathen. "Crusades"
+of this kind were not uncommon during that period, and were hardly
+anything else than Viking expeditions in Christian disguise.
+
+Great confusion ensued through the extinction of Stenkil's line.
+_Ragnvald Knaphoefde_, probably the son of Olof N�skonung, was
+chosen king, but lost his life through the contemptuous neglect of
+an ancient custom. The newly elected king should always make a tour
+of the realm, receiving homage and giving assurance of his good
+faith to the population of the various provinces. The provincial
+laws had stipulations as to the nature and number of the _gisslan_
+(hostages) to meet and escort him through each province. This tour,
+called _Eriksgata_, Ragnvald undertook without accepting hostages upon
+entering West Gothland. He was killed at Karleby, in 1130, by the
+peasants, indignant at what they considered an insult to all the West
+Goths. These had, moreover, made another choice in Magnus Nilsson, the
+son of Margaret Fredkulla in her second marriage. Magnus never made
+claim to the Swedish throne, endeavoring to become king of Denmark,
+after his father, Nils Svendsen, but losing his life in the attempt.
+
+_Sverker_, who had married the widow of the younger Inge, was in 1133
+chosen king by the East Goths, and the Up-Swedes (in the provinces
+north of Lake M�lar), having no special choice of their own, also
+agreed on him. After the death of Magnus Nilsson, the West Goths joined
+by formally acknowledging King Sverker, who, born in East Gothland,
+has been supposed to be the son of Eric Ars�ll, without solid reasons.
+During Sverker's reign ecclesiastical matters developed. The old
+bishoprics of Birka and Sigtuna were changed into that of (Old) Upsala,
+where the pagan temple seems to have been at last changed into a
+church. New bishoprics were created in Linkoeping, Strengn�s, Westeros
+and Vexio. The whole of Swedish Finland formed one diocese. The famous
+Bernard of Clairvaux was asked by King Sverker and his queen Ulfhild to
+send monks of his order, and several Cistercian convents were founded.
+The quiet and scholarly monks from France, no doubt, soon began to
+exert a beneficial influence of importance, through the means of their
+superior culture. A papal legate, Nicolaus of Alba (later Pope Hadrian
+IV.), visited Sweden in 1152, meeting all the dignitaries of Church and
+State for a conference at Linkoeping. The legate was willing to give to
+Sweden an archbishop, but the matter was postponed, since no agreement
+could be reached in regard to the archbishopric's seat. Measures for
+the establishment of the Church on a firmer basis and the payment of
+Peter's pence to Rome were agreed on.
+
+Sverker was a good and peaceful monarch, but seems with old age to have
+lost some of his authority. A war with Denmark was brought on through
+an escapade of his son John, who had carried away two Danish women of
+noble birth. He returned them, and was himself killed by the peasants
+at a Thing. Yet the Danish king, Svend Grade, had the excuse for an
+invasion and entered Smaland with an army in the winter of 1153-54.
+The brave inhabitants of V�rend gave him a hearty welcome, and he soon
+returned to Denmark. It is an old tradition that a woman by the name
+of Blenda was chiefly instrumental in this result. When the peasants
+feared to attack the superior enemy, she had a splendid meal spread
+for the foe. After the Danes had partaken heavily of its eatables and
+drinkables, they were surprised and routed by their hitherto invisible
+hosts and hostesses.
+
+King Sverker, now called "the Old," was murdered by his valet while
+starting for the Christmas matins in 1155 or 1156. The murder was,
+without doubt, committed at the instigation of the Danish prince Magnus
+Henricsson, who on his mother's side was a great-grandson of Inge the
+Elder, and who in this manner made his first attempt to reach the
+throne of Sweden.
+
+Already, in 1150, the Up-Swedes had in _Eric_, the son of Jedvard,
+found a man in their opinion better suited to rule Sweden than Sverker
+the Old. His mother is said to have been the daughter of Blot-Sven
+and the sister of Kol, while his father was "a good and rich yeoman."
+Through a mistake he was named _Eric IX._, but is more commonly known
+as _St. Eric_. One source calls him "lawgiver," although nothing is
+definitely known of his activity in this direction. At the death of
+Sverker, his son Charles was certainly of age, but the growing fame
+of King Eric made it useless for him to force his right, and Eric was
+recognized as king of the whole realm.
+
+King Eric was a warm friend of the Christian propaganda in his own
+country, and by crusades spread the faith outside of its borders. It
+was only natural that Sweden should turn its attention to Finland,
+with which country it had stood in close relations since the remotest
+period, and where Swedish settlements in all times existed. Accompanied
+by Bishop Henric of Upsala, King Eric sailed with a fleet to the
+southwestern part of Finland, or the province now called Finland
+Proper, where the inhabitants were forced to receive baptism. This
+crusade must have taken place late in the fifties of the twelfth
+century. Eric soon returned, but Bishop Henric remained with other
+priests to have Christianity firmly established. These efforts met
+with considerable difficulty, and Henric was murdered by one of his
+converts. He was later worshipped as the patron saint of Finland.
+
+The pious King Eric was attacked by the perfidious prince Magnus
+Henricsson at East Aros (the present or New Upsala), in 1160. It is
+said that Eric was attending mass at the Trinity Church, when he was
+told of the approach of his enemy. He remained till the service was
+over, after which he went to meet his fate. He was overcome and slain
+by the superior force. His pious life and virtues and the miracles
+which were said to have been worked at his grave made him the patron
+saint of Sweden, although never canonized by the Church of Rome. His
+bones are preserved in a shrine of gilt silver behind the high altar in
+the cathedral of Upsala, and were in Catholic days objects of worship.
+Oaths were taken "by the power of God and Saint Eric the King," his
+banner was carried in war, and the city of Stockholm still has his
+image on its shield.
+
+_Charles Sverkersson_ (_Charles VII._) now made valid his claims, the
+whole people rising to support him against the usurper Magnus. In the
+following year Magnus was killed by the indignant people. During the
+reign of Charles some important novelties in Church and State were
+introduced. Sweden received, in 1164, her first archbishop in Stefan,
+a monk of Alvastra. The archbishop's seat was first Old Upsala.
+Instead of jarls in the various parts, there is from this time on a
+jarl for the whole kingdom at the side of the king, whom he assists
+in the government of the state, sometimes obtaining a power rivalling
+that of his master. The first jarl of the realm was Ulf, the second
+Gutorm. The rivalry noticeable between the different provinces, which
+all thought themselves called upon to select a new line to rule after
+Stenkil's, ceased at the death of Saint Eric. What follows is a rivalry
+of interchanging dynasties. Charles Sverkersson was, in April, 1167,
+surprised by a pretender to the throne, Knut Ericsson, who deprived him
+of crown and life, while his little son Sverker was saved and carried
+away to the queen's uncle, Valdemar the Great of Denmark.
+
+_Knut Ericsson_ was the son of Saint Eric, and ruled Sweden for
+twenty-five years in peace. In his youth he had made one unsuccessful
+attempt to reach the throne, after which he fled to Norway. After the
+death of King Charles he had to fight two pretenders, Kol and Burislev,
+the latter said to have been a son of King Sverker.
+
+During this period the Baltic and its coasts were continually disturbed
+by heathen sea-rovers from the southern shores. A fleet of this kind
+entered Lake M�lar in 1187 and destroyed by fire the town of Sigtuna,
+which, as a mercantile centre, had succeeded the earlier destroyed
+Birka. The second archbishop of Sweden, John, was killed by the
+invaders. The first preliminary plan for the fortification of the
+present site of Stockholm was probably then laid, in order to prevent
+further invasions, and a little town commenced to grow up.
+
+Conditions in Finland were not satisfactory. Invasions by Esthonians
+and Vends were frequent, while the Finns themselves were troublesome
+and little devoted to the new faith. Bishop Henric's successor was
+killed, but Sweden continued to send bishops during the next hundred
+years.
+
+The relations with foreign powers were peaceable, the first known
+treaty between Sweden and a German prince being entered into by King
+Knut and Duke Heinrich of Saxony and Bavaria, in regard to trade
+relations with Lubeck. King Knut died in the winter of 1195. He had
+four sons, but although he had selected one of them for his successor,
+"with general consent and through election by the foremost men in
+Sweden," _Sverker the Younger_, the son of King Charles, succeeded him.
+That this could take place without serious objection of Knut's sons
+can only be explained by the influence wielded by the Church and the
+nobles. The latter had already grown up to strength and importance.
+Their leader was the mighty jarl, Birger Brosa, who had succeeded
+Gutorm. He was of the influential family of Folkungs, which, one of the
+first in the land, soon aspired to the throne. Birger, himself married
+to a Norwegian princess, gave his own daughter Ingegerd in marriage to
+the new king, and remained in power.
+
+King Sverker sought the favor of the Church by supporting its claims.
+In a document of the year 1200, by which he donates some property to
+the church of Upsala, historians have seen the privileges extended to
+the Church as an independent power of state, whose members could be
+arraigned before an ecclesiastic forum only, and whose property was
+to be exempt from taxation. This is the spirit of the document; but
+the king had not, at that period, the right to grant such extensive
+privileges. King Sverker, and probably each of his successors, in turn,
+gave only an assurance of their sympathy with the Church policy, which
+was to its full extent an assured victory only toward the close of the
+thirteenth century.
+
+In 1202, Birger Brosa died, and with him the firm support against the
+pretenders had fallen. The sons of Knut now made open revolt, leaving
+their places at Sverker's court. In 1205, Sverker gave battle to them
+at Elgaros, three of the brothers being killed and the fourth, Eric,
+fleeing to Norway. But a few years later he returned with an army,
+and Sverker found it safest to retire to Denmark, whence he returned
+with a splendid army, which King Valdemar II. Seier, had placed at
+his disposal. But this army was defeated at Lena, in West Gothland,
+in 1208, and Sverker returned to Denmark, now turning to the pope,
+Innocent III., who in vain threatened the pretender with his ban.
+Sverker entered Sweden with a new Danish army, but was killed at the
+battle of Gestilren, in West Gothland, in 1210.
+
+_Eric Knutsson_ now came to undisturbed possession of the throne and
+thus remained until his death in April, 1216, his reign being short and
+uneventful. He was the first king of Sweden of whom it is known with
+certainty that he was anointed and crowned, thus placing himself under
+the protection of the Church. His queen, Rikissa, a sister of Valdemar
+II., returned to Denmark after his death, there giving life to a son,
+who was named Eric, after his father. King Valdemar tried in vain to
+have this royal babe placed on the Swedish throne.
+
+_John Sverkersson_ succeeded King Eric, being, on account of his
+fifteen years of age, first surnamed the _Young_, later _the Pious_.
+By confirming and extending the rights of the Church which his father
+granted he won the favor of the ecclesiastics, and the attempts made
+by Valdemar to have his consecration prohibited proved futile. Toward
+the end of his short reign (in 1220) King John undertook a crusade
+to Esthonia, where he left behind him his jarl, Charles, a brother
+of Birger Brosa, and Bishop Charles of Linkoeping, with a part of the
+army. These all perished in an onslaught made on them by the heathen
+in August of the same year, and the ravages by Esthonians continued as
+before. King John died in the island of Visingsoe, in Lake Vetter, in
+1222, like several of his predecessors, and was, like them, buried in
+the monastery of Alvastra.
+
+_Eric Ericsson_ now became king of Sweden. The royal babe was then six
+years of age, a halting and lisping little creature. The Church took
+him under its protection, but there was no powerful man to take hold of
+the government during his minority. A pretender rose in the person of
+_Knut the Tall_, a great grandson of St. Eric, like the king himself.
+He defeated Eric's troops at Olustra, in 1229. Eric fled to Denmark,
+where he remained until the short and restless reign of Knut came to an
+end through his death, in 1232. Eric resumed the reins of government,
+with the Folkung, Jarl Ulf, at the helm.
+
+Pope Gregory IX., in 1230, gave commandment to the Swedish bishops
+to rouse the people to opposition against the ravages of the heathen
+in the Baltic provinces in the further parts of Finland. In 1237 he
+commands the Swedish bishops to have a crusade started against the
+heathen Tavasti in the interior of Finland. This crusade took place
+under the leadership of Birger Magnusson, who converted the barbarous
+Finns by the sword and erected a fort on the site of the later
+Tavastehus. Birger, according to Russian testimony, tried to extend
+the dominion of Swedish supremacy as far as to the river Neva, but was
+repulsed by the Russians.
+
+Peace had reigned in Sweden for some time when new conflicts ensued.
+The peasants of Upland made an uprising in 1247, but were conquered
+at Sparrs�tra and punished by heavier taxes. A pretender rose in the
+person of Holmger, the son of Knut the Tall. He was captured and
+beheaded in 1248.
+
+A papal legate, Bishop William of Sabina, visited Sweden and arranged,
+in 1248, an ecclesiastical meeting at Skenninge, effecting the
+final separation of Church and State, and establishing the former
+as an independent power at the side of the latter. Archbishops and
+bishops were now to be elected by the ecclesiastics and not by the
+king. Celibacy, previously not enforced in the Swedish church, was
+then introduced, meeting with a good deal of opposition; for the
+ecclesiastical offices had already commenced getting hereditary, as had
+in earlier times the combined dignities of Asa priest and chieftain.
+Birger Magnusson had, shortly before the meeting of Skenninge,
+succeeded Ulf as jarl of the realm. This converter of the Tavasti was
+destined to play a most important part in Swedish history, shaping its
+destiny through the power of his iron will. He was the leader of the
+Folkung family and party, a nephew of Birger Brosa, and married to
+princess Ingeborg, a sister of the reigning king. _Birger Jarl_, as
+he is generally called, effected a satisfactory agreement with Norway
+at a meeting with Hakon in the summer of 1249, according to which the
+enemies of one realm should have no refuge, or support, in the other.
+Besides, it was agreed that the son of the Norwegian king should marry
+Rikissa, the daughter of Birger Jarl.
+
+King Eric died in 1250, at the age of thirty-four. He called himself
+Eric III., while in later times, when St. Eric was supposed to have
+been the ninth king of that name, he has been called Eric XI. He was
+said to have been peaceful, just and kind.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+_The Medi�val State--The Folkung Dynasty_
+
+
+With Eric Ericsson the royal line of Saint Eric became extinct. The
+crown was, on account of his birthright, offered to _Valdemar_, the
+oldest son of Birger Jarl. He was crowned in Linkoeping in 1251.
+From this period on, a new historic source is found in the rhymed
+chronicles, of which Swedish literature possesses several elaborate
+ones of more than 22,000 verses in all. Of these the Old, or Eric's,
+Chronicle, was written about 1320, and, like all the rest, anonymously.
+The verses are fine, the language pure and powerful; the portraits of
+historical personages are roughly drawn but interesting. Unfortunately
+these rhymed chronicles in general, and the Eric's Chronicle in
+particular, dwell rather on the description of impressive events of
+pomp and splendor than on historical facts; and the facts given are not
+always reliable. The Eric's Chronicle gives a brief review of events
+during the reigns of Eric and Valdemar; then for the events up to 1319
+more fully.
+
+According to the Eric's Chronicle, Birger Jarl wished to succeed Eric,
+but had to step aside for his son, who was of royal descent through his
+mother, King Eric's sister. But Birger Jarl remained the all-powerful,
+although uncrowned, ruler till his death.
+
+Many of the nobles were not satisfied with the election of Valdemar.
+They joined forces, gathering hired troops from Denmark and Germany.
+Birger met them at Hervadsbro and defeated them, capturing the leaders,
+who were beheaded. Among these were Philip, a son of Knut the Tall, and
+Knut Magnusson, with others of the Folkung family, which often was at
+war between themselves when great interests were at stake.
+
+After this battle peace reigned under the powerful and sagacious rule
+of Birger. An assault upon Denmark by King Hakon of Norway and Birger
+jointly was planned, but a peace agreement took its place, in 1253. In
+the further complications between Norway and Denmark, Birger took no
+part. When later King Christopher of Denmark called upon his northern
+neighbors for help against revolts in his own country, these were
+ready to respond; but at the sudden death of King Christopher these
+plans were frustrated. In 1260 Birger bettered the already friendly
+relations with Denmark, by arranging the marriage between King Valdemar
+and the Danish princess, Sophia, whereupon he, himself a widower,
+married Mechtild, a queen-dowager of Denmark. In Finland, conditions
+were the same as of yore, pagan tribes and Russian invasions rendering
+everything unsafe and perilous. Birger renewed the trade agreement
+with Lubeck, in 1251, with added privileges to Lubeck, but with the
+stipulation that those of its citizens who settled in Sweden must
+become Swedish subjects. In 1261 the same privileges were extended to
+Hamburg. It was at this period that the Hanseatic League was formed
+between the commercial centres of North Germany. The relations between
+the league and the Scandinavian countries waxed quite intimate and, at
+times, menacing to the political independence of the latter. But Sweden
+derived many benefits through the contact with the reviving culture
+of Southern Europe, which was brought about through the Hanseatic
+League; the newly opened mining industry and the prosperity of Swedish
+commercial centres particularly owing much to this influence. Stockholm
+became the largest and most important of Swedish towns during the
+days of Birger, although he was not its founder. Also with England,
+Birger was carrying on peaceful proceedings; yet their purpose is
+not known. In 1237, the king of England had granted the merchants of
+the island of Gothland free trade privileges. Birger was a great and
+sound legislator, although it is not known with certainty how many
+of the judicial reforms accredited to him originated in these days.
+He made the law that sister should have equal share of inheritance
+with brother, and the laws of sanctity of home, Church, Thing and
+woman, which formed the kernel of a set of laws, later called _Edsoere_
+(Pledged oath), which every crowned king and his foremost men must
+pledge themselves to uphold. He tried to make away with the ordeal
+of walking on, or the handling of, iron as a legal testimony of
+guiltlessness. Further, he prohibited the custom of self-imposed
+thraldom.
+
+The only act of Birger's which has been condemned was his attempt to
+introduce feudalism. His second son, Magnus, was created a duke, and
+received, at Birger's death, Soedermanland, with the castle of Nykoeping
+as a duchy. This gave rise to much strife and many conflicts within
+the new royal branch of the Folkungs, and endangered the unity of
+the kingdom. Birger, the last jarl of the realm, was the first real
+statesman of Sweden, whose stern intellect and integrity of character
+won for his country an honored position among its neighbors, and for
+himself the admiration of many generations to come. He died in 1266.
+
+The first few years after Birger's death were peaceful. The archbishop's
+seat was removed to the present Upsala, where work was commenced on the
+magnificent cathedral. In 1271 the commercial privileges held by Lubeck
+and Hamburg were also granted to Riga.
+
+Valdemar was a weak and frivolous man, and his licentiousness gave
+his brother Magnus the idea of pushing him aside, and later deprived
+him of the loyalty and respect of his people. The difficulties with
+his brothers ended in open conflict; Magnus and his younger brother
+Eric turned to Denmark and Germany, where they hired an army, King
+Eric Glipping of Denmark helping them with troops on promise of good
+securities. The brothers invaded West Gothland and defeated a Swedish
+army at Hofva, in 1275, while the king with his best troops remained
+inactive at Tiveden. Valdemar fled to Norway, bringing his son Eric
+with him. Venturing back into Vermland, he was captured and brought
+before Duke Magnus. Valdemar went so far as to abdicate his throne, but
+the meeting ended in an agreement according to which _Magnus_ was to
+become king of Svealand and Valdemar to keep Gothaland. Eric was made a
+duke, but died in the same year. Magnus was crowned at Upsala in 1276.
+
+King Valdemar did not long remain content with the new state of things.
+One month after Magnus's coronation he arranged a meeting with him at
+Loedoese, over which King Magnus Lagaboete of Norway presided, but without
+being able to effect an agreement between the brothers. Valdemar now
+turned to King Eric of Denmark, and won an ally in him because Magnus
+had neglected to fulfil his promises. Magnus gained a supporter in Duke
+Gerhard I. of Holstein, whose daughter Helvig he married in November,
+1276.
+
+With the year 1277 war commences between Sweden and Denmark. Magnus
+invades Halland and Scania, while Valdemar, with a Danish army, enters
+Smaland, burning the town of Vexio. With King Eric, Valdemar enters
+West Gothland, capturing Skara. At last the Danes are defeated at
+Ettak. Early in 1278 peace is made at Laholm, Magnus promising to
+pay his debt to Eric, leaving the castle of Loedoese as security. Each
+promises not to shelter the rebels against the other. Valdemar lost his
+cause and had to give up Gothaland and his royal title, keeping only
+his inherited estates. On account of his scandalous living, the nobles
+insisted upon his imprisonment, and ten years after his abdication he
+was placed in custody at the castle of Nykoeping. He survived all his
+brothers, dying in 1302. His son Eric was imprisoned at the castle of
+Stockholm, receiving good treatment like his father. When his cousin
+Birger was crowned, in 1302, he was set free, spending the rest of his
+life in Sweden as a private citizen. During Magnus Ericsson's minority
+he was a member of the king's council. When Magnus was sole occupant of
+the throne he took the title of "King of the Swedes and Goths," which,
+occasionally used before, henceforward became the customary one.
+
+A revolt against King Magnus took place shortly after the meeting
+at Laholm. Some of the nobles were dissatisfied with the favoritism
+shown foreigners, a complaint which was only too often justifiable,
+and forever repeated, in the course of centuries, against the
+Swedish monarchs. Count Gerhard of Holstein was imprisoned, and the
+Danish knight, Ingemar, killed. The king invited the rebels to him
+at G�llqvist, where he in an unexpected way made them prisoners, and
+had them beheaded, in August, 1280, confiscating their property. This
+incident is characteristic of the time, but there is no other authority
+for it than the Chronicle. The reign of Magnus was comparatively short,
+but a happy and glorious one. The relations with the island of Gothland
+were made closer and more intimate, although the proud independence of
+its inhabitants remained largely intact. They were to pay increased
+scat, but continued their government without royal officials. The Guts
+were of Swedish origin, and their island formed since the ninth century
+a part of Sweden, but their isolated position and great commercial
+activity made them almost independent. About the year 1000 they seek
+for themselves protection from the Swedish king, and after their
+baptism they turn to the bishop of Linkoeping for spiritual guidance.
+Thanks to its position, halfway between Germany, Russia and Sweden,
+Gothland gives rise to the most important commercial centre of Northern
+Europe after Lubeck. The inhabitants of Visby were Germans, to a great
+extent, and their conflicts with the rural population were frequent.
+King Magnus appears as an arbitrator in such cases with an authority
+great enough to impose his conditions. In spite of the inimical
+relations between Denmark and Norway, Magnus held peace with both.
+
+As a legislator Magnus was even more important than his father, shaping
+and reshaping laws which furthered the development of the country
+and wielding an influence upon its jurisdiction reaching down to the
+present day. At a meeting of nobles at Alnsnoe, in 1280, King Magnus
+gave solemn pledge to the so-called Edsoere-laws of his father, and
+made the nobility into a privileged class. All the men surrounding him
+and his brother Bengt (made duke of Finland), and on their estates,
+together with the trusted men in the service of a bishop, were freed
+from paying taxes to the king. The same privilege was extended "to
+all men who served with a horse, whosoever they serve." The exemption
+from taxes did not include those due the church or community, but only
+those due the king. The horse service (_ross_ = later _rusttjenst_)
+meant to provide for a cavalry force of iron-clad men for military
+service, according to the demands of the time. The nobles saw to it
+that this privilege was made permanent even after they had discontinued
+the horse service, and that others were added to it. A law prohibiting
+_voldg�stning_, the custom of travellers of taking by violence, or
+without compensation, food and comfort from the rural population, was
+also made at Alnsnoe, and won for King Magnus the rustic but beautiful
+surname of _Ladulas_ (Barn-lock). "For he wished to place such locks on
+the peasant's barn, that no one should dare enter but at the will of
+the owner," wrote Olaus Petri, the historian and reformer. An official
+was placed in every country town to see to the traveller's comfort, and
+to his payment for it. At a meeting in Skenninge, in 1285, a law about
+_konungafrid_ (royal sanctity) was made in order to prevent strife
+among the nobles and to make away with the ancient evil of revenge for
+bloodshed. This period of royal sanctity, when between men of the most
+strained relations peace should reign, commenced a fortnight after the
+king's arrival had been announced at the Thing and lasted until he had
+by letter informed it of his departure out of the province. The one
+who abused this sanctity, or only carried weapons, was exiled and his
+property confiscated. Secret societies among the nobles were prohibited.
+
+Magnus was not only a great legislator, but saw to it that his laws
+were not broken. Personally he loved splendor and dignity, another
+trait through which he won the favor of the Swedes, who in all times
+have been fond of seeing their highest representatives surround
+themselves with impressive luxury and wealth. Magnus was in this
+respect the first medi�val monarch of Sweden, who kept a brilliant
+court, but at the same time was the pious and obedient son of the
+Church. He augmented the ecclesiastical privileges and founded several
+convents. In one of these, St. Clara of Stockholm, he installed his
+daughter Rikissa. Upon his death, which deplorable event took place
+in the island of Visingsoe, December 18, 1290, he was buried in the
+Franciscan convent church (the Riddarholm's) in Stockholm, according
+to his own wish. He was the first monarch to be entombed in this the
+present Pantheon of Sweden. Three sons survived him, Birger, Eric and
+Valdemar.
+
+During the reign of Magnus, the development of medi�val institutions
+took rapid strides. This is noticeable also in the offices of those
+who surround the king. In the place of the jarl have been set two new
+dignitaries the _drotsete_ and _marsk_, of the king, "the seater of
+the retinue" and "marechal" or "servant of the horse," respectively.
+Circumstances heightened the importance of these offices and changed
+them from court into state positions, the president of the state
+council and the commander of the army. The _kansler_ (chancellor),
+often a bishop, is another important royal office. The king's council,
+consisting of bishops, knights and men of social standing, surrounds
+the monarch at his command and according to his selection, the
+archbishop being the only ex-officio member. Important affairs of State
+and Church are decided on at the meetings of nobles, _herredagar_,
+no one taking part who is not asked, or not agreeable to the king.
+These meetings later developed into _riksdagar_, at which all classes
+of the people were represented. Taxes were collected for the king by
+bailiffs, who in compensation received fiefs, sometimes consisting only
+of certain estates, in other instances as much as a whole province
+or district. The right of taxation belonged to the people. Only in
+extraordinary cases the king was allowed to impose additional taxes,
+although such were sometimes imposed wrongfully, in spite of a law
+stipulated by King Magnus Barn-Lock.
+
+_Birger_ succeeded his father Magnus. He was only ten years of age,
+but his father had placed by his side a man who was to reign during
+his minority. Marsk _Tyrgils Knutsson_ was the second of the great
+uncrowned rulers of whom Sweden was destined to receive a number
+almost as large as that of illustrious monarchs. Tyrgils Knutsson
+followed out the policy of peace and progress which Birger Jarl had
+commenced and King Magnus continued, making in all the happiest era of
+the Middle Ages. To Birger Jarl's conquest of Tavastland in Finland,
+Tyrgils added that of Carelia. Two expeditions were sent to Carelia,
+in 1293 and 1299, whose savage inhabitants were converted and made
+Swedish subjects. Viborg was built and formed a stronghold for further
+operations, while Landskrona, another fortified place, erected by
+Tyrgils, not far from the site of the present St. Petersburg, was soon
+lost to the Russians. Through the conquest of Carelia, better times
+commenced for the Church of Finland, whose bishopric, in 1300, was
+moved to Abo.
+
+The legislative work of his great predecessors was continued by
+Tyrgils, who made possible the union of the various "lands" of Upland
+into one judicial district. The first justice was Birger Persson, who
+was at the head of the work of preparing a common law for the whole
+province (in 1296). Neutrality was preserved during the conflicts
+between Norway and Denmark. King Eric Menved of Denmark was, in 1296,
+married to King Birger's sister, the pious Princess Ingeborg. In 1298
+Birger was married to Eric's sister Margaret in Stockholm, over the
+lavish splendor of which event the poet of the Chronicle goes into
+ecstasies of delight and felicitous description. Both these unions were
+prearranged by King Magnus, and the princess Margaret had been educated
+in Sweden for the purpose of becoming its queen.
+
+The king was now of age, but Marsk Tyrgils continued for several
+years at the helm. His relations to the Church show what a wise and
+vigorous statesman he was. When in the name of the king the privileges
+to the Church were once more granted, as by his predecessor, Tyrgils
+made the important exceptions that the Church should fulfil for its
+possessions the same military duty as all others in the country,
+and that certain large fines should be reserved for the king. The
+ecclesiastics took quietly to these restrictions at first, but soon an
+open conflict ensued. Another and greater one arose between the king
+and his brothers, Eric, duke of Sweden, and Valdemar, duke of Finland.
+It resembles very much the conflict between their uncle Valdemar and
+his brothers. In both cases there was a weak and deceitful king who
+was inferior, if not in wretchedness, at least in courage, to one of
+the brothers. After the first conflict was ended, the dukes selected
+Marsk Tyrgils for their prey. In March, 1305, Tyrgils saw the king
+grant to the Church the important privileges held back until then. In
+December of the same year the king and his brothers came upon Tyrgils
+unprepared. He was imprisoned, and in a shameful manner dragged to
+Stockholm, travelling night and day through the cold of winter,
+probably by some fraudulent legal process found guilty of treason, and
+beheaded, February 10, 1236. As a climax to this foul political murder,
+Tyrgils Knutsson was buried on the place of execution. Later, his body
+was removed to the church of Riddarholm and placed at the side of King
+Magnus, whose son he had served so faithfully.
+
+The conflict between the royal brothers burst into flame again,
+revealing some of the darkest and most shocking scenes of deceit,
+treachery and villany found in Swedish history. The strife commenced
+in April, 1304, for the first time, and continued, with few and short
+intermissions, until the autumn of 1318, with broken oaths and pledges,
+which were renewed and broken again, alliances and royal betrothals
+formed, ended and renewed, kingdoms and duchies divided and redivided,
+endless intrigues, rebellion and mutual invasions. The kings of Norway
+and Denmark, with their armies, and several German princes and hired
+troops, became actors in this bloody tragedy, which ended in the
+annihilation of the principals. The most dramatic incidents are known
+as "the Play at Hotuna" and "the Feast of Nykoeping," both taking place
+during the short intervals of peace. The former was enacted September
+29, 1306, when the king invited his brothers to him at Hotuna in
+Upland. They accepted the invitation, only to carry the king and
+queen away as captives, forcing the former to give over to them his
+kingdom and his power, only leaving him the royal title. "The Feast at
+Nykoeping" was held the night between December 10 and 11, 1317. The king
+and queen invited the dukes to the castle, seized them in the night and
+threw them into a dungeon, where they both perished after six months of
+hunger and neglect. Birger did not derive any benefit from his fearful
+crime. The whole country rose against him and he died, after several
+years of exile, in 1321. Birger has generally been held forth as the
+responsible party in the crimes and evils of the conflict, but his
+brothers seem to have been guilty in about the same degree. Duke Eric
+was one of the most brilliantly gifted princes of his age, and jealousy
+on the part of the king was the spark that kindled the fire. But the
+bad example set by their father of depriving an older brother of his
+throne, and the great possessions and independence of the dukes, were
+the underlying causes. The destruction of both the contending parties
+was an unexpected solution and a great gain for Sweden, whose fate
+appeared sinister, with the prospect of dismemberment or dissolution,
+the dukes holding their vast possessions as heirlooms.
+
+During the conflict Norway had sided with the dukes, Denmark with the
+king. Duke Eric was married to Ingeborg, only child of King Hakon of
+Norway, and Duke Valdemar to his niece of the same name. _Mattias
+Kettilmundsson_ was, in June, 1318, elected drotsete and regent. He led
+an army against Denmark in the interests of the duchesses, invading
+Scania and defeating the Danes near Hessleholm. November 11th of the
+same year peace was made in Roeskilde between the kings, Eric and
+Birger, on one side, and King Hakon and the heirs of the dukes, on the
+other. May 8, 1319, King Hakon died, and _Magnus Ericsson_, the young
+son of Duke Eric, inherited the crown of Norway, and July 8th of the
+same year he was elected king of Sweden at Mora in Upland.
+
+For the attainment of this end Magnus's mother, Duchess Ingeborg, and
+seven Swedish councillors had worked with great activity. They had
+taken part in shaping the first Act of Union of the North in June,
+1319, and from Oslo, in Norway, hastened to have Magnus elected at
+the Stone of Mora, where the Swedish kings since time immemorial were
+nominated. The Act of Union stipulated that the two kingdoms were to
+remain perfectly independent, the king to sojourn an equally long part
+of the year in each, with no official of either country to accompany
+him further than to the frontier. In their foreign relations the
+countries were to be independent, but to support each other in case of
+war. The king was the only tie to bind them together.
+
+There was another Magnus whose candidacy was spoiled by this union.
+He was the son of King Birger, already, as a child, chosen king of
+Sweden in succession to his father. Magnus Birgersson, a prisoner
+at Stockholm, was beheaded in 1320, to make safe the reign of his
+more fortunate cousin. King Magnus was only three years old, and
+Drotsete Mattias Kettilmundsson presided over the government during
+his minority, the nobles of the state council having great power and
+influence. Both in Sweden and Norway the nobility had by this time
+attained a supremacy which was oppressive both to the king and the
+people, not so much through their privileges as through the liberties
+they took. Their continual feuds between themselves disturbed the peace
+of the country.
+
+In 1332, King Magnus took charge of the government. He was a ruler
+of a benign and good disposition toward the common people, whose
+interests he always furthered. But he lacked strength of character and
+was not able to control the obnoxious nobles. The provinces of Scania
+and Bleking suffered greatly under Danish rule, which was changed
+into German oppression when handed over to the counts of Holstein as
+security for a loan. The people of Scania rose in revolt and asked for
+protection from King Magnus. At a meeting in Kalmar (in 1332) both
+provinces were united to Sweden. But the king had to pay heavy amounts
+in settlement, which were increased when Halland was procured in a
+similar way.
+
+King Magnus was, at his height of power, one of the mightiest monarchs
+of Europe, having under his rule the entire Scandinavian peninsula and
+Finland, a realm stretching from the Sound at Elsinore to the Polar
+Sea, from the river Neva to Iceland and Greenland. In 1335 King Magnus
+rode his "Eriksgata," when he announced that no Christian within his
+realm should remain a thrall, thus practically abolishing the remnants
+of slavery. In the following year he was crowned with his queen,
+Blanche of Namur.
+
+Magnus took great interest in legislation. During his minority the
+provincial laws were revised. The king himself accomplished the great
+and noble task of having these united into a state law (_landslag_),
+appointing a committee of three justices to do the work. The clergy was
+consulted, but refused to have ecclesiastical laws made for the whole
+kingdom. The state law was first considered in 1347, and was put in
+practice in 1352, being both a digest and an elaboration of the ancient
+provincial laws. In many an instance of foreign or domestic conflicts,
+the people, through its enforcement, found help and shelter from the
+national spirit of this law.
+
+To the financial difficulties which beset the reign of King Magnus and
+made his life a burden the great plague was added. "The Black Death,"
+in 1350, came from England to Norway and spread with great rapidity and
+the most disastrous consequences throughout the North. In certain parts
+of Sweden one-third of the population perished, in other parts even a
+greater percentage, the plague raging with equal violence throughout
+all classes of society. King Magnus had for a long time contemplated
+revenge against the invasions made by the Russians into Carelia. He
+undertook an expedition, under the pretext of a crusade, which ended
+badly, the Swedish fleet being shut in by the Russians and saved only
+by means of digging a canal. The king was severely criticised for
+this crusade, which was construed as a punishment for his sins, and,
+besides, largely increased his debts. The pope was among his creditors,
+who, upon non-payment, placed Magnus under his ban.
+
+The union with Norway was not a happy one. As a minor, Magnus dwelt
+most of the time in Norway, but later principally in Sweden. This
+was contrary to the Act of Union, the state of things in Norway,
+furthermore, necessitating the almost continual presence of the king.
+For this reason his son, _Hakon_, was chosen king of Norway, in 1343,
+Magnus remaining in power until Hakon became of age, and his older son,
+_Eric_, chosen king, or heir-apparent, of Sweden, in 1344. It appears
+that King Magnus was in favor of this separation and had preconceived
+it in giving to his older son the Swedish name of Eric and to the
+younger the Norwegian name of Hakon, both equally characteristic of
+the royal lines of the respective countries. The two young kings caused
+their father considerable annoyance; but, upon the early death of Eric,
+Hakon entered more into harmony with King Magnus. Valdemar Atterdag,
+the crafty and enterprising king of Denmark, took an active part in the
+conflicts, pretending to support Magnus, while simultaneously depriving
+him of Scania, Halland and Bleking, which he captured almost without
+resistance. He landed in the island of Gothland, plundering Visby in a
+treacherous way. Upon his departure, his ships perished in a storm, the
+plundered treasures going down with these, the king himself escaping
+with difficulty. Valdemar arranged a marriage between his little
+daughter Margaret and King Hakon of Norway. Several Swedish nobles of
+great influence considered the treachery and impudence of Valdemar
+and the weakness of Magnus as going too far. They offered the Swedish
+crown to Albrecht, the son of King Magnus's sister Euphemia. The offer
+was accepted by Duke Albrecht of Mecklenburg, the father of the young
+Albrecht, in behalf of his son. He made a sudden assault upon Stockholm
+in 1363, capturing it. At the Stone of Mora, Albrecht the Younger was
+chosen king of Sweden. Magnus was defeated and made a prisoner at
+Enkoeping.
+
+King Magnus was taken to Stockholm and there imprisoned for some time,
+heavily laden with chains. King Valdemar deserted his cause, but the
+common people of Svealand, with whom Magnus had always been exceedingly
+popular, rose in order to free him. Soon King Hakon reached the
+very gates of Stockholm with a Norwegian army, whereupon Magnus was
+released. But he had to abdicate his throne, leaving for Norway, where
+he died, through an accident, in 1374.
+
+_Albrecht_ was the rightful king of Sweden. At the death of Eric he
+became heir-apparent to the Swedish throne, but for having sped on
+the course of events in his own interest, neither he nor his father
+acquired any popularity. They surrounded themselves by a great number
+of Germans, who, through their licentiousness and overbearing manner,
+enraged the people. The country was practically in the hands of a few
+Swedish nobles, among whom the drotsete, Bo Jonsson Grip, through his
+high office and his immense wealth, bore the supremacy. Bo Jonsson
+is said to have been the wealthiest man who ever lived in the North,
+his possessions, fiefs and castles being of an astounding number, the
+most famous among the latter being Gripsholm in the Lake M�lar. He
+loaned money to the king against new castles and fiefs in security,
+and held Albrecht in the most humiliating relation of dependence.
+His enemies he persecuted without mercy, killing one before the high
+altar in the Franciscan church of Stockholm. When Bo Jonsson died, in
+1386, the king tried to better conditions by confiscating to the crown
+some of his possessions. But he met with opposition from the nobles,
+who claimed that he did so only to enrich his German favorites. The
+king was helpless against his councillors, to whom he had handed over
+all his power. They were in possession of all the fortified castles,
+and if one of them died, the king had no right to select a successor
+without their permission. The executors of Bo Jonsson's will ended by
+offering the crown to Margaret, Valdemar's daughter, and queen-dowager
+of Norway. She accepted, promising the nobles that they should remain
+in undisturbed enjoyment of their great privileges. Margaret sent
+an army into West Gothland, consisting of men from all three of
+the Scandinavian countries, under the command of the Swede, Eric
+Kettilsson. King Albrecht met with an army to a great extent composed
+of German troops, and was defeated and made a prisoner at Falkoeping,
+February 24, 1389. Albrecht was imprisoned at Lindholm, in Scania, for
+seven years, later returning to Mecklenburg.
+
+To the Folkung period belongs one of the most remarkable and renowned
+of Swedish women, herself, on her mother's side, a Folkung, _St.
+Birgitta_, the daughter of the legislator and first justice of Upland,
+Birger Persson. Her parents were both pious and devoted to ascetic
+practices. As a child she had visions, the holy Mary appearing to her.
+When thirteen years of age she was married to Ulf Gumundsson, later
+justice of Nerike, also a pious man, with whom she made a pilgrimage
+to Spain. Birgitta lost her husband shortly afterward. At the Swedish
+court, where she was the highest functionary of Queen Blanche, she
+had seen political life at close range, gathering a deep and strong
+indignation against the mighty and powerful in the world. Her husband's
+death moved her deeply, and the religious mysticism of her youth now
+burst forth with increased strength, her visions becoming numerous and
+important. That she believed in them herself there is no doubt, and
+she made the world believe her. At first she hurled admonitions and
+curses against King Magnus and his court; but the wretchedness of the
+whole world attracted her to its spiritual centre, Rome, where she
+lived for twenty-three years in continual and open protest against
+the vices of the popes and priests. She died in Rome, in 1373, at
+the age of seventy, after a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, seeing the two
+great ambitions of her life fulfilled: the pope returning to Rome from
+Avignon, and her creation, the order of St. Salvator, sanctioned by
+the pope. Birgitta was canonized by the pope in 1391, through the
+influence of Queen Margaret.
+
+Birgitta was the greatest political-poetic genius of the medi�val
+North. Her revelations fill eight volumes. She wrote them in Swedish,
+and had a priest translate them into Latin. Some of her original
+Swedish work is preserved. Birgitta appears to have thought in artistic
+images, and these images are of plastic form, often of consummate
+beauty, sometimes witty, sometimes avowedly comic, always effective.
+The melancholy charm of Sweden's nature suffuses all her writings and
+renders to her peculiar medi�val mysticism a national temperament. From
+Swedish sceneries and animal life she borrows her most beautiful images.
+
+St. Birgitta has by some been considered as a reformer before Luther,
+but not quite correctly. Luther reformed the institutions; Birgitta
+aimed at reforming their upholders, and used against the pope and the
+priests a language almost as strong as Luther's. Some of her ideas
+were not strictly in harmony with the Catholic dogmas; she insisted on
+a close personal union with God, without the mediation of priests or
+saints, fought for a universal knowledge of the Bible and the preaching
+of the Gospel in the popular vernaculars, and considered the sale of
+indulgences a mortal sin. Four hundred and seventy convents of her
+order, in which men and women were to collaborate for the instruction
+and spiritual guidance of the people, were after her death founded in
+the Scandinavian countries, Germany, Esthonia, Poland, Italy and the
+Netherlands, one existing in England up to the time of Elizabeth. The
+mother institution at Vadstena, in East Gothland, was of the greatest
+importance to the cultural development of Sweden and the North. One
+of the greatest libraries of the Middle Ages was reared, and the first
+book-printing establishment of Sweden founded there in 1490. Within
+its walls a considerable literary activity prevailed, the religious
+literature of the time being copied, or translated into Swedish,
+and many original works written. The Swedish language, used by the
+Birgittine school of writers, tried, by approaching Danish forms, to
+establish a common literary language in the North, the Norwegian having
+approached the Swedish during the time of the close relations between
+the courts of the two countries. These efforts, for a time furthered by
+political relations, were unfortunately soon to be abandoned forever.
+
+Birgitta was a great genius in fetters. Her rare gifts were kept back
+in their development through the idiosyncrasies of her period. She was
+of an indomitable, aristocratic spirit, always remaining the noblewoman
+to whom it was natural to speak the truth to the princes of State and
+Church, because she considered herself their equal through the best
+blood of the North, of which she had her share. This religious mystic
+was a true child of her aristocratic age, which gave to Sweden two
+parallel lines, sometimes identical, of great legislators and weak and
+indulgent princes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+_Unionism versus Patriotism--Margaret, Engelbrekt and Charles Knutsson_
+
+
+Queen Margaret, the successor of Albrecht, for the first time in
+history united the three Scandinavian countries and their dependencies
+under one rule. Born in a prison in which King Valdemar of Denmark had
+placed his consort, Queen Hedvig, there remained in the character of
+Margaret something of the rigor and chill of her uncomely birthplace.
+When she was seven, she was engaged to King Hakon of Norway, and
+married to him at eleven years of age. In Norway, her education
+was continued for several years after her marriage under the stern
+supervision of Dame Martha, a daughter of St. Birgitta, who often
+applied corporal punishment to the young queen. Margaret early gave
+evidence of self-control and power of reflection, and her mind
+developed at the expense of her heart. Her son Olaf became king of
+Denmark upon Valdemar's death, in 1375, and king of Norway upon that of
+Hakon, in 1380. Upon his death, in 1387, Margaret succeeded him, and
+two years later laid Sweden under her sceptre.
+
+Albrecht was captured, but the Germans still were in possession of
+several Swedish strongholds. These yielded to Margaret, one after
+the other, except Stockholm. In the capital, the German influx of
+soldiers and merchants had made the foreign population exceedingly
+large. They now acted as oppressors. A secret league was formed which
+captured a great number of prominent Swedish citizens, who were cruelly
+tortured with wooden saws and then thrown into an old shed on the
+islet of K�pplingeholm. The shed was ignited and the poor prisoners
+suffered a terrible death. German freebooters, especially the Vitalen
+or Victuallen Brotherhood, who provided the fortress of Stockholm with
+victuals, were plundering in the Baltic and Lake M�lar, and were the
+allies of the Germans of Stockholm. Margaret was powerless against
+them until she entered into an alliance with the Hanseatic towns. This
+ended the war; Stockholm surrendered and peace was made, in 1395.
+The plunders by sea-rovers in the Baltic were put an end to during
+Margaret's reign, but cost heroic efforts and much money, while the
+influence of the Hansa grew into menacing proportions.
+
+Margaret was anxious to place the dynasty of the North firmly within
+her line of descent. In 1389, she selected her sister's grandson,
+Eric of Pomerania, then six years old, her successor, and he was thus
+proclaimed in Norway. In 1395, Eric was chosen king of Denmark and,
+in 1396, of Sweden. At his Swedish coronation in Kalmar, in 1397,
+Queen Margaret, who remained at his side as the real ruler, had the
+outline drawn of an _Act of Union_, which should forever unite the
+three Scandinavian kingdoms under one ruler. Each country was to
+preserve its constitution, laws and traditions unmolested, but they
+were to support each other in times of war. When a king was to be
+chosen, representatives of equal numbers from each country were to
+meet in Halmstad, the sons of kings to be favored by choice. This Act
+of Union was never carried into effect, according to legal forms. The
+sketch or outline of it, such as it is still preserved, was signed by
+representatives of the three countries, although not in equal numbers;
+but why Queen Margaret never allowed it to be enlarged into a legally
+binding document is not known. Her favorite idea was therein embodied,
+and she appeared to have an all-powerful influence over those necessary
+to carry it through.
+
+Margaret made it her object to strengthen the crown and reduce the
+power of the nobles. She cared naught about keeping her promises to the
+latter, confiscating their castles and possessions, and annulling their
+privileges. When they complained, reminding her of her promises in her
+letters to them, she replied: "Keep my letters; I shall certainly keep
+your castles." All nobles created by Albrecht were entirely deprived
+of their privileges if they could not prove their due qualifications.
+The majority of forts erected during the war were pulled down. No taxes
+were longer imposed, except through written order of the government.
+These reforms were all rigorously carried out, according to the
+"Restitution of Nykoeping" of 1396. Margaret succeeded in a remarkable
+way in reducing to normal proportions the power and influence of the
+Swedish nobility. The nobles, who were all-powerful and absolutely
+unyielding in Albrecht's days, bowed to her gracefully and received
+meekly her severe conditions. An explanation can be found in the fact
+that they had no leader of authority and power among them, after the
+death of Bo Jonsson Grip. Further, Margaret was careful not to fill the
+important offices of drotsete and marsk, when vacant, thus making the
+personal presence and interference of the sovereign necessary on all
+important occasions.
+
+The love of the Swedish people should have been Margaret's reward
+for her abolition of aristocratic oppression, if she had not been
+in a position which necessitated the imposition of heavy taxes. The
+existence of the common people was made weary and troublesome through
+the payment of the "queen's tax," the "stake tax" on each hearth, the
+"rump tax" on each head of cattle, and, worst of all, the "Gothland's
+release." Bailiffs, often of foreign birth, collected these taxes
+with great severity. When the queen became aware of the complaints
+against her and her bailiffs, she asked in a letter to the archbishop
+that the people would forgive her in God's name. "Some of it one has
+not been able to better; some we and they might well have bettered,
+although what is done is done." Without doubt, there was due reason
+for the heavy taxes in the unsettled relations with other countries
+which existed during Margaret's reign; the support of the Hansa and a
+war with Holstein, commenced by King Eric, were expensive. The island
+of Gothland had been captured by the so-called German Order in the
+last days of Albrecht's reign. When the island was redeemed through
+the payment of Swedish money, Margaret made the mistake of installing
+there a Danish bailiff, and it thus for a long time remained a Danish
+province. Margaret believed in the Union and counted no Scandinavian
+a foreigner in either country. But it was contrary to Swedish law to
+install foreigners as bailiffs and vassals, and as she appointed a
+great number of Danes to Swedish fiefs, and never a Swede to Danish
+positions of the same or equal importance, the Swedish complaints, on
+this point, were justified.
+
+Margaret was as severe toward the ecclesiastics as toward the nobles.
+But when she noticed the forebodings of powerful resistance, she made
+important concessions. She was anxious to observe religious practices,
+joining the convent of Vadstena as a "worldly sister," kissing the
+hands of all the monks and nuns on that occasion. She took interest in
+the conversion of the Laps, sending a baptized woman of their race, by
+the name of Margaret, to preach the Gospel among them.
+
+The war with Holstein concerning the possession of Schleswig had been
+brought to an armistice, and the queen sailed to Flensburg to conduct
+further negotiations. While still on board of her ship, death surprised
+her, in 1412.
+
+Margaret has been called the Semiramis of the North and well deserves
+her widespread fame. During her reign, the Northern countries, through
+her wisdom and strength, enjoyed a degree of order which they missed
+both before and after. She put an end to the foreign influence which
+had governed Sweden. Yet her rule was a disappointment, and the Union
+also. She paved the way for a new foreign influence, by making a
+German prince her successor and by leaning too much on the Hansa. The
+aristocratic oppression was crushed by her, but she introduced the
+oppression through royal bailiffs. She promised to preserve the old
+territory of Sweden unmolested, but placed the island of Gothland
+under Denmark. The Union of which Queen Margaret was the champion her
+successors were not able to grasp or uphold in the spirit of her good
+intentions. To Sweden it came in an inauspicious time when it was not
+fit to receive it. Foreign oppression had irritated the people to
+resistance, and discontent was to give life to patriotism. Sweden had
+recently developed into one joint constitutional body, the various
+provinces giving up their ancient laws for a state law, in which
+the old individual traits were gathered and recognized. We know how
+Sweden was settled, not by various tribes, but by pioneers who, from
+the old home of culture, Scania, penetrated to the wilderness above,
+settling one district after the other, which, one by one, developed
+into provinces, little states by themselves, later united into one
+realm with a common king. One by one these provinces had taken the
+lead in the political and cultural development, often the youngest
+before the oldest. Thus the Swedes, a younger branch of the Gauts, gave
+their name to the country and furnished the rulers, the Guts of the
+island of Gothland securing the commercial supremacy of the sea, and
+the Rus of the outskirts of Upland founding the Russian empire. Now it
+fell upon Dalecarlia, the most recently settled of Swedish provinces,
+to save freedom and independence to a newly regenerated state which
+was awakening to the consciousness of its solidarity of interests,
+aspirations and duties. From Dalecarlia came the first great political
+leader. From there he and his later successors received their chief
+support.
+
+_Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson_ is the earliest and greatest of the
+patriotic heroes of Swedish history. To the glory of his deeds and the
+noble simplicity of his character the death of a martyr gives added
+lustre. Engelbrekt was born at Kopparberg, in the mining district of
+Dalecarlia, where there were many German settlers. Possibly his early
+ancestors were among them; but for three generations at least they had
+been native-born Swedes, Engelbrekt's father, as he himself, belonging
+to the Swedish nobility, although not of the influential families.
+Engelbrekt had received the chivalric education of his time at the
+courts of the great nobles, being next in rank to a knight, _v�pnare_
+(squire), at the opening of his career. He was small of stature,
+but eloquent, courageous and of a lofty mind. The integrity of his
+character was absolute; his personal necessities were few and plain.
+
+King Eric was a highly educated and refined man, not without a certain
+ability, but entirely without discernment and patience for the various
+demands and conditions of the countries over which he was set to rule.
+His foreign bailiffs in Sweden, mostly Danes, with a fair sprinkling
+of Germans and Italians, were still less in sympathy with his Swedish
+subjects. They tried to manage them as they did the Danes and the
+inhabitants of more southern countries, for centuries accustomed to
+slavery, ignorant of the ancient spirit of independence of the Swedish
+yeomanry, abated but not suppressed. When oppression no longer kept
+within reasonable bounds, the Swedish patience came to an end, and
+first in the youngest and most solitary parts of the country.
+
+The most hated of Danish bailiffs was Joesse Ericsson, of Westmanland
+and Dalecarlia. After having confiscated the horses of the peasants,
+he is said to have harnessed the men to plows and the women to
+grain-loads, once suffocating five peasants. Engelbrekt felt compassion
+for the misery of the suffering people and accepted the commission to
+seek the king, to make complaints in their behalf. He appeared before
+King Eric in Denmark, demanding punishment of the cruel bailiff and
+offering to go into prison or surrender his life if not speaking the
+truth, as was the custom of the time. The king gave him a letter to
+the Swedish council of state, demanding an inquiry which was promptly
+made. When Engelbrekt for a second time appeared with the corroboration
+of his statements from the Swedish councillors, the king sent him away
+in a fit of impatient rage. Upon his return, the Dalecarlians rose in
+a body, selecting Engelbrekt as their leader and marching south to
+Westeros. The councillors met and promised to have justice done in
+the case. But things remained the same until the following spring, in
+1434. At midsummer the Dalecarlians commenced operations. The fort of
+Borgan�s and the castle of Koeping were destroyed. Engelbrekt asked the
+people of Westmanland to join him, which they did to a man, the nobles
+also joining upon evidence of the determination of the popular leader.
+In Upsala, Engelbrekt found the people of Upland ready to join, and he
+made clear to the great multitudes the mission he had undertaken. He
+now felt strong enough to take a hand in the affairs of state; with
+the consent of the leading nobles reducing the taxes by one-third.
+Engelbrekt called upon a young, high-spirited nobleman, Eric Puke,
+to bring Norrland to revolt and destroy the forts of that district,
+which commissions Puke fulfilled to the letter, thereupon reinforcing
+Engelbrekt with his men. In the meantime, the people of western
+Soedermanland rose by their own determination, destroying Gripsholm;
+the bailiff of the castle escaping with his treasures in boats over
+Lake M�lar. In Vermland and Dal the people followed these examples
+of revolt. The commander of the Stockholm fortress agreed upon an
+armistice, other castles surrendering or promising to surrender.
+
+Engelbrekt met the council of state at Vadstena, escorted by 1,000 men
+of his best troops. Without fear or haughtiness, he pleaded the cause
+of his country, advising the councillors in firm and eloquent words
+to see to it that the foreign oppression came to an end. The council
+hesitated, Bishop Knut of Linkoeping stating that the oath to the king
+could not be broken. To this Engelbrekt answered that the king had
+pledged many oaths but kept none, for which reason the people were
+freed from their oath. Upon a wholesome demonstration of force the
+councillors gave in and dictated a letter in which they broke their
+pledge to King Eric, yet giving as an excuse that they were compelled
+to do so. The revolt had now spread to all parts of the kingdom, at
+least 100,000 being armed to meet the emergency. But so carefully
+and quietly was the work of liberation performed that no harm was
+done in the parts where the peasant armies were moving. After having
+entered Halmstad, Engelbrekt returned to Westeros, where the army was
+scattered, but soon gathered again upon the report that the king with
+a fleet was approaching Stockholm. Upon his arrival, the king found
+Stockholm enclosed by a peasant army and returned to Denmark, forced
+to agree to an armistice. At a meeting in Arboga, Engelbrekt was
+elected regent. This was the first meeting in which representatives
+of the merchant class and the yeomanry took part, being thus the
+first _riksdag_ or parliament composed of the four Estates--noblemen,
+ecclesiastics, burghers, and yeomen.
+
+King Eric promised, upon his return to Stockholm, to govern the country
+according to its laws and through Swedish men, appointing Krister
+Nilsson Vasa drotsete, and Charles Knutsson Bonde marsk. But so badly
+did he keep his promises that he was once more dethroned. The nobles
+hastened to elect Charles Knutsson regent, but through pressure which
+the peasants brought to bear it was agreed that he should share his
+power with Engelbrekt and lead the siege of Stockholm, while the latter
+should free the country from the bailiffs reinstalled by the king.
+
+Upon his second tour through the country, Engelbrekt was seized by
+illness, but being called to Stockholm by an important state affair,
+he started over the lakes thither from OErebro. One evening he stopped
+at an islet in Lake Hielmar for the night. When he saw a boat approach
+with Mons Bengtsson on board he staggered on a crutch down to receive
+him. This man sprang ashore and assaulted Engelbrekt, who tried to ward
+off the blows of the axe with his crutch, but failing to do so he was
+killed on the spot, in April, 1436. The perpetrator of this beastly
+murder was a son of a noble with whom Engelbrekt had been engaged in
+some controversy which he had recently settled to the satisfaction
+of both parties. The murderer escaped; but, although shielded from
+punishment by Marsk Charles Knutsson, he was shunned by everybody, his
+high-born and wealthy relations for several centuries refusing to carry
+the proud family name (Natt och Dag) upon which he had brought shame.
+
+The memory of Engelbrekt is one of the most honored and most beloved in
+Swedish history. He waged the first battle against the oppression which
+foreign intrigues had brought upon his country, and saved from the
+peril of slavery the ancient freedom and independence of the Swedish
+people.
+
+Through a remarkable coincidence, a cousin of Engelbrekt's murderer,
+Nils Bosson, a young follower of the popular hero, who took his
+mother's family name of Sture, was to become the father and grandfather
+of two of the most revered of Engelbrekt's successors; Nils Bosson
+himself being as sympathetic and upright a type of nobleman as any
+time or country has produced.
+
+Charles Knutsson, after Engelbrekt's death, was the most influential
+man in Sweden. But he was a very different man. Belonging to the
+highest aristocracy, he was himself of great wealth, highly talented,
+well read, and a great traveller. He was exceedingly handsome,
+dignified, amiable, eloquent, and possessed a voice of unusual charm
+and strength. But he was a prey to ambition, determined to make his
+way to the throne, but little careful in the selection of his means
+toward that end. He aroused the suspicion and hatred of Eric Puke,
+whom he irritated to revolt only to get him in his power. This noble
+but headstrong man was executed for treason, while Drotsete Krister
+Nilsson, who signed the death-warrant in the interest of Charles,
+himself was persecuted by the latter and deprived of all his fiefs save
+one. Charles showed great severity in punishing the peasants, who were
+Puke's supporters, four of them being burned alive; thus losing the
+popular sympathy, while becoming an object of envy in the eyes of the
+nobles. These recalled King Eric, who was again found impossible and
+soon dethroned also in Denmark.
+
+_Christopher of Bavaria_, a nephew of Eric, was elected to succeed him
+(in 1440) by the nobles of Denmark and Sweden. He was a good-natured
+man, who allowed the aristocrats of Sweden to rule as they pleased,
+only keeping an eye on Charles Knutsson. Christopher died in 1448.
+During his reign a new state law was issued in 1442, called "King
+Christopher's land's law," although the king probably had very little
+to do with its form or stipulations. It offered a few improvements, but
+in general so closely resembled the older state law that the one was
+often mistaken for the other and both remained valid until 1736.
+
+_Charles Knutsson (Charles VIII.)_ returned from Finland, which duchy
+had been held under his supremacy, four months after Christopher's
+death, and was by an overwhelming majority elected king of Sweden.
+Shortly after his coronation at Upsala he was elected king of Norway
+and crowned at Drontheim, in 1449. His reign opened with a lucky
+expedition to the island of Gothland. But in the following year King
+Charles lost both Gothland and Norway to Christian of Denmark, with
+whom the Unionist party of Sweden entered into secret plots against
+the king. Invasions and intrigues followed. Christian invaded Smaland,
+East Gothland and Vermland, to which Charles responded by an invasion
+of Scania, destroying the old town of Lund with nineteen of its twenty
+churches, the cathedral alone being spared. Christian took revenge by
+an invasion of West Gothland, capturing Loedoese. Another Danish army
+marched through East Gothland, but met defeat at Holaveden through an
+onslaught made by Swedish peasants. The valiant Tord Bonde, a cousin
+of King Charles, took the Danes by surprise, recapturing Loedoese. An
+armistice of two years was agreed on, in May, 1453.
+
+In the battle against open and secret enemies things turned out badly
+for King Charles. The best supporter of his cause, his cousin Tord, was
+murdered by a Danish traitor in his service, in 1456, and a new and
+dangerous enemy was encountered in the Church. The king had confiscated
+to the crown a number of estates which the Church had gained in an
+illegal way. While preparing for an expedition to OEland, and having
+instructed the archbishop to gather troops for him, Charles learned
+that this man, Joens Bengtsson Oxenstierna, had turned against him. The
+archbishop deposited his ecclesiastical robe at the high altar of the
+Upsala cathedral and started, sword in hand, with his forces to meet
+the king. Charles tried to surprise him, but was himself caught in a
+trap and met his enemy on the ice of Lake M�lar. The encounter proved
+a defeat to Charles, who in haste stored his treasures in a convent in
+Stockholm and sailed for Dantzic.
+
+_Christian_ of Denmark was called in by the archbishop and chosen king
+of Sweden. Christian was a sagacious ruler, but his great need of
+money, incurred by the redeeming of Schleswig and Holstein, made him
+unpopular. As the easy-going Christopher had been surnamed "Bark-king,"
+on account of dearth experienced in Sweden during his reign, when the
+people had to mix bark with their flour, thus Christian, on account of
+his avidity, was called "The Bottomless Purse." During Christian's war
+with Russia, the archbishop was commissioned to collect the increased
+taxes, but failing to do so, to the full extent demanded, he was
+imprisoned at the command of the king. This caused indignation.
+
+Kettil Karlsson Vasa, a nephew of the archbishop, and the bishop of
+Linkoeping, revolted and defeated the king and his army at Haraker's
+church, in Westmanland, in 1464. The victors then marched on Stockholm.
+The popular opinion of the country demanded the reinstallation of
+King Charles. The peasants wanted him "because Sweden was of old a
+kingdom, not a regent's land or a diocese." King Charles returned in
+the same year, but soon left the throne again on account of a conflict
+with Bishop Kettil. This latter turned to Christian, promising a
+safe return to the crown if he set free the archbishop. Christian
+immediately did so, the worthy bishops commencing operations against
+Charles, who, defeated and forsaken by all, abdicated his throne,
+January 30, 1465. The once upon a time richest man of Sweden was now
+deprived of all, Christian having taken his hidden treasures. He
+retired to Raseborg, a castle in Finland, which after some hesitation
+was granted him. "We have," wrote he, "in such manner departed from
+Sweden, that never longeth us to return thither the third time." He
+also complained of his misery in the following strophe of assonance
+verse:
+
+    While I was lord of Fogelwick
+    Then I was both mighty and rich,
+    But since made the king of Svea land
+    I am a poor and unhappy man.
+
+Great confusion reigned in Sweden during the next two years. Bishop
+Kettil, who styled himself regent, tried to conduct the government
+in common with the archbishop, but the great nobles did their own
+pleasure. At last one of them, Ivar Axelson Tott, who had the island of
+Gothland in fief, joined the party of Charles, marrying his daughter.
+His brother, Eric Axelson, was made regent. Nils Bosson Sture had
+been repeatedly asked to accept this dignity, as also the crown, but
+he refused. He and Sten Sture, of the original Sture family, who led
+the army under Bishop Kettil at Haraker, now made possible the second
+reinstallation of Charles, in 1467, the ambitious archbishop dying in
+the same year. But Charles was old and weary of the vanities of life,
+for which he had made so many sacrifices. It was only the valor and
+strength of the two Stures that made it possible for him to keep the
+crown and to die in the purple, in 1470. He designated Sten Sture as
+his successor at the rudder of state, but warned him not to seek the
+crown. "That ambition," he said, "has crushed my happiness and cost my
+life."
+
+Charles is very sympathetically dealt with in the New Rhymed, or
+Charles Chronicle, probably written by one of his men, who flatters
+him, as did the Old Chronicle the ill-fated Duke Eric. Still the
+Charles Chronicle and its continuations, the Sture Chronicles, are
+very important historic sources of these periods of Unionism versus
+Patriotism, from Margaret to Gustavus Vasa. The less reliable Prose
+Chronicle and the later historic works by Ericus Olai, Johannis Magnus
+and Olaus Petri, also throw light upon them. What all of these have
+in common is a fiery patriotic spirit, entirely lacking in the placid
+and artistic lines of the Old Chronicle as compared to the New. With
+the seeds of patriotism were sowed those of national hatred against a
+foreign foe. That the Dane and not the German was destined to be this
+national enemy was disastrous to the Union of the North, but probably
+a gain for the cultural development of Sweden. This period is rich
+in shorter poems on political men and conditions, all of a strongly
+democratic flavor. Among these the song about his friend Engelbrekt, by
+Bishop Thomas of Strengn�s, occupies a high place, but a still higher
+one the Song of Liberty, by the same high-minded patriot.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+_Unionism versus Patriotism--Uncrowned Kings of the Sture Families_
+
+
+Sten Sture the Elder was chosen regent by the council of state and
+elected by the people at the Riksdag of Arboga, in 1471. For more than
+half a century following upon the reign of Charles VIII., Sweden was
+governed by uncrowned kings, with the intermission of a few years.
+These regents had not any republican ideals in mind, nor were they
+secretly coveting the crown. Their ambition was simply to uphold
+a strong and firm national government by means of which foreign
+lordships could be made impossible, the people enjoy their rights and
+their liberty, and the government increase in power and authority
+at the expense of Church and nobility. The policy laid down by Sten
+Sture the Elder, and strictly adhered to by him and his successors,
+was of the broadly democratic spirit of Engelbrekt. This policy was
+strengthened by the high esteem in which the regents were held. Yet
+their position was a very difficult one, for although enjoying the full
+confidence of the people, they were regarded with envy and suspicion
+by the aristocracy, who never could be persuaded but that these noble
+uncrowned rulers were secretly scheming for obtainance of the royal
+crown.
+
+Sten Sture had the good fortune to inaugurate his reign with a
+glorious victory over King Christian, which put an end to Danish
+invasions during a whole generation. Christian arrived at Stockholm
+with a fine fleet and a magnificent army, taking his position at
+Brunkeberg, close to the north of the capital. Here a long and fierce
+battle was fought, October 10, 1471. Sten Sture commanded a large
+army of peasants, attacking Christian's fortified position from the
+north, supported by Knut Posse, with burgher troops, from the south.
+At the third attack victory was won, Nils Bosson Sture arriving on the
+battle scene with an army of Dalecarlians. King Christian was wounded
+in the mouth; the famous Danish Oriflamme, Dannebrog, was captured,
+being surrounded by five hundred corpses of select Danish knights.
+Through the prestige of the great victory at Brunkeberg, Sten Sture
+managed to give Sweden ten years of undisturbed peace and comfort.
+Encouraged by the victory over the foreign invaders, the city of
+Stockholm took the lead in ridding the towns of undue influence, caused
+by the supremacy of German commerce. The town laws held a stipulation
+that half the number of councillors in each town council should be
+Germans. A petition headed by the burghers of Stockholm and circulated
+through the towns was acted upon, the council of state abolishing by
+law the stipulation in question. Free markets were established in
+the commercial centres Kalmar and Soederkoeping, and a new commercial
+town was founded on the Gotha River, to be called Gothahamn, although
+the name was changed to New Loedoese. In spite of the supremacy of the
+Hanseatic League, commerce was good, the iron mines of Dalecarlia,
+Westmanland, Nerike and Eastern Vermland growing in importance, and
+silver being produced by various mines in Dalecarlia.
+
+Lord Sten gave careful and loving attention to the needs of the
+yeomanry and the common people. He kept an open and watchful eye on
+the bailiffs, and carried out the demands of justice with severity.
+Many farms, desolate and neglected during the times of war, were
+brought under cultivation. Lord Sten made no decision in any matter
+of importance without consulting the yeomen and the burghers, as well
+as the nobles, at _Riksdagar_, the parliamentary nature of which was
+further developed. With a firm hand he held the nobles down to order
+and the requirements of a national democratic policy. The powerful
+brothers Ivar and Eric Tott especially caused him annoyance, the former
+holding the island of Gothland, the latter the duchy of Finland, in
+fief. It came to open hostilities with Ivar Tott who, defeated and
+deprived of his castles, fled to Denmark, taking revenge by turning the
+much contested island over to said power.
+
+Lord Sten was a very pious man, but he held the ecclesiastics under
+strict surveillance on account of their unpatriotic tendencies. But he
+collaborated with them for the establishment of a state university at
+Upsala, in which the archbishop, Jacob Ulfsson, was greatly interested.
+Sanctioned by the pope, the university was opened in 1477, with great
+ceremonies. One of its earliest professors was Ericus Olai, the author
+of the first but rather uncritical work of Swedish history, Chronica
+Regni Gothorum, written in awkward medi�val Latin, but in a style
+attractive through its vivacity. Latin was chiefly used by the learned
+and literary men. The cloisters and the cathedrals had schools where
+the young people were trained for the learned professions, chiefly
+the Church. For a university education, the institutions of Cologne,
+Prague, Leipzig and Bologna, but chiefly Paris, the greatest of them
+all, had been sought. The Swedes had three _collegia_ in Paris, and the
+Scandinavians held there an honored position as scholars, the Swedes
+three times filling the office of rector or president of the Paris
+university, the highest dignity of learning in the world. Ingeborg
+Tott, the wife of Sten Sture, was a great friend of learning, having
+books printed at her expense and collecting a large library in the
+convent of Mariefred, founded by Lord Sten.
+
+The peace of the country was disturbed by a war with Russia. Attacks
+on the castle of Viborg had been made shortly after the battle of
+Brunkeberg, but warded off by Eric Tott, who in return invaded Russian
+territory. After his death the valiant Knut Posse was made commander of
+Viborg. The Russians, in 1495, made a violent attack upon the castle,
+damaging it considerably. But Posse led the defence with superior
+skill, repulsing the enemy with astounding force. This deed has become
+famous in popular traditions, both Swedes and Russians crediting Posse
+with an alliance of a supernatural order. The regent himself twice
+headed expeditions to Finland, forcing a new Russian army to retire
+over the frontier. Affairs were going badly on account of unsafety
+in Finland, and dearth and intrigues in Sweden. The council of state
+accused Lord Sten of not doing all he could for Finland while secretly
+fanning the discontent of the commanders, who made personal sacrifices
+of time and money by remaining with the army. It came to hot words
+between Lord Sten and the commander Svante Sture, the son of Nils
+Bosson. He returned home, although Lord Sten told him he was a deserter
+in so doing, "fleeing from the banner of state." Svante Sture, who
+with Posse had made a glorious inroad upon Russian territory, now
+joined the aristocratic enemies of the regent, calling in King John
+(Hans) of Denmark. John succeeded Christian in 1482, and commenced
+intriguing for the Swedish crown. The Swedish nobles were anxious to
+have this good-natured monarch for ruler. Lord Sten was too sagacious
+to openly oppose them, when they, in the so-called _Recess of Kalmar_
+of 1483, declared _John_ king of Sweden, the king promising the island
+of Gothland to Sweden, and all old privileges to the nobles. By means
+of skilful diplomatic operations, Lord Sten delayed matters to such an
+extent that it took fourteen years before John II. was king of Sweden
+in anything but name. But the time was ripe for Svante Sture's open
+conflict with Lord Sten. The council, the archbishop leading, broke
+their faith with the regent, offering King John the crown. He came with
+an army to Stockholm, taking his position at Brunkeberg. An army of
+Dalecarlians marched upon the capital at the solicitation of Lord Sten,
+who awaited them with another army. The operations took an unfavorable
+turn on account of misapprehended movements, Lord Sten with difficulty
+saving his life. King John understood that a continued struggle would
+lead to his ultimate defeat and made peace. Lord Sten retired, but
+with the greatest fiefs given to any Swedish man; viz., the whole
+of Finland, with large possessions besides. When the king entered
+Stockholm, in October, 1497, it was at the arm of Lord Sten, to whom he
+said jestingly: "Have you now prepared everything well for me at the
+castle, Lord Sten; the table set with meat and ale, so that my guests
+may make merry?" Lord Sten answered in the same light spirit, pointing
+to the Swedish nobles who had joined the royal retinue: "That these
+know best who stand there behind you. They have it all both baked and
+brewed." Later the king remarked: "Lord Sten, it is a bad inheritance
+you have bequeathed on me in Sweden; the peasants whom God created
+slaves you have made into lords, and those who should have been lords
+you try to make slaves." At his coronation in Upsala, the king bestowed
+knighthood upon many Swedish nobles (something that had been beyond
+Lord Sten's authority to do), upon his return to Denmark appointing
+Lord Sten to take the reins of government with three state councillors
+at his side.
+
+King John's reign in Sweden was of short duration. He failed to return
+the island of Gothland to the Swedish crown and lost his prestige
+through an unsuccessful war in Ditmarschen. Svante Sture, who had
+not been dealt with according to his expectations, declared war upon
+the king and joined Lord Sten, who was in an unenviable position and
+glad to shake off the Union with Denmark, which he did, in 1501, when
+made regent for the second time. With a peasant army siege was laid
+to the castle of Stockholm, held by the energetic Queen Christine,
+who capitulated after a heroic struggle. Three days later King John
+appeared with an army, but returned, seeing that he came too late.
+Lord Sten retained Queen Christine at Vadstena for some time, later
+escorting her to the Danish frontier. Upon his return he was taken ill
+and died suddenly at Joenkoeping, December 14, 1503. With him the older
+or original line of the Sture family became extinct. Lord Sten was the
+greatest ruler since Margaret, and his rule, being of a more patriotic
+and democratic tendency, was of greater benefit to Sweden than hers.
+
+_Svante Sture_ succeeded Sten. He was of the younger Sture line, the
+son of the noble patriot, Nils Bosson, who in the time of Charles
+VIII., as the friend of Engelbrekt and Bishop Thomas, had taken stand
+against the archbishop and the nobles, backed by the Dalecarlians,
+who adored him. Lord Svante was a very quick-tempered man, which led
+him into the conflict with Lord Sten. Unlike the regent and his own
+father, he never had experienced what Danish oppression meant, which
+accounts for his unwise decision in joining the Unionists. The war with
+Denmark lasted eight of his nine years of reign, which proves him an
+able soldier and a stanch patriot. His position from the start was less
+favorable than that of his predecessor, who could reign in the glory of
+his early victory at Brunkeberg.
+
+Lord Svante had in _Doctor Hemming Gad_ a patriotic adviser of rare
+attainments and great learning. He had studied in Rostock, was for
+twelve years Lord Sten's representative in Italy, and later bishop of
+Linkoeping, although never sanctioned and finally placed under ban by
+the pope. Hemming Gad was the first democratic agitator of Sweden,
+a warm admirer of the Stures, and a good soldier. His statecraft he
+had evidently learned in Italy with her traditions of Machiavelli.
+His literary style is very characteristic, the language of a learned
+ecclesiastic with the oaths of a soldier. Those of his writings which
+are still extant prove a great love for the common people, a love which
+was returned by them. Having organized the revolt against King John, he
+evinced great slyness and presence of mind at the death of Lord Sten.
+To preserve its secrecy until Svante was forewarned and in possession
+of the castle of Stockholm, he had a man dress in the clothes of the
+deceased regent and continue the journey to the capital with Sten's
+retinue.
+
+The Unionist party was as ready as ever to offer the crown to King
+John, their representatives agreeing to pay a yearly tribute until
+he or his son Christian was chosen king. This agreement was made in
+1509, but it called forth a storm of indignation from the patriots and
+the people, and was never considered by the government. Lubeck opened
+hostilities against Denmark and was joined by Sweden, the Unionists
+recommencing deliberations whenever it looked favorable for Danish
+interests. Lord Svante made sure of peace and safety for Finland before
+taking up the conflict with the Danes. On the eastern shore, Hemming
+Gad led the operations against the town and castle of Kalmar, held by
+the Danes. The town was soon captured, but the castle not before the
+end of 1510. Ake Hansson (Natt och Dag) fought with great valor and
+considerable success against the Danes on the western and southern
+frontier, until this "Tormentor of Denmark," as he was surnamed, was
+killed in battle in 1510. On the sea the Danes were superior, a fleet
+under the command of Otto Rud and Soren Norrby plundering Abo in
+Finland. But when Lubeck's fleet appeared the Danes were forced back.
+Peace was made, but soon broken. Lubeck sent a fleet to invade the
+coast of the Danish isles; Hemming Gad, with several Swedish ships,
+taking part in the expedition. Denmark did her best to crush Swedish
+resistance by inducing Russia to break the peace, the emperor to
+declare Sweden the arch enemy of the German empire, and the pope to
+place her under ban.
+
+More unfortunate to Sweden than these intrigues was the fact that King
+John in his son Christian had an able warrior and a great organizer.
+Prince Christian put down a revolt in Norway against Danish oppression,
+entering West Gothland with a superior army. The Unionists assembled
+to force the regent to abdicate, but he firmly refused to do so. A
+rebellion seemed imminent, Lord Svante hastening to Westeros to confer
+with the people of the mining districts. Shortly after the opening
+of the meeting, Lord Svante died quite suddenly, after a stroke of
+paralysis, in January, 1512.
+
+The council of state selected Eric Trolle, a learned but unfit man
+of the Unionists, to succeed Lord Svante. But the popular opinion
+condemned him, and the council was forced to choose Svante's son as his
+successor.
+
+_Sten Sture the Younger_ was barely nineteen years of age at his
+father's death. Knighted when only five, he early distinguished
+himself as a warrior, winning fame for his chivalric spirit and
+noble character, and, like his illustrious namesakes, his father and
+grandfather, becoming the idol of the people. And he deserved their
+idolatry. More resembling his grandfather in the sweetness of his
+disposition than his sterner predecessors, he was as great a warrior as
+his father, to which he joined the sagacity and power of self-control
+characteristic of the elder Lord Sten. As a youth, he was made regent
+of a country in war, distress and peril. He was called away by death
+when only twenty-seven, leaving behind the memory of not one evil deed
+to soil the glory of his fair name, although continually placed in
+trying and dangerous positions of strife, rivalry, envy and rebellion.
+He made his will respected by high and low with a temperance in spirit
+and methods worthy of the highest admiration and the devoted love of
+the people. The young Lord Sten had a tender heart for the lowly and
+the suffering, never fearing to wring their rights from the oppressors,
+whosoever they were. He took great interest in the pursuits of peace,
+during the intervals allowed by his successful exploits in war. In
+spite of the plague and other contagious diseases, which, together with
+the destruction of war, ravaged the country, he left it in a better
+condition than he received it. In many ways more farseeing than his
+contemporaries, his name will live on for centuries as one of the most
+beloved in Swedish history.
+
+With the younger Lord Sten, other new actors appeared upon the stage
+of Scandinavian history. Christian II. succeeded his father upon the
+throne of Denmark and Norway. In Sweden, Archbishop Jacob Ulfsson
+retired and was succeeded by Gustavus Trolle, a son of Lord Eric. The
+new archbishop was of a hateful and jealous disposition. He resolved to
+avenge the treatment his father had received at the hands of Lord Sten
+and the Swedish people by placing Christian on the throne. The young
+regent made no less than four attempts to win over this formidable
+enemy, but all in vain. He opened up a court at St�ket, in Upland, more
+brilliant than that of Lord Sten, and accepted subsidies from Denmark.
+At last, fully aware of the secret deliberations going on, Lord Sten
+surrounded St�ket and called a Riksdag at Arboga, in 1517, where it was
+resolved that Christian should never become king of Sweden, and that
+the siege of St�ket should be continued. Christian sent a little army
+to support his ally, but Lord Sten met it at Ladugardsland, outside of
+Stockholm, completely routing it. A new Riksdag was called at Stockholm
+before which the archbishop appeared upon truce. His language was
+haughty and disdainful. He said he was in his full right to support
+King Christian's claims with mitre and sword, the pope sanctioning his
+policy; and to the pope alone he was responsible. The indignant Riksdag
+resolved that the archbishop should be deprived of his seat, being
+guilty of high treason, and that his castle should be burned. The
+resolution was written down and signed by all the bishops, none daring
+to oppose the yeomanry. Bishop Brask, of Linkoeping, managed to conceal
+in the wax of his seal a paper with the words: "To this I am forced by
+necessity." The archbishop returned to defend St�ket, but soon had to
+flee with his followers. It was only by using all his authority that
+Lord Sten could save his enemy's life from the irate people. Trolle
+was forced to resign his seat and was imprisoned in a convent at
+Westeros, while his castle was torn down. Lord Sten wanted to appoint a
+successor to Trolle, but Bishop Brask objected that the pope might not
+consent to his removal. To this Lord Sten uttered the following manly
+words, hardly in touch with the policy of Rome: "I think that our most
+holy father, the pope, and the canonic law should not tolerate as the
+leaders of the Church, and as the precepts or mirrors to the people,
+men who are infested by open treason, in particular against their own
+country." The Church tried various means to gain a settled condition of
+things. When Sten refused the royal crown from its hand, he was at last
+placed under ban.
+
+The hostilities with Denmark recommenced. King Christian appeared with
+a fleet and an army, in June, 1518, laying siege to Stockholm. His
+attacks were valiantly repulsed, and Christian, fearing to be encircled
+by his enemies, marched away in a southeasterly direction, taking a
+firm position at Brennkyrka. A Swedish army met him from the south
+and gave battle one of the last days of July, 1518. It was a fierce
+conflict, ending with a victory for the Swedes. The chief banner was
+carried by the squire Gustavus Ericsson Vasa, who five years later was
+to become king of Sweden. Christian returned to attack Stockholm, once
+more in vain. He was to sail for Denmark, but was kept back by storms,
+great suffering being experienced by his men. Christian was forced to
+open deliberations, making very high demands. But Lord Sten refused to
+hold a meeting, postponing it to the following year. A few days later,
+King Christian sent word that he wanted the regent to visit him in his
+ship on important affairs. Lord Sten, always good-natured and ready to
+accept peace, thought that the king had changed his mind and was ready
+to go. But the burgomaster and council of Stockholm prevailed upon him
+not to go, sure that it would bring him into the enemy's hands. Lord
+Sten took their advice and arranged for a meeting on land, sending six
+Swedish nobles as hostages to the king at his demand. Among these were
+Dr. Hemming Gad and Gustavus Ericsson Vasa. For two days Lord Sten
+waited in vain for the king to appear. Then he learned, to his dismay
+and indignation, that King Christian had sailed to Denmark, taking the
+hostages with him as prisoners, October 4, 1518.
+
+Christian collected all his forces and resources to crush Sweden.
+The whole of the following year was spent in preparations. Sweden
+was placed under ban by the pope, and Christian made himself his
+representative, the one who was to fulfil the heavenly punishment. In
+January, 1520, a large Danish army invaded Smaland and West Gothland.
+Lord Sten made an appeal to the people and gathered a peasant army,
+with which he met the superior force of the enemy at Bogesund, in
+West Gothland. The Swedish forces were arranged in line on the frozen
+surface of Lake Asund. Lord Sten rode in front of the line, encouraging
+his men, but was seriously wounded during the very first engagement
+and carried from the field. After two vain attempts, the Danes were
+victorious in overthrowing the Swedes. These gathered in the wooded
+hills of Tiveden for a last heroic resistance, which was broken; the
+Danes taking possession of the provinces to the north. Lord Sten,
+mortally wounded, died on the ice of Lake M�lar during his journey
+to Stockholm. Christian continued his march on Stockholm, the castle
+of which was heroically defended by Lord Sten's consort, Christine
+Gyllenstierna, who also tried by support and exhortations to encourage
+other strongholds not yet surrendered to resist the Danes. The castle
+of Kalmar was defended by another heroic woman, Anna Bielke. But
+Christian won, through persuasions and deliberations, what he could
+not take by violence. His operations were carried on by Dr. Hemming
+Gad, who, for reasons unknown to history, had changed his old patriotic
+views and become a friend of Christian. In September, 1520, Christian
+won Stockholm by peaceful agreement. The 4th of November he was crowned
+by Trolle, the reinstalled archbishop. At this occasion it caused
+considerable surprise that only Danes and Germans were knighted, the
+herald proclaiming that the country was won by sword, for which reason
+no Swede could be thus honored. This was in striking contrast to
+Christian's proclamation of having ascended the throne by right of his
+descent from St. Eric. Worse things were to follow.
+
+The 7th of November a great number of Swedish nobles were called to
+the castle of Stockholm, where they were brought before a tribunal,
+the king presiding. The archbishop asked for remuneration for the
+sufferings caused him during Lord Sten's reign. A jury of bishops and
+nobles convened. Christine Gyllenstierna was the first to answer to the
+accusations, holding forth that the Riksdag of Arboga was responsible
+for the action taken against Trolle and bringing the signed document
+in evidence. The king answered by announcing that all who signed were
+under the ban of the pope; Bishop Brask was the only one acquitted,
+producing his written slip of reservation from under his seal, besides
+Bishop Otto of Westerns, who supported Trolle in his claims. In the
+evening all the accused were imprisoned and judgment passed on them the
+following morning.
+
+In the morning of November 8th, a solemn procession of convicts
+started from the castle to the grand square, hedged in by soldiers
+and executioners. The bishops Mattias of Strengn�s and Vincentius of
+Skara, in their ecclesiastical robes, came first, followed by thirteen
+noblemen and thirty-one town councillors and burghers of Stockholm.
+In the square, a Danish councillor of state from the porch of the
+court-house asked the masses not to be frightened. The archbishop,
+he said, had three times on his knees implored the king that justice
+should be done. Bishop Vincentius replied with great courage that the
+king had committed treason against the Swedes and called down divine
+punishment on him for such deeds. Two of the Swedish nobles followed
+the bishop with short addresses, admonishing the people not to believe
+in false letters and promises and to put down such tyranny as soon
+as within their power. King Christian, who from a window of a house
+facing the square looked down on the spectacle, now gave a sign for the
+executions to commence. First the bishops, then the state councillors,
+nobles and burghers were beheaded, among whom were two brothers of
+Christine Gyllenstierna and the father and brother-in-law of Gustavus
+Ericsson Vasa. Many burghers were captured in the street, or in their
+homes, and brought in to be executed, others being killed on the spot.
+Not less than eighty-two persons were that day executed, the number
+being increased during the following days by people killed in various
+ways. Olaus Petri, the reformer, who was an eyewitness, in his history
+gives a graphic description of the terrible scenes. He adds: "Yes, this
+was a horrible and cruel murder, such as no other prince who carried
+a Christian name ever committed before." The corpses were burned, the
+remains of Lord Sten and one of his sons being taken from their graves
+and thrown into the flames. Christine Gyllenstierna, and the mother
+and sister of Gustavus Vasa, were with several other ladies carried
+to Copenhagen and thrown into a miserable dungeon. The mass murder
+has been called the Carnage of Stockholm, but it was extended also to
+Finland--where Dr. Hemming Gad was executed at Raseborg--and to the
+provinces. Christian marked his return through the Swedish mainland to
+Copenhagen by executions and mass murder everywhere; six hundred are
+estimated to have been killed through his order during his short stay
+in Sweden.
+
+Archbishop Trolle had taken a terrible revenge, and Christian thought
+he had crushed forever the stubborn Swedish resistance. But through
+this excess of cruelty the Union became insupportable, and the Swedish
+people resolved to throw off forever the connection with any foreign
+ruler. In the woods of Dalecarlia a man was hiding who soon was to step
+forward to lead the work of liberation and independence.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+_Revolution and Reformation--Gustavus Vasa_
+
+
+Gustavus Ericsson Vasa, the man whom Providence had selected to save
+his country from anarchy and ruin, belonged to a noble family of
+Unionist sympathies, his great-grandfather being Drotsete Krister
+Nilsson Vasa. But the Vasa family had joined the cause of the
+patriots during the reigns of the Stures, simultaneously losing some
+of its earlier importance. The Vasas prided themselves on being the
+descendants of St. Eric and his line, and of St. Birgitta and the
+Folkungs. Its coat-of-arms consisted of a simple vase, or bundle of
+sticks. Gustavus Vasa was born May 12, 1496, at Lindholmen in Upland,
+at the mansion of his parents, Eric Johansson Vasa, state councillor,
+and Cecilia of Eka, a sister of Christine Gyllenstierna. His earliest
+years were spent with his mother at Rydboholm, another estate of his
+father's, beautifully situated on an arm of the Baltic, only ten miles
+north of Stockholm. When a mere boy he was sent to the court of his
+granduncle, Sten Sture the Elder, who was childless. King John of
+Denmark noticed the bright little boy during a visit paid to Lord Sten.
+Young Gustavus took the command of all the other children at play and
+appeared to be a born leader. The king called the boy to him and asked
+him what his name was. Gustavus answered frankly. King John smilingly
+placed his hand on the boy's head, saying: "Certainly thou shalt become
+a man in thy day if preserved in life." The king intimated that he
+wanted to take him along to Copenhagen to supervise his education. But
+Lord Sten, who did not like this idea, hurriedly had Gustavus sent
+away, so that he could tell the king upon a second inquiry that the
+boy had returned to his parents. The young Gustavus was described as
+"attractive and welcome with everybody." Gustavus was sent to Upsala
+to study at the age of thirteen. The University of Upsala was at that
+period in a state of stagnation. The first teacher who came in contact
+with Gustavus was a Dane named Master Ivar. According to the Prose
+Chronicle, he was a man who "was mean to everybody and who gave Gustavo
+drubbings." It seems that the patriotic spirit early woke in the
+breast of this youth, who already in these days foreshadowed his own
+mission in the following words: "I will betake myself to Dalecarlia,
+rouse the Dalecarlians and batter the nose of the Jute." When eighteen
+years of age, he was accepted as a squire at the court of Sten Sture
+the Younger, and Christine Gyllenstierna, his own aunt. He followed
+the younger Lord Sten in all his expeditions of war, taking part in
+the siege of St�ket and a battle of Dufn�s, and carrying the banner of
+state at Brennkyrka.
+
+A second time in his life it came to pass that Gustavus Vasa was
+considered a person whom the Danish king was desirious of carrying
+away. This time the king was Christian II., who gained his object by
+treachery and violence. Gustavus was one of the Swedish hostages who
+were offered to King Christian and by him carried away to Denmark.
+
+Gustavus was handed over to Eric Ban�r, a relative of his, who held
+in fief the castle of Kalloe in Jutland. The latter was placed under a
+heavy fine in case he allowed his prisoner to escape. Gustavus received
+a kind and generous treatment. He ate at the table of the lord and was
+allowed to wander at liberty in the close neighborhood of the castle.
+But the danger that menaced his country never left him in peace. He
+heard repeatedly of the great preparations made by Christian II. to
+crush the resistance of Sweden, and of the acts of violence to be
+perpetrated. Gustavus remained at Kalloe for a year, when he resolved
+to flee from a captivity which had become insupportable. One morning
+at sunrise, Gustavus Vasa put on the garb of a peasant and disappeared
+from the castle. He made good speed, reaching a seaport and escaping
+to Lubeck with a merchant vessel. In this friendly Hanseatic centre
+Gustavus expected armed support. Such was not granted, but he was
+shielded against Danish pursuit. Eric Ban�r arrived, having followed
+up his tracks, but his demands to have Gustavus surrendered were
+refused. After eight months of delay in Lubeck, Gustavus obtained leave
+and arrived in Sweden on board a German ship. He landed at Stensoe,
+a promontory outside of the town of Kalmar, while Christian II. was
+laying siege to Stockholm. Gustavus was resolved to do his utmost to
+rouse the people to active resistance against the invaders. The castle
+of Kalmar, next to that of Stockholm the firmest stronghold of Sweden,
+was in charge of Anna Bielke, the widow of the last commander. Gustavus
+strengthened the courage of the inhabitants of town and castle, but
+finding it impossible to accomplish anything for the defence himself,
+and unsuccessful in his attempts to bring the hired German troops up
+to a point of enthusiasm for the Swedish cause, he left Kalmar and
+continued his way through Smaland. But the population of this province
+had no patience to listen to his appeals for a revolt. The peasants
+answered him that if they remained faithful to the Danish king they
+were never to be in want of herring and salt. Some of them in their
+indignation sent arrows flying after the young patriot. In September
+he reached the Terna estate in Soedermanland, where his sister and
+her husband, Joachim Brahe, resided. Lord Joachim had just received
+an invitation to be present at the coronation of King Christian in
+Stockholm. The attempts made by Gustavus to persuade the couple to
+abandon their intended journey to Stockholm were futile. Reaching
+his paternal estate of R�fsn�s in Soedermanland, he remained there in
+concealment for some time. He visited the old archbishop Jacob Ulfsson,
+who, after his retirement, lived in the neighboring monastery of
+Mariefred. The old prelate tried his best to persuade him to seek mercy
+and grace of King Christian, but the resolution of the young squire to
+free his country was only strengthened into an iron-cast determination.
+One of the servants who had followed Lord Joachim to the capital
+managed to make a safe return to tell Gustavus the terrible news of
+the Carnage of Stockholm. He was also told that a high price had been
+placed on his own head.
+
+Gustavus at once prepared for flight. Accompanied by a single servant
+he secretly left R�fsn�s one day toward the end of November, travelling
+on horseback northward to Dalecarlia. He arrived at Kopparberg in
+Dalecarlia, where he had his hair close cropped and put on peasant's
+clothes. Putting an axe over his shoulder, he went about looking for
+employment. The first man whom he tried was Andrew Persson, a wealthy
+mine owner at Rankhytta. Gustavus found employment with him, taking
+part in the threshing. But the other servants soon detected that the
+new man had a carriage and habits different from their own, and they
+commenced to watch him closely. They noticed that he was not accustomed
+to the work, and one of the servant girls saw a collar of silk above
+the coarse blouse. Andrew Persson called before him the suspect, and
+was highly surprised when recognizing in him a comrade from the time
+of his student days at Upsala. He was favorably disposed, but was
+afraid of sheltering Gustavus, advising him to flee to the less thickly
+settled parts of the province, and to change often from one place to
+another. Gustavus continued his way in a westerly direction, following
+the shore of a lake named Runn, and arrived at Orn�s the following day.
+He knew he had an old comrade and friend in the owner of the place.
+This man, Arendt Persson, received him in the most hospitable manner,
+but was in his heart desirous of obtaining the price placed upon the
+head of the young squire. Gustavus went to bed in the attic, not
+suspecting treachery. The host himself accompanied him to his resting
+place, according to the medi�val custom. This done, Arendt travelled
+in great haste to one of his neighbors, the much-respected Mons
+Nilsson of Aspeboda. Arendt asked him to assist in capturing Gustavus
+Vasa; but Mons Nilsson flatly refused, taking no pains to hide his
+indignation. Arendt left and went past his own home to S�tra, which was
+the residence of the Danish bailiff. He started for Orn�s the following
+morning, accompanied by the bailiff and twenty men ready to capture
+the fugitive. But Arendt's wife, Lady Barbro Stigsdotter (Swinhufwud),
+had not been inactive. Her suspicion was aroused when she noticed
+her husband travelling back and forth to disappear in the direction
+where the bailiff resided. She divined that the safety of her guest
+was threatened and decided to take action. Lady Barbro went to the
+attic, roused her sleeping guest and told him of the impending danger.
+Gustavus let himself down to the ground by means of towels fastened to
+the window-sill, assisted by Lady Barbro, who had a horse and sleigh
+in readiness for him, in charge of a faithful servant. He reached the
+residence of John, the priest of Sv�rdsjoe. Arendt was enraged when he
+found that Gustavus had made his escape. It is said that he from that
+day refused to ever see Lady Barbro again.
+
+The priest of Sv�rdsjoe held Gustavus in concealment for three days,
+but advised him to seek a more secure hiding place. He sent Gustavus
+to Swan Elfsson, a hunter to the king, who dwelt in Isala, a short
+distance from the church of Sv�rdsjoe. Gustavus had hardly reached this
+place before the men sent after him by the bailiff arrived. Gustavus
+stood by the oven warming himself after the ride. The wife of Swan
+Elfsson was busy baking bread. The men entered, asking if any stranger
+had been noticed in the neighborhood. The woman of the house saved
+the situation by resolutely dealing a blow with the bread spade to
+Gustavus, who was turning his back to her. In an irritated voice she
+said: "Why dost thou stand here gaping at the strangers? Hast thou
+never seen people before? Get thee at once out to the barn and do some
+threshing." The men did not suspect in the snubbed servant the noble
+fugitive for whom they were looking. But Swan Elfsson was not sure
+of the safety of his guest if he remained in Isala. So he concealed
+Gustavus in a load of hay and left his house with the great unsettled
+districts as his destination. He met some Danish spies on the way.
+These suspected the peasant and pierced the load of hay with their
+lances repeatedly. Gustavus was wounded in the leg, but kept his breath
+and lay perfectly still. The spies were satisfied that everything was
+right and told Swan Elfsson to move on. But the peasant noticed that
+blood was dripping from his load, leaving scarlet tracks on the snow.
+He quickly drew his knife and cut his horse a deep wound in one foot.
+After a while the spies noticed the bloody tracks. They returned and
+commanded Swan Elfsson to halt, inquiring about the blood. Swan Elfsson
+pointed to the injured foot of his horse and succeeded in making them
+believe that the horse had met with an accident.
+
+Swan Elfsson left Gustavus at the village of Marn�s, situated in the
+Finn woods, where he was received by other hunters. These escorted the
+noble outlaw to a place further away in the woods, where he for three
+days remained in concealment under a big fallen fir tree. The peasants
+in the neighborhood brought food to him. The still hunt seemed to be
+at an end, and so Gustavus risked a visit to the church of Rettvik,
+situated on the eastern shore of Lake Siljan. He spoke to the yeomanry
+collected around the church after divine service, reminding them of
+the stanch patriotism and manliness of their ancestors, and imploring
+them to save their country from destruction. The yeomen of Rettvik gave
+a satisfactory answer, telling him that they were ready to resist the
+Danes. But as they had not heard the opinion of the people of the other
+parishes, there was nothing to be done for the moment.
+
+Gustavus continued his way to Mora, one of the most densely populated
+parishes of Dalecarlia and situated on the northern shore of Lake
+Siljan. The priest of the parish was afraid to hide the outlaw, but
+confided him to a peasant, Tomte Mats, in the village of Utmeland.
+Gustavus remained for several days concealed in a vaulted cellar, which
+was reached only through a hole in the floor of the cottage above. One
+day the bailiff's men entered to search for Gustavus. The woman of the
+house was busy brewing the Christmas ale. She saved Gustavus by quickly
+placing a big barrel over the hinged door, which covered the opening
+to the cellar. One of the holidays during Christmas Gustavus addressed
+the peasants of Mora when coming from church. He stood on a small hill
+near the churchyard. The noonday sun was shining brightly over the
+snowy landscape and a fresh northerly wind was blowing. Gustavus spoke
+in a loud voice and with great eloquence. He asked the men to reflect
+on what kind of government foreigners always had given Sweden, and to
+remember what they had themselves suffered and risked for the liberty
+of their country. He thought that the memory had not died either of
+the deeds of violence perpetrated by Joesse Ericsson or of the deeds of
+heroism done by Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson. He then told them of the
+treacherous villany of King Christian and of the Carnage of Stockholm.
+"My own father," he said, with tears in his eyes, "rather wished to
+die with his brethren, the honest lords, in the name of God, than to
+be spared and live in dishonor after them." If the Dalecarlians wanted
+to save Sweden from thraldom, he was ready to offer himself as their
+leader in the name of the Almighty. The speech of Gustavus made a deep
+impression upon the men of Mora, and some of them were anxious to rise
+at once. The majority ruled, deciding that no action should be taken
+before the other parishes of Dalecarlia had been heard from. They
+advised Gustavus to seek a safer hiding-place further up in the woods.
+Gustavus left Mora utterly discouraged, seeking the paths that led
+along the Dal River into desert wilds.
+
+At New Year of 1521 Lars Olsson, a soldier who had done good service
+in the times of the Stures, arrived at Mora, bringing particulars of
+the doings of King Christian. He told the peasants that the king had
+ordered gallows to be erected at every sheriff's residence to mark
+the way of his Eriksgata. The peasants were touched to the quick and
+regretted having sent away the young nobleman. Lars Olsson advised
+them to call him back. Two expert ski runners were sent after Gustavus
+Ericsson, and after a ride of a night and a day through the woods, they
+overtook him close by the Norwegian frontier, which he was ready to
+cross in despair.
+
+Gustavus returned to Mora and was made the leader of the peasants in
+that locality. With these men he started his work of liberation, which
+was the commencement of one of the most remarkable of revolutions
+that the world ever saw. In the beginning of February, 1521, Gustavus
+marched southward with a few hundred men. At Falun he captured the
+bailiff of the mines, confiscating the royal taxes. Returning to the
+starting point, he left it again, with an army of 1,500 men. Entering
+Norrland, where he was joined by the peasants of Gestrikland, and the
+burghers of Gefle, while the people of Helsingland asked for time
+to consider the matter, he learned upon his return how one of his
+commanders, Peder Swensson, had won a glorious victory over a Danish
+army 6,000 strong at the ferry of Brunnb�ck, by the Dal River. Gustavus
+began training his troops, enforcing severe discipline and providing
+them with better arrows and longer lances. He declared war upon
+Christian in a formal way and marched on Westeros, where the Danish
+troops had centred. The town and castle were captured in spite of a
+force of superior Danish cavalry.
+
+Gustavus shifted his army into divisions which marched in various
+directions to capture the castles of surrounding provinces. The people
+of Upland reinforced the Dalecarlians, who were sent home to tend
+to their sowing. The Upland forces captured the archbishop's seat
+during his absence, and were joined by Gustavus at Upsala, who made
+an exceedingly severe speech to the ecclesiastics, asking them to
+decide their nationality, whether they were Swedes or not. They asked
+permission to consult Archbishop Trolle, which was granted. "I will
+bring the reply myself," said Trolle, starting from Stockholm with
+a splendid body of German troops. Gustavus was near being taken by
+surprise, but gathering troops he fought the archbishop, whose force
+met with a crushing defeat, and he escaped with difficulty to Stockholm.
+
+At midsummer, 1521, Gustavus arrived at Brunkeberg, laying siege to
+Stockholm. The capital was strongly fortified, and Norrby with a
+Danish fleet supported and relieved it. Twice the Danes routed the
+Swedish troops with the intermission of one year, but Gustavus provided
+reinforcements. He travelled through the country, visiting the forces
+who laid siege to the various Danish strongholds, these surrendering
+one by one. It was not a chain of glorious exploits, this work which
+Gustavus carried to a successful end, but one of infinite patience and
+sagacity, saddened by the news that the revengeful Christian had ended
+the lives of his captive mother and sister in the miserable Danish
+dungeon. Bishop Brask was scared into submission, turning his castle
+Stegeborg and part of his troops over to Gustavus, who at a Riksdag at
+Vadstena was elected regent in August, 1521.
+
+Gustavus entered into an alliance with Lubeck, and it sent a fleet
+to Stockholm, thus encircling it also from the sea. Norrby left with
+his ships and was nearly caught in the ice in the following spring.
+In Denmark, Christian's reign came to an end. With his usual violence
+he attacked the nobles and the ecclesiastics in order to better the
+conditions of the peasants, for whom he had a tender sympathy. In so
+doing, he brought the nobles to open revolt against his rule. He left
+his throne in April, 1523. Now Gustavus found the opportune moment to
+accept the Swedish crown offered him. He called a Riksdag at Strengn�s,
+in June, 1523, where Gustavus was chosen king of Sweden "by the
+councillors of state with the consent of the common people." At this
+occasion a tax was agreed on to pay the German troops engaged in the
+siege of Stockholm, and to Lubeck for its timely support. In that very
+month Stockholm surrendered, and Gustavus held his proud entry into the
+capital on the eve of Midsummer day.
+
+The position of the king was a most difficult one. The crown was ruined
+through the previous state of anarchy and the expense of war. The
+Church was in undisturbed possession of its wealth, but not willing
+to yield any of its power or income. Christian was preparing a plan
+by which to recapture his lost crowns. Norrby, who had aspirations of
+becoming Christian's regent in Sweden, tried to persuade Christine
+Gyllenstierna, lately set free from her prison, to marry him in order
+to obtain the prestige of the Stures. The common people, whom Gustavus
+so recently used to free the country, grew restive and rebellious when
+he could not at once grant them guarantees of comfort and prosperity
+in return. In a marvellous manner Gustavus understood how to face the
+situation and how to use to the utmost the resources within reach.
+
+When the outlawed youth of twenty-four spoke of revolt to the peasants
+at Mora, Martin Luther was burning the ban placed on him by the pope.
+There were several warm friends of Luther in Sweden, principally Olaus
+Petri, himself a pupil and friend of the German reformer, his brother,
+Laurentius Petri, and Laurentius Andre�. Olaus was a soul of fire and
+enthusiasm. He was lacking in self-control, but possessed a power which
+if not restrained would have led him and his work of reform further
+than the goal set by Luther. The two Laurentii were, like him, men of
+learning and, in addition, of greater sagacity. The king took interest
+in these men. He was contemplating a reduction of the ecclesiastical
+power, and they were to prepare the soil by freeing the people from
+undue respect for the Roman Church and its worldly power. Laurentius
+Andre� was made the king's chancellor, and Olaus Petri secretary to
+the town council of Stockholm, later pastor of the Cathedral Church.
+Olaus preached in the Stockholm Cathedral fiery sermons against Rome
+and the pope, responded to sometimes by irate monks, sometimes by
+various projectiles from the audience. Gustavus took pains to fill the
+vacancies of the Church, which were many, by appointing able men. But
+he made two serious mistakes in making Master Knut, dean of Westeros,
+archbishop, and Peder Sunnanv�der, formerly secretary to Svante Sture,
+bishop of Westeros. He came in possession of a correspondence, which
+proved that Bishop Peder tried to bring the Dalecarlians to revolt, and
+when accusing him and finding Master Knut on the side of the defence,
+Gustavus deprived them of their new dignities. The king commanded that
+a new bishop should be appointed and himself selected Johannes Magni as
+archbishop. This prelate, a very learned man, was the representative
+of Sten Sture in Rome, returning to his native land as a papal legate.
+Gustavus had a rupture with him when, according to his instructions,
+he demanded that Trolle should be reinstated as archbishop. Archbishop
+Johannes was lacking in moral courage; brushed aside by the tide of
+Reformation, he retired to Rome, where he died after writing the
+history of Sweden in Latin, _Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus_.
+Master Knut and Peder Sunnanv�der turned their steps to Dalecarlia,
+fanning the brewing malcontent and opening connections with Norrby,
+who styled himself the betrothed of Christine Gyllenstierna and made
+ready to attack Gustavus from the sea. Berndt von Melen, a German
+commander, in whom Gustavus placed much confidence, was to chase
+Norrby away from his stronghold, the island of Gothland, but turned a
+traitor, joining Norrby instead, in 1524. Gustavus called a Riksdag
+at Westeros, in 1525, resolved to use his diplomacy to the utmost.
+Upon receiving a letter from the Dalecarlians, in which they stoutly
+swore off their allegiance to him on account of heavy taxes, foreign
+influence and disregard for the Church, the king offered to abdicate.
+The representatives at the Riksdag persuaded him to remain, whereupon
+the king sent the Dalecarlians a sagacious letter, promising to improve
+the state of things as much as possible, but pointing out the two
+prelates as traitors in conspiracy with the Danes. The Dalecarlians
+were pacified, Knut and Peder finding it safest to leave for Norway.
+In the following year the king met the revolting peasants of Upland
+at Old Upsala, where he in a fiery speech unfolded his policy toward
+the Church. The peasants resented; they wanted to keep their monks
+and their masses. The king commanded one of his followers to make a
+speech in Latin, the peasants shouting that they did not understand.
+"Why do you, then, love so dearly your Latin mass?" the king asked
+them smiling. A few days later Gustavus made a crushing speech against
+lazy and worthless ecclesiastics before the chapter of Upsala. The
+archbishop was sent away on diplomatic errands to Poland and Russia
+never to return. After his departure Bishop Brask became the chief
+representative of papal interests. He was patriotic, but never yielded
+an inch of the worldly power of the Church except to force, opposing
+the Reformation with his whole strength.
+
+The king followed up his policy by demanding for the crown two-thirds
+of the ecclesiastic tithe and by placing the ecclesiastics under the
+duties of _russtienst_, in 1526. The ex-prelates, Knut and Peder, were,
+upon the king's request of an extradition, given up and sentenced to
+death for high treason. The king arranged for their triumphal entry of
+mockery into Stockholm in a most humiliating fashion, for which he has
+been criticised; also for the consummate manner in which the judges
+were appointed and judgment passed. But he set an example of warning
+to obnoxious and intriguing prelates that was appreciated by his
+contemporaries.
+
+Gustavus gained the triumph of his policy by the famous Riksdag of
+Westeros in 1527. It was nothing else than a coup d'�tat, a revolution,
+which, with the establishment of the Reformation, gave his throne
+solidity and resources. The Diet was called under the pretext of taking
+measures against a new revolt in Dalecarlia and for the regulation of
+dogmatic questions. There were present sixteen state councillors, four
+bishops, one hundred and twenty-nine knights and nobles, one hundred
+and five peasants, besides various priests, burghers and miners, but no
+representatives from Finland or Dalecarlia. In the great hall of the
+monastery the meeting was held, opening with a written address by the
+king, read by his chancellor, in which the situation of the country
+was set forth. The king refused to continue at the government, asking
+to be remunerated for personal losses and expense, and given a fief
+like any ordinary bailiff responsible to the crown. Only if fundamental
+reforms were made would he remain, not being able otherwise to cover
+the inevitable deficit of the treasury. Bishop Brask responded with the
+statement that he for his part was in duty bound to the king, but that
+Rome and its demands must, in the first place, be obeyed; showing by
+his remarks that he understood that the question was one of reducing
+the ecclesiastical power. The king rose and said in a burst of passion:
+"We have no further desire, then, to be your king. Verily, we had
+counted on quite another treatment at your hands. We now no longer
+wonder at the perversity of the people, since they have such advisers.
+Have they no rain, they blame us for it. Have they no sun, likewise.
+For dearth, hunger and plague we are responsible, as if we were not a
+man, but God. Yea, though we labor for you with our utmost power, both
+in spiritual and in temporal affairs, you would gladly see the axe
+upon our neck, but no one dares to grasp the handle. Monks and priests
+and all the creatures of the pope are to be placed above us, though we
+have little need of them. In a word, you all would lord it over us.
+Who under such circumstances would desire to govern you? Not the worst
+wretch in hell would wish the post, far less any man. Therefore we,
+too, refuse to be your king. We cast the honor from us, and leave you
+free to choose him whom you will. But be so kind as to let us leave the
+land. Pay us for our property in the kingdom, and return to us what
+we have expended in your service. Then we declare to you that we will
+withdraw never to return." With tears of anger and emotion the king
+left the hall, leaving the assembly in consternation.
+
+After four days of pandemonium and deadlock, the representatives
+decided to give in and ask forgiveness of the king, who long
+disregarded the appeals made for his return. When re-entering he was
+greeted by commotion and the humblest demonstrations of respect and
+repentance. The next day, Midsummer day, votes were taken upon his
+propositions, each Estate of representatives sending up their vote
+with a written construction of the propositions. These were then
+revised by the state councillors in their final form, called "Westeros
+Recess," with amendments called "Westeros Ordinantia." The startling
+revolutionary stipulations of the "Recess" were chiefly these:
+Authority for the king (1) to take in possession the castles and forts
+of the bishops, whose retinues he was to fix as to numbers; (2) to
+dispose of the superfluous income of the clergy and to superintend the
+administration of the monasteries; authority for the nobility to resume
+title to all their property which had come in the possession of the
+Church since 1454; authority to have the Gospel preached all over the
+country in undefiled purity. Among the "Ordinantia" the most important
+were: (1) Vacancies in the parish churches were to be filled by the
+bishop under the supervision and right of suspension of the king; (2)
+the king was to fix the amount of revenue due the bishops, chapters
+and clerks, and be entitled to use the surplus for the crown; (3) the
+priests were in secular suits to be responsible to secular courts; (4)
+the Gospel should be read in the schools. The king asked the bishops in
+person to surrender their castles, to which demand they all agreed.
+
+We may feel inclined to smile upon the drastic manner in which Gustavus
+enacted this important drama of Revolution, but must bear in mind his
+solitary position. He had no statesmen of ability at his side, nor men
+of great intellect and power to sustain him. He stood alone, and few
+knew as yet his superior qualities as a statesman and an organizer.
+The tame opposition, soon yielding to the appeals of the burghers and
+peasants, can only be explained through lack of leaders. Ture Joensson
+(Tre Rosor), the aristocratic chief of the opposition, was a vain and
+cowardly man. Bishop Brask, the head of the clergy, was old and more
+of a diplomatist than a man of action. The latest stanch Romanist, he
+gave up his cause, finding a pretext to leave the country and dying in
+his self-imposed exile. The ecclesiastical reforms were definitively
+arranged at a church meeting at OErebro in the following year.
+
+It was one of the evils which beset the reign of Gustavus that revolts
+constantly occurred in various provinces and for various reasons.
+Dalecarlia took the lead. The inhabitants were not able to bear the
+distinction won by their great patriotic services in the times of
+Engelbrekt, the Stures, and Gustavus. Their complaints were mostly
+unreasonable, sometimes ridiculous, as when they tried to prescribe the
+kind of cloth and colors to be used at court, and so forth. There was
+no fable, however stupid, which was not readily believed by them and
+the responsibility placed on the king. Particularly was everything
+eagerly swallowed which spoke of injustice committed against the
+descendants of the Stures. A daring pretender took advantage of this
+fact. He was born of the lowest peasant class, serving on an estate
+in Westmanland, where he had stolen a sum of money from his master.
+Appearing in Dalecarlia, where he claimed that he was a son of Lord
+Sten and Christine Gyllenstierna, he gained a great deal of support
+among the yeomen, who cried with him like children when he spoke
+of his noble father and asked them to pray for his soul. The false
+pretender had his instructions from Peder Sunnanv�der; he married in
+Norway a woman of noble birth, and, upon his return to Dalecarlia,
+surrounded himself with a regular court. An end was put to his career
+by a letter from Christine Gyllenstierna, written at the request of
+the king, in which she told the Dalecarlians that her son Nils, whom
+the pretender impersonated, had recently died, and that an impostor
+was misleading them. The false Nils Sture answered by claiming that he
+was born before marriage, the would-be-reason why his mother did not
+acknowledge him. This even the Dalecarlians found was a stretching of
+truth. The pretender, who had been stamping coins with his image and
+held the demeanor of a ruling prince, fled to Norway and thence to
+Rostock, where he was captured and beheaded. No blood was shed during
+this period of revolt; but the king, who was crowned at Upsala in 1528,
+proceeded from his coronation to Dalecarlia with an army of 14,000 men.
+He commanded the Dalecarlians to meet him, and forgave them after a
+severe sermon of reproach, making them surrender the chief supporters
+of the "Daljunker," who were executed on the spot.
+
+No better was the outcome of a revolt prepared by some nobles of
+West Gothland in the following year. They tried in vain to make the
+population join with them. The king managed to obtain their secret
+correspondence, and had the guilty ones arraigned before a meeting at
+which he scrutinized and repudiated the false charges made against him.
+The nobles asked forgiveness and were pardoned, with the exception
+of two, who were beheaded. But the originators of the revolt had
+fled. They were Ture Joensson and Bishop Magnus of Skara. The former
+joined the deposed King Christian, who, in 1532, prepared an attack on
+Sweden in his attempts to recapture his crowns. With him were other
+such distinguished traitors as Gustavus Trolle and Berndt von Melen.
+Gustavus I. sent a splendid army to meet Christian near Kongelf.
+Christian withdrew in disappointment, leaving Ture Joensson behind in
+the streets of Kongelf, minus a head. Christian was imprisoned by his
+uncle, Frederic of Denmark, and died in captivity.
+
+In order to pay the debt to Lubeck it was decided at a meeting at
+Upsala, in 1530, that the bells of the churches should be taken to be
+melted down. Concessions to do so were asked and obtained from the
+various communities. But upon the surrender of the bells discontent
+grew up. In Dalecarlia it came to revolt and open violence. The people
+refused to give up their bells or took the surrendered ones back
+with force. Threatening letters were sent to the king, who at first
+pretended to ignore the whole matter. Christian was preparing his last
+attack, and prudence deemed advisable. The inducements made by the
+Swedish traitors to support Christian's claims were scornfully repulsed
+by the Dalecarlians, who still continued with their insulting letters
+to the king. Gustavus answered them in a peaceful way. In 1533, at
+New Year, he suddenly appeared with an army in Dalecarlia, where the
+revolters also this time received a severe reproach and were forced to
+give up their leaders. These were executed, and that ended the last
+revolt of Dalecarlia.
+
+In the following year Sweden was forced into a war which lasted up to
+1536, the so-called "Feud of the Counts," the chief participants being
+the counts of Holstein, Oldenburg and Hoya. Sweden sided with Christian
+of Holstein, who fought for his rights to the throne of Denmark after
+his father Frederic, being opposed by the other counts and by Lubeck.
+Hard and repeated pressure was brought to bear on Svante Sture, a son
+of Lord Sten and Christine Gyllenstierna, to appear as a pretender
+against Gustavus; but the noble youth, who was sojourning in Germany,
+firmly withstood these temptations. His mother had married John
+Turesson, a son of the traitor Ture Joensson, who was as able a man as
+his father was a bad one, being the successful commander of a Swedish
+army which invaded the Danish provinces held by the count of Oldenburg.
+A Swedish fleet, created through sacrifices of nobles and peasants,
+distinguished itself repeatedly. The war ended in the defeat of Lubeck.
+
+Gustavus had, since the end of the work of liberation, crushed the
+power of the Church, punished the revolting peasants, kept the
+aristocracy within bounds, and put an end to the supremacy of Lubeck.
+But he went still further, trying to deprive the Church of its last
+vestige of authority, to introduce a minute administration of the
+provinces and to enforce the absolute power of the crown. To these
+plans he was led by two foreign advisers, Georg Norman and Konrad
+Pentinger. But it must be said to the credit of the king that their
+influence vanished when he saw that their "reforms" were not acceptable
+to the people. From this period of his reign, one noteworthy and
+wholesome measure remains, the reintroduction of the former hereditary
+order of succession to the throne. It was formulated and accepted
+at the Riksdag of OErebro (Jan. 4, 1540), memorable also through
+death sentences pronounced upon two of the apostles of the Swedish
+Reformation. The king had long regarded his chancellor and the two
+brothers, Olaus and Laurentius Petri, the latter archbishop of Upsala,
+with suspicion. The climax was reached when a conspiracy by German
+burghers of Stockholm against the king's life was discovered, and it
+was proved that Olaus Petri and Laurentius Andre� were conscious of
+its purport, without making it known to the king. They were condemned
+to death, Archbishop Laurentius being forced to take a seat as one of
+the judges, but pardoned at the request of the burghers of Stockholm,
+on the grounds that the ministers had received their knowledge on
+the pledge of secrecy through confession. Laurentius Andre� lost his
+position as the king's chancellor. In the following year each church in
+the country was presented with a copy of the complete translation of
+the Bible, the work of the two reformers.
+
+The greatest, most serious and most expensive of peasants' revolts
+was that called the Dacke Feud (1542 and 1543), after its leader Nils
+Dacke, a peasant born in Bleking, emigrated to Smaland, which became
+the scene of his revolt. The peasants were resolved to make war on the
+royal bailiffs, the nobles and the new religion, and found in Dacke
+an excellent leader, ferocious, daring and of some military ability.
+The forces sent by the king to meet him were repeatedly routed. The
+king was seriously alarmed, particularly since the revolt attracted
+attention abroad and was encouraged by Emperor Charles V., in the
+interests of the deposed Christian, his brother-in-law, and by several
+German princes. The emperor wrote to Nils Dacke a letter, preserved to
+this day, although it never reached its destination, in which Charles,
+with pride, recalls his Gothic (that is, according to the views of his
+time, Swedish) origin: "Sumus et nos de gente Gothorum." Nils Dacke's
+plan was to place Svante Sture on the throne. He wrote him a letter to
+this effect, which the noble Sture handed over to the king, together
+with the messenger who brought it. After much effort the king gathered
+an army of considerable strength, which was ordered against Dacke, who
+was defeated at Lake Asund. He fled and was pursued by the troops into
+Bleking, where he was captured and shot. This revolt cost Gustavus
+dearly, but was a good lesson in regard to the more immature of his
+reforms, against which it, to a great extent, was directed.
+
+Now the storms and trials of his reign were at an end, and Gustavus
+allowed to gather the fruit of his wise management, which itself
+grew wiser with his old age. In 1544 the Union of Succession of 1540
+was confirmed at Westeros. In matters of finance Gustavus laid the
+foundations of the modern state. The bailiffs were multiplied and
+made to give close accounts of the revenues. Fiefs granted to nobles
+before were now kept by the crown. The great nobles who held fiefs
+were placed under stricter control. The bloody Christian did useful
+work for the crown by ridding it of many unruly heads. The privileges
+granted by Westeros Recess were enforced, but the king saw to it that
+the nobility received back only what was properly due. But when the
+crown was concerned, property was taken from the Church to the greatest
+tension of these privileges, and likewise for the king's private
+rights, by means of which less scrupulous tactics both the state
+and the king were enriched. The former came in possession of 12,000
+farms, the latter of 4,000, in his case called "inherited estates." As
+Gustavus was a great economizer, he left a treasury replete with money
+and uncoined silver, in spite of elaborate pomp on state occasions,
+expensive royal marriages and wooings, and a feud with Russia. From
+which of the two treasuries in his care expenses were paid, Gustavus
+was not overparticular. He set a good example as a practical farmer
+and agriculturist, the dairy at Gripsholm standing under the personal
+supervision of the queen, with twenty-two less ladylike assistants.
+
+Gustavus created the nucleus to a standing army of hired troops,
+of natives and foreigners, about 15,000 in numbers, and provided
+Sweden with a considerable and well-equipped fleet. He encouraged the
+mining industry by supporting the silver mines of Sala and the copper
+mines of Falun. He introduced the working of iron, according to new
+methods, calling in German experts whose work he superintended in
+person. Putting an end to the supremacy of the Hanseatic commerce,
+he made treaties of commerce with the Netherlands and France, making
+Helsingfors in Finland the centre of the trade with Russia. On the
+western coast he founded the new town of Elfsborg, and ordered the
+inhabitants of New Loedoese to move thither. To the common people
+Gustavus held an attitude which shows evidence of love and confidence.
+Many of his letters and messages to them abound in hints at practical
+methods in farming. The schools were improved and partly reorganized
+through the spirit of Reformation, while the University of Upsala lost
+in importance and prestige, the students again going abroad.
+
+The war with Russia, commencing in 1554, and marked by mutual
+invasions, offered no aspect of importance, and was ended by a treaty
+of peace in 1557.
+
+The founder of the famous royal line of Vasa was, personally, a man
+of prepossessing appearance, tall, and of commanding presence, having
+blond hair and beard, sharp blue eyes, full lips, rosy cheeks and a
+fine frame. He was fond of costly garments, and the styles of his
+day were becoming to him. Gustavus was of an amiable and cheerful
+disposition, although of a quick temper. He had a rare gift of winning
+the goodwill and confidence of all classes by addressing everybody
+according to their compass of intellect and conversation. He was fond
+of music, and played and sang. The lute was his favorite instrument,
+which he liked to play in his evenings of solitude. Gustavus possessed
+a rare intellect and a remarkable memory. Well aware of his own
+weakness to give way to his quick temper, he generally postponed
+all decisive action in matters of importance until sure of his full
+power of discernment. He was not a brilliant genius, but a typical
+prince of the Renaissance epoch, never afraid of taking action in
+instances without a precedence, or of the consequences of his actions.
+His letters and addresses evince an unusual degree of common sense,
+clothed in a language of manly vigor, terseness and humor, and are
+fine specimens of the modern Swedish, such as it meets us in this its
+period of rejuvenation, brought about by the spirit of the Reformation.
+There is something in the oral and literary eloquence of Gustavus Vasa
+which makes it easy to believe that he was a descendant of Birgitta.
+Gustavus did not possess the fine erudition of his sons, who were
+considered to be men of learning in their time, for he early left
+his university studies for the court and the war; but he was able
+to pass such good opinions upon subjects of art and science that he
+astonished many who had made these a special study. He had the power of
+recognizing people whose faces he once had noticed after ten to twenty
+years of absence, and was also skilled in divining what character dwelt
+behind every face. What he once heard he never forgot. Where he had
+travelled once he could never mistake the road, and knew not only the
+names of the villages but also the names of the peasants whom he had
+met. His life was led by the unswaying principles of an earnest piety
+and high morals. His nephew, Peter Brahe the Elder, who in a chronicle
+has given the above picture of Gustavus Vasa, adds: "_In summa_, God
+had bequeathed him, above others, with great ability, high intellect
+and many princely virtues, so that he was well worthy of carrying
+sceptre and crown. For he was not only sagacious and kind above others,
+but also manly and able. He was sharp and just in passing sentences, in
+many cases being charitable and merciful."
+
+The royal court was characterized by a joyous and elevated spirit.
+Every day after dinner all the courtiers collected in the dancing hall.
+The lady of ceremonies then entered with the ladies of the court, and
+the royal musicians dispensed music for dancing. Every other or third
+day the king went out hunting or horseback riding with the gentlemen
+and ladies of his court. The youths of the nobility once a week held
+exhibitions of fencing and other knightly sport, the king taking an
+interested and active part. Those who excelled received prizes in the
+form of rings of gold or chaplets of pearls and led the dance of the
+evening.
+
+Gustavus I. was three times married. His first consort was young
+neurotic Catherine, princess of Saxony-Lauenburg, whom he married while
+the "Revolt of the Bells" was going on in Dalecarlia, and who died four
+years later, leaving him a son, Eric, of her own hysteric temperament.
+Shortly after the death of Catherine, the king married a young lady
+of the highest Swedish nobility, Margaret Leijonhufvud, with whom
+he lived in a long and happy union, ended by her death in 1551, and
+blessed by ten children, among whom the sons John, Magnus and Charles.
+Lady Margaret had been in love with the oldest son of Christine
+Gyllenstierna, Svante Sture, whom she renounced, and who married her
+younger sister Martha. Queen Margaret was a tender and high-minded
+woman, who won the love and absolute confidence of her royal consort,
+on whose quick temper she exerted a quieting influence, comforting him
+in hours of trouble and distress. She preserved as queen the plain and
+severe habits of her youth, having a personal superintendence over
+the dairies of the royal castles, especially those of Gripsholm and
+Svartsjoe. She was interested in brewing, baking and other household
+affairs, often making with her own hands the clothes of her children.
+When the king referred to Queen Margaret, he always called her "our
+dear mistress of the house." The king remained a nobleman of his day
+in the purple. Royal splendor was displayed on great occasions only.
+Simplicity was the principle of every-day life. When entertaining his
+friends, the king took great pains to please and arranged many details
+himself. Upon one occasion of this kind at Gripsholm, Queen Margaret
+carried in the sweetmeats and cookies, while the king served the wine
+and asked his guests to be glad and make merry.
+
+Queen Margaret was suddenly taken ill while partaking in a pleasure
+trip on Lake M�lar, and died in 1551, after a touching farewell to her
+consort. In the following year the king married the young Catherine
+Stenbock, a daughter of Gustavus Stenbock, an intimate friend to the
+king, and Lady Brita Leijonhufvud, a sister of Queen Margaret. In the
+lives and fate of Catherine and Margaret there are several remarkable
+coincidences. Like Queen Margaret, Catherine was secretly in love with
+some one else when the royal proposal was made. Strange enough the
+object of Catherine's secret affection was, like Margaret's, a son of
+Christine Gyllenstierna, Gustavus Johnsson Tre Rosor. This young man
+was the grandson of conceited Ture Joensson and the son of able John
+Turesson, the second consort of Christine Gyllenstierna. The family
+name was Tre Rosor, after the coat-of-arms, which consisted of three
+roses. As her aunt Margaret must renounce the hero of her dreams, so
+also Catherine. Like his half-brother, Svante Sture, Gustavus Tre Rosor
+married the sister of his first love, and this marriage, like that of
+Svante, turned out a happy one. There was a last coincidence in the
+life of the two queens. When Margaret heard that the royal sponsor
+was coming, she knew his errand and concealed herself in an oak chest
+in a distant part of the castle of Ekeberg. Catherine, upon a similar
+occasion, ran down in the gardens of Torpa and hid herself behind a
+bush. The third marriage of the king was a happy one, in spite of the
+great difference in years between the consorts. The clergy tried to
+raise objections, holding that Gustavus and Catherine were too nearly
+related to make the marriage a legal one. After some severe pressure
+these objections were finally dropped.
+
+Queen Catherine thus expressed the state of her feelings after her
+marriage: "Gustavus is dear to me, but I shall never forget the Rose."
+
+The king gave scrupulous attention to the education of his children.
+They were brought up in simplicity and sternness, but received a
+manifold training and a great amount of instruction. While they were
+studying at Upsala, hams and butter were sent them from the royal
+estates to make part of their breakfasts and suppers. In spite of these
+patriarchal endeavors, Eric and John grew up to be typical Renaissance
+princes, fond of extravagance and luxury. The king wrote once to Duke
+Magnus: "Our dear Lady Catherine sends thee five shirts which thou
+must bear in mind to take good care of; _item_, to keep thy head clean
+and not ride or run too much." When his sons grew older, King Gustavus
+used to admonish them orally before the hearth or at the table, or by
+letters. His wise counsel recalls the terse and sharp advice of Havamal
+in the Edda: "Ye shall weigh all matters carefully, perform them
+quickly and stand by it, putting nothing off to the morrow; counsel
+not followed up in due time is like clouds without rain in times of
+dearth." "To speak once and stand by it, is better than to talk one
+hundred times." "Surround ye ever with able men of pure living; one
+shall believe of ye what one knows about them." Duke Eric early caused
+him trouble by stubbornness, defiance and vanity. Duke John, the
+oldest child of Queen Margaret, long remained his favorite, but ended
+by causing him grief through disobedience and secret conspiracy with
+Eric. In his old age, King Gustavus suffered through failing health
+and melancholy. He complained because the fate of his country seemed
+uncertain on account of the unstability of his sons, and because his
+old friends, like John Turesson and Christine Gyllenstierna, passed
+away before him, leaving him alone in the world.
+
+When King Gustavus felt that the end was drawing near, he sent word to
+the four Estates or representative classes of the country, the nobles,
+clergymen, burghers and yeomen, to meet him at Stockholm around the
+Midsummer of 1560. He made known to the Estates his will, which his
+sons pledged themselves by oath to fulfil. Eric should inherit the
+crown, according to the will, but the three other sons were to receive
+duchies which they should govern with a good deal of authority. It
+became evident that the king had taken pains to provide liberally for
+his sons. But it appears as if he intended to make them all responsible
+in the maintenance of the work of their father, by distributing the
+power between them.
+
+When the Estates had collected in the hall of state the old monarch
+entered with his sons. After greeting those present he delivered his
+farewell address:
+
+"I respect the power of God, which with me has reinstalled the ancient
+royal line on the throne of Sweden. Ye have without doubt learned,
+and those of you who are somewhat advanced in years have seen for
+yourselves, how our dear fatherland, already for ages in distress and
+misery through foreign lordship, at last suffered the same through
+the grim despot King Christian, and how it pleased God to liberate us
+from this tyranny through me. For this it behooves us, high and low,
+master and servant, old and young, never to forget that same divine
+help. For what of a man was I to set myself against a mighty king,
+who not only ruled three kingdoms, but who also was related to the
+powerful emperor Charles V. and the noble princes of Germany. But God
+has performed the work, made me the worker of his miracle, and been my
+help and comfort during a reign of forty years, the cares of which have
+hastened me on with gray hairs to the grave. Forsooth, I could liken
+myself to King David," and the tears came to his eyes, "whom God from
+a shepherd made to a reigning king over his people. I could not divine
+that glory, when I in woods and desert fells must needs conceal myself
+from the bloodthirsty swords of my enemies. Grace and blessing have
+in a wide measure been granted both me and you through the knowledge
+of God's true Gospel, also in the shape of material abundance, which
+is evident all through the land, thank the Lord. If during my reign
+anything good has been accomplished, give ye God the glory of it. But
+for what there has been of failure and fault, I beg you, as faithful
+subjects, to forbear and forgive. God is my witness that it has not
+been by meanness, but by human weakness, that I have not been able to
+do better. My ambition has always been the improvement and welfare of
+the people of my country. I know full well that I have been a severe
+king in the eyes of many. Yet that day shall come when the children of
+Sweden willingly would dig me up from under the sod if that they could.
+My time soon is at an end. I need not in the stars or other signs
+search for my last moment; my body is to me the trustworthy messenger
+that I soon shall stand before the severe King of kings, to give
+account for the glorious but earthly crown of Sweden which I have worn."
+
+The Estates listened with great emotion to the words of the old
+monarch. After the king had ceased speaking and his will had been
+sanctioned, Gustavus left the assembly supported by his sons and
+nodding his farewell to those standing near. Three months later he was
+taken ill, and September 29, 1560, the great liberator, revolutionist
+and organizer of his country expired.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+_Reformation and Reaction--The Sons of Gustavus I._
+
+
+Eric XIV. succeeded his father in 1560, commencing his reign under the
+most brilliant of auspices. But the old King Gustavus had foreseen that
+his sons would cause danger to the realm which he with infinite care
+had built up. After his forty years' work of construction followed
+forty years of destruction which his elder sons brought to bear upon
+it. Fortunately, that work was so solid that it withstood this bravely,
+to rise rejuvenated when loving hands anew were laid to it.
+
+King Eric was one of the most gifted monarchs of his time, handsome,
+eloquent, learned, a fine linguist, a musician and artist. But
+his sharp reason carried him to the excess of suspicion, his
+artistic temperament into hysterics, and he was vain, overbearing,
+quick-tempered, licentious and cruel. His leaning toward mysticism made
+him devoted to astrology.
+
+Eric's first ambition was to reduce the power of the dukes, convoking a
+Riksdag at Arboga, in 1561, where the "Arboga Articles" were formulated
+for such purpose, the dukes being forced to acquiesce. In order to
+reduce the distance between the dukes and the nobility, King Eric, at
+his coronation--celebrated with a lavish display of pomp at Upsala
+in June of the same year--instituted hereditary dignities of counts
+and barons. Svante Sture, Peter Brahe the Elder and Gustavus Johnsson
+Tre Rosor were created counts, the first and third one the sons of
+Christine Gyllenstierna, Peter Brahe being a cousin of Gustavus Vasa.
+Among the barons were Sten Leijonhufvud, Gustavus Stenbock, relatives
+of the dukes, and Clas Kristersson Horn (of Aminne). Only small
+fiefs were given with the new dignities, which were nothing but an
+outward sign of the distinction existing between a higher aristocracy
+already extant and the lower nobility. In order to strengthen his
+connection with the nobles, Eric made the estate on which a noble
+fixed his domicile exempt from _russtjenst_. He was jealous of his
+power and dignity, for which reasons he held sharp supervision over
+his officials. He instituted a supreme court, consisting of twelve
+men of low birth, who every three years made a tour of the country to
+hold court in the name of the king. These justices were the creatures
+of Eric, and soon brought on themselves discredit and hatred through
+their servile and cruel acts. Among these justices was Goeran Persson,
+an able and powerful man, revengeful and cruel, who soon rose to be the
+favorite and influential adviser of his master.
+
+Eric was intent upon making a great match, wooing Elizabeth of England,
+Mary Stuart of Scotland, Renata of Lothringia and Christine of Hesse,
+with more or less success, overlooking Margaret of Valois, who was
+anxious to marry him. His mistress, Carin Monsdotter, a child of the
+people, but beautiful and of a noble character, for whom he had formed
+a secret attachment, finally was made his queen.
+
+The German Order which held Esthonia and Livonia suffered during this
+period considerably through Russian invasions. The town of Reval,
+with a large part of Esthonia, was ceded to Sweden in 1562, upon
+the receipt of a loan, Eric immediately giving his attention to the
+depressed and enslaved peasants of that section. Later the grandmaster
+of the Order turned Livonia over to the king of Poland, who, in need
+of money, placed seven castles of this province at the disposal of
+John, duke of Finland. John had tendered a loan to the Polish king
+and married his sister Catherine. Eric considered these negotiations
+as harmful to his royal authority, and he asked his brother to give
+account of them in person. John refused, making the royal emissaries
+his prisoners. The Swedish Riksdag condemned John to death for high
+treason, and an army was despatched to Finland, which carried back Duke
+John and his consort as prisoners. John's sentence was commuted to
+imprisonment at Gripsholm, proud Catherine choosing to share the fate
+of her husband (1563). The prison life of the ducal couple at Gripsholm
+was not an unpleasant one. They enjoyed a great deal of liberty and
+luxury at the splendid castle in Lake M�lar, King Eric sending his
+brother a copy of Boccaccio's "Decamerone" in German, to read for a
+pastime. The duke read the work and translated it into Swedish. The
+room called "king John's prison," which is still preserved with the
+artistic decoration which Duke Charles later bestowed on it, served as
+sleeping apartment for the prisoners, and there Catherine gave life
+to two children, one of whom was to become the founder of the Polish
+line of Vasa kings. It is said that Duke Magnus became a prey to the
+disposition of insanity latent in his family, by being forced to
+sign the death sentence of his brother John, King Eric being anxious
+of having him share the responsibility. Magnus lived until quite an
+advanced age, but was never cured of his mental ailment. Even in his
+best hours he was not of very bright intellect. While sojourning at
+the castle of Vadstena, by the Lake Vetter, he had the vision of a
+mermaid, who coaxed him to follow her. The duke jumped from the window
+of his apartment into the moat below. He did not sustain any serious
+injury, but the incident made the unhappy prince famous in tradition
+and song.
+
+In May, 1560, a war commenced with Denmark which, with several
+intermissions, lasted for seven years. It has been called The Seven
+Years' War of the North. About the same time that Eric became king
+of Sweden, the young ambitious Frederic II. ascended the throne of
+Denmark. In the days of Gustavus I., Christian III. had appropriated
+the Swedish emblem of three crowns for the Danish seal of state, as
+if by this proclaiming that the Union was considered still extant or
+that it could be re-established at the opportune moment. King Gustavus
+had protested, but with no result. When King Frederic kept up the
+irritating fact of preserving the Swedish emblem, King Eric answered by
+placing the emblems of Denmark and Norway in the Swedish seal of state.
+This made things worse and served as a nominal cause for war. The
+principal interest at stake was the supremacy in the Baltic provinces.
+The diocese of OEsel, which had accepted a Danish protectorate, was
+governed by a brother of the Danish king, who had entered into an
+alliance with Poland against Sweden, Denmark also joining it.
+
+In May, 1563, a Swedish fleet, commanded by Jacob Bagge, left Sweden
+to bring Princess Christine of Hesse, the promised bride of King Eric.
+A Danish fleet met them, at the island of Bornholm, and greeted the
+Swedish ships with some shots from their sharply loaded cannon. The
+Swedes returned the fire and a naval battle followed, which ended
+in a defeat for the Danes, who lost their flagship. When Jacob Bagge
+arrived in Rostock, where he was to meet the princess, her father was
+found unwilling to let her sail on account of the insecurity brought
+about by the commencing naval hostilities. This would under ordinary
+circumstances have enraged the vain and sensitive king, but Eric forgot
+his rage in his delight at the naval victory. Jacob Bagge was rewarded
+with a triumphal entry into Stockholm upon his return. He entered
+the city on foot with a golden chain round his neck, followed by his
+sub-commanders and surrounded by the banners taken during the battle.
+The prisoners followed, in chains and with shaved heads. The king's
+fool was dancing in front of them, playing on his fiddle. A Danish
+herald soon afterward reached Stockholm, declaring war with great pomp
+and ceremony on behalf of his royal master. The city of Lubeck sent a
+messenger to Stockholm on a similar errand, but was not received by the
+king. "Since he is sent by the mayor and council of his town and other
+similar lard-mongers, let him be heard and answered by the mayor and
+council of Stockholm," was the royal order.
+
+Jacob Bagge was ordered to sea with the Swedish fleet later in the
+summer of the same year. He met the united fleets of Denmark and Lubeck
+at the island of OEland, in the Baltic. A terrible battle ensued, which
+lasted until the fleets were separated by the darkness of the night,
+without victory being won by either side. Jacob Bagge started out
+with his fleet again in the spring of the following year, commanding
+a new flagship, "The Matchless," which carried two hundred cannon,
+most of them made out of church bells confiscated by Gustavus Vasa. A
+new battle was delivered between the islands of Gothland and OEland.
+The majority of the Swedish ships had by a gale been separated from
+the admiral and his flagship, but Jacob Bagge fought valiantly for
+a whole day, continuing the battle the next morning. A catastrophe
+brought it to a close. "The Matchless" caught fire through some act of
+negligence, a barrel of powder exploding between the decks. Jacob Bagge
+then surrendered, and was taken on board one of the ships of Lubeck.
+The enemies took possession of the "The Matchless" in order to plunder
+it, but the immense ship exploded with a tremendous roar, sinking with
+everybody who was on board. Jacob Bagge did not long remain in Danish
+captivity. He returned, to be greeted with the greatest distinction,
+and died as governor-general of Stockholm.
+
+The war on land was at the beginning carried on only through mutual
+invasions, both sides giving proofs of cruelty and vandalism. Elfsborg
+surrendered to the Danes. A Swedish army, commanded by King Eric in
+person, entered the province of Halland, pillaging and plundering
+and laying siege to the town of Halmstad. King Eric suddenly raised
+the siege, when news came that King Frederic was approaching with an
+army. The Swedish troops scattered in various directions, one division
+being met and defeated by the Danes. The whole of Northern Norway
+was invaded by Swedish troops and temporarily subjugated. The entire
+kingdom of Norway was very near being altogether absorbed by Sweden.
+This would have been a happy solution of the Scandinavian question.
+Norway would have become one in language with Sweden and would have
+shared her glorious epoch of political grandeur which was to follow.
+The best families of Norway would have been entered side by side with
+the Swedish nobility at the knightly chapterhouse of Stockholm, and
+the countries would have had their later democratic and cultural
+development in common. But King Eric was too restless and undecided to
+make any lasting conquest, or union, possible. When Claude Collard, a
+young French nobleman, who was the conqueror of Northern Norway, was
+taken by surprise and captured, King Eric, to avenge this, devastated
+forty church parishes in Norway. The Danes invaded and plundered the
+provinces of West Gothland and Smaland, while the Swedes pillaged
+Bleking and Scania. The king had given orders that the population of a
+whole district should be killed. He wrote later about the fulfilment
+of this cruel command: "God granted luck, so that thousands of men
+were killed on the road and in the woods." The province of Scania
+was devastated to a distance of one hundred miles from the Swedish
+frontier. A new invasion into Halland was made, in 1565, when Duke
+Charles, then fifteen years of age, commanded the artillery. The town
+of Varberg was attacked, but valiantly defended by the Danes. The young
+duke upon this occasion gave the first proof of his indomitable energy.
+He led the attack and persuaded the Swedes, by word and action, not to
+give it up. At last the walls were taken, the town being pillaged and
+burned. All men who could carry arms were killed, except a force of
+one hundred and fifty men of hired troops who entered Swedish service.
+A young French captain, Pontus de la Gardie, of a noble family of
+Languedoc, was among the latter. This man and his descendants were
+destined to play an important part in Swedish history.
+
+Clas Kristersson Horn was made commander of the Swedish navy after
+Jacob Bagge, in which position he covered his name with glory. He won a
+naval battle at OEland (in 1564) which lasted for two days. In the next
+year he added several victorious battles to his record, among which
+the principal ones were fought at Buchow, by the coast of Mecklenburg,
+and at the island of Bornholm. When he went to sea in the spring of
+1566 no enemy dared appear. The united fleets of Denmark and Lubeck at
+last started out, but were defeated by Clas Horn at the island of OEland
+after a vehement battle. The vanquished fleets were caught in a gale in
+which sixteen ships perished with seven thousand men. Clas Horn with
+his Swedish fleet was master of the sea. In the following year no fleet
+appeared to meet his. The efforts of Gustavus I. to set the Swedish
+fleet in good order thus proved to be of the greatest consequence.
+
+The Danes were superior in the hostilities on land during the latter
+part of the war, thanks principally to their eminent commander, Daniel
+Rantzau. He made an unsuccessful attempt to recapture the town of
+Varberg, but gained, at Axtorna, a battle over a superior Swedish army
+(in 1565). When Rantzau saw the Swedes approaching for an attack, he
+held prayer with his troops, whereupon he arranged them for resistance.
+The Swedish infantry captured the Danish stronghold and artillery,
+but the hired German troops of the Swedish wings turned into flight.
+Rantzau made an attack upon the deserted infantry, and was victorious
+when nightfall ended the battle. The Swedes lost thirty cannon, and
+Nils Sture, the son of Count Svante Sture, was able to save the banner
+of state only by severing it from the pole and hiding it on his person.
+In the following year, Rantzau pillaged Smaland and West Gothland, and
+in 1567 he penetrated as far as East Gothland, where he was very near
+being caught in a trap by the Swedish troops. The interior struggle of
+Sweden caused hostilities to cease for some time.
+
+The sad fate of his brother Magnus also befell King Eric. Evidences
+of approaching insanity were frequent and brought on horrible
+consequences. By licentiousness, mysticism and astrological speculations
+his mind became unsettled. It had been predicted that a blond man would
+dethrone him. Eric at first made his brother John the subject of his
+suspicions. After the duke's imprisonment he suspected a rival in Nils
+Sture, who also was a blond. Eric accused him of ill behavior in the
+battle of Axtorna. The king's court sentenced him to death, but Lord
+Nils escaped with a contumelious entry of mockery into Stockholm, on a
+miserable horse, and a crown of straw on his head. But frightened at
+the indignation aroused by his shameful act the king tried to undo it,
+and sent Lord Nils on an embassy to Lothringia, to bring the king's
+proposal to Princess Renata.
+
+In the commencement of 1567, the king had several of the nobles
+arrested, on the suspicion of conspiracy, and carried to the castle
+of Upsala, where a Riksdag was convoked. Nils Sture arrived with the
+consent and betrothal ring of Princess Renata, but was thrown into
+prison. The king asked the Riksdag to pass a sentence of death upon the
+accused nobles. When this was refused, he was seized by fear and rage.
+Rushing into the prison of Nils Sture, he wounded him in the arm. Lord
+Nils drew out the weapon, a dagger, kissing its handle and returning it
+to the king, with a prayer for mercy, but was killed by the soldiers at
+the command of the king. Eric's disposition immediately was changed,
+and he darted into Count Svante's prison, begging forgiveness at his
+feet. The aged Sture's answer was that he would forgive all, granted
+that no harm was done to his son. The king fled in despair from the
+castle and town, followed by some of his soldiers, one of whom he
+sent back with an order to kill all the nobles, "except Lord Sten." As
+there were two by that name, these were spared, but Count Svante and
+his son Eric Sture, Abraham Stenbock and Ivar Ivarsson were killed. The
+Riksdag was forced to pass sentence for high treason upon the murdered
+men, at the instigation of Goeran Persson, whose perfidious advice
+had continually inflamed the sickened brain of his master. King Eric
+was for several days missing, and at last found wandering about in a
+peasant's garb. Cared for by Carin Monsdotter, he slowly regained his
+reason, showing evidence of repentance by declaring the murdered nobles
+innocent and promising to compensate their families. During this spell
+he set free his brother John and dismissed Goeran Persson. But soon his
+evil disposition returned, and the resolution of his brothers to free
+the country from his rule must be acknowledged as a beneficent one. The
+nobles were brought to revolt, when Eric, in July, 1568, proclaimed
+Carin as his consort, and had her solemnly crowned Queen of Sweden. The
+dukes John and Charles were at first unsuccessful in their efforts,
+the king defeating their troops repeatedly. But in 1569 Stockholm was
+captured, Goeran Persson killed and the king forced to abdicate. The
+sentence passed upon Eric, by the Estates of the Riksdag, stipulated
+that he should be "imprisoned, but sustained in a princely manner, for
+the rest of his days."
+
+Eric was at first held imprisoned in his own apartments at the
+royal castle, but was transferred to two of the vaults, called the
+"apartments of Lord Eskil." They had served as a treasury during the
+reign of Gustavus I., but now stood empty. Queen Carin and her children
+were his company. After an unsuccessful attempt at flight, one room
+was taken away from him and the windows in the remaining one reduced
+in size. The table of the royal prisoner was well provided for, but
+he was unmercifully treated by his warders. The cruel Olof Stenbock
+once deprived him of all his clothes. In a struggle which followed,
+he shot Eric in the arm and let him remain senseless in his blood for
+several hours. Some of the members of the former body-guard of Eric
+once attempted, but in vain, to set free the unhappy prisoner. In
+1569 Eric was removed to Abo in Finland, where he was locked up in a
+secure prison. Two years later he was taken to Castellholm, in the
+archipelago of Aland, for fear that the Russian czar would liberate him
+by violence. Shortly afterward he was removed to the lovely castle of
+Gripsholm, where he had spent some of the happiest days of his youth,
+and where he once upon a time held his brother John imprisoned. At
+Gripsholm there is a gloomy dungeon which is said to have served as
+the prison of King Eric, but this is not authentic. Eric was treated
+comparatively well while at Gripsholm, enjoying the company of his
+family, a good table and plenty of servants. The recording books of the
+castle from this period speak of "the court of King Eric." King John
+was, in the meantime, irritated by Russian hostilities and intrigues,
+the old supporters of Eric joining in the latter. The appeals of Duke
+Charles for the improvement of the condition of his poor imprisoned
+brother roused the suspicion of the king, who fostered dark plots
+against the prisoner. Eric was removed from Gripsholm and its pleasant
+associations, separated from his family and put in hard prison at
+Westeros. The warders received instructions to take his life if
+necessary. The state council and the archbishop sanctioned this order
+of the king. The last prison of the unhappy King Eric was OErbyhus,
+where he suddenly died, exactly at a time when King John's fears of a
+revolt had reached a climax. Rumors that Eric had been poisoned were
+current, and Duke Charles also gave utterance of his belief that such
+was the case. In spite of the wars, cruelty and evil deeds of King Eric
+XIV., the Swedish people of his time had a good deal of devotion for
+him and his faithful consort. The country enjoyed good years during his
+reign and profited by the wise measures of his father.
+
+Gustavus, the son of Eric XIV. and Carin Monsdotter, was born, in
+1568, at Nykoeping. When Queen Carin was separated from her imprisoned
+consort, her children, Gustavus and Sigrid, followed her to Finland,
+where she resided at Abo. In 1575 the young prince was harshly taken
+away from his mother, at the command of the state council, and sent
+to Prussia. The jealous and uneasy King John made him the subject of
+cruel persecutions. In spite of these he received a fine education,
+and is known to have embraced the Catholic religion. He was kindly
+received by King Sigismund of Poland, his cousin, at whose coronation
+in Cracow he is said to have been present, in the disguise of a beggar.
+A relation of intimate friendship existed between the outlawed prince
+and Emperor Rudolph of Austria, both of whom were devoted to the study
+of alchemy. King John refused to listen to the appeals for grace and
+support which Gustavus repeatedly made to him. Gustavus was not allowed
+to see his mother until the year of 1596, when the two had a touching
+meeting at Reval. He later made his home in Thorn, but left for Russia,
+in 1600, upon an invitation from Czar Boris. He was received in Moscow
+as a reigning prince; but when he refused to appear as a pretender to
+the Swedish throne, he was imprisoned. At the fall of Boris, Gustavus
+was set free, but again put in prison by Dimitri. At the fall of the
+latter, in 1607, Gustavus once more regained his liberty, but died in
+Casijn, in the same year. This unhappy Gustavus Ericsson Vasa was a man
+of fine erudition and pure morals. He was a dreamer and of a sensitive
+disposition, being an ardent Catholic and fondly devoted to the country
+which had outlawed him.
+
+Sigrid Vasa, the daughter of Eric XIV., was twice married to members
+of the Swedish nobility. Ake Henricsson Tott, her son of the first
+marriage, was a distinguished warrior in the times of Gustavus II.
+Adolphus. Queen Carin died, in 1612, beloved and highly respected, at
+the beautiful estate of Liuksiala in Finland, given her in fief by King
+John.
+
+_John III._ succeeded Eric, without sharing his power with his younger
+brother Charles, as he had promised. John was as learned and highly
+talented as Eric, and as vain, restless and unreliable. But while Eric
+was a mystic and a sceptic by turns, John was a Catholic, or leaning
+toward Catholicism, and a hypocrite who, under the pretence of meekness
+and piety, tried to hide his vanity, bad temper and utter selfishness.
+Like Gustavus I. and all his other sons, John was devoted to the
+fine arts, particularly to architecture, with an ardor that reached
+the vehemence of a passion. He planned a vast number of churches and
+castles, which he completed, utterly regardless of cost. The Swedish
+Castle Renaissance which was established by John and his brothers is
+influenced by contemporary Flemish art, severe and majestic in outline,
+graceful and profuse in interior decoration. Good specimens of it were
+the earlier castles of Stockholm and Svartsjoe, the castle of Vadstena
+remains so and, to a great extent, the beautiful and memorable castle
+of Gripsholm.
+
+At his coronation, John issued hereditary privileges to the nobility.
+_Russtjenst_ became no longer essential. Legal offices were preserved
+for the nobles, the king's supreme court being abandoned. John's
+policy was to win the support of the aristocracy against Charles, who,
+indignant and sulky, kept within his duchy, consisting of the provinces
+of Soedermanland and Vermland, with the town of OErebro in addition.
+
+In 1570, an unsatisfactory peace was made with Denmark, Sweden ceding
+all the Norwegian and Danish territory in her possession, together
+with the island of Gothland, and agreeing to pay something like one
+hundred and fifty thousand dollars for the return of Elfsborg, held
+by the Danes. A friendly relation to hostile Poland commenced with
+John's reign, but a long and bloody war with Russia began in 1570. The
+Russians tried repeatedly, but in vain, to capture Reval, plundering
+and killing the population of Esthonia, who remained faithful to
+Swedish rule. Henric Horn and Clas Tott won laurels for their heroic
+deeds, while the war was changed into more modern methods and to a
+successful issue by the Swedish general Pontus de la Gardie, who
+captured the provinces Keksholm and Ingermanland and the town of Narva.
+
+John III. had set two goals for his ambition: to return the Swedish
+church to Catholicism and to make his son Sigismund king of Poland.
+The latter he reached at the death of King Stephan in 1589, Sigismund
+succeeding him upon the throne. The former ambition John never
+attained, after years of stubborn and unreasonable perseverance giving
+up this pet idea. John made some attempts to bring order in the
+confused conditions of the church, but left it in a worse state of
+confusion than he found it. The crown and the aristocracy had deprived
+the church of nearly all its property and withheld its income from
+it. Archbishop Laurentius Petri complained of the miserable state of
+things, the ministers often being useless wretches and the service in
+some churches impossible to uphold for sheer lack of money. In 1572
+the ecclesiastical matters were arranged at a meeting in Upsala, when
+a new church law was introduced, demanding higher qualifications for
+the ministers, who were to be elected by their congregations, and
+enforcing a school law. Laurentius Petri died in 1573 and was succeeded
+by Laurentius Petri Gothus. The new archbishop willingly subscribed
+to a set of rules, laid before him by the king, which reintroduced
+monasteries, worship of saints and the ceremonies of the Roman church.
+Jesuits were invited to the country, but met with little encouragement
+from the people. The very climax of John's reactionary movements was
+formed by the introduction of his ritual, Liturgia, which was nothing
+else than an adaptation of the Catholic ritual. It was accepted by the
+Riksdag of 1577, but Charles refused to accept it for his duchy. The
+king had many conflicts with his brother, the latter always giving
+in to his wishes, except on this point. Ministers and university
+professors who refused to conform to the new ritual, or attacked it,
+were sheltered by the duke and, in many instances, given high offices.
+The king grew angry, but the duke remained firm and unyielding. When
+Queen Catherine died, in 1583, John's Catholic fervor suffered a
+relapse, and ceased altogether after his marriage to young Protestant
+Gunilla Bielke, in the following year. He stubbornly stuck to his
+Liturgia for some time yet, but exiled the Jesuits, and dismissed with
+contumely ministers who had joined the Roman Church. During the last
+years of his reign, he said it was best to leave everybody a free
+choice in religious matters, regretting his Liturgia--which he once
+considered the gem of his own theological system--because it had caused
+so much trouble and confusion.
+
+Sweden suffered a great deal through the slack and unsteady government
+of King John. He spent unreasonable sums on his court and his craze for
+architectural marvels, while always short of funds for the necessities
+of war and internal improvements. Commerce and industries suffered and
+were brought to a standstill by dearth, hunger and pest. The population
+decreased; the towns were made bankrupt and many farms abandoned. Bad
+and greedy officials and the recommencing war with Russia increased the
+evils. After unsuccessful attempts to have his son leave Poland, where
+he had met with many difficulties, John entered into more intimate
+relations with his brother, who came to wield a beneficial influence on
+the government. John III. died 1592, malcontent and tired of life, his
+death being little regretted by the people.
+
+One of the most famous love episodes of Sweden dates from the reign
+of John III. It has no bearing upon the affairs of state, but is not
+devoid of value as an illustration of the history of civilization,
+giving us a glimpse of the private life of the nobles of that period
+and the standard of morals of their lives. The episode is told by
+Countess Anne Ban�r in a manuscript by her hand with the title: "In
+the following manner my blessed mother's sister, Lady Sigrid Sture,
+lady of Salestad and Geddeholm, related what took place when Lord Eric
+Gustafson Stenbock carried away our blessed mother's sister, Magdalen
+Sture, from Hoerningsholm."
+
+The dowager-countess, Martha Sture, resided at the castle of
+Hoerningsholm, enlarged to a four-story structure and fortified with
+four corner towers by her consort. She was a sister of Queen Margaret,
+the second queen of Gustavus I., and was married to the renounced lover
+of that sister, Count Svante Sture. The countess was called "King
+Martha," partly because of her stern power and great authority, partly
+because it was known to have been her ambition to see her husband's
+family grace the throne of a country which their forefathers had ruled
+as uncrowned kings. She had lived to see her husband and two sons
+killed by the insane Eric XIV., but she had yet two sons who would
+carry high the glorious name, on which there was not a stain of any
+kind. There were five daughters, Sigrid and Anne, married to members of
+the influential Bielke family, and Magdalen, Margaret and Christine, as
+yet unmarried. There was another young lady at Hoerningsholm, besides
+the daughters, the little Princess Sigrid Vasa, the daughter of King
+Eric XIV. and Carin Monsdotter, who had received a home with the stern
+"King Martha" while her mother was following the tracks of the deposed
+monarch from prison to prison.
+
+Between Magdalen Sture and Lord Eric Stenbock a passionate love sprang
+up. Lord Eric was a very fine young man, of an influential family and
+the brother of the queen-dowager, Catherine, third consort of Gustavus
+I. But, unfortunately, he was the nephew of Countess Martha, and, as
+a cousin of Magdalen, considered to be too closely related to her to
+make a marriage possible. Countess Martha was unwilling to listen
+to any appeals, and she was strengthened in her resolution by the
+old Archbishop Laurentius Petri, who still held the same opinions as
+when he, once upon a time, refused to grant his consent to a marriage
+between King Gustavus I. and young Lord Eric's sister, because she was
+a niece of Queen Margaret. The years passed by, but no change came in
+the stubborn resistance of "King Martha." Christmas eve of 1573, Lord
+Eric visited Hoerningsholm to remain until New Year. He brought with
+him costly presents which he offered as New Year's gifts to Countess
+Martha, her daughters, chaplain and servants. He left to return on Palm
+Sunday with his sister Cecilia, the wife of Count Gustavus Tre Rosor.
+One morning a few days later, Lady Sigrid Bielke, who was visiting
+her mother, entered the so-called rotunda, a large room in one of
+the towers which Countess Martha and her daughters used as sleeping
+apartment. She was surprised to find her sister Magdalen kneeling and
+in tears. Lady Sigrid greeted her: "God bless you, you have a good
+deed in mind!" "God grant it were good," answered Magdalen, rising.
+"Certainly it is good to make one's prayers amid tears," Sigrid said.
+Magdalen caught the hands of her sister and said: "My darling sister,
+if all the rest forsake me, you will not turn away your faithful heart
+from me." Sigrid found the words and emotion of her sister strange,
+but did not suspect anything. "Why do you use such words to me?" she
+answered. "I do not believe that you are going to make an evil-doer
+out of yourself; there are none in the Sture family who have carried
+themselves in a way to make us turn our hearts away from them." Tears
+came again to the eyes of Magdalen, but Sigrid was called into an
+interior room by her mother. Magdalen went to play with one of her
+little nieces, when Lord Eric entered. "Dear lady," he said, "would you
+like to see the horse that I have given you? It is now waiting in the
+court." Magdalen rose and left, escorted by her cousin. They met two
+of the women of the household, whom Eric commanded to follow them. A
+horse and sleigh stood in the vaulted entrance. Magdalen was placed
+between the two servants, while Eric took his position back of them
+on the runners, holding the reins. In the castle court they met the
+chaplain and several of the servants, who thought it a pleasure ride
+and let them pass. When they rode down on the frozen lake, the two
+servants in the sleigh grasped the importance of the situation for the
+first time, and commenced praying Lady Magdalen to return. Lord Eric
+silenced them by displaying his short musket. A few moments later they
+were surrounded by a force of one hundred men on horseback, who formed
+an escort. They were a loan to Lord Eric by Duke Charles.
+
+The excitement at Hoerningsholm was great when the elopement was
+discovered. Margaret Sture happened to look through the window at the
+moment when the sleigh reached the lake. At her outcry Countess Martha
+and Sigrid joined her. The old countess fainted on the stairs when
+making for the court, and Sigrid was ordered to follow up the eloping
+couple. Countess Cecilia found her aunt on the stairs and hastened
+to assure her of the mortification that she felt at the daring and
+unsuspected deed of her brother, also expressing some surprise at the
+bad manner in which it was accepted. But then the old countess became
+wroth, exclaiming: "Go to the devil, and may God punish both you and
+your brother! And if you have any part in his scheme of robbing me of
+my dear child, betake yourself after him, so that no shame or dishonor
+may happen." Countess Cecilia hastened to her sleigh and reached
+Sv�rdsbro, where her brother was stopping, ahead of Sigrid.
+
+When Lady Sigrid arrived at Sv�rdsbro, she was admitted through the
+lines of soldiers only after some difficulty, finding tailors and
+seamsters busy cutting and sewing precious stuffs for clothing for Lady
+Magdalen and her servants, "for she left with uncovered head such as
+she went and stood in her mother's house." Sigrid tried to persuade her
+sister to return to her mother, who in her great sorrow was willing to
+forgive all if she only came back. Magdalen sat silent for a long time.
+Finally she said: "If you can vouchsafe me, that the lady, my mother,
+will grant that we shall belong to each other, since I have so dearly
+pledged myself to him, I shall return." This Sigrid could not do, and
+Magdalen added, weeping sorely: "The last complication is then as bad
+as the first." Lord Eric entered with his sister Cecilia. When Sigrid
+asked where he intended to bring Magdalen, he answered: "To Visingsoe,
+to the Countess Beatrix, my sister, where she shall remain until we
+obtain the consent to marry of the lady, her mother." It was arranged
+that Cecilia should accompany Magdalen, and Sigrid try her best to win
+her mother's consent. Magdalen sent home to her mother a piece of horn
+of the fabulous unicorn; "the only thing I have carried with me from
+my father's house," she added. This horn, which really was taken from
+the incisor of the narwhal, was in those days generally thought to be
+authentic and of miraculous power.
+
+Countess Martha was, in her grief and dismay, taken ill. She soon
+gathered strength enough to write to King John, her nephew, pleading
+her cause. King John at once took action in the matter, calling Lord
+Eric to account, and issuing a command to all ministers of the kingdom,
+prohibiting them to unite in marriage the two cousins. Eric Stenbock
+was on his way to Stockholm when he received the order of the king.
+Upon his arrival at the capital, he was imprisoned and deprived of all
+his offices. But Lord Eric had powerful friends in Duke Charles and
+the Stenbock family. As the king himself did not wish to be without
+his service, he was soon set free and reinstalled in his offices. He
+succeeded in obtaining the goodwill of the whole Sture family, but
+"King Martha" remained irreconcilable. More than a year had passed
+since the elopement. One day Lord Eric suddenly appeared at the castle
+of Visingsoe. He made, with Magdalen and his aunt, Lady Anne, a journey
+into the province of Halland, where a Danish minister joined the two
+cousins in marriage. The wedding was celebrated at the home of Eric's
+father, Baron Gustavus Stenbock of Torpa. But Lady Magdalen was not
+happy. She grieved because of her mother's hostile attitude, and
+continued to dress in black colors, as she had done ever since she left
+her mother. Duke Charles, the queen-dowager, the royal princesses, and
+all the members of the state council, yea, the king himself, wrote
+letters to the indignant countess, whose ire was rather increased than
+diminished thereby.
+
+Finally, after another year and a half, "King Martha" gave in to
+the tears and prayers of her daughters. Lady Magdalen returned to
+Hoerningsholm after three years of absence. She was not allowed to come
+up to the castle at first, but had to dwell in the building occupied by
+the baths. As the winter was approaching, and Lady Magdalen was soon
+to give life to a child, her brothers and sisters prevailed upon their
+mother to receive Lord Eric and his wife at the castle. The event was
+arranged in a conspicuous way. Countess Martha was seated in the place
+of honor in the great hall of the castle, surrounded by her daughters
+and sons-in-law, when Lord Eric entered with Magdalen. When the mother
+saw her pale and thin features, she was moved to tears, exclaiming:
+"Thou unhappy child!" Magdalen approached her on her knees, and the
+countess embraced her, stammering her forgiveness between tears.
+Magdalen remained at the castle, where she bore her husband a son, who
+was called Gustavus. Lady Martha invited the king, the duke and the
+princesses to be present at the baptism, at the same time granting
+Magdalen an equal share of inheritance with the other daughters. Lady
+Magdalen continued to dress in mourning as a self-imposed punishment
+for her disobedience to her mother. One day she was preparing to leave
+for a wedding, when her mother asked her the reason why she dressed
+thus. When "King Martha" learned why, she took a costly cross of
+diamonds intended for the bride and placed it on her daughter's breast,
+telling her to put aside her black dresses. From that day joy and
+happiness seemed to return to Lady Magdalen, who commenced to put on
+lighter colors and to wear diamonds. Of Magdalen Stenbock--a child of
+these Stures, who so often had protected and preserved Sweden--Count
+Magnus Stenbock was a lineal descendant, he who during the reign of
+Charles XII. saved his country in the hour of its greatest peril and
+distress.
+
+_Sigismund_, the son and successor of John III., was not apt to become
+more popular than his father. Born at the pleasant prison of Gripsholm,
+which yet was a prison, he was of a cold, unsympathetic disposition,
+a king of few words and hard to approach. At John's death, Sigismund
+was twenty-six years of age and had reigned several years in Poland.
+Charles stepped to the front as the head of the government until
+Sigismund's arrival.
+
+The Protestants, fearing the worst from their new Catholic king,
+decided to take firm and early action. The duke ordered a Riksdag at
+Upsala in February, 1593, the deliberations being held by the clergy
+alone. The Liturgia was abolished with the majority of Catholic church
+ceremonies, Luther's catechisms, L. Petri's ritual, church visitations,
+etc., being reintroduced. Abraham Angermannus was elected archbishop,
+and decision made for the re-establishment of the Upsala University.
+The duke had not been present at the deliberations, and appeared
+displeased because not consulted. He, who was secretly accused of being
+a Calvinist, pointed out more Catholic ceremonies to be abolished,
+whereupon the decisions won the sanction of the duke, the state council
+and the bishops. By this act the Lutheran Church was re-established,
+the Augsburgian Confession being laid down by the meeting as its
+corner-stone. When this action had been taken, the chairman, Nicolaus
+Bothniensis, a young Upsala professor, exclaimed: "Now Sweden has
+become _one_ man, and we all have _one_ God."
+
+In August, 1593, King Sigismund arrived in Sweden, surrounded by
+Jesuits and Polish nobles, and with a sum of money wherewith to pay
+the expenses of a Catholic revival. To the demands made to sign the
+decisions of the Upsala meeting he gave a flat refusal. The conditions
+in Stockholm grew perilous, Jesuits and Lutheran ministers preaching
+denouncements upon each other in the churches and conflicts between
+the Polish troops and the populace taking place. In January, 1594,
+Sigismund, accompanied by the state councillors and the members of
+the Riksdag, came to Upsala for his father's funeral and his own
+coronation. Duke Charles arrived with 3,000 men, whom he quartered
+in the neighborhood. He dismissed the papal legate, Malaspina, and
+his Jesuits from the funeral procession, before it entered the
+cathedral, and told the king, in behalf of all, that no coronation
+would take place before the confessional liberty of the Lutheran Church
+was confirmed. The Estates declared themselves ready to sacrifice
+their lives for the pure faith. The king still refused his sanction,
+whereupon the duke replied that the Riksdag would be dismissed within
+twenty-four hours if he insisted. Sigismund gave in, upon the advice of
+the Jesuits, who told him that pledges to Lutherans were not binding.
+Sigismund was crowned and returned suddenly to Poland.
+
+The king had left matters in an unsatisfactory condition, placing six
+governors with great authority in various districts, but leaving the
+government to be conducted by the duke and the state council in common.
+This little pleased the energetic Charles, who soon called a Riksdag
+at Soederkoeping, in 1595, forcing the councillors to sanction this act
+and follow him to the Riksdag. In Finland, the governor, Clas Fleming,
+had tried to have a peace agreement with Russia postponed as an excuse
+to keep the navy and army at his disposal in the interest of the king.
+At Soederkoeping, Charles had himself chosen regent, the last vestige of
+Catholicism abolished, and the punishment of Fleming decided on. In
+consequence, the Catholics were dealt with in a merciless way through
+the instigation of the archbishop, whom the duke called an executioner
+on account of his recklessness. The convent of Vadstena was closed, its
+eleven nuns scattered and its property confiscated. In Finland a bloody
+revolt against the oppression of Fleming cost 11,000 people their
+lives. It was called the "War of Clubs," on account of the rude weapons
+used by the peasants. The state council refused to consent to Fleming's
+punishment, whereupon the duke suddenly resigned. But he convoked a
+Riksdag at Arboga, in 1597, at which the councillors and nobles were
+absent, also the burghers. The peasants and clergy were abundantly
+represented and cheered the propositions of the duke to the echo. It
+was then decided that the king should be asked to return, until which
+event the duke was to remain regent, and that peace should be restored
+in Finland. Fleming died in the meantime and was succeeded by Arvid
+Stolarm, who also was one of the duke's enemies. The Riksdag at Arboga
+was the first in the deliberations of which the state council had not
+taken a part. The councillors were disposed to punish the duke; but,
+not agreeing as to means, they left the country to seek the king.
+
+King Sigismund arrived in the summer of 1598 with an army of 5,000
+Poles, gathering a good deal of strength by reinforcements from
+Gothaland. The duke had his stronghold in Svealand, the Dalecarlians
+rising to join him. The Uplanders warded off an attempt made by Stolarm
+to land with his army; they were led by Nicolaus Bothniensis, the
+Upsala professor, who called his exploit "a crusade." The two princes
+met in East Gothland, near Stegeborg. The duke and his peasant army
+were surrounded by the king's cavalry, and would have been doomed if
+not for the outcry of one of the king's followers that his subjects
+would be killed on either side. The king gave order to stop the attack,
+feeling pity at the sight. The duke was deeply moved by this act and
+offered to leave the land with his family. But the deliberations which
+followed were without result.
+
+On the 25th of September a battle was fought at Stongebro, near
+Linkoeping, ending in the defeat of the royal army. An armistice
+followed. The conditions of peace were that the king should remain
+in Sweden, dismissing his foreign troops, and take charge of the
+government. No one should be punished except five of the nobles,
+to be placed before a jury of ambassadors. The king agreed to the
+conditions, but soon left Sweden never to return. A meeting of nobles
+and clergymen, in 1599, accepted him as reigning king if willing to
+return within four months. In July, a Riksdag was called at Stockholm,
+which declared Sigismund dethroned and his son Vladislav king if sent
+to Sweden to be educated in the Lutheran faith. Sigismund took no heed
+of these stipulations, planning to regain his throne by force.
+
+Charles followed up the punishment with such unprecedented severity
+that it has left a stain upon his memory. Three nobles were beheaded
+after Kalmar was taken, and proceeding to Finland, the duke applied
+capital punishment to a wide extent, in more than twenty cases at Abo
+alone. At a Riksdag in Linkoeping, in 1600, the duke appeared as an
+accuser against the five imprisoned nobles and several others, eight
+state councillors being among them. The accused, thirteen in number,
+were sentenced to death for high treason, but the majority were
+pardoned upon confession of guilt. The councillors Gustavus Ban�r, Eric
+Sparre, Sten Ban�r and Ture Bielke were beheaded. They were all men
+of learning and great ability, who had faithfully served their king.
+During John's reign they had already suffered years of imprisonment for
+intrigues against a hereditary kingdom and a strong government.
+
+_Charles IX._ was chosen king at the bloody Riksdag of Linkoeping, and
+his son Gustavus Adolphus heir-apparent. The hereditary rights of
+Duke John, second son of John III., were acknowledged, and a duchy,
+consisting of East Gothland and Leckoe Castle, granted him; but he was
+passed over as too young and too closely related to Sigismund. Measures
+to strengthen the financial administration and the army were passed.
+
+Sigismund prepared, by alliances with Catholic powers, to gather
+support, Charles turning to England and France for the same purpose. A
+conflict was unavoidable, and Charles decided to invade the disputed
+province of Livonia, which he captured, only to be ousted by the
+Polish general, Zamoisky. The castle of Volmar was long and heroically
+defended by the Swedes under Jacob de la Gardie, a son of General
+Pontus, and Charles Gyllenhielm, an illegitimate son of Charles IX.
+After their surrender the former received for five years a tolerable
+treatment, the latter a most severe one for twelve years. After
+attempts to place conditions on a better footing in Finland, where the
+peasants had long suffered through aristocratic oppression, Charles
+increased the army still further and invaded Livonia once more, in
+1604. He met with a crushing defeat at Kerkholm, close by Riga, at the
+hands of the Pole, Chodkiewitz, losing 9,000 men. But the Poles did not
+understand how to use their victory, and the centre of the conflict
+changed to Russia.
+
+On Russian territory, the troops of Sigismund and Charles were to meet.
+The line of Rurik became extinct in 1598, its last descendant, Dimitri,
+being murdered. Great complications ensued with usurpers and two "false
+Dimitris" in succession. Sigismund supported the false Dimitris in
+order to gain ground and place the royal line of Vasa upon the throne
+of Russia after that of Rurik. Charles sided with Vassili Schuisky
+against the second false Dimitri. In 1607 an agreement was made that
+Sweden, upon the receipt of the province of Kexholm, should send an
+army to Russia to support Czar Vassili. In 1609, a small Swedish army,
+consisting of Swedes, Finns and some hired troops, entered Russia,
+under command of Jacob de la Gardie. It was received at Novgorod with
+the blaze of cannon and tolling of church bells. A victory was won at
+Tver over the pretender, but further progress was impeded by mutiny
+among the hired troops, the stubborn Finns returning home. With his
+1,200 faithful Swedes, reinforced by hired troops to 5,000, De la
+Gardie made a daring march eastward to Moscow, scaring away the Polish
+army, attacking it and making a triumphant entry into the Russian
+capital. Sigismund was at Smolensk, and met De la Gardie at Klusina,
+winning the battle on account of renewed mutiny of the hired troops in
+the Swedish army. De la Gardie was given free leave with 400 men, upon
+pledge not to support Czar Vassili, and later captured the promised
+Kexholm, while Sigismund's son Vladislav for a short time became czar
+of Russia.
+
+Although the short reign of Charles IX. was filled with continual
+warfare, the king never for a moment lost interest in the peaceful
+development of the country. He continued his father's work in
+furthering the mining industry, and tried to build up the commerce and
+trade relations. He founded the city of Gothenburg, on the western
+coast, in the island of Hising, opposite Elfsborg, also founding
+the towns of Karlstad, Christinehamn, Mariestad and Philipstad. The
+aristocracy looked upon his administration with coldness. It received
+sanction of the privileges granted by John III., but nothing more,
+except in return for additional _russtjenst_. The peasants were his
+favorites and he was surnamed the "Peasant King." To the Church,
+Charles stood in a good relation, supporting its re-established
+Reformation with his whole authority. Also the University had in him
+a patron, although he severely criticised the too conservative spirit
+in both, exchanging a series of pamphlets with the archbishop on
+theological questions, firm in his Calvinistic tendencies. To make
+the government stronger it was stipulated that four members of the
+state council were always to hold the four principal offices, with the
+titles of drotsete, kansler (chancellor), admiral and treasurer. The
+greatest economy was enforced at court and throughout the whole system
+of government, various minor country offices being established for the
+enforcement of order, justice and economy. The king was liberal only
+with severe orders and harsh words, the artistic tendencies of his
+youth succumbing to the cruel necessities of his reign.
+
+In private he was as severe as in public life. His first consort,
+Maria of the Palatinate-Zweibrucken, had a quieting influence upon
+him, but the second, Christine of Holstein, stern and sharp like the
+king, strengthened the harshness and violence of his disposition.
+During the last years of his reign, Charles gave his attention to
+the critical European situation, desiring to join the Netherlands,
+England, France and the Protestant German princes into an alliance
+against the forming Catholic league. This man, so assured of his power
+to reign and so unscrupulous as to his means, was very careful not to
+do any act of importance without the sanction of his people, and for
+a long time refused to be called king. In 1604 he agreed to accept
+that name, but was in 1606 ready to cede it to Duke John. Still, after
+his coronation he admitted the hereditary right of his nephew, who
+was a good-natured man without the qualifications of a ruler. At the
+Riksdag of Norrkoeping, in 1604, the crown was made hereditary among
+the descendants of Charles, also in the female line, provided that
+the monarch confessed the Lutheran faith and had not accepted the
+government of, or residence in, any other country.
+
+The stress placed upon Charles was greater than his originally strong
+health could carry. In 1609 he suffered a stroke of paralysis, which
+deprived him of his full power of speech. He still stood firm at the
+head of the government, with Prince Gustavus Adolphus, now sixteen
+years of age, at his side, who took part in the affairs of State and
+spoke for the paralytic king. The young and ambitious Christian IV.
+of Denmark thought that the opportune moment was come to turn down
+the rising power of Sweden. He declared war, in April, 1611, in spite
+of the efforts made by King Charles to avoid the conflict, pointing
+to Germany, where their joined forces would be needed. Christian
+captured the town of Kalmar, while its castle withstood his attacks,
+being handed over to him by treason. In his wrath and disgust, Charles
+sent word to Christian to meet him in a duel face to face, which the
+latter refused to do in a letter of abusive contempt. Gustavus Adolphus
+had made a dash into Bleking, capturing the store of provisions at
+Christianopel. In the autumn, the war came to a temporary standstill.
+
+Charles started for Stockholm from Kalmar, but was taken ill during
+the journey and died at Nykoeping, October 11, 1611, surrounded by his
+sons and councillors. To his death-bed came the news that Jacob de
+la Gardie had captured the important city of Novgorod, and that the
+Russians offered the crown to either of his sons, Gustavus Adolphus or
+Charles Philip. With Charles died the only worthy son of Gustavus I.
+Vasa. In strength of intellect and stern power, he stands first among
+Swedish rulers. Devoted to the work of his great father, he educated
+the Swedish people, through hardships and sacrifices, to its political
+grandeur.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+_Period of Political Grandeur--Gustavus II. Adolphus_
+
+
+Gustavus II. Adolphus is the greatest figure of Swedish history,
+revered and beloved as one of the noblest of heroes, a genius in whom
+the qualities of the great statesman and warrior were blended with
+the faith of a man ready to sacrifice his life for the loftiest of
+causes--religious liberty. Gustavus Adolphus was, by his own triumphant
+deeds and through his school of discipline, which turned out men
+worthy to follow up his work, destined to bring his country up to the
+fulfilment of its mission in the history of human progress, and to
+open for it an era of glory and political grandeur which its limited
+resources made it impossible to preserve, but which was fruitful of
+results for its later cultural evolution.
+
+The secret of Sweden's success in solving the stupendous conflict
+between Catholicism and Protestantism, between reaction and progress,
+rested in the fact that this little country was eminently ready
+to wage a war for religious liberty. It had been more perfectly
+rejuvenated by the spirit of Protestantism than had, at the time, any
+other country. The medi�val state, completed later in Sweden than on
+the continent, also gave way there sooner and more completely than
+elsewhere. The yeomanry, never fully suppressed, had preserved its old
+spirit of independence, fostered and guided by patriotic leaders of
+the nobility, with or without a crown. The population was suffering,
+hungering, bleeding, but free, indomitable, and devoted to its once
+more hereditary kings of Swedish birth and to their new faith, which
+had made strong in them their old individuality of views and life.
+
+When Gustavus Adolphus ascended the throne, the country was in the
+greatest peril and distress, and had many a lesson to learn before
+entering the universal conflict of the Thirty Years' War.
+
+Gustavus Adolphus was born, Dec. 9, 1594, at the castle of Stockholm.
+When six years old, he followed his father to devastated Finland,
+returning through Norrland, for the settlement and future of which
+territory great plans were made. At ten, he was ordered to be present
+at the deliberations of the state council; at thirteen, he received
+petitions and complaints, rectifying wrongs and soothing suffering.
+His father said of him, in speaking of the fulfilment of great works,
+placing his hand on the curly blond head: "_Ille faciet._" The prince
+received a severe and carefully supervised education, led by Johan
+Skytte. He acquired knowledge of a considerable number of languages,
+probably all in a mechanical way, except the Swedish and German, with
+both of which he was made equally and thoroughly familiar, speaking
+and writing the latter language with greater ease and perfection than
+the emperor Ferdinand, or Maximilian of Bavaria. In the sciences of
+economics and war he was well read, himself inaugurating novel theories
+in both. In him the best traits of the Vasa dynasty were admirably
+blended and enlarged. He possessed an acute intellect, far-reaching
+views of almost prophetic discernment, a mastery and patience in
+detail, and an indomitable strength of will. To the ceaseless and
+painstaking care of the welfare of his subjects, characteristic of
+his father and grandfather, were in him added a harmony of endowment
+and a gentleness of disposition which made him their superior. In him
+the turbulent blood of the Vasas was held in noble self-restraint.
+After his rare outbursts of passion, he made good his faults in a most
+royal manner. His youth was not without the temptations which beset
+all richly endowed natures, but they were vanquished as he grew up to
+the importance of his grand mission. He stood in the paternal attitude
+to his people so becoming to his grandfather, but lacked the fiery
+democratic tendencies and the sympathy for the untitled, unpretentious
+and lowly, so strong in his stern father. To his relatives he was as
+gentle as to his subjects, treating his resolute and ambitious mother,
+Christine of Holstein-Gottorp, with love and respect; on her demand
+sacrificing the love of his youth and intended bride, Ebba Brahe,
+who became the consort of victorious Jacob de la Gardie. Also to his
+brother Charles Philip he stood in an exemplary relation; but firmly
+refused to grant him privileges for his duchy of Vermland which could
+be injurious to the country at large.
+
+Gustavus Adolphus was a man of commanding presence, tall and of a heavy
+frame. The color of his face was clear and light, his eyes blue, his
+hair and beard blond. Foreign contemporary authors called him "the
+golden king of the North." He carried his head high, and his open,
+frank eye, and the clear voice of manly resonance, gave added charm to
+his noble appearance. Gustavus Adolphus possessed a majestic dignity of
+bearing coupled with the unfeigned kindness of a noble heart.
+
+Charles IX. had left his son the Danish war as an inheritance. It was
+carried on in the provinces of the frontiers, and consisted chiefly
+in small conflicts, which caused fatigue and detriment without being
+decisive. The Danes entered the interior of Smaland during the first
+days of the year 1612. Gustavus Adolphus, in his turn, moved from the
+fort of Ryssby into the province of Scania, destroying by fire the town
+of V� and several castles belonging to the wealthy nobility. During
+a smaller conflict which then took place, Gustavus Adolphus was in
+imminent danger of his life.
+
+The Swedes had made a camp for themselves at the cemetery of Vittsjoe,
+when suddenly surprised by a force of Danish cavalry. The Swedes fought
+with determination, but found it necessary to leave their camp. They
+took a firm stand on the frozen waters of the adjoining lake, but were
+forced to leave that position also. A tumult ensued, during which the
+ice gave way on the spot where the king found himself, for the moment,
+alone and without an escort. Per Ban�r, a son of Gustavus Ban�r, who
+was executed at Linkoeping at the command of Charles IX., perceived
+the king in the moment of greatest danger, and hastened with Thomas
+Larsson, a trooper from Upland, to rescue him. When in safety, the king
+at once unbuckled his silver belt, and, handing it to the trooper,
+said: "I shall remember thee with a piece of bread, which neither thou
+nor thy children shall ever find lacking." Thomas Larsson received in
+the following year a farm in the province of Westmanland, which has
+remained in the possession of his descendants to this very day. Per
+Ban�r received in fief the estates which had been in the possession of
+his uncle, Sten Ban�r, also executed at Linkoeping, and rose to the
+dignity of a state councillor during the minority of Queen Christine.
+
+It was the ambition of Christian IV. of Denmark to cut Sweden off from
+any communication with the North Sea. As Bohusl�n and Halland both
+were parts of the Danish dominion, there was only the small strip of
+territory surrounding the mouth of the Gotha River to conquer. The
+island of Hising constituted the larger part of it, and was the site
+of the new town of Gothenburg, which was defended by the fortress of
+Elfsborg. The town of New Loedoese was situated on the opposite shore,
+some few miles up the river, defended by the fort of Gullberg. The
+Danish king approached Gullberg from Bohus, having with him a smaller
+force, which he considered sufficient in numbers. Gullberg was only a
+poor little nest, but it was valiantly defended by Morten Krakow and
+his wife, the stanch Lady Emerentia Pauli. One day the Danes made a
+violent attack. The ladders which they placed against the walls were
+crushed by heavy beams which the Swedes let fall down on them. In spite
+of this, the Danes succeeded in forcing the gates of the place. The
+position was a critical one for the Swedes. The commander had met with
+an accident and was unable to lead the defence. But Lady Emerentia
+resolved to take the command. She gave orders to the wives of the
+soldiers to fill up the vaulted passage of the gates with barrels,
+washtubs, timber, etc. When the Danes stormed on in a compact body,
+they were received by a downfall of scalding-hot lye, which the women
+kept pouring down on them from behind their barricade. The daughter
+of Lady Emerentia thus graphically describes the effect: "They lay in
+the vault and around the gates like scalded hogs." Lady Emerentia had
+placed two pieces of artillery on the top of a small building fronting
+the gates. They were loaded with broken horseshoes and the like and
+sent out a disastrous fire. The few surviving Danes fled hurriedly for
+their lives, leaving Lady Emerentia in proud possession of the fort. A
+second attack which was made later on proved as futile as the first.
+King Christian then gave command to abandon the plan of taking the
+fort. The Danish army collected in a field in front of Gullberg. But
+Lady Emerentia was vigilant. From the walls of the fort she espied a
+man of prepossessing appearance who rode a white horse. "Shoot that
+man!" was her immediate command to the nearest soldier. The shot took
+effect, killing the white horse, whose brains and blood spattered the
+king. For the man on horseback was King Christian. "That devilish crow
+does never sleep!" exclaimed the king, referring to the commander.
+
+King Christian turned on New Loedoese, killing without mercy all the
+male inhabitants of the town. West Gothland was invaded, the province
+appearing to be an easy prey because the Swedish army, commanded by
+Duke John, had just left it to march into Halland. But the bailiff of
+Hoejentorp called on the peasants to rise, which caused the Danes to
+recede. The Danes next made an attack on the fortress of Elfsborg,
+commanded by Olof Strole. Elfsborg was defended with heroism, but when
+fire threatened to destroy the towers, Olof Strole at last surrendered.
+On account of their valiant conduct the commander and his men, who were
+reduced to 200, were granted free passage with their music and banners.
+The able Morten Krakow of Gullberg had been promoted to the fortress of
+Vaxholm. His successor surrendered Gullberg to the Danes shortly after
+the fall of Elfsborg. King Christian planned a series of invasions in
+the year 1612, but, thanks to the vigilance of Gustavus Adolphus, he
+failed to accomplish the desired effect.
+
+Gustavus Adolphus wanted peace with Denmark, and such was made at
+Kneroed in 1613, after a war of mutual invasions and without any
+decisive battles or conquests of territory. The frontiers were to
+remain the same as before the war; the Danish king was allowed to
+keep the emblem of three crowns, but had to resign his claims upon
+the Swedish crown. The fortress of Elfsborg remained in the hands
+of the Danes for six years, until $1,000,000, an exorbitant sum in
+those days, was paid for it. It cost the people of Sweden very dear
+to pay this sum, sacrifices being made by the king and his friends
+to contribute to it. But Elfsborg, the only approach to the North
+Sea, was indispensable. It was returned in a miserable condition, and
+Gothenburg, on the opposite side of Gotha River, destroyed. Gustavus
+Adolphus ordered Gothenburg to be moved to its present site, on
+the mainland, and endowed it with extensive commercial privileges,
+encouraging Dutch merchants to settle there.
+
+The war with Russia began once more in 1614. Gustavus Adolphus not
+having been found willing to accept the crown for his brother Charles
+Philip, the negotiations were dropped. Count de la Gardie resumed
+control of the movements, although the king was present in person. The
+Swedes won a great victory at Bronitz and captured the fortress of
+Augdof. An attempt to take Pskof was unsuccessful, Evert Horn, the hero
+of a hundred battles, losing his life; but the Russians were willing
+to make peace. Through the honorable peace of Stolbova, in February,
+1617, Russia gave up all claims on Esthonia and Livonia, and ceded to
+Sweden Ingermanland and Kexholm. This cut off the Russians from the
+Baltic, fixed the Swedish frontier on the lakes Ladoga and Peipus, and
+left Sweden in peace with the mightiest of her enemies during almost a
+century. The armistice with Poland ended in 1616, but after two years
+of insignificant movements it was continued up to 1620.
+
+Gustavus II. Adolphus with untiring energy continued the work of
+building up the new state founded by Gustavus I. At the death of
+his father, the royal youth had won everybody by his gentleness and
+generosity. His first act was perhaps the wisest of all, in selecting
+among the councillors the young, highly talented Axel Oxenstierna as
+his chancellor. This couple have no peers in history, being united
+by the firmest of friendships and rising simultaneously to the
+highest ability of statesmanship, the gifts of the one wonderfully
+supplementing those of the other. The chancellor was cooler and slower
+than his royal friend. He placed supreme the duties to his country,
+but was of very aristocratic tendencies, through his influence leading
+the king still further away from the democratic principles of his
+father. To the nobility were granted the old privileges, with others
+in addition, which became menacing to the ancient freedom of the
+peasantry. The management of internal affairs and all branches of
+the administration were placed under various departments. They were
+presided over by the high functionaries and their offices chiefly
+filled by noblemen. A permanent supreme court was established in
+Stockholm, with the Drotsete as president, in 1614. In 1623, a supreme
+court for Finland was established and a governor-general for that
+grandduchy appointed, who was also to be president of the court.
+In 1630, a supreme court for the Baltic provinces was established
+at Dorpat. The Riksdag, governed by the new rules of 1617, was to
+convene yearly, and to consist of the four Estates of the kingdom: the
+nobility, clergy, bourgeoisie and yeomanry, each divided into various
+classes. These latter were as yet not quite distinct or organized,
+except those of the nobility, who, in 1625, formed a knightly chapter,
+the Riddarhus, which kept a register of the legitimate noble families
+of Sweden and Finland and watched over the interests of its members.
+The Estate of the nobility was divided in three classes, lords,
+knights and squires. To the first belonged the holders of counties
+and baronies, to the second those whose ancestors held the rank of
+state councillors, and to the third the rest of the nobility. As each
+class had one vote in the Riksdag, the supremacy of lords and knights,
+called the "higher nobility," was secure, when standing united, over
+the more numerous third class, the "lower nobility." The king appointed
+the speaker of the nobility, the _landtmarskalk_, who also was the
+president of their chapter. The Swedish church had its greatest
+epoch during the period of political grandeur, being characterized
+by a remarkable strength of faith and by a praiseworthy energy and
+earnestness. The clergy, high and low, set beautiful examples of
+piety, learning and patriotism. It was beloved by the people and spoke
+in their behalf with authority and courage. Not able to win Gustavus
+Adolphus over to more democratic views, it won his admiration, and he
+surnamed the ministers "tribunes of the people." The burghers, touched
+by the patriotic spirit, developed great energy during this period,
+trade and commerce having a devoted patron in the king, who, besides
+the new Gothenburg, founded twelve other towns in Sweden and Finland.
+The miners occupied of old an uncertain position between burghers and
+yeomen. They were strengthened and encouraged by the personal interest
+which the king took in the mining industry. He visited the mines
+repeatedly, descending into the bowels of the earth to inspect the ore
+and the new methods introduced from abroad by foreign miners. Among the
+latter the immigrated Dutchman, Louis de Geer, exerted a beneficial
+influence upon that industry. The factories producing clothing and
+weapons for the army were also encouraged. The yeomen occupied a
+difficult, almost desperate position between the increasing privileges
+of the nobility and the increasing taxes of the crown. Their burdens
+were doubled and their rights reduced; yet sustained by the church, and
+believing in the lofty ideals of the king, they persevered, fulfilling
+their duties with a high degree of patriotism.
+
+No Swedish king has done so much for education as Gustavus Adolphus.
+To the University of Upsala he donated 300 of his hereditary estates,
+founding its library, improving its courses, banishing misrule, and
+appointing his old teacher, John Skytte, its chancellor. He created the
+German University of Dorpat in Esthonia, in 1632; later for some time
+moved to Pernau. Colleges were established in the larger towns. The
+king was, through his thorough studies of Swedish laws and conditions,
+in a position to take an active part in the reforms which he
+promulgated, never resting long in one place, but travelling from one
+point to another, where his presence was most necessary; shaping plans
+and reforms by his own judgment, to have them indorsed by the next
+Riksdag, and then enforcing them himself. Especially the army passed
+through an evolution, thanks to new methods, devised by the king, who
+was to win his victories through the introduction of improved tactics
+and divisions, by means of which the troops were easier to move and the
+co-operation between the various weapons increased.
+
+In 1618 the "Thirty Years' War" began. The dethroned Frederic of the
+Palatinate turned, among others, to Gustavus Adolphus for support,
+which the latter was not able to give in a direct way. But he promised
+to attack Poland as soon as the armistice was at an end, thereby making
+it impossible for Sigismund to support Emperor Ferdinand with troops.
+In 1621, Gustavus Adolphus commenced operations against Poland, taking
+the command himself. Riga and Mitau were captured, the former important
+commercial centre regaining its privileges, but sending representatives
+to the Swedish Riksdag and accepting a Swedish governor. After having
+conquered Livonia, Gustavus Adolphus entered Courland the following
+year, when an armistice was agreed to. Gustavus followed the events
+in Germany with increasing interest, forming the plan of an alliance
+between the Protestant powers. Learning that the emperor was willing
+to support Sigismund, Gustavus Adolphus offered to invade Silesia.
+But as Christian IV. of Denmark was anxious to lead the Protestant
+forces, Gustavus Adolphus quietly withdrew, resuming action against
+Poland. After a victory at Wallhof, he entered Polish Prussia, where
+he was dangerously wounded at Dirschau. The Poles were reinforced by
+imperial troops, but suffered a defeat at Gurzo; the Swedish general,
+Herman Wrangel, winning the day. When the considerable reinforcements
+of 10,000 men joined the Poles, the Swedes receded in good order. A
+smaller conflict occurred at Stuhm, famous because Gustavus Adolphus
+was twice in danger of his life during the struggle, which otherwise
+was of no importance. An imperial trooper caught him by the belt and
+tried to drag the king with him. According to the report of Axel
+Oxenstierna, the king loosened the belt and let it go. In so doing, he
+also lost his hat, which was carried to Vienna and preserved as a token
+of the "great victory." Another trooper, shortly afterward, caught the
+king by the arm, aiming at the head with his sword. In the critical
+moment, Eric Soop, the colonel of a Swedish cavalry regiment, appeared,
+killing the trooper with a pistol-shot. Gustavus Adolphus referred to
+this struggle as the "hottest bath" that he was ever in.
+
+In September, 1629, an armistice was agreed to, at Altmark, to
+last for six years, during which period Sweden was to keep Livonia
+and the Russian towns of Elbing, Braunsberg, Pillau and Memel. The
+new acquisition of territory was small, but the revenue from these
+commercial towns, and from Dantzic, Libau and Windau, was considerable,
+and went to pay for the army expenses of the German campaign. The
+new temporary possessions in Prussia were formed into a Swedish
+governmental section, over which Axel Oxenstierna was appointed
+governor-general.
+
+What follows belongs to one of the most noted chapters of universal
+history. The unbroken chain of Swedish victories, the noble character
+of the king and the severe discipline upheld among his men, who
+commenced and ended their battles with prayers and hymns, astounded
+the world. The exalted nobility of Gustavus Adolphus appears to us
+all the more striking, contrasted with the faithlessness, vanity and
+cowardice of the contemporary reigning princes of Germany and Denmark.
+His victories appear all the more remarkable because the greatest
+warriors of the age--Tilly, Wallenstein and Pappenheim--were his
+adversaries. He was received by the people of Germany as a liberator,
+and his memory is blessed by every thinking German, who admits that
+the Swedes, Gustavus Adolphus and Axel Oxenstierna, completed the work
+which the Germans, Luther and Melanchthon, created. The loftiness of
+the ideals which inspired Gustavus Adolphus have been doubted, but
+not with justice. He was brought up in a severely Christian home and
+the sincerity of his piety is unmistakable. His father's clairvoyant
+views upon the coming religious conflict were familiar to him since his
+early youth, while he was, through his mother, related in blood to the
+majority of Protestant princes. Thus apparently predestined, as the
+greatest statesman and warrior of his age, to take up the cause of his
+persecuted brethren, he did not do so before the ambitious Christian
+IV. had utterly failed in his attempts and with contumely been forced
+to retire. It is not probable that Gustavus Adolphus ever thought of
+placing the crown of the Roman empire upon his head, but plausible to
+suppose that he had in view the formation of a strong union of the
+Protestant countries of Northern Europe.
+
+Before leaving Sweden, Gustavus II. convoked the representatives of
+his people, holding on his arm his little daughter Christine, four
+years old, for whom he asked their pledge of allegiance. His farewell
+speech was touching in its simplicity and the premonition of his tragic
+end. Not for worldly glory, but to save his country from peril and his
+brethren from distress, he undertook this risky war. "Generally," he
+said, "it happens thus that the vessel hauls water until it goes to
+pieces. With me likewise, that I, who in so many perils for the weal
+of my country have shed my blood, and yet until this day have been
+spared through the grace of God, now at last must lose my life. For
+that reason I will this time commend you, the collected Estates of the
+realm, to the hand of God, the Supreme One, wishing that we, after this
+our miserable and burdensome life, according to the will of God, may
+meet again, to dwell in the celestial and infinite." These words do not
+resemble the terse, striking speeches of his grandfather, but they bear
+the stamp of sincerity, and by them Gustavus Adolphus, his work and his
+purpose, are judged by the Swedish people.
+
+Midsummer Day, 1630, Gustavus Adolphus landed with his troops at the
+island of Ruden, on the coast of Pomerania. Two days later he proceeded
+to the larger island of Usedom. His troops consisted of 13,000 men.
+Gustavus Adolphus was himself the first to land. He knelt on the shore
+and prayed to God in a loud voice; his prayer moved those surrounding
+him to tears. When the king noticed it he said: "Do not cry, but pray
+to God with fervor. The more of prayer, the more of victory; the best
+Christian is the best soldier." Then he took hold of a spade and
+commenced to assist personally in the work of building a camp. When
+it grew dark, the heavens were illuminated by the fire of burning
+villages, giving evidence of the manner in which the enemy conducted
+his warfare.
+
+The supercilious Wallenstein had been dismissed by the emperor at the
+time when Gustavus Adolphus landed in Germany, but his wild hordes were
+pillaging Pomerania. Yet Gustavus Adolphus had great difficulty in
+persuading the old duke of Pomerania to accept the alliance he offered
+him. But when this was done, it took the Swedes only a short time to
+clear the duchy of its enemies. The young landgrave of Hesse and the
+free city of Magdeburg were glad to accept an alliance with Gustavus
+Adolphus. A treaty was made with France, which country promised to pay
+subsidies to Sweden as long as the German war lasted. Tilly, who was in
+command of the imperial troops, approached Magdeburg. Gustavus Adolphus
+sent proper provisions to Magdeburg with an experienced commander, as
+he could not go himself, because the elector of Saxony refused to let
+him pass with his army through Saxon territory. Magdeburg was captured
+by Tilly, who sacked and destroyed it by fire in a most barbarous way.
+
+The discipline and moderation of the Swedish troops formed a great
+contrast to the reckless behavior of the imperial army. The Swedes
+left the peaceful inhabitants in undisturbed possession of their lives
+and property; the strictest order was maintained within the army; each
+regiment held morning and evening prayers in the open air; gambling,
+carousing and plundering were sternly prohibited. For these reasons the
+Swedish king and his army were received by the poor downtrodden people
+as saviors and liberators. Gustavus Adolphus deeply mourned the fall of
+Magdeburg, whose fate it had not been in his power to prevent. He took
+a fortified position at Werben, where the river Havel is joined by the
+Ube. Tilly entered Saxony with a hostile demeanor, not satisfied with
+the lukewarm friendship of the elector. Burning villages marked the way
+of his army. The poor elector, not knowing what to do, in his despair
+turned to Gustavus Adolphus, whom he had treated so coldly and begged
+him for help. The king at once was ready to forget past differences,
+and, joining forces with the elector, he marched toward Leipsic.
+
+Tilly, with 35,000 men, occupied an advantageous position near the
+village of Breitenfeld, not far from Leipsic, at the summit of a long
+ridge of sandy hills. The infantry and the greater part of the cavalry
+were grouped in heavy divisions, forming one single line of battle with
+artillery behind at the very top of the hills. Tilly himself commanded
+the centre, while his able and fiery sub-commander, Pappenheim, had the
+command of the left wing, being in hopes to encounter the Swedish king
+personally. The Swedish army consisted of 22,000 men, who were joined
+by 11,000 Saxons.
+
+Early in the morning of September 7, 1631, the Swedes started toward
+Breitenfeld. Tilly turned pale, it is said, when he saw the order and
+firmness with which the Swedes marched up to take their positions on
+the narrow slips of ground between the Lober brook and the reach of the
+imperial cannon. The Swedes were arranged in a double line of battle,
+infantry in the centre and cavalry on the wings. Between the squadrons
+of cavalry divisions of musketeers were placed. The regimental
+artillery was distributed over a number of places. The king commanded
+the right wing in person, with John Ban�r as sub-commander. Teuffel led
+the centre and Gustavus Horn the left wing. The king had no confidence
+in the Saxons, for which reason he had arranged them by themselves at
+some distance to the left of the Swedish army. When everything was
+arranged, the king rode to the front. With his head uncovered, and
+his sword pointing to the ground, he prayed: "Almighty God, thou who
+holdest victory and defeat in the hollow of thy hand, turn thine eyes
+unto us, thy servants, who have come hither from distant dwellings to
+fight for liberty and truth, for thy holy Gospel. Give victory unto
+us for the glory of thy hallowed name! Amen!" The prayer of the king
+could be heard by almost every man of the army, and all were touched
+and strengthened by his pious trust in a righteous cause. The Swedes of
+the right wing were soon attacked by Pappenheim and his cavalry. But
+the horses of the imperialists were frightened by the flashing fire of
+the musketeers, and the attack failed to have an effect. It was ended
+as quickly as it was begun. Pappenheim concluded to make an attempt
+to surprise the Swedes from the left side. But the king divined his
+plan. He ordered John Ban�r with the second line to make a movement by
+which to turn at an angle with the first and face the attack from the
+side. Pappenheim was surprised to find a new line facing him. A bloody
+struggle ensued. Seven times his men made an inroad on the Swedish
+line and were seven times repulsed, badly damaged by the fire of the
+musketeers. The Swedes, in their turn, made an attack which scattered
+Pappenheim's forces from the field in wild flight.
+
+Tilly had with his light cavalry attacked the left wing of the Swedes.
+His men were mostly made up of Croats and other semi-barbarous people.
+When repulsed by the Swedes they concentrated their forces to crush
+the Saxons. These withstood the first assault, but the second routed
+them completely. The imperialists then made a second attack upon the
+left Swedish wing, made up of only 2,500 men. Gustavus Horn acted
+with coolness and great presence of mind. He let the first line close
+in on the second till it was able to take a firm stand against the
+heavy force of the attacking enemy. The Swedes never for a moment lost
+their position, in spite of the frightful onslaught. The king arrived
+and remained for some time with the left wing. He ordered the Scotch
+brigade of hired troops to support him. The Scotch had cannon hidden
+behind their lines. These had a telling effect upon the attacking
+imperialists, who were thrown back, suffering great losses. Everywhere
+the battle was fought with frenzy, the clouds of dust and smoke
+changing the day into night.
+
+The king made sure that the left wing of the enemy's army was engaged
+in continued flight. Then he commenced an attack with his own right
+wing upon the imperial artillery, which had kept up a steady fire
+against the Swedish centre. Tilly's cannon were captured at the first
+attempt and turned on the imperial troops, causing consternation.
+Horn opened an attack on his side and the king hastened to support
+him with his troops. Tilly tried in vain to lead his troops into the
+battle. Pappenheim had returned and gave brilliant proofs of personal
+courage. The defeat of the imperial army was unavoidable; it scattered
+in helpless confusion. Tilly lost his horse and was near being captured
+himself. Four of his best infantry regiments took a stand and tried
+to resist the conquering foe. These imperial soldiers, who never had
+suffered a defeat, preferred death to surrender. Tilly fled at last,
+followed by only 600 men. After five hours of fighting the Swedes had
+won a glorious victory. They finished the day with prayer and remained
+on the battlefield over night, arranged in order of battle. The
+following morning they entered the deserted camp of the enemy where a
+rich booty awaited them.
+
+The progress of Gustavus Adolphus along the shores of the river Main to
+the towns of Frankfort and Mayence was a march of triumph. In capturing
+Mayence, the Swedes fought the Spanish allies of the emperor. The towns
+surrendered to violence or by their own consent. Gustavus Adolphus made
+their inhabitants pledge their fidelity to him and strengthened his
+power with the rich resources of the Frankish country. Then he turned
+against Maximilian of Bavaria. Tilly, who was to defend Bavaria, was
+again encountered and defeated at Lech. He was carried from the battle
+mortally wounded and died soon afterward. Gustavus Adolphus made his
+triumphal entry into Munich, with Frederic of the Palatinate at his
+side. The danger to the crown lands of the emperor was imminent.
+
+Wallenstein was the most famous of German generals. Reticent and
+secretive, he appeared to be unable to feel mercy. He was devoted to
+the secret doctrines of astrology, which in him had taken the place
+of religion. He cared naught for the cause of religious liberty or
+the fall of the German empire, looking only for occasions to satisfy
+his own ambition and the means of obtaining power and wealth. He had
+served the emperor, who had raised him to the dignity of a duke of
+Mecklenburg, but had been dismissed and deprived of his dignities
+at the time of the arrival of Gustavus Adolphus on German soil. His
+downfall was caused by complaints of his insolence and recklessness,
+made by Maximilian of Bavaria and other German princes. Wallenstein
+retired to Prague, at the castle of which town he surrounded himself
+with princely luxury and comfort, scheming for revenge. His plan was
+to join the enemies of the emperor. He approached Gustavus Adolphus
+for such purpose, before the battle of Breitenfeld, and was delighted
+to hear of the defeat of Tilly. Gustavus Adolphus seemed at first
+inclined to take up relations with Wallenstein, but at the point where
+an agreement was to be made he suddenly changed his attitude. The
+king probably hesitated to accept the services of a man who had no
+other aim than to satisfy his own ambition. The emperor was placed
+in a bad predicament, at the second defeat of Tilly, for want of an
+army to defend his lands and a commander to lead it. There was only
+one way out of the difficulty, and that was to pacify the mortally
+offended Wallenstein, and to persuade him to re-enter the service of
+the emperor. The emperor resigned himself to accept this humiliating
+condition, and Wallenstein agreed to resume command, but only at a
+high price. The name of Wallenstein was enough to bring thousands
+of warriors under the imperial banners, and Wallenstein was soon at
+the head of an army of sufficient proportions. His doctrine was that
+"the war should support itself," according to which his soldiers were
+allowed to sack and plunder at will the countries through which they
+were passing. He cared naught for the recklessness of his subordinates,
+if they only showed blind obedience to him.
+
+Wallenstein expelled the Saxons who had invaded Bohemia. But he showed
+disinclination to assist the elector of Bavaria, who was compelled to
+leave his country. At Eger, Wallenstein was reinforced and marched on
+Nuremberg with an army of 60,000, prepared to meet Gustavus Adolphus.
+He was confident of his superior force. "Within four days," he said,
+"it shall become evident whether I or the Swedish king is the master of
+Germany." Gustavus Adolphus hastened to relieve Nuremberg, taking his
+position in the immediate neighborhood of said town. He had only 18,000
+men with him, but he surrounded this army with solid fortifications,
+and Wallenstein dared not risk an attack, in spite of his superior
+force. Wallenstein took his position at the summit of three steep
+hills, surrounded by trenches and ramparts. His intention was to
+cut off the Swedes from all sources of supplies and force them to
+surrender by starvation. "I shall teach the Swedish king," he said, "a
+new method of warfare."
+
+For nine weeks the two armies were facing each other. The suffering
+became great in both camps. The Swedes suffered most, although the
+inhabitants of Nuremberg tried their utmost to supply them with food.
+When the provisions were diminishing, the bonds of discipline were
+loosened. Especially the Germans of the Swedish army made themselves
+conspicuous by licentiousness and plunder. Gustavus Adolphus decided
+to try an attack on Wallenstein's camp, in order to put an end to the
+critical state of things. He was so much more anxious to risk it, as
+his army had been considerably reinforced and was almost equal to
+Wallenstein's in numbers. At noon, August 24, 1632, the Swedish army
+made ready for battle. The attack was first made on Burgstall, the most
+important one of the three hills occupied by the enemy. The battle was
+a fierce and bloody one, the whole mountain being clothed in fire and
+smoke. Several of the most distinguished of the Swedish officers were
+killed or captured. A bullet passed through the boot of the king; an
+officer was killed at his side. The Swedes were thrown back on one
+hand, while on the other, Duke Bernhard of Weimar, one of the German
+commanders of the king, succeeded in capturing one of the forts built
+on the Burgstall. But as the day was over and the army exhausted,
+the Swedes were not able to profit by their success. A heavy rain
+commenced, continuing through the night. This made it impossible to
+haul any cannon up to the captured fort, which was then abandoned. The
+Swedish army returned to the camp. This unsuccessful attack cost the
+Swedes almost 2,000 men. Gustavus Adolphus wrote in regard to it: "It
+was too much to be considered a page's trick, but too small to be of
+real earnest." Wallenstein wrote of it. "Never in my life have I seen a
+more desperate fire, but I hope that the Swedes have lost their horns
+in this conflict."
+
+The king broke camp a fortnight later, arranging his army into a line
+of battle. For four hours he waited for Wallenstein to come forward,
+but the latter did not risk an attack. Gustavus Adolphus intended
+to enter Swabia, to complete the conquest of Southwestern Germany.
+But Wallenstein, who soon afterward also broke camp, invaded Saxony.
+This caused the king to change his plans. He was obliged to follow
+Wallenstein in order to protect his ally and to avoid the danger of
+being cut off from the connections with his own empire. Wallenstein
+marked his way by cruel devastation, and the appeals of the unhappy
+population persuaded the king to take an early decision.
+
+The people of Saxony received Gustavus Adolphus with great enthusiasm,
+of which they gave evidence in the most exultant manner. People were
+seen kneeling everywhere on his way, imploringly stretching their hands
+toward him. The king was not content with their exaggerated devotion.
+"I fear that God is offended by their vain demonstrations of joy and
+soon shall show them that the one whom they adore as a god is naught
+but a weak and mortal man."
+
+Wallenstein was in the neighborhood of Leipsic, at the little town of
+Lutzen. He had sent away Pappenheim, his best sub-commander, to Halle
+with a considerable force. Gustavus Adolphus found this circumstance
+favorable and decided on an attack.
+
+It was the 6th of November, 1632. A heavy mist covered the spacious
+fields around Leipsic. Wallenstein was, with the right wing of his
+army, close on Lutzen, the little town being set on fire, in order not
+to shield a clandestine attack. The flame of the conflagration appeared
+dull but magnified through the mists of the early morning. In front of
+the imperial army was the highway. Musketeers were stationed in and
+above the ditches, which were made deeper and provided with ramparts.
+The musketeers were so arranged that higher lines could shoot over the
+heads of the lower ones. Behind them was another chain of musketeers.
+The artillery was placed partly behind the musketeers, partly on the
+sides of a hill where some windmills were situated. The cavalry was
+placed on the wings, the infantry in the centre, both arranged in great
+square divisions. A courier had been sent to recall Pappenheim, as the
+army without his force counted only 18,000 men. The Swedish army was
+20,000 strong and was arranged according to a plan similar to the one
+followed at Breitenfeld. It was arranged in two lines. Musketeers were
+interspersed among the cavalry. The regimental artillery was placed
+before the front. The king commanded the right wing, Nils Brahe the
+centre, Kniephausen the second line of the centre, and Duke Bernhard
+the left wing.
+
+The king, who for the time being had none of his best officers around
+him, spent the night in a wagon, together with Duke Bernhard and
+Kniephausen. He rose in the morning, dressed, without armor, in a
+blouse and a gray coat, and mounted his usual white charger, without
+having tasted food. He conducted in person the morning prayers of the
+army, when Luther's psalm, "Eine feste Burg ist unser Gott," was sung.
+After the song had ceased, the king made a short speech in Swedish,
+which he repeated in German. He said: "There you have the enemy. He is
+not now at the top of the hill or behind intrenchments, but in the
+open field. You know well how eagerly he has sought to avoid a conflict
+and that he is forced to fight because he cannot escape us. Fight,
+then, my dear countrymen and friends, for God, your country and your
+king. I will reward you all. But if you flinch, you know well that not
+a man of you will ever see his country again." Then the psalm, "Versage
+nicht du H�uflein klein," the words of which were written in German by
+Gustavus Adolphus himself, was sung. The king gave the sign of attack
+by waving his sword over his head and cried: "Forward in God's name;
+Jesu, Jesu, Jesu, help us to-day to strive to the honor of thy holy
+name!"
+
+It was eleven o'clock, and the mists had, to a great extent, scattered.
+The Swedish centre, with the battery behind, marched toward the
+highway. The left wing made an attempt to penetrate between the burning
+Lutzen and the batteries below the windmills. A terrible fire from
+muskets and cannon met the attacking Swedes. Whole lines of infantry
+were killed. The left wing suffered in particular. But when the Swedes
+reached their destination, the centre moved on with great force,
+cleaning the ditches of musketeers, capturing seven pieces of artillery
+and making two of the great squares of imperial infantry retire from
+their position. While fighting the third, the Swedes were surprised by
+the reserve and cavalry forces of the enemy, and had to abandon what
+they had taken, retiring into the open field.
+
+The king had, in the meantime, with the cavalry of the right wing,
+forced the ditches. When notified of the danger in which the centre
+was placed, he hurried to assist his infantry. At the head of his
+Smaland cavalry he moved on so quickly that he was separated from the
+rest of his forces. The king was near-sighted and the mist once more
+thickening. For these reasons he happened to ride close up to the
+lines of the imperial cuirassiers. His horse was wounded, and the king
+himself received a pistol shot in the arm. He turned to one of his
+companions, Duke Frantz Albrecht, of Sachsen-Lauenburg, with a request
+to be escorted out of the battle, but was at that instant wounded in
+the back, immediately falling off his horse. Duke Frantz Albrecht, only
+thinking of saving his own life, fled from the spot. But a German page,
+eighteen years of age, who accompanied the king, jumped from his horse
+and tried to assist the king in mounting it. Some imperial cavalrymen
+passed by. They inquired for the name of the wounded lord. The page
+tried to hide his identity, but Gustavus Adolphus answered: "I was once
+the king of Sweden." One of the imperialists attempted to drag the king
+with him, but seeing some Swedish soldiers approaching, he sent in
+leaving a bullet through the wounded hero's brain.
+
+The Swedes had been thrown back from the highway all over the line.
+The white horse of the king, with empty saddle and stained with blood,
+was seen galloping before the front. The message of mourning spread
+with lightning rapidity through the army, causing universal sorrow
+and anger. The ambition to avenge the death of the beloved king was
+kindled in every breast. Duke Bernhard at once assumed supreme command
+when notified of the catastrophe. The sagacious Kniephausen thought
+the battle lost and considered it best to retire in good order. The
+duke answered: "Here is not the question of retreat, but of revenge in
+victory or death." The Swedish line of battle soon moved forward once
+more and with redoubled strength. The right wing, commanded by the
+valiant Stolhandske, threw back the imperial troops who had caused
+the fall of the king. Nils Brahe once more carried the troops of the
+centre across the highway and captured for a second time the seven
+pieces of artillery. The left wing, commanded by Duke Bernhard, also
+moved forward victoriously, capturing the batteries at the windmill
+and pointing the cannon toward the enemy. When simultaneously some
+wagons loaded with powder for the imperial artillery exploded with a
+tremendous roar, the whole army of Wallenstein was thrown into a state
+of confusion. It was thought that the Swedes had made an attack from
+the rear. The cavalry fled in great numbers with the cries: "We know
+the king of Sweden! He is worst toward the end of the day."
+
+But now another cry was heard: "Pappenheim is coming! Pappenheim is
+coming!" And so it was. Pappenheim arrived with his valiant cavalry at
+this important juncture. "Where is the king of Sweden to be found?"
+was his first question. When told that Gustavus Adolphus had been
+seen leading the right wing, he hurried thither, not knowing the fate
+that had befallen his royal enemy, and desirous of fighting him face
+to face. The imperialists recommenced the battle with renewed vigor.
+The scattered forces of cavalry and infantry were collected once more
+and were joined by the fresh troops of Pappenheim. The attacking
+Swedes met a stanch resistance. The latter were almost tired out, but
+preserved their courage. A contemporary writer says that a battle was
+never fought in a better way by troops who had for such a long stretch
+been in the fire. The Swedish losses were exceedingly heavy. The royal
+standard and several other banners were taken. The able Nils Brahe was
+killed, and the division of which he was the head fell to the very last
+man. But Pappenheim, who rushed forward blindly, in his eagerness to
+meet the king of Sweden, was also killed, according to tradition, by a
+bullet from Stolhandske. "Pappenheim has fallen! All is lost!" shouted
+his men, and drew back discouraged. Wallenstein still thought there was
+a chance to hold the field against the exhausted enemy.
+
+Kniephausen had preserved the second line of battle in good order,
+resolved to cover the retreat he thought unavoidable. He had sent
+away smaller divisions to support the first line, but not in numbers
+enough to disturb the order of his own troops. Now he commanded his
+men to the front, to fill all the gaps of the first lines. When this
+was done, the Swedes made a third attack. The evening sun pierced
+through the mists for a moment, and Wallenstein in this light saw the
+Swedish army approach in a mighty solid line as at the opening of the
+battle. He was greatly surprised. This time the Swedes were resolved
+to conquer or die. Soldiers were heard to promise each other to stand
+by that resolution. For a third time the Swedes passed the highway and
+recaptured, after a bloody struggle, the disputed cannon. The wings of
+Wallenstein's army were both in a state of dissolution. But his centre
+preserved two divisions which offered a stubborn resistance until
+sunset, when they were ordered to retreat. The Swedes had won the day,
+but were too tired to pursue the enemy. Following their custom, they
+rested over the night on the battlefield they had bought by their blood.
+
+The loss of troops had been heavy on either side, amounting to about
+6,000 men altogether, or about one-third of the whole number of men
+engaged in the battle. The excitement was so great on both sides that
+no prisoners were made. The corpse of Gustavus Adolphus, bruised and
+mangled, was found during the night under a heap of dead soldiers. A
+large monumental stone, with inscription, now marks the spot where the
+hero king lost his life. The Gustavus Adolphus Society of Germany is a
+living monument to his memory.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+_Period of Political Grandeur--Queen Christine_
+
+
+Christine was six years old when she succeeded her father. Her armies
+stood scattered through foreign lands, surrounded by enemies and
+faithless allies. Her country was covered with glory, but in direst
+distress. The most remarkable aspect of her father's greatness now was
+to become apparent. Gustavus Adolphus had left behind men whom he had
+educated as statesmen, and generals capable of bringing his work to a
+successful end. First among the former was the state chancellor, _Axel
+Oxenstierna_, the friend and adviser of the hero king. He managed to
+keep the Swedish allies together and to establish harmony and unity of
+action between the Swedish commanders, supplying funds to carry on the
+war and strengthening the government at home with his courage and his
+wisdom. Oxenstierna was a statesman of considerable power before the
+death of the king; after it he grows in grandeur to carry the burden
+of unlimited responsibility placed on his shoulders. His coolness and
+dignity were a source of constant irritation to Richelieu, who said
+there was "something Gothic and a good deal of Finnish" about his
+proceedings in diplomatic affairs, while Mazarin said that if all the
+statesmen of his time were to be put aboard of one vessel, Oxenstierna
+should be placed at the helm. The great chancellor always upheld the
+dignity of his country. When French diplomatists forgot themselves thus
+far as to use, in correspondence, their own language, instead of Latin,
+the recognized language of diplomacy in that day, Axel Oxenstierna gave
+instructions that they should be answered in Swedish.
+
+After the death of Gustavus Adolphus, the war in Germany lost more
+and more of its original aspect. The cause of Protestantism was
+dropped out of sight for political interests. The battles of Sweden
+were, to a great extent, and sometimes altogether, fought by foreign
+troops; but Swedish were the generals and statesmen who led the
+operations of the armies and the diplomatic deliberations. The success
+of Sweden, at first, seemed to have passed away with her great hero
+king. The imperialists won a great victory at Noerdlingen in 1634.
+The young archduke, Ferdinand, had succeeded Wallenstein as their
+commander-general, the latter having been murdered at the request of
+the emperor. Ferdinand marched on the town of Noerdlingen with an army
+of German and Spanish troops, the experienced Piccolomini being at
+his side. Duke Bernhard, who with an army had been taking possession
+of Franconia in his own personal interests, hastened to support
+the town and was joined by Gustavus Horn, who, with another army,
+had been stationed in Elsass. Count Horn gave the advice to await
+reinforcements, but the excitable Duke Bernhard opened an attack on
+the enemy, which necessitated an immediate battle. After eight hours
+of hard fighting, the imperialists, who were 30,000 strong, entirely
+routed the Swedish army of 18,000 men, not a single Swedish regiment
+being among them. Horn was made a prisoner. Duke Bernhard, who soon
+afterward with his troops entered French service, acknowledged his
+fault, saying: "I was a fool, but Horn a wise man." Sweden lost through
+this terrible defeat an army and two able generals. The Swedish
+conquests in South Germany were lost, and the German allies were
+scattered, the elector of Saxony joining the cause of the emperor. The
+armistice with Poland came to an end in 1635, and it was renewed for
+twenty-six years, at the cost of the Prussian seaports, with their
+lucrative revenues, which had paid for the expenses of the German war.
+Oxenstierna returned to Sweden to gather means wherewith to continue
+the war. The ordinary resources of Sweden were drained, and great
+sacrifices were needed. The Riksdag declared itself willing to "risk
+life, blood and means, until God grants a peace equal to the dignity of
+Sweden."
+
+John Ban�r was the man who re-established the success of the Swedish
+arms. He resembled Gustavus Adolphus in greatness of mind and ability
+in war, paying back the execution of his father under Charles IX.,
+by loyalty to the illustrious son of the latter. Ban�r was a typical
+soldier of the Thirty Years' War, amiable, but licentious, and cruel
+to his enemies. An able tactician and strategist of inexhaustible
+resources, he had distinguished himself in the Polish war and later
+held many important commands. The death of Gustavus Adolphus stirred
+this strong man to the very depths of his soul. He left his army in
+Bavaria and arrived at Wolgast, resolved to leave the army. At the
+sight of the body of his beloved king, he was overcome by a paroxysm of
+grief. Axel Oxenstierna persuaded him to resume his command in order to
+bring the work of their dead master to completion. He marched with his
+army through Silesia to Bohemia, encamping before Prague. After the
+battle of Noerdlingen he retreated to Saxony, whose deceitful elector
+he reproached with harsh words. Intrigues by the latter to bring the
+German troops in Swedish service to mutiny were frustrated by Ban�r,
+who had only 2,000 Swedes and Livonians with him. The Saxon army
+followed Ban�r into Mecklenburg, but suffered a defeat at Doemitz. Ban�r
+marched eastward and joined the Swedish force, which met him, from
+Prussia, commanded by Lennart Torstensson. The elector of Brandenburg
+also declared war on Sweden, Ban�r answering by invading his country.
+From the vicinity of Berlin, Ban�r continued his way through Saxony
+back to Mecklenburg, his German troops marauding with such cruelty that
+they were sharply remonstrated with by Ban�r, who said he found it
+strange that God did not instantly punish them.
+
+Ban�r was followed by the united armies of Austria and Saxony, but,
+having received reinforcements of Swedish troops, he turned on his
+tracks and met the enemy at Wittstock, in Brandenburg, September 24,
+1636. The Swedish army consisted of 20,000 men, while the opposing
+force was much larger and occupied a favorable position on a hill.
+Ban�r won a glorious victory, thanks to a skilfully executed manoeuvre.
+It grew dark, and the right wing of the Swedes was leading an almost
+forlorn hope against the overwhelming forces, when their left wing,
+after a difficult roundabout move, attacked the enemy from behind. Of
+the hostile armies every man was killed except a detachment less than
+1,000 strong. The baggage, artillery and banners were taken, even the
+table silver of the elector and the imperial generals falling into the
+hands of the Swedes, who by this victory had regained their supremacy
+on German soil.
+
+Ban�r had commenced the siege of Leipsic, when, upon news of an
+approaching army of the imperial allies, he was forced to undertake the
+famous "Retreat from Torgau," which made him more celebrated than any
+of his great battles. He with his army was near being surrounded at
+the river Oder, but saved himself through a series of movements of the
+highest strategic skill. Cardinal Richelieu wrote that "this retreat,
+by means of which Ban�r saved 14,000 men, less a few fugitives and
+wounded, with cannon and baggage, against an army 60,000 strong, is to
+be compared to the most glorious deeds in history." The enemy prided
+itself on having "caught Ban�r in a bag." "Yes," said Ban�r later,
+"surely they had me there, but they forgot to tie the string around."
+
+In Pomerania, Ban�r received the reinforcements from Sweden which
+he had awaited, and once more invaded Saxony, where he won a grand
+victory at Chemnitz, in 1639. The Swedish army invaded Bohemia, cruelly
+devastating the country. Ban�r made a daring attack upon Regensburg
+in order to make the emperor and the whole German diet his prisoners.
+Sudden thaws frustrated the plans, making it impossible for the Swedes
+to cross the Danube. A superior force was sent to meet Ban�r, who saved
+his army by another famous retreat back to Saxony. On the way Ban�r
+was attacked by a fever and died at Halberstadt, in 1641. When the
+imperialists learned of the death of the Swedish Leonidas, they thought
+they could easily defeat his army. The Swedes saw the approaching enemy
+and collected around the coffin of their dead hero, offering solemn
+pledges to fight for the glory of his name. They then made a sudden
+attack upon the imperial army, which suffered a thorough defeat at
+Wolfenbuttel. John Ban�r, triumphant in death like his great master,
+was buried in the Swedish Pantheon of the Riddarholm.
+
+Ban�r had expressed the wish that Lennart Torstensson should succeed
+him as commander-general of the Swedish armies. Lennart Torstensson was
+a greater warrior even than John Ban�r; no Swedish general, Gustavus
+Adolphus not excepted, ever reaching higher skill or perfection in the
+science of war than this crippled hero. Torstensson was of a noble
+although not influential family. He entered the service of Gustavus
+Adolphus as a body page to the king, later distinguishing himself as an
+artillery commander. Torstensson took an honorable part in the battle
+of Breitenfeld, but made a prisoner at Nuremberg, he lost his health,
+during one year's captivity, in a miserable dungeon. During his later
+brilliant career he suffered greatly from rheumatism, and was mostly
+carried around in a litter throughout the battles which covered his
+name with undying fame. He was a pious man of a gentle and cheerful
+disposition, who tried his utmost to reintroduce among his troops the
+excellent moral behavior and severe discipline which had been lost
+after the death of Gustavus Adolphus.
+
+Torstensson with rigor suppressed the intrigues against Sweden which
+were secretly carried on within the army. Brandenburg received a new
+elector in Frederic William, who, ambitious and far-seeing, entered an
+alliance with the victorious power of the North. Torstensson now was
+enabled to invade the imperial crown lands, commencing with Silesia;
+but finding it necessary to force a battle he met the imperialists
+at Breitenfeld. October 23, 1642, the second great victory of
+Breitenfeld was won by Swedish arms. Archduke Leopold and Piccolomini
+led the imperial army, the latter general fighting as a common
+soldier to inspire courage by his example, but with no effect. The
+Swedes captured the baggage, cannon and banners of the enemy, taking
+5,000 prisoners and leaving as many dead imperialists on the field.
+Torstensson conquered Leipsic on the following day.
+
+Torstensson marched through Bohemia and Moravia with the rapidity which
+characterized all his military movements, and penetrated to the very
+gates of Vienna, the emperor with difficulty saving himself from being
+made his prisoner. But suddenly he left and marched through Silesia
+to North Germany. He had received an order from the state council to
+attack Denmark. The great chancellor was out of patience with the
+perfidy and intrigues of Christian IV., who stood in secret connection
+with every one of Sweden's enemies. No previous declaration of war was
+made. Torstensson captured the Danish duchies of Schleswig and Holstein
+before any one could prevent it, his army then taking possession of all
+Jutland. Gustavus Horn invaded Scania, almost completely capturing the
+whole province in spite of bands of freebooters among the peasants,
+called _Snaphaner_.
+
+Denmark was in danger of its very existence, but King Christian IV.
+did not forget his old wish to destroy the town of Gothenburg, whose
+growing prosperity caused him envy. He approached Gothenburg with
+a fleet, and viewed the town from the overlooking mountain of the
+Ramberg. His demands for a surrender were refused. Patriotic Louis de
+Geer had ordered from Holland a fleet at his own expense, which was
+to go to the support of Gothenburg. It did not arrive in time, but
+King Christian left to meet it, and it later proved of great value in
+the Swedish movements at sea, joining the Swedish fleet in the Sound.
+The latter, consisting of twenty-two ships under the command of Clas
+Fleming, sailed to the Danish waters, capturing the island of Femern,
+supported by Torstensson. An invasion of the island of Funen was
+planned, but could not be effected. A great naval battle between the
+Swedish and Danish fleets was fought July 6th. It caused great loss on
+either side, without being decisive. King Christian, who commanded his
+naval forces, lost one eye and received over twenty different wounds.
+The Swedes kept the place of battle, but sought the Bay of Skiel for
+repairs, where they were hedged in by the Danish fleet. Clas Fleming
+encouraged his followers to cut through the line, in which they were
+successful. A month later he was killed by a shot from the coast of
+Holstein, where the Danes had erected a fort. The Swedes avenged the
+death of their valiant commander by destroying the fort and killing
+its defenders. Fleming was succeeded by Charles Gustavus Wrangel, who
+saved the fleet to Sweden, returning to Femern in the autumn, joined
+by the Dutch fleet of Louis de Geer. The Danish fleet was met with
+October 13th, and at once scattered. The swift-sailing Dutch ships went
+in pursuit and destroyed all the seventeen Danish ships but two, which
+brought the news of the disaster to Copenhagen.
+
+King Christian, who had in vain expected support from the emperor,
+found himself defeated on every point, and had no other choice than
+to make peace. The treaty was signed August 13, 1645, at Broemsebro,
+Denmark ceding the provinces of Jemtland and Herjedal and the islands
+of Gothland and OEsel. The province of Halland was to remain for thirty
+years in the possession of Sweden, which country was exempt from duties
+of toll for the traffic in the Sound. Denmark disavowed all claims of
+supremacy over Holstein, the duke of said country two years later
+formally placing himself under Swedish protection.
+
+Lennart Torstensson had fulfilled his task in Denmark and returned
+to Germany. At Jueterbogk, in Brandenburg, he met the imperial army,
+which had been sent to cut off his retreat from Denmark, and entirely
+routed it. After this victory Torstensson hastened to Bohemia, resolved
+to "attack the emperor in his heart and force him to make peace." At
+Jankowitz, in Bohemia, Torstensson administered a new and crushing
+defeat to the imperialists, in 1645. The emperor, who himself had
+ordered his army to battle, had arrived in Prague to witness the defeat
+of the Swedes, which the Holy Virgin had promised him in a dream. He
+soon learned the news, which was quite different from that expected.
+The imperial commander-general, five generals and eight colonels were
+made prisoners by the Swedes, who captured the artillery and baggage of
+the enemy. The health of Torstensson was at that moment so good that he
+was able to lead the movements on horseback. He said that such a bloody
+battle would not be seen for a long time.
+
+Torstensson invaded Moravia, the fortresses surrendering and the
+inhabitants fleeing in terror. For a second time he stood at the walls
+of Vienna. The very fortifications which protected the bridge across
+the Danube were captured by the Swedes. The enemy, whom the elector
+of Saxony had promised to chase out of Germany, was now knocking at
+the gate of the emperor, who heard the report with consternation. But
+Lennart Torstensson was forced to surrender to a perfidious enemy, who
+came to his door without knocking. His rheumatic ailment returned with
+such violence that he was obliged to renounce his command and return
+from the fields where he had led none but victorious armies. He was
+succeeded by Charles Gustavus Wrangel. The latter had to give up the
+siege of Vienna, but maintained, in connection with the French, the
+supremacy in Germany until an honorable peace was won. Upon his return
+to Sweden, Lennart Torstensson was covered with distinctions, being
+made a baron and a count on one and the same day. He was appointed
+governor-general of West Gothland, Vermland, and the lately conquered
+Halland, with his seat at Gothenburg, where he built himself a palace
+(still the official residence of the governor of Gothenburg and
+Bohusl�n). Lennart Torstensson died in 1651, leaving behind the fame of
+one of the greatest warriors known to history, and a spotless memory.
+
+The treaty of peace of Westphalia was signed in October, 1648. The
+representatives of Sweden were John Oxenstierna, a son of the great
+chancellor, and Adler Salvius. Sweden received, as a reward for her
+decisive and glorious part in the Thirty Years' War, the following
+possessions: West Pomerania, with the islands of Rugen and Usedom;
+the western part of East Pomerania, with the island of Wollin; the
+town of Wismar, with surrounding territory, and the bishoprics of
+Bremen and Verden. With these German possessions followed three votes
+at the German Diet. The Swedish government was to receive a sum of
+several millions to defray the army expenses, of which Queen Christine
+recklessly ceded the larger part.
+
+Through these glorious conditions of peace Sweden rose to the rank
+of one of the mightiest of European empires, which held the balance
+of power in Northern Europe. Her possessions made the Baltic almost
+an "inland lake of Sweden," and efforts soon followed to make it
+completely so. Sweden exerted a beneficent influence throughout her
+large possessions, which, from a cultural point of view, hardly can
+be overestimated. Her methods of planting the seeds of culture, by
+establishing Swedish and German universities, and by abolishing serfdom
+in the conquered lands, are worthy of the highest respect. But with
+her new political grandeur Sweden acquired formidable enemies; she had
+not the resources to sustain or defend her great possessions, and the
+development of the mother country was for a time misdirected by dreams
+of vain glory.
+
+The government of Sweden during Christine's minority, according to the
+directions left by her father, consisted of the five highest officials
+of the realm. Among these the chancellor, through his experience and
+his former intimacy with Gustavus Adolphus, was the leading spirit,
+king in all except the name, and deserving the honorable surname of
+"our greatest civilian," given him by Swedish historians. Unlike the
+majority of other uncrowned or crowned rulers, he did not use his power
+to secure wealth or distinction for himself and his family until upon
+his retirement. Offers to make him a ruling prince of Germany, and the
+young queen his son's consort, were coldly refused. While the war was
+going on he strengthened the foundations of the centralization of the
+state by the government regulations of 1634. At the side of the supreme
+court of Stockholm another was established at Joenkoeping, for Gothaland,
+with a state councillor as president. The system of various government
+departments was enlarged upon.[2] The most important of these was the
+chancery, in which all business to come before the government was
+prepared. Departments for commerce and for mining were established.
+Sweden was divided into eleven administrative districts, _l�n_,
+later increased to sixteen, each of these having a governor. Finland
+was divided into five districts. Count Peter Brahe the Younger, as
+governor-general of Finland, did more for this neglected country than
+was ever done before to right wrongs and foster prosperity. Livonia and
+Ingermanland received each their governor-general, the latter province,
+by repeated wars brought into a devastated condition, serving as a
+place of deportation. This system of administration won the admiration
+of the Continent and was in many instances copied as a pattern of
+perfection. The Swedish army was considered the finest in the world,
+and troops better trained or more victorious did not exist. At the end
+of the Thirty Years' War about 100,000 men were under Swedish command.
+The majority of these were foreigners, who afterward were enlisted
+for continual service. Their officers were raised in great numbers to
+the rank of nobles and endowed with dignities and estates. The army
+was divided into twenty regiments, seven of which were Finnish. The
+town and coast population regularly furnished able men for the navy.
+Much was done to improve the interior communications by means of new
+roads and canals. A postal route was established between Stockholm and
+Gothenburg, and others followed. A Swedish postmaster in Hamburg had
+charge of the foreign mails. Newspapers were published, the government
+shaping for itself an organ for official announcement which is yet
+published.
+
+Great improvements were made in the mining industry, thanks principally
+to the efforts of the noble immigrant, Louis de Geer and his Walloons,
+who made the mines of Dannemora a source of riches. Weapons and cannon
+were manufactured not only for the army, but for exportation also. The
+brass foundries were excellent. The towns began to flourish, especially
+Stockholm and Gothenburg, through commerce with Holland and the Baltic
+States. A Swedish colony, planned by Gustavus Adolphus through the
+South Company, created by him in Gothenburg, was founded in North
+America. In 1638 two ships, "Kalmar Nyckel" and "Fogel Grip," arrived
+at the mouth of the Delaware River, where territory was procured
+through honest purchase from the Indians. The Dutch in neighboring
+colonies tried to persuade the Indians to oust the newcomers, but the
+Swedish governor, Peter Menuet, won their goodwill by fair dealing. The
+members of the colony of New Sweden were honest, upright people, who
+dwelt in peace with the natives. They accepted a governor appointed
+by the government, in the person of John Printz, but refused to
+tolerate among themselves criminals who later were despatched to their
+colony, and these had to be taken back. New Sweden after a few decades
+became the prey of the Dutch, but many American families point with
+justifiable pride to their descent from these honest and industrious
+Swedish settlers. A Swedish colony on the coast of African Guinea
+existed between 1650 and 1663, but was through treacherous dealings
+turned over to the Dutch.
+
+Much was done to build up the educational system, several new
+colleges were established, and regulations made to instruct the
+peasants. Peter Brahe founded the University of Abo, in 1640, while
+in Finland, and the German University of Greifswald, in Swedish
+Pomerania, was re-established. Swedish men of learning began to
+attract attention, such as John Skytte, who was considered the most
+brilliant Latin scholar of Europe in his day, Stiernhoek, the jurist,
+Bureus and Messenius, the historians, and Georg Stiernhielm, poet and
+antiquarian. The old Icelandic literature was discovered and began to
+exert a strong influence on literature and science, to a great extent
+strengthening their chauvinistic spirit. The Swedish poets Stiernhielm,
+Runius, Holmstroem, Lucidor and the poetess Brenner, from the Eddic
+songs, which contain some of the oldest humorous poems in existence,
+learned how to write in a humorous vein, something entirely unknown in
+the German and French literatures of that day.
+
+The excellent government, of which Axel Oxenstierna was the leading
+spirit, had its defects. In its perfect system of administration, which
+in the main features stands unshaken to this day, there appeared to be
+no room for the people themselves to be governed. On account of the
+great allowances made to the nobles it was necessary to increase the
+taxes of the peasants. Many had to leave their homes and farms for
+want of resources to pay their taxes; others were forced away from
+their property by the nobles. There was danger of the destruction of
+the free, self-dependent yeomanry. A hatred against the nobility grew
+up. The great lords returned from the wars laden with booty, erected
+fine castles, and continued the high living to which they had become
+accustomed while abroad. The power of the nobility was increased by
+lavish donations from Queen Christine and by the appropriation of
+other crown lands which the government was forced to sell or mortgage
+on account of the wars. The clergy were the spokesmen of the peasant
+class at the Riksdag, every year demanding with greater emphasis a
+restitution to the crown of its property, which was held by the nobles.
+
+Queen Christine herself took the reins of government, in 1644, at the
+age of eighteen. She had inherited from her illustrious father some
+of his genius, and from her mother, Marie Eleonore of Brandenburg, a
+peculiar nervous disposition. Her mother took no interest in her until
+the death of Gustavus Adolphus, when a flood of exalted tenderness
+suddenly was let loose over her. Count Jacob de la Gardie took the
+lead in opposing the undesirable and unstable character of this
+relation, Christine being separated from her mother and educated by
+the Countess-Palatine Catherine, a pious and noble woman, the older
+sister of Gustavus Adolphus. Greatly offended, Marie Eleonore left the
+country never to return. Queen Christine showed a remarkable faculty
+of absorbing knowledge. Well versed in a great number of languages,
+and well read in various sciences, particularly mathematics, she soon
+acquired fame as the most learned woman of her time. She was of frank
+countenance, slept little, cared little for dress, and was passionately
+fond of hunting and riding on horseback. Queen Christine possessed
+a sharp intellect, was daring and resolute, but headstrong, fickle,
+extravagant, and but little particular in her choice of favorites. Her
+vanity and egotism knew no bounds. At the beginning of her reign she
+took pains to give serious attention to the affairs of state. The great
+chancellor had been her instructor in economics and statecraft, but
+she repaid him by open coldness and secret antagonism. Her ambition to
+surround herself with scientists of note, particularly foreigners who
+flattered her vanity by blowing her fame to the four corners of the
+earth, killed her interest for politics. Later she was seized by the
+evil spirit of frivolity, abandoning herself to empty pleasures and to
+excesses of extravagance when her learned admirers were forgotten for
+unworthy favorites. Among the latter, Count Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie
+was for a long time all-powerful. The grandson of General Pontus and
+a daughter of John III., he was the son of Count Jacob de la Gardie
+and Ebba Brahe, and one of the most brilliant noblemen of Europe. In
+his youth he formed an intimate friendship with the dauphin of France,
+later Louis XIV., who throughout his life honored him with the title
+of "Mon Cousin," or "Mon cher Cousin." His ambition to become Queen
+Christine's consort was never satisfied, nor was he allowed to accept
+the rank of a prince from the German emperor, but the queen made him
+the richest man in her realm. Magnus de la Gardie did not possess the
+sterling qualities of his ancestors, but was of great patriotism and
+lavishly liberal toward educational institutions, in this respect
+without a peer in Swedish history. In 1666 he founded the Academy of
+Antiquities, which was the first arch�ological institution in Europe,
+the Swedish antiquarians of the day, principal among them Bureus and
+Stiernhielm, doing valuable antiquarian research. In 1664, Count de la
+Gardie donated to the University Library of Upsala a highly valuable
+collection of manuscripts and books, chiefly from Iceland. In the
+collection was also the Gothic Bible translation of Bishop Wulfila
+in the only copy extant. Liberal with his silver, Count de la Gardie
+gave to the precious book a silver binding, as he had in earlier years
+presented to Queen Christine a silver throne (which is still in use).
+This book has an interesting history of its own.
+
+Codex Argenteus, the silver book, thus called on account of its
+silver binding, contains fragments of the four Gospels in the Gothic
+language. The translation was made from the Greek original by Bishop
+Wulfila (b. 318-d. 388), the apostle of the Goths. The writing is done
+in so-called encaustum (printing with heated stamps) of gold and
+silver letters on vellum of scarlet color. This copy is considered to
+have been made toward the end of the fifth or in the beginning of the
+sixth century, when the East Goths still held sway in Italy. Its early
+fortunes are unknown, but it is supposed that the book was found in
+the possession of the Visigoths (or West Goths) when their empire was
+seized by the Franks, and donated to the monastery of Verden by some
+munificent Frankish chief. Here, in the Benedictine abbey of Verden,
+on the river Ruhr, in Westphalia, the book was discovered at least as
+early as 1554, when the scholars Cassander and Gualther of Cologne are
+known to have had copies which can have been made from no other source.
+
+After the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War, the Codex was transmitted
+to Prague for safety. In the year of 1648, Prague, or rather the older
+portion of the town, was captured by the Swedish general, Count Hans
+Christopher Koenigsmark, who, among the vast treasures of the Bohemian
+capital, found also the Codex Argenteus which he presented to Queen
+Christine. All the books and manuscripts of the queen were in the care
+of her librarian, Isaac Vossius, a learned but eccentric scholar of
+Dutch parentage. Vossius was at first Queen Christine's teacher of
+Greek, not a very agreeable position, for the queen called him to the
+castle at three o'clock in the morning for her first hour. In 1650 he
+had to leave court and country on account of a quarrel with that light
+of learning, Claude de Saumaise (Salmasius), another one of the foreign
+scholars in favor with the queen. In 1653 he was called back, and again
+took charge of the books of the queen, but soon returned to Holland.
+Before his departure he gathered several costly books and manuscripts,
+among which Codex Argenteus, with or without the queen's private
+permission, taking them with him. In 1670, Vossius came to England,
+where he died, in 1688, as court chaplain at Windsor. King Charles II.
+of England said of him: "Vossius believes in anything but the Bible."
+
+When in Holland, the Codex Argenteus passed out of the hands of Vossius
+after his uncle Franziskus Junius had made a complete copy of it.
+Junius, called the "grandfather of modern philology," published the
+first edition of Codex Argenteus at Dortrecht, in 1665, providing the
+beautiful fac-simile with parallel Old English texts and a Gothic
+glossary. In Holland the Codex changed hands repeatedly until found
+in Brabant by Samuel Pufendorff, in 1661, who, in the following year,
+bought it for Count de la Gardie, paying a sum of something like $1,200
+for it.
+
+Once more in Sweden the Codex Argenteus was made the subject of close
+attention, a new edition of it being published, in 1671, by Georg
+Stiernhielm, the innovator of Swedish language and literature.[3]
+That Bishop Wulfila's Bible should ultimately harbor in Sweden does
+not seem out of place, for of all languages now spoken the Swedish
+comes closest to the language of the Goths as crystallized during its
+classical epoch. The interest taken by Swedish scholars in the book has
+always been great and fruitful of results, in times when it was thought
+to be written in the mother tongue of all the Teutonic languages, as
+well as later, when Gothic was found to be, not the mother, but the
+oldest sister in the family.
+
+At the Riksdag of 1649 considerable dissatisfaction was directed
+against the nobility and the extravagance of the queen in deeding over
+to favorites all the possessions of the crown, in form of counties and
+baronies. The nobility sided against the queen, desirous of reducing
+her power. But Queen Christine received gracefully the complaints
+made, and promised to institute a reduction of taxes and payments. In
+the following year the commotion increased when the same taxes were
+asked as in time of war. The queen continued her policy of earnestly
+considering the requests of the lower Estates, thus gaining the
+controlling power. The nobility, suffering strife between its various
+classes, was forced to seek a shelter in the royal power it desired
+to crush, and humiliated itself before the queen. Christine received
+a joint appeal from the lower Estates for a restitution to the crown
+of all property illegally turned over to the nobility, but she managed
+to have the reform postponed upon promise of some minor privileges and
+a reduction of taxes. She refused the appeals of the nobility to have
+the clergymen and others punished who had used hard language against
+the aristocrats. But the discontent was spreading and turned against
+the queen personally. The ministers preached against the wrongs and
+violence of the mighty ones; the nobles and the peasants threatened
+each other. Peasants in Finland refused to work for aristocratic
+masters, and a general rebellion seemed imminent. In the meantime
+Queen Christine was crowned at Upsala amid great display and elaborate
+festivities, the count-palatine Charles Gustavus, her cousin, being
+installed as heir-apparent to the throne.
+
+But Queen Christine was not able to still the storm around her. The
+finances of the crown were utterly ruined by her extravagance, and
+she dared not take by violence from the nobility what she had given
+by grace. In 1651 she declared it to be her intention to leave the
+government, but was persuaded to remain. Her cousin was placed in a
+very difficult position, apparently taking no interest in what was
+going on, but following everything with the keenest attention. The
+son of John Casimir, count of Palatinate-Zweibrucken, and Princess
+Catherine, he was born at Nykoeping in Sweden, in 1622, and designated
+as the future consort of Queen Christine. Charles Gustavus was
+educated in simplicity and rigor, and was, as his father before him,
+utterly neglected by Axel Oxenstierna and the government. He slept in
+a room without wallpaper, and when through with his lessons he sawed
+wood with his teacher, Professor Len�us. Burning with ambition, and
+perhaps also in love with his brilliant cousin, he proposed to her
+repeatedly, but in vain. After several years of extensive travel he
+joined Lennart Torstensson, refusing a command and working himself up
+through the military degrees. He took an honorable part in the victory
+at Jankowitz, and was appointed supreme commander of the Swedish armies
+shortly before the close of the German war. When the opposition against
+Christine reached its climax a good deal was expected from Charles
+Gustavus, which he, on account of his singular position, could not
+undertake to do. A petition replete with abusive language about the
+queen was sent him, asking him to take hold of the government. Charles
+turned the document over to the queen. Its author, the promising young
+Arnold Messenius, and his father, an able historian, suspected as
+having inspired his son, were accused of high treason, condemned to
+death and executed.
+
+This act of force produced an impression, and the new taxes demanded
+at the next Riksdag were granted without opposition. But the queen
+felt that the discontent was only subdued, not suppressed, and, having
+no further means to keep up a luxurious court, she did the wisest act
+of her reign, that of resigning, at Upsala, in June, 1654, Charles
+Gustavus being crowned the same day. The scene of her abdication was
+very impressive, Queen Christine carrying herself with noble and lofty
+dignity, an inheritance from her father which she made use of when she
+saw fit. Leaving the crown and the royal emblems, one by one, to the
+Riksdrotset, she descended the throne, from the lowest steps of which
+she spoke an eloquent and touching farewell to the four Estates of the
+Riksdag. She suddenly left the country after having secured for herself
+a princely income. At Innsbruck, the daughter of Gustavus Adolphus
+joined the Catholic church, thereby, and by her fame as a learned
+woman, creating a sensation. She died in Rome in 1689, after having
+made two unsuccessful attempts to regain her Swedish throne, and one
+equally unsuccessful to succeed the last king of the Polish line of the
+Vasa dynasty, and was buried in the church of St. Peter.
+
+Among the many learned men who at one time surrounded Christine were
+Vossius, Heinsius, Salmasius, Huet, Freinshemius, Loccenius, Meibom,
+Boeclerus, Ravius, Schefferus, and others. The greatest of them all, the
+philosopher Cartesius (Ren� Descartes), died in Stockholm, in 1650.
+
+After the love-story of Gustavus Adolphus had come to an end, he long
+felt a disinclination to marry. His sister Catherine is said to have
+tried to rouse him to the necessity of choosing a consort. His answer
+was always: "Never mind, dear sister, you shall yourself bring up a
+son to inherit the crown and continue my work." This son of Catherine
+became Queen Christine's successor.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+_Period of Political Grandeur--Charles X. and Charles XI._
+
+
+Charles X. was one of the most ambitious men ever placed upon a
+throne, and Europe was soon to realize that a new war-lord was come.
+His ambition, so long unsatisfied and secreted, burst forth with
+uncontrollable strength, in compass only to be equalled by his rare
+gifts of mind and heart. Charles Gustavus had suffered a good deal of
+neglect, coldness and hatred, but when ascending the throne he seemed
+to have forgotten all this. Oxenstierna died a few months after the
+abdication of Queen Christine, deeply impressed by the magnanimity
+and genius of the new sovereign. Charles Gustavus was one of the most
+highly gifted of Swedish monarchs. He had a great deal of interest in
+and rare discernment for the requirements of a peaceful development.
+But reared in the most warlike of times, when a reputation could
+be made only by winning so and so many "victorias" for the firm
+establishment of a hero's "gloire," Charles Gustavus thought that only
+the monarch favored by "Fama" would have the prestige to lead firmly
+the fate of his people. He often expressed the wish to rest from his
+campaigns in order to contemplate his work and make it beneficial to
+his people, but such a rest he never gave himself time to enjoy during
+his short and remarkable reign.
+
+Charles burned with desire to gain fame in war, taking for pretext
+that the king of Poland, by his repeated claims to the Swedish throne,
+made peace treacherous and impossible. But such was the condition of
+affairs that something must be done to quiet the malcontent people,
+restore peace between the quarrelling classes, and reimburse the empty
+state treasury. At a Riksdag in Stockholm, in 1655, a restitution was
+proposed by the king and agreed to, according to which all estates
+which in earlier times had been rendering dues to the direct support
+of the court, army, fleet, or administration, should be confiscated to
+the crown; also one-fourth of the estates given away since the death of
+Gustavus Adolphus, and all estates fraudulently obtained. A committee
+to enforce the restitution was appointed, to be presided over by the
+able Herman Fleming. The restitution, far from radical in itself, was
+not completely carried through, thanks to the opposing nobles. But it
+proved effective for the moment, the king securing the goodwill of the
+people, temporary quiet and means to carry on the proposed war, to
+commence which Charles Gustavus received the somewhat reluctant consent
+of the faithful people whose financial state was a most despairing
+one. Charles X. thought in new conquests to find means to better their
+condition. Shortly after his coronation he married Hedvig Eleonore of
+Holstein-Gottorp.
+
+John II. Casimir of Poland, the younger son of Sigismund, like
+Vladislav, styled himself king of Sweden and had claims to Livonia.
+For this he should be punished. It was not the original intention of
+Charles X. to make himself king of Poland, but he was probably the
+first who ever devised a division of that unhappy country. The success
+of Charles X. was without a parallel. The strong fortresses were
+captured, the armies surrendered and registered in Swedish service.
+After two months Charles X. entered the old capital of Cracow, John
+Casimir fled from his country, and, carried away by the frenzy of
+success, Charles Gustavus had himself crowned king of Poland. West
+Prussia was captured, and the elector of Brandenburg, who held East
+Prussia in fief, and the duke of Courland were forced to become the
+vassals of Sweden, in 1656.
+
+But Charles X. had roused an enemy that few invaders, however great,
+have been able to successfully encounter, the spirit of patriotism.
+The Poles, enticed to revolt by the Catholic clergy, found a leader in
+the noble Czarniecki, who commenced a war of liberation on the Swedish
+usurper. King John Casimir returned, and armies were gathered. Charles
+Gustavus was yet to do wonders of strategy, which aroused the amazement
+and fear of all Europe, but he was glad, when finding a good excuse,
+to extract himself from the affairs of Poland. In 1656 he defeated
+Czarniecki at Golumbo, undertook the adventurous crossing of the river
+of San, and captured, and recaptured, the capital of Warsaw. The "three
+days' battle of Warsaw" (18th-20th of July, 1656) is one of the most
+famous in modern warfare, by which the reputation of Charles X., as one
+of the greatest warriors of his time, was firmly established. Charles
+X. had joined forces with the "great elector" of Brandenburg, who up to
+the last moment was unwilling to risk a battle of 22,000 men against
+an enemy twice as strong. Charles Gustavus was unyielding and turned
+it into a great victory. But his position became precarious, Russia,
+Germany, Holland and Denmark being hostile, joined by Brandenburg,
+the ambitious "great elector" not being satisfied with the Swedish
+supremacy in East Prussia. To save himself from the dilemma with
+untarnished glory, Charles X. decided to fight Denmark, which country
+had declared war without suspecting the possibility of an attack.
+
+Lennart Torstensson, his master of strategy, had shown Charles X. how
+Denmark was to be attacked. With an army of only 8,000, but consisting
+of the choicest and most victorious troops in all Europe, Charles X.
+hastened in rapid marches through Pomerania and Mecklenburg, recaptured
+Bremen, and invaded through friendly Holstein all of Schleswig and
+Jutland, defeating the larger but inexperienced Danish army and
+capturing the strong fortress of Fredericia.
+
+Yet the new position was as precarious as the one in Poland, and
+Charles had to use all the skill of his diplomacy to save his little
+army from an assault by inimical Europe. France and England seemed
+unwilling to render him effective help. But when the elector of
+Brandenburg, who had taken upon himself the leadership of Sweden's
+enemies, turned to the emperor, emphasizing the necessity of crushing
+the Swedish power in one blow, he received the following surprising
+answer: "The king of Hungary has no reason to be the enemy of the king
+of Sweden." Charles had reached a secret understanding with Austria. By
+this move he gained time. Through what seemed almost a miracle, he was
+not only to save his army but lead it on to victory after a strategic
+deed, in originality and daring unique in the history of the world.
+
+The year of 1658 commenced with severe frosts. Charles X. conceived the
+daring plan of attacking the Danish isles by leading his army over the
+frozen sounds. He concluded to cross the sound of Lille Belt, opposite
+the islet of Brandsoe. His quartermaster-general, Eric Dahlberg, an
+engineer of great genius, ascertained that the ice was safe. One frosty
+winter morning, the 30th of January, the Swedish army, reinforced to
+9,000 men, marched down on the ice, safely reaching Brandsoe at sunrise.
+A Danish army, arranged in order of battle in the island of Funen,
+was defeated. While crossing over to Funen, the ice cracked under two
+squadrons of cavalry, those who followed not daring to proceed. The
+king himself hurried past the dangerous place, pointing out a safe
+course, and the troops followed him.
+
+The most dangerous part remained to cross, the much wider sound of
+Store Belt, in order to reach Seeland. Charles first thought of taking
+the direct route of two miles, but commissioned Dahlberg to explore
+the condition of the ice across to the smaller islands to the south.
+Dahlberg did so, and said he would wager his head for its perfectly
+safe condition. In enthusiasm, Charles clapped his hands exclaiming:
+"Now, brother Frederic, we will converse in good Swedish!" In the
+night between the 5th and 6th of February, the Swedish army marched
+from Svendborg in Funen over the ice to Langeland. "It was terrible,"
+wrote an eye-witness, "to march through the night over this frozen sea,
+where the horses' hoofs had thawed down the snow on the ice, which
+was below two feet of water, and where we, in every moment, were in
+fear of striking the open sea." At dawn the army landed in Langeland.
+During the rest for breakfast, frozen beer was chopped and distributed
+in pieces to the soldiers. The march continued over the still wider
+sound to Laaland, Eric Dahlberg in front, directing the march. Reaching
+Grimsted in Laaland at three o'clock in the afternoon, and proceeding
+to Nakskov, Charles Gustavus was met, at midnight, by the burgomaster
+and council of said town, who surrendered its keys. The 9th of
+February, the army stood in Falster, and a few days later was collected
+at the captured castle of Vordingborg in Seeland. Peace was hastily
+offered and agreed to on the 17th, and the treaty of peace signed
+the 28th of February, 1658, at Roeskilde. The conditions were severe,
+Denmark ceding the provinces of Scania, Halland, Bleking and Bohusl�n,
+the whole district or diocese of Drontheim in Norway, and the island
+of Bornholm, and agreeing to hold the Baltic closed to hostile fleets
+with the help of Sweden. The last clause was a piece of a Scandinavian
+policy devised by the Swedish king.
+
+Charles X. now prepared to meet Brandenburg and Austria, once more
+siding against Sweden. It was necessary to keep Holland out from
+the Baltic, and when Charles X. found Denmark unwilling to keep the
+conditions of the recent treaty on that point, the war-lord became
+wrathful, dooming obnoxious Denmark to lose her very existence. But the
+spirit of patriotism, which so often had saved Sweden in instances of
+extreme danger, now sided with Denmark, as it had already sided with
+Poland. King Frederic declared he would die like a bird in its own
+nest, and roused the patriotism of the population of Copenhagen, which,
+badly defended, was hurriedly fortified at the news of an intended
+attack. Contrary to the advice of Eric Dahlberg, Charles X. made no
+instantaneous attack, but commenced a siege, although he did not bring
+with him the necessary means. The castle of Kronborg by Elsinore
+was captured and its cannon used against Copenhagen. The greatest
+enthusiasm prevailed in the Danish capital; the king slept in a tent by
+the fortifications, and especially the students and Norwegian sailors
+distinguished themselves by their valor and patriotism. Charles X.
+found it impossible to take Copenhagen and retired to some distance
+from the capital. What caused Charles to retire was the arrival of a
+Dutch fleet. It had been met by the Swedish fleet, under command of
+Charles Gustavus Wrangel, the hero of Fredericia and Kronborg. After
+six hours of hard fighting the Dutch forced the entrance to the Sound.
+Before leaving, the Swedish king resolved to make a desperate effort
+to capture Copenhagen, defended by 13,000 troops and by a patriotic
+population, with his 8,000 Swedes. The attack was made in the night
+of February 11, 1659, but the city, forewarned by traitors, tendered
+the Swedes a warm reception, consisting of artillery fire, stones, and
+scalding hot water. The Swedes lost 600 men and suffered their first
+and only defeat under the command of Charles X.
+
+The situation was grave. The Swedish army in Jutland was forced to
+retire; the troops of 5,000 men in Funen were defeated and made
+prisoners; a revolt took place in Bornholm, and the Danes recaptured
+the district of Drontheim. The powers united in their efforts to force
+Sweden and Denmark to a treaty of peace on the basis of the Roeskilde
+stipulations. Charles still held his head high, declaring that he
+would crush the fleets of the allies if they tried to interfere in
+the affairs of the North, striking a sharply discordant note in the
+concert of the powers. To Denmark he was willing to cede the district
+of Drontheim, but prepared to occupy that of Akkershus instead, when he
+was taken ill at the convening Riksdag at Gothenburg, dying February
+11, 1660, in the palace erected by his friend Lennart Torstensson.
+
+Charles X. Gustavus was one of the most remarkable men of his day,
+whose wonderful deeds of bravery and genius caused amazement through
+their brilliancy, and anxiety through their recklessness. At the first
+glance his appearance gave no idea of the real man. He was short,
+and of an unusually square and clumsy build, with a head of coarse
+proportions. But there was the fire of genius in his sharp blue eyes;
+under the black hair, and below the thin black mustache, there was a
+mouth of firm and resolute lines. In the versatility of his endowment,
+he stands as one of the first among Swedish kings, the rich gifts of
+the Vasas and the Wittelsbachs being united in him. As a warrior he was
+great, yet more of a tactician than a strategist. As a statesman his
+views were almost as clairvoyant as those of his grandfather, Charles
+IX., but he gave way to the impressions and impulses of the moment. He
+failed to make the Baltic a Swedish inland lake, but gained for his
+country the inestimable gift of a natural frontier to the east and
+south, by the acquisition of Bohusl�n, Halland, Scania and Bleking,
+provinces more valuable to Sweden than a whole empire south of the
+Baltic.
+
+_Charles XI._ was a child of four years at the death of his father;
+his country at war with a world, and in a sorely afflicted condition.
+In the will of Charles X., the queen-dowager, Hedvig Eleonore, was
+named to preside over the government, with two votes, and the brother
+of Charles X., the duke Adolphus John, was to take a seat with her as
+Riksmarsk. This arrangement displeased the nobility, understanding that
+it was directed against their influence, and they had the duke excluded
+from the government. The lower Estates of the Riksdag sided with the
+duke, but soon gave up his cause as they found that he was utterly
+vain, quick-tempered, and without stability or genius. Lars Kagg, a
+good warrior, was appointed Riksmarsk in his place. Herman Fleming,
+the able state treasurer, was removed as disagreeable to the nobility,
+his ill-health being taken as an excuse, and was succeeded by Gustavus
+Bonde. Peter Brahe remained Riksdrotset, Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie
+state chancellor, and Charles Gustavus Wrangel state admiral. Kagg died
+in 1661 and was succeeded by Wrangel, Gustavus Otto Stenbock becoming
+state admiral.
+
+The first duty of the new government was to make peace for the bleeding
+country. This was effected in 1660 through the treaties of Oliva and
+Copenhagen, and in a most satisfactory manner, speaking high for the
+diplomatic ability of the governing ones, but also of the ignorance of
+the powers of the utter helplessness of Sweden, in great contrast to
+her outward political grandeur. Poland ceded Livonia to Sweden, and
+Denmark all the territory gained by Charles X., except the district of
+Drontheim and the island of Bornholm, while Russia was satisfied with
+the boundaries set by Gustavus Adolphus.
+
+The government, with care and consideration, made the necessary
+arrangements to have the new provinces intimately connected with the
+country. Representatives were sent to the Riksdag of 1664, and the
+University of Lund, in Scania, was founded in 1668. If to this is added
+that a good deal was done to encourage art and science, principally
+through Count Magnus de la Gardie, who was the M�cenas of Sweden, the
+meritorious deeds of the government during Charles XI.'s minority are
+enumerated. The less that is said of it in addition, and of its leading
+men, the better for these. They were men of some patriotism, but,
+through their exceedingly aristocratic views and lack of stability,
+unable to further the interests of their country, so badly in need
+of reform. There was not one of them who possessed the abilities of
+a statesman. They lived like princes in their counties, each holding
+court and possessing various considerable castles, all the members
+of the higher aristocracy upholding the same standard of luxury and
+power, appointing clergymen and judges, founding towns, and discussing
+the necessity of having mints and coins of their own. Magnus de la
+Gardie, count of Leckoe, and married to a sister of Charles X., was
+the greatest of these lords. Close to him came Peter Brahe, count of
+Visingsborg, and Charles Gustavus Wrangel, count of Skokloster. The
+barons approached the counts in their display of wealth. The lower
+nobility, whose members often served at the courts of the great lords,
+were not satisfied with this state of affairs. But in the contempt and
+oppression in which they held the lower classes, they agreed with the
+higher nobility, who made no secret of their intention to reduce the
+peasants to slaves. The peasantry, suffering and neglected, became the
+prey of a superstition which was shared by the more educated members of
+society, accusations and legal executions of witches becoming numerous.
+
+The government was not agreed between themselves upon many questions
+and turned to the state council for support. The old privileged class
+of councillors forced their influence upon the government, and the
+position between the two became quite intimate, at the same time
+difficult to define. The state council was as divided in its opinions
+as the government, which fact had a disastrous influence upon state
+politics and administration. Great negligence was shown in the various
+departments, the records of receipts and expenditures being imperfect,
+and a constant lack of funds existing. Forgery and thefts were
+committed by high and low officials. Administrative orders were not
+obeyed. The army and the navy suffered utter neglect.
+
+During such a state of affairs the abominable practice of receiving
+"subsidies" came into use. The government received, now from one
+foreign power, now from another, a large sum of money to back its
+respective interests with the military forces or the diplomatic
+influence of Sweden. This practice, ignoble in itself, injured the
+dignity of the state and had a demoralizing influence. Thanks to it,
+Sweden sided sometimes against, but mostly with, France, her old ally,
+who, in Count de la Gardie, had an enthusiastic friend. In 1662,
+Sweden schemed with France for the election of a French prince as king
+of Poland; in 1667, she formed, with England and Holland, a triple
+alliance against France. Louis XIV. soon won back the friendship of the
+government of Sweden, thus having this country as his only ally when
+reaching the climax of his success. At last the Swedish promises to
+send an army against the elector of Brandenburg were fulfilled. It was
+under the command of the old and invalid Count Wrangel, and suffered
+defeats at Ratenau and Fehrbellin, in 1675. These were of little
+importance, or extension, in themselves, but they injured the prestige
+of Sweden, so long supremely victorious on German soil, and caused
+her enemies to combine their efforts in order to regain their lost
+possessions.
+
+Charles XI. was declared of age at seventeen, in 1672, when he himself
+took charge of the government, yet for a few years standing under
+the influence of Count de la Gardie. King Charles was, as a child,
+physically weak, and the astrologers had prophesied that he would
+die an infant. For this reason the queen-dowager, a very ordinary
+woman, gave all her attention to have her son develop a strong and
+sound constitution. The child was given its own way in everything,
+casting aside books and rules for his individual pleasures. King
+Charles grew up an ignorant self-willed and headstrong youth, who
+delighted in hunting and reckless riding on horseback. His companions,
+manners and language were not of the choicest order, and he remained
+all his life shy and awkward in demeanor. From his thirteenth year he
+was made acquainted with the routine of state affairs, but he lacked
+the qualifications to grasp them in detail. He surrounded himself
+with members of the lower nobility, but was well at ease only among
+ministers, burghers and peasants. Charles XI. was all his life of an
+unrestrained temper and an indomitable will, coming to the throne the
+most ignorant king Sweden had had for centuries. But he was pious,
+sincere and just, and his morals pure and severe. Through the hardest
+of lessons, Charles XI. was to develop his great uncultivated gifts,
+to become the liberator of his people and one of its most remarkable
+rulers.
+
+Sweden had to encounter many enemies after the battle of Fehrbellin,
+and a chain of disasters followed, nearly crushing the young king under
+their weight. Holland, Austria, Brandenburg and Denmark attacked the
+Swedish possessions, which were all captured, one after the other.
+Charles was not able to send reinforcements, the navy being in a
+miserable condition, and when rejuvenated, through strenuous effort,
+defeated by the excellent admirals Juel, of the Danish, and Tromp,
+of the Dutch, navy. The treasury was empty, the administration in
+disorder, and mistrust and strife reigned supreme. But the young king
+showed that he wanted to be obeyed, and managed, by hard work, to
+establish order, the Riksdag sacrificing means to organize the defence.
+
+The Danes were successful in their first expeditions on land also,
+their army having undergone a reorganization. King Christian V. marched
+into Scania, while his general, Gyldenloeve, invaded Bohusl�n and
+West Gothland. The hostile fleets captured the islands of OEland and
+Gothland. Charles XI., in a sinister state of mind verging on despair,
+at last had his army collected, and entered Halland, where Danish
+troops were encountered and defeated at Halmstad. This gave courage to
+the Swedes, who soon thought themselves invincible, when commanded by
+the young king himself. Charles received reinforcements through peasant
+troops, and was desirous to meet Christian in open battle. But the
+Danish army in Scania retreated until forced to meet the enemy near
+Lund. Here a bloody and decisive battle was fought, more than 8,000 men
+being killed, and resulting in a victory for the Swedes, who took 2,000
+prisoners, fifty-one cannon, and the whole hostile camp, December 3,
+1676.
+
+In the following year Sweden suffered two defeats at sea, through the
+hands of Juel, but won another victory on land, at Landskrona, when the
+Danes lost 3,000 men.
+
+While Charles XI. fought with the courage of despair, Louis XIV. was
+supremely victorious over his enemies, soon appearing as the dictator
+of Europe, when peace was made at Nimwegen, in 1679. Finding Charles
+XI. resolved not to cede any of his territory, King Louis took a
+similar standpoint in his behalf, but contemptuously neglected to let
+the Swedish ambassadors take any active part in the deliberations.
+Louis XIV. made peace with the emperor, Brandenburg and Denmark
+on behalf of Sweden, which country only ceded a small part of East
+Pomerania to Brandenburg. Charles XI. deeply felt the insolence of the
+benevolent dictator, and forced Christian V. to sign a treaty of peace
+at Lund, in 1680, as if Louis XIV. had no part in it. An agreement was
+made that Charles XI. should marry the sister of Christian V., the
+beautiful Ulrica Eleonore. Through her gentleness, piety and great
+benevolence, she soon acquired fame as one of the noblest queens of
+Sweden. Ulrica Eleonore led a quiet life, seldom being seen at court,
+where the vain and despotic queen-dowager held the first place. She
+was never able to win the affection of her consort until during her
+last illness. King Charles then, for the first time, understood what a
+treasure he had held unappreciated at his side, and watched over her
+with infinite care, bringing peace and sunshine into her last days.
+After her death, in 1693, the king became a prey to deep sorrow and
+remorse, which threw added gloom over his dark countenance. The queen
+had been active in upholding a good relation between the Scandinavian
+countries, often bitterly opposed by the queen-dowager, in the
+interests of Holstein.
+
+When peace was made, Charles XI. immediately took action in the matter
+of reform. He saw his country at the verge of utter ruin and the crown
+unable to help it. The peasants were losing their rights, one by one,
+and five-sixths of the crown lands were in the possession of the
+nobles. Brought up in ignorance and isolation, finding rottenness and
+incapability everywhere, it was no wonder that the king became strongly
+imbued by the spirit of absolutism, which pervaded all Europe. He
+followed the example of the monarchs of France and Denmark, learning
+from them how, by secret agitation and pressure, to make the lower
+classes fervently appeal to him to take the absolute power in his
+hand. His principal adviser was _John Gyllenstierna_, a man of old,
+celebrated stock, but belonging to the lower nobility. Gyllenstierna
+was one of the greatest and most patriotic statesmen of his day. He
+first attracted attention as a champion of the lower nobility against
+the great lords for the restitution of crown lands. Raised to dignities
+and a high station, he never changed his position to the aristocrats
+in power, who thought they could win him over by favors. Seeing
+the absolute impossibility of reform, with the help of the nobles,
+Gyllenstierna turned to the king, whose whole confidence he won,
+inspiring him with plans of a Scandinavian peace policy, and a reform
+through the destruction of the aristocracy. Gyllenstierna died after
+having brought to the king his bride, a union which was the work of
+this able statesman.
+
+The Riksdag was convoked to meet October 5, 1680. Everything commenced
+quietly. No royal proposition was made; but a strong agitation had been
+set in motion among the four Estates, the three lower ones sending in
+a petition to make the royal power absolute, to have a restitution
+of crown lands made, and the government, during the king's minority,
+brought to answer for their acts. Similar requests were sent up
+from the nobility, after many stormy scenes at the Riddarhus. Thus,
+toward the end of the Riksdag, with the petitions in, came the royal
+propositions which, when accepted, in one blow crushed the aristocracy,
+as a ruling class, and the antiquated state council, as an institution,
+and established the absolute power of the king.
+
+According to the resolutions of this memorable Riksdag, which marks a
+new era in Swedish history, a "grand commission" was selected which
+fulfilled its duties with the greatest severity. The members of the
+former government and state council were made responsible for their
+administration, and themselves, or their heirs, sentenced to pay
+smaller or larger sums. Two-thirds of the whole amount was afterward
+given up, but the fines were nevertheless great. Count Nils Brahe,
+the heir of both Peter Brahe and Charles Gustavus Wrangel, and the
+wealthiest man in Sweden, had to pay something like $600,000 in fines,
+an immense sum in those days, and was reduced almost to poverty. The
+restitution department, assisted by two commissions, did equally
+thorough work under the pressure of the king. Ten counties and seventy
+baronies, with a great number of other crown lands of various classes,
+were confiscated. It cost the higher nobility dearly; Count Magnus
+de la Gardie, the all-powerful favorite of three monarchs, lost his
+immense wealth and died on a little estate left him, with one single
+servant out of his former princely retinue. The work of restitution was
+carried on without cruelty or injustice.
+
+A second restitution was to follow. The propositions were arranged at
+the Riksdag of 1682, in the same way as in 1680. This time the lower
+nobility was to suffer. All crown lands rendering less than $600 a
+year of income had been spared; now these were confiscated, without
+exception. In 1686 followed another blow. The dividends on the state
+loans were reduced, and a stipulation made that holders of bonds must
+refund what they, up to that date, had received above the new schedule.
+The same principle was applied in the redemption of mortgaged state
+lands. These new harsh measures were enforced with a great deal of
+severity, with incidental cases of injustice. The king showed clemency
+only to certain parties in stringent need. The discontent of the nobles
+caused many of them to leave the country, as, for instance, Count Otto
+William von Koenigsmarck, son of the conqueror of Prague, and himself
+the valiant defender of Pomerania against the hostile allies. Their
+example was followed by many nobles of Livonia, the measures of the
+restitution entirely crushing the nobility of that province, while its
+peasants, who were slaves, gained their liberty, and had every reason
+to bless the Swedish government.
+
+The power of absolutism grew steadily stronger. The king decided all
+matters alone, and prepared in advance the measures he proposed to the
+Riksdag, of whose sanction he was as independent as of that of the
+old state council. All officers and institutions were also changed in
+name from "state" to "royal" servants and instruments. The university
+professors were instructed to impress the students with the necessity
+and divine rights of an absolute ruler. The nobles were alone in their
+discontent. The other classes, especially the peasants, looked with
+satisfaction and approval on the work which crushed the enemies of
+their liberty and prosperity, and submitted willingly to the absolute
+power because it was in the hands of a patriotic king.
+
+Charles XI. used the revenues of the restitutions principally for
+the reorganization of army and navy. For the former he reintroduced
+a system which Gustavus Adolphus had applied, the so-called
+_Indelningsverk_ (work of division), which, elaborated upon and firmly
+established by Charles XI., became the foundation of the Swedish army
+system. The whole country was divided into small sections, which were
+each to support an infantry soldier, or a seaman, and larger ones to
+support a cavalry soldier. This soldier received a hamlet with earth
+to till within his section, paying for it by work to the farmers or
+squires, while these paid for his equipment. In times of war the state
+paid his expenses. This changed the troublesome army element into
+useful members of state in times of peace. The officers were given
+small estates by the crown for their support. The army consisted, at
+the death of Charles XI., of 65,000 men, well equipped. On the coast of
+Bleking extensive navy yards were built by Count Hans Wachtmeister and
+Eric Dahlberg, in a new town called Carlscrona. At great expense, the
+best fleet ever under Swedish command was constructed by Wachtmeister,
+who enjoyed the full confidence of the king. His excellent means
+wherewith to conduct a successful war, Charles XI. used to maintain
+a dignified peace, of which his country was badly in need. Bengt
+Oxenstierna held the reins of diplomacy, which had no attraction for
+Charles XI. The old alliance with France was broken off and close
+connections with William of Orange established for the maintenance of
+peace. Sweden regained its prestige, rising to a power whose support
+was sought by all. When William became king of England, Sweden was a
+member of the alliance against Louis XIV., but contributed to the great
+European war only a few thousand soldiers, according to agreement,
+preserving, together with Denmark, an armed neutrality. Charles XI.
+lived to the proud moment when the powers selected Sweden as an arbiter
+in the deliberations for peace in Riswick, a worthy satisfaction gained
+over the earlier insolence of Louis XIV.
+
+Charles XI. improved the administration by filling the offices of
+the excellent institutions with excellent men. This he obtained by
+enforcing the necessity of obeying orders, supplying officials of all
+ranks, from the lowest upward, with new regulations which must be
+obeyed, also regulating their salaries. Sweden never had a greater
+lover of law and order than Charles XI., and he used his absolute
+power in their interests, trying to remold the old laws to suit modern
+requirements, and having a new church law, a masterpiece in its line,
+introduced. The church itself and its men had in Charles XI. an
+interested friend. New catechism, hymn book and ritual were prepared,
+and a new translation of the Bible completed, being published after
+his death. Commerce and mining industries were encouraged, while
+agriculture improved with the improvement of the financial conditions
+of the peasants. Charles XI. was not only a "peace king," but a
+"peasant king," who was ardently devoted to the improvement of the
+education and financial circumstances of the country population. He was
+of broadly democratic inclinations, finding his delight in moving among
+the humble and lowly as one of them. The peasants, who had been brushed
+aside by the great and powerful, were now brought to the front and took
+an active and important part in the affairs of state. Charles ruled
+over them with a stern husbandry, and asked great sacrifices of them
+for the maintenance of an armed defence; but no king has accomplished
+more in their true interest than he, or remains more clearly in their
+memory and traditions. He travelled continually through the country,
+avoiding the places where he would be received with ceremony, stopping
+in the houses of the farmers, and enjoying heartily what comfort these
+offered. In his appearance he was far from prepossessing. His features
+were not devoid of beauty, but gloomy; his figure strong and vigorous,
+but not impressive. Through an accident while hunting he became
+slightly lame. Although dearth and hard times set in during the last
+years of his reign, causing terrible losses of life through hunger
+and prostration, he could plainly tell the beneficent results of his
+administration. Charles XI. took the reins of state when disastrous
+war ravished a country which seemed doomed to destruction. He left it
+reformed, reorganized, rejuvenated and prosperous at his death, in 1697.
+
+The Period of Political Grandeur in Swedish history falls within
+the epoch of the history of art which has been called _Barocco_, an
+unbalanced offspring of the Renaissance, and a style characterized by
+great complicity, pretensions and ambitions, a renaissance in wigs
+of formidable proportions. After the great victories of the Thirty
+Years' War, it seems as if the interchange of influences between art,
+literature, science, politics and religion was increased. The whole era
+becomes a Barocco period of bombast and chauvinism, the climax being
+reached in the form of the absolute monarchy of the age.
+
+In Sweden, as elsewhere, there was no lack of men of ability and
+brilliant genius; but, influenced by the spirit of their time, the
+works of most of them were bombastic and chauvinistic, like the
+artistic and political aspirations of the era. The artists were, as
+were at first the scholars, mostly foreigners. The native and imported
+scholars were characterized by great learning and versatility, but
+abused their genius by Utopian theories and vainglorious dreams, and
+violated the laws of history and sound research.
+
+Olof Rudbeck was not only the most learned and brilliantly gifted
+scholar of his day, but his genius also embodies the eccentricities
+of the period in gigantic outlines. He was born at Westeros, in 1630,
+his father being the learned bishop, Johannes Rudbeckius. As a boy, he
+gave evidence of rare artistic and mechanic talents. He made drawings
+of exquisite designs, constructed clock mechanisms of wood, and was a
+skilled musician. His character was proud and violent. At sixteen he
+was through with his college course and ready to enter the university.
+The youth could not stand the change from his coarse jacket and fur
+coat into a coat of broadcloth with buttons such as the students wore,
+and was for his overbearing manner punished by his severe father with
+an additional year of college work. At the University of Upsala he
+caused from the start great surprise by his knowledge in all subjects.
+He devoted his attention chiefly to natural science, which, in that
+day, was a neglected study, and soon excelled his professors.
+
+At twenty, Rudbeck made a scientific discovery of great importance,
+which caused a stir in the whole learned world. By his discovery and
+theory of the lymphatic ducts, the blood circulation of the human body
+received a satisfactory explanation. Before the circle of scholars
+which surrounded Queen Christine, Rudbeck was allowed to demonstrate
+his anatomical discoveries, in 1652. Queen Christine, who earlier had
+been an admirer of his beautiful voice and musical abilities, loaded
+him with praise and gave him the means for a journey abroad. Rudbeck
+returned, in 1660, to Sweden, and was appointed professor of medicine
+at the University of Upsala. He planned the first botanic garden in
+the country, donating it to the university. He had illustrations made
+of the native plants and commenced a learned work on botany. The first
+hall of anatomy was erected according to his proposition. As rector
+of the university, he established several important reforms, in spite
+of opposition, but supported by the chancellor, Magnus Gabriel de la
+Gardie, who was his friend and protector. To the stupendous mastery of
+all sciences, Rudbeck added a skill and cleverness in various branches
+of practical activity which made him carry, with honor, the nickname of
+"master at all trades." He was an excellent financier, who succeeded
+in restoring the sound economy of the university. He built a fish
+pond, from which the tables of the learned professors were regularly
+supplied with fish. A book store and a book-printing establishment
+were erected by him, and for a time run at his expense. He repaired
+windmills, built houses, provided the university town with water works
+and street pavement, also arranging its postal service. Rudbeck was one
+of the finest composers and singers of his day, conducting the musical
+exercises at the university. He made fireworks and compasses for the
+Swedish navy, built fountains and organs, was a good poet and painter
+and an excellent etcher and drawer.
+
+Rudbeck does not owe his great renown to his mastery of any of these
+trades, arts or sciences, nor to any discovery, reform or invention by
+his versatile genius. It was his monumental work, "Atland or Manheim,"
+generally called "The Atlantica," which made him world-famous. For
+centuries one had believed in the statement made by Jordanes, and
+based upon traditions current among his people, that the Goths who
+conquered Rome had migrated from the North, and that their ancestors,
+from the remotest period, were inhabitants of Sweden. Johannes Magnus
+constructed a line of Swedish kings, beginning with Magog, the son of
+Japhet, on the basis of which the sons of Gustavus Vasa, Eric XIV.,
+and Charles IX., had accepted their high ordinals. In the time of
+Rudbeck it was considered a supremely praiseworthy effort to glorify
+the fatherland by strengthening its claims to a high antiquity.
+Rudbeck, the remarkable savant and able poet, got his head turned by
+the political grandeur of his country. He had in his youth read the
+story of Atlantis, found in Plato. Rudbeck undertook to prove, in
+"The Atlantica," that the lost island, with its ancient ideal state
+from which the gods of antiquity were supposed to hail, was identical
+with Sweden. The work, in four large volumes, was written in Swedish
+and Latin of parallel columns. The first volume was printed in 1675,
+Rudbeck having made the types himself. In Sweden the work was greeted
+with an enthusiasm which had no bounds. The second volume was published
+by funds which Charles XI. with great generosity placed at the author's
+disposal. The third volume was dedicated to the youthful Charles XII.,
+a true child of the chauvinistic epoch, who hailed the book with
+delight. The fourth volume was in press when Upsala was destroyed by
+fire, in 1702. The aged Rudbeck led the battle against the ravaging
+element, by supreme exertions saving the university halls, at the
+expense of his home, his press and manuscripts, and the rest of the
+town. Rudbeck died in the autumn of the same year.
+
+The elaborate construction which Rudbeck had completed by means
+of ingenious deductions and learned guesswork succumbed with the
+political grandeur of Sweden. "The Atlantica," which once had its
+place beside the Bible on the tables of the mighty ones, was ridiculed
+and forgotten. On the continent of Europe, where similar books had
+been written in Germany and Holland, making for these respective
+countries similar claims, "The Atlantica" was at first received with
+surprise and admiration, later with doubt and criticism. The work, in
+spite of its mistakes, proved a foundation for arch�ological research,
+which gradually was developed into a science. In order to support the
+boldest and most impossible theories, the almost unparalleled power
+of combination of an eminent genius has brought together material
+which for the first time gave the suggestion of relationship between
+the Teutonic and the classical languages of Greece and Rome. Rudbeck
+was also the first to point out the unmistakable resemblance of the
+Old Norse and classical mythologies, as to the origin of which modern
+scholars have reached no absolute certainty, but radically different
+conclusions. The importance which Rudbeck placed upon popular customs
+and traditions was too great, but it has favorably influenced later
+students of ethnography and folk lore.
+
+If Rudbeck had limited himself to the demonstration that Sweden has
+been not the cradle of all races, but the original home of the Teutonic
+branch of the Aryan race, he might have been able to offer a theory,
+the truth of which modern science lacks, and forever may lack, the
+resources to disprove.
+
+Rudbeck had not been entirely without opponents in Sweden. The most
+noted among them was John Peringskiold, who criticised the opinion
+expressed by Rudbeck that the Runes were the oldest alphabet of the
+world. Peringskiold was a fine Icelandic scholar, and the first editor
+of Snorre Sturleson's "Heimskringla."
+
+A typical and highly valuable illustrated work from this period is
+the "Svecia Antiqua et Hodierna," by Eric Dahlberg, the renowned
+quartermaster of Charles X. The text, written by Dahlberg and
+translated into Latin by several scholars, was never published, the
+magnificent engravings not before 1716. The latter give an impressive
+portrayal of architectural Sweden during the reigns of the three
+Charleses, but are not quite reliable, as some of the castles and
+palaces in this work are provided with additions and embellishments
+which were never more than projected.
+
+There is no family who has wielded a greater influence over the Swedish
+church than that of Benzelius. The founder of the house, Eric Benzelius
+the Elder, and three of his sons were archbishops of Sweden, and two
+of his grandsons bishops of the state church. The first Archbishop
+Benzelius, born in 1632, was the son of a peasant, and took his name
+from the farm of Bentseby, of Lulea parish, in Norrland, where he was
+born; he and the three of his seven sons who were archbishops refused
+to be ennobled, the other members of the family adopting the name of
+Benzelstierna. The earlier generations of the family produced men of
+great talent and power, to whom the third one, although consisting
+of able men, could not be compared. The influence of this family in
+matters of religion, science and culture was strongly felt during the
+period of more than one century. The most remarkable member was Eric
+Benzelius the Younger, one of the most learned, active and patriotic
+men ever born in Sweden. Like the other members of the family, he
+perfected his education at foreign universities and made the personal
+acquaintance of Leibnitz, Thomasius, Malebranche, and other celebrated
+scholars. He was a historian, literary critic and philologist of
+merit, writing a history of Sweden and preparing an edition of Codex
+Argenteus, published in London after his death. He was highly
+appreciated by Charles XII., and was a friend of Polhem and Swedenborg,
+being married to a sister of the latter. Eric Benzelius was appointed
+archbishop, but died, in 1742, before he had entered office.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+_Period of Political Grandeur--Charles XII_
+
+
+Charles XII., the most famous of Swedish kings, was a boy of fifteen at
+the death of his father. He was born June 17, 1682, at the castle of
+Stockholm. The astrologers declared that Sweden was to receive a new
+war-lord, and that time they were not mistaken. Charles XII. was born
+in the same year as the absolute monarchy of Sweden, which power he
+was to abuse in such a great measure. Shortly after his birth, one of
+the speakers of the knightly chapter house, Justice Gyllencreutz, said
+while warning against the consequences of an absolute power: "A king
+may come who follows his own will, being more fond of war than peace,
+or utterly extravagant. History proves that changes of the constitution
+generally are beset by dangerous consequences; yea, that they often
+have brought destruction to the country and its people." These words
+were prophetic.
+
+The early education of Charles was supervised by his mother, sweet
+Ulrica Eleonore, who taught him piety, modesty, gentleness and justice
+by her own example. He participated with earnestness in the morning and
+evening prayers, kneeling before the only Lord he ever acknowledged
+as his superior. His mother died when Charles was seven years of age,
+but the devotion in which he held her he fixed upon his sisters,
+Hedvig Sophie and Ulrica Eleonore, but especially upon the former. His
+religious feeling was deep and sincere, and he evinced early a love
+of truth, justice and pure morals which, like his brotherly devotion,
+followed him through life. The most remarkable trait in a son of
+Charles XI. was his power of self-control; but he was his father's
+superior also in intellectual gifts, such as a ready memory, a good
+apprehension and a sharp discernment. His faults were early developed,
+and met, after the death of his parents, no restraint. He was taciturn,
+unapproachable, proud, self-willed and headstrong. He had from his
+grandfather inherited an ambition for the vain glory of war, which
+was led astray by his unrestrained power of imagination. From the age
+of five he was taught by the learned professor, Andreas Norcopensis,
+ennobled under the name of Nordenhielm, to whom he was very devoted
+and under whose guidance he received a good general education. The
+plain, able scholar influenced the young prince in a wholesome manner.
+When his teacher asked him how an honest man ought to be, the pupil,
+then seven years of age, answered: "He should be gentle but of great
+courage; fierce like a lion to his enemies, gentle like a lamb to those
+at home." To the question if it were not better to avoid dangers in
+order to save one's life, the little Charles answered: "No, it would be
+a shame to live in such a manner."
+
+Charles XI. had drawn an outline of the course which the education of
+his son was to follow. The first place was given to study of the Bible
+and the Christian doctrines and the severe practice of religion. The
+prince was to learn Swedish and German early, to receive instruction in
+the laws and constitution of his country, and in the science of war,
+and to be trained in the arts of military drill, fencing and riding on
+horseback. He soon acquired the faculty of speaking Latin fluently, in
+the ordinary mechanical way, and learned some French. When his first
+governor, Eric Lindskiold, tried to interest him in the latter language
+by pointing out its usefulness in diplomatic intercourse with the
+French ambassador, the prince answered: "If I meet the king of France
+I will converse with him in his own language. When a French ambassador
+comes here, it is more appropriate that he learns Swedish on my
+account than I French on his." His favorite studies were strategy and
+mathematics, which he made under the Swedish general, Charles Magnus
+Stuart. He often said that the one who was ignorant of mathematics
+was only a half human being. Charles was fond of riding the horses of
+his father, and followed the latter on his adventurous journeys and
+hunts. When only twelve years of age he killed his first bear. He early
+developed the reckless courage which made him so famous. Charles was
+exceedingly fond of reading the Eddic poems and the old hero Sagas of
+the North. He said he wanted to resemble the ancient hero kings, and
+wished he had, like many of them, a brother who would remain at home to
+rule the country in peace, while he, with his warriors, made a tour of
+the world. The prescription, made by his father, that the prince should
+be taught to make a moderate use of his absolute power, was, if carried
+out, of little consequence. Charles mourned deeply the losses of his
+mother and of his first teacher, Nordenhielm, which followed close
+upon each other, seeking, after that, more the company of his father.
+Charles XI. had a long private conversation with his son shortly
+before his death, pointing out the men in whom he could confide.
+Among these Charles Piper occupied a conspicuous place. He remained
+ever the adviser of Charles XII., but never had his full confidence.
+The enigmatic king confided in nobody, and passed through life without
+opening his heart to any one.
+
+Charles XI. had appointed a government to reign during the minority
+of his son, to be presided over by Queen-dowager Hedvig Eleonore. But
+the Estates of the Riksdag, at the request of the nobility, declared
+Charles XII. of age when only fifteen. The young king placed the crown
+upon his head with his own hands at the coronation, and took charge
+of the government in November, 1697. Bengt Oxenstierna remained at
+the head of foreign affairs as the president of the chancery, while
+Charles took personal interest in continuing the life work of his
+father, the restitution of crown lands, which still went on. Charles
+Piper, who had been quite active in obtaining an early majority for the
+king, was raised to the dignity of a count, and became one of the most
+influential members of the state council. Charles was not influenced
+by anybody in spite of his youth. He listened to what the councillors
+had to say, then announced his resolutions with terse independence. He
+refused firmly the appeals of the nobility to reduce the demands of the
+work of restitution. He abolished the practice of torture, in spite of
+the unanimous vote of the state council to the contrary. When the aged
+Bengt Oxenstierna was anxious to have annulled a treaty with France,
+already signed, the young king answered tersely: "You have heard my
+opinion; I am the one who signed the treaty." Charles took, in general,
+little interest in foreign affairs, except those concerning Holstein,
+to the duke of which country his elder sister was married.
+
+The exuberant spirits of the youthful Charles found an outlet in daring
+exploits and plays of war. The somewhat older man, Count Arvid Bernhard
+Horn, the commander of the royal body-guard, took an active part in
+these as the most intimate comrade of the king. They went bear-hunting
+together, with wooden forks as their only weapon, fought naval battles
+with hand-spurts, made breakneck rides on horseback, etc. When the
+king was near being drowned in one of these "naval battles," the only
+ones that Charles XII. ever fought, he was saved by Arvid Horn, who
+pulled him up by the hair. When Horn in some other game was badly hurt
+and taken ill, the king kept the night watch at his bedside. Upon the
+visits of Duke Frederic of Holstein, the two young princes indulged
+in escapades of the wildest kind, if one were to believe the reports
+made by the foreign ambassadors at Stockholm to their respective
+governments, and chiefly founded upon hearsay. His application to
+state affairs was almost constant and very arduous, for which reason
+these reports of the escapades and adventures of the youthful king are
+probably wild exaggerations, or mere fables.
+
+The reports of a young inexperienced king who gave up his time to
+sport and pastimes spread abroad, and the enemies of Sweden were led
+to believe that an opportune moment was come for an attack on the
+empire which held the balance of power in Northern Europe. Peter the
+Great, one of the most remarkable men of modern history, was czar of
+Russia. Engaged in his heroic task of reorganizing his barbarous empire
+to a modern European state, he was desirous of obtaining harbors on
+the coast of the Baltic, from which sea he was cut off by the Swedish
+possessions. August, a cousin of Charles XII., who was elector of
+Saxony and king of Poland, was anxious to take possession of Livonia.
+King Frederic IV. of Denmark, also a cousin of Charles, wished to
+suppress the duke of Holstein, who had gained independence, thanks
+to the assistance of Sweden. Czar Peter and King August entered into
+a secret alliance with each other. While negotiations for continued
+peace with Sweden were still pending, the Russians secretly crossed the
+boundary in Ingermanland, Saxon troops entered Livonia, and the king
+of Denmark took possession of Holstein. The Swedish council of state
+was amazed at this triple danger. Charles simply remarked that it was
+strange that both of his cousins wanted war, and expressed the hope
+that God would support him in his righteous cause.
+
+Charles XII. was eighteen years of age when he entered this stupendous
+conflict. He was tall and slender, but broad-shouldered; he had a
+sympathetic face, dark-blue eyes, thin brown hair, and a carriage
+expressing courage and an indomitable spirit. Upon entering actual
+warfare, Charles renounced all pleasures and comforts. Sharing the
+severe discipline of his soldiers, he slept in a tent, ate of their
+rude food, and drank nothing but water. The wig, considered so
+indispensable in those days, was laid aside and he dressed, like the
+men of his body-guard, in a coat of coarse blue cloth with large brass
+buttons and yellow lining. His long sword was hung at a yellow leather
+girdle. He wore high boots and yellow trousers made of skin. In battle
+he was always found where the danger was most imminent.
+
+Charles turned first against Denmark. A Swedish fleet of forty-eight
+ships joined the naval forces of equal strength which the Swedish
+allies, England and Holland, had sent to meet it in the Sound. A
+more powerful combination has never been seen before or after in
+Scandinavian waters. Charles embarked with his troops on one hundred
+Scanian ships and landed at Elsinore, August 4, 1699. He was impatient
+to reach shore, jumped into the water, which reached to his arms,
+and was followed by his troops, who carried their weapons high above
+the water. A sudden attack was made on the Danish troops on shore,
+who turned and fled. The Swedes made a temporary camp and prepared
+themselves for a march on Copenhagen. King Frederic was struck with
+terror and hastened to make peace with the duke of Holstein, who was
+left in undisturbed possession of his country through the treaty of
+peace at Traventhal. Charles withdrew his troops at once, although
+reluctantly, having wished to crush the power of Denmark. He had
+maintained the strictest discipline in his camp, and treated the
+inhabitants of the country with gentleness. The Danish peasants, who
+abundantly brought necessary provisions, said to the king: "You do us
+no harm because you are the son of our pious Ulrica Eleonore." The king
+answered: "What I have done I have been forced to do. But rest assured
+that I shall from this day be the upright friend of your king."
+
+Charles now turned against Russia. With an army of somewhat more than
+8,000 men he sailed for Ingermanland to attack the invaders, at least
+five times as many in numbers, who were laying siege to the town of
+Narva. The majority of the Russian troops consisted of serfs who were
+taken directly from their work and were without any military training.
+This army of undisciplined serfs was to a great extent commanded by
+foreign adventurers. The news of the approach of the Swedish troops
+brought consternation. Several of the Russian officers shed tears,
+while the czar quickly left his army to gather more troops. The
+remarkable battle of Narva was fought November 20, 1700. King Charles
+offered the enemies a battle in the open field, but when they refused
+to accept or to come out, he attacked them in their trenches, which
+formed a semi-circle around the town of Narva, with the wings touching
+the river of the same name. The war-cry of the Swedes was: "With the
+help of God!" Their attack was favored by a snowstorm, which blew in
+the faces of the Russians, blinding them. The enemies could tell that
+the Swedes were few in numbers, but thought that reinforcements must
+be on the way. The trenches were filled with bundles of fagots, the
+ramparts were mounted, and the Russians thrown into confusion. The
+Russian cavalry fled at the opening of the artillery fire. The rest,
+crushed in between the walls of the town and their aggressors, tried to
+escape on every side. The Swedes soon had cut the immense Russian line
+of troops in twain at the centre. The half which consisted of the right
+wing moved down to the bridge over the Narva River. But the bridge gave
+way under the weight of the first 3,000 men, who found their graves in
+the river below. The rest of the right wing was hedged in between the
+Swedes and the river. The regiments of the Russian guards, who were
+the most experienced of the troops, fought bravely for some time, but
+great confusion ensued among the others, the soldiers wanting to kill
+their foreign officers, whom they blamed for the catastrophe. The chief
+commander, Duke de Croi, with several other foreigners, for this reason
+surrendered to the king.
+
+The Russian soldiers of the right wing, abandoned by their superior
+officers, made heroic efforts to defend themselves behind barricades
+which they erected for the moment. King Charles hastened to the spot,
+but was very near losing his life in passing through a swamp. He sank
+so deep that the water rose to his neck, and he could save himself
+only by leaving his horse, his sword, and one of his heavy boots
+behind in the mud. Without in the least improving his condition, the
+king took another horse and sought his way to the heart of the battle.
+The Russians were killed in masses, but did not surrender before King
+Charles had taken a Russian battery, thus depriving them of the last
+hope of being reunited with the left wing. The latter, who kept in the
+vicinity of their trenches, had fought with a good deal of courage. At
+nightfall two officers were sent from the right wing to ask the king
+for an armistice, which was granted. King Charles spent the night in
+his wet clothes, by the bivouac fire, on the ground, his head resting
+in the lap of one of his soldiers. In the morning, before dawn, two
+Russian generals arrived, demanding free leave for the remainder
+of the right wing. This was granted, but the superior officers had
+to remain as prisoners of war. The commander of the left wing also
+opened negotiations. Free leave was granted them upon the surrender
+of their arms. It must have been an impressive sight to see the body
+of 12,000 Russians, with heads uncovered, who passed in line by only
+half as many Swedes, depositing their banners and arms at the feet of
+Charles XII. It was a wise plan to keep as prisoners only the superior
+officers, for the Swedes had not the means at hand to watch and feed so
+many prisoners as those who were allowed a free leave. In the battle
+of Narva 18,000 Russians were killed or captured; the hostile camp,
+baggage and artillery fell into the hands of the victors. Charles
+XII. made his solemn entry into Narva, where Te Deum was sung in the
+cathedral. Charles with his own hand crossed out all expressions of
+vainglory over the success or disdain of the vanquished which occurred
+in the official account of the victory to be sent to Stockholm.
+
+In the following year Charles XII. turned against his third enemy, King
+August. Saxon troops, 10,000 strong, were joined by 19,000 Russians,
+and had taken a strongly fortified position on the southern shore of
+the river Dvina. Charles decided to cross the river from Livonia and
+attack the enemy. The famous crossing of the Dvina was planned in all
+details by Eric Dahlberg, the venerable hero and engineer from the wars
+of Charles X. and Charles XI. Baron Dahlberg died not long after this
+memorable event. It was June 27, 1701. The Swedish infantry was carried
+across in prams, the cavalry on fleet-bridges provided with wooden
+walls on hinges, which, when erect, were a protection against the fire
+of the enemy, and, when let down, formed gangways for the landing.
+In front of all boats loaded with hay and straw were sent out, which
+were ignited, sending a thick, disagreeable smoke in the face of the
+enemy. The artillery in the prams kept up a disastrous fire. Charles
+XII. was one of the first to land, and opened the attack when only half
+of his infantry had reached the shore. The Russians soon scattered in
+wild flight. The Saxons withstood three powerful attacks, but at last
+followed the bad example set by their allies. The battle was fought and
+won before the Swedish cavalry had reached the shore. The bountiful
+provisions of the scattered army were captured. The crossing of the
+Dvina was executed under the direction of Charles Magnus Stuart and
+Count Magnus Stenbock.
+
+The victories of the young hero king and his valiant soldiers aroused
+the admiration of all Europe, and much sympathy was expressed for
+Sweden, who had so successfully warded off a deceitful and unjust
+attack. Charles XII. received offers of peace from his enemies, but he
+did not accept them. He did not believe that his treacherous neighbors
+would keep their promises, and he was no doubt right. He ought to have
+crushed Russia first, but his victory over Czar Peter had been too
+easily acquired to make him realize the genius, power and resources
+of this semi-barbarous enemy. Charles considered King August a more
+formidable opponent, which was a mistake; but his suspicion that the
+latter would attack him from behind if he entered Russia would probably
+have proved to be well founded had circumstances permitted. So Charles
+invaded Poland, resolved to gain by the interior conflict which was
+disturbing the peace of that country. He wanted to dethrone August and
+select a prince who would keep faith with Sweden.
+
+The Polish empire had not taken any active part in the war against
+Sweden, but Charles XII. demanded that the Poles should prove their
+good faith by dethroning August and by choosing a native king. When
+they refused, he let his army enter Poland. For four years King Charles
+remained there, marching from one part of the country to the other.
+He conquered the Polish capitals of Warsaw and Cracow, and several
+other fortified places, winning over a considerable group within the
+nobility. In 1704 the Diet of Warsaw was called, at which the Polish
+nobles, in the presence of Swedish troops under the command of Count
+Arvid Horn, were compelled to deprive August of his crown and elect a
+new king according to the instructions of King Charles. The new king
+chosen was the noble, but incapable Stanislav Leczinski, who belonged
+to an aristocratic family of little influence and few connections. He
+was an upright and highly educated man, but lacked energy. King August
+was not willing to abdicate, for which reason King Charles pursued him
+into his hereditary land. The line of march to Saxony went through
+Silesia, a neutral country belonging to the empire of Austria. As the
+army of August had been allowed to pass this country, Charles argued
+that the same right must be granted him and his troops. At the river
+Oder, Charles was met by a number of persecuted Protestants, who,
+kneeling and weeping, prayed for his assistance in pleading their cause
+before the emperor. Charles promised them to do so, and kept his word.
+
+The Swedish army entered Saxony in the year 1706. The inhabitants, who
+had in a clear memory the acts of recklessness and cruelty committed
+by the troops of John Ban�r, fled for their lives, taking along all
+the property that could be moved. To their great surprise, they saw
+the Swedes encamp themselves as quietly as in time of serenest peace.
+No violence was committed. Nothing was taken, except in exchange for
+money. But a heavy war tax was imposed, which made both August and his
+people inclined to seek an early end of the war.
+
+Thanks to the means raised in this manner, the Swedish army was
+provided with an entirely new outfit of clothes and furnished with
+necessary provisions. Every regiment established a savings bank of
+its own, in which the soldiers deposited their earnings. The castle
+of Alt-Ranst�dt was the headquarters of Charles XII., situated close
+by the memorable battlefield of Lutzen. The sojourn of Charles XII.
+in Saxony was an incident of universal importance to the history of
+Europe. He had with his soldiers approached the scene of a conflict
+which was shaking the whole of Western and Southern Europe. The
+situation was such that it for the moment hung at the point of the
+victorious sword of Charles XII. The great question was whether he was
+resolved to take an active part in the universal conflict. Charles
+was besieged at his headquarters by princes, warriors and statesmen,
+who came to pay their respects, desirous of winning his favor and of
+getting an idea of his plans. The Swedish invasion of Saxony was highly
+beneficial to the interests of France, and Louis XIV. was the first
+to admit it, anxious to make the stay of Charles as long as possible,
+because it had caused a standstill in the hostilities against France.
+The Duke of Marlborough was among the visitors of Charles XII. He
+brought a letter of courtesy from Queen Anne, who wrote that the letter
+"came not from her chancery but from her heart, and was written by her
+own hand." She longed to meet the famous king personally. The duke's
+errand was to find out whether Charles was to join the fighting forces
+of Western Europe or to attack Russia. He was glad to learn that the
+latter move was the one which the king had in mind. Although the two
+great warriors expressed mutual admiration, neither was sympathetically
+impressed by the other. Charles XII. thought Marlborough looked "too
+fine" for a soldier, while the latter thought the rude simplicity of
+the king an affectation by which to obtain notoriety. On account of
+the great influx of distinguished visitors, the style of living was
+quite different at the royal headquarters of Alt-Ranst�dt to what
+it was during the Polish and Russian wars. But the king kept up the
+heavy military drills and long individual expeditions on horseback,
+which he thought indispensable. One of the first ones of the latter
+which he undertook was to visit the battlefield of Lutzen. The king
+remembered distinctly all that he had read about the famous battle, and
+made clear to his generals the various positions of the two armies. At
+Schwedenstein, the place where Gustavus Adolphus fell, he lingered for
+a long while in silence. At last he said: "I always have tried to live
+as he did. May God grant me the grace of dying in like manner."
+
+King August was satisfied to conclude a treaty of peace, which was
+signed at Alt-Ranst�dt. He renounced the crown of Poland and recognized
+Stanislav Leczinski as the legitimate king. August turned over John
+Reinhold Patkul, a Livonian traitor, who during the reign of Charles
+XI. had made himself disagreeably conspicuous, and who had been
+intriguing against Sweden ever since. Charles XII. was, in gentleness
+and justice, far in advance of his contemporaries, but he made an
+exception to his ordinary course of clemency in the case of Patkul,
+who was executed according to the cruel practice of the time. When the
+Swedish army left their camp, after peace was made, the regiments were
+for many miles followed by the grateful inhabitants, who, with tears in
+their eyes, gave evidence of their friendship. The reason was that the
+good-natured soldiers of the regular army had followed the habits of
+their country in assisting their temporary hosts in their various rural
+pursuits. The Swedes were greeted by the people of Silesia with great
+enthusiasm, out of gratitude for the improved conditions which the
+emperor had granted them, at the request of the king. Charles XII. thus
+made good, in a measure, the acts of violence committed by the Swedish
+army during the Thirty Years' War, and proved that he had at heart the
+cause of religious liberty.
+
+Czar Peter was now to be punished, when it was too late. The Russians
+had invaded the Baltic provinces and captured the fortress of Noeteborg,
+which Czar Peter gave the new and significant name of Schluesselburg.
+The new Russian capital of St. Petersburg, with formidable fortresses,
+was founded in 1703. The laborers were carried away by force from
+the various parts of the immense empire. They died in great numbers
+of prostration and of fevers, the Swedes also doing their best to
+impede the progress of the work. The vacancies were rapidly filled by
+new multitudes. While the Swedish king was fighting in Poland, the
+provinces of Ingermanland, Esthonia and Livonia were overrun by the
+Russians, who devastated the country with acts of cruelty. Dorpat was
+captured and Narva fell after a bloody conflict, being bravely defended
+by Rudolph Horn. The Russians destroyed the Swedish navy of the Lake
+Peipus and penetrated to the province of Courland where Charles XII.
+had left a considerable detachment of troops. The plan of Czar Peter
+to conquer Courland and cut off Charles from the connections with his
+empire was frustrated by General Adam Louis Lewenhaupt.[4] He met a
+formidable Russian force, several times as numerous as his own, at
+Gemauerthof, near Mitau, which he routed, in 1705.
+
+Sweden stood alone in her struggle with Russia. The old alliance with
+England and Holland was no longer in existence. The continental powers
+were too busily engaged in the West to assist in checking the rising
+power of the Eastern giant. For the limited resources of Sweden he was
+too big already. Charles XII. had with him a stately and well-equipped
+army of 44,000, which, by contemporary authors, was pronounced to
+have consisted of the finest soldiers of the world. Charles was to
+attack Russia from Poland, for the devastated Baltic provinces could
+no longer support an army with the necessary provisions. General
+Lewenhaupt was to join him from Livonia with an army of 12,000 men and
+ample provisions. Another Swedish commander, General Lybecker, was to
+attack and destroy St. Petersburg, with an army of the same size, from
+his headquarters in Finland. The total of Swedish troops distributed
+in various directions amounted to 100,000, the largest regular army
+Sweden ever had put up. Charles had concluded to engage semi-barbarous
+allies in a battle against a semi-barbarous enemy. In 1707 he entered
+into an alliance with Turkey, and, about the same time, another with
+Mazeppa, an old ambitious Cossack leader who wanted to establish his
+supremacy over the steppes of Russia. The plans of Charles XII. for the
+invasion of Russia have often been severely criticised, but competent
+judges of our day have declared that they were not only elaborate but
+highly ingenious. They miscarried on account of arrangements which
+could not be made according to expectations, and on account of Czar
+Peter's practice of laying bare and waste the parts of his own country
+through which the invaders were to pass. Furthermore, Charles had sent
+home to Sweden several of his best generals, such as Arvid Horn and
+Magnus Stenbock. This was done after the successes in Poland, and was
+a good thing in itself, for the men mentioned were exactly those who
+were destined to save the very existence and honor of a country which
+was deprived of its political grandeur through the heedlessness of
+King Charles. But without them he was surrounded by inexperienced men
+only. Charles Gustavus Rehnskiold was the most conspicuous of these, a
+valiant but reckless man, who only understood certain details of the
+elaborate expedition.
+
+When the Swedes were approaching Russian territory, Czar Peter made
+offers of peace which the French ambassador urged Charles to accept.
+Charles answered: "He does not mean it. He wishes the world to believe
+that he wants peace and I war." Czar Peter had organized his army
+through a wonderful exertion of energy, built new fortresses and
+strengthened the old ones, enforced discipline and gathered ammunition.
+Able officers had been trained in the repeated conflicts with the
+Swedes. These took the lead of the army movements.
+
+Charles left Poland with somewhat more than 30,000 men, entering
+Lithuania and chasing the Russians before him. A last great victory
+was won by Charles XII. at Holovzin in Lithuania, in 1708. The Swedish
+army crossed the Dniepr and marched to Mohilev. Charles lingered in
+this place for a month, anxiously awaiting the arrival of General
+Lewenhaupt. The latter remained in Livonia during all this time, the
+letter ordering him to join the central army not reaching him in due
+time. The march was continued toward Smolensk, but King Charles thought
+that he could only reach Moscow over that route with the greatest
+difficulty, and changed his course, marching toward the Ukraine to
+join Mazeppa and the Tartars. Mazeppa had been vexed by the long
+delay, and was, besides, not able to gather the forces which he had
+promised. Czar Peter captured his stronghold, and Mazeppa reached the
+Swedish army more like a fugitive than an ally. The expedition of
+General Lybecker against St. Petersburg proved a failure. Lewenhaupt,
+who had at last received his order, moved into Russia. At Liesna he
+met a hostile army considerably larger than his own. After a fierce
+battle, which involved a great loss of life, Lewenhaupt broke through
+the Russian lines. He had been forced to destroy the great amount of
+provisions which he had gathered, and reached the army of King Charles
+in a very different state than was anticipated. The king found himself
+in a difficult position, being cut off from all connections with his
+country and in want of provisions.
+
+The battle of Pultowa, which was fought June 28, 1709, decided for
+centuries the contest over the political supremacy of Northern Europe.
+Charles XII., with his army, which had been reduced to 18,000 men,
+laid siege to the important town of Pultowa, by the river Vorskla.
+The Russian army, 50,000 strong, under the command of Czar Peter,
+hastened toward the enemy. The fear of the terrible Swedes was as
+yet so strong in them that they did not risk an attack, but built a
+strongly fortified camp. King Charles, with his army in distress,
+further reduced to only 12,000 men, and in want even of ammunition,
+saw no other way than to fight. He was himself wounded in the foot
+and unable to take command in person. General Rehnskiold, who led the
+cavalry, acted as general commander during the battle, which position
+he was not able to fill; Lewenhaupt commanded the right wing with
+decided success. He forced the enemy to abandon three of its seven
+forts, and saw it once inclined to leave in flight. The left wing of
+the Swedish army was brought into disorder and receded. King Charles,
+who suffered greatly from his wounded foot, was carried on a litter
+between the lines, encouraging his soldiers and dealing out new orders.
+The litter was soon shattered, and the horse which the king mounted was
+shot under him. He saved himself by accepting the horse of one of his
+officers. Rehnskiold, who appeared nervous and confused, offered only
+a lame assistance with the cavalry. While riding back and forth in his
+heedless anxiety to be useful, without obtaining his object, he rode
+into the Russian lines and was made a prisoner. The same fate befell
+Count Piper, the aged adviser of King Charles. Lewenhaupt kept up his
+heroic struggle on the right wing, but his forces were greatly reduced
+by the fire of the Russian artillery. The Swedes had lost the battle.
+Their infantry had especially suffered great losses. A great number of
+the ablest officers were killed or made prisoners. As an illustration
+may be quoted the fact that among the killed were twenty-two officers
+of the Wrangel family. The Russians made no fierce pursuit, and the
+remnants of the Swedish army were given time to recede to the shore
+of the Dniepr where this river is joined by the Vorskla. The change
+of route toward the Ukraine had been made contrary to the advice of
+Count Piper; the march to the Dniepr was made contrary to that of Count
+Lewenhaupt. The Swedish troops were in fact shut in between the mighty
+rivers, which they lacked the means to cross, and the surrounding
+mountains, lined with Russian artillery. Charles was unwilling to leave
+his army, but Lewenhaupt persuaded him to save his life. Mazeppa had
+crossed the Dniepr with his troops. Charles followed in the night
+of July 1st with 1,000 of his men. With 500 Swedes Charles reached
+the Turkish town of Bender, where he was at first resolved to remain
+only until his wound was healed. Lewenhaupt, who now was in command,
+surrendered to the Russians the following morning, with all the rest of
+the army. This course was inevitable; another battle would only have
+caused new and useless sacrifices of human lives.
+
+A sad fate awaited the Swedes in Russian captivity. Only a few saw
+their homes again, after years of suffering. Rehnskiold was among
+these. The majority, like Lewenhaupt and Piper, died in captivity.
+Considerable information about the experiences of the Swedish prisoners
+in Russia is found in their memoirs and note-books, preserved to
+this day. It appears that the treatment which they received varied
+greatly, according to circumstances. Czar Peter wished to keep the
+Swedish captives in the country as long as possible, with the object
+of favorably influencing his barbarous subjects by their superior
+abilities and culture. He had commanded clemency in their treatment;
+but his orders must have been disobeyed, for many Swedish soldiers
+are known to have perished in the sulphur mines. In Tobolsk and other
+towns of Siberia, Swedish majors and captains were in great numbers
+occupied in the humble pursuits of teachers, barbers, tailors, painters
+and blacksmiths. Some kept shops and others made articles of the
+Swedish sloyd, in which there was no competition in the market. The
+pastimes were music and theatricals. There were, among these thousands
+of prisoners, 9 generals, 17 colonels, 27 lieutenant-colonels, 38
+majors, 494 captains, 975 lieutenants, 67 ministers of the Gospel,
+etc. A good many of these were Swedish subjects of German descent,
+or foreigners in Swedish service. The prisoners tried their best to
+make it as pleasant for themselves as possible. They formed a little
+community of their own in Moscow, with Piper and Rehnskiold as their
+highest officials. Georg Nordberg, pastor of the body-guards, was made
+the president of a chapter-house, which held church conferences, issued
+texts for special services, examined and consecrated ministers. Czar
+Peter tried to attract some of the ablest officers to him by promises
+of liberty and remunerative positions. Many of the captives, seeing
+no prospect of freedom, decided to remain in the country, entered the
+Greek church and married Russian women. Some who could not endure
+captivity made a revolt at Kasan, killing the armed troops, and making
+an attempt to reach their own beloved country. The plot was frustrated
+and was of sinister consequences, for the Swedish captives commenced
+from that time, 1711, to be transported to Siberia in great numbers.
+This was only to move the important work of civilization eastward. The
+captives, instead of succumbing to the severe climate, unfolded the
+great energy of their race, cheerfully accommodating their lives to
+the new requirements and devoting their time to travels for scientific
+research, or mercantile purposes, in Russian service, or on their
+own responsibility. They made accounts and maps of undiscovered and
+unexplored parts of Siberia, gathering results which have been of great
+importance to later explorers, geologists and ethnographers. Principal
+among these scientists are Philip John von Strahlenberg, whose great
+book on Siberia was published in Leipsic in 1730, and John Anton Mat�rn
+and Peter Schoenstroem, his collaborators; John Gustavus Renat, made a
+prisoner by the Kalmucks, whom he taught the secrets of manufacturing
+cannon and bombs, and of printing books with movable types; Lorenz
+Lange, who was secretary of several Russian embassies to the imperial
+court of China, about which country he has given valuable information;
+John B. Muller, John Schnitscher and Ambjoern Molin. Tobolsk was the
+centre of the Swedish colonies in Siberia, where a peculiar sect
+grew up among those of deep religious sentiment. A sectarian school,
+with more than 100 pupils, was established, and the German pietist,
+Aug. Herrman Francke, for some time supported the movement. Governor
+Gagarin, who wanted to make himself ruling sovereign of Siberia,
+arranged a formidable conspiracy. It was discovered, the governor was
+hanged, and the Swedish captives who were involved in it were sent
+still further away to Nerschinsk.
+
+If Charles XII., up to the date of the terrible battle of Pultowa,
+has deserved our sympathy, in spite of his faults and mistakes, it is
+impossible to look upon him in the same charitable light for the rest
+of his career. The great defeat and the loss of his army he described
+in letters to his sister, Ulrica Eleonore, and the state council, as
+small misfortunes, without consequence, which he was soon to repair.
+Instead of trying his utmost to obtain peace on the best possible
+conditions for his poor country, and instead of saving his unhappy army
+from the miseries of captivity, he made plans for new campaigns and
+demands for a new army. Czar Peter expressed more correct views of the
+situation. A few hours after the battle of Pultowa he wrote to Admiral
+Apraxin: "Now rests at last secure our city on the Neva." And he was
+right. The period of the political grandeur of Sweden was at an end.
+
+Great was the renowned heroism of Charles XII. and his warriors. Still
+greater, although less renowned, the heroism with which his poor and
+neglected country suffered the disasters which these glorious deeds
+brought upon it. The regular troops of the army created by Charles
+XI. had not been sufficient. New regiments were, one after the other,
+created by means of increased taxes and repeated enlistments, until
+it appeared as if the whole male population was to be sent out in the
+endless wars, to be killed or imprisoned, and the distressed country
+doomed to inevitable destruction. Plague, hunger and emigration
+threatened to make away with those spared from military service. Swedes
+of the nineteenth century have difficulty in apprehending how the
+country was able to endure such terrible hardships.
+
+The consequences of the defeat at Pultowa soon became manifest. The
+enemies of Sweden had formed a better idea of the resources of the
+country than had its own ruler, and were resolved to profit by it.
+King August at once declared the treaty of Alt-Ranst�dt to be null
+and void, and entered Poland, where he in a short time recovered
+his lost authority. Stanislav fled and sought a refuge on Swedish
+territory. King Charles later gave him his little hereditary land
+of Palatinate-Zweibrucken. King Frederic of Denmark declared war
+upon untenable grounds and had an army of 16,000 men invade Scania.
+Helsingborg was captured without difficulty. Great consternation was
+caused by this assault upon the unhappy and apparently defenceless
+country. The state council was brought to despair. The situation was
+saved by Count Magnus Stenbock, the able general. After having served
+as quartermaster-general of the Swedish army in Poland, he was sent
+back to Sweden, being governor-general of Scania at the time when this
+province was invaded. He had not with him the necessary troops to meet
+the enemy, but left for Smaland, where he gathered an army of peasants,
+chiefly consisting of inexperienced but sturdy youths in wooden shoes
+and coats of goatskins. From Vexio, where he had met his new mustered
+troops, Stenbock returned to Scania, in February, 1710, obtaining the
+reinforcements of a few additional regiments, which swelled his army
+to the number of 14,000 men. The well-equipped Danish force, which,
+after an expedition into Bleking, returned to Scania, made a good deal
+of fun of the "Stenbuk og hands Gededrenge" (the mountain buck and his
+goatherds). Governor Stenbock understood how to gain the confidence and
+rouse the patriotism of his "goatherds." He was soon sufficiently sure
+of their ability to risk a battle, which was fought at Helsingborg,
+February 28, 1710. The Danes, commanded by George Rantzau, were routed,
+and sought a refuge behind the walls of the town. The Danish losses
+were 4,000 killed and wounded and 3,000 prisoners, with their camp,
+artillery and baggage. A few days later the Danes evacuated Scania,
+returning to Seeland. The victory of Helsingborg was the most glorious
+of the battles fought by Magnus Stenbock. It saved Sweden in the hour
+of direst distress, rekindling the hope which the battle of Pultowa had
+extinguished. It was the last time in Swedish history that the Danes
+entered Scania as enemies.
+
+The victory at Helsingborg was only one bright star in a night of
+darkness. In the Baltic provinces the disasters followed close upon
+each other. Count Nils Stromberg, the governor-general of Livonia,
+was forced to surrender the town of Riga, July 1, 1710, after having
+fought the Russians for months with great bravery. The enemies which
+forced the able Stromberg to give up his cause were hunger and
+plagues. Not less than 40,000 Russians had lost their lives outside the
+walls of Riga. Within a few months Duenamuende, Pernau and Reval also
+surrendered. This made complete the Russian conquest of the Swedish
+empire in the Baltic provinces. The operations against Finland, begun
+earlier, were continued with success. The town and fortress of Viborg,
+which never had been occupied by foreign troops, were captured in June,
+and Kexholm in September. The country was unmercifully devastated, in
+spite of solemn promises to the contrary.
+
+That under such circumstances discontent against the absolute ruler
+was fostered seems only natural. During the first few years of the
+Carolinian campaign the noise of the great victories was stronger than
+the voices of discontent and complaint. When the glorious battles were
+not followed by treaties of peace, the grumbling voices grew louder.
+The king was at first not the object of the growing discontent, but
+the state council, which was considered to make greater demands than
+were necessary. The king was supposed to fight for a righteous cause
+against treacherous enemies, but the truth dawned on a good many that
+a government invested with absolute power was the cause of the misery.
+The battle of Pultowa brought to a mature state the thoughts of a
+change in the constitution, thoughts which for years had occupied the
+ablest men of the country. The double government was to a great extent
+responsible for the bad state of affairs. The king tried to rule with
+absolute power from his headquarters in Saxony, Poland and the Ukraine,
+with Piper as his adviser. At home the state council held the reins of
+government and sometimes acted in direct opposition to the instructions
+or intentions of the king. Charles XII. was very jealous of his power,
+and the state council, foremost in which were a few men of the very
+highest ability, like Count Arvid Horn, was on this account sometimes
+unable to carry out its best endeavors. Charles by his methods brought
+confusion and uncertainty into the deliberations and acts of the
+government, injuring the commonwealth and the principles of an absolute
+monarchy as well. The king was not able to supervise the details of his
+administration, and unrighteous officers profited thereby, by their
+unlawful collections of taxes, causing open revolts of the suffering
+population in various parts of the country.
+
+The state council took no pains to hide the truth from the king, rather
+using strong colors in their descriptions of the critical condition
+in order to obtain the much-sought-for and needed peace, or at least
+the gratification of seeing the armies of the country used exclusively
+for the defence of its own possessions. King Charles considered the
+members of the state council as a body of weaklings, cowards and fools,
+who painted the devil on the wall because they lacked the courage
+and endurance to await the final and infallible triumph of his royal
+arms in a righteous cause. The climax was reached after the arrival
+of Charles at Bender. The state council commenced to negotiate for
+peace on its own responsibility. It also convoked a committee of the
+Estates of the Riksdag to a meeting for deliberations on measures
+which would better the hopeless conditions of the state and people.
+King Charles learned of it and sent from Bender a remarkable order, in
+which he absolutely forbade such meetings, "especially because the last
+convention of the Estates," he wrote, "had no other consequence than to
+let them still plainer discover their impoverished condition."
+
+King Charles lingered in Bender, fascinated by the plans made by
+several Turkish princes of an armed support against his enemies, or
+at least an escort of troops for his return through Poland. The king
+succeeded in his efforts to force the sultan of Turkey to an attack on
+Russia. The Turks, 200,000 strong, made an invasion, according to plans
+drawn up by Charles, and were successful in completely surrounding a
+Russian army, commanded by Czar Peter in person, at the shores of the
+river Pruth. The czar saved himself by a supreme effort, sacrificing
+all his gold and the jewels of the czarina as bribes to the grand
+vizier, who commanded the Turkish army. This dignitary let the Russians
+escape, thus spoiling the plans of the whole campaign. To Charles it
+was a great disappointment. His hope to see the Russian giant crushed,
+and the defeat at Pultowa avenged, was gone forever. His plan of
+reaching Poland with Turkish troops to join Stenbock and a Swedish army
+was shaken with the loss of confidence in his barbarous allies. The
+perfidious grand vizier was punished, but the agreement of peace which
+he had made with the czar was sanctioned by the sultan, in 1711.
+
+The Swedish state council was quite reluctant to obey the repeated
+orders of the king for a new army, hesitating to impose new burdens
+upon the suffering people. The king grew impatient and there was no
+escape possible. Magnus Stenbock, the most popular man in all Sweden,
+set an example of personal sacrifices which was followed by many
+others, and a new army of 9,000 men was at last equipped with a navy to
+carry it across the Baltic to Pomerania. Stenbock landed in the island
+of Rugen, in September, 1712, and increased his army to 14,000. He
+abandoned the idea to march toward Poland because the king remained at
+Bender, and entered Mecklenburg after having skilfully avoided meeting
+a superior force of Russian and Saxon troops, which followed him at a
+distance. Negotiations of peace had been commenced before the arrival
+of Stenbock, between the dethroned Stanislav of Poland, who was then in
+Pomerania, and King August. This caused a standstill in the operations,
+an armistice of a fortnight having been agreed to, with a prospect of
+renewal. The Danes made an end to it, entering Mecklenburg in December.
+When the armistice was at an end, Stenbock hastened with his troops
+to Gadebusch, where the Danish army was encamped, by this rapid move
+preventing the latter from joining the Russian and Saxon forces. Only a
+detachment of Saxon cavalry had succeeded in reaching the Danish camp.
+The battle of Gadebusch was fought December 9, 1712, and was the last
+of the great victories on land that a Swedish army ever won on the
+Continent. The Danes were crushingly defeated, and their allies found
+it safest to return to their former fortified positions. The Swedish
+artillery, commanded by Charles Cronstedt, distinguished itself in
+this battle against an enemy of superior strength. But Stenbock could
+not for any length of time keep up the struggle against the armies of
+three countries, not receiving any support from Sweden, nor sufficient
+provisions in Mecklenburg. When the Danes burned the town of Stade,
+Stenbock in revenge burned Altona, toward the end of the year. His
+army was reduced for lack of provisions, and Stenbock saw no other
+course to take than to shut himself up with his troops in the fortress
+of Toenning, in the possession of the young duke of Holstein-Gottorp.
+Stenbock persevered in his hopes for support from Sweden, or friendly
+powers, in vain. Efforts were made in Sweden to send him troops and
+provisions, but did not prove successful. When death from starvation
+was impending, the valiant general concluded to surrender. May 6, 1713,
+it was agreed that Stenbock and his army of 11,000 men should become
+Danish prisoners, but that they should be exchanged at the earliest
+opportunity. King Frederic IV. of Denmark dishonestly neglected to
+fulfil this agreement, repeatedly and flatly refusing to exchange
+any of the prisoners. The hero of the victories at Helsingborg and
+Gadebusch at first received a tolerably good treatment in Danish
+captivity, which later was changed in a horrible manner. After years
+of cruel suffering, he died in a miserable dungeon, in 1717, one year
+prior to the death of Charles XII. This great descendant of Eric
+Stenbock and Magdalen Sture tried to kill the time of his captivity by
+carving in ivory, some articles of exquisite design by his hand still
+being preserved.
+
+At the surrender of Toenning, Sweden lost her last army and her ablest
+general. Her king dwelt among the Turks in circumstances fraught with
+increasing dangers, and her enemies on every side stood ready for
+attack, the country being a prey to discontent and despair. Still her
+measure of misery and contumely was not filled.
+
+Charles XII. persevered in his strange sojourn at Bender, being
+a guest who caused the sultan continual worry through his great
+political influence. The king was resolved to leave Turkey only in one
+manner, and that was escorted by a Turkish force. He was successful
+in persuading the sultan to declare war on Russia once more, but
+Czar Peter hastened to make so many concessions that peace was made
+before any campaign was begun. King Frederic of Prussia offered
+Charles an alliance on the condition that he should at once return
+to Sweden. Charles seemed at last inclined to do so, but then a
+conspiracy was brought to his notice, disclosing a plan by which the
+perfidious Turkish princes of his intended escort were to deliver
+him into the hands of King August of Poland. King Charles refused to
+leave Poland, and the conspirators effected an order from the sultan
+to attack Charles with an army of 10,000 men, and bring him, dead
+or alive, to Adrianople. The order was executed February 11, 1713,
+Charles defending himself with his few hundred Swedes and some Poles
+of his escort against the overwhelming force of Turks and Tartars. The
+house of the king, near Bender, had been strongly fortified for the
+occasion. When the trenches were taken most of his men surrendered,
+but Charles remained with fifty Swedes in the house, which was built
+of wood, warding off the attack and putting the enemy to flight with
+a heroism vividly recalling the tales of the ancient Sagas. The Turks
+returned toward evening and ignited the building. The Swedes valiantly
+continued their struggle, fighting with their swords against the Turks,
+surrounded by heavy fire and by the smoke of the burning building. The
+king at last was forced to leave the house and tried to make his way
+to the neighboring chancery building, which was of stone and better
+fit to withstand an attack. Charles stumbled and fell, and was at once
+made prisoner, together with his followers. This peculiar incident,
+which has been called the Kalabalik, or Popular Tumult, of Bender,
+aroused universal surprise and dislike. Charles was conducted to a
+Turkish pasha, who treated him with respect. He was under supervision
+first at the town of Demotika, later at the palace of Timurtasz, both
+in the vicinity of Adrianople. Charles considered it incompatible
+with his royal dignity to call on the grand vizier. For this reason
+it was given out that he was ill, and in his miraculous stubbornness
+he persevered in keeping his bed for a whole year! During all this
+time, Charles followed up his policy of governing Sweden from afar
+with absolute despotism. He prepared new rules for the chancery,
+attempting to change the form of administration from one of faculties,
+or colleges, to one of departments, or bureaus. He made negotiations
+of peace in the same spirit as of yore, viz., without being willing
+to make any concessions, and planned new campaigns. For recreation he
+played chess and listened to music.
+
+In Sweden the peculiar Turkish adventures of Charles XII. were not
+understood or appreciated, and the country seemed forsaken by all,
+even by the king, who by many was thought to be insane. The state
+council saw no possibility of maintaining a government without the
+consent and goodwill of the people. Plans for a new constitution,
+a reduction of the royal power and a peace at any cost were in the
+air. Princess Ulrica Eleonore was called as a member of the state
+council and a Riksdag was convoked, to meet toward the end of 1713.
+The Estates declared that they were, in case of necessity, ready to
+seek peace under the auspices of the princess and the state council,
+and were in favor of appointing the princess to the regency. Arvid
+Horn, the leading spirit of the state council, used the utmost of his
+influence in keeping the Riksdag from the revolutionary acts which
+would be involved in making Ulrica Eleonore regent, but he saw to it
+that the declaration of the Riksdag, of intended peace-making through
+the princess and state council, was communicated to the king. Hans
+Henric von Liewen, one of the state councillors, was selected to
+carry this communication to the king, together with letters from the
+queen-dowager and the state council. Count Liewen gave a full and true
+account to the king, telling him in plain words that if he did not
+return home without delay his kingdom would be lost to him.
+
+King Charles at last decided to return to his country. He sent an
+embassy of seventy-two people to officially announce his departure to
+the sultan at Constantinople, made a loan of a considerable sum of
+money, and left Demotika with a large escort. In Wallachia he left the
+Turks behind, and continued on his way through Hungary and Germany,
+followed by two Swedish officers. The emperor of Germany, who was
+desirous of winning over the Swedish king for his plans, prepared a
+hospitable reception, but Charles passed Vienna _incognito_ as Captain
+Peter Frisk. He rode on, through night and day, taking care of his own
+horse and never changing his clothes. Charles arrived at the gate of
+Stralsund, in Swedish Pomerania, in the night of November 11, 1714,
+accompanied by one officer. In a fortnight he had, on horseback,
+traversed a stretch of 1,300 miles.
+
+The situation at the arrival of Charles XII. in Stralsund was beset
+with new dangers and complications. Prussia had ceased to be friendly
+and was planning to seize the Swedish possessions in Germany. Hanover,
+united with England under the same ruler, had the same ambition. The
+dilapidated fortifications of Stralsund were attacked by Saxons and
+Danes, commanded by their respective kings, August and Frederic. For
+more than a year, Charles, with admirable heroism, withstood the siege.
+Once, while the king was dictating a letter to a secretary, the latter
+sprang to his feet in consternation, a bomb having shattered the roof
+of the building. "The bomb, your majesty, the bomb!" exclaimed the
+scribe. Charles answered: "What connection is there between the bomb
+and my letter?" quietly continuing his dictation. The king found it
+at last impossible to keep up the defence of Stralsund, leaving it a
+stormy December night, and arriving safely in the town of Trelleborg,
+on the southernmost point of Sweden, December 15, 1715.
+
+What a different country that Sweden was which Charles XII. left in
+August, 1699, at the very summit of her political grandeur, to the
+impoverished and suffering Sweden in which he had now landed! And
+what a different man he had himself become during these sixteen years
+of absence! Sweden had won a new hero king, of greater fame than any
+of his predecessors or successors, but lost her prosperity for the
+time being and her political grandeur forever. The people received
+the king with demonstrations of joy and with reviving hope for an
+honorable peace. The state council and the intelligent few received
+him with badly concealed hopelessness and indifference. They knew that
+although the young ambitious king had changed to a world-famous hero,
+prematurely aged in victory and defeat, the unyielding stubbornness and
+the never satiated desire for glory had remained unchanged in Charles
+XII. Charles was met by a message from the dying queen-dowager, his
+grandmother, with an ardent prayer for peace. Charles answered to hopes
+and prayers, to silent indifference and despair, with a command of
+more money and more troops! He wanted peace, but as he spoke in the
+same terms as when he was the victorious commander of an apparently
+invincible army, nobody cared to consider his demands in earnest. The
+absolute power reached its last stage of development, a military
+despotism which had no other policy than war, no other administration
+than the one requisite to maintain and provide the requirements of war.
+The state council fell in deepest disgrace, and its functions ceased,
+in 1715.
+
+During the last years of his reign, Charles XII. took no advice of
+Swedish men. Foreign adventurers and schemers were in charge of the
+affairs of state, principal among whom was Baron George Henric Goertz.
+This man was a minister of state of the young duke of Holstein-Gottorp,
+in whose service he remained, and in whose interests, as a successor
+to Charles XII. on the throne of Sweden, he zealously worked, while
+developing into the all-powerful minister of the Swedish king. Charles
+granted him authority to act in his name in almost every branch of
+the government, interior as well as foreign. Goertz was a genius, but
+utterly reckless. For his acts the king was responsible, not he.
+Goertz was a foreigner and working for the cause of a foreign master.
+He tried to obtain loans abroad, made compulsory loans within the
+country, placed a tax on articles of luxury, and put in circulation
+coins of copper which were a kind of "promissory notes," worthless in
+themselves, but each representing a Swedish dollar. At first these
+"coins of need" were issued to the amount of a sensible sum, but were
+soon increased in number at the command of Charles XII. himself, so
+that they represented higher sums than the crown could redeem, and thus
+lost their value. The people refused to take them, while the prices of
+everything in the market rose to an astounding height. The government,
+in order to save itself from this difficulty, took possession of all
+coined money and uncoined silver, and gave the "coins of need" in
+exchange, perpetrating several other scandalous acts of violence
+against the rights of private property.
+
+The situation grew almost insupportable. Commerce and industry, injured
+by the war, ceased entirely because nobody was inclined to sell, only
+to receive in exchange worthless coins. Wars and hard years combined in
+creating misery and distress everywhere. The peasants were recklessly
+treated, and a disregard for moral obligations grew out of the bad
+examples set by the government. The students and scientists had in
+great numbers been carried away by the bloody wars, and the interest
+in the fields of culture was slackened by the power of financial
+depression. The wealthy and well-to-do saw their means daily diminish,
+and, losing their interest in public welfare, they tried to save the
+remnants of their own property. The members of the state council were
+threatened by investigations which Goertz and his friends were scheming
+to institute against them. In the nobility, the plans for a change of
+the constitution matured, the leaders in this movement being Count Per
+Ribbing and the old Gyllencreutz, who had prophesied the outcome of an
+absolute monarchial government.
+
+Charles XII., in spite of his all-absorbing passion for war, did not
+lack interest for the pursuits of peace. He encouraged several men
+of genius, of whom two were eminently worthy of distinction; viz.,
+Nicodemus Tessin, Junior, the architect, and Christopher Polhem, the
+engineer.
+
+Nicodemus Tessin was born in Nykoeping in 1654. His father and namesake
+belonged to an old Pomeranian family, and had come to Sweden during
+the reign of Queen Christine. Nicodemus Tessin, Senior, was an able
+architect, who built the castle of Drottningholm for Queen-dowager
+Hedvig Eleonore, a moderately gifted but art-loving woman. The latter
+gathered around herself artists and architects at her castle of
+Drottningholm, in Lake M�lar, among whom were Ehrenstrahl, a famous
+artist of German birth, who founded the first school of Swedish
+painters. The younger Tessin belonged to this circle and was, in their
+respective times, in the favor of Charles XI. and Charles XII., acting
+as court architect to both. The work which won for him an immortal fame
+is the royal palace of Stockholm, an architectural creation worthy of
+the admiration of all Europe, and, in Sweden, standing unsurpassed
+to this day. It was planned and commenced by Tessin, but completed
+according to his plans a hundred years after his death. Charles XI.
+ordered a reconstruction of the old castle, which enterprise Tessin
+undertook. Shortly after the death of Charles XI., both the old and
+the reconstructed parts of the palace were burned, and the body of
+the king with difficulty saved from the conflagration. Charles XII.
+ordered Tessin to build an entirely new palace. The work was commenced
+in 1698, but was gradually abandoned during the war times, to cease
+shortly before the battle of Pultowa. Charles was highly interested in
+it and wrote from Turkey to Tessin about his views. Tessin intended
+to decorate the exterior according to the taste of his day, but
+Charles raised opposition, finding the severe beauty of the stern yet
+graceful outlines perfect in themselves. The work on the new palace
+was recommenced after the death of Charles XII. King Adolphus Frederic
+was the first who took up his residence within its walls. Tessin rose
+high on the social ladder. From Turkey, the king made him a count and
+chancellor of the University of Lund; after his return to Sweden he
+appointed him marshal-colonel. Tessin stood in strong opposition to
+Baron Goertz, and after the death of King Charles joined the leaders of
+the revolutionary nobles. He was of universal fame.
+
+Christopher Polhem was the first of great Swedish engineers and
+inventors. He was born at the ancient town of Visby, in the island
+of Gothland, in 1661, and was the son of a merchant, who died when
+Christopher was a child. When only twelve years of age he had to make
+his own living. As secretary to a widow of wealth, he early developed
+his genius as a mechanician, building his own shop of carpentry, sloyd,
+etc., making watches and devising smaller inventions. His want of a
+classical education was detrimental to him, and he commenced, when
+twenty-four years of age, to study Latin with various ministers in the
+country, in exchange for works of his genius and handicraft. At last he
+was able to enter the University of Upsala by means of recommendations
+from his last teacher. Soon after his arrival he created considerable
+attention and admiration by a proof of his ingenuity. Behind the
+high altar in the Upsala Cathedral there was a clock of the finest
+workmanship, devised in medi�val times by a monk of the monastery of
+Vadstena. It was out of order, and not for a hundred years had anybody
+attempted to set it right. Polhem undertook to reconstruct the whole
+work, connecting with the main mechanism all the hands which pointed
+out the hours of the day, the eclipses of the moon and the motions
+of the "ruling" planets, according to the system of the astrologers.
+Polhem succeeded in his task, and was allowed to test his invention of
+automatic haulers of ore in the mines. The college of mining, before
+which the invention was successfully demonstrated, accepted it, and
+Charles XI. appointed Polhem a mining engineer. In 1694, Polhem made
+an extensive journey through England and the Continent. In Paris
+he learned that several mathematicians were in vain endeavoring to
+construct a clock which would simultaneously show the time of the day
+in various countries and strike the hours at the same time. Polhem
+announced through the Swedish ambassador in Paris that he was willing
+to solve the problem. He constructed a model which gave universal
+satisfaction. Louis XIV. had a clock made after this model and gave it
+as a gift of honor to the Turkish sultan. Upon his return he proposed
+the founding of a _laboratorium mechanicum_, which in several respects
+served as a pattern for the later technological institutes of Stockholm
+and Gothenburg. The youthful Charles XII. embraced the idea with
+interest, but the promising institution came to a standstill during the
+wars. Among Polhem's more remarkable inventions was one for the leading
+of water-power, to be used at considerable distances. Charles XII. said
+that a man like Polhem was not to be had for several centuries, and
+that for this reason he ought to be made useful as long as he lived.
+A task of gigantic proportions was intrusted to him--the construction
+of a dock for the navy yards at Carlskrona. The great engineer filled
+it in an admirable way, and was appointed councillor of commerce and
+ennobled under the name of Polhem, his original name having been
+Polhammar, which to modern ears sounds just as fine and a good deal
+more suggestive.
+
+Another gigantic task worthy of the genius of Polhem was the
+construction of a navigable route from the North Sea across the great
+inland seas of Sweden to the Baltic, but he was not allowed to finish
+it. Charles XII. intrusted the work to Polhem, who was to have it
+ready in five years. In 1718, Polhem commenced by forming an immense
+sluice, by means of explosions in the rock at Trollhetta. The great
+waterfalls of said place were to be avoided and the work of completing
+the sluice was begun, when it was all destroyed by unknown enemies,
+who dropped beams and planks in the river above, which carried away
+the dam. The death of King Charles and the impoverished condition of
+the country made it impossible to continue the work on the great canal
+system, which had to wait for more than a century for its ultimate
+completion. With the death of Charles XII. the era of ambitious
+enterprises came to an end; but Polhem was employed in various works
+of mechanic improvements in the interest of agriculture, industry and
+manufactures. Czar Peter of Russia, King George I. of England, and
+several other monarchs made brilliant offers in order to win Polhem
+for their countries. He executed several works and inventions abroad,
+but loved his own country too much to leave it. Polhem exerted a
+great influence in the interest of his science, both by instruction
+and by the publication of technical works. Active to the last, he
+died in 1751. Polhem was a man of a harmonious endowment, amiable
+and dignified, and preserved his plain mode of living throughout his
+brilliant career.
+
+Goertz led with superior skill the negotiations for peace, while the
+impoverished country suffered untold miseries as a consequence of his
+unscrupulous financial schemes. He tried to benefit by the sudden but
+lasting enmity between Czar Peter and George I., desiring to gain the
+support of either against the other. The deliberations were held in the
+archipelago of Aland, with Goertz as the representative of the Swedish
+government. Czar Peter wanted to keep Ingermanland, Esthonia and
+Livonia, but was ready to cede Finland, which country he occupied, and
+to assist King Charles with troops in an attack on Denmark. Norway was
+to be the compensation for the lost Baltic provinces, and the attack on
+Denmark was to be made from Germany. Charles XII. had no confidence in
+the czar as an ally and had commenced the conquest of Norway directly
+and without his aid. No decision was reached in the negotiations with
+England.
+
+In February, 1716, Charles XII., from Bohusl�n and Vermland, made an
+invasion into Norway, penetrating over the Glom River to Christiania.
+He captured the capital, where he held his headquarters for several
+weeks, but was not able to take the fortress of Akershus, which, with
+its artillery, commanded the city. The Swedish army, 10,000 strong,
+suffered a great deal from want of provisions and through a guerilla
+war, skilfully conducted by the Norwegians. Charles was in danger
+of being surrounded by the enemy, and with difficulty retreated to
+Sweden, over the Strait of Svinesund. The dangers were increased by
+the Norwegian naval hero, Peter Tordenskiold, who, with some Danish
+ships under his command, had destroyed a flotilla of Swedish transport
+vessels. An invasion into Scania by Denmark and her allies was planned
+for the summer, but did not materialize. King Charles took up his
+headquarters at Lund.
+
+The war offered no aspect of interest during the year 1717, except some
+unsuccessful attempts made by Tordenskiold to capture the towns of
+Stroemstad and Gothenburg. Charles prepared another attack on Norway,
+and, by draining the last resources of his country, managed to equip
+an army of 60,000 men. In August, 1718, a smaller army, under the
+command of Charles Gustavus Armfelt, was sent through Jemtland over the
+mountains into the diocese of Drontheim. King Charles, with an army of
+30,000 men, invaded Norway from Bohusl�n, Dal and Vermland, and took
+in possession the country east of the Glom River. Within a few days
+the king laid siege to the fortress of Fredericsten, close by the town
+of Fredricshall. November 27th the fort of Gyldenloeve was captured,
+and the Swedes moved their trenches ever closer to the fortress, which
+seemed doomed to surrender. In the evening of November 30th the king
+was seen in one of the trenches watching the work of his soldiers, and
+leaning against the rampart. He remained there a long time, not heeding
+the appeals of his officers, who grew uneasy on account of the apparent
+danger to his person. Suddenly his head sank down on his breast. A
+bullet from the fortress had reached him, penetrating his temples and
+causing instant death. He met death in the manner he most desired it,
+although not while engaged in battle.
+
+Charles XII. was of an enigmatic character, which attracts, through
+its strength and superiority over his contemporaries, but which
+is repulsive through its tenacity, unyielding sternness and
+inaccessibility to reason or persuasion. His moral greatness has won
+admiration. It had its limitations, but was superior to the standards
+of his time. His ideals were pure and lofty, but, through lack of
+contact with the realities and facts of life, only assumed a tragic
+grandeur, without proving beneficent to mankind. His faults were such
+that his education and experience as an absolute monarch aggravated
+them. Charles XII. was the most remarkable man of his age and one of
+the greatest soldiers that ever lived. He was also a great general,
+although the proper balance between the soldier and the field marshal,
+perhaps, was to some extent lacking. The influence of his personality
+and example had a miraculous effect upon his soldiers. He suffered his
+one great defeat in open battle when wounded, suffering, and not able
+to exert his usual influence to its full extent.
+
+Charles XII. has been idolized by his countrymen of all ages, who
+in him have recognized an impersonation of all their chief national
+virtues, with a few of their national faults, enlarged into the image
+of a patriotic hero of almost supernatural grandeur. The Swedish people
+were forced to accept absolute power as a salvation from the impending
+thraldom of oligarchy. In Charles XII. it saw to what a climax of abuse
+this power could attain, even in hands which were deemed righteous
+and free from stains. With Charles XII. the political grandeur and
+the absolute monarchy of Sweden came to an end, although attempts to
+restore both were to be made. A new phase of her development, with
+new improvements and new evils, commenced with the reign of Ulrica
+Eleonore.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+_Period of Liberty--The Aristocratic Republic_
+
+
+Ulrica Eleonore succeeded her brother Charles XII as the sovereign
+of Sweden. She was proclaimed queen by birthright, and called the
+Riksdag, willing to cede the absolute power. When the Riksdag convened
+a disagreeable surprise met her. The Estates refused to acknowledge
+her right to the crown, stating that both she and her older sister had
+deprived themselves of their rights of succession by marrying without
+the consent of the Estates of the Riksdag. Princess Hedvig Sophie was
+dead, but her son, the young Duke Charles Frederic of Holstein was
+in Sweden, ready to claim the throne. Ulrica Eleonore was compelled
+to yield gracefully. She sent a note to the Riksdag disclaiming her
+hereditary right, but declaring herself willing to accept the crown,
+with restriction of the absolute power. She was at once elected
+queen by the Riksdag of 1719, which then proceeded to pass a new
+constitution. Such a constitution had been formulated in advance by a
+new party, chiefly consisting of nobles, who aimed at introducing a
+royal government, restricted in its power by the state council and the
+Riksdag. They were successful in their efforts, but unfortunately lost
+their ablest leaders at the start, Per Ribbing dying soon after the
+first Riksdag, and Arvid Horn retiring from the government and council
+on account of a conflict with the queen. Thus the new government did
+not open up under favorable auspices. Baron von Goertz was captured and
+put to death for high treason without being granted the privilege of
+an appropriate legal defence. The queen overstepped her limit of power
+in being the active force in this illegal execution, anxious to rid
+herself of Goertz because he was the ablest man among the supporters
+of Duke Charles Frederic of Holstein. The duke gave up his chances
+and left for Russia, where he married a daughter of Czar Peter. The
+arrangements made to establish order in financial matters were not
+satisfactory. The management of the war with Denmark was miserable. The
+army was recalled from Norway and little done to protect the coast from
+attacks by the Danish fleet under Admiral Tordenskiold. This valiant
+naval hero, of Norwegian birth, who, during the reign of Charles XII.,
+had made unsuccessful attacks on Stroemstad and Gothenburg, through
+cunning captured the strong fortress of Carlsten, but was unable to
+take New Elfsborg. Danckwardt, the commander who surrendered Carlsten,
+was executed by the Swedish government. The Swedish army of 6,000
+men, which had entered the district of Dronthiem by the command of
+Charles XII., perished from hunger and cold when returning through the
+mountains of Jemtland. Only a few hundred survived to tell the terrible
+tale. The Russians sent a fleet to the Swedish shores with 40,000 men,
+and burned, in two expeditions, twelve Swedish towns in the middle
+and northern parts of the country. They avoided open battle, and when
+landing in great numbers were effectively repulsed.
+
+Under such conditions Sweden was anxious for peace. In compensation
+for various sums of money, Bremen and Verden were ceded to Hanover
+in 1719, Pomerania, south of the river Peene, with Stettin, Usedom
+and Wollin to Prussia, in 1720, and Ingermanland, Esthonia, Livonia,
+with Viborg and Kexholm, and surrounding Finnish territory, to Russia,
+in 1721. Denmark had to give up all territory captured from Sweden,
+but received a sum of money in exchange for Carlsten, in 1720. Thus
+the Baltic empire of Sweden was swept away. It had been of importance
+during the time of the German war and for the shielding of new
+conquests in the Scandinavian Peninsula itself. Now its loss was a gain
+for Sweden, as it allowed her to concentrate her attention upon the
+interior development of the country.
+
+The tendency of Ulrica Eleonore to exert more power than was within
+her authority had created dissatisfaction, and when she commenced
+an agitation to have her consort, Prince Frederic of Hesse, share
+the throne with her, the crown was granted him only upon her own
+resignation from the government.
+
+Frederic I. was crowned in 1720 and Ulrica Eleonore retired from
+the government. Frederic left the Reformed and entered the Lutheran
+Church. The crown was to be inherited by his male issues only, in the
+union with Ulrica Eleonore. He showed a tendency for mixing in the
+affairs of state to further his own interests, but soon gave in to his
+easy-tempered, pleasure-loving nature, occupying himself exclusively
+with his hunts and his mistresses.
+
+The real ruler of Sweden, during the first two decades of Frederic's
+reign, was _Arvid Horn_, one of the greatest of Swedish statesmen.
+His was not the work of building up the government of a strong and
+influential nation, like that of Oxenstierna or Gyllenstierna, nor were
+his their grand, far-reaching views. But his mission was to raise
+from the dust his bleeding, downtrodden country, and to reinstall
+it in the honor and respect, not only of itself but of the world.
+Count Arvid Bernhard Horn was an opportunist, but one of the noblest
+kind, who by means of peace found the only way in which to protect
+and further the financial and cultural development of Sweden. He was
+an able soldier and a skilled diplomatist. The son of an illustrious
+but poor family, of the Finnish nobility, he entered the military
+service after a university course at Abo. He served in foreign armies,
+but was with Charles XII. in Stockholm as the best companion of his
+youth. As the commander of the royal body-guard he took an honorable
+part in the early victories of Charles XII., later being chosen to
+fulfil the delicate task of making the Polish nobles elect Stanislav
+king, in which he was eminently successful. After a short captivity he
+was released and returned to Sweden, where he became a member of the
+state council and president of the state chancery. In this position
+he repeatedly sent letters to Charles XII., in which he described the
+distress of the country, in eloquent words pleading its need of peace.
+Upon his return Charles XII. removed him from office with the other
+councillors, although he was the one who had saved the tottering throne
+for the king. Of this Ulrica Eleonore was aware and was glad to accept
+his resignation; when reinstated in his position he found that he
+could not preserve it with dignity in the face of the irregularities
+committed by the queen. Count Horn was responsible for the exclusion
+of Ulrica Eleonore from the government at King Frederic's ascendency,
+but the latter was forced to accept Horn in his former position as the
+controlling power of the government. With due reason, the peaceful and
+honorable decades of Frederic's reign have been named the "Period of
+Arvid Horn."
+
+The new form of government introduced by Ribbing, Horn and others was
+nothing else than that of an aristocratic republic. The rights of
+the monarch, reduced in 1719, were still further reduced in 1720. He
+had two votes in the state council and a deciding vote in deadlock,
+but besides the authority to appoint councillors from the candidates
+nominated by the Riksdag, and to appoint all higher officials, no
+other rights. The government was in the hands of the state council,
+consisting of sixteen members. The Riksdag decided all questions of
+taxes and legislation, and settled issues of peace and war. Each of the
+four Estates was represented in the committees, except in the "secret
+committee," for international affairs, to which no yeoman could be
+chosen. Each Estate had its speaker. The president of the chancery was
+the minister of foreign affairs and consulted the secret committee
+on important questions, being the only head of a department who was
+allowed as a member of the state council. The nobility held the balance
+of power, much to the opposition of the lower Estates, who tried, by
+repeated agitation, to invest the king with the authority held by him
+before the days of absolute power. The nobility had done away with its
+three classes, and, with these abandoned, it was the majority, viz.,
+the lower nobility, who were the governing class. The aristocracy tried
+its best to regain the privileges enjoyed during the reign of Queen
+Christine and Charles X., but Horn forced it to be satisfied with
+those granted by Gustavus Adolphus. The power of the higher nobility
+was forever crushed by the loss of their immense possessions. The
+friction between the nobility and the lower Estates of the Riksdag was
+constant, Horn siding with the former, but keeping them all in check.
+
+Arvid Horn led with superior skill and gentleness the management of
+foreign affairs. All influences from the powers and from the restless
+nobles to involve Sweden in a conflict of war were unsuccessful. A
+treaty was never entered into with any one power without another one
+formed with a power of the opposite continental party to counterbalance
+it. Thus England, France and Russia were unable to make Sweden an
+obedient ally, Horn upholding her independence, maintaining peace and
+inspiring respect. Utterly refusing to accept the bribes which were
+freely offered and considered the indispensable means of obtaining
+diplomatic influence in that day, Horn himself distributed bribes
+to gain his patriotic purposes. Horn's great mistake was to refer
+the decision of foreign affairs in which he was opposed by members
+of the state council to the Riksdag and its secret committee. The
+latter commenced to act independently in important foreign matters. By
+signing an agreement with France, through which Sweden lost its former
+privilege of an independent policy, the committee ultimately caused his
+downfall, in 1738. Arvid Horn then retired, at the age of seventy-two,
+and died a few years later.
+
+During Horn's peaceful administration the financial conditions
+improved, the state debt was reduced and the peaceful trades and
+industries were furthered. The great deed accomplished was the
+completion of a new state law which was published in 1734 and is in
+force to this very day. Arvid Horn was a perfect type of the great
+Carolin era, of pure and severe morals and modest requirements. In a
+day of increasing scepticism and levity, he ostentatiously preserved
+the rigid religious practices of his youth. He showed unreserved
+indignation at the unworthy and immoral conduct of the king, for
+which reason strained relations existed between them. Count Horn was
+of impressive form and carriage, controlling the quick temper of the
+warrior beneath the smooth and dignified bearing of the statesman.
+
+The decades which followed upon the fall of Arvid Horn were stormy
+ones and full of miseries. The friends of peace were called Caps and
+the warlike party Hats. The latter, now in power, commenced a war
+against Russia, which turned out badly, the Swedes being defeated at
+Vilmanstrand, in 1741, and at Helsingfors, in 1742. The government and
+secret committee felt ashamed of their work and had the poor generals,
+Charles Emil Lewenhaupt and Buddenbrock, executed for their lack of
+martial skill and good fortune. Peace was made with Russia in 1743, the
+towns of Fredericshamn, Vilmanstrand and Nyslott, in Finland, being
+ceded by Sweden, and the river Kymene made the boundary line.
+
+Next the Hats had to face a rebellion. In order to please Elizabeth of
+Russia, Czar Peter's daughter, they had selected Charles Peter Ulric,
+her nephew and the son of the duke of Holstein, as heir-apparent to the
+Swedish throne, to which he was the nearest in right, Ulrica Eleonore
+dying without issue, in 1741. But when chosen as Elizabeth's successor
+in Russia, the Hats selected Adolphus Frederic, prince bishop of
+Lubeck, who on his mother's side was a descendant of Gustavus Adolphus.
+This caused popular discontent, the people, forgetful of past enmities,
+desiring to make Crown Prince Frederic of Denmark heir-apparent. The
+peasants at the Riksdag of 1742 proclaimed loudly their desire of a
+personal union with Denmark-Norway, which would establish Scandinavia
+as one solid power against Russia. The peasants of Helsingland and
+Dalecarlia revolted. They gathered, and marching down to Stockholm,
+placed the government in a dangerous position by demanding the
+election of Crown Prince Frederic of Denmark and the execution of the
+two imprisoned generals. In that very moment peace was obtained with
+Russia, and the government persuaded the leaders of the rebellion, who
+had obtained admission to the Riksdag, that Adolphus Frederic must be
+chosen, since it was a part of the treaty of peace. Later the rebels,
+3,500 in number, were forced to surrender. Their principal leader was
+executed.
+
+The Hats were at first led by Count Gyllenborg, who was succeeded
+by the brilliant Count Charles Gustavus Tessin, a son of the great
+architect, Nicodemus Tessin the Younger. Although not a statesman of
+any higher ability, Charles Gustavus Tessin was able to shake the
+oppressive influence of Russia. He was assisted by Prince Adolphus
+Frederic, who said he would rather resign than be a Russian vassal. A
+war seemed imminent, but was averted, Finland in the meantime being
+effectively fortified. The unconquerable fortress of Sveaborg was
+built near Helsingfors, and was the creation of Augustinus Ehrensverd.
+The Hats were eager in their attempts to encourage industry and
+manufacture, but did so at the expense of agriculture, and placed
+immense taxes on imported goods. A pioneer of industry was John
+Alstroemer, who, in his town of Alingsos, built factories of various
+kinds. King Frederic died in 1751.
+
+_Adolphus Frederic_ was a good-natured and gentle man. He was not
+averse to an increased royal authority, but was not energetic enough
+to exert a controlling influence or to push his claims. His consort
+was the ambitious and brilliantly gifted Louise Ulrica, the sister of
+Frederic the Great of Prussia. She tried to inspire the king to action.
+Continually occupied by ambitious schemes, she spoiled them herself,
+through lack of caution and stability. As crown princess, she stood
+close to Count Tessin, whom she hoped to win over for her plans. They
+devised the institution of the knightly orders of the Seraphim, the
+Sword and the North Star, the credit of their introduction being given
+to King Frederic I. Adolphus Frederic was forced to subscribe to the
+same minimum of royal privileges as those enjoyed by Frederic I. At
+court a party was formed which supported the king, who soon commenced
+to oppose the state council. In 1755 this went so far that he refused
+to sign a document from the council. The case was brought before the
+Riksdag, where, in spite of strong opposition from the peasants, a
+resolution was passed indorsing the action of the state council. Count
+Tessin, in friction with the court, resigned from all his positions.
+The Riksdag tried to reinstall him as governor of the royal princes,
+but gave in upon the request of Tessin. The Riksdag went to the extreme
+of having a stamp made of the king's signature, to use in cases where
+he refused to sign, and also took upon itself to engage and dismiss
+teachers for the royal princes. At court indignation rose high, and a
+conspiracy was formed to take possession of the capital, with the state
+council and the speakers of the four Estates, in order to bring about
+a revolution with increased power for the king. The conspiracy was
+discovered, and Count Eric Brahe, Count Jacob Horn and six others of
+its leaders executed.
+
+A new humiliation to the court was Sweden's alliance with Austria,
+Russia and France against Frederic the Great of Prussia. The plans laid
+out by the Swedes were as elaborate as those for the Russian war. But
+on account of poor equipment and repeated change of commanders nothing
+effective was done. When peace was made at Hamburg, in 1762, Sweden
+neither lost nor gained anything. The Swedes had fought no battles, and
+Frederic the Great said he would call the Swedish invasion of Pomerania
+a private fight at the frontier.
+
+The great expense of the profitless war gave the Caps an occasion
+to gain in influence, and at the Riksdag of 1765 they overthrew the
+power of the Hats, in their turn summarily dismissing the councillors
+of their opponents. They introduced perfect liberty of the press
+in 1766, but went too far in their policy of economy, dangerously
+injuring the new industries by the withdrawal of loans and subsidies.
+The expensive factories came to a standstill and skilled workingmen
+emigrated. Popular opinion turned against these repeated changes and
+the endless strife of the parties, and felt inclined to criticise a
+Riksdag which had attained such power without giving a prosperous and
+secure administration in return. Foreign powers, encouraged by the
+court, tried to gain adherents of their various policies by bribes
+to councillors and members of the Riksdag, thus demoralizing state
+politics.
+
+The king received a valuable supporter in the crown prince Gustavus,
+who in 1767 became of age. He prevailed upon the king to resign when
+the state council refused to call an extraordinary Riksdag for the
+granting of added royal authority. The king did so, and the country
+was without a monarch for six days (December 15-21, 1768). The crown
+prince notified the presidents of the different administrative offices
+in Stockholm that his father had ceased to reign. The state council
+persisted; but had to give in, when the colonels of the regiments
+reported that they could no longer answer for their troops, since also
+the paymaster's office was closed. The Riksdag convened in Norrkoeping
+in 1769. The Caps suffered defeat in spite of strenuous efforts made
+for their preservation by the secret agents of the powers, anxious to
+see the anarchic condition of the government continue. But the court
+party failed in the exertions to have the royal privileges augmented.
+The intrigues of the foreign powers continued, and the crown prince
+left for France to insure her support in case of war. While the Hats
+were once more in power, Adolphus Frederic died suddenly in February,
+1771.
+
+Gustavus was to put an end to the party strife of the "Period of
+Liberty," as it has been called. His own reign belongs properly to it,
+for he reaped the benefit of the seed it had been sowing. The Period of
+Liberty, with all its faults, forms an important chain in the cultural
+and political development of Sweden. Its form of government made
+necessary a varied and active part in public affairs, educating all
+classes of officials to a high degree of efficiency and the people at
+large to self-government. The Riksdag, through parliamentary activity
+and importance, developed an authority which, although too composite
+to govern itself, was enabled to act as a shield of steel against
+all abuse of the executive power. The national life never gathered a
+richer harvest of men of genius who worked for the progress of their
+country and for that of the world. The heroism of the Swedish people
+during the preceding period of suffering and distress bore fruit in
+men like Emanuel Swedenborg, the inventor, naturalist, philosopher
+and founder of a new religion; Charles Linn�us; the founder of modern
+botany; Andrew Celsius, Junior, the inventor of the centigrade
+thermometer; John Ahlstroemer, the pioneer of industry; John Ihre, the
+able philologist, and Olof von Dalin, the poet, humorist, and, with
+Sven Lagerbring, the first modern historian of Sweden. The Period of
+"Liberty," viz., of an Aristocratic Republic, was the golden era of
+Swedish science, the latter for the first time becoming of universal
+fame and of universal importance. The scientists of this period
+belong to the fathers of modern research, basing their conclusions
+upon personal observation, in strong contrast to _their_ fathers and
+precursors of the chauvinistic barocco period.
+
+Emanuel Swedenborg, the most remarkable man whom Sweden has ever
+brought forth, was born in Stockholm, June 29, 1688. His father was
+Jesper Svedberg, bishop of Skara, in West Gothland, and his mother Sara
+Behm. The tendency toward mysticism, an inheritance from his father,
+was noticed in him at an early age. He has told of himself that between
+the age of four and ten his thoughts were exclusively occupied with
+religious subjects. While in prayer, he sometimes entered a somnambulic
+condition, revealing things which surprised his parents, who said that
+angels spoke through him. As a child, he had the idea of God as one,
+without any conception of a Trinity. Later he received instruction in
+the systematic theology of his day. His father gave him a thorough
+training in the Oriental and classical languages. The early mysticism
+of the boy was supplanted by a thirst for knowledge of the phenomena of
+life and nature, coupled to a burning desire to illustrate his reading
+by practical experiments. Having entered the University of Upsala, he
+at first devoted himself to the study of the classical languages and
+literature, later to that of mathematics and natural science. When the
+university was visited by the plague in 1710, and almost all courses of
+instruction were interrupted, Swedenborg made a journey for scientific
+purposes to England, Holland, France and Germany. He returned in 1714,
+enriched with valuable results. In 1716-18 he published the first
+scientific journal of Sweden, "D�dalus Hyperboreus," treating subjects
+of mathematics and physical science. In 1716 he came in close personal
+contact with Charles XII. at the university town of Lund. The king,
+being deeply impressed by his great learning and practical ability,
+appointed him assistant assessor of the college of mining. Swedenborg
+had, by the scholar Eric Benzelius, been made acquainted with the idea
+of the old Bishop Brask, of the time of Gustavus I., to "cut up the
+land" between the North Sea and the Baltic to make a navigable route
+through Sweden. Swedenborg gave close attention to this scheme, and
+communicated his plans to Charles XII., who became very much interested
+in them. Christopher Polhem was selected to build the great canal, and
+Swedenborg was made his assistant. We know from the sketch of Polhem's
+life why the great work failed of accomplishment. Swedenborg gave a
+proof of his superior genius as a practical engineer during the siege
+of Fredericshall. Tordenskiold made the sea unsafe and had hedged in
+the Swedish fleet at Iddefiord. The Swedish boats and galleys were then
+carried overland to the town of Stroemstad, travelling the main road
+for fifteen miles on rolling machines devised by Swedenborg. After the
+death of Charles XII., whom he highly respected, Swedenborg travelled
+to Saxony and Hungary to study the mining industry of these countries.
+Returning in 1722, he entered for the first time upon his work of the
+college of mining, becoming assessor a few years later. In 1719 he was
+ennobled with his brothers and sisters, when the change of name from
+Svedberg to Swedenborg was made. In 1724 he declined to accept the
+chair of mathematics at the University of Upsala, dividing his time
+between his official work and his studies, until 1747, when he resigned
+from his position with a pension of the same amount as his salary. His
+religious works were commenced in 1745, and after that time he made
+repeated journeys to London or Amsterdam to have these printed, as they
+could not be published in Sweden on account of the strict and highly
+orthodox censure of that period.
+
+In 1744 the event occurred which Swedenborg in various places of
+his works has described as the opening of his spiritual sight, or
+the manifestations of the Lord to him in person. He had not, by
+geometrical, physical and metaphysical principles, succeeded in
+grasping the infinite and the spiritual, or their relation to the
+nature of man, but he had touched on facts and methods which seemed
+to conduct him in the right direction. He thought that God had led
+him into the natural sciences in order to prepare him for his later
+spiritual development. The visions of his boyhood returned, now
+conceived by a nature enriched by the experiences of a life spent in
+ardent and scientific research. The great seer remained a man whom
+everybody loved and respected. People who did not believe in his
+visions feared to ridicule them in the presence of this august savant.
+His manner of life was simple, his diet chiefly consisting of bread,
+milk and large quantities of coffee. He made little distinction between
+night and day, and sometimes lay for days in a trance. His servants
+were often disturbed at night by hearing him engaged in what he called
+conflicts with evil spirits. His intercourse with spirits was often
+perfectly calm, in broad daylight, and with all his faculties awake.
+He held that every man and woman has the same power of spiritual
+intercourse, although not developed in the same degree as it was found
+in him.
+
+The work which established the scientific reputation of Swedenborg was
+published, in 1734, in three massive folios, at the expense of Duke
+Ludvig Rudolph of Brunswick. The second and third volumes describe
+the best methods employed in Europe and America in the manufacture
+of iron, copper and brass. The first volume contains a philosophical
+explanation of the elementary world which has aroused admiration as a
+beautiful, daring and consistent creation of human genius, worthy of
+being placed side by side with the works of Newton, and replete with
+remarkable ideas and anticipations of later discoveries. Swedenborg
+indicated the existence of the seventh planet forty years before Uranus
+was discovered by Herschel. He was the first to form an idea of the
+development of nebul� from chaotic masses to concrete heavenly bodies,
+a hypothesis later perfected by Herschel, and the first to offer the
+theory, later developed by Buffon, Kant and La Place, of the solar
+origin of the planets and their satellites. As in astronomy, so also in
+physics and geology he preconceived great discoveries. His experiments
+and theories in physics have been confirmed by the discoveries
+of the polarity of light and the galvanometer and its magnetic
+properties. Swedenborg discovered before anybody else the great
+importance of magnetism and the fact that magnetism and electricity
+are manifestations of the same power. He made observations concerning
+air and water which have been confirmed as to their correctness by
+Priestley, Cavendish and Lavoisier, who long were supposed to have been
+the first discoverers. In geology, he was the first to demonstrate
+that the Scandinavian peninsula, except the southern part of Scania,
+was a rising continent, proving the earlier level of the sea to have
+been much higher and the inland lakes to have stood in connection with
+the sea. Through his remarks on bowlders, he gave rise to the later
+theories of Berzelius and S�fstrom of a bowlder period. Upon these
+researches followed great and remarkable works of anatomy, which, by
+later anatomists of the first rank, have been declared to be classics
+in the literature of physiology. His immense work, "Arcana Coelestia,"
+and other theosophical writings which he has placed as a foundation
+for the New Church, and on which his present fame rests, were not so
+celebrated in his days as his scientific works. Like the latter, they
+were all written in Latin.
+
+The new religion, founded by Swedenborg, more spiritual than the old,
+has proved equally attractive to the individual and idealistic thinkers
+of all sects, Protestants and Catholics, Unitarians and Theosophists.
+Swedenborg made no attempt to establish a sect, and the New Church as
+an organization is the result of a movement which was started after his
+death.
+
+In his personal appearance Swedenborg was a middle-sized man of strong
+constitution. His head was of a fine shape, the color of his face
+somewhat dark and its expression pensive, but his blue eyes were large
+and radiant. His disposition was amiable. He was a man of the world,
+fond of music and society, especially of that of cultured women, and
+was often seen at court. He had a tendency to stutter when speaking
+fast, for which reason he used a slow diction, characterized by choice
+and mature expressions. In his youth, he frequented the house of
+Christopher Polhem and fell in love with his daughter Emerentia. Both
+Polhem and Charles XII. favored the idea of seeing them united, the
+young girl of fourteen giving her consent. But young Emerentia was
+secretly in love with somebody else, and her health and disposition
+suffered under the strain. When Swedenborg discovered the truth, he
+gave his betrothed freedom from her allegiance. He ceased to visit the
+house of Polhem and never entered any other relation of love.
+
+In 1770, at the age of eighty-two, Swedenborg for the last time
+visited Amsterdam. John C. Cuno, who then saw him, thus described the
+impression which the aged visionary and thinker made upon him: "He
+looked so touchingly pious, and when I gazed into his smiling eyes of a
+heavenly blue, it always seemed to me that truth itself spoke from his
+lips." Swedenborg left Amsterdam for London, where, on Christmas eve,
+1772, he was struck by hemiplegia. After a few weeks he recovered his
+speech, and his faculties were clear to the last. The chaplain of the
+Swedish legation asked him if he had not formulated the doctrines of
+his new religion in order to gain fame, and if he wished to recall it
+all before he died. The yet partly paralyzed man raised himself into
+a sitting position, saying: "As true as it is that you see me here in
+front of you, as true is also all that I have written, and in eternity
+you will find a confirmation of it." The chaplain asked him if he
+wanted to receive the sacrament. Swedenborg answered: "I need it not;
+for I am already a member of the other world; but your intention is
+good, and I will with joy receive the sacrament in token of the bond
+of unity between heaven and earth." Swedenborg died March 29, 1772, and
+was buried in the Lutheran church of London.
+
+Swedenborg was shrewd in worldly affairs and discussed politics and
+finance in the Swedish Riksdag for nearly a score of years after his
+visions and theological writings had begun to occupy most of his time.
+
+If the theological works of Emanuel Swedenborg at first were apt to
+discredit the results of his manifold scientific research in the eyes
+of those who did not share his theosophical views, the renown of the
+great religious thinker in later times has outshone the fame of which,
+as the versatile scholar and philosopher, he was so eminently worthy.
+With his younger contemporary, Charles Linn�us (or Carl von Linn�), the
+case was different. There was in his career no radical change to divert
+or throw an umbrage over the fame he had won as a scientist of the very
+first rank.
+
+Charles Linn�us, the most celebrated of Swedish scientists, was born
+at Rashult, in Smaland, in 1707. His father was a minister of a very
+subordinate charge of the state church. The neighborhood in which the
+young Linn�us grew up was not fertile, but rich in flowers, which were
+the toys and comrades of his childhood. He made but little progress at
+his work in the college of Vexio, being more fond of collecting and
+examining plants than of studying Greek and Latin. It was the wish of
+his parents that he should become a minister and the assistant of his
+father; but the youth had so little inclination to pursue the life or
+studies of a clergyman that he at last found it necessary to tell his
+parents so. He had found a friend and protector in Doctor Rothman,
+a district physician, who encouraged him to follow his ambition of
+becoming a naturalist and physician. Doctor Rothman supervised his
+studies in botany and succeeded in teaching him Latin by giving him
+the natural history of Pliny to study. In this manner Linn�us, who at
+college showed utter dislike for the classical languages, learned to
+write and speak Latin with ease. His teachers, who at first had advised
+his parents to let him quit the book, in order to take up some trade,
+were made aware of his gifted nature, but as he was found deficient in
+the regular courses, their recommendation, necessary for his admittance
+to the University of Lund, was very carefully worded. "The youths
+in our colleges may be likened unto little trees in a plant school,
+where it happens, although but rarely, that young trees upon which the
+greatest care have been lavished do not turn out well, but resemble
+wild stems, yet, when removed and transplanted, change their wild
+nature and develop into beautiful trees of agreeable fruit. Likewise,
+and for no other purpose, this youth is sent to the university, where
+he may venture into a climate favorable to his growth." There was
+an accurate but unconscious prophecy concealed in this beautiful
+"recommendation," which, curiously enough, has chosen the similes which
+were considered indispensable in the artificial language of the period
+from the world of plants, when speaking of the future flower king of
+the North.
+
+The young Linn�us made his way to the university town of Southern
+Sweden, walking the whole distance from Vexio to Lund, with a heavy
+knapsack and a light pocket-book. He was in hopes to win the protection
+of his uncle, the influential dean of the cathedral. Upon entering
+Lund, he heard all church bells tolling, and, upon inquiry, learned
+that they rang for the funeral of his uncle, the dean! A former
+teacher of his managed to have him enrolled at the university without
+having to turn in the diplomatic recommendation from his college. He
+took his bachelor's degree and was kindly encouraged by Professor
+Chilian Stob�us, at whose house he was stopping. The mother of Stob�us
+told him to look after the young man from Smaland, who was in the habit
+of going to sleep with his candle left burning, thus liable to "lead
+the whole house into adventure." When the learned professor looked into
+the matter he found his own works in the hands of the youth, who spent
+his nights reading them. After that all the books and the heartfelt
+sympathy of the scholar were at the command of Linn�us.
+
+In 1728 Linn�us, so advised by his earliest protector, changed his
+place of study to the University of Upsala, which at the time was
+better equipped and provided with a fine botanical garden. The young
+scholar endured a great deal of suffering for lack of funds, his
+father no longer being able to provide for his support. His diet was
+very light, and he wrapped his benumbed feet in paper to keep them
+from peeping out of his ragged shoes. His father called him home to
+reconsider his resolution as to a ministerial calling. Linn�us was
+ready to leave and paid a farewell visit to the botanic gardens. He
+lingered in melancholy thoughts before a rare flower which he intended
+to pluck. A harsh voice behind commanded him to leave the flower alone.
+Linn�us turned and stood face to face with the dean, Olof Celsius the
+Elder. In the interview which followed the young man surprised the
+dean, who was an able and enthusiastic botanist, by his exceptional
+knowledge of plants. Celsius inquired about his circumstances and ended
+by taking him into his house and providing for his future. Shortly
+afterward Linn�us published a short but important treatise on the
+sexual life of plants, which he handed in to Professor Olof Rudbeck
+the Younger. This able scholar was forcibly struck by the ingenuity
+of the thoughts in the work, which contained the nucleus to the grand
+scientific system which Linn�us later developed. When, in 1730, Rudbeck
+obtained a vacation he had Linn�us installed as a lecturer of the
+botanic gardens. Shortly afterward Linn�us received the commission to
+pay a visit of botanic research to Lapland, on the plants of which he
+published a remarkable work. The journey was made on horseback, the
+young scholar returning deeply impressed by the grandeur of natural
+sceneries in the extreme North.
+
+Linn�us had to fight poverty and adversity for some time still. His
+mother, who always had regretted that he should "turn out a surgeon
+instead of a minister," was elated over his first triumph when opening
+the field of a new science by his sexual system of plants. He suffered
+all the more at her death, which he was forced to conceal because he
+could not afford a mourning garb. Envious comrades put an end to his
+lectures at Upsala by having enforced, through petitions, an order
+against the filling of temporary vacancies by men who had not taken
+the doctor's degree. It was found necessary for Linn�us to go abroad,
+and some money was subscribed by his friends for that purpose. In
+Holland he met the learned Professor Boerhave, who, on being made
+acquainted with his system of botany, which Linn�us then for the first
+time published, received him with tokens of unlimited admiration and
+friendship. It was by Boerhave that the continental fame of Linn�us
+was founded. The latter found, in the arranging of the great gardens
+of Hartekamp intrusted to him, a work both agreeable and instructive.
+In London, Linn�us broadened his experience with study of the rich
+collections of plants and naturalia which were made accessible to
+him by the celebrated scholar Hans Sloane, later the founder of the
+British Museum. The letter of recommendation from Boerhave was somewhat
+different to the one Linn�us had received at Vexio: "Linn�us, who
+hands you this letter, is the only one worthy to see you, and to be
+seen by you. Those who see you together look upon two men the peers of
+which the world does hardly possess." After a stay in Paris, where the
+greatest scientists of France treated him with distinction, he returned
+to Holland, to find his friend Boerhave dying in Leyden. Linn�us kissed
+the hand of the dying man, who insisted on kissing the hand of Linn�us
+in return, pronouncing him the greater genius, of whom the world should
+expect and receive more.
+
+Linn�us, the celebrated founder of a new science, returned home as an
+unknown man. His ability as a physician, acquired at the University of
+Leyden, and his growing continental fame soon made him distinguished.
+In 1741 he was appointed professor of medicine at Upsala, but changed
+chairs with the professor of botany. The study of the latter science
+was highly developed through the continued research of Linn�us, and
+became very popular, while giving a great impetus to the study of
+medicine. The grace and animation of Linn�us as a lecturer caused
+students and scholars to flock around him in hundreds. The botanic
+excursions led by Linn�us resembled daily marches of triumphs, the
+multitude of students escorting their beloved teacher back to the
+botanic gardens with flowers in their hats and with music of drums
+and French horns. Sweden, with Upsala as a centre, was for the first
+time in history considered a home of scientific culture, to which
+naturalists gathered from all parts of the world, America included.
+Pupils of ability and distinction were sent by Linn�us to strange and
+unknown quarters, from which they returned with new and unfamiliar
+plants, which were examined and classified by the flower king of the
+North. Linn�us was honored by his contemporaries in such a superlative
+manner as no one of his countrymen, before or after, and few other
+scientists of any age or country. Count Charles Gustavus Tessin has the
+credit of having encouraged him in his work and improved his career
+upon his return from the Continent. When ennobled, Linn�us changed his
+name to Von Linn�, the earlier form being the more familiar to English
+readers. King Gustavus III. presented him with the estate Hammarby,
+where he liked to dwell, surrounded by his flowers and his family,
+resting from the fatigue caused by the endless stream of distinguished
+pilgrims who came to visit his flower court at Upsala. The offers of
+foreign monarchs to have him come and dwell with them were many and
+liberal. In 1739 he married the love of his youth, Maria Elizabeth
+Mor�us, "and never since felt an inclination to leave Sweden."
+
+Linn�us in many respects resembled Swedenborg, being convinced that
+his acceptance of truth was the correct one and disliking disputes.
+Like Swedenborg, he was pious, modest, benevolent and sincere. Of his
+own exterior and disposition Linn�us has himself given the following
+characteristic account: "Linn�us was not tall, not small, lean,
+brown-eyed, light, quick, walked briskly, did everything promptly,
+disliked slow people, was sensitive, easily moved, worked continuously
+and could not spare himself. He was fond of good food and drank good
+drinks, but never to excess. He cared little for exteriors, considering
+that man should adorn his dress and not vice versa. Faculty meetings
+were not his delight, or business, for he was made for quite other
+things, and had other things in mind than those which there were
+discussed and decided upon." In the preface to the late edition of his
+principal work, "Systema Natur�," the following noteworthy paragraph
+is found: "I saw the shadow of the Supreme Being go past me, and I was
+seized with respect and admiration. I searched for His footsteps in
+the sand--what power, what wisdom! I saw how the animals existed only
+by means of the plants, the plants by means of the lifeless particles,
+and these in their turn constitute the earth. I saw the sun and stars
+without number hanging suspended in the air, held by the hand of the
+Being of beings, the artist of this grand masterpiece."
+
+Linn�us died January 10, 1778, and was buried in the cathedral of
+Upsala. His botanic system has been superseded by others, but the
+influence that his researches and discoveries have exerted on the
+natural sciences and medicine, has not ceased to be benignantly felt,
+nor have the utmost results of his researches been as yet attained.
+
+Andrew Celsius, professor of astronomy at Upsala, acquired fame as
+a writer on astronomy and was successful in his efforts to have
+an observatory built at the university. In 1742 he introduced his
+invention, the Celsius or centigrade thermometer, which is of almost
+indispensable practical value in all physical and chemical experiments.
+Olof Celsius, Senior, the able botanist, Orientalist and patron of
+Linn�us, was his uncle, he thus being a cousin of Olof Celsius, Junior,
+whose brightly written histories of Gustavus Vasa and Eric XIV. were
+translated into contemporaneous French and German.
+
+John Ahlstroemer accomplished more for the resurrection of the
+downtrodden industry of his country than any one else, and therefore
+justly deserves the name of the Father of Swedish Industry. This man,
+who occupies an honored place in Swedish history, was born in 1685, of
+poor parents, at the town of Alingsos, in West Gothland, his original
+name being John Toresson. He worked himself up in various mercantile
+positions in Stockholm and other towns, later coming to London, where
+he engaged in business of his own and became an English citizen. He
+saw with regret that his countrymen sent their money abroad to obtain
+articles which they could manufacture at home, and was seized with the
+ambition to introduce into Sweden the industries which constitute the
+foundation of England's mercantile wealth.
+
+When Charles XII. returned to Sweden, Ahlstroemer went there also,
+trying to win the king to his industrial plans. He did not succeed,
+but found in Christopher Polhem a man who listened to and appreciated
+them. Ahlstroemer intended to return to England, but was captured by the
+Danes during the journey. On account of his English citizenship he soon
+regained his liberty, visiting England and the Continent, and carefully
+selecting everything which he had in view of sending to Sweden as the
+requisite instruments for his plans. This work sometimes involved great
+danger, as the buying of looms for hose and ribbon, fulling vats, dyes,
+etc.; for the great manufacturing countries were keeping jealous watch
+that the secrets of their industries should not become known abroad. In
+a town in Holland, Ahlstroemer barely missed being pelted with stones
+by the mob. Pursued by the revenue authorities, he managed to escape
+with his ship, arriving safely in Gothenburg with the valuable cargo
+and skilled laborers in his employ. Shortly afterward he arrived in
+his native town of Alingsos, where the industrial enterprises were
+established. The Riksdag at first was unwilling to grant him the
+necessary concessions, the clergy especially being averse to allow so
+many foreign workingmen free confession of their Catholic religion. In
+1724 the concessions were at last obtained, and Ahlstroemer began his
+course, which he was resolved should result in the fostering of the
+same industrial activity in his impoverished country, which he, with
+surprise, had noticed in England and on the Continent.
+
+In establishing his enterprises, Ahlstroemer exhausted his resources,
+and when he tried to form a company to keep them going he was met with
+stubborn resistance, caused by ignorance and jealousy. He succeeded at
+last in obtaining the financial backing of some wealthy mine owners
+of Vermland, who took shares in his enterprises. The Riksdag of 1726
+encouraged him by placing high protective or prohibitive tariffs
+on foreign articles which could be produced in the country. In the
+following year King Frederic paid a visit to Alingsos, spending a
+whole day in looking over the mills and factories. The king said that
+he would rather own the stock of goods of Ahlstroemer than the largest
+arsenal in his kingdom, and saw to it that his servants were dressed in
+broadcloth manufactured at Alingsos.
+
+Alingsos saw its population suddenly increase from 300 to 1,800 and
+entered upon an era of prosperity. Ahlstroemer's factories formed almost
+a little town of their own beside the older one. There were twelve
+looms for the manufacturing of broadcloth, forty-five looms for
+wool, and, besides, cotton mills, dye works for wool and silk, hose
+factories, an English tannery and various other industrial works. Also
+a foundry, with eight communicating shops, where all kinds of household
+articles of simple and composite metals were manufactured. Alingsos
+was made a kind of normal school of industry for the whole country.
+The foreign master workmen, who at the beginning had charge of the
+factories, instructed in time a great number of native apprentices, who
+later found employment elsewhere, thus distributing to various parts
+the experience obtained at Alingsos. Wool was the principal material
+in the factories, and in order to obtain a refined quality, Ahlstroemer
+imported stocks of foreign breeds. He commenced with English sheep, the
+Riksdag of 1727 granting him the use of the royal estate Hoejentorp for
+the purpose. Angora goats were later imported and seemed to thrive.
+
+Ahlstroemer did his country a great service by introducing the
+cultivation of potatoes. The first shipment of this useful plant
+arrived in 1723, with workingmen imported from France. As soon as
+the plant was seen to stand the climate, larger quantities were sent
+for. Potatoes were cultivated in the vast fields around Alingsos
+at a period when they were exhibited in the botanic gardens of the
+Continent as rare plants from Peru. Prejudice at first interfered,
+but when the soldiers returned home from Pomerania with the habit of
+eating potatoes, and planted such around their cottages, the popularity
+of the Peruvian plant was assured. Ahlstroemer also introduced the
+cultivation of tobacco and several dye plants. The coal mines, near
+Helsingborg, in Scania, commenced to be operated at his instigation.
+When the Academy of Science was instituted, in 1739, Ahlstroemer was
+made one of its members. The Academy of Science served originally and
+in that era of utilitarianism a more practical purpose than later. The
+Cap administration of Arvid Horn gave comparatively little attention
+to the enterprises of Ahlstroemer, having more in view to develop
+agriculture than industry. When the Hats got into power the conditions
+were reversed. Count Charles Gyllenborg, the successor of Arvid Horn
+as president of the chancery, in order to set a good example, always
+dressed in broadcloth of Swedish manufacture. Ahlstroemer was made a
+councillor of commerce, and ennobled, while his bust was placed in the
+Exchange of Stockholm and medals issued in his honor by the Academy of
+Science.
+
+Ahlstroemer was a middle-sized man of a strong constitution. He was
+amiable, courteous and hospitable, ever ready to conduct visitors
+through his factories and warehouses. His energy was as great as his
+kindness, and he refused to recognize an enemy in anybody. The large
+profits of his plants he mostly spent on other patriotic enterprises,
+leaving hardly any other inheritance to his sons than an excellent
+education. During the last few years of his life he suffered the
+consequences of a stroke of paralysis. He died in 1761, and thus was
+saved from witnessing the destruction which was caused to the new
+factory industry and his own works at Alingsos by the reckless policy
+of the new Caps.
+
+Olof Dalin is the principal poet and writer of the Period of Liberty,
+strongly influencing not only the creative minds of his own day, but
+also those who with more or less right have been counted as belonging
+to the Gustavian Period. Dalin was the son of a minister in the
+province of Halland and a relative of Professor Andrew Rydelius of
+Lund, a historian of the older generation, who conducted the course of
+his studies. He came to Stockholm in 1726, where several positions in
+various state departments afforded opportunity for study in libraries
+and archives. Dalin, from the year 1732 to 1734, published a magazine
+called "The Swedish Argus," which, with the English "Spectator" as
+a pattern, contained articles on public and individual morals, with
+allusions to the facts of contemporary life. This publication caused a
+great stir and became very popular on account of the acute logic and
+excellent language of its editor. Dalin was appointed royal librarian
+by the Riksdag, and, on the recommendation of Count Tessin, teacher to
+the young crown prince Gustavus.
+
+Dalin was an enthusiastic admirer of the glorious epoch of Swedish
+history and of the character of Charles XII., which caused him to join
+the party of the Hats. When the latter utterly failed in their attempts
+to restore the political grandeur of the past, and Dalin witnessed the
+excesses of the rivalling parties, he joined the secret agitators for
+an increased royal power. In the literary and artistic circle of the
+brilliant Queen Louise Ulrica, Dalin was the leading spirit. He was
+not unaware of the conspiracies and intrigues of the queen, and is
+supposed to have been the author of several of the sharp notes which
+the king added to the records of the state council. The Hats, who
+took offence at his sharp satires, made him resign from his position
+as the teacher of the crown prince. After the conspiracy of the court
+party was detected, Dalin was called before a committee of the Estates
+and by order dismissed from the court. Dalin used the time of his
+compulsory isolation for the writing of a history of Sweden. This
+work, which never was carried further than to the end of the Period
+of Reformation, is characterized by an attractive style, but is not
+reliable as to facts.
+
+Dalin was allowed to return to the court in 1761. He stood in great
+favor and was covered with testimonials of appreciation. He died in
+1763, at the moment when King Adolphus Frederic was resolved to make
+him a state councillor. Dalin was the first writer who made Swedish
+history popular, and exerted, by his poems and his magazine, and by his
+education of Gustavus III., a considerable influence upon the history
+of his own time.
+
+In point of scientific research the historical works of Sven Lagerbring
+have a much higher value than Dalin's history, although they lacked the
+literary excellence of the latter. Lagerbring, who, born in Scania, was
+professor of history at the University of Lund, carried his work to the
+times of Charles VIII. A shorter history of his was translated into
+French and long formed the chief source of continental knowledge of
+Swedish history.
+
+As a poet Dalin had a rival in the somewhat younger Hedvig Charlotta
+Nordenflycht, one of the most interesting characters in Swedish history
+of literature. Her works, chiefly consisting of lyrics and idyls,
+show a long chain of development from the taste of the Carolinian
+period to that of the Gustavian epoch. In her deep emotional nature
+and enthusiasm for all cultural movements she stands without a
+rival. Receiving an annuity from the government, she was after many
+adversities able to maintain a literary salon. The men who met there,
+like Gustavus Philip Creutz and Gustavus Frederic Gyllenborg, were the
+founders of an academic style in poetry, as was Charles Gustavus Tessin
+in eloquence.
+
+John Ihre is perhaps the most highly gifted of Swedish philologists
+and the first whose research had a lasting scientific value. He stood
+at the summit of contemporary European study of language, and rose a
+head or more higher than the philologists of his own country in that
+day. The period was characterized by a movement for the purification
+and analyzation of the language, Dalin expressing his wish to speak the
+truth to the Swedes in pure Swedish, and the Academy of Science taking
+pride in publishing their important papers in the mother tongue. Eric
+Benzelius, an able critic of the Gothic, and interested in Swedish
+dialect research, was one of the precursors of Ihre; and so was Olof
+Celsius, Senior, professor of Greek, later of Oriental languages, who
+was the first to fix the age of the majority of Runic inscriptions as
+dating from the Christian era.
+
+John Ihre was born, in 1707, in Lund, where his father was a professor
+of theology, a talented, witty and learned man. The young Ihre lost his
+father in 1720, after which time his uncle, Archbishop Steuchius of
+Upsala, had charge of his education. He later studied modern languages
+at the University of Jena, made the acquaintance of the contemporary
+philologists of Holland, and also studied at the universities of
+London, Oxford and Paris. After an absence of three years he returned,
+soon to be connected with the University of Upsala, where he remained
+for forty-two years as professor of rhetoric and politics. Ihre was
+a liberal, outspoken man, who was severely censured for his opinions
+upon political and religious subjects, once by the Riksdag being
+sentenced to pay fines and receiving a warning from the chancellor
+of the university. When the clergy upon another occasion warned the
+philosophers not to mix in theological subjects, Ihre defended himself
+in the following terms in a letter to the chancellor, Count Charles
+Gustavus Tessin. "Gracious lord! I teach _eloquentiam_, _politicam_
+and the states, with all things pertaining to them. To become a heretic
+I possess neither genius nor stupidity enough, less an evil purpose.
+Therefore I am willing to forego all theology, if only an allowance
+of it be made large enough for my private practice and edification in
+Christianity. I never intended to go any further."
+
+Ihre left religion and politics alone, and received many high
+distinctions in return for his great scientific merits. When ennobled,
+he kept his old family name, stating that he was "somewhat known abroad
+under the name of Ihre," while if he changed it to Gyllenbiorn or
+Vargstierna, it would take "some time to announce this new disguise."
+He was renowned for his ready wit, and wielded a considerable influence
+in academic circles. Ihre was satisfied with his position and his
+science, and was not willing to exchange them for a political career.
+
+Ihre was led to the study of the Teutonic languages in their oldest
+forms by his desire to find a consistent spelling and correct
+understanding of the words in his own language. He was desirous of
+freeing it from foreign words, but only when those substituted were as
+expressive and comprehensible as the old. Ihre was a pioneer in the
+field of dialect lexicographers, publishing the outline of a Swedish
+dialect dictionary in 1766, and wrote a number of works pertaining to
+the historic forms of Gothic, Lappish, Finnish and Old Norse. Special
+importance is due to his epoch-making research concerning the language
+of the Codex Argenteus. He once for all settled the controversy,
+proving the Codex to contain the Gothic Bible translation of Bishop
+Wulfila against the assertions of M. Lacroze of Berlin, who claimed
+that it was written in Frankish. In regard to the Edda of Snorre
+Sturleson, he declared it to be intended as an introductory study
+of poesy, a handbook of poetics for young scalds, an opinion which
+has been fully established in a much later time. By these and other
+theories Ihre attained a much higher standpoint as a scientific critic
+than his contemporaries. He spoke of the resemblance between the
+Teutonic and the classical languages, without being able to find the
+reasons. He even to some extent anticipated the great discovery which
+after its formulator has been called Grimm's Law, by pointing out "a
+certain regularity of consonant shift" in the Teutonic languages.
+
+The monumental work of Ihre and the crowning effort of his life was
+prepared between the years 1750-1759. This Glossarium suiogothicum,
+published at the expense of the government, is the best Swedish
+dictionary of the eighteenth century. Ihre by his severe critical
+method kills the wild etymologies of the "Rudbeckian philology,"
+turning to Old Swedish for the derivations, and, where this gave no
+satisfaction, to the Old Icelandic, "because this language nine hundred
+years ago was separated from our own and has remained undisturbed
+by foreign influence." From the Old Northern dialects he turned to
+Old High German, Old English and Gothic, the last mentioned of which
+he considered the mother of the Teutonic languages. Many of Ihre's
+etymologies have not been able to withstand the scrutiny of later
+criticism, but his great etymological dictionary is the product of
+versatile knowledge and unusual insight, and has not only exerted a
+profound influence upon his own period but also served as a model for
+later epochs of philological research.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+_Gustavian Period--Gustavus III. and Gustavus IV. Adolphus_
+
+
+Gustavus III., with his brilliant endowment, one of the most
+illustrious, and, in spite of his glaring faults, one of the most
+beloved, of Swedish monarchs, was the first king since Charles XII.
+who was born in Sweden. For this very reason, and on account of his
+amiable and charming disposition, he had won for himself the sympathy
+of the people even before his succession to the throne. This nephew
+of Frederic the Great of Prussia had inherited the genius, ambition
+and pride of his gifted mother, all enlarged and intensified, and the
+gentleness and good nature of his father. He was in every particular
+a child of his time, and every inch a king. Gustavus was decidedly
+French in education, taste and superficiality, but had by his first
+teacher Dalin been inspired with a deep love of his country, its
+history, language and traditions. He handled the Swedish and French
+languages with equal skill, and a more eloquent monarch has never
+graced a throne. He was passionately fond of theatricals and impressive
+ceremony, and, like his mother and illustrious uncle, he surrounded
+himself with men of genius. Gustavus was betrothed to Princess Sophie
+Magdalene of Denmark when only four years of age, and married her when
+twenty. This union was arranged by the Riksdag, contrary to the wish
+of Gustavus's parents. Gustavus appeared at first to be deeply in
+love with the gentle and unpretentious princess, but she soon found
+herself as neglected by her consort as she was detested by his mother.
+The crown prince early began to hate the form of government which had
+brought so much humiliation to his parents. This absolutism of the
+Riksdag, which could be bought and sold through bribery by foreign
+powers, he considered dangerous to the independence and welfare of the
+country, and was resolved to change the balance of power to the hands
+of the king, of whose dignity and importance he held an exalted opinion.
+
+At the death of his father, Gustavus was in France, returning with
+the agreement of a secret alliance. At the Riksdag of 1771, where the
+Caps once more came into power, Gustavus III. signed a pledge with new
+restrictions of the royal authority. But while the king officially
+seemed to desire a pacification of both parties, and his time was
+principally occupied with theatricals, embroideries and costumes, he
+was secretly arranging a conspiracy. He was crowned in May, 1772,
+and in August the news of a revolt in Scania, led by John Christian
+Toll, reached the capital. The king feigned surprise, but waited for
+similar news from Finland, whence Jacob Magnus Sprengtporten was to
+bring troops to Stockholm. As Sprengtporten's movements were somewhat
+delayed, the king had to take action himself. In the morning of
+August 19th he entered the officers' hall of the body-guards, where
+he delivered a patriotic address, asking the officers to follow him
+as their ancestors had followed Gustavus Vasa and Gustavus Adolphus.
+He was greeted with an enthusiasm which soon spread throughout the
+capital, assuring the king of perfect loyalty. The state councillors
+were quickly arrested and order given that no one should be allowed to
+leave the capital. The Riksdag was called together August 21st, and
+addressed by the king in an eloquent speech which gave a striking view
+of the situation and its perils. He declared that he was not going
+to touch liberty, only to abolish misrule by the establishment of a
+firm administration. Then was read the proposition for a constitution
+which the king had prepared. The king alone was to be the executive,
+appointing higher officials and councillors, making alliances with
+foreign powers, but not commencing any war of attack without the
+consent of the Riksdag. The state council was to consist of seventeen
+members with deliberative, but no executive, power. The Riksdag was
+to convene at the order of the king, taxation and legislation to be
+decided on by the king and Riksdag in common. The judicial power of
+all committees was to be abolished. The Riksdag accepted the royal
+propositions, and one of the most smoothly and skilfully managed _coups
+d'�tat_ ever attempted was accomplished, much to the dismay of Russia,
+Prussia and Denmark. During half a score of years the country enjoyed a
+happy peace, the king winning the love of his people and being active
+in administrative improvements.
+
+Gustavus III. was intensely interested in literature and art, and a
+writer of considerable ability, composing dramatic works of French
+pattern but with patriotic subjects. In his best creations he is
+influenced by Shakespeare. Among the poets whom he encouraged were
+Kellgren, Leopold, Creutz, Gyllenborg, Oxenstierna, Adlerbeth, the
+creators of a classical school of Swedish poetry and drama, influenced
+by the contemporary French writers. Above these towers Charles
+Michael Bellman, who, with his composite and rich endowment, became
+the first great national poet, and of an originality as remarkable
+as that of any genius in the literature of the world. The humor
+introduced into Swedish literature through the contact with the songs
+of the Edda, in Bellman reaches its perfection, while his poetry
+in exquisite and triumphant grace of form outrivals that of his
+classical contemporaries. His poems were almost all produced under
+the inspiration of the moment, even if later remodelled, and sung
+to the lute to melodies of the day, or of his own composition. His
+impressionistic power of description leads the thought to the modern
+artists, while his ambition to unite the arts of poetry, music and
+plastics makes him a precursor of Neo-Romanticism. There is not one
+accent of chauvinism, not even a note of patriotism, in his songs, yet
+he is the most beloved of Swedish poets, recognized as the highest
+exponent of the lyrico-rhetorical temperament of his people, a mixture
+of melancholy humor and exuberant joy in a graceful yet stately form.
+Anne Marie Lenngren was a highly talented poetess, who preserves the
+classic form for her verse, in which she ridicules the faults and
+vices of her period. Thorild and Lidner were men of great genius,
+but of somewhat bizarre and neglected literary form, influenced
+by contemporary Romanticism in Germany. Sweden continues to add a
+number of names to the galaxy of men distinguished in the service of
+natural science, those of Bergman and Scheele, the founders of modern
+chemistry, being the most renowned. To the Academy of Science and
+Academy of Art, established during the Period of Liberty, Gustavus
+added a Swedish Academy and a National Theatre for the encouragement
+of poetry, eloquence, music and drama. It is during this period that
+the Swedish language developed the beauty and plasticity for which it
+holds the first rank among Teutonic dialects, and is considered one
+of the most musical languages of the world. Of artists, the painters
+Hoerberg, Hillestroem and Roslin rose to great continental fame, while
+Sergel, through the genius and tendencies of his works one of the most
+remarkable sculptors of modern times, won renown for his name, but
+hardly the very highest perfection within his possibilities. His statue
+of Gustavus III. is the finest monument of Stockholm.
+
+Sweden, so rich in great poets, artists and scientists, is poor in
+philosophers, content with the systems of thinkers in more favored
+countries. Swedenborg is an important exception to this rule. Not
+satisfied with an original system, with pure reason as the fundamental
+principle, he divined a system in which philosophy and religion are
+inseparably united. Kant, when made acquainted with Swedenborg's
+earlier system, was utterly astonished, expressing fear that he
+himself had been an object of thought-transference, when writing his
+celebrated work, "Kritik der reinen Vernunft." The system of Descartes
+was followed by Swedish philosophers of the Carolinian epoch. During
+the Period of Liberty and the reign of Gustavus III., Locke, Voltaire
+and Diderot were supreme. At the close of the eighteenth century, Kant
+began to exert great influence, Benjamin Hoeijer being his talented and
+individualistic disciple, and enjoying the reputation of having been
+Sweden's greatest original thinker. Charles August Ehrensverd, an able
+warrior and statesman of the Gustavian epoch, devised an attractive and
+novel, although slightly dilettantic, system of his own, the Philosophy
+of Fine Arts.
+
+The suspicions that Gustavus III. was not satisfied with the share of
+power which he obtained in 1772, and that he was anxious to gain fame
+by the means of war, were found to be justified. In 1786 he called a
+Riksdag, at which most of his propositions, to his great surprise,
+were stubbornly opposed. Catherine II. of Russia was intriguing with
+the Finnish nobles for the purpose of establishing the independence of
+Finland under Russian protection. But she was careful not to commence
+hostilities. Attempts made by Gustavus III. to bring the Norwegian
+people in revolt against Denmark failed. And so Gustavus, who had no
+authority to begin a war of attack, arranged for a simulated Russian
+assault on the Finnish boundary, executed by Finnish peasants in
+disguise. He declared war on Russia, in June, 1788, although nobody
+was found willing to believe in the feigned cause of it. The actual
+hostilities were opened by a brilliant naval battle at Hogland, fought
+with success by the Swedish fleet under command of Prince Charles, the
+brother of the king, against the Russians. The king had arrived in
+Finland resolved to attack St. Petersburg, which plan he was obliged
+to change. All further operations came to a sudden standstill through
+mutiny among the Finnish officers in the royal camp at Anjala, 113
+of them signing a document in which they pledged themselves to force
+the king to make peace and to convoke the Riksdag. Another document
+offering peace and a union of Finland to Russia was despatched to St.
+Petersburg with J�gerhorn, one of the leaders. The officers received
+a favorable answer from Russia, which was handed to the king, and the
+whole army was made acquainted with the proceedings. The king found
+himself in a most perilous position, out of which he was saved as by
+a miracle. Denmark declared war, and the king hastened to embrace the
+opportunity to leave with honor the trap in which his life and liberty
+were in danger.
+
+Gustavus III. sent word to several provinces, asking the inhabitants to
+rise in defence of their country. He went himself to Dalecarlia, where
+he addressed the peasants when coming from church, as had Gustavus
+Vasa. Everywhere the population rose in arms. The king hastened to
+Gothenburg, which was threatened by the Danes, and had the city
+strongly fortified. England and Prussia sided with Sweden, and the
+Danes found it best to retire from Swedish territory.
+
+Gustavus had won the game. Now for the stakes! He called a Riksdag in
+1789. Through his personal courage and patriotism, Gustavus III. had
+recaptured the love of his people. The nobility was hated and despised
+on account of its responsibility for the mutiny at Anjala and for its
+intrigues with Russia. Gustavus III. consequently stood exceedingly
+well with the three lower Estates of the Riksdag, but lost their
+respect through the many violations of the law which he committed in
+forcing upon the Riksdag a new constitution which made him a ruler
+with almost absolute power. The nobility stubbornly refused to accept
+any change in the constitution. There were many stormy scenes, both
+among the nobles and in the presence of the king, who also paid a
+visit to the Riddarhus, which he left with the statement that the
+nobles were willing to subscribe, the latter loudly protesting. Axel
+von Fersen the Elder and several other aristocratic leaders were held
+in a prolonged arrest. Archbishop Troil told the king that he did not
+wish to be the first archbishop after Gustavus Trolle to sell the
+liberty of his country, and begged to be excused from being present at
+the deliberations. The poet and royal favorite Adlerbeth, himself a
+nobleman, pleaded in the Riksdag the right of his Estate to take action
+on the royal propositions. These were in private signed by the speakers
+of the four Estates and pronounced by the government as accepted, and
+were called an "Act of Union and Security." This new constitution gave
+almost absolute power to the king. The state council was once more,
+and forever, swept away and not even mentioned in the constitution. It
+was divided into a supreme court and a department for "the preparation
+of public affairs." By taking half of their members only from the
+nobility, the greatest privilege of that class was annulled. To the
+peasants was extended the privilege of buying land originally belonging
+to the nobility. By hard pressure, and in opposition to the nobles, the
+king forced the Riksdag to take the responsibility for the state debt,
+which had increased considerably.
+
+Gustavus III. opened the Riksdag as the most popular man of the
+country. He closed it as an absolute sovereign who had lost the love
+of his people and aroused the revengeful hatred of the nobility.
+Gustavus III. was now enabled to continue the Russian war at will. His
+sub-commander Stedingk won a victory over the Russians at Porosalmi,
+the latter being led by Sprengtporten, the former supporter of Gustavus
+III., now a soldier of Empress Catherine. He was killed in the battle.
+Prince Charles won a victory at OEland, but was by negligence of his
+sub-commander detained from reaping its benefits, Charles August
+Ehrensverd defeated a superior Russian naval force at Svensksund with
+the "Skerry Fleet," the creation of his father, Augustinus Ehrensverd.
+At the order of the king, he then met a still larger fleet and was
+defeated. Dissatisfied with the king and the result, the valiant hero
+and philosopher made his report in the following laconic phrase:
+"Your majesty has no longer any Skerry Fleet," and resigned from his
+position as admiral-general. In the following year, 1780, the combined
+naval forces of Sweden were shut up by the Russian fleet in the bay
+of Viborg, and seemed doomed to destruction. But the king gave orders
+that all the ships should force a passage, and this heroic effort was
+successfully made, through the lines of colossal Russian warships
+chained together. The Russian losses were great, and also those of
+the Swedes, on account of an explosion on board one of the ships. The
+Russians were anxious to gain the victory that escaped them at Viborg,
+and decided on July 9th, the day of Empress Catherine's coronation, as
+an appropriate date. The battle was fought at Svensksund, and turned
+into a humiliating defeat, the Russians losing 53 ships, 643 cannon
+and 14,000 men, and the imperial flag of state; twenty-six of these
+ships were entered in the Swedish navy. Peace was made at V�r�l� a
+month later. No change of territory was involved, but an end was put to
+Russian intrigues, and Sweden had once more and forever demonstrated
+her power of taking care of her independence.
+
+The revolution in France made a deep impression upon the factions which
+in Sweden were secretly continuing their struggle. The nobility, in
+their aristocratic republicanism, sided with the revolutionists, while
+the king, an intimate friend of Louis XVI., tried to save the monarchy.
+Gustavus III. left Sweden in the summer of 1791, in order to receive
+Louis XVI. and his family at the frontier, while Count Axel von Fersen
+the Younger, a son of the old aristocratic party leader who had taken
+part with distinction in the American revolutionary war, was very near
+to saving the royal family through a flight from Paris. King Gustavus
+III. waited in vain for the royal fugitives, but commenced active
+operations for the forming of an alliance between Sweden, Russia,
+Prussia, Austria and Spain against republican France. Sweden and Russia
+made a treaty of mutual defence, but the negotiations for a general
+alliance were not at a favorable point when Gustavus III. himself fell
+by the aristocratic republicans of his own country.
+
+A conspiracy between the nobles had been formed, the majority being men
+of the highest station. Jacob John Anckarstrom, a retired officer, was
+found willing to commit the deed of killing the hated despot. After
+several unsuccessful attempts, the act was accomplished at a mask ball
+in the Royal Opera, the king being shot through the hip. All of the
+accomplices present were arrested, and, much to their disappointment,
+the king not dying instantly, their plan for a revolution was thus
+frustrated. Gustavus III. was shot March 16, 1792, and died March 26,
+1792, suffering his fate with fortitude and great presence of mind.
+He appointed his brother Charles and his favorite, Charles Gustavus
+Armfelt, members of the government during the minority of his son,
+Gustavus Adolphus.
+
+The devotion of his country returned to Gustavus III. at his deathbed,
+never to leave him. In spite of his superficiality, violation of the
+law, disregard for a constitutional government, and adventurous and
+expensive wars, solid reasons remain to love and respect his memory.
+His noble patriotism, frank heroism, brilliant genius and great
+generosity are worthy of high praise. His revolution of 1789 brought
+disastrous consequences, but he furthered the progress of democracy by
+annihilation of the aristocratic republic and saved his country from
+the tragic fate of Poland. Even if the Period of Liberty is to be
+credited for a great deal of the cultural development during his reign,
+Gustavus has a large share therein, and Esaias Tegn�r is right in his
+eulogy when he says:
+
+    "There rests o'er Gustav's days a golden shimmer,
+    Fantastic, foreign, frivolous, if you please;
+    But why complain when _sunshine_ caused the glamour?
+    Where stood we now if it were not for these?
+    All culture on an unfree ground is builded,
+    And barbarous once the base of patriotism true;
+    But wit was planted, iron-hard language welded,
+    The song was raised, life more enjoyed and shielded,
+    And what Gustavian was, is, therefore, Swedish too."
+
+In the mixture of patriotism and unreserved cosmopolitanism, true
+genius and superficiality, earnestness and recklessness in the
+character of Gustavus III., the Swedes have recognized peculiarities
+of their own national temperament, for which they are tempted to love
+him as dearly, although not considering him to be as great, as his two
+predecessors and namesakes on the Swedish throne. By his eloquence, wit
+and amiability, his personality charmed even his enemies. In contrast
+to the sombre autocrats of the Barocco period, Gustavus III. was a
+typical Rococo monarch, and he tried to give the charms and grace of
+the Rococo epoch to his surroundings. In appearance, he was of middle
+size, slender and graceful, with a face which bespoke genius, and eyes
+of unusual size and brilliancy.
+
+_Gustavus IV. Adolphus_ was a boy of thirteen at the death of his
+father. His uncle, Prince Charles, was regent in name, but Baron
+Reuterholm, the latter's favorite, was the real head of the government.
+Compared to the eccentric but energetic, generous and liberal
+despotism of Gustavus III., Reuterholm's was a rule of pettiness,
+incapability, revenge and hypocrisy. Prince Charles was a good
+soldier, but early lost all energy through dissipation and a natural
+tendency to mysticism, secrecy and simulation. Reuterholm was a good
+worker, but of no ability as a statesman, sharing and increasing the
+love of mysticism and superstition characteristic of his master. The
+new policy was to estrange the friends and favorites of Gustavus III.
+as much as possible, they all being sent away under various pretexts.
+Prince Charles had from the start declared invalid the postscript of
+the king's will, according to which Count Armfelt was to take part in
+the government. Later a conspiracy, with Armfelt as the leader, was
+detected, when he, who was abroad and later entered Russian service,
+was declared to have forfeited his property, rank and life. A young
+woman, Lady Madelaine Rudenschiold, who was one of the conspirators,
+was punished by being exhibited to the mob on the place of execution
+and afterward imprisoned.
+
+Prince Charles was criticised for the leniency shown toward his
+brother's murderers, perhaps without justice, for the dying king had
+pleaded clemency in their behalf. Only Anckarstrom was executed, the
+other conspirators all receiving surprisingly mild sentences. This was
+contrasted to the petty and revengeful hatred shown the opponents of
+the new government, and one now recalled the fact that Gustavus III.
+in his last moments had refused to see the prince. That Charles also
+had aspirations of his own seems evident from the fact that he had the
+young king examined by physicians, raising doubt as to his physical and
+mental fitness to ever take a hand in the government.
+
+Reuterholm made himself hated and ridiculous by his pettiness. Thus
+restrictions were placed on extravagance in food and clothing, the use
+of coffee for some time being entirely prohibited. The Swedish Academy
+was disbanded because it did not make Reuterholm a member. The liberty
+of the press was extended and then suddenly restricted. Thorild, the
+writer and poet, was exiled for agitation against the old division
+of the Riksdag into four houses, "because its four Estates always
+have been bringing about one unsettled state." Characteristic of the
+opinion of Reuterholm's administration are the words which the warrior
+and philosopher, Charles August Ehrensverd, gave him in the course
+of a quarrel between the two: "Monsieur is ambitious to govern, but
+monsieur does not know how." The best things accomplished during this
+period were the establishment of a military academy at Carlberg, and
+improvements of the Bible translation and the ritual and hymn-book of
+the church.
+
+The attitude toward France was changed with the change of government,
+Sweden being the first power to recognize the French republic. With
+that country and Denmark close intimacy was formed, which enraged
+Russia and England. In order to pacify the empress, old negotiations
+for a marriage between King Gustavus Adolphus and Alexandra, a niece of
+Empress Catherine II., were reopened and a decision reached. The king
+left for St. Petersburg. When the great ceremony was to take place, the
+empress sat there waiting with her brilliant court for several hours.
+No Gustavus Adolphus appeared. In the last moment he had been asked by
+a priest to grant his future consort, Alexandra, liberty to practice
+her Greek Catholic faith in public, which he refused to do, thus
+dropping the whole matter. The indignant empress was suddenly taken
+ill and died a few weeks later. Soon afterward the king married the
+beautiful princess Frederica of Bade.
+
+Gustavus IV. Adolphus was declared of age and took charge of the
+government when eighteen (in 1796). Reuterholm was dismissed, and
+Prince Charles retired. The king surrounded himself with the friends
+of his father, Armfelt and Toll being recalled, the latter taking
+excellent care of foreign affairs, as far as his authority went. But
+Gustavus IV. ruled alone, without favorites or influential advisers.
+This was most unfortunate, for he was entirely without the gifts of a
+regent. He was a lover of order, economy, justice and pure morals, but
+through lack of mental and physical strength his good qualities were
+misdirected. His father's tragic fate had a sinister influence upon
+his mind, the equilibrium of which was shaken also by the outrages of
+the revolutionists in France. Of a morbid sensibility, and without
+inclination to confide in any one, his religious mysticism led him into
+a state close to insanity. He imagined himself to be a reincarnation
+of Charles XII., while in Napoleon he recognized the monster of the
+Apocalypse, which he himself was sent to fight and conquer.
+
+Gustavus IV. went to an extreme in his fear of liberal movements,
+placing severe censorship on the periodical press, book market and
+universities. Benjamin Hoeijer, the great philosopher, for some time
+left his chair at Upsala and the country. A man who was resolved to
+"go even to the doors of hell in search of truth" could not be in
+sympathy with the bigot despot. Hard times, produced by failure of
+crops and fisheries, and by maritime losses during the war between
+England and France, threw added umbrage over the reign of Gustavus IV.
+He convoked a Riksdag, in 1800, in order to raise money to cover the
+debts involved by his predecessor. He never repeated the experiment.
+The nobles sanctioned the absolute rule, but stormy sessions ensued
+over the royal propositions, six nobles resigning from titles and
+privileges, six others their seats in the Riksdag. The peasants, almost
+as unyielding, were pacified by Toll. By his own authority, the king
+mortgaged the Swedish city of Wismar, in Mecklenburg, to the ruler of
+said duchy for a period of one hundred years, in receipt for a sum of
+some two million dollars.
+
+There was no question in which the insanity of the king became more
+apparent or disastrous than in his foreign policy. An alliance of armed
+neutrality between Sweden, Russia and Denmark came to naught through
+the inactivity of Gustavus IV., and he stubbornly refused to accept
+the repeated offers of Napoleon of an alliance with France in the
+combat with the powers. Things took a sinister aspect when an intimate
+alliance was effected between Napoleon and Alexander of Russia, in
+1807. Napoleon had lost patience with the lunatic king, and tried to
+call forth a catastrophe by urging Alexander to capture Finland, which
+he at first was unwilling to do. The French invaded Swedish Pomerania,
+and Toll was able to save the little Swedish army of 10,000 only by
+means of a most skilful diplomacy. Denmark, attacked by England,
+declared war against Sweden. Gustavus IV. made great preparations,
+sending Armfelt with one army to the Norwegian frontier and Toll with
+another to Scania. The regular army counted 100,000 men, and a great
+force of militia was organized. But through gross incapability of
+the government the majority of troops were never used, the militia
+suffering immensely through neglect and hunger.
+
+Czar Alexander at last decided to capture Finland. He called it
+himself an act of bad faith and treason against a relative and
+ally, and in a treacherous way he carried on his preparations. The
+Swedish ambassador was misled as to the object of the latter, and
+when informed received exaggerated accounts as to the force which
+was to invade Finland. Gustavus IV. was alarmed and gave the old and
+incapable field-marshal, Klingspor, appointed to command the army in
+Finland, directions to save his troops in the best way possible. And
+so commenced, in February, 1808, the war which after a heroic struggle
+was to separate the Finns from their Swedish brethren. Not only were
+the Finnish troops possessed of the noblest patriotic spirit, but
+they had also courageous and distinguished commanders, who, if duly
+supported and intrusted with more authority, would probably have been
+able to ward off the attack. Conspicuous among the latter were C. J.
+Adlercreutz, born in Finland, the hero of Siikajoki, Lappo and Oravais;
+G. C. von Doebeln, the victor of Juutas, and J. A. Sandels, the hero of
+Pulkkila, Indensalmi and Virta, all three of them veterans from the war
+of Gustavus III.
+
+The aged General Klercker commanded a Finnish army at Tavastehus, where
+Klingspor arrived with his royal orders, which were for retreat and
+evacuation of the country. The troops were deprived of their hopes of
+a battle and forced to make a retreat of nearly 600 miles, suffering
+from cold and hunger. The retreat continued without interruption for
+two months, until the army, in April, found itself between Brahestad
+and Uleoborg. A battle was fought at Siikajoki, April 18th, the
+sub-commander, General Adlercreutz, receiving instructions to make a
+stand against the enemy until the safety of the army supplies could
+be insured. After five hours of fighting, the Finns won a glorious
+victory over the Russians. But royal orders for a continued retreat
+arrived, and the Russians took possession of Siikajoki.
+
+As long as Sveaborg, the Gibraltar of the North, was safe, the final
+outcome of the struggle must remain undecided. Sveaborg, the creation
+of Augustinus Ehrensverd, is situated on seven islets and consists of
+several strong works partly cut out of the rock and in an admirable
+way protecting and supplementing each other. The fortress was defended
+by 6,000 men, with 1,000 cannon and ample provisions of all kinds;
+in the harbor a division of the Swedish navy was at anchor. Olof
+Cronstedt, the commander, was dissatisfied with the king and a secret
+supporter of Prince Charles. His sub-commander, J�gerhorn, a brother
+of the leader of the Conspiracy of Anjala, was a traitor, probably in
+understanding with the Russians even before the war. A little army of
+4,000 Russians under the command of Van Suchtelen was sent against
+Sveaborg. This force was too small to make a serious attack; it was
+not able to capture any of the fortifications; the naked rocks made it
+impossible to build any earthworks. What the Russians could not effect
+by force they accomplished by treachery, winning over the commanding
+officers of Sveaborg through threats and promises. When the Swedish
+and Finnish soldiers saw the queer behavior of their officers they
+planned a mutiny; but this was not carried out on account of lack of
+leadership. The officers tried by the most shameful lies to pacify
+the soldiers, J�gerhorn taking the leading part in these proceedings.
+Sveaborg surrendered May 3d, all Swedes being made prisoners of war,
+but the Finns given free leave. When the troops saw the small force of
+Russians and their miserable equipment they were enraged, breaking
+their weapons and tearing their banners to pieces. Cronstedt, J�gerhorn
+and the other commanding officers became Russian citizens, and received
+high outward distinctions; but by both Russians and Finns they were
+ever treated with cold contempt on account of their shameless treason.
+
+With the fall of Sveaborg, all hope of saving Finland was lost. In
+the summer of 1808, her army fought several glorious battles under
+the command of Adlercreutz, Doebeln and Sandels, but in the autumn it
+was attacked by a superior Russian force and was nearly closed in
+between Old Carleby and Vasa. Gripenberg stood with one division at
+Old Carleby, furthest to the north, Doebeln lay prostrated by illness
+at New Carleby, and Adlercreutz stood with the central body of troops
+at Oravais, about twenty miles south from the latter town. The Russian
+army attacked the force which was with Doebeln, resolved to cut off
+Adlercreutz from a retreat. One attack was already made at Juutas,
+near New Carleby, when Doebeln, alarmed by the news and heedless of
+his serious illness, was seen approaching. His men received him with
+enthusiasm, collected their scattering forces and proved victorious
+over the attacking enemy. The Russians retreated and Adlercreutz was
+saved.
+
+The famous battle of Oravais was fought the following day, September
+14th. The Swedish army was arranged on a promontory in the sea, with
+artillery on a hill to the north, close to which a detachment of the
+regiment of Helsingland was arranged in an excellent position. Another
+detachment of the same regiment was by a little brook at the south
+base of the promontory, with two cannon, under the command of Count
+William von Schwerin, a boy of sixteen years. At this latter point the
+battle was begun at five o'clock in the morning. The Russians, 8,000
+strong, with twenty cannon and commanded by Kamenski, approached
+a bridge leading over the brook. The 400 Swedes offered a plucky
+resistance to the overwhelming force. Every time the bridge was filled
+by Russians, Schwerin swept it clear with the fire from his two cannon.
+This heroic struggle was kept up for four hours, when the Helsings had
+no more cartridges for their guns wherewith to support the artillery
+fire. The aide-de-camp Biornstierna, who was despatched thither by
+Adlercreutz, saw a pitiable sight. Most of the officers of the 400
+Swedes were killed and the Russians were storming across the bridge
+in heavy masses. "Now, count," cried Biornstierna, "let us see what
+your artillery amounts to!" Schwerin let the Russians approach until
+only fifty feet from the cannon, when he ordered: "Fire!" The whole
+first fine of the Russian column fell. Schwerin gave command to have
+the cannon dragged a hundred yards back and then fired, with the same
+disastrous effect. Thus the retreat was made from hill to hill. At last
+the young hero received a mortal wound and his men were surrounded on
+every side. With a final effort he rose to his feet, broke through the
+lines with his valiant Helsings, and died in the midst of the Swedish
+troops.
+
+Adlercreutz closely watched the movements of the Russians, and saw an
+opportunity to break through their centre, which was successfully done,
+the enemy turning into flight. It looked like an overwhelming defeat
+for the Russians, when reinforcements arrived in the last moment, and
+the exhausted Swedes had to stop fighting on account of the darkness of
+the night. After a battle of fifteen hours the Swedes had lost 2,600
+men, or nearly one-third of their forces, but not one single cannon
+or banner. The remnants of the army followed the "royal orders of
+retreat," crossing the Swedish frontier. Finland was lost and Sweden
+proper in danger.
+
+Only a revolution could save the country. The republican aristocrats
+were the ones to bring it about. A conspiracy among them was formed,
+George Adlersparre and Ch. H. Anckarsverd being the leaders. When it
+was rumored that the former, with the western army division, of which
+he was the commander, had left the Norwegian frontier and was marching
+on Stockholm, Gustavus IV. sent order to Toll in Scania to meet him
+with his troops, while the king seemed to make preparations to leave.
+Great excitement reigned in Stockholm, and General Adlercreutz, who
+recently had been received in the capital with enthusiasm, resolved
+to take action in preventing the king's departure. Accompanied by
+half a dozen officers, he entered the king's bedchamber the morning
+of March 13th, and took possession of the king in person, who made a
+struggle and later a frustrated attempt to escape. The body-guards were
+persuaded to remain inactive. Prince Charles was proclaimed regent.
+Neither this fact nor the arrest of the king seemed to impress the
+population, who received the news with ice-cold reserve. The king was
+conducted to Drottningholm, and later to Gripsholm, where he signed the
+document of abdication, finally to be escorted out of the country with
+his family, never to return. He died in St. Gallen in 1837.
+
+The regent's first duty was to ward off the Russian invasion of
+Norrland and to obtain peace. Napoleon congratulated Sweden on having
+got rid of the "supremacy of a fool," and sanctioned an armistice,
+granted by his general Marshal Bernadotte, who commanded an army in
+Seeland, ready to attack Sweden. Peace was made in Paris, Sweden
+receiving back Pomerania in return for a promise to close its own
+harbors against English ships. Peace with Denmark was made, with no
+change of territory on either side. Attempts to rout the Russian
+army of invasion at Ratan, in West Bothnia, were unsuccessful, but
+it withdrew by its own choice. In the treaty of peace signed at
+Fredericshamn, September 17, 1809, Finland, the archipelago of Aland
+and a part of Swedish Bothnia were ceded to Russia, the rivers of Torne
+and Muonio to form the boundary line.
+
+Finland, since time immemorial in intimate relations with Sweden, from
+whom she had received a portion of her population, had for 600 years
+with her mother country formed integral parts of the same realm. Sweden
+had given to Finland her religion, constitution, laws, privileges and
+culture, and in return received her fidelity and a host of patriotic
+men eminent in affairs of war and peace. Together the Swedes and Finns
+had fought on the battlefields of Europe for the political grandeur
+of their country and the religious liberty of the world. United to
+Russia, Finland preserved her institutions and privileges unmolested,
+and has, up to date, enjoyed a peaceful development greater than would
+perhaps have been her share under Swedish rule. The mother country
+was after this great loss forced to concentrate her energy on a more
+solid material progress, and has, according to the prophecy of Esaias
+Tegn�r, "within the boundary of Sweden reconquered Finland." The Finns
+have proved themselves to be one of the most talented and energetic
+of nations. Out of the two million inhabitants of Finland, two-fifths
+are Swedish, forming the nobility and the majority of the cultured
+classes. Already at the time of the separation from Sweden was born the
+national singer of Finland, John Ludvig Runeberg, who was to become
+the greatest poet that ever wrote in the Swedish language and one of
+the greatest that ever lived. In his immortal songs of "Finland's
+latest war," the two countries have a great common inheritance. Sweden
+dreamed of reconquering Finland as soon as a good warrior ascended the
+throne. This hope was given up forever. But the most intimate sympathy
+still reigns between the two countries. In case that harm to Finland
+or her home-rule should be done, and her independence be lost, the
+Swedish people would not be in a position to avenge such a crime, but
+it would cause profound grief and indignation, and would be considered
+a shameful act of violence which the glory of no peace emperor would
+suffice to cover.
+
+By the revolution of 1789, Sweden for a second time in her history
+surrendered her liberty into the hands of an energetic and patriotic
+ruler only to see the absolute power utterly abused by an incompetent
+successor. The loss and suffering were almost as great as at the death
+of Charles XII., but the era of democracy, peace and prosperity so much
+closer at hand. It was the spirit of the aristocratic republicanism
+which caused the timely downfall of absolute monarchy, but it was
+in its turn destined to fall for the spirit of democracy and a
+constitutional government.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+_The Constitutional Monarchy--Charles XIII. and the early Bernadottes_
+
+
+Charles XIII. succeeded his nephew. He was chosen king after a new
+constitution had been formulated and accepted by the Riksdag of 1809.
+Charles XIII. was one of the most unsympathetic of Swedish kings, but
+his reign marks a new period in Swedish history, commencing the era
+of constitutional government. The new constitution to which the king
+subscribed was not a radical document; it only reduced the power of the
+king. Hans J�rta, one of the nobles who had renounced their privileges
+and been active in the conspiracy against Gustavus IV., was the leading
+spirit of the constitutional committee and was appointed secretary
+of state in the new cabinet. Urgent appeals of the peasant Estate to
+reduce or abolish the privileges of the upper classes were of no avail,
+no reform of state or society yet being made. A proposition by Count
+von Platen to introduce a compulsory militia defence was voted down.
+This Riksdag, which lasted for a year, gave fuller liberties to the
+press, which at once used it to voice the popular dissatisfaction with
+the state of affairs. It was necessary to select an heir to the throne,
+as the old king was childless, Prince Christian August of Augustenborg
+being chosen, much in opposition to the nobles, who wanted the son of
+Gustavus IV.
+
+The prince of Augustenborg, who was Danish governor-general of Norway,
+accepted, and was adopted by the king, changing his name to Charles
+August. He was a plain, resolute and active man, unattractive in
+appearance, but of a kind and noble character. Beloved by the lower
+classes, who had effected his selection, he was treated coldly by the
+Gustavian aristocrats and by Queen Hedvig Elisabeth Charlotte (Princess
+of Oldenburg), who all favored the selection of young Gustavus,
+the son of exiled Gustavus IV. Reports of attempts to poison the
+heir-apparent were in circulation even before he arrived in Sweden.
+Prince Charles August himself often said that he thought he would die
+young by some stroke of paralysis, but he paid no attention to the
+warnings given him. During a parade of troops at Qvidinge, in Scania,
+he was suddenly seen to lose consciousness and dropped dead from his
+horse. Peculiarities in the investigation of the corpse, led by his
+physician, caused a second post-mortem examination, in which the
+celebrated chemist Berzelius took part. The report seemed in favor of
+the supposition that the death was caused by poison. The indignation
+of the populace knew no bounds. The friends of the government tried to
+coin political money by insinuating that the Gustavians, particularly
+Count Axel von Fersen the Younger and his sister, Countess Piper, were
+the responsible parties. At the burial of the dead prince the mob of
+Stockholm perpetrated one of the most hideous murders of a man who was
+without doubt innocent. When Count Fersen, in the capacity of marshal
+of the realm, was to open the procession, he was warned not to do so,
+but in pride and sense of duty resolved to meet his fate. Approaching
+the church of Riddarholm, his carriage was pelted with stones, Fersen
+himself seeking shelter in various places, but being pursued by the mob
+and killed. Fersen had sought protection in a body of troops, whose
+officers commanded them to turn him over to the mob. Thus perished a
+man who, with Curt von Stedingk, had received the order of Cincinnatus
+from the hands of George Washington, and who once was so near saving
+Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette from their cruel fate. Fersen's brother
+was saved only by mere chance and his sister by a flight in disguise.
+The mob now was resolved to attack Countess Piper, who was thought to
+be at the castle, and the queen herself. But the authorities, who had
+brought shame on themselves by their unwillingness to save Fersen,
+interfered, directing a few shots of cannon against the mob, dispersing
+it and killing many (June 10, 1810).
+
+Sweden was once more without an heir-apparent to the throne. Frederic,
+the brother of Charles August, was favored by the king. Frederic
+VI. of Denmark was a candidate, but the old national hatred against
+the Danes was still too strong to make his selection possible. A
+count of Oldenburg was also mentioned by some. The Gustavians, to
+whom Adlercreutz belonged, dared not openly push their candidate of
+the old royal line. The patriotic noblemen in power were anxious to
+see some great general chosen, regardless of a royal pedigree, who
+could recapture Finland. King Charles sent two emissaries to Napoleon
+to notify him of the death of Charles August and the selection of
+his brother. Then one of the most original and daring schemes ever
+attempted on such a line was carried through by Count Otto Moerner, one
+of the emissaries. On his own responsibility, he inquired of Marshal
+Bernadotte, one of Napoleon's ablest generals, if he would consent to
+become heir-apparent to the Swedish throne. Bernadotte consented, and
+the consent of Napoleon was obtained through the Swedish ambassador
+in Paris. Upon his return, Moerner was ordered to leave the capital by
+the minister of state, who blamed him for his unauthorized action. But
+from Upsala Moerner led an eager agitation, with the result that the
+Riksdag of OErebro selected Bernadotte, who was represented by a secret
+emissary. Thus the two generals who, at the abdication of Gustavus IV.,
+were, one in Norway, the other in Denmark, with troops ready to attack
+Sweden, both within one year were chosen to succeed Charles XIII.
+
+Jean Baptiste Jules Bernadotte was born at Pau, in South France, in
+1764. The son of a lawyer, he worked himself up in the army and was by
+the Revolution enabled to reach the high military stations for which
+his eminent genius had destined him. Next to Napoleon the ablest of
+French generals, he opposed the imperial tendencies of the latter,
+but was later repeatedly used by the emperor to fulfil important
+duties as a warrior, diplomatist and statesman, receiving the rank of
+a marshal of France and the title of Prince of Ponte Corvo. Related
+by marriage, the two were never on terms of intimacy, and the Swedish
+politicians who thought to please the emperor, and gain a strong point
+with him by the selection of Bernadotte, were mistaken. Bernadotte
+joined the Lutheran church at Elsinore and landed in Sweden October
+20, 1810. By his impressive appearance, his amiability and his genius,
+he soon won all hearts. As he never acquired the Swedish language,
+and as his superior ability as a statesman and warrior was not always
+comprehended, he suffered often through misunderstandings by his new
+countrymen, who never ceased to admire his eminent genius. Prince
+Charles, or Charles Johann, as he called himself henceforward, was
+of a commanding presence and had an interesting face, surrounded by
+black curly hair. His fascinating ways and winning disposition held
+captive the admiration even of his political opponents. Prince Charles
+refused to submit to the undue influence with which Napoleon tried to
+fetter him, and always carried high and with patriotic independence the
+interests of his adopted country.
+
+Napoleon soon found reason to be offended with Sweden. Through the
+peace of Paris, Sweden had agreed to close its harbors to England, but
+in Gothenburg, which town had suffered destruction by fire and was
+recently rebuilt, a lively traffic was secretly carried on, connecting
+England with Northern Europe and enriching Gothenburg. Napoleon was
+enraged and forced Sweden to declare war on England, which power,
+realizing the circumstances, did not open any hostilities, and allowed
+the commercial traffic to continue, although more secretly. Prince
+Charles, who from the start exerted a strong influence upon the
+government, effected an approach to Russia and England to save the
+dignity of Sweden, much to Napoleon's dismay. He also put the army in a
+satisfactory condition by recruiting. This caused a revolt in Scania,
+which was subdued with severity. The Riksdag of 1812 passed a law for
+the establishment of a compulsory militia, all men between twenty-one
+and twenty-five years old being registered in classes according to age
+and instructed in military tactics and discipline.
+
+Napoleon tried by various methods to subdue and humiliate the
+independence of his Swedish ally, which, when fruitless, led him
+to acts of hostility. Prince Charles made peace with England and an
+alliance with Russia, who promised 20,000 men to assist in the conquest
+of Norway. When Napoleon and Alexander of Russia commenced war against
+each other, popular opinion in Sweden sided with the former, but
+Prince Charles, who knew in detail the nature of Napoleon's power and
+its lack of a solid foundation, tried to make his views clear. He met
+Alexander personally, agreeing with him on plans of mutual action,
+at Abo in 1812. After Napoleon's unsuccessful march against Russia,
+Swedish opinions changed and Bernadotte had free hands to follow up his
+policy. England formed an alliance with Sweden, agreeing to support the
+conquest of Norway and ceding the island of Guadeloupe (later sold to
+France by Sweden). In 1813, 25,000 Swedish troops were sent to Germany,
+joining the continental allies, who, divided in three armies, were to
+attack Napoleon, according to plans mostly mapped out by Prince Charles
+of Sweden. The latter was to command the Northern army of 100,000
+men, Swedes, Prussians, Russians and English, but his position was
+a difficult one, for his superior tactics were misunderstood by his
+subordinates and by Blucher, the valiant but headstrong commander of
+50,000 Prussians, who formed the Silesian army. But through the battles
+of Grossbeeren (August 23d), Dennewitz (September 6th), and Leipsic
+(October 16-19), the eminence of Bernadotte's genius was fully brought
+out, his leadership and the Swedish troops taking honorable part in
+each. Napoleon and his armies were defeated and pursued by the allies.
+The monarchs voted a resolution of thanks to Prince Charles, who, with
+his army, marched northward to carry out the ultimate object of his
+policy, the conquest of Norway, the plans of which had been made by
+Count Platen and handed him before he ever left Paris.
+
+Denmark had declared war on Sweden and sided with Napoleon. By turning
+against Denmark the former Marshal Bernadotte saved himself from the
+necessity of making an attack on the country of his birth. Lubeck
+surrendered, the Danes were defeated at Bornhoeved, Kiel and Glucksburg
+were captured, and the whole of Holstein occupied. An armistice was
+agreed to. Denmark offered the diocese of Drontheim, but Prince Charles
+was resolved to expel Denmark from the Scandinavian Peninsula. January
+14, 1814, peace was made at Kiel, Denmark ceding to Sweden the whole
+of Norway, except Iceland and Fero Islands, and receiving Swedish
+Pomerania and the island of Rugen in compensation.
+
+Norway, united with Denmark ever since the days of Queen Margaret,
+in a relation of more or less neglected conditions, during which her
+original independence was lost, had of late not been satisfied to
+remain under Danish supremacy. The governing class of officeholders was
+to a great extent of Danish origin and tendencies, and the patriotism
+of the population at large dates from a later period. Among the more
+cultured classes the revolution in France and close relations with
+England had fostered a desire for political independence. The Danes
+made use of this fact in order to try to maintain the relation with
+Denmark in some way. The Danish crown prince, Christian Frederic, was
+in 1813 made governor-general of Norway. He was a man of some brilliant
+gifts, but without any great ability. By journeys in the country he
+acquired popularity and adherents. In February, 1814, a meeting was
+held at Eidsvold by men of prominence, who declared the prince regent.
+May 17th a constitution was adopted and Christian Frederic elected
+king of Norway. His courteous offer of extending his rule to Sweden
+was there met by derision. After a triumphal return to Stockholm,
+Prince Bernadotte gathered his forces and attacked Norway both by land
+and sea, the aged King Charles XIII. having command of the navy. An
+army of 20,000 Swedes entered Norway under command of Von Essen, who
+captured the fortifications at Svinesund. The navy took possession of
+the islands in the archipelago outside of Fredericstad, which town
+was captured, with the fortress Kongsten, 100 cannon and considerable
+stores of weapons and provisions. The Norwegian army of 30,000 men was
+located in various places with the central body of troops at Moss. The
+plan of Prince Charles was to enclose it from all sides. A smaller
+Swedish force of 3,000 men was repulsed by the Norwegians in two
+conflicts at Lier and Medskog, celebrated by the latter as important
+victories. In the meantime the Swedish army proceeded northward and the
+fleet penetrated to the bay of Christiania. The plan to enclose the
+Norwegian army at Moss was being carried into effect in order to finish
+the war by one single battle, when negotiations for peace were begun.
+
+Prince Charles was anxious to have the conflict brought to a rapid
+close because he feared that the powers, envious of Sweden's good
+fortune and dissatisfied with the refusal of Prince Charles to join
+in an attack on France, might take unfavorable decisions at the
+approaching congress of Vienna. Prompted by these reasons, and perhaps
+influenced by his experience of revolutionary movements, Prince Charles
+offered to sanction Norway's constitution only with such changes
+as were necessary for a union with Sweden, besides demanding the
+abdication and speedy departure of Christian Frederic. On these terms
+peace was made at the convention of Moss, August 14, 1814. At the first
+meeting of the Norwegian Storthing, or Diet, the terms of peace were
+sanctioned and Charles XIII. chosen king of Norway. At the Congress of
+Vienna, in 1815, treaties were signed between Sweden and Prussia and
+between Denmark and Prussia, according to which Swedish Pomerania and
+Rugen were ceded to Prussia on the payment of about $2,000,000, and the
+duchy of Lauenburg ceded to Denmark. In the relation between Sweden and
+Norway no change was made, and Denmark lost all hope of the restitution
+of the latter country.
+
+The great moderation shown by Prince Charles in the acquisition of
+Norway has been criticised in various ways, but none of the arguments
+used against it have themselves been able to bear a critical test.
+The idea of uniting the two countries as independent states was
+older in Sweden than the very constitution of Norway which Prince
+Charles accepted. It was the idea of the leading men in Sweden who
+had dethroned Gustavus IV. in 1809. The Scandinavian Union is not the
+best imaginable, has brought Sweden no added power or security, and
+has placed her king in a difficult position. The only bond of union
+is the king, the two countries each having their constitution, diet
+and cabinet. There is only one department in common, the one of which
+the Swedish minister of foreign affairs is the head and which settles
+all relations with other countries for both Sweden and Norway. Three
+members of the Norwegian cabinet are residents of Stockholm, to prepare
+affairs pertaining to the Norwegian administration and to partake in
+affairs involving both countries. These stipulations are made by
+the Act of Union, accepted in 1815 by the Diets of both countries.
+According to the Norwegian constitution, the king can use no greater
+force than 3,000 men outside the Norwegian boundary, except with the
+special consent of the Diet. Thus Sweden cannot in case of war expect
+any solid support from her sister country. The loose connections of the
+Union did not become apparent during the reigns of Charles XIII. and
+his successor, and the powers of Europe were not aware of them. Thus
+the Union served its purpose as offering a solid front of unity and
+strength to the powers who were dividing and redividing almost every
+territory on the map of Europe.
+
+Charles XIII. died in February, 1818, at the age of seventy, and his
+talented queen followed him a few months later.
+
+_Charles XIV. Johann_ was fifty-four years of age when ascending
+the throne, but a man in his prime. To the dignity of the crown he
+brought a great personal influence, and his fame as a warrior, which
+spread throughout Europe. The firm diplomatic relations with Russia
+were continued, but approaches to England were also made. Charles
+XIV. gave close personal attention to the administration, being
+especially interested in the defence, finances, canals and roads.
+With his brilliant genius, quick temper and sense of superiority, the
+king sometimes reigned more alone and by his own decision than was
+considered advisable; but in the majority of cases he was influenced
+by the able men of his cabinet--Wetterstedt, Rosenblad, Skjoeldebrand,
+Cederstrom and Wirs�n. An intimate friend of the king was Count
+Magnus Brahe, who, though not a member of the cabinet, influenced the
+government more than was thought compatible with its dignity. Count
+Brahe, the head of one of the most distinguished of aristocratic
+families, used his great influence over the king mostly in a noble
+way, himself being raised to the highest dignities of the state. He
+was blindly devoted to the king, followed him like a shadow, taking
+infinite care of him during his last illness, and dying only a few
+months after his royal friend.
+
+One of the most remarkable works carried on during the reign of Charles
+XIV. was the Gotha Canal system, which was brought to completion.
+The old bishop Brask had spoken of a connection between the lakes
+of Venar and Vetter, and the great Oxenstierna thought of a canal
+between the North Sea and the Baltic across Sweden. Charles XII. had
+ordered Polhem to make a trafficable passage around the waterfalls
+of Trollhetta, which was done after new plans during the reign of
+Gustavus IV. During the Period of Liberty, Daniel Thunberg had made
+plans for the whole canal system. But Count Balzar von Platen was the
+man to make the great work a realized fact, devoting his whole life
+to it, conquering distrust, opposition and lack of funds. He spent
+six years in preliminary surveys before taking up the agitation for
+the realization of his plans. During the whole progress of the work,
+his efficient activity in looking after every detail could only be
+compared to his constant agitation in the Riksdag for the support of
+the immense enterprise and his scrupulous attention to the financial
+part of it. When the great canal was opposed as an unpatriotic scheme,
+endangering the defence of the country, Platen answered by completing
+plans for a colossal fortress in the heart of the canal system, which,
+when erected, became the strategic stronghold of Sweden, and was named
+Carlsborg. Platen died as governor-general of Norway, seeing his great
+life-work nearing completion. The Gotha Canal is the most remarkable
+of its kind in Europe, being 259 miles long, with 74 locks, many of
+which have been cut out of solid granite hills. It is of great value to
+commerce and affords a most picturesque scenic tour.
+
+Charles XIV. met with a power in politics which, from the start not
+strong enough to carry away victory, ended by attaining its goal. It
+was the liberal opposition in the Riksdag, supported by a liberal
+press. Charles XIV., in his native country, had seen to what an infamy
+the abuse of liberal forms of government could lead, and he was
+sternly resolved to antagonize any movement which aimed to introduce
+more democratic principles in the handling of state affairs and in
+the remodelling of the system of representation. Charles XIV. was in
+a delicate personal position. He was the only one of the Napoleonic
+marshals who preserved his throne after the fall of the emperor, and
+the strong continental reaction looked askance at this new man who
+wore one of the oldest crowns of Europe. But his great reputation as a
+warrior and statesman, and his persistent peace policy, ought to have
+been to him sufficient guarantees of the fidelity of his subjects.
+Charles XIV., in the agitation against the self-willed cabinet, saw
+an enmity against himself. By a network of secret detectives, the
+king tried to uncover conspiracies and plots which existed in his
+imagination only, or in that of those who were aware of his weakness
+and sought to gain personal favors by making use of it. The severity
+with which the press was censured and its members punished created
+a bitterness against the king personally, which ceased only during
+the few last years of his reign. With the new constitution a law
+establishing full liberty of public utterance in print was enacted, but
+a temporary restraint had been placed on this liberty, in 1812, on
+account of violent newspaper attacks upon Russia. The government still
+made use of this restraint, which caused many severe legal sentences
+and subsequent bitterness.
+
+Among the press organs of that period the "Argus" and "Aftonbladet"
+were the most conspicuous in their attacks upon the conservative
+government; Lars Hierta, one of the ablest of Swedish editorial
+writers, was the publisher of the latter. His paper was repeatedly
+confiscated. Anders Lindeberg was the publisher of "Stockholmsposten."
+In an agitation against the royal monopoly in theatrical affairs,
+Lindeberg threw out the accusation that the king, for purely economical
+reasons, opposed a reform in those matters. He was arraigned and a
+sentence of death passed upon him, which was commuted to three years'
+imprisonment. But Lindeberg refused to accept any clemency, declaring
+himself ready and resolved to die. The government, who dared not take
+his life, was in a delicate predicament, but saved itself and Lindeberg
+by announcing pardon of "political criminals," at the anniversary of
+the king's first arrival in Sweden. Jacob Crusenstolpe, a novelist
+and writer of note, was one of the intimate friends and supporters of
+the government, but turned liberal, attacking the king in a pamphlet.
+He was sentenced to three years' imprisonment, which created great
+commotion and a revolt in Stockholm, not subdued except after a bloody
+conflict with the troops (July, 1838). Crusenstolpe continued writing
+from his prison.
+
+The principal leaders of the opposition in the Riksdag were L. Boye,
+F. B. von Schwerin and C. H. Anckarsverd among the nobles, and
+Anders Danielsson among the peasants. This opposition criticised the
+government for negligence, extravagance and incompetency. Its policy
+was an entire reconstruction of the state, politically, socially
+and financially, on the basis of a constitutional government. The
+opposition commenced by establishing the right of free deliberations
+in the Riksdag. At the Riksdags of 1827 and 1828 the government was
+severely taken to task on account of the sale of ships to the Spanish
+insurgents in South America. The king was inclined to join England
+against Spain, but had to recede on account of pressure from Russia and
+the continental powers. The sales were partly annulled and the Swedish
+government experienced a considerable financial loss. Cederstrom was
+the responsible party, but upon his resignation his able successor
+Wirs�n was able to cover up his tracks.
+
+If Sweden was forced to change her policy in the South American affair
+she was found unyielding in the settlement of the boundary questions
+with Russia. This power was anxious to obtain a slice of the Norwegian
+Finnmark, with excellent ice-free harbors at the bay of Varanger. In
+the ultimate settlement with Russia, in 1826, a great territory was
+ceded, but not any of the important harbors.
+
+In 1840 the opposition had waxed strong enough to effect one of its
+most desired reforms, the constitutional reconstruction of the cabinet.
+This body was made to consist of ten members, of whom seven were to be
+the heads of the various state departments, those of justice, foreign
+affairs, army, navy, civil service, finance and ecclesiastics.[5] As a
+consequence of this change in the constitution, several cabinet members
+resigned and were succeeded by men more in touch with the opposition.
+
+The greatest of contemplated reforms was a new system of representation,
+but the opposition was not able to carry it through. At the first
+revolution of Gustavus III., Stedingk favored a reconstruction of the
+Riksdag after the model of the English parliament. Gustavus III, was
+afraid to cause complications by the introduction of such a novelty,
+but considered it gravely at the time of his second revolution. In
+1830, the idea was taken up by the opposition, and Anckarsverd and the
+eminent lawyer Richert made up a plan for a new Diet, according to
+the plan of the Norwegian Storthing. This plan, with the idea of one
+chamber, instead of two, was repeatedly discussed at the Riksdag of
+1840, but not adopted. This remarkable Riksdag, which lasted seventeen
+months, did considerable for the improvement of education and was
+ultimately dismissed by Charles XIV., in a speech of a conciliatory
+spirit, which went far toward restoring the old popularity of the king.
+
+Charles XIV. died March 8, 1844, at the age of eighty-one. During the
+last years of his reign he received strong and repeated evidence of the
+love of his people, especially upon the occasion of his twenty-fifth
+anniversary as king of Sweden. "No one has made a career like mine,"
+he said shortly before his death. He was a child of the revolutionary
+epoch, favored by its opportunities to receive a high station, without
+being sullied by any of its vices. If it be true that his position
+often was made difficult through lack of appreciation by his new
+subjects, it is not less true that he, through lack of intimacy with
+the Swedish language, national character and traditions, was unable to
+further the development of his new country, in the same degree as would
+a native provided with such rich endowment. The sun of Charles XIV.,
+which rose in brilliancy, set in the glory of full appreciation.
+
+The reign of Charles XIV. produced a new line of eminent scientists and
+was the golden age of Swedish literature. The remarkable genius of J.
+J. Berzelius remolded the science of chemistry, placing it on a basis
+where there are hardly any limits to its scope. Elias Fries devised a
+new system of botany. Sven Nilsson, a distinguished zo�logist, also
+became the founder of a new science, comparative arch�ology. K. J.
+Schlyter edited a complete collection of the old provincial laws, a
+work of equal importance to philology and jurisprudence. P. H. Ling
+invented the Swedish system of gymnastics and founded the Central
+Institute of Gymnastics in Stockholm, where the Swedish massage or
+movement cure has won a scientific development worthy of its world-wide
+fame. E. G. Geijer, as a philosopher, was a noble follower of Hoeijer,
+while as a historian he is the greatest genius of his country. As a
+poet and composer Geijer is also noteworthy. Professor of history at
+Upsala, he was once accused of heterodoxy, but acquitted. His political
+career was remarkable. Geijer was a firm supporter of the government
+and conservative principles, until fifty-seven years of age, when he
+joined the opposition.
+
+The world of letters was divided in parties as bitterly opposed to
+each other as those of the political world. The old Gustavian school,
+of which Leopold remained the last representative, was attacked by
+the "New School," which, inspired by German Romanticism, was brimful
+of inspiration, imagination and feelings, but very little that was
+original, clear or national. Of this so-called "phosphoristic" school
+Atterbom was the distinguished leader. Stagnelius, a poet of rare
+attainments, but who died early, belongs in this group. The New School
+was in turn attacked by the "Gothic Society," a school of national
+Swedish Romanticism, which introduced a cult of the Old Northern
+spirit of individuality, terseness and power. Ling and Geijer were
+among the leading men of this school, whose enthusiasm for everything
+national had a lasting influence upon the research for, and gathering
+of, folk lore, songs, traditions, customs, and every trait of the
+popular culture of bygone days. In Franz�n and Wallin, Sweden had
+two religious poets of the very first rank. More famous than any of
+these was Esaias Tegn�r, the second great national poet of Sweden,
+whose "Frithiof's Saga" was destined to become the most celebrated
+literary work of all Europe in its day, appearing in a vast number of
+translations in a great number of languages. Tegn�r was in sympathy
+with the old Gustavian school, but a member of the Gothic Society, and
+by his choice of subjects in harmony with the national school. There is
+a wonderful richness of sparkling life and wit in Tegn�r's poems, but
+they are sometimes overladen by the vivid ornamental images in which
+they abound. Tegn�r was a man of extremely broad and liberal views on
+every phase of human life and effort. He hated with the whole power of
+his fiery soul the mysticism, obscurantism and morbid sensualism of his
+age. He was the sworn enemy of the "Holy Alliance" and the reactionary
+powers in state, church and literature. In his chivalrous spirit and
+love of the great individuals, he became the admirer of Charles XIV.,
+whose policy he therefore supported. Tegn�r is not the one who in the
+grandeur and faultlessness of his creations has attained the very
+highest rank among Swedish poets, but is the greatest and most unbiased
+thinker among them, and has as such exerted a beneficial influence
+upon the national consciousness and cultural development. Tegn�r's
+judgment upon one of his Gustavian precursors may be repeated in his
+own case: "Perchance the greatest not as poet, but as genius."
+
+_Oscar I._ was forty-five years of age at the death of his father. He
+was the only son of Charles XIV. and Queen Desideria, the latter a
+daughter of a French merchant by the name of Clary. Oscar was, in 1823,
+married to Princess Josephine of Leuchtenberg, a granddaughter of the
+French empress of the same name. It was a difficult position, the one
+held by the heir-apparent. Charles XIV. was jealous of his own power
+and popularity and suspected his son of being in sympathy with the
+opposition. The prince, distanced as far as possible from the affairs
+of state, devoted himself to the study of social and economic subjects.
+He gave a great deal of attention to the study of prisons and the care
+of prisoners, seeking by pamphlets to spread his sympathies for the
+latter and to improve their conditions. Oscar I. was fondly devoted
+to the fine arts, himself a talented painter and composer. He did not
+possess his father's brilliant genius or power of personal influence,
+although an upright man of great talent and exceedingly prepossessing
+in appearance. Oscar was of a mild, sagacious disposition, who liked to
+go into detail and take time for investigation and decision. He was not
+a man of action, and lacked somewhat consistency in carrying out plans
+of a wider scope. Oscar I. had a little of the autocrat of the father
+in him and often acted on his own judgment, without taking the advice
+of his cabinet. Being the loyal, highly cultured and patriotic man that
+he was, he in various ways furthered the development of his country.
+
+Few kings have ascended a throne under such enthusiasm and joyful
+aspirations on the part of the people as King Oscar I. Several
+important reforms were enacted at the Riksdag which met in 1844, and
+the king gave his sanction to them all. It was decided that the Riksdag
+should meet every third instead of every fifth year, the liberty of
+the press was augmented, and to women were given equal rights in the
+stipulations of inheritance and marriage. The last-mentioned reform was
+bitterly opposed by the nobles, who feared it would, to a great extent,
+annul their privileges. The law was passed by the three lower Estates,
+in spite of the nobles, and was sanctioned by the king. Oscar I. took
+great pains to have the industries freed from the restraint under which
+they had been suffering during the reign of his predecessor.
+
+King Oscar surrounded himself with men of a more modern type than
+his father's advisers. They were in touch with the principles of the
+opposition, although far from radical, and more respected for their
+character than for their ability. The opposition, which had been
+so harsh during the administration of Charles XIV., was toned down
+considerably; but complaints were soon heard that the new government
+was neither consistent nor resolute in its liberal policy and that
+courtiers and young officers won an unduly rapid promotion. Soon an
+opposition of a new order was organized against the administration.
+The conservatives, finding that it leaned too much on the liberal
+principles, attacked it for this reason. A powerful conservative
+party at the Riksdag was organized, with Hartmansdorff as the leader
+among the nobles and Archbishop Wingard among the clergy. Attacked by
+liberals and conservatives alike, and not supported by either, the
+government was of an undecided and vacillating tenor.
+
+The French revolution of 1848 influenced Swedish politics in several
+ways. The "friends of reform," viz., the party desiring a parliamentary
+reorganization, were incited by the republican tendencies. The
+masses of Stockholm on one occasion gave vent to their feelings by
+demonstrations which were of a menacing character. Great crowds
+collected outside the place where a "reform banquet" was held. There it
+was resolved to attack the houses of Hartmansdorff and several other
+leading conservatives. The owners placed themselves in safety, but the
+windows of the houses were broken by the mob, who also threw stones at
+the troops. The tumult was quenched, but not without bloodshed. The
+press was greatly agitated for a long time afterward, using language
+against the government that was by no means choice. The liberals in the
+Riksdag commenced to take an attitude as decided as the one held by the
+conservatives. From this time on King Oscar showed great coldness to
+the liberals, and surrounded himself with advisers more in harmony with
+the conservatives.
+
+The proposition for a reorganization of the Riksdag, made in 1840,
+was not accepted, but a committee was appointed in 1848 to make a new
+proposition, which failed to please either government or Riksdag. The
+king then had a new proposition prepared, based upon general elections.
+The liberals did not think the royal proposition democratic enough and
+offered one of their own. Both of these were defeated at the Riksdag
+of 1850, thanks to the opposition of nobility and clergy. A third
+one was made by Hartmansdorff, but also failed to please, not being
+conservative enough for the nobles. Hartmansdorff aroused so much
+hatred among his fellow nobles that they refused to be seated on the
+same bench with him during the sessions. After a period of perfect
+isolation the old conservative leader was judged with greater leniency
+by his former followers. Shortly before his death, in 1856, he sent
+them the following greeting: "Ask the nobles not to stand up so long
+for their privileges, they will lose nothing by surrendering them." It
+seemed as if the interest for parliamentary reform had died out during
+the latter part of King Oscar's reign, but such was not the case; it
+only gathered force in the quiet, and the king was right when defining
+it as a "question which could never fall."
+
+The influence of the revolution of 1848 also was felt in the foreign
+relations of Sweden. The German population of Holstein and Schleswig
+tried to sever their connections with Denmark in order to effect a
+union with Germany, Prussia taking upon herself to liberate said
+provinces. Denmark made various efforts to gain the active support of
+Sweden. The so-called "Scandinavism" was a good means to obtain this
+end. This movement, which aimed at the establishment of a closer union
+between the three Scandinavian countries, based upon the fact of the
+common origin of their inhabitants, had originated at the University
+of Copenhagen. The meetings of scientists and students, in 1842 and
+1843, at Stockholm, had given growth to this movement, which was of
+a very high-strung nature, but, as far as the Danes were concerned,
+also of an egotistical motive. Charles XIV. had been averse to this
+"students' policy," but Oscar I. was sympathetically impressed by it.
+"Scandinavism" rose high in 1848, especially at the universities, and
+King Oscar sent a communication to the Prussian government to the
+effect that he was resolved to oppose any attack on the Danish isles.
+An army of 20,000 men was ordered to Scania to give weight to this
+statement. A smaller division of it was even for a time quartered in
+the island of Funen. The German troops which had invaded Jutland soon
+retired and hostilities ceased for some time. King Oscar effected an
+armistice of seven months in August, 1848. As a result of the war
+between Denmark and Germany during the next few years an agreement
+followed, according to which Holstein and Schleswig would for some time
+remain under Danish supremacy.
+
+King Oscar had, from the commencement of his reign, tried to meet all
+demands for reform made by his Norwegian subjects, who were anxious to
+demonstrate to the world the perfect independence of their country.
+The king himself took the initiative steps to give Norway a national
+flag of its own, the two countries up to the reign of Oscar having had
+one common official flag. He also instituted the Norwegian knightly
+order of St. Olaf in resemblance to the older Swedish orders of
+Seraphim, Vasa, etc., and gave permission to place the name of Norway
+before that of Sweden in the Norwegian royal title. For these reasons
+public opinion in Sweden expected Norwegian concessions in regard to
+the Act of Union, which seemed in need of revision. A committee of
+men from both countries was appointed to make the revision, but the
+Norwegian members opposed all measures involving any change, expressing
+themselves in such emphatic terms that it was found best to leave the
+deliberations of the committee unpublished. In 1854 the Norwegian
+Storthing decided to abolish the office of a governor-general. King
+Oscar refused to sanction this law, but allowed the office to remain
+vacant during the rest of his reign.
+
+Intemperance had grown to be an evil from which the Swedish people
+greatly suffered since the reign of Gustavus III., when alcohol began
+to be produced in great quantities by the common people. The king
+encouraged the temperance movement, which was very fruitful in results.
+In 1853 the Riksdag abolished the free and unrestrained production
+of alcohol, which was changed into a regular industry and placed
+under heavy taxation. From 1855 onward, the principles of free trade
+were adopted for commerce and trade through the influence of J. A.
+Gripenstedt, the minister of finance, and seemed to have beneficial
+results in every branch of industrial and commercial activity. The
+state revenues were greatly increased and the surplus spent in
+improvements of the widest scope. The means of interior communications
+were vastly improved. In 1853 the network of the state electric
+telegraph began to spread and now embraces every part of the country.
+The agitation for the construction of railways had long been an active
+one. The first one constructed was a private railway between OErebro
+and Arboga. In 1854 the Riksdag decided on the construction of trunk
+lines in Southern Sweden, to be built and controlled by the state. The
+Riksdag of 1856 appropriated a sum of $5,000,000 for that purpose.
+The railways were rapidly and solidly built under the supervision of
+Baron Nils Ericsson, the highly talented brother of John Ericsson, the
+world-famous inventor of the propeller, the caloric engine, the steam
+hose and the "Monitor."
+
+The relations with Russia were not the best during the latter part of
+King Oscar's reign. The Russian claims on the harbors at the bay of
+Varanger were repeated in 1847, and when deliberations for a settlement
+were opened, in 1851, Russia showed a tendency to take possession of
+the desired places. In the conflict between Russia, on one hand, and
+Turkey, supported by England and France, on the other, Sweden sided
+with the latter, especially after Russia had failed to recognize an
+alliance of neutrality under arms formed by Sweden-Norway and Denmark.
+In 1855 Sweden entered an agreement with France, promising not to cede
+any territory to Russia in case of a conflict. In 1856 peace was made
+at Paris; the only favor won by Sweden was a pledge made by Russia not
+to fortify the archipelago of Aland.
+
+King Oscar was a very hard worker and also fond of the pleasures of
+life. His health was injured through illness, in 1857, and he never
+recovered. The premature death of his second son, Prince Gustavus, a
+talented composer and highly popular, had a disastrous influence on
+him. King Oscar I. died July 8, 1859, after a long illness, beloved by
+the two nations who, during his reign, had enjoyed the happiest epoch
+of their history.
+
+Romanticism in literature had an important second blossom during
+the reign of King Oscar I. and his successor. With the exception of
+Runeberg and Almquist, it offers no name of the very first rank. But
+Runeberg, the Homer of the North, does not belong to Sweden alone, and
+Almquist, the only great Romanticist, had made his appearance during
+the preceding epoch. Charles John Ludvig Almquist was a genius of great
+versatility and exceptional endowment. He wrote with equal force in all
+branches of literature; besides the poet, dramatist and prosaist, being
+a good philologist and well versed in a number of practical pursuits.
+He anticipated the ideas of which George Sand became a champion, and
+wrote charming peasant idyls long before Auerbach and Bjoernson. His
+most important work is an ambiguous creation, conceived somewhat in
+the form of Boccaccio's "Decamerone," but much larger, and containing
+productions in every imaginable artistic form. It is called _Toernrosens
+bok_ (The Book of the Wild Rose). Almquist has not, like Bellman and
+Tegn�r, crystallized the Swedish national character in a lyrical form,
+but he remains, in spite of glaring defects, the most versatile and
+supremely gifted genius of Swedish literature.
+
+Nybom, Boettiger, Malmstroem, S�therberg and Strandberg were talented
+lyric poets of this epoch, Von Braun, Sturzen-Becker and Sehlstedt
+good humorists, while Boerjesson, Blanche, Jolin, Dahlgren and Frans
+Hedberg wrote successfully for the stage. Swedish women were destined
+to win fame for themselves by bringing the novelistic form to a
+richer development; principal among whom were Frederica Bremer,
+Sophie von Knorring, Emilie Carl�n and Sophie Schwartz, while the men
+Crusenstolpe, Sparre, Mellin, Ridderstad and Starb�ck cultivated the
+field of historical fiction, for which Swedish history offers such a
+wealth of appropriate subjects.
+
+Swedish composers of note were becoming numerous, although the field in
+which they chiefly excel is the rather limited one of lyric song, the
+most spontaneous medium of expression for the lyrico-rhetoric Swedish
+temperament. As the composer of "lieder" or _visor_, Adolphus Lindblad,
+an intimate friend of Mendelssohn, occupies a revered place in the
+history of music. Close to him stand Crusell, Nordblom and Josephsson,
+while H�ffner, Otto Lindblad, one of the noblest composers in this
+line, Prince Gustavus and Vennerberg are famous principally for their
+part songs.
+
+The cultivators of dramatic and orchestral composition have as yet
+been comparatively few. Chief among them is Bervald; further, Norman
+and Hallstroem. In a later contemporary epoch, Hall�n, Aulin, Sjoegren,
+Stenhammar have considerably brightened this aspect of cultural
+development. Gunnar Vennerberg occupies an honored place as a poet,
+humorist and composer in one. There seems to be a deeply rooted
+tendency in the Swedish national temperament to unite the various
+branches of artistic creation, which would stamp it as romantic in
+its very essence if there did not run a vein of stunningly realistic
+portrayals through the works of such composite nature. In the art of
+Bellman this tendency has found its highest exponent. Bellman selected
+for his subjects the life of the lower middle classes in the Swedish
+capital of his day. His Fredman sings of the experiences of himself
+and his friends. Vennerberg has chosen the student's life at the
+University of Upsala as the subject of his duets between two students,
+"Gluntarne," in which are mirrored as faithfully, and sometimes as
+artistically, as by Bellman the humorous and pathetic scenes which have
+fascinated the poet and composer.
+
+Swedish song for the first time acquired universal fame through Jenny
+Lind, who has had many successors, but no peer as a dramatic singer.
+Contemporaneous with Jenny Lind were a number of highly talented
+histrionic artists, principal among whom were Lars Hjortsberg,
+Nils William Almloef, Olof Ulric Torsslov, Emilie Hoegquist and Carl
+Georg Dahlquist. The Swedish stage has set a good example for the
+preservation of the highest standards of the language, and in this line
+exerted a great cultural influence.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+_Parliamentary Reform--Charles XV_
+
+
+Charles XV., the eldest son of Oscar I., succeeded his father, having
+for two years presided over the government during king Oscar's last
+illness. King Charles was of gigantic stature, exceedingly handsome
+and of a manly and noble bearing. There dwelt a fiery soul within him,
+conscious of its power, longing for heroic deeds and in sympathy with
+all that was noble in life and art. The king possessed an abundance
+of youthful energy and vivacity. He was a passionate hunter and a gay
+companion, who surrounded himself with men equally boisterous and gay.
+He was fond of jokes and merry pastimes, and took no pains to hide his
+weaknesses, which were of a convivial nature. In his social intercourse
+the king was exceptionally open and frank, treating everybody alike
+in a good-natured, hearty manner, winning the whole heart of his
+people. He understood better than any king since Charles XI. how to put
+himself in cordial relation with the masses of the people. But fond of
+playing practical jokes on high and low, he did not like to receive
+in the same measure. Charles XV. was devoted to the pursuits of art.
+Especially in his youth, he wrote poetry and distinguished himself as
+a landscape painter through his love for typical Swedish sceneries.
+Sweden did not at first know what to expect of her new ruler, and no
+one was able to predict the course of his policy. There were fears that
+his youthfulness and his fiery southern temperament might lead him to
+feel satisfied with the exterior of things or that he might give way
+to the impulses of the moment. These fears soon proved to be without
+foundation. The king had chosen as his maxim "Land shall with law be
+built," from the old provincial law of Upland, and he remained, with
+very rare exceptions, true to the constitutional spirit of these words.
+He had the good fortune to find highly capable advisers, in whose hands
+he placed the details of the administration, and, in contrast to his
+father, was satisfied to give his attention exclusively to matters of a
+more general importance. He gave his unreserved support to his cabinet,
+occupying a position above all party interests. Charles XV. often
+sacrificed, sometimes only after considerable internal struggle, his
+own personal sympathies and inclinations at the request of the advisers
+when he saw that the welfare of his country and his own royal dignity
+demanded such a sacrifice. On account of this, his true constitutional
+spirit, he deserved as a ruler the blind adoration of his people. His
+summer residence, the castle of Ulricsdal, in the neighborhood of
+Stockholm, he changed into an artistic abode, with choice collections
+in various lines. Charles XV. had, in 1850, married Princess Louise of
+the Netherlands, of the royal house of Orange. Their daughter, Louise,
+was married to the crown prince of Denmark, and is still in life, while
+King Charles had to suffer the premature losses of his only son and of
+his consort.
+
+The cabinet which surrounded Charles XV. was one of the strongest
+bodies of its kind that ever controlled the government of Sweden.
+During his regency, Crown Prince Charles appointed Baron Louis de Geer
+minister of justice and Ludvig Manderstroem minister of foreign affairs.
+These men continued their duties during the reign of Charles XV.,
+while Gripenstedt, as minister of finance, followed up his beneficent
+activity for the emancipation and development of the national
+industries. The historian, Frederic Ferdinand Carlson, had been the
+teacher of King Charles and had successfully continued the monumental
+work of Swedish history, left unfinished by Geijer. Carlson occupied,
+during the greater part of the reign of Charles XV., the position of
+minister of ecclesiastics (church and education), in which capacity
+he did great work for the improvement of educational affairs. The
+high schools and colleges were reorganized through new regulations of
+1859, being the work of Carlson before his appointment to the cabinet.
+Carlson also improved the public, or common, schools. King Charles was
+a warm friend of public instruction. In one of his speeches from the
+throne he said: "This is my ambition that a true and living culture
+shall penetrate our people and with its blessings reach the humblest of
+its cottages."
+
+The relations between Sweden and Norway, during the first few years
+of the reign of Charles XV., were strained. The Norwegian Storthing
+once more voted the abolition of the office of a governor-general.
+It was thought that the king, who earlier, as viceroy of Norway, had
+spoken in a spirit of acquiescence upon this question, would sanction
+the vote of the Storthing. But in Sweden great indignation was felt.
+It was known and understood that the Act of Union contained nothing
+in regard to the office in question, but was created by a stipulation
+in the constitution of Norway which admitted the possibility of its
+being filled by a Swede. The Norwegian view was that the Storthing
+had exclusive right to decide the question, while the Swedish view
+was that it was a question concerning the Union and to be decided on
+by the diets of the two countries. Practically the Swedes were right;
+theoretically, and from a purely patriotic standpoint, which considered
+necessary the development of a perfect national independence even at
+the expense of the Union, the Norwegians were right. Ankarsverd, well
+known since the days of Charles XIV., made a motion, at the Swedish
+Riksdag of 1859, for the revision of the Act of Union on the basis of
+the treaty of Kiel, which motion in Norway was accepted as an insult.
+V. F. Dalman made a motion that the Estates should ask the king not
+to render a decision in the question of a Norwegian governor-general
+before the Riksdag had had an opportunity to look into the international
+aspect of the question. Great was the commotion caused by this issue,
+both in the diets and the press of the two countries. Swedish pamphlets
+were circulated which accepted the possibility of a dissolution of
+the Union. But in Norway, where the security of a union with Sweden
+had become apparent, especially during the conflict with Russia, such
+utterances were repudiated. Both of the motions in question were passed
+by the four Estates of the Riksdag, but put in such a shape that a
+request to have a revision of the Act of Union made was sent up to the
+king, with the demand for a royal proposition on that issue. The king
+was then asked to consider the question of a Norwegian governor-general
+in connection with that revision. As there was a difference of opinion
+also in the cabinets of the two countries, the final decision rested
+with the king alone. The sagacity and discernment of which King Charles
+gave evidence saved the situation and is worthy of praise. He declared
+in the Norwegian cabinet that he could not sanction the abolition of
+the office of a governor-general. Shortly afterward, he gave in the
+Swedish cabinet as his opinion the advisability of postponing, for the
+time being, all deliberations of a revision of the Act of Union. By
+doing so, the king quieted the high feelings in both countries, and
+peace returned. It had become apparent to both Swedes and Norwegians
+that the Union was the result of great political foresight because
+it was preserved through the increasing feeling of faith and of the
+necessity of mutual protection. That great obscurity existed in regard
+to the affairs regulating the Union had also become evident.
+
+The reforms and improvements which were effected during the reign of
+Charles XV. were highly important. New criminal and maritime codes
+were made at the Riksdag of 1862, and sanctioned by the government.
+Through the new regulations passed in the same year the foundations
+for increased municipal home rule were laid. Such home rule was as
+old as the country itself, but, in the same degree as the state
+organization, had attained a higher development, and the centralization
+of the administration was realized; it had weakened and was in peril
+of being entirely lost. Now the time was come for the powers of state
+to give municipal home rule new strength, adapting its old forms
+and creating new ones, in accordance with modern requirements. Laws
+were made which gave the towns the right to elect members to local
+assemblies (_stadsfullmoegtige_), with authority to act in behalf of
+their communities. Similar institutions (_kommunalst�mmor_) were
+arranged for the country communities. _Landsting_ were instituted
+in every governmental district, or _l�n_, at which representatives,
+elected by the people, were to take action on the public affairs of
+the district, especially on such that pertained to sanitary conditions,
+communications, etc. The conditions for suffrage and elective franchise
+in municipal affairs were based on personal income. The old class
+distinctions were thus disregarded and a return made to the still older
+democratic institutions of the ancient Teutonic communities, in which
+every free man is entitled to his word and vote in public affairs.
+But those only are considered "free" who by their work can gain
+enough to pay their taxes in return for the privileges of a citizen.
+The church got a representation of its own in the clerical assembly
+(_kyrkomoetet_), which meets every fifth year and consists of equal
+numbers of ministers and laymen.
+
+The government in the municipal reforms found a basis for the
+reorganization of the Riksdag. The royal proposition for a new
+parliamentary representation, placed before the Estates in 1862, was
+built upon the municipal suffrage and the Landstings or district
+assemblies, the latter being authorized to elect the members of
+the senate, or First Chamber. The old system of representation
+corresponded as little with the new municipal home rule as with the
+general tendencies in politics and social life. The nobility had
+lost its old importance. It was no longer advisable for the clergy
+to take a leading part in political affairs. A new industrial class
+of wealth and prominence had formed and demanded a representation in
+the burgher class. The peasants had ever since 1809 been carrying on
+their agitation for a reduction of taxes and abolition of the class
+privileges. They had met with an overwhelming opposition, which would
+fall with the old system of representation. A parliamentary reform
+had been fervently discussed ever since 1840. The municipal home rule
+reforms of 1862 had brought the question closer to a solution. The
+burghers and peasants at the Riksdag of 1860 petitioned the government
+to present a royal proposition for the reorganization of the Diet.
+Baron Louis de Geer, the minister of justice, was the author of this
+proposition, which was presented in 1862 and placed on the table
+until the next Riksdag. The great question was acted upon at the
+Riksdag of 1865. There was a great deal of commotion on account of
+the opposition which was expected from the nobility and clergy. The
+discussions in the periodical press and in pamphlet form were lively.
+The country population preserved its peaceful and sensible demeanor,
+but the excitement in the towns was considerable and increased as
+the decision drew nearer. The majority of towns and several rural
+communities in their close proximity sent deputations to Stockholm,
+who tendered their best wishes to the able minister of justice for the
+success of his proposition. The commotion in Stockholm was so great
+that troops were ordered ready in case of an emergency. The 4th of
+December the proposition was voted on by the burghers and peasants.
+At the question of the speaker, whether they were willing to accept
+the royal proposition, the peasants rose to their feet in a body and
+gave their answer with one laconic yea. A few of the burghers spoke
+against the proposition, but it was carried also in their Estate, and
+by an overwhelming majority. Long and heated discussions took place
+among the nobility and clergy. The clergymen were generally opposed
+to the parliamentary reform, but feared to be found remaining as the
+only opponents in the storm of disapproval which would follow. For
+this reason they postponed their decision until the nobility had taken
+action upon the proposition.
+
+There rested a spirit of real grandeur over the deliberations at
+the Riddarhus upon this occasion, when the question of a voluntary
+surrender of the aristocratic privileges was to be decided. The
+Swedish nobility had its class instincts and prejudices, but very
+rarely it had been found lacking in men of the loftiest patriotism and
+highest attainments, ever ready to take the lead in the defence of the
+independence of their country or to follow up faithfully the ambitions
+of their great rulers. Arrangements had been made to allow noblemen
+from distant parts and of very limited means to be present, if not
+during the time of the discussions, which lasted four days, at least at
+the casting of the vote. Never in the memorable history of the knightly
+chapterhouse had more eloquent language or loftier thoughts been heard
+than upon this occasion. Both supporters and opponents of the royal
+proposition spoke with great sagacity and discernment. The former
+spoke of the inadvisability of a representation by Estates and by
+hereditary privileges, and of the dangers of a further postponement of
+the needed reform. The latter nicely scrutinized the royal proposition,
+which was considered to give too great influence to the peasants, to
+weaken the executive power and to depend upon municipal reforms as yet
+untried. They further considered the upper house, or First Chamber, too
+homogeneous with the Second to be able to exert the conservative or
+retaining power expected from it. The members of the cabinet all spoke
+with fervor and persuasive power in favor of the royal proposition,
+especially De Geer, Gripenstedt and Carlson. The outcome was that the
+royal proposition was accepted by a vote of 361 yeas against 294 nays.
+The nobility as a class thus left the political arena voluntarily
+and with honor. Now the turn was come to the clergy, who unanimously
+accepted the royal proposition without further discussion. The
+result was accepted with outbursts of enthusiasm from all over the
+country, but especially from the towns. The four Estates adjourned
+June 22, 1866, forever, and the law of the new system of parliamentary
+representation was sanctioned the same date.
+
+The royal proposition, which became the law of a new Diet, is based
+upon the principle of general elections. The Riksdag meets at the
+commencement of every year. It is divided into two houses or Chambers.
+The members of the First Chamber, or upper house, are elected for a
+term of nine years, partly by the Landstings, or district assemblies,
+partly by the assemblies of towns which do not take part in a
+Landsting. Elective to the First Chamber are those who have a yearly
+income of at least $1,000 from some business or enterprise, or as the
+interest on a capital of their own. These members, or senators, must be
+at least thirty-five years of age; they do not enjoy any compensation.
+The members of the Second Chamber, or lower house, are elected by
+every judicial district in the country which has no more than 40,000
+inhabitants and by every 10,000 inhabitants of a town. Towns which have
+a population of less than 10,000 inhabitants are joined into election
+districts of from 6,000 to 12,000 inhabitants. Elective to the Second
+Chamber are those who pay taxes on an income of at least $200 a year
+and who are twenty-five years of age. These members are compensated for
+the time spent at the Riksdag. The ordinary Riksdag, which meets every
+year, lasts for a period of at least four months. The extraordinary
+Riksdag is called by the king whenever he finds it necessary. The
+members of the cabinet are elective as members of the Riksdag, and
+should, during all sessions, be present at the deliberations of the
+Chambers. The standing committees remain the same as during the time
+of the old system. Special and temporary committees are appointed when
+considered necessary. When the two Chambers end in a conflicting vote
+upon one and the same subject, the committee which prepared it for
+discussion should try to obtain a satisfactory solution. If such fails,
+the question is dropped for that year. The expenses of state, the state
+appropriations and the management of the national bank, when involved,
+form exceptions to this rule and are voted upon by both Chambers
+together, the majority of votes from both making the decision.
+
+A new era in Swedish history opens up with the acceptance of the
+parliamentary reform. The constitution itself had suffered no change,
+except in points of contact with the new rules of the Riksdag. But
+the powers of state no longer held to each other the same position as
+of yore. The government hitherto had, in the very division into four
+Estates, a support against powerful class and party interests. An
+equally solid support was not to be expected from a Riksdag of only two
+Chambers, which in questions of state appropriations is practically
+one. For this reason many would have preferred the establishment of a
+system which, instead of abolishing the medi�val arrangement of four
+Estates, would have added as many classes as there are really extant in
+the modern state, to gain the desired equilibrium through a manifold
+and dynamically operating representation. As things shaped themselves
+after the two Chamber system, the government ought more than ever to
+have a conservative, retaining power in order to preserve the proper
+balance. But such was not the case, for the Riksdag had been placed in
+a position to watch and control the executive power much closer than
+before, thanks to its authority to fix for each year the appropriations
+and expenditures of the state. The stipulation that the members of the
+cabinet are to take part in the deliberations of the Chambers gives
+another pillar of strength to the Riksdag. If the ministers of state
+are to exert any influence upon the decisions of the Riksdag, it is
+requisite to have its full confidence. The king is forced to select for
+his cabinet such members as are supposed to have an influence with the
+representatives of the people. The influence of the Riksdag has been
+steadily increasing ever since 1867.
+
+While the issue of a parliamentary reform occupied the attention of all
+public-spirited men, the interest in the political situation of Europe
+was hardly less intense. The sympathy with the unhappy Poles was almost
+feverish. In 1863 two motions were made at the Riksdag to petition the
+government to take an active part in the restoration of the kingdom
+of Poland, by means of diplomatic intervention. The position of the
+government was a difficult one. The complications between Denmark
+and Germany had recommenced, and it was important to stand in good
+relations to Russia. The Swedish public did everything to make these
+relations precarious, by demonstrations of various kinds in favor of
+Poland, warlike newspaper articles and subscriptions of money to the
+leaders of the revolt. Thanks to the sagacity and tactful demeanor
+of Manderstroem and the common sense of the Riksdag the motions in
+question were defeated and a dangerous conflict avoided. Complications
+of a more serious nature arose on account of the reopened conflict
+between Denmark and Germany. The Danish government had failed in its
+efforts to make a satisfactory arrangement in the relations between
+the crown and the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. The Germans
+repeatedly mixed themselves up in the interior affairs of Denmark,
+and the Danes themselves were divided into several parties. King
+Frederic VII. at last concluded to give up the idea of gathering in
+the duchies as integral parts of the kingdom, satisfied to sacrifice
+the ultimate connection of Holstein and Lauenburg with the crown, but
+resolved to connect the originally Danish Schleswig with Denmark.
+The purely German parts were, through the so-called "March Patent"
+of 1863, separated from the rest of the monarchy, while Schleswig
+was reunited with it, according to the constitution. This policy was
+approved by the Scandinavian party in Sweden and Norway, supported by
+Swedish diplomacy, and, in the first place, by Charles XV. himself.
+King Charles was inspired by general sympathy with the Scandinavian
+movement and by personal friendship for Frederic VII. to follow up the
+Scandinavian policy of his father. The two Scandinavian monarchs met
+twice during the summer of 1863 and influenced the Swedish-Norwegian
+and Danish cabinets to draw the outline of a treaty of defence on the
+basis of the river Eider as the Danish boundary to the south. The
+Danish government made the proposition for a new constitution according
+to which Schleswig was to be united to Denmark. This was contrary
+to the promise made by King Frederic to the German powers in 1852.
+The proposition for a new constitution was placed before the Danish
+Diet and accepted. Two days later, November 15, 1863, King Frederic
+suddenly died, before he had sanctioned the new law. This was a severe
+blow. The popular king left his beloved people in a most inopportune
+moment, fraught with peril and disastrous mistakes. The people of
+Schleswig and Holstein renewed an old contention in regard to the right
+of succession. The new Danish king, Christian IX., gave in to the
+pressure brought to bear on him by his cabinet and the inhabitants of
+Copenhagen. He signed the new constitution, which gave to the German
+powers a valid excuse to interfere. The Prussian and Austrian troops
+crossed the river Eider to make good the agreements of 1852.
+
+The Swedish-Norwegian government was placed in an embarrassing
+position. The alliance of defence that was planned was to a great
+extent based upon the relations of personal friendship between Charles
+XV. and Frederic VII. Sweden was not legally pledged to shield Denmark
+as a consequence of the acceptance of the new constitution. But Sweden
+had taken a conspicuous part in the deliberations, for which reason a
+change of policy could not be made without considerable difficulty. The
+liberal organs of the Swedish press, headed by "Aftonbladet," whose
+editor was August Sohlman, did everything in their power to make such
+a change an impossibility. But Sweden was not prepared to make war on
+two of the great powers of Europe, especially as no other power was
+willing to join in an alliance in behalf of Denmark. The change must be
+made; and was effected, principally because of the persuasive arguments
+and resolute demeanor of Gripenstedt. King Charles resolved to take
+the painful measures of a retreat. The standpoint of his government
+he gave to the Riksdag in the following words: "It cannot be expected
+from us that we should place our sword on the scale of justice without
+considering if the object can be attained with the resources at our
+command." It was a supreme sacrifice that Charles XV. made when, for
+the safety of his countries, he was forced to draw back the hand of
+support and comradeship which he had offered a brother in distress.
+The noble-hearted king, in one of his poems, has given a touching
+expression of the sorrow he felt in being unable to assist Denmark
+in her hour of peril. King Charles might, with proper resources at
+his command, have proved a formidable enemy. He had given evidence
+of possessing all the qualities requisite for the make-up of a great
+general, without doubt an inheritance from his two grandfathers,
+Prince Bernadotte and Eugene Beauharnais. A few hundred Swedish and
+Norwegian volunteers took an honorable part in the Danish war, which
+was the only practical result of the Scandinavian policy. The Swedish
+press was violent in its attacks upon the government for its change of
+policy. In March, 1864, the mob of Stockholm assailed the residences
+of Manderstroem, Gripenstedt and other cabinet members, breaking the
+windows with stones.
+
+Poor Denmark was left alone. Napoleon III. made the mistake of not
+attempting to defeat Prussia before she had reached her climax of
+strength. He was tied up with his Mexican adventure and unwilling
+to help Denmark. Charles XV. could not endure to see Denmark thus
+deserted. Privately he offered Christian IX. an alliance which
+stipulated that the three Scandinavian kingdoms should be joined into
+a union with one common foreign policy and common defence. Charles was
+also willing to make the succession one, if necessary. This alliance
+was to embrace only such parts of Denmark which were not to enter
+the German union. Sweden-Norway would do their utmost to prohibit a
+separation between Denmark and Schleswig. Denmark refused to accept
+this offer. Her leading statesman, Monrad, held stubbornly to the idea
+of an undivided Danish monarchy. For this reason, Denmark was for a
+second time abandoned to fight out alone her uneven battle. It ended
+in the loss of Holstein, Lauenburg and the greater part of Schleswig,
+through the treaty of Vienna, October 30, 1864. In Denmark a hard
+feeling against the Swedes and Norwegians sprang up as a consequence
+of the disastrous war fought without allies; and the Scandinavian
+policy and enthusiasm had received a blow from which they have never
+fully recovered. Charles XV. did all in his power to revive them. He
+had the pleasure of uniting the efforts of Sweden, Norway and Denmark
+in a peaceful work of great significance, the first Scandinavian
+Exposition of Industry and Art, which was opened at Stockholm in June,
+1866. The consequence was a perfect Norwegian conquest of Sweden, in
+a cultured sense. The painters Tidemand and Gude captured the prizes.
+The composers Kierulf and Nordraak took the lead in song and music.
+Ibsen and Bjornson became the craze in literature. The literary contact
+with Norway was begun in 1861, when Lorenz Dietriechson was appointed
+a docent at the University of Upsala, and for the first time made the
+contemporary Norwegian and Danish poets acquainted in Sweden. What
+Sweden received from Norway was a quaint, late-born Romanticism of a
+strong national flavor. When this Romanticism was changed into stern
+Realism its influence upon Swedish culture, especially her literature,
+was only increased, Swedish literature receiving strong realistic
+impulses from the neighboring Scandinavian countries. The Norwegian
+influence ceased, when the Swedes at last became aware that there was
+in it a deeply pessimistic trait, akin to the stern Norwegian and
+Scotch Christianity, which is incompatible with the Swedish national
+temperament, slightly inclined to melancholy, but of a robust and
+irrepressible desire to live and enjoy.
+
+Charles XV. followed up his practical Scandinavian policy by marrying
+his only daughter Louise to Crown Prince Frederic of Denmark. King
+Charles was as unsuccessful in his noble efforts to unite more closely
+his two kingdoms as in his foreign policy. The king allowed some time
+to pass in order to let the ill-feeling, caused by the conflict of 1859
+and 1860, die out. In February, 1865, he considered that the moment
+had arrived to institute the review of the Act of Union. He appointed
+a committee of Swedes and Norwegians to prepare the proposition of a
+new Act of Union, on the basis of perfect equality and right to decide
+separately all matters, except such pertaining to the Union. The
+committee performed the work, but their proposition was defeated at
+the Norwegian Storthing of 1871, at the instigation of John Sverdrup
+and K. Motzfeldt. The Swedish Riksdag for this reason also failed to
+accept it. At the close of the Riksdag, King Charles made the following
+utterance in regard to the defeated proposition: "What has now failed
+to attain success shall perhaps win out without difficulty when the two
+nations once have learned to place confidence in each other, as the
+result of a more intimate intercourse." He saw with great satisfaction
+the completion of a railway which forever unites the Swedish and the
+Norwegian capitals with ties of steel.
+
+The administration of Charles XV. persevered in its liberal policy
+concerning questions of economy and jurisprudence. This was particularly
+noticeable in commercial matters. The idea of free trade had won
+ascendency in Europe. Napoleon III. had entered a treaty of commerce
+with England, in strict opposition to the protective system. Other
+nations were one by one admitted into the free-trade system by means
+of new treaties. Sweden made a treaty of commerce and navigation in
+1865. This step was severely criticised by the Riksdag of 1865-1866,
+both from a constitutional and financial point of view. Gripenstedt was
+accused of leading the way over demolished industries, but he defended
+his position with great eloquence. The treaty was ratified in spite of
+the powerful opposition in the Riksdag. The press condemned both the
+treaty and the government in the most violent language.
+
+The first Riksdag of the new parliamentary system met January 19, 1867.
+The "Landstings" had sent to the First Chamber the most prominent
+men of the country. It was a truly representative gathering, a house
+of peers elected by the people. Lagerbielke, the landtmarshal of the
+preceding Riksdag, was appointed speaker. The Second Chamber counted a
+larger number of peasants as representatives than of any other class.
+Anton Nicolaus Sundberg, then bishop of Carlstad, now archbishop of
+Sweden, was made speaker of the Second Chamber. The power of the
+peasants made itself felt at once. There was formed a strong and
+influential party, the _landtmanna_, or countrymen's party, consisting
+of small landowners. The peasants constituted the majority, but the
+party also counted many titled and untitled country gentlemen in
+interests united with them. The founder of the party was Count Arvid
+Rutger Posse, later minister of state. Emil Key and the peasants
+Charles Ifvarsson and Liss Olof Larsson were among the leaders of the
+party. The policy of the Landtmanna party demanded simplification
+of the administration, economy in the matter of appropriations and
+a solution of the questions of the defence and taxation in harmony
+with the interests of the owners of the soil. The party followed up
+its policy with stern consistency from Riksdag to Riksdag, until in
+perfect control of the whole government. The opposition consisted
+of "the Intelligence" or intellectual party, which, without a solid
+constitution or a fixed policy, has in vain fought the spreading
+influence and power of the Landtmanna party. The latter has gone
+almost too far in its endeavors for economical reform, but has also
+given evidence of appreciation of the material needs of a cultural
+development, appropriating large sums for the benefit of science and
+education.
+
+The army question was the most important issue of Swedish politics. The
+events of 1866 had made it evident that a strengthening of the defences
+was necessary. King Charles was anxious to have the question solved in
+a satisfactory manner, finding therein the only reliable safeguard for
+the future independence of Sweden. It was apparent that any attempts to
+settle the question in accordance with the system adopted by Charles
+XI. would be devoid of result. It was based upon direct taxation of the
+soil and must be opposed by the strong majority of small landowners of
+the Landtmanna party. A compromise policy was for this reason begun in
+1867, the question of an abolition of the land tax being connected with
+the army question, although the two ought to have had no connection.
+The question was started with promises of a reduction or exemption of
+the duties of the old army system as compensation for the acceptance
+of a new arrangement for the country's defence. The government made an
+army proposition to the Riksdag of 1869, promising several reductions
+to the landowners who furnished soldiers according to the old system
+(_indelningsverket_). The proposition was prepared by a committee,
+of which the new minister of war, Gustavus Rudolph Abelin, was the
+chairman. It was based upon the preservation of the old system for the
+furnishing of the body force of officers and men. The larger force was
+to be provided for through militia. The militia was to be drilled in
+the neighborhood of their various homes during sixty days of the year.
+The proposition was not accepted. The militia compulsory service, as
+the duty of every citizen for the defence of his country, had nothing
+to do with the regular army as provided by the stipulations of the old
+system. But the majority of the Second Chamber confused the two and
+refused to allow the establishment of the former on a wider basis,
+because the offers made to reduce the burdens of the old system did
+not appear to them liberal enough. In 1871 another proposition was
+made by Abelin to the Riksdag. It was similar to the first one, and
+its cause was eloquently pleaded by Abelin, Axel Gustavus Adlercreutz,
+minister of justice, Peter Axel Bergstroem, minister of civil service,
+and Gunnar Vennerberg, minister of ecclesiastics. They warned against
+the mistake of attaching impossible conditions to the acceptance of
+the proposition. The proposition for an extended militia service was
+accepted by both Chambers. But when the Second Chamber raised, as a
+condition for its acceptance, the suspension, for fifteen years, of the
+old system which provided for the regular army, the government found it
+impossible to grant this, and the proposition was dropped.
+
+King Charles was grieved and vexed with the fate of the army bills.
+The Franco Prussian war made it, in his opinion, of added importance
+to Sweden to have her defences remodelled. He called an extraordinary
+session of the Riksdag, in the autumn of 1871, when Abelin brought
+out a third proposition. It was chiefly of the same contents as the
+preceding ones. But a remarkable change in the public opinion had now
+taken place, as to the advisability of retaining the old system. Men
+who looked upon the question more from a military than an economic
+point of view entertained doubts as to the practical value of the
+old regular army as the body force of a compulsory militia. Military
+officers commenced to attack the old system as the basis of a new army.
+The Landtmanna party persevered in the request for an abolition of the
+old system, and this killed the army bill at the extraordinary Riksdag.
+
+Together with the request for an abolition of the old army system,
+demands for redemption from other burdens placed upon the owners of
+the soil made themselves heard. The land-tax was the principal one of
+these burdens and caused as much difference of opinion as the army
+system. The Landtmanna party considered the land-tax to be of the
+same nature originally as other taxes, which ought to be more evenly
+distributed and shared by all classes in the same proportion. The
+Intelligence party was of the opinion that the land-tax in the course
+of time had come to be rents or mortgages which always were taken into
+consideration at the exchange of property, as reducing the stock value
+of the property in question. To free a present generation from the
+payment of land-tax, was in the eyes of the opposition, an injustice
+to the other classes whose taxes thereby were to be increased. The
+Landtmanna party had, in 1869, commenced an agitation for the reduction
+of the land-tax for shorter periods and on a small scale at first, but
+with increasing demands at every new Riksdag.
+
+The government, whose members had been the champions of parliamentary
+reform, was soon disregarded by the triumphant party, while its old
+opponents never forgot it. The earlier advisers of the king retired
+one by one when they saw their influence in the Riksdag vanish. King
+Charles himself took the defeat of the army bills deep at heart. His
+health commenced to fail in 1871, and when his faithful consort died,
+in the same year, having exposed her own health in her attempts to
+improve the condition of the king, the latter grew worse. After a trip
+abroad for his health, King Charles XV. died at Malmoe, September 18,
+1872, deeply mourned by the two nations. In the following year his
+youngest brother Nicolaus August, duke of Dalecarlia, died, leaving
+only two of the children of Oscar I., Oscar Frederic, duke of East
+Gothland, and Princess Eugenie. The history of Charles XV. carries the
+principal traits of his character. His sweeping reforms in social,
+political and economical matters, and his great plans for the future,
+even if sometimes immature, or high-strung, were always characterized
+by loftiness of purpose. A typical Swede both in his merits and his
+faults, this was the secret of the immense popularity of King Charles,
+which always followed him, although he never sought it.
+
+The philosopher Christian Jacob Bostroem is the most popular of Swedish
+thinkers and the first who founded a national system and school of
+philosophy, idealistic and rational, and in strict opposition to the
+system of Hegel. Bostroem was born in Pitea, in 1797, was the teacher of
+the sons of Oscar I., and succeeded the able philosopher Samuel Grubbe,
+a talented follower of Hoeijer, as professor of philosophy at the
+University of Upsala. Bostroem was a highly fascinating and suggestive
+teacher, while he neglected his literary production, which is neither
+exhaustive nor quite representative of his philosophy. He exerted a
+considerable influence by his outline of a philosophical state, which
+pleased the conservatives, while a much more widespread and lasting
+impression was produced by his criticism of the doctrines of a hell and
+a devil. A whole literature sprang into life, discussing vehemently
+the existence or non-existence of the fiend. To this literature and
+the works and writings of Bostroem is to be credited the spirit of
+religious tolerance which characterized life and literature during the
+reign of Charles XV. It fostered in the cultured few a leaning toward
+Unitarianism or Theosophy, while it gave rise to a shallow materialism
+and religious indifference in the less cultured classes and individuals.
+
+The artistic, literary and musical life bore a decided resemblance
+to the intellectually interested but dilettantic king. Charles XV.
+was surrounded by a great number of painters who, although possessing
+a good deal of talent, succeeded only in the smaller field of genre
+painting. Remarkable exceptions are J. F. Hoeckert, Marcus Larsson and
+C. H. L. D'Uncker, who possessed sterling genius and acquired great
+fame. Several promising painters, like George von Rosen, developed
+later the full scope of their power. The sculptor J. P. Molin was
+highly talented, a worthy follower of B. E. Fogelberg, who had enriched
+Swedish art with a number of highly important sculptures.
+
+In the world of letters, the spirit of dilettantism was more strongly
+felt than in art, Swedish literature, after its several glorious
+epochs, experiencing one of its most stagnant periods. A veritable
+giant among pygmies was Victor Rydberg, whose remarkable novel, "The
+Last Athenian," appeared in 1859, but whose principal productivity as a
+poet and scientist belongs to a later period. So do, to a great extent,
+the best works of the poets Eduard Beckstroem, also an able dramatist,
+and Count Carl Snoilsky. Zacharias Topelius, the Walter Scott and
+Hans Christian Andersen of Finland, must be mentioned here. Writing
+in the Swedish language, and for his principal work using subjects of
+Swedish history, he was as highly beloved in Sweden as in Finland. His
+excellent series of historical novels, called "The Surgeon's Stories,"
+have been translated into several languages. His juvenile stories are
+not characterized by the same degree of inventive power as are the
+tales by Andersen, but Topelius had the latter's ability of placing
+himself in intimate contact with the pure minds of all ages.
+
+In the most national of Swedish cultural elements, the song, the epoch
+of dilettantism found its most beautiful and lasting expressions. The
+quartet and chorus singing at the universities of Upsala and Lund was
+cultivated to the highest standards of excellence and had a splendid
+repertory in the songs of Otto Lindblad, Vennerberg, Prince Gustavus,
+Josephsson, Crusell, Cronhamn, etc. The Upsala students caused a
+great sensation by their singing at the Paris Exposition of 1867,
+and have repeated their successes at the Paris Exposition of 1878,
+and in Berlin in 1898. Swedish quartets of men's and women's voices
+have travelled all over the world and made a lasting fame for this
+minor but bewitching branch of musical art. As dramatic singers of
+the first rank, Louise Micha�li and Christine Nilsson have been the
+worthy successors of Jenny Lind. To this period, as well as to the
+next, belongs Elisa Hvasser, the greatest and most versatile actress
+Sweden has ever had. This artist was equally at home in the farce
+and melodrama, but excelled in the tragic parts of the Shakespeare,
+Schiller, and Ibsen repertory. Indispensable in their positions at the
+Royal Theatre of Stockholm, Micha�li, the songstress, and Hvasser, the
+tragedienne, did not travel, thereby losing the fame a world would have
+been only too glad to give them.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+_Progress and Prosperity--Oscar II_
+
+
+Oscar II. ascended the throne at a moment when universal peace was
+restored after the great conflict between France and Germany, and when
+an age of commercial prosperity for Sweden seemed to have begun. King
+Oscar had received the same superior education as his older brothers,
+is as brilliantly gifted as they were and of a more scholarly mind.
+As a writer on scientific subjects, a poet and an orator, Oscar II.
+had distinguished himself before his succession to the throne. The new
+king offered the best of securities for a sound administration in his
+thorough and versatile knowledge, wide experience in public affairs,
+and rich and harmonious endowment. Oscar II. still did not find it easy
+to gain the love and admiration of the Swedish people, of which he is
+so eminently worthy. He was the successor of one of the most popular
+of rulers that the country ever saw, but King Oscar has lived to see
+his own popularity almost outrival that of his predecessor. King Oscar
+is, at seventy, a handsome, spirited gentleman, with that dignity which
+age, rare attainments, high intelligence and a noble soul grant their
+common possessor. This the most learned and popular monarch of Europe
+is of a tall, commanding figure, six feet three inches in height, of a
+handsome, expressive face, with cheeks of a ruddy color and mild blue
+eyes.
+
+Oscar II. has shown great discernment in his arrangement of dynastic
+matters. Himself married to the fervently religious Princess Sophie
+of Nassau, the king has married his oldest son, Crown Prince Gustavus
+Adolphus, to Princess Victoria of Bade, a granddaughter of Emperor
+William I. of Germany, and a great-granddaughter of Gustavus IV. of
+Sweden. His third son, Prince Charles, duke of West Gothland, is
+married to Princess Ingeborg of Denmark, a granddaughter of Charles
+XV. of Sweden. These unions are well calculated to accentuate the
+increasing political, commercial and cultural intimacy with Germany,
+the Scandinavian policy of his predecessor and the desire of King Oscar
+to see the descendants of the old royal line of Sweden as heirs to the
+crown. In giving his consent to the marriage of his second son, Prince
+Oscar (Bernadotte), to Lady Ebba Munck, of the Swedish nobility, King
+Oscar has given evidence of the fact that he is not a match-maker
+regardless of the feelings of the parties involved. Prince Oscar,
+formerly Duke of Gothland, upon renouncing his share of inheritance to
+the two thrones, was allowed to marry the choice of his heart. King
+Oscar has tried to heal the wounds of the past by opening the vaults of
+the church of Riddarholm to the sarcophagi of Gustavus IV. and his son,
+and by giving Queen Carola of Saxony, the only living granddaughter of
+the former, repeated proofs of esteem and considerate distinction.
+
+King Oscar with his crowns had received as an inheritance two important
+problems to be solved--the reorganization of the Swedish army and the
+settlement of the difficulties in the relations between the two states
+of the Union. The latter has not yet found a satisfactory solution,
+although the king has devoted to it his most strenuous attention and
+the best of his efforts, in honest application to his royal motto: "The
+Weal of the Brother Nations."
+
+The reorganization of the Swedish army was not effected until after
+twenty years of parliamentary struggle. The road of a compromise policy
+which was opened in 1867 was followed up at the Riksdag of 1873, in all
+the long chain of years royal army bills being repeatedly rejected.
+In 1885 the government and Riksdag agreed on a remission of thirty
+per cent of the military taxes of landowners in exchange for new
+regulations for the militia compulsory service. In 1887 the Riksdag
+sanctioned the total abolition of the "indelta," or cantoned troops,
+as far as the navy was concerned, which was the first step toward the
+reorganization of the navy, and the same year the militia law of 1885
+went into effect.
+
+The old Landtmanna, or agrarian party, in 1888 gave place to a new
+protectionistic party. A contested election of twenty-two members
+from Stockholm gave a sudden majority to the protectionists, O. R.
+Themptander, the able minister of state, resigning. The army bill did
+not fare well at first. In spite of the fact that the Landtmanna party
+was brushed aside, the old enemies of an army reform, the landowners,
+nobles and peasants alike, still being strong enough to successfully
+oppose it. The Riksdag of 1888 passed a grain tariff, which went into
+effect February 14th of the same year, enforcing several other points
+of a protective tariff system.
+
+King Oscar called an extraordinary, or special, session of the Riksdag,
+October 18, 1892, when royal propositions were offered and accepted.
+The land-tax was abolished and a new army bill passed. According
+to the stipulations of the latter, the _bev�ringstid_, or period of
+liability for every citizen to bear arms, was extended to embrace
+twenty years instead of twelve, viz., eight years in the first ban of
+the _landtv�rn_, or militia, four years in the second ban, and eight
+years in the _landstorm_, or final levy. The first ban of militia is in
+time of war to form an integral part of the first fighting line, the
+second ban forming a reserve for the first fighting line. The final
+levy is to be called out for garrison duty exclusively, and for the
+defence of the country against foreign invasion. Six military districts
+have been established, five distributed along the entire coast of
+Sweden, the sixth inland in the western provinces to be a reserve
+ready to be used at the point and moment most needed. The reorganized
+army in active service is composed of _v�rfvade_, or enlisted troops,
+and _indelta_, or cantoned troops, the expenses also of the latter
+being paid by the government. The royal guards, chasseurs, hussars,
+artillery, and engineers are enlisted for two years up to eight. The
+militia troops are distributed among both the enlisted and the cantoned
+troops, the length of service with the colors being ninety days in time
+of peace. The infantry in which all the cantoned troops serve consist
+of twenty-six regiments and two battalions. The line is armed with
+Remingtons of 8.8 millimetres calibre. There are eight regiments of
+cavalry and six regiments and six batteries of field artillery, forty
+batteries in all, with 240 cannon. The effective of the active army,
+in 1896, was 1,953 officers, 571 employees, 1,779 non-commissioned
+officers, 1,641 musicians and 38,802 men, with 6,852 horses. The war
+effective is 272,994 men, besides 180,000 in the _landstorm_. The chief
+fortifications of Sweden are Carlscrona, on the south coast; two
+fortresses outside of Stockholm, viz., Vaxholm and Oscar Fredericsborg;
+and, in the interior, Carlsborg, near Lake Vetter. The navy comprises
+4 turret ships, with 10-inch armor, armed each with 2 10-inch and
+4 5.9-inch guns, and having a total displacement of 12,450 tons; 4
+armor clad monitors, 9 armored gunboats, 3 corvettes, 9 first-class
+and 5 second-class gunboats, 2 torpedo cruisers, 7 first-class and 9
+second-class torpedo boats, 5 torpedo launches, and 12 school ships.
+The navy is manned by 267 officers and about 4,500 sailors, not
+including conscripts to the number of 8,500 men. The entire cost of the
+defence of Sweden exceeds ten million dollars a year.
+
+The movement for a reorganization of the defences has not been caused
+by any change in the policy of peace, which has faithfully been carried
+out by all the rulers of the Bernadotte dynasty. The ruler of Sweden
+and her people desire peace, but not as a gift of mercy from the great
+powers, but as a self-chosen right which can be effectively defended
+if necessary. The ever-increasing armament of the European powers
+has made a strengthening of the Swedish arms unavoidable, but the
+Swedish government was the first to announce its readiness to accept
+the invitation of Czar Nicholas II. of Russia to a conference for the
+discussion of a general reduction of the regular armies. Germany was
+made the pattern for the reorganization of the army and navy, the
+Swedish government having followed the German also in the treatment of
+the labor question, with schemes of accident and old-age insurance,
+accepted by the Riksdag.
+
+King Oscar, at his succession to the throne, gave evidence of his
+desire to meet the reasonable demands of his Norwegian subjects. He
+sanctioned, in 1873, the abolition of the office of a governor-general
+of Norway, the government at Christiania to be presided over by a
+Norwegian minister of state. To the later Norwegian demands for a
+separate flag, consular service and ministry of foreign affairs,
+King Oscar has been unyielding. The flag question is of subordinate
+importance. King Oscar, in 1899, has refused to sanction the resolution
+of the Storthing, three times passed, for a flag without the mark
+of Union, for the reason that the flag with that mark was offered
+to Norway by his father, Oscar I., and gratefully accepted when the
+country had no colors at all, except the Swedish. The Swedish people
+will carry their old flag with the mark of Union, irrespective of any
+changes made in the Norwegian colors. More serious are the questions
+of consular and diplomatic service. In 1893, the Swedish government
+offered to compromise by establishing a common ministry of foreign
+affairs whose head might be indifferently a Swede or a Norwegian. This
+was rejected by the Norwegian Storthing. The same offer was made in
+1837, when the dispute first arose, provided that the Norwegian troops
+should share the duty of the common defence of both kingdoms. The
+Swedish Riksdag of 1893 passed a resolution, in compliance with which
+King Oscar for a second time refused to sanction the bill of Norwegian
+consulates.
+
+The diametrically opposite views which are held in regard to the
+relations of Sweden and Norway are, to a great extent, caused by
+a misconception of the nature of the Union. In lack of a Union
+parliament, it has by many been considered to be only a personal union
+of two countries under the same king. Such is not the case. It is
+true that the two countries are both free and independent states and
+that the king is the only visible bond between them, according to
+the Act of Union, but the Union is nevertheless an _actual_ and not a
+_personal_ one. If it was only personal, the king could at will, or
+when forced to do so, resign his power in one of the countries and
+continue his reign in the other. The Act of Union cannot be changed
+except upon a resolution, enacted in both of the respective diets,
+and with the sanction of the king in behalf of the Union. A change
+can be made at the same Swedish Riksdag at which it is proposed, at
+the Norwegian Storthing not until the next regular session. As a
+consequence the Union cannot be dissolved by the representatives of
+either country alone, and the king cannot dissolve it by exercising
+any power of his own. The king cannot abdicate one throne without
+abdicating the other, for the first paragraph of the Act of Union
+stipulates that the two countries shall be indissolubly and irrevocably
+united under the rule of the same king. No abdication can be granted,
+except by common consent of the two diets in joint session. When the
+two thrones are empty, without an heir-apparent, a new king shall be
+elected by the two diets in common. What underlies the Norwegian claims
+of a separate foreign ministry is, besides to own an outward sign
+of the country's independence, a desire for a closer constitutional
+control of diplomatic affairs. From the Swedish side the desirability
+of a Union parliament and a greater authority for the Union government
+has been expressed. The Swedes have been found unwilling to grant any
+change of the constitution of the Union, except the right be added
+for the Union government to dispose of the military forces of both
+countries, in equal proportion, for the common defence. King Oscar's
+standpoint in the Unionist conflict has contributed much to increase
+his popularity in Sweden, where his firm refusal to sanction any
+measure which would cause a weakening to the Union has been received
+with the highest approval.
+
+A committee to review the relations of the Union and propose a revision
+of its charter was appointed in 1897, but failed to accomplish
+anything, the views of the Swedish and Norwegian members differing
+too radically in their opinions. It is to be hoped that the ultimate
+solution of the unionist conflict, whensoever it come or whatsoever it
+be, will bring the two countries of the Scandinavian peninsula closer
+together, without any great sacrifice on either side, least of all of
+their independence.
+
+During the more than eighty years of peace which Sweden has enjoyed
+under the rule of the Bernadotte dynasty, she has developed her
+constitutional liberty and her material prosperity in a high degree.
+The dreams of glory by conquest belong to days gone by, but in the
+fields of peaceable industries she has attained a greatness which the
+world begins to realize. At the expositions of Paris in 1867, 1878
+and 1889, of Vienna in 1873, of Philadelphia in 1876 and of Chicago
+in 1893, Swedish industry and art have taken part with honor in the
+international competition. The railways of Sweden have incessantly spun
+a more and more extended network of steel over the country, opening
+connections for enterprises in new districts and furthering commerce
+and industrial art in a wide measure. Oscar II. is an enthusiastic
+friend of railway improvements, the state having built and acquired
+a quite considerable length of road at his initiative. The length
+of Swedish railways, in 1896, was 6,145 miles, of which 2,283 miles
+belonged to the state, compared to a total of 1,089 miles of Norwegian
+railways.
+
+The post-office, which was made a government department by Axel
+Oxenstierna, in 1636, annually transmits 130 million letters and
+parcels. The telegraph lines have not reached a very high state of
+development; still there are 14,600 miles of telegraph. The telephone
+has made much more progress, far surpassing that of any other country
+in Europe. The total length of the connections exceeds 40,000 miles,
+and the number of apparatus is more than 25,000. Stockholm makes the
+widest use of the telephone of any city in the world, with her 300,000
+inhabitants having a telephone for every thirty. Sweden has developed
+into a commercial country of no inconsiderable rank, notwithstanding
+her isolated position. Exports and imports each exceed yearly in
+value $100,000,000, the imports being 344,290,000 kronor and the
+exports 311,434,000 kronor in value, in 1895, a Swedish krona being
+about twenty-eight cents. The commercial value of the foreign trade
+amounts to thirty-nine dollars in yearly average for each inhabitant
+of Sweden, which is about as much as in France. The imports chiefly
+consist of coal, coffee, salt, cotton and wool, while the exports are
+timber products, about forty per cent of the whole, iron and steel,
+the best in the world, machinery, butter, cattle, matches, etc. The
+inland navigation and commerce are very lively. The state finances are
+in a prosperous condition. The budget of 1898 showed total receipts of
+120,086,000 kronor, of which 14,229,000 was surplus from proceeding
+budgets.
+
+Thanks to the well equipped and regulated system of instruction, the
+general education has been so highly advanced that Sweden, in this
+respect, holds the very front rank among the nations. Besides the
+national universities of Upsala and Lund and the state medical college
+of Stockholm, city universities at Stockholm and Gothenburg have been
+recently founded which are quickly developing. All study at the
+universities consists of post-graduate work, there being about thirty
+colleges in various parts of the country which lead their pupils as far
+as the demands requisite for entering the universities. The Swedish
+university courses are of unexcelled thoroughness and completeness.
+The so-called Peasant High Schools are peculiar to Scandinavia, having
+originated in Denmark. There are twenty-five such high schools in
+Sweden, which give to young men and women of the peasant class a higher
+education than is available in the common schools, of which latter
+there are 10,702, with 692,360 pupils and 13,797 teachers.
+
+Scientific research progresses with energy and success, and Sweden
+possesses to-day a great number of eminent scholars, even if the epoch
+of men of universal genius appears to be a thing of the past there
+as elsewhere. Swedish scientists have opened closer relations with
+their co-workers in all parts of the world. The energy of King Oscar
+has brought about several congresses of science at Stockholm. In the
+natural sciences, Sweden still holds an honored place, in physics
+offering two great names, Eric Edlund and A. J. Angstroem, the latter
+celebrated for his work on the solar spectrum, which forms the basis
+for the spectral analysis. Death has claimed these men and also J. A.
+H. Gyld�n, an eminent astronomer; J. G. Agardh, C. W. Blomstrand, H.
+O. Nathorst, J. E. Rydquist, able botanist, chemist, agriculturist,
+and philologist, respectively; Pontus Wikner, the most remarkable of
+the disciples of the philosopher Bostroem, and Victor Rydberg, the
+philosophical poet, novelist and polyhistor.
+
+Among the most noteworthy of living Swedish scholars are Adolph Nor�n,
+Axel Koch and Esaias Tegn�r, Junior, philologists; Hans Hildebrand and
+Oscar Montelius, arch�ologists; P. Fahlbeck, Nils and Magnus Hoejer,
+Martin Weibull, Ernest Carlson, historians; A. M. Mittag-Leffler,
+mathematician; Hugo Hildebrandsson, meteorologist; E. A. H. Key, E. O.
+T. Westerlund, Anton Wetterstrand, F. J. Biornstroem, T. F. Hartelius,
+Curt Wallis, prominent in various branches of medical science.
+
+King Oscar with fervent interest and unfailing liberality has
+encouraged various scientific explorations, and has had the satisfaction
+to see the greatest geographical discoveries of the century successfully
+made by Swedes, the circumnavigation of Asia and Europe, and the
+discovery of the Northeast Passage by Baron N. A. E. Nordenskiold,
+and the exploration of Central Asia by Sven Hedin, which has forever
+settled the learned disputes of ages. A third expedition, the most
+daring of scientific exploits ever attempted, still keeps the world
+in suspense as to its final outcome. July 11, 1897, S. A. Andr�e,
+a scientifically experienced a�ronaut, with two companions, Nils
+Strindberg and Knut Fr�nkel, started in a balloon constructed for
+the purpose, and with provisions for three years, from an island
+of Spitzbergen, with the purpose of reaching the North Pole. The
+daring a�ronauts have not been heard from since their departure, but
+authorities like Baron Nordenskiold have expressed the best of hopes
+that they may have reached Franz Joseph's Land in safety, whence they
+might regain settled regions.[6] S. A. Andr�e belongs to a class of
+men, the Swedish engineers, who have won distinction for their ability,
+and on whom the examples set by Christopher Polhem and John Ericsson
+have had a stimulating influence. There are among them two inventors
+of the very first rank, who belong to the reign of Oscar II., Alfred
+Nobel (d. 1896), the inventor of dynamite, and Gustavus de Laval,
+the Swedish Edison. The latter is world-famous for his separator and
+other inventions, which have revolutionized the dairy industry. Alfred
+Nobel, the disciple of John Ericsson, has not only the glory of having
+invented one of the most useful helpers of mechanic and industrial
+progress, but also that of having set aside his vast fortune, amounting
+to something like $12,500,000, for public purposes. The money is so
+invested as to constitute a fund the interest of which shall be applied
+to five equal annual prizes, to be awarded for the most important
+discovery or improvement in chemistry, physics or medicine, for the
+work in literature highest in the ideal sense, and to the one who shall
+have acted most and best for the fraternity of nations, the suppression
+or reduction of standing armies, and the constitution and propagation
+of peace congresses. The first prize, physics and chemistry, shall be
+awarded by the Academy of Science of Sweden; that for physiology and
+medicine by the Carolin Institute of Stockholm; the literary prize
+by the Swedish Academy; and that for the propagation of peace by a
+commission of five members elected by the Norwegian Storthing. He
+especially directed that in distributing these prizes no consideration
+of nationality shall prevail, so that he who is most worthy of it shall
+receive the reward, whether he be Scandinavian or not. It seems that
+the sum of each of the five annual prizes thus instituted will amount
+to $75,000. The inventor of dynamite was deeply interested in all
+that was done to promote peace by congresses and societies. He always
+considered that by improving war material, and thus increasing the
+dangers of war, he was contributing his share toward the pacification
+of the world. Alfred Nobel has, by the manner in which the Norwegian
+Storthing is made an active party in the disposition of his will,
+indicated _his_ view upon the Union of Sweden and Norway and his hopes
+for a peaceful solution of their conflicts.
+
+Swedish literature, after the period of dilettantism and epigones, has,
+during the reign of Oscar II., twice been rejuvenated and continues its
+development on broadened paths and with a wider scope. The eighties
+were characterized by a strong realistic movement, which went far in
+daring truth of description and brought problems of a social, religious
+and political nature under discussion in works of a novelistic or
+dramatic form. In naturalism, it never went to the extremes of the
+other Scandinavian literature. The movement was to a great extent
+brought on by Norwegian and Danish influence, and soon subsided for
+want of solid and fascinating art to maintain it. The Swedish champion
+of this movement, although without the restrictions of any school,
+was August Strindberg, a genius of extraordinary endowment. Through
+the versatility and power of his talent, he created new forms for the
+Swedish drama, novel, short story and essay. In his battle against
+reactionary conservatism he went too far; an excitable nature, led
+into extremes, but he has had the manly courage to confess and regret
+his mistakes. Strindberg, who is an able historian, ethnographer,
+naturalist and sinologue, is the most versatile and prolific of
+contemporary writers. In the wide scope of his genius and originality
+of his methods, Strindberg is one of the most remarkable dramatists
+that ever lived. His autobiographical works are of supreme importance,
+both to the students of literature and psychology. Among his
+masterpieces are "Master Olof," the great historic drama of his youth,
+"Swedish Fates and Adventures," and "Utopia Realized," two series of
+short stories, and "The Father," a modern drama of unsurpassed tragic
+grandeur.
+
+Several women took an active part in the literary discussion of social
+problems, with more or less justice considered as the champions of
+women's rights. Among these Anne Charlotte Leffler, duchessa di
+Cajanello, in spite of her premature death, developed into a novelist
+of merit who will be placed side by side with Bremer, Knorring and
+Carl�n.
+
+The golden lyres of Romanticism were silenced and the epigones were
+hushed by the sarcasms of Realism. Count Snoilsky and Victor Rydberg
+were the only poets of the earlier period who sang with inspiration and
+were listened to. After the realistic movement of the eighties came
+a romantic reaction with new lyrics and new novelists, who avoided
+the ruthlessness of the realists, but had profited by their merits.
+This new movement cannot be called a school, for it is marked by its
+great versatility of subjects and great elasticity of treatment. If
+the definition of realistic art be "a piece of nature seen through a
+temperament," that of the new movement may be "an artistic temperament
+attuned to pieces of nature," a sensitive and supple talent which has
+an almost unlimited capacity to tell every story just in the vein its
+particular subject demands. Pre-eminent in this movement stand Ola
+Hansson, Selma Lagerloef, Verner von Heidenstam, Gustaf af Geijerstam,
+Peter Hallstroem, Thor Hedberg, Oscar Levertin, all fine novelists,
+almost all good poets, and Geijerstam, an able dramatist. One of the
+most interesting and supremely gifted poets Sweden has ever had is
+Gustaf Froeding, who generally excels, sometimes abuses, his remarkable
+versatility in finding a true lyric expression for the very widest
+range of subjects. Sigurd Hedenstierna is the most popular humorist,
+witty in his sketches, but impossible as a novelist. The greatest
+humorists are August Strindberg and Gustaf Froeding. Contemporary Sweden
+has very few and no great literary critics, but some good literary
+historians in Henric Schueck, Karl Warburg and Oscar Levertin. She has
+a number of able journalists, most distinguished among whom is their
+Nestor, S. A. Hedlund, of Gothenburg, a fiery but dignified champion
+of a liberal government, religious tolerance, social evolution and
+cultural progress.
+
+Swedish literature has a long pedigree compared to Swedish art, which
+is hardly more than two centuries old. All the more remarkable, then,
+is its rapid growth and high degree of excellence. The first school
+of Swedish painters was founded by the German Ehrenstrahl, giving to
+Swedish art the cosmopolitan character it has preserved to this day,
+influenced by continental but chiefly French art. Swedish painters
+early attracted attention abroad. Gustavus Lundberg, with a picture of
+Boucher and his wife, won the greatest success of the Salon of Paris,
+in 1743. Peter Adolphus Hall, "painter to the king and the children
+of France," has been called the Van Dyck of the miniature painters.
+He resided in Paris up to the time of the revolution and took part
+in the storming of the Bastile. Alexander Roslin was, from the year
+1760, installed in the Louvre as painter to the king and councillor
+of the French Academy. In 1771 he carried home a prize which the
+immortal Greuze could not capture, much to the dismay of Diderot, and
+died as the most famous and wealthy artist of the period. In a later
+period, Italy attracted many Swedish artists, and later still, in the
+sixties of the present century, the influence of Germany, especially
+of the Dusseldorf school, was strongly felt. John Frederic Hoeckert
+won the first prize of the Paris Exposition of 1855 with his large
+picture "Divine Service in the Lapmark." When the glories of Hoeckert
+were almost forgotten at home, Edward Wahlberg, in the seventies, was
+ushered into celebrity as one of the greatest landscape painters of
+modern times, equally appreciated in Germany, as later in France, and
+new French laurels were won by Hugo Salmson, William von Gegerfelt
+and August Hagborg. Since then French influences have become solidly
+established, with a few important artists of the Munich school, like
+C. G. Hellquist and Julius Kronberg. The climax of artistic honors
+was reached by Nils Forsberg, whose picture, "The Death of a Hero,"
+carried home the first prize of the French Salon in 1888 (not an
+exposition medal), a distinction which no Swede and exceedingly few
+non-French artists ever won. The repeated successes which Swedish
+painters have won at expositions of Europe were more than duplicated by
+the enthusiastic approval granted it at the World's Fair in Chicago in
+1893. The truth is that Sweden possesses a number of eminent painters
+in every branch of painting, except the marine, which has been but
+sparingly represented since the days of Marcus Larsson. The most
+famous among them are, besides those already mentioned, Richard Bergh,
+Oscar Biorck, Eva Bonnier, Gustavus Cederstroem, Prince Eugene, Eugene
+Jansson, Ernst Josephson, Nils Kreuger, Carl Larsson, Bruno Liljefors,
+Charles Nordstroem, Allan OEsterlind, Georg and Hanna Pauli, George von
+Rosen, Robert Thegerstrom, and A. L. Zorn. It has been said of the
+Swedish painters, by way of complaint, that they are not, as their
+brethren in Denmark and Norway, in any marked degree national. Swedish
+art has, for its characteristic boldness and superiority in modern
+technique, loftiness of purpose, great individuality of expression and
+depth of feeling. Be these characteristics national or cosmopolitan,
+the Swedish painters are certainly a great credit to their country. To
+King Oscar it must be in a high degree satisfactory to see the artistic
+tendencies of his family culminate in the works of his youngest son,
+Prince Eugene, who, being in the front line of the advance corps of
+art, paints, from dreamy, inner life, pictures which are the delight of
+artists and true connoisseurs.
+
+The sculptors are less numerous, but the art of Sergel, Fogelberg and
+Molin have found worthy perpetuators and innovators in Per Hasselberg,
+John Boerjesson, Frithiof Kjellberg, Alfred Nystroem, Christian Ericsson,
+Th. Lundberg and Ingel Fallstedt. To the art of metal engraving on
+coins and medals Sweden has offered some works of the very highest
+value by J. E. Ericson, P. H. Lundgren, Lea Ahlborn and Adolphus
+Lindberg.
+
+Architecture cannot boast of any continuous chain of brilliant
+development. Since the days of Nicodemus Tessin there have been few
+great architects until in very recent times, when architecture has
+received a sudden impetus which has made its progress and results as
+remarkable, or almost more so, than that of the other arts. To Helgo
+Zettervall a number of elaborate national works of construction and
+restoration have been intrusted and, as a rule, carried through in a
+meritorious manner, although sometimes giving occasion for serious
+criticism. An important influence was exerted by Frederic William
+Scholander, more by his teaching than by his works. It is principally
+his pupils who in the last few decades have almost revolutionized
+the building methods and architectural aspect of the capital, and
+endowed Gothenburg and other towns with works of architectural
+distinction. Pre-eminent among modern architects are I. G. Clason,
+Gustavus Wickman, K. F. von Gegerfelt, Adrian Peterson, Hans Hedlund,
+Valfried Karlson, A. F. Anderberg, E. Lallerstedt. The Vasa, or Swedish
+Castle Renaissance, which with good effect has been reintroduced for
+monumental buildings, seems to lead architecture on to a wholesome
+national development, combining impressive outlines and solidity with
+elaboration and grace of interior decoration.
+
+The foremost composers of orchestral music have been mentioned
+above. Sweden maintains her reputation as being the country of song
+through the compositions by Hedenblad, Koerling, Svedbom, Sjoegren and
+Arlberg, while Soederman has brought the form of the ballad, based on
+national folk music, to the highest development. The royal opera of
+Stockholm recently moved into new and elegant quarters erected on the
+site of the old opera house built by Gustavus III. It possesses, in
+Caroline OEstberg, Mathilde Linden, Arvid OEdman, C. F. Lundquist and J.
+Elmblad, dramatic singers of high rank, while Sweden, in Louise Pyk,
+Mathilde Grabow Taube and Solomon Smith, owns concert singers of great
+eminence. The international firmament of song has two Swedish stars of
+considerable magnitude in Sigrid Arnoldsson-Fischhoff, a colorature
+songstress, and Ellen Nordgren-Gullbrandson, a Wagner singer. The
+greatest actor is Emil Hillberg, a noble creator of Ibsen and
+Strindberg r�les, while the country recently lost its ablest comedian
+in the death of Knut Almloef.
+
+Sweden of to-day offers an attractive picture of a country in a high
+degree cultured and prosperous, but no country or period is entitled
+to reap only benefits or enjoy undisturbed happiness. No progress
+is obtained without struggle and relapses, and a good must give way
+for something better. Beneath a surface generally smiling and serene
+formidable religious and social forces are in motion. The Swedish
+state church is divided into two camps, which resemble a high and
+a low church, out of which the whole may come forward strengthened
+and rejunevated. The various sects are not all satisfied with the
+degree of liberty they enjoy. A shallow materialistic movement of
+anti-religious tendencies, which styled itself Utilitarian, caused
+some sensation in the latter eighties and early nineties, more through
+the somewhat too severe manner in which it was suppressed than
+through any of its own merits. There are agitators for a separation
+of state and church who are opposed by some of the stanchest friends
+of a constitutional monarchy. A separation of educational and church
+affairs seems desirable. The yeomen have regained the predominant
+position in political life which was theirs in the time of the ancient
+Teutonic communities, using their power in a way which is not always
+beneficial to the other classes or the state at large. The great class
+of country population, which has been in vain striving to rise to the
+privileged class of landowners, if even on the smallest scale, have
+emigrated in vast numbers. The emigration, which has given America
+at least 1,200,000 inhabitants of Swedish birth or parentage, is one
+of the most astounding phenomena of the century. It has, to a large
+extent, subsided, but may be revived if the pressure for social
+improvement is found of no avail. The workingmen are resolved to
+gain a representation and are striving to attain the introduction
+of general suffrage. The weapons they use are principally strikes,
+but may also turn to wholesale emigration. In 1893 the advocates
+of universal suffrage arranged for the election of a convention by
+popular vote, the first Folksriksdag, which addressed an appeal to
+the legal Riksdag, to consider an amendment for the extension of the
+suffrage. The liberals and radicals are interested in this agitation,
+and brought out their full vote to the Folksriksdag. The conservative
+party ignores the whole movement, probably not wisely. The towns are
+seeking an extended representation and bitterly oppose the curtailment
+of the rights already enjoyed, fearing the reactionary tendencies
+of the conservatives, who have their strength in the large agrarian
+population. Anarchism is something unknown in Sweden. The socialistic
+agitation, which is spreading among the classes without a political
+representation, is carried on without any great bitterness and entirely
+without lawless means.
+
+Any practical or theoretical agitation for a republic there is none
+in Sweden, the population as a whole not finding salvation from the
+defects of government or society in any outward change of rule. Civil
+service is enforced to the letter, and the social pressure from above
+downward is of a nature caused by financial or educational supremacy
+only and would remain the same under republican rule. The Swedes
+are proud of their history and the long and unbroken chain of their
+political and social development. Their neighbors accuse them of
+having traces of the chauvinism of bygone days, but not altogether
+with justice. The national anthem of Sweden can be quoted in their
+justification. It speaks, in one instance, of the country as enthroned
+on memories of a glorious past when its name filled the world; but
+that name is the North, to whose grandeur and loveliness of nature the
+whole song is a panegyric. The name of Sweden is not even mentioned, a
+fact which does not point to a narrow or antiquated form of patriotism.
+There is in the nature of the Swedes a tendency to delight in the
+display of dignified luxury, which was known to Tacitus. The Swedes
+love to see the crown of one of the oldest states of Europe carried
+with dignity as an emblem of their ancient independence. The Swedish
+king has in reality less power than the President of the United States,
+but the Swedes have an inherited faculty of confidence and loyalty of
+which their king receives his full share. The Swedes become excellent
+citizens of a republic for that very reason: reverence for, and loyalty
+to, the institutions and historial development of the country in
+which they dwell. Among the Scandinavian nationalities, the Swede has
+been characterized as the nobleman or aristocrat, on account of his
+love of luxury and the joys of life, his dignity, diplomatic talent
+and lyrico-rhetoric temperament. It is true that his dignity seldom
+forsakes the Swede; when it does, something of the soldier of the
+Thirty Years' War comes to the surface. To her diplomatic talent, more
+than to her glorious victories, Sweden owes her superiority in size,
+prosperity and political importance, as compared to her Scandinavian
+neighbors.
+
+The fundamental laws of the kingdom of Sweden are: 1. The constitution
+of June 6, 1809; 2. The amended regulations for the formation of
+the Riksdag of June 22, 1866; 3. The law of royal succession of
+September 26, 1810; and on the liberty of the press of July 16, 1812.
+According to these statutes, the king must be a member of the Lutheran
+church, and have sworn fealty to the laws of the land. His person
+is inviolable. He has the right to declare war and make peace after
+consulting the state council. He nominates to all higher appointments,
+both military and civil; concludes foreign treaties, and has a right to
+preside in the supreme court of justice. The princes of the blood royal
+are excluded from all civil employments. The king possesses legislative
+power in matters of political administration, but in all other respects
+that power is exercised by the Riksdag, in concert with the sovereign,
+and every new law must have the assent of the crown. The right of
+imposing taxes is vested in the Riksdag. The executive power is in the
+hands of the king, who acts under the advice of a cabinet or state
+council, the head of which is the minister of state. It consists of ten
+members, seven of whom are ministerial heads of departments and three
+without departments. All the members of the cabinet are responsible for
+the acts of the government.
+
+Eric Gustavus Bostroem is minister of state, holding office since 1891,
+after the protectionists had got into power and the compromise cabinets
+which followed were a thing of the past. The other ministers without
+departments, Baron A. L. E. Akerhielm and S. H. Wikblad, have remained
+in office since the days of compromise cabinets. The other members who
+have been in office from five to eight years are as follows: Count
+L. V. A. Douglas, minister of foreign affairs; P. S. L. Annerstedt,
+minister of justice; Baron A. E. Rappe, minister of war; J. C. E.
+Christerson, minister of marine; J. E. von Krusenstierna, minister of
+interior; Count H. Hansson Wachtmeister, minister of finance; G. F.
+Gilljam, minister of education and ecclesiastical affairs.
+
+King Oscar II., in the jubilee year of 1897, which marked the
+completion of a quarter of a century of his reign, received innumerable
+proofs of the love of the two nations under his rule and of the
+high esteem in which he is held by the governments and citizens of
+foreign countries. The occasion was celebrated by a large and highly
+successful Scandinavian exposition at Stockholm in the summer, Russia,
+with Finland, also taking part, and by a series of festivities about
+September 21st, the date of his succession to the throne. King Oscar
+has always given sympathetic attention to the United States, especially
+to their citizens of Swedish birth. Several deputations from America
+called upon the king in the jubilee year. Among these was a male chorus
+of fifty-four members, belonging to the American Union of Swedish
+singers. The singers were invited to the royal castle and received
+and feasted by the aged monarch with cordial simplicity, in all royal
+splendor, without any of its pomp or ceremony. To the hearty songs of
+his unpretentious guests, King Oscar responded with one of the eloquent
+speeches for which he is so justly famous, assuring them that, although
+citizens of another land, they were still followed by the loving
+interest of their mother country and her monarch. When the singers
+intoned one of the songs by Prince Gustavus, the king joined them with
+his sonorous tenor voice, smilingly calling their attention to the
+fact that he had not forgotten his students' songs. The anniversary of
+the seventieth birthday of Oscar II. was celebrated January 21, 1899,
+a slight gloom being cast over it on account of the temporary illness
+of the king. Oscar II. fully recovered after a few months of rest and
+recreation and bears every indication of attaining the same advanced
+age, with the same unimpaired activity, as his grandfather, which
+would mean another decade added to the era of undisturbed peace. Crown
+Prince Gustavus Adolphus, who is yet little known in Norway, enjoys
+great popularity in Sweden, where his harmonious, sagacious nature and
+resolute energy are highly respected.
+
+The reign of Oscar II. in Sweden has been marked by reactionary
+movements in Church and State, but the king has been in such close
+contact with his people that they have recognized in him a sovereign
+who stands above the parties. The king has used the conservative
+elements of his country to strengthen her defences and to maintain the
+Union with Norway, which have been the great goals of his policy of
+peace. To sum up King Oscar's standpoint in the Norwegian question,
+he is willing to grant Norway home rule in its fullest extent, but
+refuses to grant her separate control of foreign affairs, which he
+considers incompatible with the idea of the Union. In this standpoint
+King Oscar is backed by the convictions of the overwhelming majority
+of Swedes, who see in the dissolution of the Union a danger to Sweden,
+Norway, or both countries, of sharing the fate of unhappy Finland,
+which the civilized world is now deeply deploring. The danger which
+menaces the sons of Suomi has touched all Scandinavians to the quick,
+and it would seem that the new century shall witness a restoration of
+the Scandinavian policy. If the movement to bring this about meets with
+success, it is to be hoped that, from the start, it shall have rather
+the actual wants than the ideal rights of the independent Scandinavian
+states in view. From the point of view of citizens of the United States
+we cannot but sympathize with a movement which may establish a union
+of independent states into a realm of imperial government, less an
+emperor. Let there rather be two or three kings in the North, with one
+solid union government and a common and equal defence in case of war,
+than two or three foreign ministers with as many different policies and
+a divided and unequal defence.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+[1] The ancient name of this province, Viken, probably is the key to
+the disputed etymology of the word _Viking_.
+
+[2] These were not departments in the sense of bureaus, but _collegia_.
+
+[3] Through the efforts of the Swedish scholar, Eric Benzelius, Junior,
+a third edition was published at Windsor in 1750. J. K. Kohn's edition
+dates from 1805, founded on the works of the Swedish scholars Sotberg
+and Ihre. Of later editions, the one by Professor A. Uppstroem, of
+Upsala, of 1854 to 1857, is considered to be the standard one. A fine
+American edition has, in recent years, been published by Dr. G. H.
+Balg, of Mayville, Wis. The history of Codex Argenteus, after once for
+all being placed in the University Library of Upsala, has not been
+altogether uneventful. In 1834 ten of the 187 leaves were stolen and
+remained missing for twenty-three years. One of the trusted janitorial
+attendants of the library had taken them in the hope of obtaining a
+great sum of money for them, but later dared not dispose of them. On
+his death-bed he surrendered the stolen leaves.
+
+[4] Lewenhaupt is a German translation of the old Swedish family name
+of Leijonhufvud, and carried by a branch whose members held the dignity
+of counts. Almost similar is the derivation of Von Rosen from Tre
+Rosor, etc. During the Period of Political Grandeur, and later, it was
+a habit of certain branches of the old Swedish nobility to translate or
+Germanize their names in this way. The burghers and clergymen followed
+the custom when being ennobled, Archaic spelling was preserved, or
+adopted, in most cases.
+
+[5] The ecclesiastic department is also the department of education.
+
+[6] A. C. Nathorst, an able scientist and explorer, started in the
+summer of 1899 with an expedition to Greenland in search of Andr�e and
+his companions.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+ A
+
+ Abelin, G. R., 408-410.
+
+ Abo, 89, 122, 171, 172, 186, 232, 313, 370;
+   peace treaty (in 1743), 316, 317.
+   University of Abo (see Universities).
+
+ Absolutism, Absolute Monarchy, 255-258, 260, 268, 293, 298, 300-301,
+     302, 308, 309, 310, 314, 344, 349, 350, 357.
+
+ Academic style, 339.
+
+ Academy, of Antiquities, 235;
+   of Art, 346;
+   of Science, 336-337, 340, 346;
+   Swedish, 346, 355;
+   French, 428;
+   Military, 355.
+
+ Adalvard, 68;
+   the Younger, 68.
+
+ Adam of Bremen, 63.
+
+ Adlerbeth, G. G., 345, 350.
+
+ Adlercreutz, C. J., 358, 360-361, 362, 367;
+   A. G., 409.
+
+ Adlersparre, George, 362.
+
+ Admiral, 189;
+   State, 250.
+
+ Adolphus Frederic of Sweden, 303, 316, 317-320, 339.
+
+ Adolphus John, Duke, 249.
+
+ Adrianople, 297-298.
+
+ Africa, 232.
+
+ Aftonbladet, 377, 403.
+
+ Agardh, J. G., 423.
+
+ Agne, 36.
+
+ Agnefit, 36.
+
+ Agriculture. See Sweden.
+
+ Ahlborn, Lea, 430.
+
+ Ahlstroemer, John, 317, 321, 334-337.
+
+ Akerhielm, A. L. N., 435.
+
+ Akkershus, district of, 248, 307;
+   fortress of, 307.
+
+ Aland archipelago, 171, 388;
+   peace deliberations at, 306.
+
+ Albrecht the Elder, duke of Mecklenburg, 95;
+   the Younger, king of Sweden, 95, 96-97, 100, 102, 103.
+
+ Alemannians, 29.
+
+ Alexander I. of Russia, 357-358, 370.
+
+ Alexandra, princess of Russia, 355-356.
+
+ Alexandria, 27.
+
+ Alf, 36.
+
+ Alfred the Great, 43.
+
+ Alingsos, 217, 334-337.
+
+ Alliance, 187, 189, 202, 206, 225, 259, 273, 283, 296, 315, 319, 344,
+     352, 357, 370, 388, 404;
+   Triple, 252.
+
+ Alliterative prose, 66;
+   verse, 61, 66.
+
+ Almloef, N. V., 390;
+   Knut, 432.
+
+ Almquist, C. J. L., 388-389.
+
+ Alnsnoe, meeting at, 86.
+
+ Alof, 38.
+
+ Alps, 21.
+
+ Alrek, 36.
+
+ Altmark, armistice of, 203.
+
+ Altona, 295.
+
+ Alt-Ranst�dt, 279-281;
+   peace treaty signed at, 281, 290.
+
+ Alvastra, 74, 77.
+
+ Ambassadors, 254, 269, 272, 305, 358, 368.
+
+ Amber, 17, 24.
+
+ America, 232, 324, 332, 351, 432, 436;
+   South America, 378.
+
+ American Union of Swedish Singers, 436.
+
+ Amsterdam, 323, 326.
+
+ Anastasius, 28.
+
+ Anatomy, 262, 325;
+   hall of, 262-263.
+
+ Anckarstroem, J. J., 352.
+
+ Anckarsverd, C. H., 362, 377, 379.
+
+ Anderberg, A. F., 431.
+
+ Andre�, Laurentius, 141, 150.
+
+ Andr�e, S. A., 424.
+
+ Ane, or Aune, King, 37.
+
+ Angermanland, 5.
+
+ Angermannus, Abraham, 183, 184.
+
+ Anglii, 47.
+
+ Anglo-Saxon, 58, 62.
+   See also Old English.
+
+ Angstroem, A. J., 423.
+
+ Anjala Conspiracy, 348-349, 359.
+
+ Anne of England, 280.
+
+ Annerstedt, P. S. L., 435.
+
+ Ansgar, 41, 53-55.
+
+ Antiquarian, 233, 235.
+   See also Arch�ology.
+
+ Anund, Swedish kings: Broet-Anund, 39;
+   Anund, 42;
+   Anund, or Jacob, 62-63.
+
+ Apocalypse, 356.
+
+ Apostles, Swedish, 41, 53-55, 58.
+
+ Apraxin, Admiral, 289.
+
+ Arabs, 49, 50.
+
+ Arboga, 108, 115, 124, 127, 161, 185, 387.
+
+ Arboga articles, 161.
+
+ Arcana Coelestia, 325.
+
+ Arch�an rocks, 6.
+
+ Arch�ology, 20, 235, 265, 423-424.
+
+ Archbishop, 54-55, 70, 72, 74, 78, 82, 87, 103, 111, 117, 124, 127,
+     139, 143, 150, 175, 183, 189, 266-267.
+
+ Architecture, 173, 176, 265-266, 302-303, 430-431.
+
+ Arctic explorations, 424;
+   Sea, 24;
+   Stone Age, 15, 16.
+
+ Ardan. See Jordanes.
+
+ Ardgard, 54.
+
+ Argus, 377;
+   the Swedish, 338.
+
+ Aristocracy, 65, 66, 101, 104, 115, 119, 174, 175, 188, 199, 238-239,
+     250-251, 256, 257, 314, 375.
+
+ Aristocratic republic, republicans, 314, 321, 352.
+   See also Nobility, higher.
+
+ Arlberg, Fritz, 430.
+
+ Armfelt: Charles Gustavus, 308;
+   Gustavus Maurice, 352, 354, 356, 357.
+
+ Army. See Sweden.
+
+ Arnoldsson, Sigrid, 431.
+
+ Aros, East (see Upsala).
+   Aros, West (see Westeros).
+
+ Aryan race, 265.
+   See also Indo-European.
+
+ Asa, Princess, 40.
+
+ Asa creed, 31-34.
+
+ Asia, 16, 34, 424.
+
+ Askold, 49.
+
+ Aspeboda, 134.
+
+ Astrology, 161, 169, 252, 268, 304.
+
+ Astronomy, 324, 333.
+
+ Asund, Lake, 126;
+   battle of, 151.
+
+ Atland, Atlantica, 263-265.
+
+ Atlantis, 264.
+
+ Atterbom, P. D. A., 380.
+
+ Atterdag. See Valdemar.
+
+ Attundaland, 39.
+
+ Aude, 35.
+
+ Audils, 37-38.
+
+ Auerbach, B., 388.
+
+ Augdof, fortress of, 198.
+
+ Augsburgian Confession, 183.
+
+ August II., elector of Saxony and king of Poland, 272, 277-279, 281,
+     290, 295, 297, 299.
+
+ August, Prince Nicolaus, 411.
+
+ Aulin, Tor, 390.
+
+ Aune. See Ane.
+
+ Austria: Swedish empire in the Baltic provinces, 40, 51-52.
+
+ Austria-Hungary, 172, 223, 245, 247, 253, 279, 319, 352, 403.
+
+ Avignon, 97.
+
+ Axelsson. See Tott.
+
+ Axtorna, battle of, 168, 169.
+
+ Aztec, 18.
+
+
+ B
+
+ Bade, 356, 415.
+
+ Bagge, Jacob, 164-166, 167.
+
+ Bailiffs, 88, 103, 104, 106, 107, 109, 114, 137, 138, 150, 151, 197.
+
+ Baltic dominion, 40, 51-52, 55, 57, 164, 199, 229, 249, 292, 312.
+
+ Baltic Provinces, 52, 78, 198-199, 200, 232, 282, 283, 291-292, 307.
+
+ Baltic Sea, 5, 21, 24, 25, 26, 49, 51, 75, 101, 130, 199, 229, 249,
+     272, 294, 305, 322, 375.
+
+ Ban, Militia, 417;
+   Papal, 77, 94, 121, 126.
+
+ Ban�r, Sten, 170, 185, 195;
+   Anne, 176;
+   Eric, 131;
+   Gustavus, 185, 195;
+   Per, 195;
+   John, 207-208, 222-225, 279.
+
+ Banner of State, 116, 118, 125, 168.
+
+ Barangoi, 52.
+
+ Barbro, Stigsdotter, 134-135.
+
+ Bark-king, 112.
+
+ Barn-lock, 86.
+
+ Barocco, 261, 321, 353.
+
+ Barons, Baronies, 162, 200, 238, 251, 257.
+
+ Bastile, 428.
+
+ Bavaria, 193, 210, 211, 222.
+
+ Beauharnais, Eugene, 404.
+
+ Beckstrom, Edward, 412.
+
+ Behm, Sara, 321.
+
+ Bellman, C. M., 345-346, 389, 390.
+
+ Bells, revolt of. See Revolts.
+
+ Belt, Lille, 245-246.
+
+ Belt, Store, 246-247.
+
+ Bender, 287, 293, 294, 295;
+   Kalabalik of, 297.
+
+ Benedictine monastery, 235.
+
+ Bengt, Duke, 86.
+
+ Bengtsson, Joens. See Oxenstierna.
+
+ Bentseby, 266.
+
+ Benzelius: Eric the Elder, 266;
+   Eric the Younger, 237 note, 266-267, 322, 340.
+
+ Benzelstierna. See Benzelius.
+
+ Beowulf, 30, 31, 37.
+
+ Bergh, Richard, 429.
+
+ Bergman, T. O., 346.
+
+ Bergstroem, P. A., 429.
+
+ Berlin, 223, 341.
+
+ Bernadotte, 365, 367, 418, 421;
+   Prince Oscar, 415.
+   See also Charles XIV.
+
+ Bernard of Clairvaux, 71.
+
+ Bernhard, duke of Weimar, 211, 214, 216, 217, 221.
+
+ Bervald, F. N., 390.
+
+ Berzelius, J. J., 325, 366, 380.
+
+ Bev�ringstid, 417.
+
+ Bible, 237;
+   Gothic (see Gothic);
+   translations of, 98, 150, 260, 355.
+
+ Bielke, Anna, 127, 132;
+   Gunilla, queen, 175;
+   Sten, 170;
+   Ture, 185.
+
+ Bielo-Jesero, 47.
+
+ Bioerkoe, 55.
+
+ Bioern, Swedish kings, 42, 54, 55.
+
+ Biorck, O., 429.
+
+ Biornstierna, M. F. F., 361.
+
+ Biornstroem, F. J., 424.
+
+ Birger, Brosa, 76, 77, 79;
+   Jarl, 77, 78-83, 86, 88;
+   King, 84, 87, 88-91, 92;
+   Persson, 89, 97.
+
+ Birgitta, St., 97-99, 100, 130, 154.
+
+ Birka, 42, 55, 71, 75.
+
+ Bishops, 71, 78, 86, 87, 112-113, 127, 128, 145-146, 183.
+
+ Bjoernson, B., 388, 405.
+
+ Black Death, 94.
+
+ Blanche, queen of Sweden and Norway, 93, 97.
+
+ Blanche, August, 389.
+
+ Bleking, 5, 29, 63, 67, 93, 95, 150, 151, 190, 247, 249, 259, 291.
+
+ Blenda, 72.
+
+ Blomstrand, C. W., 423.
+
+ Blot-Sven, 69, 73.
+
+ Blucher, General, 370.
+
+ Bo Jonsson. See Grip.
+
+ Boccaccio, 163, 413.
+
+ Boeclerus, 240.
+
+ Boerhave, 330-331.
+
+ Boerjesson, John, dramatist, 389;
+   John, sculptor, 430.
+
+ Boettiger, C. V., 389.
+
+ Bogesund, battle of, 126-127.
+
+ Bohemia, 210, 222, 224, 226, 228.
+
+ Bohus, fortress of, 196.
+
+ Bohusl�n, 5, 13, 17, 46, 58, 62, 196, 229, 247, 249, 254, 307, 308.
+
+ Bologna, 117.
+
+ Bonaparte. See Napoleon.
+
+ Bonde, Charles Knutsson (see Charles VIII.);
+   Tord, 111;
+   Gustavus, 250.
+
+ Bonnier, Eva, 429.
+
+ Borgann�s, 107.
+
+ Boris of Russia, 172.
+
+ Bornhoeved, battle of, 371.
+
+ Bornholm, 21, 164, 247, 248, 250;
+   naval battle of, 168.
+
+ Bosphorus, 49.
+
+ Bosson, Nils. See Sture.
+
+ Bostroem, C. J., philosopher, 411-412, 423.
+
+ Botany, 262, 321, 330, 331-333, 380, 423.
+
+ Bothnia, Gulf of, 5.
+
+ Bothnia, West, 363.
+
+ Bothniensis, N. O., 183, 185.
+
+ "Bottomless Purse," 112.
+
+ Botvid, St., 58.
+
+ Boucher, 428.
+
+ Bourgeoisie. See Burghers.
+
+ Boye, L., 377.
+
+ Brabant, 237.
+
+ Brage-bowl, 39.
+
+ Brahe, Joachim, 133;
+   Peter, the Elder, 154, 162;
+   Ebba, 194, 235;
+   Nils, the Elder, 214, 217;
+   Peter, the Younger, 231, 232, 240, 250, 251, 257;
+   Nils, the Younger, 257;
+   Eric, 318;
+   Magnus, 374-375.
+
+ Brahestad, 258.
+
+ Brandenburg, 223, 228, 234, 244, 247, 253, 255;
+   Elector of, 223;
+   Great Elector of, 225, 244, 245, 252.
+
+ Brandsoe, 245-246.
+
+ Brask, Bishop Hans, 125, 128, 139, 143, 144, 146, 322, 375.
+
+ Braun, V. A. D. von, 389.
+
+ Braunsberg, 203.
+
+ Bravols, battle of, 41, 56.
+
+ Breitenfeld, battles of. See Leipsic.
+
+ Bremen, 54, 63, 70, 229, 245, 311.
+
+ Bremer, Frederica, 389, 427.
+
+ Brenner, S. E., 233.
+
+ Brennkyrka, battle of, 125, 131.
+
+ Bridget, St. See Birgitta.
+
+ Bring. See Lagerbring.
+
+ Britain, 24, 25, 45, 60.
+
+ British Isles, 60;
+   Museum, 331.
+
+ Broemsebro, peace treaty at, 227.
+
+ Broet-Anund. See Anund.
+
+ Bronitz, battle of, 198.
+
+ Bronze Age, 11, 13, 16-20.
+
+ Brunbeck, battle of, 138.
+
+ Brunkeberg, 139;
+   battles of, 116, 119.
+
+ Buchow, naval battle of, 168.
+
+ Buddenbrock, M. H., 316, 317.
+
+ Budget. See Sweden.
+
+ Buffon, 324.
+
+ Bulgaria, 50.
+
+ Bureus, John, 232-235.
+
+ Burghers, 108, 128, 144, 146, 158, 185, 200, 201, 253.
+
+ Burislev, 75.
+
+ Byzantium, Byzantine, 22-23, 27, 28, 49, 50, 51.
+
+
+ C
+
+ Cabinet, 373, 403;
+   Swedish (see Sweden).
+
+ Cadet School. See Carlberg.
+
+ Calmar. See Kalmar.
+
+ Caloric engine, 387.
+
+ Calvinism, 183, 189.
+
+ Canute the Great, 57, 58, 62.
+
+ "Caps," 316, 319, 320, 337, 344.
+
+ Carelia, 88, 94.
+
+ Carin Monsdotter, queen, 162, 170-173, 177.
+
+ Carl. See Charles.
+
+ Carlberg, 355.
+
+ Carleby, Old, 360;
+   New, 360.
+
+ Carl�n, Emelie, 389, 427.
+
+ Carlsborg, fortress of, 375, 418.
+
+ Carlscrona, navy yards at, 259, 305.
+
+ Carlson, F. F., 393, 398;
+   Ernest, 424.
+
+ Carlstad, 188, 407.
+
+ Carlsten, fortress of, 311, 312.
+
+ Carnage of Stockholm, 128, 129, 133, 137.
+
+ Carolin Institute, 425.
+
+ Cartesius. See Descartes.
+
+ Casijn, 173.
+
+ Caspian Sea, 50.
+
+ Cassander, 236.
+
+ Castellholm, 171.
+
+ Castles, 96, 102, 146, 173, 233, 251, 266.
+
+ Catechismus, 183, 260.
+
+ Catherine, Countess Palatine, 234, 239.
+
+ Catherine (queens of Sweden), of Saxony-Lauenburg, 155, 156, 157;
+   Stenbock, 156, 157, 177, 181;
+   Monsdotter (see Carin Monsdotter);
+   Jagello, 163, 175.
+
+ Catherine II. of Russia, 348, 350, 351, 355-356.
+
+ Catholicism, Catholic, 98, 172, 173, 174, 182-184, 187, 189, 192, 240,
+     244, 325, 335.
+
+ Cavendish, 325.
+
+ Cederstrom, O. R., 374, 378;
+   Gustavus, 429.
+
+ Celibacy, 79.
+
+ Celsius, Andrew, 321, 333;
+   Olof, Senior, 329, 333, 340;
+   Olof, Junior, 333-334.
+
+ Celtic swords, 21;
+   tribes, 21.
+
+ Chambers (of the Riksdag), 396, 398, 399-401, 407.
+
+ Chancellor, of State, 87, 189, 199, 220, 250
+     (see also President of the Chancery);
+   king's, 14, 144, 150;
+   of the University, 263, 340;
+   the Great (see Axel Oxenstierna).
+
+ Chancery, 297, 298;
+   president of the, 271, 313, 314, 317, 337.
+
+ Charles (kings of Sweden): VII. Sverkersson, 73, 74, 75;
+   VIII. Knutsson, 108-114, 121, 339;
+   IX. 155, 157, 158, 163, 167, 170-174, 176, 179, 181-191, 204, 222,
+     249, 264;
+   X. Gustavus, 239-241, 242-249, 251, 277, 314;
+   XI. 249-268, 269, 270-271, 277, 391, 408;
+   XII. 182, 264, 267, 268-309, 310, 313, 322, 326, 334, 338, 343, 356,
+     364;
+   XIII. 348, 350, 352, 353, 356, 362, 365-374;
+   XIV. 367-373, 374-380, 382, 383, 404;
+   XV. 391-413, 415.
+
+ Charles, Bishop, 77.
+
+ Charles, Jarl, 77.
+
+ Charles Philip, son of Charles IX., 190, 194, 198.
+
+ Charles, son of Oscar II., 415.
+
+ Charles V., emperor, 151, 158.
+
+ Charles II. of England, 237.
+
+ Charles's Chronicle, 114.
+
+ Charles Frederic of Holstein-Gottorp, 295, 301, 310, 311.
+
+ Charles Peter Ulric of Holstein-Gottorp, 316.
+
+ Chauvinism, 261, 264, 321, 346, 433.
+
+ Chemistry, 333, 346, 380, 423, 425.
+
+ Chemnitz, battle of, 224.
+
+ Chicago, 421, 429.
+
+ China, 289.
+
+ Chodkiewitz, 187.
+
+ Christerson, J. C. E., 435.
+
+ Christian (kings of Denmark): I. 111-113, 116;
+   II. 122, 124-129, 131, 132, 133, 137, 138, 140, 148, 151, 158;
+   III. 149, 164;
+   IV. 190, 196-198, 204, 226-227;
+   V. 254, 255;
+   VIII. 371-373;
+   IX. 403-404.
+
+ Christian August (Charles A.), Prince, 365-367.
+
+ Christian Frederic, Prince. See Christian VIII.
+
+ Christiania, 307, 372, 419.
+
+ Christianity, 31, 42;
+   influence of, 52;
+   introduction of, 53-55, 58;
+   opposition to, 58-61.
+
+ Christianopel, 190.
+
+ Christine (queens of Sweden), 189, 194, 204;
+   196, 204, 220-241, 242, 262, 302, 314.
+
+ Christine of Denmark, 120.
+
+ Christine of Hesse, 162, 164-165.
+
+ Christinehamn, 188.
+
+ Christopher, kings of Denmark, 81, and of Sweden, 110, 111, 112.
+
+ Christopher's, King, Land Law. See Sweden, State Law.
+
+ Chronica regni gothorum, 117.
+
+ Chronicles, prose, 114, 131;
+   rhymed, 80, 114.
+
+ Church, 76, 77, 78, 85, 87, 88, 89, 111, 115, 117, 125, 140, 141, 142,
+     144, 146, 149, 152, 174-176, 183, 188, 200, 201, 260, 266, 396,
+     432, 437;
+   law, 93, 146, 175.
+   See also Clergy, Bishops.
+
+ Cimbrian Peninsula, 26, 27.
+   See also Jutland.
+
+ Cincinnatus, Order of, 367.
+
+ Cistercians, 71.
+
+ Civil service, 433.
+
+ Clary. See Queen Desideria.
+
+ Clason, I. G., 431.
+
+ Clergy, 93, 104, 108, 117, 139, 143, 145-146, 156, 158, 183, 185, 186,
+     200, 239, 251, 334, 340, 341, 396, 397, 398-399.
+
+ Codania, Codanian Bay, 25.
+
+ Codex Argenteus, 235-238, 266;
+   Bildstenianus, 9;
+   Bureanus, 9.
+
+ Coffee prohibited, 355.
+
+ Coins, 60, 62;
+   of need, 301-302.
+
+ Collard, Claude, 167.
+
+ Colleges, 201, 232.
+
+ Collegia, 118, 230 note.
+
+ Cologne, 117, 236.
+
+ Colonies, Commerce, Communities, Constitution. See Sweden.
+
+ Constantine Porphyrogenitus, 48.
+
+ Constantinople, 295.
+
+ Continent. See Europe.
+
+ Copenhagen, 129, 131, 227, 274, 385, 403;
+   siege of, 247-248;
+   peace treaty of, 250.
+
+ Corvey, 53, 54.
+
+ Cossacks, 283, 285.
+
+ Council, Councillors, State (or royal), 87, 92, 106, 107, 108, 115,
+     116, 120, 122, 128, 183, 184, 185, 189, 190, 196, 199, 200, 230,
+     251, 257, 258, 271, 272, 289, 290, 292-293, 298, 300, 301, 310,
+     313, 314, 318, 320, 338, 339, 344-345, 350, 435.
+
+ Council, Town, 116, 126, 128, 165.
+
+ Councillor of Commerce, 337.
+
+ Counties, counts, 162, 200, 238, 251, 257.
+
+ Courland, 52, 202, 244, 282.
+
+ Cracow, 244, 278.
+
+ Creutz, G. P., 339, 345.
+
+ Croats, 208.
+
+ Croi, Duke de, 275.
+
+ Cronhamn, J. P., 413.
+
+ Cronstedt, Charles, 295;
+   Olof, 359-360.
+
+ Crown prince, 316, 317, 319, 320, 371, 392, 406, 415, 437.
+
+ Crown lands, 238, 255, 257;
+   restitution of, 96, 102, 111, 233, 238, 243, 256-258, 271.
+
+ Crusades, 70, 73, 77, 78, 94, 185.
+
+ Crusell, B. F., 89, 413.
+
+ Crusenstolpe, M. J., 377, 389.
+
+ Cuno, John C., 326.
+
+ Czar (see Russia), Czarina, 289.
+
+ Czarniecki, Stefan, 244.
+
+
+ D
+
+ Dacke "Feud," 150-151.
+
+ Dacke, Nils, 150-151.
+
+ Dag, 36.
+
+ Dahlberg, Eric, 245-246, 247, 259, 265-266, 277.
+
+ Dahlgren, Frederic Aug., 389.
+
+ Dahlquist, C. G., 390.
+
+ Dal, province of, 5, 107, 308;
+   River, 5, 138.
+
+ Dalecarlia, Dalecarlians, 5, 16, 105, 106, 107, 108, 116, 119, 121,
+     131, 133-139, 146, 147, 148, 149, 155, 185, 317, 349.
+
+ Dalin, O. von, 321, 337-339, 343.
+
+ D�dalus Hyperboreus, 322.
+
+ "Daljunker," 147.
+
+ Dalman, V. F., 394.
+
+ Danckwardt, Henric, 311.
+
+ Danes, Danish. See Denmark.
+
+ Danielsson, A., 377.
+
+ Dannebrog, 116.
+
+ Dantzic, 112, 203.
+
+ Danube, 22, 28, 224, 228.
+
+ David, St., 58.
+
+ Dearth, 118, 176, 261.
+
+ Decamerone, 163, 413.
+
+ De Geer. See Geer.
+
+ De la Gardie. See Gardie.
+
+ Delaware River, 232.
+
+ Democracy, Democratic, 64, 65, 66, 114, 115, 117, 120, 121, 199, 200,
+     260, 352, 364.
+
+ Demotika, 297, 299.
+
+ Denmark, 6, 10, 12, 13, 21, 29, 30, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 52, 53,
+     54, 56-57, 58, 60, 62, 63, 70, 72, 76, 77, 81, 83, 89, 90, 91, 95,
+     100, 103, 105, 106, 108, 111, 116, 117, 120, 121, 122, 124, 125,
+     126-127, 128, 131, 133, 135, 136, 148, 149, 164, 166, 167, 168,
+     174, 195-198, 203, 226-228, 244, 245-248, 250, 253-255, 259,
+     273-274, 290, 295-296, 299, 307, 311, 312, 316, 343, 345, 348-349,
+     355, 357, 363, 366, 367, 368, 371-373, 385-386, 388, 392, 401, 405,
+     406, 415, 426, 430.
+
+ Dennewitz, battle of, 370.
+
+ Descartes, Ren�, 240-241, 347.
+
+ Desideria, Queen, 382.
+
+ Diderot, 347, 429.
+
+ Diet, 374, 379, 392, 402.
+   See also Riksdag and Norwegian Storthing.
+
+ Dietriechson, Lorenz, 405.
+
+ Dilettantism, 412, 426.
+
+ Dimitri, 173, 187;
+   false Dimitris, 187-188.
+
+ Diplomacy, 252, 259, 313, 315, 367, 402, 434.
+
+ Dir, 49.
+
+ Dirschau, 202.
+
+ Ditmarschen, 120.
+
+ Dniepr River, 284, 286, 287;
+   cataracts of the, 48.
+
+ Doebeln, G. C. von, 358, 360.
+
+ Doemitz, battle of, 233.
+
+ Dolmens, 13.
+
+ Domalde, 35.
+
+ Domar, 36.
+
+ Dorpat, 200, 281, 282;
+   University of (see Universities).
+
+ Dortrecht, 237.
+
+ Douglas, L. V. A., 435.
+
+ Drama, 345, 346, 388, 389, 390, 412, 413, 426-427, 431-432.
+
+ Dramatic singers, 390, 413, 431.
+
+ Drontheim, diocese or district of, 58, 112, 247, 248, 250, 308, 311,
+     371.
+
+ Drotsete, Drotset (Riks-), 87, 91, 96, 102, 108, 189, 199, 240, 250.
+
+ Drottningholm, castle of, 303, 362.
+
+ Duchies, 82, 158, 161, 185-186.
+
+ Duenamuende, 292.
+
+ Dufn�s, battle of, 131.
+
+ D'Uncker, C. H. L., 412.
+
+ Dusseldorf School, 429.
+
+ Dutch, Dutchman. See Holland.
+
+ Dvina, crossing of the, 277.
+
+ Dygve, 36.
+
+
+ E
+
+ Eadgils. See Audils.
+
+ East Gothland. See Gothland.
+
+ Ebo, 54.
+
+ Ecclesiastics. See Clergy.
+
+ Edda, Eddic songs, 61, 66, 157, 233, 270, 346;
+   Snorre's, 34, 342.
+
+ Edlund, Eric, 423.
+
+ Edsoere laws, 82, 86.
+
+ Education, 117, 201, 232, 260, 379.
+
+ Eger, 211.
+
+ Egil, 37.
+
+ Egino, 68.
+
+ Ehrenstrahl, D. K., 303;
+   School of Painters, 303, 428.
+
+ Ehrensverd, Augustinus, 317, 350, 359;
+   Ch. A., 347, 350-351, 355.
+
+ Eider, River, 402.
+
+ Eidsvold, meeting held at, 371.
+
+ Eka, Cecilia of, 129, 130.
+
+ Ekeberg, 156.
+
+ Elbing, 203.
+
+ Elective kingdom. See Kingdom.
+
+ Electricity, 324.
+
+ Elfsborg, 152, 166, 174, 188, 196, 197, 198;
+   New, 311.
+
+ Elfsson, Swan, 135-136.
+
+ Elgaros, battle of, 76.
+
+ Elisabeth of Russia, 316.
+
+ Elizabeth of England, 98, 162.
+
+ Elmblad, Johannes, 431.
+
+ Elsass, 221.
+
+ Elsinore, 93, 247, 368.
+
+ Emigration, 290, 319, 432-433.
+
+ Emund, 63, 67, 68.
+
+ Engelbrekt, Engelbrektsson, 105-109, 110, 115, 121, 137, 146;
+   song about, 114.
+
+ England, English, 22, 40, 52, 58, 82, 98, 187, 189, 237, 245, 252, 259,
+     283, 299, 305, 306-307, 315, 322, 334, 349, 355, 356, 357, 363,
+     369, 370, 371, 374, 379, 388.
+
+ Eric (Danish kings): Ejegod, 69;
+   Glipping, 83, 84;
+   Menved, 89, 91;
+   of Pomerania (see Swedish King Eric XIII.).
+
+ Eric, Norwegian Jarl, 57.
+
+ Eric (Swedish kings): 36; 36-37; 54;
+   Edmundsson, 52, 55;
+   Bioernson Segers�l, 55-57; 68;
+   Ars�l, 69, 71;
+   IX. (St. Eric), 73-74, 75, 78, 80, 127, 130;
+   X. 67, 77;
+   XI. 77-79, 80;
+   XII. 94-95, 96;
+   XIII. 101-110;
+   XIV. 155, 157, 158, 161-173, 177, 264, 334.
+
+ Eric (Swedish princes): Birgersson, 83;
+   Magnusson, 87, 89-92;
+   Valdemarsson, 83, 84.
+
+ Eric's Chronicle, 80, 85, 89, 114.
+
+ Ericson, J. E., 430.
+
+ Ericsson, Joesse, 106, 137;
+   John, 387, 424, 425;
+   Nils, 387;
+   Christian, 430.
+
+ Eriksgata, 71, 93, 138.
+
+ Erimbert, 55.
+
+ Eskil, St., 58.
+
+ Eskil's apartments, 170.
+
+ Essen, H. H. von, 372.
+
+ Estates, 108, 158, 159, 184, 200, 204-205, 238, 240, 249, 256, 271,
+     278, 293, 310, 314, 318, 338, 349, 350, 355, 383, 394, 398-399,
+     400.
+
+ Esthonia, Esthonians, 39, 52, 75, 77, 98, 162, 174, 198, 201, 282,
+     307-312.
+
+ Ethnography, 265.
+
+ Ettak, battle of, 84.
+
+ Eugene, Prince of Sweden, 429, 430.
+
+ Eugenie, Princess, 411.
+
+ Euphemia, Princess, 95.
+
+ Europe, 6, 12, 16, 17, 28, 44, 82, 93, 189, 204, 229, 235, 242, 245,
+     254, 255, 259, 264, 272, 278, 285, 303, 324, 334, 335, 336, 363,
+     369, 374, 376, 381, 401, 414, 424, 429.
+
+ Expositions, Scandinavian, 405, 436;
+   World's, 413, 421, 429.
+
+ Eyf�rr, 48.
+
+ Eystein, 38.
+
+
+ F
+
+ Fahlbeck, P., 424.
+
+ Falkoeping, battle of, 97.
+
+ Fallstedt, I., 430.
+
+ Falster, 247.
+
+ Falun, 138, 152.
+
+ "Father, The," 427.
+
+ Father of Swedish Industry, 334.
+
+ Fehrbellin, battle of, 252, 253.
+
+ Femern, naval battles of, 227.
+
+ Ferdinand (emperors): II. 193, 202;
+   III. 221, 228.
+
+ Fero Islands, 371.
+
+ Fersen, Axel von, the Elder, 324;
+   the Younger, 351, 366-367.
+
+ Feudalism, 82.
+
+ Feud of the Counts, 149.
+
+ Fiedrundaland, 39.
+
+ Fiefs, 96, 103, 151, 162, 244.
+
+ Finance. See Sweden.
+
+ Fine Arts, Philosophy of, 347.
+
+ Finland, Finns, Finnish, 10, 15, 26, 35, 36, 48, 55, 71, 73, 75, 78,
+     81, 88, 89, 93, 111, 113, 118, 119, 122, 152, 163, 171, 172, 184,
+     185, 186, 187, 188, 193, 199, 200, 220, 231, 232, 238, 283, 292,
+     307, 312, 313, 316, 317, 348, 357-364, 367, 412-413, 436, 437;
+   language, 8, 341.
+
+ Finnmark, 378.
+
+ Finn woods, 136.
+
+ Fiolner, 35.
+
+ Fleming, Clas Ericsson, 184;
+   Clas Larsson, 227;
+   Herman, 243, 250.
+
+ Flemish art, 173.
+
+ Flensburg, 104.
+
+ Flower king of the North, 332.
+
+ Fogelberg, B. E., 412, 430.
+
+ Fogel Grip, 232.
+
+ Fogelwick, 113.
+
+ Folk lore, 265, 381.
+
+ Folksriksdag, 433.
+
+ Folkungs, 76, 78, 79, 81, 97, 130.
+
+ Folkung dynasty, 80-99.
+
+ Forsberg, Nils, 429.
+
+ France, French, 22, 45, 52, 68, 72, 152, 187, 189, 206, 221, 222, 229,
+     233, 245, 252, 255, 270, 271, 315, 318, 322, 331, 339, 343, 344,
+     345, 351, 352, 355, 356, 357, 368, 371, 372, 382, 388, 414, 422,
+     428, 429.
+
+ Franciscan, convent, 87;
+   Church (see Riddarholm's Church).
+
+ Francke, A. H., 289.
+
+ Franconia, 221.
+
+ Franco-Prussian War, 409.
+
+ Frankfurt, 209.
+
+ Franks, Frankish, 29, 210, 236, 341.
+
+ Frantz, Albrecht, 216.
+
+ Franz Joseph's Land, 424.
+
+ Franz�n, F. M., 381.
+
+ Frederic I. of Sweden, 312-317, 318, 335.
+
+ Frederic (kings of Denmark): I. 148;
+   II. 164, 166;
+   III. 246, 247;
+   IV. 273-274, 290, 295, 299;
+   V. 316, 317;
+   VI. 367;
+   VII. 402, 403.
+
+ Frederic of Augustenborg, 367.
+
+ Frederic, crown prince of Denmark, 406.
+
+ Frederic of Holstein, 272-274.
+
+ Frederic of the Palatinate, 202, 210.
+
+ Frederic (kings of Prussia): I. 296;
+   II. (the Great), 318, 319, 343.
+
+ Frederic William, the Grand Elector. See Brandenburg.
+
+ Frederica, Queen, 356.
+
+ Fredericia, fortress of, 245, 248.
+
+ Fredericshall, 308, 322.
+
+ Fredericshamn, 316;
+   peace treaty at, 363.
+
+ Fredericstad, 372.
+
+ Fredericsten, 308.
+
+ Fredkulla. See Margaret.
+
+ Fredman, 390.
+
+ Free trade, 387, 407-408.
+
+ Freinshemius, John, 240.
+
+ Frey, 32, 34.
+
+ Friedland. See Wallenstein.
+
+ Fries, Elias, 380.
+
+ Frithiof's Saga, 381.
+
+ Frode (Danish kings): 35, 37.
+
+ Froeding, Gustaf, 428.
+
+ Funen, island of, 227, 246, 248, 386.
+
+ Fuxerna, battles of, 69.
+
+ Fyris, River, 36.
+
+ Fyrisvols, battles of, 36, 37, 56.
+
+
+ G
+
+ Gad, Dr. Heming, 121, 122, 126, 127, 129.
+
+ Gadebush, battle of, 295, 296.
+
+ Gagarin, governor, 289.
+
+ Gallia, Gallic, 20.
+
+ Gardarike, 52.
+
+ Gardie, Pontus de la, 167, 174, 187, 235;
+   Jacob, 187-188, 190, 194, 198-199, 234, 235;
+   Magnus Gabriel, 234-235, 237, 250, 251, 252, 257, 263.
+
+ Gautland. See Gothaland.
+
+ Gauts, 28, 29, 30, 31, 47, 105.
+
+ Gauzbert, 54.
+
+ Ge�tas, 30-31.
+
+ Geer, Louis de, 201, 226-227, 231;
+   Louis, 393, 397, 398.
+
+ Gefle, 138.
+
+ Gegerfelt, K. F. von, 431;
+   William, 429.
+
+ Geijer, Eric Gustavus, 380, 393.
+
+ Geijerstam, Gustaf of, 427.
+
+ Geirthiof, 38.
+
+ Gellandri, 48.
+
+ Gellivara, 7.
+
+ Gemauerthoff, battle of, 282.
+
+ Geology, 324, 325.
+
+ George I. of England, 306.
+
+ George Sand, 388.
+
+ Gepid�, 29.
+
+ Gerhard, Count of Holstein, 84.
+
+ Germania, 26.
+
+ Germans, Germany, 12, 21, 22, 54, 58, 75, 80, 81, 83, 85, 90, 93, 96,
+     97, 98, 100, 101, 104, 105, 106, 116, 122, 127, 132, 150, 151, 152,
+     158, 168, 189, 190, 193, 202, 203, 204, 205, 210, 213, 214, 221,
+     222, 223, 224, 226, 228, 229, 230, 233, 239, 244, 252, 264, 287,
+     299, 303, 307, 321, 346, 370, 380, 385-386, 401-405, 414-418, 428,
+     429;
+   emperor, 122, 151, 158, 193, 202, 209, 210, 211, 212, 224, 228, 235,
+     245, 281, 299, 415;
+   Order, 162-163.
+
+ Gestilren, battle of, 77.
+
+ Gestrikland, 5, 16, 138.
+
+ Gibraltar of the North, 359.
+
+ Giljam, G. F., 436.
+
+ Gisslan. See Hostages.
+
+ Glaciers, 6.
+
+ Glipping. See Eric (Danish kings).
+
+ Glom River, 307, 308.
+
+ Glossarium sviogothicum, 342.
+
+ Glucksburg, 371.
+
+ Gluntarne, 389.
+
+ Goertz, G. H., 301-302, 304, 306-307, 311.
+
+ Goetar. See Gauts.
+
+ Gold finds, 22-23.
+
+ Golumbo, battle of, 244.
+
+ Gospel, 53-55, 104, 146, 207.
+
+ Gotha Canal, 305-306, 322, 375-376.
+
+ Gotha River, 10, 46, 116, 196, 198.
+
+ Gothahamn, 116.
+
+ Gothaland, 5, 14, 19, 24, 25, 28, 42, 43, 68, 83, 84, 185, 230.
+
+ Gothenburg, 10, 188, 196, 198, 200, 226, 229, 231, 232, 249, 254, 335,
+     349, 369, 422, 428.
+
+ Gothenburg University. See Universities.
+
+ Gothland, East, 5, 7, 17, 31, 39, 41, 71, 98, 111, 168, 185, 186;
+   West, 5, 7, 13, 17, 31, 37, 41, 46, 58, 59, 61, 67, 68, 70, 76, 77,
+     83, 84, 96, 111, 126, 148, 167, 168, 197, 229, 321, 334, 415;
+   Island of, 6, 21, 22, 25, 66, 82, 85, 95, 103, 105, 111, 113, 117,
+     120, 142, 165, 227, 254, 304, 415.
+
+ Goths, of Continental Europe, 22, 28, 30, 235-236, 263;
+   of Sweden (see Gauts);
+   Teutons, 43;
+   East, 29, 71;
+   West, 29, 70, 71.
+
+ Gothic, 151, 220, 238, 341, 342;
+   Bible, 67 (see further Codex Argenteus);
+   invasions, 28;
+   language, 235, 237-238;
+   society, 381;
+   glossary, 237.
+
+ Gothic law, West, 66, 67, 70.
+
+ Gotland, 43.
+
+ Gottorp. See Holstein-Gottorp.
+
+ Government. See Sweden.
+
+ Governor, 184, 202, 231, 232.
+
+ Governor-general, 199, 203, 229, 231, 290, 291, 371;
+   of Norway, 366, 375, 386, 394-395, 418-419.
+
+ Grabow, Mathilde, 431.
+
+ Grammar, 40.
+
+ Greece, Greek, 49, 50, 52, 235, 237, 265;
+   myths, 53;
+   church, 288, 355.
+
+ Gregory, VII. 69;
+   IX. 78.
+
+ Grimm's law, 342.
+
+ Grimsted, 246.
+
+ Grip, Bo Jonsson, 96, 102.
+
+ Gripenstedt, J. A., 387, 393, 398, 403, 404, 407.
+
+ Gripsholm, 96, 107, 152, 155, 163, 171, 173, 182, 362.
+
+ Grossbeeren, battle of, 370.
+
+ Grubbe, Sam, 411.
+
+ Guadeloupe, island of, 370.
+
+ Gualther, 236.
+
+ Gude, 405.
+
+ Gudlaug, 36-37.
+
+ Guinea, African, 232.
+
+ Gullberg, fort of, 196-197.
+
+ Gullbrandson, Ellen, 431.
+
+ Gunilla, Queen. See Bielke.
+
+ Gurzo, battle of, 202.
+
+ Gustavian period, 337, 339, 343-364.
+
+ Gustavus, Adolphus Society, 219.
+
+ Gustavus (kings of Sweden): I. Vasa, 125, 126, 128, 129, 130-160, 161,
+     165, 168, 170, 173, 177, 178, 199, 263, 322, 334, 344, 349;
+   II. Adolphus, 173, 190, 192-219, 220, 222, 225, 230, 232, 234, 240,
+     243, 250, 258, 314, 344;
+   III. 319-320, 332, 334, 339, 343-353, 354, 379, 387, 431;
+   IV. Adolphus, 352, 353-362, 366, 373, 375, 415.
+
+ Gustavus (princes of Sweden): Ericsson (see Vasa);
+   Prince of Vasa, 366;
+   Frans G. Oscar, 388, 389, 413, 436;
+   Oscar G. Adolphus, crown prince, 414, 437.
+
+ Guta, Saga, 67.
+
+ Gutai, 28.
+
+ Gutnic, Guts, 67, 87, 105.
+
+ Gutorm, Jarl, 74, 76.
+
+ Guttones, 24, 25.
+
+ Gyld�n, J. A. H., 423.
+
+ Gyldenloeve, general, 254;
+   fort of, 308.
+
+ Gyllenborg, Charles, 317, 337;
+   G. F., 339, 345.
+
+ Gyllencreutz, Charles G., 268, 302.
+
+ Gyllenhielm, C. C., 187.
+
+ Gyllenstierna, Christine, 127-129, 130, 131, 140, 142, 147, 149, 155,
+     158;
+   John, 256, 312.
+
+ Gymnastics, 380;
+   Central Institute of, 380.
+
+
+ H
+
+ Hadrian IV. See Nicolaus of Alba.
+
+ H�ffner, 389.
+
+ Hagbard, 36.
+
+ Hagborg, A., 429.
+
+ Hake, 36-37.
+
+ Hakon (Norwegian kings): 79, 81, 91, 92;
+   Magnusson, 94-95, 100.
+
+ Hakon, Swedish regent, 68.
+
+ Halberstadt, 224.
+
+ Haleygians, 36.
+
+ Hall, P. A., 428.
+
+ Halland, 5, 13, 43, 84, 93, 95, 167, 196, 197, 227, 229, 247, 249, 254,
+     337.
+
+ Hall�n, Andreas, 390.
+
+ Hallstroem, Ivar, 390;
+   Peter, 427.
+
+ Halmstad, 108, 166, 254.
+
+ Halsten, 68, 70.
+
+ Hamburg, 54, 63, 70, 81, 82, 83;
+   peace treaty of, 319.
+
+ Hammarby, 332.
+
+ Handbook. See Ritual.
+
+ Hanover, 299, 311.
+
+ Hans. See John II.
+
+ Hansa, Hanseatic, 81-82, 101, 103, 104, 116, 132.
+
+ Hansson, Ola, 427.
+
+ Haraker, battle of, 112.
+
+ Harald, king of Denmark, 56.
+
+ Harald (kings of Norway): Fairhair, 55;
+   Hardrade, 68.
+
+ Harald, Hildetand, king of Sweden and Denmark, 41, 51.
+
+ Hare's Leap, 6.
+
+ Hartekamp, 331.
+
+ Hartelius, T. J., 424.
+
+ Hartmansdorff, J. A. von, 383, 384-385.
+
+ Hasselberg, Peter, 430.
+
+ "Hats," political party, 316, 317, 319, 320, 337, 338.
+
+ Havamal, 157.
+
+ Havel River, 206.
+
+ Heathen Revival, 59-61.
+
+ Hedberg, Frans, 389;
+   Thor, 427.
+
+ Hedenblad, Ivar, 431.
+
+ Hedenstierna, A., 428.
+
+ Hedin, Sven, 424.
+
+ Hedlund, S. A., 428;
+   Hans, 431.
+
+ Hedvig, queen of Denmark, 100.
+
+ Hedvig, Eleonore, of Sweden, 243, 249, 253, 255, 271, 299, 300;
+   Elisabeth Charlotte, 366.
+
+ Hedvig, Sophie, Princess, 269, 310.
+
+ Heidenstam, V. von, 427.
+
+ Heimskringla, 31, 33-41, 265.
+
+ Heinrich (the Lion), 75.
+
+ Heinsius, 240.
+
+ Heir-apparent, 316-317, 365-366, 367, 368, 420.
+
+ Helga. See Olga.
+
+ Helge. See Oleg.
+
+ Helge, Danish king, 38.
+
+ Hellquist, C. G., 429.
+
+ Helsingborg, 290, 336;
+   battle of, 291, 296.
+
+ Helsingfors, 152, 317;
+   battle of, 316;
+   University of (see Universities).
+
+ Helsingland, Helsings, 5, 138, 317, 361;
+   regiment of, 360-361.
+
+ Helsingoer. See Elsinore.
+
+ Helvig, Queen, 84.
+
+ Henric, St., 73, 75.
+
+ Herger, 54.
+
+ Herjedal, 5, 227.
+
+ Herredag (-ar), 88.
+
+ Herschel, 324.
+
+ Herulians, 28, 29, 48, 66.
+
+ Hervadsbro, battle of, 81.
+
+ Hesse, 205.
+
+ Hessleholm, battle of, 91.
+
+ Heterodoxy, 380.
+
+ Hielmar Lake, 109.
+
+ Hierta: Hans (see J�rta);
+   Lars, 377.
+
+ Hildebrand, Hans, 423.
+
+ Hildebrandsson, H. H., 424.
+
+ Hillberg, Emil, 431.
+
+ Hillestroem, Peter, 347.
+
+ Hiortsberg, L., 390.
+
+ Hising, island of, 188, 196.
+
+ Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus, 142.
+
+ History, Historians, 11, 24-32, 33-34, 44, 46-47, 48, 50, 64, 80, 114,
+     142, 232, 321, 333-334, 337-339, 380, 389, 393, 412-413, 423, 424,
+     426.
+
+ Hoeckert, J. F., 412, 429.
+
+ Hoegquist, Emelie, 390.
+
+ Hoeijer, B. C. H., 347, 356, 380, 411.
+
+ Hoejentorp, 197, 336.
+
+ Hoejer, Nils, 424;
+   Magnus, 424.
+
+ Hoerberg, Peter, 347.
+
+ Hoerningsholm, 176, 177, 178, 179, 181.
+
+ Hofva, battle at, 83.
+
+ Hogland, naval battle at, 348.
+
+ Holaveden (Holavid), battle at, 111.
+
+ Holland, 12, 198, 201, 226, 227, 232, 236-237, 245, 247, 248, 252, 253,
+     264, 283, 322, 330, 331, 334, 340.
+
+ Holmfrid, 58.
+
+ Holmgard, 52.
+
+ Holmger, 78.
+
+ Holmstroem, 233.
+
+ Holovzin, battle of, 284.
+
+ Holstein, 103, 104, 112, 226, 227, 244, 255, 271, 273, 274, 385, 402,
+     405;
+   counts of, 84, 93, 149, 228, 271, 272.
+
+ Holstein-Gottorp, 243, 295, 301.
+
+ Holy Alliance, 381.
+
+ Holy Virgin, 228.
+
+ Horn: Clas Kristersson, Baron, 162, 167-168;
+   Henric, 174;
+   Evert, 198;
+   Gustavus, 207-208, 221-222, 226;
+   Arvid Bernhard, 272, 278, 284, 293, 298, 310-311, 312-316, 337;
+   Rudolph, 282;
+   Jacob, 318.
+
+ Hotuna, play at, 90-91.
+
+ Hoya, counts of, 149.
+
+ Huet, 240.
+
+ Hugleik (O. E. Hygel�c): Swedish king, 36;
+   Danish king, 38.
+
+ Humor, 233, 346, 389, 390, 428.
+
+ Hungary, 68, 245, 299, 322.
+
+ Husaby, 58, 62.
+
+ Hvasser, Elisa, 413.
+
+ Hvin. See Tiodolf.
+
+ Hygel�c. See Hugleik.
+
+
+ I
+
+ Iaroslaf, 48, 51, 62.
+
+ Ibn, Fosslan, 50.
+
+ Ibsen, H., 405, 431.
+
+ Iceland, Icelanders, Icelandic, 33, 52, 56, 60-61, 93, 235;
+   language, 9;
+   sagas, 40, 52, 67, 297;
+   scalds, saga men, 60-61.
+
+ Iddefjord, 322.
+
+ Ifvarsson, Charles, 407.
+
+ Igor, 48, 51.
+
+ Ihre, John, 321, 339-342.
+
+ Illrade. See Ingiald.
+
+ Imperial army: Imperialists, 202, 203, 209, 216, 217, 221, 224, 225,
+     228;
+   crown lands, 210, 225.
+
+ Imports. See Sweden.
+
+ Indelningsverk, Indelta, 258, 408, 417.
+
+ Indensalmi, battle of, 358.
+
+ Indians, 232.
+
+ Indo-European language, 8.
+
+ Industry, 176.
+
+ Inge (Swedish kings): the Elder, 68-70, 72;
+   the Younger, 70.
+
+ Ingeborg, duchesses, 91, 92;
+   princesses, 58, 78, 80, 89, 415.
+
+ Ingegerd, Princess, 61-62;
+   Queen, 76.
+
+ Ingemar, 84.
+
+ Ingermanland (Ingria), 174, 199, 231, 273, 274, 282, 307, 312.
+
+ Ingiald, Illrade, 39-40, 42, 64.
+
+ Ingria. See Ingermanland.
+
+ Ingvar. See Igor.
+
+ Innocent III., 77.
+
+ Intelligence party, 408, 410.
+
+ Interchanging dynasties, 74-79.
+
+ Interdict. See Ban.
+
+ Iron Age, 11, 19, 20-24.
+
+ Isala, 135.
+
+ Isborsk, 47.
+
+ Isiaslaf, 68.
+
+ Italy, Italians, 22, 98, 106, 121, 236.
+
+ Ivar, Master, 131.
+
+ Ivar, Vidfamne, 40, 51.
+
+ Ivarsson, Ivar, of Stroemstad, 170.
+
+
+ J
+
+ Jacob. See Anund Jacob.
+
+ Jacobi, Petrus. See Sunnanv�der.
+
+ J�gerhorn, G. H., 359-360;
+   J. A., 348.
+
+ J�rta, Hans, 365.
+
+ Jagello. See Catherine.
+
+ Jankowitz, battle of, 228, 239.
+
+ Jansson, Eugene, 429.
+
+ Japhet, 263.
+
+ Jarl, jarls, 42, 57-58, 74, 87;
+   of the realm, 74.
+
+ Jaroslaf. See Iaroslaf.
+
+ Jedvard, 73.
+
+ Jemtland, 5, 63, 70, 227, 308, 311.
+
+ Jerusalem, 97.
+
+ Jesuits, 175, 183, 184.
+
+ Joenkoeping, 120, 230.
+
+ Joens, Bengtsson. See Oxenstierna.
+
+ Joesse, Ericsson. See Ericsson.
+
+ Johannes, Magni (Johannes Magnus), 114, 142-143, 263.
+
+ John, archbishop, 75;
+   duke, 186, 189, 197;
+   prince, 72.
+
+ John (kings): I. 77;
+   II. Hans, 119-120, 122, 130-131;
+   III. 155, 157, 158, 163, 169, 170-172, 173-176, 180, 182, 186, 188,
+     235.
+
+ John, Casimir, count of Palatinate-Zweibrucken, 239.
+
+ John, Casimir, king of Poland. See Vasa.
+
+ Jolin, J. C., 389.
+
+ Jomsborg, 56.
+
+ Jordanes, 29, 34, 44, 263.
+
+ Jornandes. See Jordanes.
+
+ Jorsalafare. See Sigurd.
+
+ Jorund, 36-37.
+
+ Josephine, Queen, 382.
+
+ Josephsson, J. A., 389, 413;
+   Ernst, 429.
+
+ Juel, Niels, 253, 254.
+
+ Jueterbogk, battle of, 228.
+
+ Junius, Franziskus, 237.
+
+ Justinian, 28.
+
+ Jutland, Jutes, 26, 30, 31, 37, 43, 131, 132, 226, 245, 248, 386.
+
+ Juutas, battle of, 359, 360.
+
+
+ K
+
+ K�pplingeholm, Massacre of, 101.
+
+ Kagg, Lars, 250.
+
+ Kalabalik of Bender. See Bender.
+
+ Kalloe, 132.
+
+ Kalmar, 93, 101, 116, 122, 132, 133, 190;
+   Nyckel, 232;
+   Recess of, 119;
+   Union of (see Union).
+
+ Kalmucks, 288.
+
+ Kamenski, M. K., 361.
+
+ Kansler. See Chancellor.
+
+ Kant, 324, 347.
+
+ Karelen. See Carelia.
+
+ Karin. See Carin.
+
+ Karl. See Charles.
+
+ Karlberg. See Carlberg.
+
+ Karleby, 71;
+   see also Carleby.
+
+ Karlskrona. See Carlskrona.
+
+ Karlson, Valfried, 431.
+
+ Karlsson. See Carlsson.
+
+ Karlstad. See Carlstad.
+
+ Kasan, 288.
+
+ Katarina. See Catherine.
+
+ Keksholm. See Kexholm.
+
+ Kellgren, J. H., 345.
+
+ Kerkholm, battle at, 187.
+
+ Kettilmundsson, Mattias, 91, 92.
+
+ Kettilsson, Eric, 97.
+
+ Kexholm, 174, 188, 199, 292, 302.
+
+ Key, Emil, 407;
+   E. A. H., 424.
+
+ Kief, 46, 49, 59.
+
+ Kiel, 371;
+   Bay of (see Skiel).
+
+ Kierulf, Halfdan, 405.
+
+ Kingdom, elective, 64, 65, 310;
+   hereditary, 65, 150, 151, 186, 189, 190, 310.
+
+ "King Martha." See Leijonhufvud.
+
+ Kjellberg, F., 430.
+
+ Klercker, Charles N., 358.
+
+ Klingspoe, W. M., 358.
+
+ Klusina, 188.
+
+ Knaphoefde. See Ragnvald.
+
+ Kneroed, peace treaty of, 198.
+
+ Kniephausen, Dodo von, 214, 216, 218.
+
+ Knights, 200.
+
+ Knightly Chapter (see Riddarhus);
+   orders, 318.
+
+ Knorring, Sophie von, 389, 427.
+
+ Knud. See Canute.
+
+ Knut (Swedish kings), Ericsson, 74-76;
+   the Tall, 78, 81.
+
+ Knut, Folkung, 81;
+   Bishop, 108;
+   Master, 141-143.
+
+ Koch, Axel, 423.
+
+ Koenigsmarck, von, H. C., 236, 258;
+   O. W., 258.
+
+ Koeping, 107.
+
+ Koerling, Aug., 431.
+
+ Kol, king (Eric Ars�l), 69, 73;
+   pretender, 75.
+
+ Kolbr�nna. See Anund Jacob.
+
+ Kollandsoe, 69.
+
+ Kommunalst�mmor, 395.
+
+ Kongh�ll, Kungk�ll, 62, 69.
+
+ Konungafrid, 86.
+
+ Kopparberg, 105, 133.
+
+ Krakow, Morton, 196-197.
+
+ Kreuger, Nils, 349.
+
+ Kristian, Kristiern. See Christian.
+
+ Kristina. See Christine.
+
+ Kristofer. See Christopher.
+
+ Krivitchi, 47.
+
+ Kronberg, Julius, 429.
+
+ Kronborg, fortress of, 247, 248.
+
+ Krusenstierna, J. E. von, 435.
+
+ Kyrkomoetet, 396.
+
+
+ L
+
+ Laaland, 246.
+
+ Labor question, 418, 433.
+
+ Lacroze, M., 341.
+
+ Ladoga, Lake, 199.
+
+ Ladugardsland, battle of, 124.
+
+ Ladulas (Barn-lock). See Magnus.
+
+ L�n, 7, 231, 395.
+
+ Lagerbielke, Gustavus, 407.
+
+ Lagerloef, Selma, 427.
+
+ Laholm, 84.
+
+ Lallerstedt, E., 431.
+
+ Landskrona (in Sweden), battle of, 254;
+   (in Finland), 88.
+
+ Landsting, 395-396, 399, 407.
+
+ Landstorm, 417.
+
+ Landtmanna party, 407-408, 410, 416.
+
+ Landtmarskalk, 200, 407.
+
+ Landtv�rn, 417.
+
+ Lange, Lorenz, 289.
+
+ Langeland, 246.
+
+ Languedoc, 167.
+
+ La Place, 324.
+
+ Lapland, Lapmark, Laps, 5, 10, 15, 16, 104, 330;
+   language, 8, 341;
+   "Divine service in the Lapmark," 429.
+
+ Lappo, battle of, 358.
+
+ Lars. See Laurentius.
+
+ Larsson, Thomas, 195;
+   Liss Olof, 407;
+   Marcus, 412, 429;
+   Carl, 429.
+
+ Latin, 98, 117, 142, 220, 265, 328.
+
+ Lauenburg, 402, 405.
+
+ Laurentius. See Andre� and Petri.
+
+ Laval, Gustavus de, 425.
+
+ Lavoisier, 325.
+
+ Laws. See Sweden.
+
+ League, Catholic, 189.
+
+ Lech, battle of, 210.
+
+ Leckoe, 187, 251.
+
+ Leczinski (see Stanislav), 427.
+
+ Leffler, A. M. (Mittag-), 424;
+   Anne Charlotte, 427.
+
+ Leibnitz, 266.
+
+ Leijonhufvud, 282 note;
+   Margaret (see Margaret, queens of Sweden);
+   Martha (King Martha), 155;
+   Sten, baron, 162, 170.
+
+ Leipsic, 117, 213, 224, 288;
+   first battle of, 206-209;
+   second battle of, 225-226.
+
+ Leire, 38.
+
+ Lena, battle of, 76.
+
+ Len�us, J., 239.
+
+ Lenngren, Anne Marie, 346.
+
+ Leonidas, the Swedish, 224.
+
+ Leopold, C. G., 345.
+
+ Leopold I., emperor (1640-1705), 225.
+
+ Leuchtenberg, 382.
+
+ Levertin, Oscar, 427, 428.
+
+ Lewenhaupt, 282 note;
+   A. L., 282, 283, 284, 285-287;
+   C. E., 316, 317.
+
+ Leyden, 331.
+
+ Libau, 203.
+
+ Liberty, song of, 114;
+   period of, 310-342, 320-321.
+
+ Libraries, 99.
+
+ Lidner, Bengt, 346.
+
+ Liesna, battle of, 285.
+
+ Liewen, H. H. von, 298-299.
+
+ Liljefors, Bruno, 429.
+
+ Lind, Jenny, 390, 413.
+
+ Lindberg, A., 430.
+
+ Lindblad, A. F., 389;
+   Otto, 389, 413.
+
+ Lindeberg, A., 377.
+
+ Linden, Mathilde, 431.
+
+ Lindholm (-en) in Scania, 97;
+   in Upland, 130.
+
+ Lindskiold, E., 270.
+
+ Ling, P. H., 380, 381.
+
+ Linkoeping, 71, 77, 80, 85, 108, 112, 121, 185, 186, 195;
+   conference at, 72.
+
+ Linn�us (von Linn�), Charles, 327-333.
+
+ Literature. See Sweden.
+
+ Lithuania, 284.
+
+ Liturgia, 175-176, 183.
+
+ Liuksiala, 173.
+
+ Livonia, Livonians, 162, 163, 187, 198, 202, 203, 223, 231, 250, 258,
+     273, 277, 281, 282, 283, 290-291, 307, 312.
+
+ Lober Brook, 207.
+
+ Loccenius, John, 240.
+
+ Locke, 347.
+
+ Lodbrok. See Ragnar.
+
+ Loedoese, 83, 84, 111;
+   New, 116, 152, 196, 197.
+
+ London, 267, 323, 326, 327, 331, 334, 340.
+
+ Longobardians, 28, 29.
+
+ Lord, 200.
+
+ Lothringia, 162, 169.
+
+ Louis le D�bonnaire (the Pious), 48, 53;
+   XIV. 235, 252, 254-255, 259, 280, 305;
+   XVI. 351-352, 367.
+
+ Louise, Princess, 406;
+   Queen, 392, 411.
+
+ Louise Ulrica, Queen, 217, 338.
+
+ Lovisa. See Louise.
+
+ Lubeck, 75, 81, 82, 85, 122, 132, 140, 148, 165, 166, 168, 316, 371.
+
+ Lubetch, 49.
+
+ Lucidor, Lasse (Johansson), 233.
+
+ Ludvig Rudolph of Brunswick, 324.
+
+ Luitprand, 48.
+
+ Lulea, 266.
+
+ Lund, 10, 70, 111, 250, 304, 307, 322, 328, 329, 337, 340;
+   battle of, 254;
+   peace treaty at, 255;
+   University of (see Universities).
+
+ Lundberg, Gustavus, 428;
+   Theodor, 430.
+
+ Lundquist, C. F., 431.
+
+ Luther, Lutheran, 98, 140, 183, 184, 186, 190, 204, 214, 312, 327, 368,
+     435.
+
+ Lutzen, battle of, 213-219;
+   battlefield of, 279, 281.
+
+ Lybecker, George, 283, 285.
+
+ Lymphatic ducts, 262.
+
+
+ M
+
+ Machiavelli, 121.
+
+ M�cenas of Sweden, 250.
+
+ M�lar, Lake, 5, 10, 55, 71, 96, 107, 112, 127, 156, 163.
+
+ Magdeburg, 205-206.
+
+ Magnetism, 324.
+
+ Magnus (Danish princes): M. Nilsson, 71;
+   M. Henricsson, 72-74.
+
+ Magnus, Bishop, 148.
+
+ Magnus (kings of Norway): M. Barfod, 69;
+   M. Lagaboete, 83.
+
+ Magnus (kings of Sweden): M. Ladulas, 82-88, 89, 90;
+   M. Ericsson, 84, 92-95, 97.
+
+ Magnus (princes of Sweden): Magnus Birgersson, 92;
+   M. Vasa, 155, 157, 158, 163-164, 169.
+
+ Magog, 263.
+
+ Main, River, 209.
+
+ Malaspina, 183.
+
+ Malebranche, 266.
+
+ Malmstroem, B. E., 389.
+
+ Malmoe, 10, 411.
+
+ Manderstroem, Count, 393, 401, 404.
+
+ Manheim. See Atland.
+
+ Margaret, missionary to the Laps, 104.
+
+ Margaret Fredkulla, Princess, 69, 71.
+
+ Margaret (queens of Sweden), 89;
+   Valdemarsdotter, 95, 96, 98, 100-105, 120, 371;
+   Leijonhufvud, 155, 156, 177, 178.
+
+ Margaret of Valois, 162.
+
+ Maria, queen of Sweden, 189.
+
+ Marie Antoinette, Queen, 367.
+
+ Marie Eleonore, Queen, 234.
+
+ Mariefred, 118, 133.
+
+ Mariestad, 188.
+
+ Marlborough, 280.
+
+ Marn�s, 136.
+
+ Mars, 31.
+
+ Marsk, 87, 102, 108, 249.
+
+ Martha, Dame, 100.
+
+ Massilia, 24.
+
+ "Master Olf," 427.
+
+ Masudi, 50.
+
+ Matchless, The, 165-166.
+
+ Materialism, 412, 432.
+
+ Mat�rn, J. A., 288.
+
+ Mathematics, 270, 322.
+
+ Mattias, Bishop, 128.
+
+ Maximilian of Bavaria, 193, 210, 211.
+
+ Mayence, 209.
+
+ Mazarin, 220.
+
+ Mazeppa, 283, 285, 286.
+
+ Mechtild, Danish queen, 81.
+
+ Mecklenburg, 95, 97, 168, 210, 223, 244, 295, 357.
+
+ Medelpad, 5, 24, 303.
+
+ Medi�val. See Middle Ages.
+
+ Medical science, 262, 331, 333, 424, 425.
+
+ Meibom, 240.
+
+ Melanchthon, 204.
+
+ Melen, Berndt von, 142, 148.
+
+ Memel, 203.
+
+ Mendelssohn, 389.
+
+ Menuet, Peter, 232.
+
+ Meri, 47.
+
+ Messenius, John, 232;
+   Arnold J., 240;
+   Arnold, the Younger, 240.
+
+ Metals, 15, 16, 116.
+
+ Mexico, 18, 404.
+
+ Micha�li, Louise, 413.
+
+ Middle Ages, 45, 64-129, 134, 192, 400.
+
+ Midsummer, Midnight, sun, 7.
+
+ Miklagard, 52.
+
+ Mines, miners, mine owners, 123, 144, 152, 200-201, 305, 323, 335;
+   Mining, College of, 304-305, 322, 323.
+
+ Ministers, church, 175, 183, 253, 287, 304, 327, 337, 396;
+   state (secretary), 365, 401, 407, 416;
+   of foreign affairs, 373, 393, 435;
+   of justice, 393, 397, 409, 435;
+   of finance, 393, 435, 436;
+   of ecclesiastics, 393, 409, 436;
+   of war, 408, 435;
+   of civil service, 409;
+   of marine, 435;
+   of interior, 435.
+
+ Missionaries, 53-55, 58, 104.
+
+ Mitan, 202, 282.
+
+ Moerner, Otto, 367-368.
+
+ Mohilev, 284.
+
+ Molin, Ambjoern, 289;
+   J. P., 412, 430.
+
+ Monitor, 387.
+
+ Monrad, D. G., 404.
+
+ Mons Bengtsson. See Natt och Dag.
+
+ Montelius, Oscar, 423.
+
+ Mora, in Dalecarlia, 136-138, 140;
+   Stone of, in Upland, 92, 95.
+
+ Moravia, 226, 228.
+
+ Mor�us, Maria Elis, 332.
+
+ Moscow, 172, 188, 284, 288.
+
+ Moss, Convention of, 372-373.
+
+ Motzfeldt, K., 406.
+
+ Muller, J. B., 289.
+
+ Munck, Lady Ebba, 415.
+
+ Munich School of Painters, 429.
+
+ Muonio, River, 363.
+
+ Music, 263, 346, 380, 382, 388, 389-390, 412, 413, 431;
+   national folk, 431.
+
+ Mutiny, 188.
+
+ Mysticism, 98, 99, 161, 169, 321, 354, 356.
+
+ Mythology, classical, 31, 265.
+   Swedish (see Sweden).
+
+
+ N
+
+ Nakskov, 246.
+
+ Namur, 93.
+
+ Napoleon I., 356, 357, 362, 367, 368, 369-371.
+
+ Napoleon III., 404, 406.
+
+ Narva, 174, 282;
+   battle of, 274-277;
+   river, 275.
+
+ Nassau, 415.
+
+ Nathorst, H. O., 423;
+   A. C., 424 note.
+
+ Natt och Dag, Mons Bengtsson, 109;
+   Nils Bosson (see Sture);
+   Ake Hansson, 122 (see also Sture).
+
+ Nerigon, 25.
+
+ Nerike, 5, 13, 39, 97, 116.
+
+ Nerschinsk, 289.
+
+ Nestor, 46-47, 49, 52.
+
+ Netherlands, 98, 152, 189.
+
+ Neva, 78, 93, 289.
+
+ New Church, 325.
+
+ New Rhymed Chronicle. See Charles Chronicle.
+
+ New School, 380-381.
+
+ Newton, 324.
+
+ Nicholaus II. of Russia, 418.
+
+ Nicolaus of Alba, 72.
+
+ Nils Bosson (Natt och Dag). See Sture.
+
+ Nils, king of Denmark, 71.
+
+ Nilsson, Mons, 134;
+   Sven, 380;
+   Christine, 413.
+
+ Nimwegen, peace treaty of, 254-255.
+
+ Niord, 34.
+
+ Nithard, 54.
+
+ Nobel, Alfred, 425-426.
+
+ Nobility, Nobles, 76, 86, 87, 88, 92, 95, 96, 102, 105, 108, 110, 113,
+     115, 117, 119, 120, 126, 127, 128, 144, 148, 150, 151, 158, 166,
+     169, 173, 174, 185, 186, 193, 199, 200, 231, 233, 238, 239, 243,
+     250, 255, 256, 258, 271, 302, 304, 310, 314, 349, 350, 352, 357,
+     365, 367, 383, 384, 385, 396, 397, 398, 416;
+   higher, 200, 251, 256-257, 314;
+   lower, 200, 251, 253, 256, 257, 314,
+   speaker of (see Landtmarskalk).
+
+ Noerdlingen, battle of, 221, 223.
+
+ Noeteborg, 282.
+
+ Norcopensis. See Nordenhielm.
+
+ Nordanskogs, 5.
+
+ Nordberg, G., 288.
+
+ Nordblom, J. E., 389.
+
+ Nordenflycht, Hedvig Charlotta, 339.
+
+ Nordenhielm, Andreas, 269, 270.
+
+ Nordenskiold, Baron, 424.
+
+ Nordgren, Ellen, 404, 406, 431.
+
+ Nordraak, 405.
+
+ Nordstroem, Charles, 429.
+
+ Norman, Normandie, 48, 52.
+
+ Norman, Georg, 149;
+   F. V. L., 390.
+
+ Nor�n, Adolph, 423.
+
+ Norrby, Soeren, 122, 139, 140, 142.
+
+ Norrkoeping, 190, 320.
+
+ Norrland, 5, 6, 7, 14, 24, 43, 107, 138, 193, 266, 362.
+
+ North, the Scandinavian, 16, 21, 29, 35, 42, 43, 44, 52, 53, 54, 56,
+     59, 60, 61, 94, 96, 101, 104, 114, 225, 248, 263, 305, 330, 434,
+     438.
+
+ North Pole, 424.
+
+ North Sea, 5, 10, 196, 198, 322, 375.
+
+ North Star, Order of the, 318.
+
+ Northeast Passage, 424.
+
+ Northern language, common, 99;
+   oldest form, 8, 22;
+   tribes, 23;
+   industrial arts, 23;
+   literature, 36, 38, 41.
+
+ Northmen, 45, 52, 53, 59.
+
+ Norway, Norwegians, 5, 6, 10, 13, 21, 25, 33, 36, 38, 41, 43, 45, 52,
+     55, 57, 58, 60, 61, 62, 63, 67, 68, 69, 70, 75, 76, 79, 83, 89, 90,
+     91, 92, 94, 95, 96, 100, 111, 142, 147, 164, 166-167, 174, 247,
+     307, 308, 311, 348, 357, 362, 366, 370, 371-374, 375, 386, 393-395,
+     402, 404, 405, 418-421, 430;
+   governor-general question, 386, 393-395, 418-419;
+   constitution, 373-374, 393;
+   cabinet, 373, 394-395, 402;
+   consular and diplomatic service, 419, 420, 437;
+   defence, 419;
+   flag, 386, 419;
+   culture, 405;
+   government, 373;
+   king, 373-374;
+   Minister of State, 419;
+   railways, 421;
+   royal title, 386;
+   Storthing, 373, 379, 386, 393-394, 406, 419, 420, 425-426;
+   viceroy, 393.
+
+ Novgorod, 47, 52, 62, 188, 190.
+
+ Nuremberg, 211-212, 225.
+
+ Nurmanni, 47.
+
+ Nykoeping, 82, 84, 172, 190, 239, 302;
+   Feast of, 90;
+   Restitution of, 102.
+
+ Nyslott, 316.
+
+ Nystroem, Alfred, 430.
+
+
+ O
+
+ Oder, River, 21, 27, 224, 279.
+
+ Odin, 31-32, 34, 35, 37.
+
+ OEdman, A., 431.
+
+ OEland, island of, 5, 21, 22, 111, 254;
+   naval battles of, 165-166, 167-168, 350.
+
+ OErbyhus, 171.
+
+ OErebro, 109, 146, 150, 174, 368, 387.
+
+ OEsel, island of, 164, 227.
+
+ OEstberg, Caroline, 431.
+
+ OEsterlind, A., 429.
+
+ Ohio, 7.
+
+ �hthere. See Ottar.
+
+ Olaf (Norwegian kings) Tryggvasson, 57-58;
+   Haraldsson, 61-62, 67;
+   Hakonsson, 100.
+
+ Olai, Ericus, 114, 117.
+
+ Olaus, Petri (Master Olof). See Petri.
+
+ Oldenburg, 366;
+   counts of, 149, 367.
+
+ Old Chronicle. See Eric's Chronicle.
+
+ Old Danish, 8, 22, 99.
+
+ Old English, 237, 342.
+
+ Old High German, 342.
+
+ Old Icelandic. See Old Norse.
+
+ Old Norse language, 8, 22, 99, 341, 342;
+   literature, 32, 232, 270;
+   mythology, 265.
+
+ Old Swedish language, 8, 9, 22, 24, 48, 49, 99, 342;
+   literature, 8, 9, 66-67, 80, 98, 114, 121;
+   laws, 48, 66-67, 380, 391.
+
+ Oleg, 48, 49, 51.
+
+ Olga, 48, 51.
+
+ Oligarchy, 309.
+
+ Oliva, peace treaty of, 250.
+
+ Olof (Swedish kings), 40-41, 42, 54, 55;
+   Skoetkonung, 52, 57-62;
+   N�skonung, 69, 70.
+
+ Olsson, Lars, 138.
+
+ Olustra, battle of, 78.
+
+ Opposition, Conservative, 383, 384;
+   Liberal, 376-378, 379, 380, 382, 383, 384.
+   See also Intelligence Party.
+
+ Orange, 259, 392.
+
+ Oravais, battle of, 358, 360-362.
+
+ Ordeals, 82.
+
+ Orientalists, 333, 340.
+
+ Orn�s, 134.
+
+ Orosius, 43.
+
+ Oscar Fredericsborg, 418.
+
+ Oscar (kings of Sweden): I. 382-390, 391, 411;
+   II. 411, 414-438.
+
+ Oscar, Prince. See Bernadotte.
+
+ Oslo, 92.
+
+ Ottar, 37-38.
+
+ Otto, Bishop, 128.
+
+ Oxenstierna, Joens Bengtsson, 112-113;
+   Axel, 199, 203, 204, 220-221, 222, 226, 229, 230, 233, 234, 239, 242,
+     312, 375, 421;
+   John, 229;
+   Bengt, 259, 271;
+   John Gabriel, 345;
+   Oxford, 340.
+
+
+ P
+
+ Pal�olithic Civilization, 12.
+
+ Palatinate-Zweibrucken, 189, 239, 290.
+
+ Pappenheim, 203, 207-209, 213, 214, 217-218.
+
+ Paris, 118, 305, 331, 340, 368, 371;
+   expositions, 413, 421, 429;
+   peace treaties, 362-363, 369, 388;
+   University, 118, 340.
+
+ Parliament, Parliamentary Reform, 108, 111, 376, 379, 384-385, 396-401.
+
+ Passage-graves, 13.
+
+ Patkul, J. R., 312.
+
+ Patriotism, 104, 114, 120, 130, 131, 200, 201, 235, 244, 247, 248, 250,
+     258, 309, 352, 358, 367, 398, 434.
+
+ Pau, 368.
+
+ Pauli, Emerentia, 196-197;
+   George, 429;
+   Hanna (Hirsch-P.), 429.
+
+ Peasant. See Yeoman.
+
+ Peasant High Schools, 423.
+
+ Peasant-king, 188.
+
+ Peene, River, 312.
+
+ Peipus, Lake, 199, 282.
+
+ Pentinger, Konrad, 149.
+
+ Peringskiold, John, 265.
+
+ Pernau, 201, 292.
+
+ Person, Andrew, 133-134;
+   Arendt, 134-135;
+   Goeran, 162, 170.
+
+ Peru, 336.
+
+ Peter Frisk, 299.
+
+ Peter's Pence, 72.
+
+ Peter the Great, 272-273, 277, 282, 283, 284, 285, 287, 288, 289, 296,
+     306, 307, 311, 316.
+
+ Peterson, Adrian, 431.
+
+ Petri, Olaus (Master Olof), 86, 114, 128, 141, 150;
+   Laurentius, 141, 150, 175, 177, 183;
+   Laurentius P. Gothus, 175.
+
+ Philadelphia Exposition, 421.
+
+ Philip, king, 70;
+   Folkung, 81;
+   Duke (see Charles, Princes of Sweden).
+
+ Philipstad, 188.
+
+ Philology, 67, 237, 265, 266, 320, 339-342, 380, 388, 423.
+
+ Philosophy, 240-241, 321, 327, 340, 411-412, 423.
+
+ Phosphoristic School, 380-381.
+
+ Physical science, 322, 324-325, 333, 423, 425.
+
+ Physiology, 325.
+
+ Piccolomini, General, 221, 225.
+
+ Pillau, 203.
+
+ Piper, Charles, 271, 286, 287, 288, 292;
+   Louise Sophie, 366-367.
+
+ Pitea, 411.
+
+ Plague, 94, 124, 176, 290, 323.
+
+ Platen, Baltzar B. von, 365, 371, 375.
+
+ Plato, 264.
+
+ Pliny, the Elder, 25.
+
+ Poland, Polish, 98, 143, 163, 164, 174, 175, 182, 183, 184, 185, 187,
+     199, 202, 222, 243-245, 247, 250, 252, 273, 278-279, 281, 282, 283,
+     284, 290, 292, 294, 295, 297, 313, 401.
+
+ Polar Circle, 7, 8;
+   Sea, 93.
+
+ Polhammar. See Polhem.
+
+ Polhem, Christopher, 267, 302, 304-306, 322, 326, 334, 375, 424;
+   Emerentia, 326.
+
+ Polian�, 49.
+
+ Polotsk, 47.
+
+ Pomerania, 5, 7, 205, 224, 229, 232, 245, 255, 258, 294-295, 299, 302,
+     313, 319, 336, 357, 363, 371.
+
+ Pomponius Mela, 25.
+
+ Ponte Corvo, 368.
+
+ Pope, 69, 77, 78, 94, 97-98, 117, 121, 124, 126, 144.
+
+ Porosalmie, battle of, 350.
+
+ Porphyrogenitus. See Constantine P.
+
+ Portugal, 45.
+
+ Posse, Knut, 116, 118;
+   Arvid, 407.
+
+ Potatoes, 336.
+
+ Powers, Continental, 187, 248, 250, 252, 319, 320, 344, 345, 372, 374,
+     378, 403, 418.
+
+ Prague, 117, 210, 222, 228, 236, 258.
+
+ Press, 231, 365, 376-377, 383, 384, 396, 397, 403, 404, 407, 428;
+   law, 434-435.
+
+ Pretenders, 55-56, 74, 75, 78, 147, 187-188.
+
+ Priestley, 325.
+
+ Priests, 98, 144.
+
+ Primas of Sweden, 70.
+
+ Printz, John, 232.
+
+ Prisons, 382.
+
+ Prokopios, 28, 31.
+
+ Propeller, 387.
+
+ Prose Chronicle. See Chronicle.
+
+ Protective system, 406, 416;
+   protectionistic party, 416.
+
+ Protestantism, 175, 182-184, 189, 192, 202, 204, 221, 279, 281-282,
+     325.
+
+ Province, Provincial, 5-6, 64-65, 66, 86, 89, 93, 105, 149, 249;
+   laws (see Sweden).
+
+ Prussia, 172, 202, 203, 222, 223, 244, 296, 299, 311, 345, 349, 352,
+     370, 385-386, 403.
+
+ Pruth, River, 294.
+
+ Pskof, 198.
+
+ Ptolemy, 27.
+
+ Pufendorff, S., 237.
+
+ Puke, Eric Kettilsson (see Kettilsson);
+   Eric (Nilsson), 107, 110.
+
+ Pulkkila, battle of, 358.
+
+ Pultowa, battle of, 285-286, 289, 290, 291, 292, 294, 303.
+
+ Pyk, Louise, 431.
+
+ Pyteas, 24.
+
+
+ Q
+
+ Quaternary period, 12.
+
+ Qvidinge, 366.
+
+
+ R
+
+ R�fsn�s, 133.
+
+ Ragnar, Swedish king, 41-42;
+   R. Lodbrok, sea-king, 41-42.
+
+ Ragnvald, jarl, 58, 61-62, 67;
+   king, 70-71;
+   prince, 70.
+
+ Railways. See Sweden.
+
+ Ramberg, 226.
+
+ Rankhytta, 133.
+
+ Rantzau, Daniel, 168;
+   George, 291.
+
+ Rappe, A. E., 435.
+
+ Raseborg, 113, 129.
+
+ Rashutt, 327.
+
+ Ratan, 363.
+
+ Ratenau, battle of, 252.
+
+ Ravius, 240.
+
+ Realism, 405, 426-427.
+
+ Reform Banquet, 384.
+
+ Reform, Parliamentary. See Parliament.
+
+ Reformation, Reformers, 98, 140-146, 150, 153, 339;
+   language, 9.
+
+ Reformed Church, 312.
+
+ Regensburg, 224.
+
+ Rehnskiold, C. G., 284, 285-286, 287, 288.
+
+ Renaissance, 153, 157, 261;
+   Swedish Castle, 173, 431.
+
+ Renat, J. G., 288.
+
+ Renata of Lothringia, 162, 169.
+
+ Restitution. See Crown Lands.
+
+ Rettvik, 136.
+
+ Reuterholm, G. A., 353-356.
+
+ Reval, 162, 172, 174, 292.
+
+ Revolts, 76, 78, 81, 84, 107-108, 121, 141-143, 146-151, 288, 293,
+     316-317, 344, 369;
+   of Bells, 148-149, 155.
+
+ Revolution, French, 351, 368, 384, 428;
+   Swedish, 138, 143, 146, 344, 345, 349-352, 362, 379.
+
+ Rheims, 54.
+
+ Ribbing, P., 302, 310, 314.
+
+ Richelieu, 220, 224.
+
+ Riddarholm's Church, 87, 90, 96, 225, 367, 415.
+
+ Riddarhus, The, 166, 200, 256, 268, 398.
+
+ Ridderstad, C. F., 389.
+
+ Riga, 82, 187, 202, 291-292.
+
+ Rikissa, princess, 87;
+   queen, 71;
+   Birgersdotter, 79.
+
+ Riksdag, 88, 108, 115, 117, 124, 140, 142, 143, 150, 151, 161, 169,
+     170, 175, 183-184, 200, 201, 202, 222, 238, 240, 243, 248, 249,
+     250, 254, 256, 257, 258, 271, 293, 298, 310, 314, 315, 316, 317,
+     318, 319, 335, 336, 338, 340, 344, 345, 348, 349-350, 355, 356-857,
+     365, 368, 369, 376, 378, 383, 384, 387, 394-395, 396-401, 403, 406,
+     407-411, 416-418, 420, 433, 435;
+   regulations of the, 434.
+
+ Riksdrotset. See Drotsete.
+
+ Riksmarsk. See Marsk.
+
+ Rimbert, Archbishop, 52, 55.
+
+ Ring ("Sigurd Ring"), 41, 51.
+
+ Riswick, peace treaty of, 259.
+
+ Ritual and hymn-book, 175, 183, 260, 355.
+
+ Rock-carvings, 17, 18.
+
+ Rococo, 353.
+
+ Roeskilde, peace treaties of, 91, 247.
+
+ Rolf Krake, 38.
+
+ Romanticism (Neo-), 346, 380-381, 388-389, 405, 427.
+
+ Rome, Roman, 20, 21, 26, 27, 28, 72, 74, 97, 125, 141, 144, 175, 204,
+     263, 265.
+
+ Rosen, von, 282 note;
+   George von, 412, 429.
+
+ Rosenblad, M., 374.
+
+ Roslagen, 48-49.
+
+ Roslin, Alex., 347, 428.
+
+ Rosstjenst. See Russtienst.
+
+ Rostock, 121, 147, 165.
+
+ Rostof, 47.
+
+ Rothman, Dr., 327-328.
+
+ Royal offices, 87;
+   sanctity, 77, 85;
+   title, 84.
+
+ Rud, Otto, 122.
+
+ Rudbeck, Olof, the Elder, 261-265;
+   Olof, the Younger, 330.
+
+ Rudbeckius, J., 262.
+
+ Ruden, Island of, 205.
+
+ Rudenschiold, Madelaine, 354.
+
+ Rudolph, emperor, 172.
+
+ Rugen, Island, 229, 294, 371.
+
+ Ruhr, River, 236.
+
+ Runeberg, J. L., 364, 388.
+
+ Runes, 8, 21-22, 340.
+
+ Runius, 233.
+
+ Runn, Lake, 134.
+
+ Ruotsi, 48.
+
+ Rurik, 47-49, 51, 52, 187.
+
+ Rus, R�s, 47, 50, 105.
+
+ Russia, Russians, 6, 12, 22, 26, 43, 46-52, 62, 63, 67, 68, 69, 78, 81,
+     88, 94, 105, 112, 118, 119, 122, 143, 152, 153, 162, 171, 172, 174,
+     176, 184, 187, 188, 190, 198, 199, 203, 244, 250, 272, 273,
+     274-277, 278, 280, 282-287, 291-292, 294, 295, 306, 311, 315, 316,
+     317, 345, 348-349, 350-351, 352, 357-362, 369, 370, 374, 377, 378,
+     387-388, 394, 401, 418, 436;
+   captivity, 287-289;
+   language, 8;
+   names, 48.
+
+ Russtienst, Rusttjenst, 86, 143, 162, 174, 188.
+
+ Rydberg, Victor, 412, 423.
+
+ Rydboholm, 130.
+
+ Rydelius, Andrew, 337-338.
+
+ Ryssby, 193.
+
+
+ S
+
+ Sachsen (Saxony)-Lauenburg, 155, 216.
+
+ S�fstrom, 325.
+
+ S�therbey, H., 389.
+
+ S�tra, 134.
+
+ St. Gallen, 362.
+
+ St. Olaf, Order of, 386.
+
+ St. Peter of Rome, 240.
+
+ St. Petersburg, 88, 282, 283, 285, 289, 348, 355.
+
+ St. Salvator, Order of, 98.
+
+ Sala, 152.
+
+ Salestad, 176.
+
+ Salmasius, 236, 240.
+
+ Salmson, H., 429.
+
+ Salon, French, 428, 429.
+
+ Salvius, A., 229.
+
+ San, River, 244.
+
+ Sandels, J. A., 358, 360.
+
+ Saxo, 51, 57.
+
+ Saxons, Saxonland, Saxony, 29, 38, 40, 206-208, 211, 213, 222, 223,
+     224, 228, 272, 273, 277, 279-282, 292, 295, 299, 322, 415.
+
+ Scandia, 25.
+
+ Scandinavia, Scandinavian, 14, 16, 24, 25, 28, 100, 101, 124, 166, 255,
+     317, 423, 437;
+   languages, 9, 99, 166;
+   peninsula, 5, 12, 25, 27, 93, 312, 325, 371, 421;
+   policy, 247, 402-406, 415, 437-438;
+   religion, 31.
+
+ Scandinavism, 385-386.
+
+ Scandza, 30, 44.
+
+ Scania, 5, 6, 10, 12, 13, 14, 18, 21, 25, 40, 43, 46, 84, 91, 93, 95,
+     97, 105, 111, 167, 195, 226, 247, 249, 254, 290-291, 307, 325, 336,
+     344, 357, 362, 366, 369, 386.
+
+ Scheele, C. W., 346.
+
+ Schefferns, 240.
+
+ Schleswig, 104, 112, 126, 245, 385, 386, 402, 404, 405.
+
+ Schluesselburg, 282.
+
+ Schlyter, K. J., 380.
+
+ Schoenstroem, P., 288.
+
+ Scholander, E. W., 431.
+
+ Schools, school laws, 117, 146, 175, 393, 423.
+
+ Schueck, H., 428.
+
+ Schuisky, Vassili, 187-188.
+
+ Schwartz, Sophie, 389.
+
+ Schwedenstein, 281.
+
+ Schwerin, von W., 360-361;
+   F. B., 377.
+
+ Scotland, 208, 405.
+
+ Scylfingas. See Skilfings.
+
+ Secret Committee, 314, 315, 316.
+
+ Seeland, 246-247, 291, 362.
+
+ Sehlstedt, Elias, 389.
+
+ Semiramis of the North, 104.
+
+ Separator, 425.
+
+ Seraphim, Order of the, 318.
+
+ Seven Years' War, of the North, 164-168;
+   Continental, 319.
+
+ Siberia, 287-289.
+
+ Sigfrid, St., 58.
+
+ Sigismund of Sweden and Poland, 174, 182-186, 187, 188, 202.
+
+ Signe, 36.
+
+ Signj�tr. See Sineus.
+
+ Sigrid Storrada, 57.
+
+ Sigtuna, 35, 62, 68, 71, 75.
+
+ Sigurd, King, 41.
+
+ Sigurd Jorsalafare, 70.
+
+ Siikajoki, battle of, 358-359.
+
+ Silesia, 202, 222, 225, 226, 279, 281-282.
+
+ Siljan, Lake, 136.
+
+ Simon. See Gauzbert and Stenfi.
+
+ Sineus, 47, 48.
+
+ Sjoegren, Otto, 390, 431.
+
+ Skara, 59, 68, 84, 128, 148, 321.
+
+ Skee Finns, 28.
+
+ Skenninge Conference, 78;
+   meeting, 86.
+
+ Skerry fleet, 350, 351.
+
+ Skialf, 36.
+
+ Skiel (Kiel), Bay of, 226.
+
+ Skilfings, 33, 35, 37, 39, 40.
+
+ Skjoeldebrand, A. F., 374.
+
+ Skokloster, 251.
+
+ Skytte, Johan, 193, 232.
+
+ Slavs, 28, 47-50, 54.
+
+ Sloane, Hans, 331.
+
+ Smaland, 5, 14, 29, 70, 72, 84, 111, 126, 133, 150, 166, 195, 215, 291,
+     327, 329.
+
+ Smith, S., 431.
+
+ Smolensk, 49, 188, 284.
+
+ Snaphaner, 226.
+
+ Snoilsky, 412, 427.
+
+ Snorre Sturleson, 33, 34, 35, 40, 41, 52, 265, 349.
+
+ Socialism, 433.
+
+ Soederkoeping, 116, 183.
+
+ Soederman, August, 431.
+
+ Soedermanland, 5, 9, 13, 23, 39, 58, 107, 133, 174.
+
+ Sohlman, Aug., 403.
+
+ Soop, Eric, 303.
+
+ Sophia (queens of Sweden), 81; 415.
+
+ Sophie Magdalene, queen of Sweden, 343.
+
+ Sound, the, 10, 93, 227;
+   naval battle of, 248.
+
+ South Company, 232.
+
+ Spain, Spanish, 45, 97, 209, 221, 352, 378.
+
+ Sparre, P. G., 389.
+
+ Sparrs�tra, battle of, 78.
+
+ Spectator, 338.
+
+ Spitzbergen, 424.
+
+ Sprengtporten, J. M., 344, 350.
+
+ Squire, 106, 131, 200.
+
+ Stade, 295.
+
+ Stadsfullm�gtige, 395.
+
+ St�ket, 124, 125, 131.
+
+ Stagnelius, E. J., 380-381.
+
+ Stanislav of Poland, 279, 281, 290, 295, 313.
+
+ Starb�ck, George, 389.
+
+ Steam hose, 387.
+
+ Stedingk, C. von, 350, 367.
+
+ Stefan, 74.
+
+ Stegeborg, 139, 185.
+
+ Stellin, 312.
+
+ Stenbock (see Catherine, queens of Sweden), Brita, 156;
+   Gustavus, Baron, 156, 162, 181;
+   Olof,171;
+   Eric, 176-182, 296;
+   Magdalen (see Sture);
+   Cecilia, 178-180;
+   Beatrix, 180;
+   Anne, 181;
+   Gustavus, 182;
+   Gustavus Otto, 250;
+   Magnus, Count, 182, 277, 284, 290, 291, 294-296.
+
+ Stenfi (Stephan), 58.
+
+ Stenhammar, W., 390.
+
+ Stenkil, 67-68, 70.
+
+ Stensoe, 132.
+
+ Stephan of Poland, 174.
+
+ Steuchius, Archbishop, 340.
+
+ Stiernhielm, Georg, 233, 235, 237.
+
+ Stiernhoek, 232.
+
+ Stiklastad, battle of, 62.
+
+ Stobeus, Chilian. 329.
+
+ Stockholm, 10, 36, 74, 75, 82, 84, 87, 90, 92, 95, 96, 100, 101, 107,
+     108, 109, 112, 116, 119, 121, 124, 125, 126, 127, 130, 133, 139,
+     140, 141, 143, 150, 158, 165, 169, 173, 180, 186, 190, 193, 199,
+     231-232, 272, 313, 317, 320, 321, 334, 338, 344, 362, 366, 373,
+     377, 384, 391, 397, 405, 418, 422;
+   Royal Palace, 303;
+   City University (see Universities);
+   Exchange, 337;
+   Posten, 377;
+   Royal Theatre, 346, 352, 413, 431.
+
+ Stolarm, Arvid, 185.
+
+ Stolbova, peace treaty of, 198.
+
+ Stolhandske, Torsten, 216-217, 218.
+
+ Stone Age, 11-16;
+   cists, 13.
+
+ Stongebro, battle of, 185.
+
+ Strahlenberg, J. von, 288.
+
+ Stralsund, siege of, 299-300.
+
+ Strandberg, C. W. A., 389.
+
+ Strengn�s, 71, 114, 128, 140.
+
+ Strindberg, August, 426-427, 428, 431;
+   Nils, 424.
+
+ Stroemstad, 307, 322.
+
+ Strole, Olof, 197.
+
+ Stromberg, Nils, 291-292.
+
+ Stuart, Mary, 162;
+   Charles Magnus, 270, 277.
+
+ Stuhm, battle of, 202-203.
+
+ Sture, 130, 140, 146, 181, 182;
+   original line: Sten Sture, the Elder, 113, 114-120, 121, 123,
+     130-131;
+   Natt och Dag branch: Nils Bosson, 108-109, 116, 118, 120, 123;
+   Svante Nilsson, 118-123, 141;
+   Sten Sture, the Younger, 123-129, 131, 142;
+   Nils Stensson, 147;
+   Svante Stensson, Count, 149, 151, 155, 156, 162, 168, 169-170, 177;
+   Nils Svantesson, 168, 169;
+   Eric, 170;
+   Martha (see Leijonhufvud);
+   Sigrid, 176-182;
+   Magdalen, 176-182, 296;
+   Anne, 177;
+   Margaret, 177, 179;
+   Christine, 177.
+
+ Sture Chronicles, 114.
+
+ Sturzen-Becker, O. P., 389.
+
+ Styrbioern Starke, 55-56.
+
+ Subsidies, 252, 316, 319.
+
+ Succession, Royal, 150, 151, 190, 310;
+   law of, 434.
+
+ Suchtelen, von, 359.
+
+ Sud, 49.
+
+ Suevian Sea, 26.
+
+ Suiones, 26.
+
+ Sundberg, Archbishop, 407.
+
+ Sunnanskogs, 5.
+
+ Sunnanv�der, Peder, 141-143, 147.
+
+ Suomi, 437.
+
+ Supreme Court. See Sweden.
+
+ "Surgeon's Stories," 413.
+
+ Sv�rdsbro, 179.
+
+ Sv�rdsjoe, 135.
+
+ Svartsjoe, 155, 173.
+
+ Sveaborg, fortress of, 317, 359-360.
+
+ Svealand, 5, 14, 19, 24, 27, 58, 68, 69, 83, 185.
+
+ "Svecia," 265-266.
+
+ Svedberg, Jesper, 321.
+
+ Svedbom, 431.
+
+ Sveijder, 35.
+
+ Svein, Norwegian jarl, 57-58.
+
+ Sven. See Blot-Sven.
+
+ Svend (Danish kings): Tjufvusk�gg, 57;
+   Estridsen, 63;
+   Grade, 72.
+
+ Svendborg, 246.
+
+ Svensksund, naval battles of, 350-351.
+
+ Sverdrup, J., 406.
+
+ Sverker, the Old, 71-73, 75;
+   the Younger, 74, 75-77.
+
+ Sviar, 27, 35, 47, 64.
+
+ Sviatoslaf, 51.
+
+ Svinesund, 307, 372.
+
+ Svithiod, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41.
+
+ Svolder, battle of, 57-58.
+
+ Swabia, 29, 213.
+
+ Sweden, 5, 11, 21, 26, 27, 31, 34, 42, 58, 64, 75, 90, 105, 126, 188,
+     192, 214, 221, 222, 223, 229-230, 250, 265, 272, 289, 291, 296,
+     298, 300, 309, 320-321, 363-364, 374, 403, 418, 432-434;
+   administration (see Government);
+   agriculture, 15, 117, 152, 260, 306, 317, 423;
+   alcohol industry, 387;
+   architects (see Architecture);
+   army, 152, 186, 201-202, 203, 231, 258-259, 283, 290, 296, 307,
+     408-410, 415-418;
+   art, 261, 303, 347, 382, 391, 412, 421, 428-431;
+   botanists (see Botany);
+   broadcloth, 335, 336, 337;
+   budget, 422;
+   cabinet, 365, 374, 376, 378, 382, 383, 391-392, 394-395, 399-400,
+     402, 404, 435, 436;
+   canals (see Gotha Canal);
+   civilization (see Cultural Development);
+   climate, 7;
+   colonies, 232;
+   commerce, 81-82, 85, 105, 116, 152, 176, 188, 198, 200, 260, 288,
+     302, 376, 387, 406, 407, 414, 421, 422;
+   communications, 374, 387, 406, 421;
+   communities, 39, 42, 64, 105, 396, 432;
+   composers (see Music);
+   constitution, 64, 65, 105, 255-258, 268, 292-293, 302, 310, 314,
+     318, 344, 349-350, 366, 378, 400, 434;
+   court, 87, 146, 154, 189, 240, 255, 318, 319, 338, 339;
+   court party, 318-320, 338;
+   criminal code, 395;
+   crown, 144, 149, 174-175, 201, 239, 255
+     (see also Crown lands, restitution of);
+   cultural development, 14, 18, 23, 30-31, 59-61, 68, 71-72, 98-99,
+     105, 114, 117-118, 141-142, 173, 188, 201, 232-233, 261-267,
+     302-306, 313, 320, 321-341, 345-347, 353, 380-381, 382, 388-390,
+     393, 405, 408, 411-413, 422-433;
+   dairy industry, 152, 425;
+   defence, 254, 260, 293, 374, 375, 408, 417-418;
+   departments, state, 199, 230, 298, 314, 378, 421, 435
+     (see also Cabinet and Ministers);
+   dialect research, 340, 341;
+   electric telegraph, 387, 422;
+   emblem, 164, 197;
+   engineers, 424-426;
+   estates (see Estates);
+   exports and imports, 422;
+   finance, 94, 187, 239, 243, 301-302, 306, 311, 313, 315, 319, 374,
+     407, 408, 422;
+   forests, 7, 18;
+   fundamental laws, 434-435;
+   geographical discoveries, 288, 424;
+   geology, 8, 12, 325;
+   government, 64, 65, 74, 85, 87, 88, 91, 92, 93, 96, 101-104, 108,
+     114, 115, 123, 149-150, 152-153, 161-162, 174, 176, 188, 189, 190,
+     203, 230, 233, 249-252, 253, 256-257, 258, 259-260, 271, 292-293,
+     300-302, 310-311, 312, 313, 315, 816, 317, 319, 320, 345, 354-355,
+     374, 378, 383-384, 390, 391, 395-401, 403, 404, 407, 409, 410-411,
+     416,418, 419, 435;
+   graves, 18, 14, 16, 17, 19, 23, 27;
+   historians (see History);
+   industries, 302, 306, 317, 319, 334-337, 383, 387, 393, 407, 421;
+   inland seas, 305, 325;
+   inventors, 304, 321, 322, 425-426;
+   kings, 26, 31, 40, 41, 42, 64-65, 67, 84, 85, 87, 92, 96, 99, 115,
+     125, 145, 150, 158, 189, 190, 191, 201, 242, 249, 253, 263, 268,
+     300, 308, 343, 382-383, 391, 401, 411, 414, 415, 434-435;
+   land-tax, 408, 410, 416;
+   language, 8, 9, 15, 47-48, 99, 153, 237, 238, 330, 340, 346-347, 390;
+   legislation, 82, 85-86, 89, 93, 105, 110, 314, 315, 383, 395-401,
+     416-418;
+   literature, 66-67, 80, 89, 98, 99, 121, 155, 233, 237, 261, 263,
+     337-339, 345-347, 380-382, 388-389, 405, 412-413, 414, 426-428;
+   loanwords, 8, 47;
+   manufactures, 306, 317, 335-336;
+   maritime code, 395;
+   metal engraving (see Art);
+   migrations, 34;
+   military districts and divisions, 417-418;
+   militia, 357, 365, 369, 409, 410, 416, 417;
+   mining industry, 82, 116, 152, 188, 201, 230-232, 260, 336;
+   municipal government, 395-396;
+   mythology, 31-32, 53;
+   national anthem, 434;
+   national character and temperament, 9, 10, 98, 354, 389-390, 405,
+     433-434;
+   naturalists (see Science);
+   navigation, 407, 422;
+   navy, 94, 149, 168, 226-227, 231, 253, 258-259, 416, 418;
+   one realm, 39, 42, 43, 64-65, 105;
+   painters (see Art);
+   philologists (see Philology);
+   philosophers (see Philosophy);
+   political grandeur, 191, 192-309;
+   population, 5, 8, 16, 94, 176, 193;
+   possessions, 253, 272, 292, 293, 299, 312
+     (see also Territory, Finland, and Baltic Dominion and Provinces);
+   postal service, 231, 421;
+   proper names, 32, 47, 48;
+   provincial laws, 8, 66-67, 70, 89, 98, 380, 392;
+   railways, 387, 406, 421;
+   regent, 68, 79, 88, 91, 108, 109, 113, 115, 120, 122, 124, 126, 140,
+     184, 353-356, 362-364, 391, 392-393;
+   Riksdag (see Riksdag);
+   scenery, 6, 98, 330, 391;
+   science, 9, 232, 240, 261, 265, 288, 302, 304-306, 321, 324-325, 332,
+     339, 340, 346, 380, 408, 414, 421, 426;
+   sculptors (see Art);
+   seal of state, 164;
+   sects, 432;
+   singers, song (see Music);
+   sloyd, 287;
+   state, 8, 64-65, 151, 192, 199, 230;
+   state law, 67, 98, 105, 110, 315;
+   state treasurer, 189, 250;
+   statesmen, 82, 87, 89, 146, 192, 199, 204, 220, 251, 312, 315-316,
+     317, 368, 392-393, 437;
+   suffrage, 396, 399, 433;
+   supreme court, 162, 174, 199, 200, 230, 350;
+   taxes, taxation, 76, 88, 103, 107, 201, 288, 238, 240, 279, 290, 293,
+     314, 317, 387, 396, 408, 410;
+   telephone system, 422;
+   territory, 6, 93, 104, 434;
+   towns, 10, 75, 82, 85, 116, 152, 176, 188, 311, 395, 397, 399;
+   town laws, 116;
+   tribes, 66, 105.
+
+ Swedenborg, E., 321-327, 332, 347.
+
+ "Swedish Fates and Adventures," 427.
+
+ Swinhufvud. See Barbro Stigsdotter.
+
+ Sword, Order of the, 318.
+
+ Systema Natur�, 330, 333.
+
+
+ T
+
+ Tacitus, 26, 27, 30, 434.
+
+ Tartars, 285.
+
+ Taube, Mathilde. See Grabow.
+
+ Tavastehus, 77, 358.
+
+ Tavasti, Tavastland, 77, 78, 88.
+
+ Tchudi, 47.
+
+ Te Deum, 277.
+
+ Tegn�r, Esaias, 353, 363, 381-382, 389;
+   Esaias, Junior, 423.
+
+ Telegraph. See Sweden.
+
+ Temperance movement, 387.
+
+ Terna, 133.
+
+ Tessin, Nicodemus, Senior, 302-303;
+   Nicodemus, Junior, 302-304, 317, 430;
+   Charles Gustavus, 317, 318, 332, 336, 339, 340.
+
+ Teuffel, General, 207.
+
+ Teutons, Teutonic, 8, 21, 22, 25, 26, 28, 44;
+   ancestors, 15;
+   languages, 8, 238, 342;
+   communities, 396, 432;
+   migrations, 20, 23, 44;
+   mythology, 30;
+   origin, 30, 265;
+   sea,25;
+   state, 64-65;
+   traditions, 29-30;
+   tribes, 30, 43.
+
+ Thegerstrom, Robert, 430.
+
+ Themptander, O. R., 416.
+
+ Theology, 340-341.
+
+ Theophilus, Emperor, 48.
+
+ Theosophy, 325, 412.
+
+ Thermometer, Centigrade, 321, 333.
+   See Celsius.
+
+ Thing (Assembly), 55, 56, 58, 61, 65, 72, 82, 86.
+
+ Thiodulf of Hvin, 33, 35, 41.
+
+ Thirty Years' War, 193, 202-229, 231, 236, 261, 281, 312, 434.
+
+ Thomas, Bishop, 114, 121.
+
+ Thomasius, 266.
+
+ Thor, 30-31.
+
+ Thorild, T., 346, 355.
+
+ Thorn, 172.
+
+ Thorvald, Hialte, 56.
+
+ Thraldom, 82, 93, 137, 309.
+
+ Thule, 24, 25, 28, 29.
+
+ Thunberg, D., 375.
+
+ Tidemand, 405.
+
+ Tilly, 203, 206-209, 210-211.
+
+ Timutarsz, 297, 298.
+
+ Tiundaland, 39, 62.
+
+ Tiveden, 83, 127.
+
+ Tobacco, 336.
+
+ Tobolsk, 287.
+
+ Toennig, fortress of, 295-296.
+
+ "Toernroseus bok," 389.
+
+ Toll, J. C., 344, 356, 357.
+
+ Tomte Mats, 137.
+
+ Topelius, Z., 412-413.
+
+ Tordenskiold, Peter, 307, 311, 322.
+
+ Toresson. See Ahlstroemer.
+
+ Torgau, retreat from, 224.
+
+ Torgny, 62.
+
+ Tormentor of Denmark, 122.
+
+ Torne, River, 363.
+
+ Torpa, 156, 181.
+
+ Torsslov, O. U., 390.
+
+ Torstensson, Lennart, 223, 225-229, 239, 245, 248.
+
+ Tott, Eric Axelson, 113, 117;
+   Ivar Axelson, 113, 117;
+   Ingeborg, 118;
+   Ake, 173;
+   Clas, 175.
+
+ Traventhal, peace treaty of, 274.
+
+ Tre Rosor, 282 note;
+   Ture Joensson, 146, 148, 149, 156;
+   John Turesson, 149, 156, 158;
+   Gustavus Johnsson, Count, 156, 162.
+
+ Trolle, Eric, 123, 124;
+   Gustavus, Archbishop, 124-125, 127-128, 129, 139, 142, 148.
+
+ Trollhetta, waterfalls of, 306, 375.
+
+ Tromp, Admiral, 253.
+
+ Truso, 43.
+
+ Truvor, 47, 48.
+
+ Tryggve. See Truvor.
+
+ Turgot, 59.
+
+ Turkey, Turks, 283, 287, 293, 294, 296-298, 299, 303, 305, 388.
+
+ Tver, battle of, 188.
+
+ Tyr, 30.
+
+ Tyrol, 6.
+
+
+ U
+
+ Ube, River, 206.
+
+ Ukraine, 285, 286, 292.
+
+ Uleoborg, 358.
+
+ Ulf, jarls, 74; 78, 79.
+
+ Ulf Gudmundsson, 97.
+
+ Ulfhild, 71.
+
+ Ulfsson, Jacob, 117, 124, 133.
+
+ Ulrica Eleonore, queens of Sweden, 255, 268, 274; 269, 289, 298, 309,
+     310, 311, 312, 313, 316.
+
+ Ulricsdal, 391.
+
+ Union, Act of, 4, 92, 93, 94, 101-102, 104, 114, 120, 129, 151,
+     166-167, 317, 372-374, 393, 395, 420;
+   nature of the, 419-421, 437;
+   revision of the, 386, 394-395, 406, 421.
+
+ Union government, 420, 438;
+   defence, 420, 438;
+   parliament, 420, 438.
+
+ Unionism, Unionist party, 110, 111, 114, 120, 121, 122, 123, 130,
+     393-395, 415-416.
+
+ Unitarianism, 325, 412.
+
+ United States, 436, 437-438 (see also America);
+   President of, 434.
+
+ Universities, 117, 131, 153, 183, 189, 230, 235, 250, 304, 322, 327,
+     329, 339, 340-341, 356, 380, 385, 390, 405, 411, 413, 422-423.
+
+ Unne, 55.
+
+ Upland, 5, 10, 23, 35, 39, 48, 73, 78, 89, 90, 97, 105, 107, 110, 124,
+     139, 185, 391.
+
+ Uppstroem, A., 137 note.
+
+ Upsala, 10, 33, 35, 37, 38, 39, 42, 51, 68, 71, 74, 107, 120, 131, 134,
+     139, 142, 143, 147, 153, 157, 161, 175, 183, 201, 235, 240, 262,
+     264, 304, 322, 323, 329, 330, 331-332, 340, 356, 380, 413;
+   cathedral, 82, 112;
+   meeting, 183;
+   University (see Universities);
+   University Botanical Garden, 329, 362;
+   Library, 201, 235;
+   Observatory, 333;
+   temple, 59, 60, 68, 71.
+
+ Uranus, 324.
+
+ Usedom, island of, 205, 229, 312.
+
+ Utilitarianism, 337, 432.
+
+ Utmeland, 137.
+
+ "Utopia Realized," 427.
+
+
+ V
+
+ Vadstena, 98-99, 104, 107, 120, 140, 164, 173, 184, 304.
+
+ V�r�l�, peace treaty of, 351.
+
+ V�rend, 29, 58, 66, 72.
+
+ V�rfvade, 417.
+
+ V�ringar, 49.
+
+ Valdemar of Sweden, 80-84, 89.
+
+ Valdemar (kings of Denmark): Seier, 76, 77;
+   Atterdag, 95, 100.
+
+ Valdemar, Prince, 87, 89-91.
+
+ Vandals, 47.
+
+ Vanlande, 35.
+
+ Varanger Bay, 378, 387-388.
+
+ Varberg, 167, 168.
+
+ Variagi, Varangians, 46-53.
+
+ Varinians, 29.
+
+ Vasa dynasty, family, 130, 163, 187, 193, 194, 249;
+   Original line: Krister Nilsson, 108, 110, 130;
+   Kettil Karlsson, 112-113;
+   Eric Johansson, 128, 130;
+   Gustavus Ericsson (see Gustavus I.);
+   Eric (see Eric XIV.);
+   John (see John III.);
+   Magnus (see Magnus, Princes of Sweden);
+   Charles (see Charles IX.);
+   Gustavus Ericsson, 172-173;
+   Sigrid, 172-173, 177;
+   Sigismund (see Sigismund);
+   John, Duke (see John);
+   Charles Philip (see Charles);
+   Catherine (see Catherine, Countess-Palatine);
+   Gustavus Adolphus (see Gustavus II. Adolphus);
+   Christine (see Christine, queens of Sweden);
+   Polish line, 163, 240;
+   Sigismund (see Sigismund);
+   Vladislav, 186, 188, 243;
+   John II. Casimir, 243-244.
+
+ Vasa Renaissance. See Renaissance.
+
+ Vasa, town, 360.
+
+ Vassili, Czar. See Schuisky.
+
+ Vaxholm, fortress of, 197, 418.
+
+ Venar, Lake, 5, 69.
+
+ Vends, Vendish, 57, 63, 75.
+
+ Vennerberg, Gunnar, 389-390, 409, 413.
+
+ Verden, 229, 235, 312.
+
+ Vermland, 5, 40, 41, 43, 55, 68, 83, 107, 111, 116, 174, 194, 229, 307,
+     308, 335.
+
+ Vessi, 47.
+
+ "Verzage nicht," 215.
+
+ Vettar, Lake, 5, 77, 164, 418.
+
+ Vexio, 71, 84, 291, 327, 328, 331.
+
+ Viborg, fortress of, 88, 118, 292, 312, 351.
+
+ Victoria, crown princess of Sweden-Norway, 415.
+
+ Vienna, 203, 226, 299;
+   Congress of, 372-373;
+   Exposition, 421;
+   peace treaty of, 405;
+   siege of, 228-229.
+
+ Viken 46.
+
+ Viking Age, Vikings, 8, 24, 41, 44-63, 66, 70.
+
+ Vilmanstrand, battle of, 316.
+
+ Vincentius, Bishop, 128.
+
+ Virdar, 29.
+
+ Virta, battle of, 358.
+
+ Visbur. 35.
+
+ Visby, 85, 95, 304.
+
+ Visigoths, 236.
+
+ Visingsborg, 251.
+
+ Visingsoe, 77, 87, 180.
+
+ Vistula, 21, 27, 31.
+
+ Vitalen, or Victualen Brotherhood, 101.
+
+ Vitesjoe, battle of, 195.
+
+ Vladimir, St., 51, 52.
+
+ Vladislav. See Vasa, Polish line.
+
+ Voldg�stning, 86.
+
+ Volga, 50.
+
+ Volmar, 187.
+
+ Voltaire, 347.
+
+ Vordingborg, 247.
+
+ Vorskla, River, 285, 286.
+
+ Vossius, 236-237.
+
+
+ W
+
+ Wachtmeister, Hans, 259;
+   Hans Hansson, 435.
+
+ Wahlberg, Edward, 429.
+
+ Wallachia, 22, 299.
+
+ Wallenstein, 203, 204, 210-218, 221.
+
+ Wallhof, battle of, 202.
+
+ Wallin, J. O., Archbishop, 381.
+
+ Wallis, Curt, 424.
+
+ Walloons, 231.
+
+ War of Clubs, 184.
+
+ Warburg, K., 248.
+
+ Warsaw, battle of, 244;
+   conquest of, 244, 278;
+   diet of, 278.
+
+ Washington, George, 367.
+
+ Weibule, M., 424.
+
+ Weimar. See Bernhard, Duke of Weimar.
+
+ Wendland, 43.
+
+ Werben, 206.
+
+ Westerbotten, West Bothnia, 5, 16.
+
+ Westerlund, Dr., 424.
+
+ Westeros, 71, 107, 108, 128, 124, 128, 139, 141, 143, 151, 171, 262;
+   Ordinantia and Recess, 145-146; 151.
+
+ West Gothland. See Gothland.
+
+ Westmanland, 5, 58, 106, 107, 112, 116, 147, 195.
+
+ Westphalia, 236;
+   Peace of, 229.
+
+ Wetterstedt, G. af, 374.
+
+ Wetterstrand, Dr., 424.
+
+ Wickman, G., 431.
+
+ Wikblad, S. H., 435.
+
+ Wikner, Pontus, 423.
+
+ William, Bishop of Salima, 78.
+
+ William I. of Germany, 415.
+
+ William of Orange, 259.
+
+ Windau, 203.
+
+ Windsor, 237.
+
+ Wingard, C. F. af, 383.
+
+ Wirs�n, G. F. af, 374, 378.
+
+ Wismar, 229, 857.
+
+ Witches, 251.
+
+ Witmar, 54.
+
+ Wittelsbachs, The, 249.
+
+ Wittstock, battle of, 223.
+
+ Wolfenbuttel, battle of, 224.
+
+ Wolgast, 222.
+
+ Wollin, island of, 56, 229, 312.
+
+ Women's rights, 383.
+
+ Wrangel, 286;
+   Herman, 202;
+   Charles Gustavus, 227, 229, 248, 250, 251, 252, 257.
+
+ Wulfila, 67, 235, 287, 341.
+
+ Wulfstan, 43.
+
+
+ Y
+
+ Yeoman, Yeomanry, 72, 73, 78, 106, 108, 111, 114, 186, 144, 146, 149,
+     158, 192, 199, 201, 233, 238, 251, 253, 255, 258, 260, 314, 316,
+     318, 350, 357, 397, 407, 416, 432.
+
+ Ynglinga Saga, 31, 33-41, 51.
+
+ Ynglingatal, 33-41.
+
+ Ynglings, Yngling kings, 33-41.
+
+ Yngvar, 38-39.
+
+ Yngve, Swedish kings, 35; 36.
+
+ York, 58.
+
+ Yrsa, 38.
+
+
+ Z
+
+ Zamoisky, 187.
+
+ Zettervall, H., 430.
+
+ Zo�logy, 380.
+
+ Zorn, A. L., 430.
+
+
+
+
+    Transcriber's notes:
+
+    Some entries in the index appeared out of alphabetical order. They
+    have been moved.
+
+    The following is a list of changes made to the original.
+    The first line is the original line, the second the corrected one.
+
+    Page 252:
+
+    in 1672, whon he himself took charge of the government,
+    in 1672, when he himself took charge of the government,
+
+    Page 429:
+
+    Prince Eugene, Eugene Jansson, Ernest Josephson, Nils Kreuger,
+    Prince Eugene, Eugene Jansson, Ernst Josephson, Nils Kreuger,
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Sweden, by Victor Nilsson
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SWEDEN ***
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Sweden, by Victor Nilsson.
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Sweden, by Victor Nilsson
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Sweden
+
+Author: Victor Nilsson
+
+Release Date: January 8, 2014 [EBook #44624]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SWEDEN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Ann Jury, Paul Clark and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<div class="transnote">
+<p>Transcriber's Note:</p>
+
+<p>Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as
+possible. Some changes have been made. They are listed at the end of
+the text.</p>
+</div>
+
+<h1>Sweden</h1>
+
+<div class="center">
+<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="396" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="center p2">
+<img src="images/frontispiece.png" width="389" height="600" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="center p2">
+<img id="coverpage" src="images/titlepage.jpg" width="365" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Copyright 1899<br />
+By PETER FENELON COLLIER</span>
+</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a><br /><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a><br /><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="SWEDEN" id="SWEDEN">SWEDEN</a></h2>
+
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a></h2>
+
+<table summary="contents">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="tdr small">PAGE</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><a href="#INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</a></td><td class="tdp">5</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a></h3>
+<p class="hanging">SWEDEN IN PREHISTORIC AND EARLY HISTORIC TIMES&mdash;ARCHÆOLOGICAL
+FINDS AND CLASSICAL TESTIMONY</p></td>
+<td class="tdp">11</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a></h3>
+<p class="hanging">DAWN OF SWEDISH HISTORY&mdash;HEIMSKRINGLA AND YNGLINGATAL</p></td>
+<td class="tdp">33</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a></h3>
+<p class="hanging">THE VIKING AGE&mdash;ANSGAR, THE APOSTLE OF SWEDEN</p></td>
+<td class="tdp">44</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a></h3>
+<p class="hanging">EARLY CHRISTIAN ERA&mdash;STENKIL’S LINE AND INTERCHANGING
+DYNASTIES</p></td>
+<td class="tdp">64</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a></h3>
+<p class="hanging">THE MEDIÆVAL STATE&mdash;THE FOLKUNG DYNASTY</p></td>
+<td class="tdp">80</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a></h3>
+<p class="hanging">UNIONISM VERSUS PATRIOTISM&mdash;MARGARET, ENGELBREKT AND
+CHARLES KNUTSSON</p></td>
+<td class="tdp">100</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a></h3>
+<p class="hanging">UNIONISM VERSUS PATRIOTISM&mdash;UNCROWNED KINGS OF THE STURE
+FAMILIES</p></td>
+<td class="tdp">115</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a></h3>
+<p class="hanging">REVOLUTION AND REFORMATION&mdash;GUSTAVUS VASA</p></td>
+<td class="tdp">130</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a></h3>
+<p class="hanging">REFORMATION AND REACTION&mdash;THE SONS OF GUSTAVUS I.</p></td>
+<td class="tdp">161</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a></h3>
+<p class="hanging">PERIOD OF POLITICAL GRANDEUR&mdash;GUSTAVUS II. ADOLPHUS</p></td>
+<td class="tdp">192<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</a></h3>
+<p class="hanging">PERIOD OF POLITICAL GRANDEUR&mdash;QUEEN CHRISTINE</p></td>
+<td class="tdp">220</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</a></h3>
+<p class="hanging">PERIOD OF POLITICAL GRANDEUR&mdash;CHARLES X. AND CHARLES XI.</p></td>
+<td class="tdp">242</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</a></h3>
+<p class="hanging">PERIOD OF POLITICAL GRANDEUR&mdash;CHARLES XII.</p></td>
+<td class="tdp">268</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV</a></h3>
+<p class="hanging">PERIOD OF LIBERTY&mdash;THE ARISTOCRATIC REPUBLIC</p></td>
+<td class="tdp">310</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV</a></h3>
+<p class="hanging">GUSTAVIAN PERIOD&mdash;GUSTAVUS III. AND GUSTAVUS IV. ADOLPHUS</p></td>
+<td class="tdp">343</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI</a></h3>
+<p class="hanging">THE CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY&mdash;CHARLES XIII. AND THE EARLY
+BERNADOTTES</p></td>
+<td class="tdp">365</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII</a></h3>
+<p class="hanging">PARLIAMENTARY REFORM&mdash;CHARLES XV.</p></td>
+<td class="tdp">391</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><h3><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII</a></h3>
+<p class="hanging">PROGRESS AND PROSPERITY&mdash;OSCAR II.</p></td>
+<td class="tdp">414</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</a></h2>
+
+<p>The kingdom of Sweden occupies the eastern and larger
+part of the Scandinavian peninsula, covering an area of one
+hundred and seventy thousand six hundred and sixty square
+miles, with a population of somewhat more than five millions.
+Sweden is of nearly the same width, from east to
+west, throughout her whole length. If the country were
+divided into four equal parts, the southernmost part would
+correspond to the district of Gothaland, the next to the district
+of Svealand, consisting of most of what is north of the
+lakes Venar and Vetter and what is south of the Dal River,
+while the two remaining parts together would make up the
+district of Norrland. Gothaland, in ancient times called
+<i>Sunnanskogs</i> (South of the Woods), consists of the old
+provinces Scania, Bleking, Smaland and East Gothland
+by the Baltic, Halland and Bohuslæn by the North Sea,
+and West Gothland of the interior. Svealand, or <i>Nordanskogs</i>,
+consists of the provinces Sœdermanland and Upland
+by the Baltic, south and north of Lake Mælar, respectively,
+Dal, Vermland and Dalecarlia on the Norwegian frontier,
+and Nerike and Westmanland of the interior. Norrland
+consists of the provinces of Gestrikland, Helsingland, Medelpad,
+Angermanland and Westerbotten by the Gulf of
+Bothnia, a branch of the Baltic, and Herjedal, Jemtland
+and the Lapmark on the Norwegian frontier. A great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
+number of islands form part of the kingdom, of which the
+two largest, Gothland and Œland, are situated in the Baltic.
+One-twelfth of the area, or as much as the whole
+state of Denmark, consists of water.</p>
+
+<p>Sweden is politically united with Norway and ruled by
+the same king, these united kingdoms forming the largest
+realm in Europe next to Russia, Sweden herself ranking
+as the sixth in size.</p>
+
+<p>Sweden is a country which offers striking varieties in
+scenery and conditions. In the southernmost province of
+Scania, an ancient home of culture, the nightingale and the
+stork dwell in the fertile plains, and the walnut, mulberry
+and chestnut trees render ripening fruit. Central Sweden
+is a wooded plateau, rich in rocky hills and inland seas.
+Although barren lands occupy large areas, these parts are
+characterized by a loveliness and picturesqueness which
+are still more pronounced in the northern provinces along
+the coast. Only in the inner mountainous regions of Norrland
+is the scenery of real grandeur where the white-capped
+giants appear in vast groups, or in isolated peaks of six
+thousand to seven thousand feet in altitude, where a hundred
+glaciers with glacier rivers, moraines and erosions
+cover a surface almost as large as the glaciers of Tyrol,
+and where, in the turbulent course of mighty rivers, are
+formed tremendous waterfalls, one of them, The Hare’s
+Leap, being the largest in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Geologically considered, Sweden is situated around the
+centre of the ancient Scandinavian land-ice, and in the
+greater part of the country only two of the geological
+series, the oldest and the youngest, are represented. Thus
+the uneven, undulating surface of the Archæan rocks, on
+which almost the whole country is firmly set, is in general<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>
+covered with quaternary deposits of gravel and clay. The
+mountains are rich in iron ore, the streams and lakes in
+fish, the woods in game, but the soil, itself of a good quality,
+unfortunately rich in stones. This last-mentioned circumstance,
+together with the rather severe climate, which
+yet is a good deal milder than might be expected, especially
+in the southern and western parts of the country, makes
+agriculture, which is the most important industry, profitable
+only on the extensive plains of Scania, Upland and
+West and East Gothland. Still barley and rye are cultivated
+within the Polar Circle, ripening in remarkably
+short time under the nocturnal light of the Midsummer
+sun. Dense forests cover Sweden in the very
+same latitude in which Greenland is clad by eternal
+ice. The short summers are of a surpassing loveliness.
+In Norrland there is a Swedish <i>læn</i>, or governmental
+district, of the size of the State of Ohio, on
+which, between the 5th of June and the 11th of July, the
+sun never sets. If the earth was perfectly plain and even
+one would be able to see the sun above the horizon continually
+during this period. But these northerly regions are
+very mountainous, and consequently you will have to climb
+a high peak in order to see the wonderful sight of a sun
+which stands still when it should set, and which marks
+the difference between night and day only by a rolling
+motion in the horizon. There is no country in the world
+where so many places for such observation are reached
+so easily as in Sweden. One may travel the whole distance
+from the southernmost point of the country to the very base
+of a mountain, Gellivara, Sweden’s Klondike, from which
+the midnight sun can be seen for thirty-seven nights in
+succession. But although the sun itself is visible only from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>
+the mountain peaks above the Polar Circle, the nocturnal
+light steeps the whole realm in midsummer-night’s dreams
+of magic colors and reflections.</p>
+
+<p>The Swedish people are of Teutonic stock and have
+lived in the land they still inhabit for at least four thousand
+years, during this entire period not having assimilated
+other nationalities, or at least to no extent worth mentioning,
+so that the Swedish nation is of an origin far purer
+than any other at present existing.</p>
+
+<p>The kingdom of Sweden is the most ancient of the states
+still extant in Europe, for all historical monuments prove
+that the Swedes have kept to about their present territory,
+perfectly independent of foreign nations, probably for a long
+time divided into lesser communities, but for the past twelve
+hundred years united in one single realm. The languages
+spoken in the Scandinavian North belong to the Teutonic
+family of Indo-European languages, and seem to have been
+one and almost homogeneous up to the time of the Viking
+Age (about 700-1060), when various dialects commence to
+be distinguished. The old uniform language has been
+preserved in Northern loanwords in the Finnish and Lap
+languages and in about one hundred of the oldest Runic inscriptions.
+The early Old Swedish, from the Viking Age to
+somewhat later than 1200, did not differ much from the
+Old Norse (the Old Norwegian and Old Icelandic), while
+the difference from the Old Danish was almost imperceptible.
+The sources for the study of this language period are
+about two thousand later Runic inscriptions and nearly one
+hundred Old Swedish loanwords, almost all proper names,
+in the Russian language. The classical period of Old Swedish
+falls between 1200 and about 1350. Its most important
+monuments are the provincial laws and a manuscript collec<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>tion
+of saintly legends, called Codex Bureanus. The language
+of this period offers a number of dialects, of which
+only one, the Gutnic, is strictly defined. In the next period
+of Old Swedish, from 1350 to the Reformation, a universal
+language for the whole country is distinguished. The so-called
+Oxenstiern manuscripts and Codex Bildstenianus are
+the chief sources of our knowledge of this language period,
+mostly of religious contents. Modern Swedish dates from
+the Reformation, its later period being counted from the
+publication of the state law in 1734. The Swedish language
+seems to be based chiefly upon the dialect of Sœdermanland,
+with influences from other dialects. Among the Scandinavian
+languages, Swedish ranks next to the Icelandic in point
+of purity, and is the foremost of them all in point of beauty.</p>
+
+<p>The Swedes are a hardworking, industrious and intelligent
+race, not fully conscious of their own rich endowment
+and slow to push their individual claims. In moments of
+danger and distress, this people give evidence of an active
+heroism, which offers a great contrast to their usual quiet
+and peaceful demeanor. The Swedish nation is endowed
+with an unusual inventive power, which has placed it in
+the first rank of scientific research, having produced a quota
+of initiative spirits, as originators, founders and innovators
+of sciences, which is considerably larger than that of any
+other modern country, in proportion to the population. The
+national temperament is, like the soil, composed of extremes.
+With the serene quiet and almost sullen tranquillity goes a
+patience of extraordinary endurance which, when it gives
+in, surprises by the passion which takes its place. To the
+melancholy trait in the Swedish character is contrasted a
+great desire for the pleasures of life and exuberant animal
+spirits. Under a quiet surface, the Swede conceals a rapid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+comprehension and an almost morbid sensitiveness, sometimes
+causing people of other nationalities to judge him
+slow of intellect or perfidious, when he is only slow of action
+or indisposed to show his feelings. The most valuable
+inheritance from his ancestors is his moral courage, while
+the ancient Northern trait of self-restraint is often carried
+to an extreme. Akin to both is his dignity. He possesses
+great musical and improvisatorial gifts which complete his
+lyric-rhetorical temperament.</p>
+
+<p>There are some 6,000 Laplanders and some 20,000 Finns
+living in the furthest North, and foreigners to the number
+of about 20,000 dwell in Sweden, mostly Norwegians, Finns
+and Danes. More than 99 per cent of the population consists
+of native Swedes, and 99.9 per cent belong to the
+Lutheran state church or the Protestant denominations.</p>
+
+<p>The principal towns are Stockholm, the capital, with
+300,000 inhabitants, enchantingly beautiful in situation, on
+the mainland and islands at the outlet of Lake Mælar into
+the Baltic; Gothenburg, with 120,000 inhabitants, the chief
+commercial centre, at the mouth of the Gotha River, by
+the North Sea; Malmœ, with 60,000 inhabitants, in Scania,
+by the Sound. The university towns of Upsala, in Upland,
+and Lund, in Scania, have 25,000 and 17,000 inhabitants,
+respectively.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="HISTORY_OF_SWEDEN" id="HISTORY_OF_SWEDEN">HISTORY OF SWEDEN</a></h2>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a><br />
+<span class="smaller"><i>Sweden in Prehistoric and Early Historic Times&mdash;Archæological
+Finds and Classical Testimony</i></span></h2>
+
+<p>The Swedes, although the oldest and most unmixed
+race in Europe, realized very late the necessity of
+writing chronicles or reviews of historic events.
+Thus the names of heroes and kings of the remotest past
+are helplessly forgotten, and lost also the history of its
+earliest religion and institutions.</p>
+
+<p>But Mother Earth has carefully preserved most of what
+has been deposited in her bosom, and has repaid diligent
+research with trustworthy and irrefutable accounts of the
+age and various degrees of civilization of the race which
+inhabited Sweden in prehistoric times. Thus it has been
+proved that Sweden, like most other countries, has had a
+Stone Age, a Bronze Age, and an Iron Age. But there is
+absolutely no evidence to prove the now antiquated theories
+of various immigrations into Sweden by different races on
+different stages of civilization. On the contrary, the graves
+from the remotest times, through all successive periods,
+prove by the form of the skulls of those buried in them that
+Sweden has, through all ages, been inhabited by the same
+dolichocephalic, or long-headed, race which constitutes the
+overwhelming majority of her people to-day.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Sweden, physically considered, is not of as high antiquity
+as some countries of Europe. Yet it has been
+inhabited during the last four thousand years, at least.
+In the quaternary period the Scandinavian peninsula was
+a centre of a glacial movement which spread its disastrous
+influences over Western Russia, Northern Germany and
+Holland. In that period no vegetable or animal life was
+possible in Sweden. From the fact that the earliest stone
+celts found in Sweden and Denmark are not polished, archæologists
+were led to suppose that the Stone Age of the
+North was contemporaneous with the Palæolithic civilization
+in Western Europe. But this standpoint has been
+found untenable, because it has later become evident that
+the fauna surrounding the earliest inhabitants of the
+Northern countries was ours and not a quaternary one.</p>
+
+<p>The oldest types of finds of <i>the Stone Age</i> in the North
+have been discovered in the refuse-heaps on the Danish
+coast. These refuse-heaps, consisting of stone implements,
+shells, bones, etc., do not occur in Sweden, but the implements
+characteristic of them are found scattered over some
+parts of the southernmost Swedish province of Scania. The
+shape of these earliest finds is exactly the same as of those
+of the later Stone Age, the only difference being that the
+former are not polished. But there are transitions between
+the classes, and the act of polishing must be regarded as an
+important phase of progress.</p>
+
+<p>The Stone Age of Sweden is quite remarkable. If the
+remains of the earlier period are scanty, the finds from the
+later one are all the more numerous. With the exception
+of Denmark and a part of North Germany, there is no European
+country which can boast of such rich and beautiful
+relics from the later Stone Age as the southern part of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>
+Sweden. The finds in the other countries mentioned are
+almost exactly like those of Sweden from the Stone and the
+Bronze Ages, both as far as implements and skulls are concerned,
+proving them to have been settled by the same race.</p>
+
+<p>The weapons and implements from the Stone Age consist
+of axes, daggers, spearheads, arrowheads, saws, and
+knives of flint; axes, gauges, handmills of stone; fishhooks
+and arrowheads of bone; earthenware, etc., etc. The graves
+of this period are dolmens, passage-graves, and stone cists,
+the last mentioned either uncovered or covered with a barrow.
+The different forms of burial places seem to indicate
+four successive stages of the period. Through their existence
+it becomes probable that the inhabitants of Sweden
+during the Stone Age had fixed dwelling places.</p>
+
+<p>A dolmen is a grave-chamber of which the walls are
+formed of large, thick stones set up edgewise, covered with
+one huge block of stone as a roof, all the stones being rough
+outside and smooth inside. The passage-graves are built
+in the same way, but are larger and distinguished by a long
+covered passage leading to it. These graves are surrounded
+by a low barrow, upon the top of which the huge roof-stones
+were originally visible. Dolmens and passage-graves occur
+in Sweden in considerable numbers along the coast of
+Scania, on the plains of West Gothland and in Bohuslæn,
+more sparsely in other parts of West Gothland and in Halland,
+with stray cases of graves of a similar construction
+in Nerike and Western Sœdermanland. It is important to
+note the regions in which these graves have been found, for
+they must be identical with the parts of the earliest settlements.
+Such graves are also very common in Denmark,
+while only one has been found in Norway.</p>
+
+<p>The stone cists resemble very much the chamber of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+passage-grave. They are larger and four-sided, and built
+of somewhat thinner stones. Stone cists standing partly
+visible above the barrow constitute a form peculiar to
+Sweden, occurring in great numbers in West Gothland,
+Bohuslæn, Dalsland and Southwestern Vermland, while
+the covered stone cists appear in the same provinces and
+in Nerike, East Gothland, Smaland, Bleking and the Island
+of Gothland.</p>
+
+<p>During the Stone Age the bodies were buried unburned,
+in a recumbent or sitting position. By the side of the dead
+body was usually placed a weapon, a tool, or some ornaments,
+sometimes also earthenware vessels, now filled only
+with earth. These vessels may once have contained food.
+The elaborate graves seem to indicate a belief in a future
+life. The food, if any such was placed by the side of the
+dead, would not necessarily point to the fact that such a
+future life was imagined merely as a continuation of earth
+life. The heathen Scandinavians of a later age believed
+that the dead remained for some time in their burial place
+before reaching their ultimate destination. For their possible
+wants during this intermediate state food was left
+with the dead body.</p>
+
+<p>The total number of relics of stone found in Sweden is
+64,000. Of these only 4,000 belong to Svealand and Norrland,
+while of all the rest found in Gothaland 45,000 belong
+to Scania alone.</p>
+
+<p>In a much later age the Scandinavians were regarded
+as pure barbarians. For this reason it is important to observe
+that graves from the Stone Age show that the Swedes
+in that remote period had several domesticated animals,
+the dog, horse, ox, swine, sheep, and, perhaps, also the
+goat. Hence they were certainly a pastoral people, not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
+living exclusively by hunting and fishing. But whether
+they practiced agriculture cannot be decided in the present
+state of our knowledge. The fact that the very oldest
+graves are found in the most fertile districts of Southern
+Sweden seems to speak in favor of the supposition that
+agriculture was known and appreciated.</p>
+
+<p>Of metals, even of gold, the people of the late Stone
+Age were entirely ignorant, also of the art of writing.
+Hence no monuments of their language will ever be found.
+Still it is highly probable that the Teutonic ancestors of the
+Swedes began to settle in the land from the beginning of
+the Stone Age.</p>
+
+<p>It is true that some skulls, very much like those of the
+Laps, have also been found in the graves of the Stone Age;
+but it must be borne in mind that these burial places, impressive
+through their size and the amount of work and
+mechanical skill necessary for their erection, can be believed
+to have been originally intended only for kings or chieftains,
+and their families. It was probably a custom, as
+in later heathen times, to bury with such distinguished
+people a number of slaves, dead or alive. The presence of
+skulls of a non-Scandinavian type can thus be explained,
+without the necessity of accepting the theory of an early
+mixture of two races.</p>
+
+<p>In the northern part of Sweden have been found relics
+of stone, usually of slate, which do not appear to have
+belonged to the people of the dolmens or passage-graves.
+They bear a close resemblance to those found in Finland
+and in other countries inhabited by Laps, Finns and peoples
+related to them. This seems to prove that these so-called
+Arctic stone implements are relics of the Laps and
+belong to the time when this people was still ignorant of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
+the use of metal. Judging from the number of relics
+found on the coast, from Westerbotten to Gestrikland, and
+in Dalecarlia, the Laps dwelt also in somewhat more southerly
+parts of Sweden than at the present day. So far south
+as in the middle provinces, no Arctic stone relics have been
+found, still less in any of the southern provinces. This
+seems to indicate that the Laps and the Swedes did not
+dwell in the same parts of the country during the Stone
+Age, and their intercourse, if any, must have been of a
+very accidental and casual nature.</p>
+
+<p>That the Stone Age lasted a very long time in the
+North is proved by the fact that it reached a far higher
+development there than anywhere else in Europe. The
+best authorities think that it must have ended rather
+before than after 1500 <span class="small">B.C.</span>, or 3,500 years before our
+time.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Bronze Age</i> followed upon the Stone Age. Flint
+exists in Sweden and was easily found. There are also
+copper mines, but their working is of comparatively modern
+date. The copper of the Bronze Age must have been
+brought from abroad, and tin, necessary for the production
+of bronze, is foreign to Scandinavia. The knowledge of
+the working of any metal proves an immense progress.
+Yet there are strong grounds for the opinion that the beginning
+of the Bronze Age in Sweden was not connected
+with any great immigration of a new race, but that the
+inhabitants learned the art of working bronze by intercourse
+with other nations. The resemblance of the graves
+during the last part of the Stone Age and the early part
+of the Bronze Age points most strongly to such a conclusion.
+From Asia the knowledge of bronze, and the higher
+civilization dependent on it, had gradually spread itself<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
+over the continent of Europe, in a northerly and northwesterly
+direction, until it reached the coasts of the Baltic.</p>
+
+<p>The Bronze Age of Sweden began about 1500 <span class="small">B.C.</span>, and
+lasted for a thousand years, or until the beginning of the
+fifth century before Christ. The period has been divided
+into an Earlier and a Later Bronze Age, a division which
+has been questioned as to its absolute correctness. The
+works from the former are decorated with fine spiral ornaments
+and zigzag lines. The graves generally contain remains
+of unburned bodies. The antiquities of the Earlier
+Bronze Age, almost without an exception, appear to be of
+native workmanship. They are distinguished by artistic
+forms and point to a highly developed taste in the working
+of bronze. They generally surpass in this respect the
+relics of the Bronze Age found in almost all other European
+countries. The works belonging to the Later Bronze
+Age are characterized by a very different taste and style
+of ornamentation, though even they are often the result
+of great skill. The spiral ornaments are no longer predominant,
+but the ends of rings, knife-handles, and the
+like, are often rolled up in spiral volutes.</p>
+
+<p>During this period the dead were always burned. Buttons,
+sword-hilts, and other works of bronze were sometimes
+decorated with pieces of amber and resin inlaid.
+Objects are also often found overlaid with thin plates of
+gold.</p>
+
+<p>Remarkable are the rock-carvings from this period.
+The Swedes of the Bronze Age understood, by a kind of
+picture-writing, how to preserve the memory of important
+events, although an alphabet of any kind was unknown.
+The rock-carvings have been found abundantly in Bohuslæn
+(formerly a part of West Gothland) and East Goth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>land,
+but also occur in Scania and other parts of Sweden.
+At the time of the arrival of Cortez in Mexico the Aztecs
+were exactly on the same standpoint. In spite of their
+high civilization, they were in the Bronze Age and possessed
+a picture-writing, but were not acquainted with
+an alphabet. In Sweden, as in Mexico, there certainly
+once existed an oral tradition necessary for its interpretation,
+which, now lost, leaves little hope for their present
+or future explanation. Yet they throw considerable light
+on Swedish civilization during this remote period. Thus
+they show that horses were already used for riding and
+driving. Cattle are represented. In pairs these are harnessed
+to a plow, which is being driven by a man.
+Boats are depicted, generally very large ones, without
+masts, but with thirty pairs of oars or more. They are
+usually unlike at the two ends, sometimes adorned with
+an animal’s head in the high and narrow stem, sometimes
+with a similar decoration also in the stern.</p>
+
+<p>The rock-carvings tell us nothing of the dwellings or
+the dress of the Swedes in the Bronze Age. All the instruments
+and tools necessary for the construction of wooden
+houses existed and appear to have been in use. The material
+was ever abundantly supplied by the Swedish forests,
+but it was not strong enough to withstand the influence
+of time. All the more surprising it is that articles of dress
+from such a remote period as the Earlier Bronze Age, 1000
+<span class="small">B.C.</span>, should have been preserved to our time. Still such
+is the case, thanks to a combination of exceptionally favorable
+circumstances. These garments are of wool of a very
+simple substance; some have been worn by men, others
+by women. The man’s dress consisted of an unbrimmed
+cap of thick woven wool, a wide circular mantle, a kind<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
+of tunic, kept together with a woollen belt, and some narrow
+strips of wool which probably covered the legs. In a
+man’s grave was found a shawl of wool with fringes. The
+woman’s dress consisted then, as it does now, chiefly of
+two garments, a jacket with sleeves and a long robe, the
+latter held together with a belt of wool, ending in ornamental
+tassels. Large mantles, of mixed wool and cow
+hair, were used as wraps. The women wore splendid
+bronze ornaments, such as finger-rings, bracelets, torques
+and brooches. From the finds it becomes apparent that
+many women in those days carried weapons, a dagger
+often being found at the side of the body.</p>
+
+<p>Besides swords and axes of beautiful workmanship, fishhooks,
+sickles and the different parts of harness have been
+found; also vessels of gold or bronze, evidently used for
+temple service. The Swedes of the Bronze Age were not
+acquainted with the art of forging the heated metal, but
+they possessed much technical skill in the art of casting.
+When the implement was taken out of the mold it was
+dipped in cold water, and very often the surface was ornamented
+by means of punches made of bronze. Their good
+taste was as highly developed as their skill. That the work
+was done in the North is proven by numerous finds of the
+very molds in which weapons and agricultural implements
+were cast. During the Stone Age only Gothaland and parts
+of Svealand were inhabited. The finds of the Bronze Age
+prove that the limits of the population were about the same
+during this period. The southern provinces continued to
+be the more thickly settled. Twenty times as many finds
+have been made in the soil of Scania as in the rest of the
+country. Norrland was hardly settled to any extent until
+the Iron Age, and has offered comparatively few finds from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+the Bronze Age, the total of which for the whole of Sweden
+amounts to about 4,000.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Iron Age</i> followed upon the Bronze Age. It lasts
+to this very day, we ourselves still living in the Iron Age;
+but the term is generally applied to that part of the period
+which commences with the close of the Bronze Age, and
+ends with the fall of heathendom. During the Iron Age,
+the Swedes first became acquainted with iron, silver, brass,
+lead, glass, stamped coins from foreign lands, and learned
+how to solder and gild metal. Archæologists have divided
+the period into two main parts, the Earlier and the Later
+Iron Age, both with subdivisions. The Earlier Iron Age
+includes the time from the fifth century <span class="small">B.C.</span> to about
+the beginning of the fifth century <span class="small">A.D.</span> The first half
+of the Earlier Iron Age is characterized by swords with
+both blades and sheaths made of iron, thin crescent-shaped
+knives, brooches of iron, collars, and decorative plates overlaid
+with bronze. The graves resemble those from the end
+of the Bronze Age, containing burned bones in urns, or laid
+together in a heap. This circumstance makes it more than
+probable that the first introduction of iron in the North was
+not connected with any immigration of a new people. The
+finds of the earliest Iron Age are not very rich, but they
+prove that the people who have left them behind had been
+subjected to a very strong influence from the Gallic tribes
+living close to the south of the Teutonic area of population.
+Then came the second half of the Earlier Iron Age, characterized
+by a strong Roman influence. It commences with
+the extension of the Roman empire toward the North, about
+the beginning of the Christian era, and winds up with the
+beginning of the fifth century, when Teutonic migrations
+and invasions put an end to the power of Rome. In the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+hostile or friendly relations between Romans and Teutons
+the Swedes were not involved. But by the peaceful ways
+of commerce the influence of Rome penetrated to the people
+of the North. Great numbers of Roman coins have
+been found in Sweden, and also vessels of bronze and glass,
+weapons, etc., as well as works of art, all turned out of
+workshops in Rome or its provinces. Out of about 4,760
+Roman coins of this time found in Sweden, no less than
+4,000 were found in the remarkable Island of Gothland, in
+the southern half of the Baltic, 90 in the neighboring island
+of Œland, 650 in Scania, but only 23 on the mainland of
+Sweden, excluding Scania. About 250 were found in
+Bornholm, 600 in Denmark, but only 3 in Norway. It
+becomes evident from these finds that there existed a regular
+traffic over the Baltic, through Germany, between
+the Island of Gothland and the Roman provinces, from
+the epoch of the Marcomannic war down to the time of
+Septimius Severus. Similar finds have been made on the
+southern shore of the Baltic, showing that the traffic
+came from the southeast, along the valleys of the Vistula
+and the Oder.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most important discoveries of this period was
+the art of writing, which the inhabitants of the North seem
+to have acquired soon after the beginning of the Christian
+era. The earliest alphabetic symbols in Sweden, and the
+only ones used there during the whole of heathen times, were
+<i>runes</i>. These were probably invented a little before the
+Christian era by a South Teutonic tribe, in imitation of the
+Roman writing which the Teutons received from one of the
+Celtic tribes living just to the north of the Alps. The Roman
+characters were adapted for the use of inscriptions in
+stone and wood, the curves being changed into straight<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
+lines. The Runic characters, in use among all Teutonic
+tribes, were twenty-four in number; these older runes
+were, by the Scandinavians, later simplified and reduced
+to sixteen. There is a number of inscriptions in older runes
+in Sweden, dating from about 300 to 500 <span class="small">A.D.</span> They are
+found chiefly on stones and gold bracteates, also in England,
+France, Germany, Wallachia and the west of Russia.
+All belong to about the same date, and are of Teutonic
+origin. The early Runic inscriptions do not contain any
+accounts of historically known persons or events. Yet they
+are of the greatest historical importance, for they show that
+during the Earlier Iron Age, in the fourth and fifth centuries,
+the language of Sweden, and consequently also the
+people, were Teutonic. These inscriptions in Sweden and
+neighboring countries give samples of the earliest known
+form of the Northern language, which is considerably
+different from its descendants, the Old Swedish, Danish,
+Norwegian and Icelandic, but very much resembling the
+language spoken by the Goths on the Danube during
+the same period.</p>
+
+<p>The Later Iron Age commences with the fifth century
+and stretches to the beginning of the eighth century <span class="small">A.D.</span>
+When Italy had been overrun by the “barbarians,” the
+centre of the old civilization shifted to Byzantium, and
+there are many traces of an active intercourse with the
+capital of the Byzantine rule in the finds made in Swedish
+soil. Most of these finds consist of gold coins of the fifth
+century, the majority of them having been found in the
+islands of Œland and Gothland. The stream of gold coming
+from Byzantium must have been quite considerable,
+having its source in the tribute which many of the Byzantine
+emperors had to pay to the Goths on the Danube.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
+They are the very same emperors whose names appear on
+the coins found in Sweden. The great number of costly
+and beautiful ornaments of gold found in Sweden, and dating
+from this period, must have been made out of Roman
+and Byzantine coins, melted down. One of the largest
+hoards of gold ever found in Europe was discovered in
+the Swedish province of Sœdermanland. Its weight was
+twenty-seven pounds, and it contained several ornaments
+of consummate workmanship.</p>
+
+<p>Remarkable are the graves from this period, discovered
+in the province of Upland. They are barrows containing
+the more or less mouldering remains of a large boat in
+which the dead man has been buried unburned with his
+weapons, horses, and other domestic animals. The swords
+found in these graves are of iron with hilts of beautiful
+designs in gilded or enamelled bronze. The shields and
+helmets are often of elaborate workmanship. Unlike the
+swords, which mostly, or perhaps always, are of foreign,
+generally of Celtic make, these ornaments and weapons are
+of domestic origin.</p>
+
+<p>It appears, from the many beautiful and artistic finds in
+Swedish soil, as if the inhabitants have benefited by their
+situation, aside and outside of the rest of the world. Continual
+migrations subjected the tribes of the continent to
+repeated changes and to a never-ceasing series of new and
+heterogeneous impressions. The tribes of the North remained
+on the same spot, and their whole development
+was slower but more consistent. The foreign influences
+penetrated slowly and gradually, without crushing the old
+civilization. The industrial arts blossomed not so often in
+the North as in the South, but steadier, giving a clearer
+expression of the national traditions and peculiarities.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+These circumstances make the study of Northern antiquities
+of absorbing interest.</p>
+
+<p>Before the end of this period, not only Gothaland and
+Svealand, but also the coast of Norrland, as far north as
+the province of Medelpad, were inhabited. As a whole, the
+first part of the Later Iron Age forms a transition between
+the Earlier Iron Age and the Viking Age, the archæological
+finds of which we must leave aside to take up the threads
+of the earliest history. The Viking Age is exceedingly rich
+in stones with inscriptions in the later runes, some of these
+inscriptions being quite lengthy, and containing strophes
+of alliterative verse in Old Swedish.</p>
+
+<p>Before entering into an account of early Swedish history,
+let us gather what information the classical writers of history
+have to give in regard to the countries of the North, or
+rather whatever of such information that has been preserved
+to our day.</p>
+
+<p>The Scandinavian countries are for the first time mentioned
+by the historians of antiquity in an account of a
+journey which Pyteas from Massilia (the present Marseille)
+made through Northern Europe, about 300 <span class="small">B.C.</span> He visited
+Britain, and there heard of a great country, Thule, situated
+six days’ journey to the north, and verging on the
+Arctic Sea. The inhabitants in Thule were an agricultural
+people who gathered their harvest into big houses for
+threshing, on account of the very few sunny days and the
+plentiful rain in their regions. From corn and honey they
+prepared a beverage (probably the mead). By Thule is
+no doubt meant the Scandinavian peninsula, or rather the
+western coast of it. Pyteas also tells of the land of amber,
+or the southern shores of the Baltic, where the <i>guttones</i> are
+dwelling. As the northern and southern shores of the Bal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>tic
+from the very earliest period seem to have been inhabited
+by the same race which has shared the same development
+and civilization, there is every reason to recognize the name
+<i>guttones</i> as identical with the one given to the inhabitants
+of the Swedish Gothaland and Island of Gothland.</p>
+
+<p>Several centuries pass without any notice of Scandinavia
+in the classical literature. In the still preserved manuscripts
+of the geographical work by Pomponius Mela, written in the
+middle of the first century <span class="small">A.D.</span>, is found a reference to
+Codania, a large and fertile island inhabited by Teutons.
+Codania is likely some scribe’s misspelling of Scandinavia</p>
+
+<p>Pliny the Elder, who himself visited the shores of the
+Baltic in the first century after Christ, is the first to mention
+plainly the name of Scandinavia. He says that he
+has received advices of immense islands “recently discovered
+from Germany.” The most famous of the many
+islands situated in the Codanian Bay was Scandinavia, of
+as yet unexplored size; the known parts were inhabited by
+a people called <i>hilleviones</i>, who gave it the name of another
+world. When he speaks of the British isles, Pliny again
+gives notice of islands, situated opposite Britain in the
+Teutonic Sea, without suspecting their identity with Scandinavia.
+He mentions Scandia, Nerigon, the largest of
+them all, and Thule. Scandia and Scandinavia are only
+different forms of the same name, denoting the southernmost
+part of the peninsula, and is yet preserved in the name
+of the province of Scania. Nerigon stands for Norway,
+the northern part of which is mentioned as an island by
+the name Thule. It is not surprising to find the classical
+writers ignorant of the fact that Scandinavia was not a
+group of large islands, but one great peninsula, as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+northern parts were as yet uninhabited and their physical
+connection with Finland and Russia unknown.</p>
+
+<p>Tacitus is the first who mentions the Swedish name.
+In his work “Germania,” of such great importance for the
+knowledge of the ancient Teutons, their conditions and
+institutions, and written about 100 years after Christ, the
+Baltic is described as an open sea called the Suevian Sea,
+shut out from the west by the Danish mainland of Jutland,
+by the Romans called the Cimbric Peninsula. The eastern
+shore is the country of amber. The Swedes are by Tacitus
+called Suiones, and he speaks of them thus:</p>
+
+<p>“Next occur the communities of the Suiones, seated in
+the very sea, who, besides their strength in men and arms,
+also possess a naval force. The form of their vessels differs
+from ours in having a prow at each end, so that they are
+always ready to advance. They make no use of sails, nor
+have they regular benches of oars at the sides: they row,
+as is practiced in some rivers, without order, sometimes
+on one side, sometimes on the other, as occasion requires.
+These people honor wealth; for which reason they are subject
+to monarchial government, without any limitations
+or precarious conditions of allegiance. Nor are arms allowed
+to be kept promiscuously, as among the other Teutonic
+nations: but are committed to the charge of a keeper,
+and he, too, a slave. The pretext is that the sea defends
+them from any sudden incursions, and men unemployed,
+with arms in their hands, readily become licentious. In
+fact, it is for the king’s interest not to intrust a noble, a
+freeman, or even an emancipated slave, with the custody
+of arms.”</p>
+
+<p>These remarks by Tacitus, in all their brevity, are of
+great importance. Boats, exactly corresponding to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
+description as given, have been found in Swedish graves
+of this period, and that they were used for river traffic, to
+bring the gold and products of Rome and Byzantium up
+the Vistula and Oder, is evident. The great opulence
+in dress and temple service of which the archæological
+finds bear witness, and of which later writers also speak
+as characteristic of the Swedes, is a proof of the wealth
+that at all times has attended naval dominion. Thus far
+all the statements being fully corroborated, one cannot but
+place great importance upon those that follow. The Roman
+historian tells us that, on account of the honor which
+the Swedes held for wealth, they were subject to a monarchial
+government, without any limitations; that is, the
+crown was hereditary, not elective. This coincides in every
+way with Swedish conditions of political affairs, such as
+we know them from later times. The important conclusions
+to be gathered from the statements of Tacitus, are
+that the Swedes already at the dawn of the Christian era
+held the political supremacy in the Scandinavian peninsula,
+or at least in its eastern and southern parts, and that the
+various lesser communities stood in allegiance to the hereditary
+king of the Sviar (Svear), or Swedes in a limited
+sense, the inhabitants of Svealand.</p>
+
+<p>The psychological conclusions made by Tacitus, on the
+basis of his own statements, hold good of the Swedes of
+to-day as well as of those of 2,000 years ago. They still
+honor wealth and a monarchial government and consider
+the sea their best defence against foreign foes.</p>
+
+<p>Ptolemy, the Alexandrine geographer of the second
+century after Christ, speaks of the Scandinavian islands,
+situated east of the Cimbrian peninsula. The fourth and
+most easterly of these is the one originally called Scandeia.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
+He enumerates six tribes which inhabit it, the names being
+unrecognizable, except the one of Gutai, Gauts or Goths,
+by him for the first time mentioned as dwelling in Scandinavia.</p>
+
+<p>To this information, gathered from classical authors,
+nothing is added for the next four hundred years in regard
+to the countries of the North. Only in the sixth century,
+when Rome has succumbed before the Gothic invasions,
+and the Teutonic tribes have divided between themselves
+the provinces of the West Roman empire, new information
+about Sweden is given by a Byzantine author, Prokopios,
+a contemporary of emperor Justinian. He mentions Scandinavia
+by the name Thule, and says he bases his statements
+upon information obtained from people “who come
+from there.”</p>
+
+<p>Prokopios says that in the immense island of Thule,
+in the northern part of which the midnight sun can be
+seen, thirteen large tribes occupy its inhabitable parts,
+each tribe having its own king. One of the largest tribes
+is the Gauts (the Gœtar, or the inhabitants of Swedish
+Gothaland). These tribes very much resemble the people
+of southern Europe, with the exception of the Skee Finns,
+who dress in skins and live from the chase.</p>
+
+<p>Prokopios tells a remarkable story about an immigration
+to Sweden of Herulians, a Teutonic tribe closely connected
+to the Goths on the Danube. In the beginning
+of the sixth century, it happened that the Herulians, after
+an unsuccessful war with the Longobardians, were divided
+into two branches, of which the one received land from the
+emperor Anastasius south of the Danube, while the other
+made a resolve to seek a home in the Scandinavian peninsula.
+When they had passed the Slavs, they came to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
+uninhabited regions, whence they continued to the country
+of the Varinians, and later to that of the Danes. The
+Danes granted them a free passage and the use of ships,
+in which they crossed to the island of Thule. Here the
+Herulians went to the Gauts and were well received by
+them. Some decades later the Herulians in South Europe
+were in want of a king. They resolved to send messengers
+to their kinsmen who had settled in Sweden, hoping that
+some descendant of their old royal family might be found
+there who was willing to assume the dignity of king among
+them. The messengers returned with two brothers who
+belonged to the ancient family of rulers, and these were
+escorted by two hundred young Herulians from Sweden.
+That this immigration really took place there is no doubt.
+The district of Sweden where these kinsmen of the Goths
+settled was early distinguished from the surrounding ones,
+inhabited by the Gauts of Sweden, through the peculiarities
+of its laws and customs, of which some survived into
+the commencement of the nineteenth century. This district
+forms the southern part of the province of Smaland, called
+Værend, its inhabitants Virdar, and the adjoining province
+of Bleking.</p>
+
+<p>The Gothic historian Jordanes, or Jornandes, called
+Master Ardan, who was a contemporary of Prokopios, has
+taken upon himself to explain the reason of the strange
+resolve of the Herulians to seek a home in Sweden. He
+speaks of the traditions of the East Goths, which tell of their
+descent from the people of the North. Similar traditions
+also have existed among the West Goths, Longobardians,
+Gepidæ, Burgundians, Herulians, Franks, Saxons, Swabians
+and Alemannians. Thus Jordanes: “In the North
+there is a great ocean, and in this ocean there is a large<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+island called Scandza, out of whose loins our race burst
+forth like a swarm of bees and spread over Europe.” The
+island of Scandza, he says, has been <i>officina gentium</i>,
+<i>vagina nationum</i>&mdash;the source of races, the mother of nations.
+And thence also the Goths have emigrated.</p>
+
+<p>Material is lacking to prove the historical truth of the
+Teutonic traditions which point to Scandinavia as the cradle
+of the Teutonic tribes. But Jordanes, the first historian of
+Teutonic birth who speaks of Scandinavia, stands at the
+cradle of Swedish history, and, as a modern historian has
+expressed it, his shadow throws an umbrage across the
+whole field of Swedish historical research. The mistake,
+based upon Jordanes’ history, of identifying the Swedish
+Gauts with the Goths has caused a great deal of mischief
+and ridiculous chauvinism, Gothic and Swedish history and
+royal lines being mixed up or put in connection with each
+other.</p>
+
+<p>In leaving aside the Teutonic traditions of the island
+of Scandza, or Scania, as the cradle of the race, let us
+quote a remark by Tacitus which seems to point to the
+conclusion that such traditions were current already in
+the first century of the Christian era: “I should think
+that the Teutons themselves are aborigines, and not at
+all mixed through immigrations or connections with non-Teutonic
+tribes. For those desiring to change homes did
+not in early times come by land, but in ships across the
+boundless and, so to speak, hostile ocean&mdash;a sea seldom
+visited by ships from the Roman world.”</p>
+
+<p>The Old English poem of Beowulf must also be mentioned
+among the sources which throw light on early Swedish
+history. Whether the Geátas of Beowulf are identical
+with the Jutes of Denmark, or with the Gauts of Sweden,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
+is a much disputed question. Although, phonetically, the
+Old English name Geátas corresponds to the Old Swedish
+<i>Gautar</i>, it seems most plausible to suppose that by this
+term is meant the Jutes, and not the inhabitants of Swedish
+West or East Gothland. This accepted, the poem does
+not contain much about the Swedes. But the information,
+therein given, of the Swedish kings is of great value, because
+it renders the service of a firm chronological support
+to the facts gathered from another source. This source,
+of vastly greater importance, is the Ynglinga Saga, or rather
+the poem around which it is spun, in Heimskringla,
+of which more in the next chapter.</p>
+
+<p>The first information of the religion practiced by the
+inhabitants of Scandinavia is given by Prokopios, who says
+that they worshipped many gods and spirits of the sky,
+air, earth, sea, and also some who were supposed to dwell
+in springs and rivers. Offerings were constantly made,
+the chief ones being of human beings, for which the first
+prisoner made in a war was destined. This sacrifice was
+made to “Mars,” who was the highest god. The statements
+of Prokopios without doubt are correct. The Scandinavian
+war-god who corresponds to the Mars of classical
+mythology was Tyr. Odin, originally the ruler of the
+wind, became the highest god during the Viking Age.
+He is an aristocratic god, the god of the select few, whose
+cult succeeded that of Tyr as the cult of the latter had
+succeeded that of Thor, the thunderer, as the highest god.
+The idea of a supreme God was probably unknown until
+the contact with Christianity, or at least not common.
+Thor, the peasant god, is probably the oldest of the gods
+of Teutonic mythology, the representative of stern power
+and law-bound order. Thor was the most popular god<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+of the Swedes, to judge from the great number of ancient
+Swedish proper names of which his forms a part. Besides
+Thor, Odin and Frey were the most honored. All the
+other gods and goddesses mentioned in Old Norse literature
+were probably known, but few of them much worshipped
+in Sweden.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a><br />
+<span class="smaller"><i>Dawn of Swedish History&mdash;Heimskringla and
+Ynglingatal</i></span></h2>
+
+<p>Snorre Sturleson, the great historian and poet
+of Iceland, of the earlier half of the thirteenth century,
+is considered to be the author of the history of
+the kings of Norway which, after the first words of the
+first chapter, has been called Heimskringla. As an introduction
+to the work he has put the saga of the Yngling
+kings of Sweden, of whom many of the Norwegian kings
+were supposed to be descendants. The Ynglinga Saga is
+a paraphrase to the much older song of Ynglingatal, a
+poem composed by the Norwegian poet Thiodulf of Hvin
+(who lived in the latter part of the ninth century) in praise
+of the supposed Swedish ancestors of the Norwegian king
+Ragnvald. The Ynglings were probably not identical with
+the kings of Upsala, who were of the race of the Skilfings,
+but of South Swedish or Danish origin. It is either out
+of ignorance, or out of sagacity, that the poet selected the
+Upsala rulers as originators of the Norwegian line of kings,
+but he has been unfortunate in the choice of a name for
+the dynasty. The poem itself is a trustworthy historical
+document, at least as far as the times are concerned which
+come comparatively close to the time of its own composition,
+the first part containing many traits of a mythical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
+character. The saga spun around it is far from trustworthy.
+Of the poem evidently the first, or first few,
+strophes are missing, but the “historian” supplies the vacuum
+with stories of the gods Odin, Niord and Frey, whom
+he, according to the ideas of his time, changes from gods
+into historic kings, the first who ruled Svithiod (Sweden).
+Among learned men in Snorre’s day there was a craze for
+tracing the pedigree of all nations of any renown back to
+some of the heroes of ancient Troy. Snorre serves us a
+saga of Odin’s migration from Troy which, besides being
+confuse, would appear only ridiculous, if it had not wielded
+about as highly disastrous an influence upon correct conceptions
+of Swedish history as the work by Jordanes. This
+migration saga is found in a still more elaborate form in
+an introduction to Snorre’s Edda, and is responsible for
+the erroneous opinion held by earlier Swedish historians,
+that the Swedes had migrated from Asia under the leadership
+of a chief who called himself Odin, and that the
+Swedes and the Gauts were, if not of different origin, at
+least of a habitation of differing age in their present locations.</p>
+
+<p>Based upon the information found in Ynglinga Saga
+we will give a review of the history of the early kings of
+Sweden, although the first dozen, and more, of these kings
+are of a doubtful “historic” character. At the dawn of
+history, Sweden was, like most other countries of Northern
+Europe, divided into petty communities, each ruled
+by a king. These communities seem to have been nearly
+identical with the “lands” or later provinces into which
+Sweden is yet divided, although the administrative divisions
+are different. In spite of the fact that it is about 1,200
+years since these communities were united into one single<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
+realm, the inhabitants preserve to this day their respective
+peculiarities of customs and language.</p>
+
+<p>The most important among the chieftains of Sweden
+was, since time immemorial, the king of Upsala, who conducted
+the sacrifices and temple service at Upsala, the
+oldest and most celebrated place of heathen worship in
+the Scandinavian North. Originally, he had under his
+rule only one-third of the present province of Upland, the
+chief settlement of the Sviar, or Swedes in a limited sense.
+The Upsala kings belonged to the ancient royal race of
+Skilfings (or “Ynglings,” according to Snorre), who traced
+their origin from the gods. The founder of the dynasty
+as accepted by Thiodulf and others was <i>Yngve</i>, who is
+said to have built the great temple at Upsala, moving
+thither the capital from the older Sigtuna and contributing
+to the temple all his lands and riches. Yngve’s son
+was <i>Fiolner</i>. King Fiolner was drowned by accident in
+a huge vessel full of mead, during a visit paid to King
+Frode in Denmark.</p>
+
+<p>His son <i>Sveigder</i> disappeared during a journey which
+he made in order to find Odin, the old. Both the names
+Fiolner and Sveigder appear to be mythical. Sveigder’s
+son <i>Vanlande</i> was a great warrior. He is said once to
+have taken up his winter abode in Finland, which, together
+with several archæological finds, point to an early intercourse
+between Sweden and Finland. <i>Visbur</i> succeeded
+his father Vanlande, marrying the daughter of Aude (the
+Rich), whom he afterward left and took another wife,
+bringing on himself a curse by so doing. Visbur’s sons
+fell unexpectedly over him, burning him in his house.
+<i>Domalde</i>, his son, succeeded him. During a great famine
+in Svithiod he was offered to the gods in order to obtain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
+good seasons. Domalde’s son and grandson, <i>Domar</i> and
+<i>Dygve</i>, both reigned and died in peace. <i>Dag</i>, the son of
+Dygve, was so wise a man that he understood the language
+of birds. <i>Agne</i>, the son of Dag, was the ruler after him.
+One summer he invaded Finland with his army. When
+the Finns gathered there was a great battle, in which
+Agne gained victory, subduing all Finland. The daughter
+of a conquered chief, Skialf, was carried back to Sweden
+as his bride. But after a drinking feast, Agne was hanged
+in a tree by Skialf and her men. The place where this
+happened was called Agnefit, and is said to be identical
+with the site of Stockholm, the later capital of the country.
+<i>Alrek</i> and <i>Eric</i> became kings after the death of their
+father Agne. They got into a dispute one day while out
+walking. Having no weapons, they assailed and killed
+each other with their horses’ bridles. Their successors,
+<i>Yngve</i> and <i>Alf</i>, the sons of Alrek, shared a similar fate,
+killing each other in the royal hall by the high-seat. After
+them <i>Hugleik</i>, the son of Alf, became king of the Swedes.
+On the Fyrisvols, the plains by the river Fyris in Upland,
+Hugleik was killed in battle against a famous sea-king
+Hake, who subdued the country and became king of
+Svithiod. The saga mentions that this Hake was a
+brother of Hagbard, whose love for the king’s daughter,
+Signe, cost him his life. This love story is one of the
+most famous in the North and much spoken of in saga
+and song. The spot where Hagbard was hanged in a tree
+is still pointed out. When Hake had ruled as king for
+three years, <i>Jorund</i> and <i>Eric</i>, the sons of Yngve, returned
+with warships and warriors. They had grown up and
+become famous by conquering the king Gudlaug, of the
+Haleygians in Norway, whom they had met in Denmark.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
+Now they met King Hake and his army at the Fyrisvols.
+In the battle, Eric was killed and Jorund fled to his ship.
+But King Hake was himself so grievously wounded that
+he ordered a warship to be loaded with his dead men and
+their weapons, and himself to be placed upon it. The sails
+were hoisted and the ship set on fire, and out it flew, with
+the dying king on board, between the skerries to the sea.
+Jorund now became king in Upsala. When he was one
+summer marauding in Jutland, he met a son of King Gudlaug,
+in the battle with whom he was overpowered, captured
+and hanged.</p>
+
+<p>King <i>Aune</i> or <i>Ane</i> was the son of Jorund. He was a
+wise man who made great sacrifices to the gods. Being
+no warrior he lived quietly at home. Twice he fled from
+Upsala, on account of Danish invasions, remaining in West
+Gothland twenty-five years each time, and holding sway
+at Upsala for an equally long time between his periods of
+exile. He lived to become 110 years of age. The secret
+of his longevity was that he sacrificed one of his sons to
+Odin every tenth year, and was granted in return a decade
+of prolonged life. When about to sacrifice his tenth son,
+the people interfered, and he died from old age. The last
+ten years of his life he was very feeble, drinking out of a
+horn like an infant. He was buried in a mound at Upsala.</p>
+
+<p>King <i>Egil</i> was the son of Ane, and, like his father, no
+warrior. Under his reign and that of his son, king <i>Ottar</i>,
+Sweden suffered a good deal of trouble from Denmark.
+The Danish king Frode had helped Egil against the revolt
+of one of his subjects, and demanded from his son a
+scat, or tribute, in return. Ottar fell in battle against the
+jarls of Frode. Both he and his son <i>Audils</i>, who ruled
+Svithiod after him, are mentioned in Beowulf as Ôhthere<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
+and his son Eadgils of the royal Swedish line of the Scylfingas
+(Skilfings). This fact gives to Swedish history its
+first reliable date. The Danish king Hugleik, a contemporary
+of King Ottar, died in 515 <span class="small">A.D.</span>, which renders with
+a certainty Ottar’s reign as falling in the first part of the
+sixth century. Audils ruled for a long time and often went
+on viking expeditions to Saxonland, Denmark and Norway.
+In Saxonland, Audils captured the household of King Geirthiof,
+among whom was a remarkably beautiful girl, called
+Yrsa. The king married her, but she was afterward taken
+to Denmark by King Helge of Leire after a successful plundering
+expedition in Svithiod. Helge had a son by her,
+Rolf Krake, but Yrsa returned to her first husband, after
+being told by Queen Alof, the wife of Geirthiof, that Helge
+was her father and Alof her mother. When Rolf Krake
+later became king his men once helped King Audils in one
+of his expeditions in Norway. King Rolf’s men did not
+receive the compensation promised them, and Rolf came
+to Upsala to demand it for them. King Rolf was warned
+by his mother Yrsa that Audils was not well disposed, and
+he and his men made in haste for their ships. King Audils
+and his men started out in their pursuit. Then Rolf took a
+horn filled with gold, a recent gift of his mother, emptying
+its contents on the plain. Audils and his men stopped to
+pick up the gold, and Rolf thus made his escape. Rolf
+Krake is one of the most famous of Danish heroes. In the
+poetic language of the Old Northern literature, gold is often
+called “the seed of the Fyrisvols” or “Rolf Krake’s seed.”
+As King Audils once rode around the hall at a sacrifice his
+horse stumbled and fell, and the king was killed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eystein</i>, the son of Audils, ruled after him and was
+succeeded by his son <i>Yngvar</i>. Eystein was never able to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
+defend his people against the Danes, while Yngvar was a
+successful warrior, both at home and abroad. But one
+summer when he was fighting in Esthonia he was killed
+by the Esthonians. He was buried in a mound close to
+the seashore.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anund</i> was Yngvar’s son and successor. He went to
+Esthonia to avenge his father, ravaging the country and
+returning with great booty. In his time there were fruitful
+seasons in Svithiod. On this account, and because he made
+many roads, cleared the woods and cultivated the new land,
+he became one of the most popular of early Swedish kings.
+He was called <i>Brœt-Anund</i>, viz., Anund Roadmaker.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ingiald</i>, the son of Anund, became king in Upsala after
+his father. He was the most remarkable of all the Ynglings
+(Skilfings), for, through violence and cunning, he
+united all the communities of Sweden into one realm.
+When his father died, the king at Upsala was certainly
+the supremely powerful ruler in Svithiod, but not the only
+one, for there were many district-kings who were to a great
+extent independent. There were not only kings in East
+Gothland, Sœdermanland, and Nerike, but in Upland there
+were, besides the Upsala king, also kings in each of the
+three “lands” into which this province was formerly
+divided; viz., Tiundaland, Attundaland, and Fiedrundaland.
+Ingiald ordered a great feast to celebrate the fact
+that he had come to the throne after his father, and invited
+seven other kings, all of whom were present, except Granmar,
+king of Sœdermanland. When the Brage-bowl, on
+which promises were made, was carried in, King Ingiald
+made a solemn vow to enlarge his dominions by one-half,
+toward all the four corners of the world, or die. In the
+evening Ingiald set fire to the hall, and all the six royal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>
+guests perished with their followers. Ingiald took possession
+of all the dominions belonging to the unfortunate
+kings. In the next year he surrounded the hall in
+which King Granmar found himself at the time, killing
+him and taking his land in possession. “It was a common
+saying,” Snorre tells us, “that King Ingiald had killed
+twelve kings and deceived them all under pretence of peace;
+therefore he was called Ingiald Illrade (the evil-adviser).”
+His daughter, Asa, was of the same disposition as her
+father. She was married to Gudrod, king of Scania, but
+had to flee from the land after having caused the death of
+her husband and his brother. When it was learned that
+King Ivar, nephew of Gudrod, had entered Svithiod with
+an army, Asa counselled her father to set fire to the hall
+of the king after his men were drunk and asleep. Thus
+perished Ingiald Illrade with his daughter, very much in
+the same fashion in which he had killed so many of the
+petty kings.</p>
+
+<p>For the centuries following upon Ingiald’s death, Snorre
+has a very short, or almost no account to give about Sweden
+and her rulers. What can be gathered from other sources,
+principally from late Icelandic sagas, is not trustworthy,
+mythical and fictitious elements being discernible.</p>
+
+<p>After Ingiald, <i>Ivar Vidfamne</i> (the Far-stretching) is
+said to have ruled Sweden, “also Denmark, Saxonland, all
+of Austria and one-fifth of England.” One account has
+it that Ivar was the head of a new dynasty in Sweden.
+As he was originally king of Scania, perhaps these were
+the real Ynglings. Another source claims for the succeeding
+Swedish kings descent from the old race of the
+Ynglings (viz., the Skilfings). Ingiald’s son Olof, according
+to Snorre, fled to the woods of Vermland, until then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>
+uninhabited, and later came to Norway. But it is a misunderstanding
+of Thiodulf’s lines which causes Snorre to
+say that King Olof was buried close by the Lake Venar,
+in Vermland. The province of Vermland was inhabited
+much earlier than in Olof’s time, and the Olof who became
+the founder of a Norwegian dynasty was probably
+a Danish prince.</p>
+
+<p><i>Harald Hildetand</i> of Denmark is said to have succeeded
+Ivar, and to have ruled over as much territory as his mother’s
+father. Several sources speak of King Harald and the
+battle of Bravols, in which his life was ended and which
+battle generally is taken as a historic milestone, marking
+the opening of the Viking Age. It was fought somewhere
+about the year 740. King Harald had become old and
+almost blind. In Svithiod and West Gothland, the kings
+Sigurd and Ring (by the sagas made into one hero by the
+name “Sigurd Ring”) ruled under Harald, while he reigned
+himself over Denmark and East Gothland. The relations
+were good at first, but their aspect soon changed. After
+great preparations on either side, Ring met Harald on the
+plains of Bravik in East Gothland. The battle was a long
+and bloody one and the most renowned in song and saga.
+King Harald, too old to take an active part, mounted a
+chariot, which carried him into the midst of the fight.
+When King Ring at last saw the chariot empty, he understood
+that the aged king had fallen and gave the sign that
+the battle should come to an end. King Ring caused the
+remains of his fallen foe to be burned with great pomp and
+ceremony on a pile with his horse, weapons and many a
+costly treasure of gold and silver. King <i>Ring</i> was said to
+have been ruler of Sweden and Denmark after King Harald.
+The sagas mention the hero, <i>Ragnar Lodbrok</i>, as his son<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
+and successor. While this great viking and sea-king appears
+to have been a historic personage in the earlier half
+of the ninth century, it is impossible that he could have
+been identical with King Ring’s son <i>Ragnar</i>, or that he
+or his sons ever were kings in Upsala or Sweden.</p>
+
+<p>With the first attempts to introduce Christianity into
+Sweden (of which more later) a more definite knowledge
+of Swedish rulers and conditions is gained. When Ansgar,
+the apostle of Sweden, visited the country for the first time,
+about 830, the ruling king was <i>Biœrn</i>. Shortly afterward
+King <i>Anund</i> is mentioned. He fled from his land, but was
+reinstated with the help of the Danes. King <i>Olof</i> was on the
+throne at the time of Ansgar’s second visit to Sweden, about
+850. These kings must have been of the same family as
+those who held the throne up to the middle of the eleventh
+century, for their names all occur again in the line of later
+Swedish kings, the reigns of whom fall in the broad light
+of history.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen how Ingiald Illrade joined the various
+communities into one single realm. Although there is doubt
+whether this realm from the start embraced all Sweden,
+there is no historical evidence or any reliable traditions
+whatever to show that Sweden was ever divided into
+smaller kingdoms after the death of King Ingiald. When
+Ansgar reaches Sweden he travels through half of the country
+in order to reach the commercial centre of Birka, where
+the king of Sweden is dwelling. No other king, great
+or petty, is spoken of, while the contemporary Icelanders
+mention jarls (earls) in Gothaland, which proves that the
+once independent kings in that district were made away
+with.</p>
+
+<p>Of particular importance is the account of a journey<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
+which a certain Wulfstan made to the North, at the close
+of the ninth century. This account is given in an Old English
+translation of Orosii Historia, credited to King Alfred
+of England. Thus it runs: “Wulfstan said that he went
+from Schleswig to Truso in seven days, that the ship was all
+the way running under sail. Wendland was on his right,
+but Langeland, Lolland, Falster and Scania on his left, and
+all these lands belong to Denmark, and then Bornholm was
+on our left, which has a king of its own. Then after Bornholm,
+the lands of Bleking, Mœre, Œland, and Gotland,
+were first on our left, and these lands belong to Sweden.”</p>
+
+<p>Wulfstan’s account, besides furnishing evidence to prove
+the political consolidation of Sweden, also gives a good idea
+of the size of the country in this period. The once independent
+province of Scania, which had kings of its own,
+already belongs to Denmark. So does also the province
+of Halland, while Bohuslæn belongs to Norway. Dal and
+Vermland are contested provinces between the kings of
+Sweden and Norway, while great parts of Norrland are
+yet uninhabited, except by Laps, who ramble from one
+place to another, without a fixed dwelling place. In King
+Alfred’s Orosius, Danish Jutland and Swedish Gautland
+(Gothaland) are alike called <i>Gotland</i>, which recalls the
+supposition of the majority of modern scholars that Gotland
+was in the earliest times the common Teutonic name of
+the North, and Goths the common name of its Teutonic
+inhabitants.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a><br />
+<span class="smaller"><i>The Viking Age&mdash;Ansgar, the Apostle of Sweden</i></span></h2>
+
+<p>“In the North there is a great ocean, and in this ocean
+there is a large island called Scandza, out of whose
+loins our race burst forth like a swarm of bees and
+spread over Europe.” These were the words the Gothic
+historian Jordanes put on parchment, inspired by the popular
+traditions of a Teutonic migration from the North.
+Historic evidence is lacking to prove or disprove the truth
+of these words. But they may be applied to the phenomenon
+which has given its name to the <i>Viking Age</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The Viking expeditions seem to stand in connection with
+the great Teutonic migrations, at least to be related to
+them in nature. The Teutons of the North were not directly
+affected by the migrations, but at the close of the
+eighth century the same restlessness and desire of expansion
+appear to have taken possession of the Northmen as
+in earlier times of their relatives in more southerly lands.
+And it was a timely move, for the energy and strength
+with which these had in their time suffused Europe were
+dying out. Europe was in need of new blood and iron to
+wake her from her anæmia and to build up new institutions.
+The North was freed from a turbulent and lawless
+element and was brought in closer contact than ever before<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
+with the learning and culture of the world. For centuries
+the Northmen had through their southern kinsmen been
+in contact with continental culture. But now they came
+out to see for themselves, to make themselves a place in
+a wider and richer world, or to bring home from there
+what they most desired of beauty, riches and culture.
+They were not delicate as to means. Violence was with
+them as natural as their freedom of individuality was indispensable.
+Yet they were to play a most important part
+in the cultural development of Europe, furnishing her with
+institutions of imperishable iron and changing the darkness
+of the Middle Ages into an era of chivalry in spirit
+and in deeds.</p>
+
+<p>The Viking expeditions were always undertaken by free
+men, and were in the North, from remotest times, considered
+not only an honest but an honorable occupation. Slaves
+and freed men were excluded. The leaders&mdash;often kings
+or their sons&mdash;were always men of noble descent or of
+importance. As the Viking expeditions took on larger
+proportions, they became more and more organized; from
+random expeditions, undertaken by individuals, they developed
+into national undertakings, led by the king or his
+chieftains, not for a pastime, but in completion of a national
+policy. On account of this latest aspect, it is but just to
+divide the field in which the Northmen were active according
+to their respective nationalities. With such a division
+applied, the Viking expeditions to the West, to Britain,
+France, Portugal and Spain do not pertain to Swedish
+history, for they were planned and undertaken principally
+by Danes and Norwegians. It is true that there were many
+Swedish participants also in these expeditions, as the sagas
+and the memorial stones on Swedish soil tell us; also true<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>
+that some of the later Swedish provinces, like Bohuslæn<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>
+and Scania, sent out their large contingents of Vikings and
+sea-kings to the West, and that one of the oldest Swedish
+homes of culture, West Gothland, had an appropriate
+channel to the West, by way of the mighty Gotha River,
+through which without doubt many a Viking expedition
+was sent; yet the leaders were in a majority of cases Danish
+or Norwegian chieftains. For similar reasons the Viking
+expeditions to the East belong by right to Swedish
+history. In them the participants and chieftains were
+Swedes, to an overwhelming majority, and, from time
+immemorial, Swedish districts from which the expeditions
+were started.</p>
+
+<p>To Russia the Swedes first went on marauding expeditions;
+but after the countries of the North had been shaped
+into three large monarchies, they came to Russia upon
+special invitation, in order to found there a realm of strong
+and consistent government. This becomes evident from
+the testimony of the Russian historian Nestor, a monk in
+Kief, who lived in the latter part of the eleventh century.
+About the founding of the Russian empire by the Swedes
+he has the following remarkable statements:</p>
+
+<p>“In the year 6367 (after the creation of the world, which
+is the 859th after the birth of Christ) the Variagi (or Varangians)
+came across the sea, taking tribute from the Tchud
+and the Slavs,” etc.&mdash;“In the year 6370 (862 <span class="small">A.D.</span>) they
+chased the Variagi back across the sea, giving them no
+tribute and commencing to govern themselves, but it turned
+out badly with legal affairs, tribe rose against tribe, caus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>ing
+strife, and a rebellion was started. Then they said
+between themselves: ‘Let us seek a prince who will govern
+us and reason with us justly!’ And they went across
+the sea to the Variagi, to the Russians, for thus were the
+Variagi called, just as others were called Sviar, others Nurmanni,
+others Anglii, and others Goths. And the Tchudi
+(the Slavs of Novgorod), the Slavs, the Krivitchi and the
+Vessi said to the Russians, ‘Our land is great and fruitful,
+but it lacks order and justice; come and take possession,
+and govern us!’ And three brothers with their followers
+were selected, and they took the whole of Rus with them
+and came. And the oldest, Rurik, took his abode in Novgorod,
+the second, Sineus, his in Bielo-Jesero, and the third,
+his in Isborsk; his name was Truvor. After two years
+Sineus and his brother Truvor died. Rurik then took the
+whole power into his hands and gave towns over to his
+men, giving to one Polotsk, to another Rostof, and to a
+third Bielo-Jesero. And into these towns the Variagi have
+migrated; the earlier inhabitants in Novgorod were Slavs,
+in Polotsk, Krivitchi, in Rostof, Meri, and in Bielo-Jesero,
+Vessi.”</p>
+
+<p>That the Variagi were of Swedish descent, and that it
+was they who gave the name of Russia to the Slav countries,
+is proved beyond the possibility of a doubt. A most
+weighty argument is the large number of Swedish names
+in the list of Variag princes who reigned in Russia. It
+would not have been possible for Nestor to devise the more
+than one hundred leading names of Swedish origin which
+occur in his chronicle. Furthermore, it has been shown that
+there are fifteen Swedish loanwords in Russian. This is
+very much. Great and powerful nations have left behind
+a good deal less in modern languages, the Vandals three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
+words, the Burgundians four or five, the Herulians one.
+Although the Swedes in Russia had no literature in their
+ancestral language, they have left behind more words than
+the majority of Teutonic tribes founding states and nations.
+The Old Swedish equivalents to some of the
+most important proper names which meet us in early Russian
+history are as follows: Rurik&mdash;Hrœrekr, Sineus&mdash;Signjótr,
+Truvor&mdash;Tryggve, Oleg&mdash;Helge, Olga&mdash;Helga, Igor&mdash;Inge,
+Ingvar.</p>
+
+<p>For two hundred years after Rurik, all the leading men
+in Russian history carry Swedish names, and all the czars
+of Russia were the descendants of Rurik, up to the year
+1598. The emperor and historian Constantine Porphyrogenitus,
+speaking of Russia, makes the distinction between
+the Slavs and the Russians proper. In his description of
+the cataracts of the Dniepr, he gives to each the Russian
+and the Slav name, and these Russian names are nearly
+all understood by reference to old Swedish roots. Examples
+are Gellandri (Gellandi)&mdash;the Noisy, Eyfórr&mdash;the Always
+Turbulent. Luitprand, the Italian chronicler, speaking
+of the Russians, says: “The Greeks call them Russians,
+we call them properly Northmen.” The annals of St.
+Bertinus tell how Emperor Theophilus recommended some
+Russian envoys to Louis le Débonnaire, but how he, taking
+them for Norman spies, threw them into prison. The first
+Russian Code of Laws, compiled by Iaroslaf, presents a
+striking analogy to the Old Swedish laws.</p>
+
+<p>The Slavs must have originally borrowed the name Russian
+from the Finns, who, up to the present day, call the
+Swedes <i>Ruotsi</i>. The name is in Sweden connected with
+a part of the coast of Upland still called Roslagen. The
+etymology of the name is Old Swedish <i>rodr</i> (rudder)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
+and <i>roðsmenn</i> (oarsmen). Roslagen means “associations
+of oarsmen.” The district is famous for its large peculiar
+rowboats. By the term Russians, the Slavs originally
+meant people from Roslagen, later Sweden in general. But
+when these Russians had become the founders of a new
+empire, south of the Baltic, it became necessary to devise
+a new name for the inhabitants of Sweden. This name
+was found in Variagi. Only the Swedes seeking employment
+as sworn warriors in the service of the new Russian
+dynasty, or in the body-guard of the Byzantine emperors,
+were originally thus called. But when the name of the
+new nation of Swedes and Slavs became Russians, the
+Swedes, and the Scandinavians in general, became known
+as Variagi. The etymology of the word has been given as
+the Old Swedish <i>vár</i> (<i>sacramentum</i>) and <i>væringar</i> (<i>sacramentarii</i>,
+soldiers bound by oath). The same name applied
+to Swedes, or Northmen, occurs frequently in slightly
+altered forms in Greek and Arabic manuscripts.</p>
+
+<p>While Rurik and his brothers were building towns,
+which probably means the fortifying of ancient villages,
+two other Variagi, Askold and Dir, who were not of the
+family of Rurik, went down to Kief, and reigned over the
+Poliané. It was they who began the expeditions against
+Byzantium in 865. In speaking of this, Nestor calls the
+Bosphorus <i>Sud</i>, an Old Swedish word meaning a sound.
+The Bosphorus is also called Sud on a Swedish memorial
+stone over a man who was killed in a similar expedition.</p>
+
+<p>Oleg, the fourth brother of Rurik, was his successor,
+his son Igor being yet a minor. He was an energetic man
+and a great administrator.</p>
+
+<p>Smolensk, Lubetch and Kief were captured, and Askold
+and Dir put to death. Between the years 879-912, Oleg<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
+organized the Russian empire. For the sake of commerce,
+he tried to preserve peace with the Greeks, but when difficulties
+arose he called in new armies from Sweden and
+great expeditions started against Byzantium. But these
+Variagi were an unruly element, and, in order to satisfy
+their desire for war and booty, the Russian rulers always
+let a plundering expedition to the Caspian Sea follow every
+unsuccessful attack upon Byzantium; also when war with
+the Greeks was avoided through decrees of peace, expeditions
+to the Caspian Sea took place.</p>
+
+<p>These expeditions against the Arabs, who inhabited the
+coasts of the Caspian Sea, were neither in any marked
+degree successful. Masudi is the first author among the
+Arabs who mentions the expeditions of the Swedes. They
+came down the river Volga in their ships. The Arabs
+describe the “Rûs” as blond and “tall as palm-trees.”
+The burial of a Rûs is described by Ibn Fosslan, who visited
+Bulgaria in 921. “The hero was burned in a ship
+with weapons, horses, dogs and a woman.” In 965, the
+Israelite, Ibrahim Ibn Jakub, made a journey to Germany.
+He tells that the Arabs in his day with Rûs (Russians)
+meant partly the Swedes of Sweden, “who often came in
+ships from the West to plunder,” partly the Swedes settled
+in Russia, “who speak the language of the Slavs, on account
+of admixture with them.”</p>
+
+<p>It was the destiny of the Swedes in Russia to exchange
+their language for that of the Slavs and finally to absorb
+Slav customs. Such might not have been the case if they
+had been greater in numbers, or if their coming had been
+deferred to a later, Christian period, when to a strong form
+of government would have been added a strong Church
+organization. Yet their influence was greater than that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
+of the Vikings in any other country, for the Russian empire
+was entirely a Northern creation.</p>
+
+<p>To follow further the Rurik dynasty would lead us away
+from Swedish into Russian history. But let us mention
+that Oleg was succeeded by Rurik’s son Igor, who also
+was a great war-lord, and undertook the third expedition
+of Russians and Variagi against Byzantium. His widow
+was the celebrated Olga, who was converted to Christianity
+and afterward canonized. She reigned during the minority
+of her son Sviatoslaf, whose conversion she was never able
+to effect. Sviatoslaf’s son and grandson, Saint Vladimir
+and Jaroslaf the Great, were the Clovis and the Charlemagne
+of Russia.</p>
+
+<p>After the conquest of Kief, Oleg commanded a tribute
+to be paid to the Variagi “for the preservation of peace.”
+This tribute to the Swedes was paid up to the death of
+Jaroslaf, who in 1019 gave assurance to the king of Upsala
+that it should be paid regularly, Vladimir having neglected
+to do so. This tribute could be nothing else than a scat
+paid to the king of Sweden by the rulers of Russia during
+the ninth and tenth centuries. Sweden possessed in those
+days a large territory south of the Baltic, which paid scat
+to the king of Upsala. It was called Austria (<i>Austerike</i>),
+and reference to it under this name is often made in sagas,
+chronicles and inscriptions. Ynglinga Saga gives incidents
+of close Swedish connections to Finland and the Baltic provinces,
+and archæological finds point to Swedish settlements
+in Finland, already in the prehistoric period. Memories of
+conquests are preserved in statements by the Icelanders
+and by Saxo, the Danish historian, about the Austria of
+which the Swedish kings Ivar Vidfamne, Harald Hildetand,
+“Sigurd” Ring and Ragnar “Lodbrok” were rulers.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
+Closest to an exact statement comes Snorre, who says that
+King Eric Edmundson of Sweden ruled over Finland, Carelia,
+Esthonia, Courland and “wide over all Austria.”
+These countries belonged to Sweden until King Olof Skœtkonung
+“let all his scatlands get away from him.” The
+chronicler Rimbert says that Courland, by which he means
+the Baltic provinces, in 850 belonged to Sweden. Shortly
+after this date fall, according to Nestor, those of the first
+Swedish contact with interior Russia (859) and of the founding
+of the Russian empire by Rurik (862). The Swedish
+dominion in the Baltic provinces, as well as the early Russian
+empire, must consequently have held a position similar
+to the one of Normandie to France and England.</p>
+
+<p>The old Swedish name for Russia was Gardarike, for
+Novgorod Holmgard and for Byzantium Miklagard, which
+mean “Country of towns,” “Island town,” and “Great
+town,” respectively.</p>
+
+<p>Vladimir of Russia, in 980, sent a number of Variagi
+to the emperor. But already the emperors had probably
+surrounded themselves with a small standing army
+of Variagi or Barangoi, as they were called by the Greeks.
+They were treated with a good deal of respect and consideration,
+and in the North it was considered a distinction to
+have served in Miklagard, which even the sons of kings
+eagerly sought for. Soon not only Swedes, but also Norwegians,
+Danes and Icelanders were attracted, and Icelandic
+sources have a good many, in part wildly exaggerated,
+accounts of the Variagi and their experiences in
+Miklagard. The Northmen were relied upon to support the
+tottering empire, and were despatched to the points where
+the hardest combats were fought. They had officers of their
+own nationality, and the strictest discipline was maintained.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
+About the year 1050 a detachment of Variagi were accepted
+into the body-guard of the emperor, surrounding his person
+on all great occasions and in public; also keeping watch over
+the imperial palace. When the emperor died, they had,
+according to Snorre, the privilege of passing through his
+treasury, each taking along all he could carry off. Another
+privilege of theirs was that they were allowed to keep their
+heathen faith in the midst of the Christian surroundings.</p>
+
+<p>Many and various as the reasons for the Viking expeditions
+must have been, the principal cause that led to their
+abolition was the contact with Christianity abroad, and the
+introduction of its teaching in the heathen North. The first
+missionaries to Sweden were sent by Louis the Pious, but
+Christianity was not entirely unknown before their arrival.
+For centuries, the Swedes had through commercial expeditions
+stood in direct or indirect contact with the Christian
+world, and this had brought home some knowledge of “the
+white Christ” and his gospel of peace. Many Northmen
+had been baptized while dwelling in foreign lands, and
+many must the Christian thralls have been who continually
+were brought into the country. The influence these
+elements exerted probably could be traced to the ennobling
+and developing of heathen myths, rather than to direct
+Christian conversions. And a similar influence of Roman
+and Greek myths, without doubt, exerted upon the North
+in earlier historic times.</p>
+
+<p>Ansgar, a learned and pious monk from the convent of
+Corvey, became the apostle of Sweden. He had spent two
+years in Denmark as a missionary when called upon by
+Emperor Louis to visit Sweden. Louis the Pious had received
+the assurance by Swedish emissaries that the new
+faith would not meet with any obstacle, and that many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
+were willing to embrace it. Ansgar started in the year of
+830, accompanied by Witmar, also of the Corvey convent.
+They were well received by King Biœrn, and were able to
+comfort many Christians in Swedish captivity, besides converting
+some of the inhabitants. Among the converts was
+the powerful Jarl Herger, who for a long period was the
+chief supporter of Christianity in Sweden. After about a
+year and a half, Ansgar and Witmar returned to the emperor,
+who, satisfied with the result of their mission, erected
+a special archbishopric in Hamburg for the spiritual needs
+of the North. Ansgar was made the archbishop and, with
+Ebo, archbishop of Rheims, apostolic legate among Swedes,
+Danes and Slavs. At the same time, Gauzbert was made
+the first bishop of Sweden under the name of Simon. He
+went to Sweden and was well received by its king and people.
+But a revolt against the new faith soon rose among
+the heathens, not issuing from the king but from the people.
+Gauzbert was captured and with contumely escorted out of
+the country, while his relative, Nithard, was killed, thus
+becoming the first Christian martyr in Sweden. For seven
+years the country was without a preacher of the Gospel,
+until Ansgar sent thither a new missionary, Ardgar, who
+stayed there preaching until the death of Herger. In the
+meantime Vikings had destroyed Hamburg, and not before
+its bishopric had been united to that of Bremen was Ansgar
+in a position to visit Sweden for a second time. This he
+effected early in the fifties of the ninth century, coming this
+time as a kind of ambassador from the kings of Denmark
+and Germany to give more importance to his mission. The
+heathen partisans, who recently had accepted the departed
+King Eric among the gods, resented, and the reigning king,
+Olof, dared not grant Ansgar the right to preach. The dif<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>ficulty
+was solved through the ancient custom of throwing
+dice. Ansgar was successful in the proceedings, and his
+cause was then brought before the Thing (or Assembly) for
+deliberation. The people decided that permission should
+be granted to preach the Gospel, principally on the grounds
+set forth by an old man who rose to remind the Thing that
+the new God had already helped a good many, and that
+it was a good thing to have him to fall back on when the
+old gods failed. After having built churches and baptized
+a great number, Ansgar returned home, leaving behind
+Erimbert, a relative of Gauzbert’s. Archbishop Rimbert
+was Ansgar’s successor, himself visiting Sweden. After
+his death, the archbishops of the North seem to have
+ceased taking interest in Swedish missions. The little
+church, left to itself, soon succumbed. When at last one
+of the archbishops, Unne, woke up to the necessity of visiting
+Sweden, he found that the Gospel was forgotten. He
+was himself surprised by death while in Sweden, and buried
+in the town of Birka, in 936. Numerous graves of the
+earlier Christians in Sweden have been found on the site
+of the old commercial centre of Birka in the island Biœrkœ,
+in the Lake Mælar, unburned bodies in wooden coffins, and
+the graves without mounds.</p>
+
+<p>King <i>Eric Edmundson</i> was a contemporary of Rimbert.
+He was engaged in building up a Swedish dominion in Finland
+and on the southern shores of the Baltic. With King
+Harald Fairhair of Norway he was disputing the supremacy
+over the province of Vermland. He was succeeded by
+his son <i>Biœrn</i> who is said to have reigned for fifty years.
+<i>Olof</i> and <i>Eric</i>, Biœrn’s two sons, succeeded him, the former
+dying suddenly at a banquet. His young son, <i>Styrbiœrn
+Starke</i> (the Strong), one of the most famous of Swedish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
+heroes, demanded his share of the kingdom when only
+twelve years old. When King Eric told him he was yet
+too young, Styrbiœrn two springs in succession installed
+himself on the mound of his father, by so doing making
+claim upon his inheritance, according to old usage. But
+when he came to the Thing to demand his share in the government
+he was chased away with stone-throwing. King
+Eric gave him sixty ships with men and weapons to try his
+luck in Viking expeditions. Styrbiœrn won great fame
+during several years of continual warfare in the Baltic,
+capturing the mighty Jomsborg, a celebrated Viking nest
+in the island of Wollin, later turning his weapons upon
+Denmark, where he made the Danish king Harald Gormson
+Bluetooth a prisoner. He now felt strong enough to attack
+his uncle, King Eric. Harald Bluetooth was to help him,
+but failed to do so. Styrbiœrn sailed with a fleet to Sweden;
+after having landed he burned his ships to make a
+return impossible. King Eric met him at the Fyrisvols
+and fought a battle which was said to have lasted for
+three days. Styrbiœrn fell, and with him the larger part
+of his army. His uncle, the king, was after this called
+<i>Eric Segersæll</i> (the Victorious). After the battle the king
+ascended a high mound, promising a great compensation to
+the one who could compose a song in praise of the victory.
+The Icelander Thorvald Hialte, who never previously or
+afterward appeared as a scald, came forth and recited two
+strophes which are preserved to our day, receiving a costly
+armlet of gold as reward. This battle&mdash;next to the one at
+Bravols, the most famous in the heathen North&mdash;was fought
+in 988.</p>
+
+<p>King Eric invaded Denmark and took possession of the
+country, making the son of Harald Bluetooth an exile, to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+which facts Saxo, the Danish historian, testifies. In Denmark
+Eric was baptized, the first Swedish king about whom
+this is said. But upon his return to Sweden he also returned
+to the old gods. Eric Segersæll was king of Sweden and
+Denmark until his death, which occurred in 994. His first
+consort, Sigrid Storrada (the Proud), from whom he later
+separated, played quite an important part in the history of
+her time. After the death of Eric, she married the exiled
+Svend Tjufvuskægg (their son being Canute the Great),
+who through this matrimony came to the throne of
+Denmark.</p>
+
+<p><i>Olof Skœtkonung</i>, the son of Eric and Sigrid, succeeded
+his father. His surname is supposed to mean “the lap
+king,” but he was no longer a minor at the death of King
+Eric. King Olof was not a powerful or energetic ruler, like
+the father. He let go, one after the other, the lands of his
+crown. Denmark regained its independence, and he lost
+also the scat-paying dominions south of the Baltic. Shortly
+after Olof ascended the throne, the Norwegian king, Olaf
+Tryggvason, had demanded Sigrid Storrada in marriage
+and obtained her consent. But when King Olaf asked her
+to become a Christian, she refused to change faith, whereupon
+he insulted her. Sigrid told him that this should
+cause his death. Two years later, when Sigrid was the
+wife of King Svend of Denmark, she prevailed upon her
+son and her husband to join hands in assailing Olaf Tryggvason,
+who was expected back from an expedition to the
+lands of the Vends. The compact was made, and the
+Norwegian jarls, Eric and Svein, entered it. These all
+collected an immense fleet, which assailed the unsuspecting
+Olaf at Svolder, close by the coast of Pomerania. The
+Norwegian king lost the day and his life. This famous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
+battle was fought in 1000, the kings of Sweden and Denmark
+also taking a personal part in it. Norway was divided
+between the victors. The Swedish king received as his
+share the districts of Drontheim and Bohuslæn. These he
+granted to Jarl Svein, who was the betrothed of his sister
+Holmfrid. Fifteen years later they were recaptured by the
+Norwegian king.</p>
+
+<p>Olaf Tryggvason had been a devout Christian. His
+sister Ingeborg was married to Jarl Ragnvald of West
+Gothland, who was baptized and invited Christian missionaries
+to Sweden. Through such influences King Olof Skœtkonung
+was at last converted and baptized by Sigfrid, a
+German missionary, at Husaby in West Gothland, in the
+year 1008. Sigfrid, who has been supposed to be of English
+parentage and a bishop of York, evidently came from
+Germany. He preached for a long period in West Gothland
+and Værend, in the latter district once being attacked
+by heathen men, who killed three of his companions. King
+Olof himself saw to it that the murderers were punished,
+and Sigfrid continued his noble work without molestation.
+He was later worshipped as a saint. Among other missionaries
+who were active in converting the various provinces
+may be mentioned the Anglo-Saxon St. David, the apostle
+of Westmanland, the Anglo-Saxon St. Eskil and the Swede
+St. Botvid, the apostles of Sœdermanland, and the German
+Stenfi, or Simon, the apostle of Norrland. St. David was
+a contemporary of St. Sigfrid, while the others were a few
+generations younger. It was first through influence from
+England and Denmark, during the reign of Canute the
+Great, that Swedish conversions became more widespread
+and general.</p>
+
+<p>King Olof’s conversion met with a great deal of opposi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>tion,
+especially in Svealand, which longest remained heathen.
+Upsala, with its temple, was the heathen stronghold
+of the North, and there the king had always, as one
+of his principal duties, to preside over the great sacrifices.
+King Olof was forced to accept the decision of a Thing
+which granted him freedom to select some part of the kingdom
+wherein to build churches and perform the duties of
+the new cult, but which forbade him to use his influence
+toward the conversion of his subjects. For this reason
+Olof dwelt principally in the more and more christianized
+West Gothland, in the capital of which province, Skara,
+a bishop was installed. The name of the first bishop was
+Turgot. Only after more than two centuries of endeavor
+was the Christian Church firmly established in Sweden, in
+the middle of the eleventh century; but even at that time
+the great mass of the people were heathen in name. The
+heathen party was so strong that it could for a long time,
+and occasionally with success, keep up the battle against
+Christianity. It took yet another century before the complete
+victory of Christianity was an assured fact.</p>
+
+<p>The reasons for the slow progress of Christianity in
+Sweden were many, the principal one not being an opposition
+to the Christian doctrines. The superstitious change
+easily from one cult to another. The sceptics do not believe
+more in one god than in another. Of heathen sceptics
+there were a great many in the North who believed in nothing
+else than their own strength. But it was the Christian
+morals which were so difficult for the Swedes to accept.
+Accustomed to great personal liberty, they could not endure
+the restraint which Christian morals placed upon the
+individual. The very spirit of Christianity, with its kindliness
+and meekness, was not attractive to the Northman,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+who in his own mental and physical force found a tower
+of strength. The period of the first attempts at conversion
+was not well chosen. The whole North was inflamed
+by the Viking rage for war and plunder. Then followed
+a period of disinterestedness when the good seed was sown
+but the field neglected. Later the too arduous zeal of the
+priests called forth criticism and resistance from the Swedes,
+so tardy in making a decision and so careful in weighing
+reasons for and against.</p>
+
+<p>To this must be added the great prestige of the Upsala
+temple as the heathen arc of worship in the North, and the
+influence of the scalds and saga men of Iceland. Iceland
+was discovered in 870, and settled principally by Norsemen
+from the British Isles and from the western coast of Norway,
+but also to some extent by Swedes and Danes. Sudden
+and brilliant was the rise of Icelandic culture, and
+Icelandic scalds overran the whole territory of the North.
+At the court of every king and jarl these were at home,
+sometimes in great numbers, and soon to the exclusion of
+the native poets. For their poetry, both as to contents and
+form, they were chiefly dependent upon the heathen myths
+and traditions, and the result of their popularity must have
+been a perfect heathen revival in those days of growing
+scepticism. Through intercourse with Christians in Britain,
+the Icelanders had borrowed many a noble trait, and their
+taste found admirers in the old North, where such influence
+must have been felt through centuries of indirect contact
+with lands of classical or Christian culture. We are
+told of the great number of southern coins found in Swedish
+soil. Which travel further and faster, thoughts or
+coins, and which are the more impressionable? So although
+it would be unjust to deprive the Icelandic poetry, the im<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>pressive
+and grand Eddic songs and the more artificial
+court-poetry, of any of its beauty or originality, it is not
+right to ascribe all the culture, whose blossom it is, to Iceland,
+or Iceland and Norway, to the exclusion of Sweden
+and Denmark, or the Teutonic world at large. Good epic
+poetry has been written all over Teutondom. In Sweden
+strophes in the very metre of the majority of Eddic poems
+have been found on tombstones. In the same manner with
+the contents of the Eddic poems. Granting important exceptions,
+we think that the heathen myths have been the
+same in the East as in the extreme West. The very fact
+that Icelandic court-poetry was accepted and enjoyed by
+continental chieftains presupposes a thorough knowledge
+and mastery of the more popular poetry of Eddic songs of
+gods and heroes.</p>
+
+<p>Hence the revival of heathendom in the North, by which
+a king like Olof Skœtkonung for a long time was influenced,
+finding his chief delight in the association with poets
+and saga men.</p>
+
+<p>In Norway, Olaf Haraldson had ascended the throne,
+and he put an end to Swedish dominion in the Norwegian
+districts. This caused strife, and also considerable annoyance
+to the provinces touching the frontier. Popular feeling
+rose high in Sweden, when the demands for a peace
+guarantee with Norway were disregarded by King Olof.
+Jarl Ragnvald sided with the people, desiring a union between
+the Norwegian king and King Olof’s daughter Ingegerd.
+At a great Thing held in Upsala, in 1018, King
+Olof listened to Norwegian emissaries pleading for peace
+and a royal marriage. Jarl Ragnvald complained of the
+annoyance caused to his people of West Gothland. King
+Olof became indignant, but was, through the forcible yet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
+dignified appeal for peace by Torgny, the <i>lagman</i> (justice)
+of Tiundaland, compelled to a promise of peace and a concession
+of marriage. But the king did not keep his promises.
+A betrothal was arranged but soon annulled by Olof,
+and the Norwegian king was in vain expecting his promised
+bride. At the instigation of Jarl Ragnvald, Olaf
+Haraldson married King Olof’s illegitimate daughter Astrid.
+As this was done without the consent of her father, Ragnvald
+dared not remain in Sweden. He went to Gardarike
+(Russia), where he died shortly afterward, in 1019, his
+widow, the princess Ingegerd, in Novgorod becoming the
+wife of the Russian ruler Jaroslaf.</p>
+
+<p>In Sweden, trouble was brewing against the king, who
+had broken faith with his people, and in order to avoid
+open revolt King Olof was forced to divide his power with
+one of his sons, who, although yet a minor, was solemnly
+elected king. He had in baptism received the name of
+<i>Jacob</i>, which so displeased his heathen subjects that it was
+changed to <i>Anund</i>. King Olof also agreed to maintain
+peace with Norway, meeting his son-in-law at Konghæll,
+in Bohuslæn, in 1019, for a peace agreement. King Olof
+died two years later and was buried by the church of
+Husaby, where he was baptized. He was the first king
+who introduced coinage into Sweden. The earliest coins
+were made of silver by Anglo-Saxons settled in Sigtuma,
+and resemble closely Anglo-Saxon coins of the same period.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of his father King Anund ruled alone.
+He entered into an alliance with his brother-in-law of Norway
+against Canute, who now was king both of Denmark
+and England. During Canute’s absence, Anund and Olaf
+invaded Denmark. In the subsequent strife between Olaf
+and Canute, Anund took no active part. King Olaf had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
+to flee to Russia. Upon his return he gathered an army
+in Sweden, with the help of Anund, and entered Norway
+through Jemtland. At Stiklastad he met the much superior
+Norwegian army, and lost his battle and his life, in 1030.
+After his death, the sentiment in Norway changed radically,
+and he was worshipped as a saint throughout the
+North.</p>
+
+<p>Of Anund’s reign little is known. Adam of Bremen,
+an ecclesiastic, whose history of the diocese of Hamburg
+and Bremen, during the period 788-1072, is one of the most
+important sources of Swedish history in heathen times, says
+of Anund: “Young in years, he excelled in wisdom and
+piety all his predecessors; no king was more beloved by the
+Swedish people than Anund.” The historian gives as his
+authority the Danish king Svend Estridsen, who as an
+exile stayed at Anund’s court. Anund died in 1050 and
+was succeeded by his older half-brother <i>Emund</i>, surnamed
+<i>the Old</i>. He was the son of a freed woman, the daughter
+of a Vendish chief. For this reason he had been passed
+over at the first election. Emund was educated by his
+mother’s relatives, was baptized, but was not much of a
+Christian. He was popular neither with the new Christian
+church nor with the people at large. Emund’s unpopularity
+with the masses was caused by an agreement with
+Denmark in regard to the boundaries when he ceded the
+province of Bleking. Emund died in 1060. With him
+the old royal line became extinct. A new line comes to
+the throne of Sweden, where, with the general acceptance
+of Christianity, a new era commences.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a><br />
+<span class="smaller"><i>Early Christian Era&mdash;Stenkil’s Line and Interchanging
+Dynasties</i></span></h2>
+
+<p>The sources of Swedish history during the first two
+centuries of the Middle Ages are very meagre.
+This is a deplorable fact, for during that period
+Sweden passed through a great and thorough development,
+the various stages of which consequently are not
+easily traced.</p>
+
+<p>Before the year of 1060 Sweden is an Old Teutonic
+state, certainly of later form and a larger compass than
+the earliest of such, but with its democracy and its elective
+kingdom preserved. The older Sweden, such as it
+had existed at least since the days of Ingiald Illrade, was
+in regard to its constitution a rudimentary union of states.
+The realm had come into existence through the cunning
+and violence of the king of the Sviar, who made away
+with the kings of the respective lands, making their communities
+pay homage to him. No change in the interior
+affairs of the different lands was thereby effected; they
+lost their outward political independence, but remained
+mutually on terms of perfect equality. They were united
+only through the king, who was the only centre for the
+government of the union. No province had constitutionally
+more importance than the rest, no supremacy by one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+over the other existed. On this historic basis the Swedish
+realm was built, and rested firmly until the commencement
+of the Middle Ages. In the Old Swedish state-organism
+the various parts thus possessed a high degree
+of individual and pulsating life; the empire as a whole was
+also powerful, although the royal dignity was its only institution.
+The king was the outward tie which bound the
+provinces together; besides him there was no power of
+state which embraced the whole realm. The affairs of
+state were decided upon by the king alone, as in regard to
+war, or he had to gather the opinion of the Thing in each
+province; any imperial representation did not exist and
+was entirely unknown, both in the modern sense and in
+the form of one provincial, or sectional, assembly deciding
+for all the others. The latter form is one of transition, the
+modern form the ripe fruit, both brought out by the historic
+development. In society there existed no classes. It
+was a democracy of free men, the slaves and freed men enjoying
+no rights. The first centuries of the Middle Ages
+were one continued process of regeneration, the Swedish
+people being carried into the European circle of cultural
+development and made a communicant of Christianity.
+With the commencement of the thirteenth century Sweden
+comes out of this process as a mediæval state, in aspect
+entirely different to her past. The democratic equality
+among free men has turned into an aristocracy, with aristocratic
+institutions, the hereditary kingdom into an elective,
+or, at least, into one close upon turning into an elective,
+kingdom, while the provincial particularism and independence
+have given way to the constitution of a centralized,
+monopolistic state. No changes could be more fundamental.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>For lack of sources the historians were, until quite recently,
+led to the belief that the change was due to one
+tribe in gaining the ascendency over another, the political
+supremacy changing from one part of the country to another.
+The epoch was called “The Struggle between
+Swedes and Goths,” “The Struggle about the election of
+kings between Swedes and Goths.” Now it is generally
+admitted that the struggle was between principles, not between
+tribes. The circumstances sometimes were such that
+one section or province opposed others, but these divisions
+never were identical or at all depended upon racial or tribal
+conditions. It was a struggle between heathendom and
+Christianity, democracy and aristocracy, provincial particularism
+and centralized state unity.</p>
+
+<p>The old provincial laws of Sweden are a great and important
+inheritance which this period has accumulated from
+heathen times. The laws were written down in the thirteenth
+and fourteenth centuries, but they bear every evidence
+of high antiquity. Many strophes are found in them
+of the same metre as those on the tombstones of the Viking
+Age and those in which the songs of the Edda are chiefly
+written. In other instances the text consists of alliterative
+prose, which proves its earlier metrical form. The expressions
+have, in places, remained heathen, although used by
+Christians, who were ignorant of their true meaning, as, for
+instance, in the following formula of an oath, in the West
+Gothic law: “Sva se mer gud hull” (So help me the gods).
+The laws show a good many individual traits and differences,
+but these are not of such a serious character as to
+give evidence of having been formulated by tribes of different
+origin. A remarkable exception is formed by the laws
+of matrimony and inheritance for the inhabitants of Værend<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
+and Bleking, who, it will be remembered, are the descendants
+of the Herulian immigration in historic times. In lieu
+of a missing literature of sagas and poetry, these provincial
+laws give a good insight into the character, morals, customs
+and culture of the heathen and early Christian times of
+Sweden. From the point of philology they are also of great
+value, besides forming the solid basis of later Swedish law.
+How the laws could pass from one generation to another,
+without any codification, depends upon the facts that they
+were recited from memory by the justice (<i>lagman</i> or <i>domare</i>),
+and that this dignity generally was inherited, for
+centuries being carried by the descendants of one and the
+same family.</p>
+
+<p>Interesting is the appendix to the law of the island of
+Gothland, the Guta Saga, being the fragment of a history
+of the island and its first contact with Christianity through
+a visit by St. Olaf of Norway. The style is the same simple
+and serene one as in the Icelandic sagas; while the Gutnic
+dialect, in which it is written, more closely resembles the
+Gothic of Bishop Wulfila in vowel sounds than the language
+of any other known dialect. Quite an important appendix
+is found in the older form of the West Gothic law, consisting
+of lines of the kings of Sweden, with short but highly
+valuable accounts of their reigns and characteristics.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stenkil</i> was the name of King Emund’s successor. He
+was a jarl and married to Emund’s sister. The statement
+that he was born in West Gothland is not confirmed by the
+authorities. His father’s name was Ragnvald, and it seems
+likely that this Ragnvald was identical with the jarl spoken
+of above, who died in Russia. Stenkil had close relations
+with Russia, for his son Inge was called in from that country
+to succeed his father. If Jarl Ragnvald was Stenkil’s<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
+father, this only made his selection as king more plausible,
+being then the half-brother of Isiaslaf of Russia and the
+brother-in-law of the reigning kings of Hungary, France
+and Norway. King Stenkil was a devout Christian, but
+of a sagacious disposition, careful not to offend his heathen
+subjects by any Christian propaganda. He was a giant in
+size, and although phlegmatic, an ardent sportsman. Adalvard,
+exiled by Emund, returned and did active work as
+bishop of Skara, also converting the population of Vermland.
+Even among the heathen of Svealand, Christianity
+got a foothold, Adalvard the Younger being established as
+bishop in Sigtuna, close by the pagan centre of Upsala.
+But when he, in conjunction with Egino, of the newly erected
+bishop’s chair of Lund, schemed for the destruction of the
+heathen temple of Upsala, he was removed by the command
+of the king, who found that such a plan, if carried through,
+would prove disastrous to both Church and throne.</p>
+
+<p>During the short reign of Stenkil there was a conflict
+with Norway, an exiled Norwegian jarl having been granted
+possessions in Vermland. King Harald Hardrade invaded
+Gothaland, punishing this insult by a victory over the
+Swedes. No further complications ensued, perhaps on
+account of the close family relations of the two rulers.</p>
+
+<p>Stenkil died in 1066, leaving two sons, <i>Halsten</i> and
+<i>Inge</i>, both minors. During their minority two men, both
+named <i>Eric</i>, relatives of Stenkil and the old royal line,
+fought for supremacy, and both fell in the contest for the
+crown. Hakon of West Gothland took hold of the reins of
+state and kept them for thirteen years, until King Halsten
+became of age, Hakon himself dying. Halsten was a devout
+Christian like his father, but less sagacious, trying
+to force the new faith upon the heathen of Svealand. For<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
+this reason he was dethroned, and his brother Inge called
+in from Russia. But King Inge was a Christian enthusiast
+like his brother, and was subsequently driven away by the
+irate inhabitants of Svealand, who now called to the throne
+his brother-in-law <i>Sven</i>, surnamed <i>Blot-Sven</i> (<i>Sven, the
+Sacrificer</i>), of heathen faith. The royal brothers dwelt
+undisturbed among the Christians, but after three years
+King Inge, in old heathen style, surrounded and set fire
+to the domicile of Blot-Sven, who with all his household
+perished within. King Inge resumed his reign, likely very
+much in his old spirit, for two other pretenders, although
+less formidable, appeared: <i>Olof Næskonung</i> (<i>Nose-king</i>)
+and a son of Sven, called <i>Kol</i> or <i>Eric Arsæll</i>. Two papal
+documents are preserved from Inge’s reign. They consist
+of letters from Gregory VII., making appeals for closer
+relations between the pope and the Swedish king.</p>
+
+<p>An invasion was made from Norway, whose king, Magnus
+Barfod, subdued the inhabitants of the province of
+Dal. King Magnus built a fortified place on the island
+of Kollandsœ in Lake Venar, close to the shore of
+West Gothland, but it was captured by King Inge, who
+set its occupants free, but without their weapons. Two battles
+were fought at Fuxerna, the Norwegians being victors
+in the first, the Swedes in the latter. Peace was effected
+at a meeting between the two kings at Kunghæll in the
+summer of 1101, when it was agreed that the frontiers
+should remain as they were before the war. King Eric
+Ejegod was also present at the meeting, where the betrothal
+between King Magnus and King Inge’s daughter Margaret
+was agreed upon. On account of the original nature of the
+meeting the Swedish princess was surnamed Fredkulla
+(Peace-Maiden).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In 1103 the bishopric of Lund was raised to the dignity
+of an archbishopric, yet not becoming perfectly independent
+of the archbishopric of Hamburg-Bremen. The archbishop
+of Lund received the title of Primas of Sweden, preserved
+long after Sweden had obtained its own archbishop.</p>
+
+<p>King Inge died in 1111, receiving, by the appendix to
+the West Gothic law, credit for “having ruled Sweden with
+manliness, without breaking the law which governed each
+province.” About his brother Halsten, who died before
+him, the same source says: “He was sagacious and good-natured;
+the cases brought before him were bettered, and
+Sweden became worse through his death.” At the time of
+Inge’s death, Jemtland was persuaded to pay scat to the
+Norwegian king, but it remained in connection with the
+church of Sweden.</p>
+
+<p>Inge’s son Ragnvald died before him, and Halsten’s
+sons, <i>Philip</i> and <i>Inge the Younger</i>, ascended the throne.
+They were of a more peaceful disposition toward the heathen
+than their predecessors, Christianity making great progress
+during their reigns. Philip died in 1118, Inge following him
+in 1125; his death was said to have been caused by poison.
+The epitaph over the two runs thus: “Sweden fared well
+while they lived,” in the terse language of the source quoted
+above. With them the race of Stenkil became extinct in the
+male line.</p>
+
+<p>In 1123 the Norwegian king, Sigurd Jorsalafare, undertook
+a crusade to the eastern parts of Smaland, which were
+still heathen. “Crusades” of this kind were not uncommon
+during that period, and were hardly anything else than
+Viking expeditions in Christian disguise.</p>
+
+<p>Great confusion ensued through the extinction of Stenkil’s
+line. <i>Ragnvald Knaphœfde</i>, probably the son of Olof<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>
+Næskonung, was chosen king, but lost his life through the
+contemptuous neglect of an ancient custom. The newly
+elected king should always make a tour of the realm, receiving
+homage and giving assurance of his good faith to
+the population of the various provinces. The provincial
+laws had stipulations as to the nature and number of the
+<i>gisslan</i> (hostages) to meet and escort him through each
+province. This tour, called <i>Eriksgata</i>, Ragnvald undertook
+without accepting hostages upon entering West Gothland.
+He was killed at Karleby, in 1130, by the peasants,
+indignant at what they considered an insult to all the West
+Goths. These had, moreover, made another choice in Magnus
+Nilsson, the son of Margaret Fredkulla in her second
+marriage. Magnus never made claim to the Swedish throne,
+endeavoring to become king of Denmark, after his father,
+Nils Svendsen, but losing his life in the attempt.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sverker</i>, who had married the widow of the younger
+Inge, was in 1133 chosen king by the East Goths, and the
+Up-Swedes (in the provinces north of Lake Mælar), having
+no special choice of their own, also agreed on him. After
+the death of Magnus Nilsson, the West Goths joined by
+formally acknowledging King Sverker, who, born in East
+Gothland, has been supposed to be the son of Eric Arsæll,
+without solid reasons. During Sverker’s reign ecclesiastical
+matters developed. The old bishoprics of Birka and Sigtuna
+were changed into that of (Old) Upsala, where the pagan
+temple seems to have been at last changed into a church.
+New bishoprics were created in Linkœping, Strengnæs,
+Westeros and Vexio. The whole of Swedish Finland
+formed one diocese. The famous Bernard of Clairvaux
+was asked by King Sverker and his queen Ulfhild to send
+monks of his order, and several Cistercian convents were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
+founded. The quiet and scholarly monks from France, no
+doubt, soon began to exert a beneficial influence of importance,
+through the means of their superior culture. A papal
+legate, Nicolaus of Alba (later Pope Hadrian IV.), visited
+Sweden in 1152, meeting all the dignitaries of Church and
+State for a conference at Linkœping. The legate was willing
+to give to Sweden an archbishop, but the matter was
+postponed, since no agreement could be reached in regard
+to the archbishopric’s seat. Measures for the establishment
+of the Church on a firmer basis and the payment of Peter’s
+pence to Rome were agreed on.</p>
+
+<p>Sverker was a good and peaceful monarch, but seems
+with old age to have lost some of his authority. A war
+with Denmark was brought on through an escapade of his
+son John, who had carried away two Danish women of
+noble birth. He returned them, and was himself killed
+by the peasants at a Thing. Yet the Danish king, Svend
+Grade, had the excuse for an invasion and entered Smaland
+with an army in the winter of 1153-54. The brave inhabitants
+of Værend gave him a hearty welcome, and he soon
+returned to Denmark. It is an old tradition that a woman
+by the name of Blenda was chiefly instrumental in this
+result. When the peasants feared to attack the superior
+enemy, she had a splendid meal spread for the foe. After
+the Danes had partaken heavily of its eatables and drinkables,
+they were surprised and routed by their hitherto
+invisible hosts and hostesses.</p>
+
+<p>King Sverker, now called “the Old,” was murdered by
+his valet while starting for the Christmas matins in 1155
+or 1156. The murder was, without doubt, committed at
+the instigation of the Danish prince Magnus Henricsson,
+who on his mother’s side was a great-grandson of Inge the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
+Elder, and who in this manner made his first attempt to
+reach the throne of Sweden.</p>
+
+<p>Already, in 1150, the Up-Swedes had in <i>Eric</i>, the son of
+Jedvard, found a man in their opinion better suited to rule
+Sweden than Sverker the Old. His mother is said to have
+been the daughter of Blot-Sven and the sister of Kol, while
+his father was “a good and rich yeoman.” Through a mistake
+he was named <i>Eric IX.</i>, but is more commonly known
+as <i>St. Eric</i>. One source calls him “lawgiver,” although
+nothing is definitely known of his activity in this direction.
+At the death of Sverker, his son Charles was certainly of
+age, but the growing fame of King Eric made it useless for
+him to force his right, and Eric was recognized as king
+of the whole realm.</p>
+
+<p>King Eric was a warm friend of the Christian propaganda
+in his own country, and by crusades spread the faith
+outside of its borders. It was only natural that Sweden
+should turn its attention to Finland, with which country it
+had stood in close relations since the remotest period, and
+where Swedish settlements in all times existed. Accompanied
+by Bishop Henric of Upsala, King Eric sailed with
+a fleet to the southwestern part of Finland, or the province
+now called Finland Proper, where the inhabitants were
+forced to receive baptism. This crusade must have taken
+place late in the fifties of the twelfth century. Eric soon
+returned, but Bishop Henric remained with other priests to
+have Christianity firmly established. These efforts met
+with considerable difficulty, and Henric was murdered by
+one of his converts. He was later worshipped as the patron
+saint of Finland.</p>
+
+<p>The pious King Eric was attacked by the perfidious
+prince Magnus Henricsson at East Aros (the present or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+New Upsala), in 1160. It is said that Eric was attending
+mass at the Trinity Church, when he was told of the approach
+of his enemy. He remained till the service was over,
+after which he went to meet his fate. He was overcome
+and slain by the superior force. His pious life and virtues
+and the miracles which were said to have been worked at
+his grave made him the patron saint of Sweden, although
+never canonized by the Church of Rome. His bones are
+preserved in a shrine of gilt silver behind the high altar in
+the cathedral of Upsala, and were in Catholic days objects
+of worship. Oaths were taken “by the power of God and
+Saint Eric the King,” his banner was carried in war, and
+the city of Stockholm still has his image on its shield.</p>
+
+<p><i>Charles Sverkersson</i> (<i>Charles VII.</i>) now made valid
+his claims, the whole people rising to support him against
+the usurper Magnus. In the following year Magnus was
+killed by the indignant people. During the reign of Charles
+some important novelties in Church and State were introduced.
+Sweden received, in 1164, her first archbishop in
+Stefan, a monk of Alvastra. The archbishop’s seat was
+first Old Upsala. Instead of jarls in the various parts,
+there is from this time on a jarl for the whole kingdom
+at the side of the king, whom he assists in the government
+of the state, sometimes obtaining a power rivalling that of
+his master. The first jarl of the realm was Ulf, the second
+Gutorm. The rivalry noticeable between the different provinces,
+which all thought themselves called upon to select
+a new line to rule after Stenkil’s, ceased at the death of
+Saint Eric. What follows is a rivalry of interchanging
+dynasties. Charles Sverkersson was, in April, 1167, surprised
+by a pretender to the throne, Knut Ericsson, who
+deprived him of crown and life, while his little son Sverker<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
+was saved and carried away to the queen’s uncle, Valdemar
+the Great of Denmark.</p>
+
+<p><i>Knut Ericsson</i> was the son of Saint Eric, and ruled
+Sweden for twenty-five years in peace. In his youth he
+had made one unsuccessful attempt to reach the throne,
+after which he fled to Norway. After the death of King
+Charles he had to fight two pretenders, Kol and Burislev,
+the latter said to have been a son of King Sverker.</p>
+
+<p>During this period the Baltic and its coasts were continually
+disturbed by heathen sea-rovers from the southern
+shores. A fleet of this kind entered Lake Mælar in 1187
+and destroyed by fire the town of Sigtuna, which, as a
+mercantile centre, had succeeded the earlier destroyed
+Birka. The second archbishop of Sweden, John, was
+killed by the invaders. The first preliminary plan for the
+fortification of the present site of Stockholm was probably
+then laid, in order to prevent further invasions, and a little
+town commenced to grow up.</p>
+
+<p>Conditions in Finland were not satisfactory. Invasions
+by Esthonians and Vends were frequent, while the Finns
+themselves were troublesome and little devoted to the new
+faith. Bishop Henric’s successor was killed, but Sweden
+continued to send bishops during the next hundred years.</p>
+
+<p>The relations with foreign powers were peaceable, the
+first known treaty between Sweden and a German prince
+being entered into by King Knut and Duke Heinrich of Saxony
+and Bavaria, in regard to trade relations with Lubeck.
+King Knut died in the winter of 1195. He had four sons,
+but although he had selected one of them for his successor,
+“with general consent and through election by the foremost
+men in Sweden,” <i>Sverker the Younger</i>, the son of King
+Charles, succeeded him. That this could take place with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>out
+serious objection of Knut’s sons can only be explained
+by the influence wielded by the Church and the nobles.
+The latter had already grown up to strength and importance.
+Their leader was the mighty jarl, Birger Brosa, who
+had succeeded Gutorm. He was of the influential family
+of Folkungs, which, one of the first in the land, soon aspired
+to the throne. Birger, himself married to a Norwegian
+princess, gave his own daughter Ingegerd in marriage
+to the new king, and remained in power.</p>
+
+<p>King Sverker sought the favor of the Church by supporting
+its claims. In a document of the year 1200, by
+which he donates some property to the church of Upsala,
+historians have seen the privileges extended to the Church
+as an independent power of state, whose members could
+be arraigned before an ecclesiastic forum only, and whose
+property was to be exempt from taxation. This is the
+spirit of the document; but the king had not, at that period,
+the right to grant such extensive privileges. King
+Sverker, and probably each of his successors, in turn, gave
+only an assurance of their sympathy with the Church policy,
+which was to its full extent an assured victory only toward
+the close of the thirteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>In 1202, Birger Brosa died, and with him the firm support
+against the pretenders had fallen. The sons of Knut
+now made open revolt, leaving their places at Sverker’s
+court. In 1205, Sverker gave battle to them at Elgaros,
+three of the brothers being killed and the fourth, Eric,
+fleeing to Norway. But a few years later he returned
+with an army, and Sverker found it safest to retire to
+Denmark, whence he returned with a splendid army, which
+King Valdemar II. Seier, had placed at his disposal. But
+this army was defeated at Lena, in West Gothland, in 1208,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
+and Sverker returned to Denmark, now turning to the pope,
+Innocent III., who in vain threatened the pretender with
+his ban. Sverker entered Sweden with a new Danish army,
+but was killed at the battle of Gestilren, in West Gothland,
+in 1210.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eric Knutsson</i> now came to undisturbed possession of
+the throne and thus remained until his death in April, 1216,
+his reign being short and uneventful. He was the first
+king of Sweden of whom it is known with certainty that
+he was anointed and crowned, thus placing himself under
+the protection of the Church. His queen, Rikissa, a sister
+of Valdemar II., returned to Denmark after his death,
+there giving life to a son, who was named Eric, after his
+father. King Valdemar tried in vain to have this royal
+babe placed on the Swedish throne.</p>
+
+<p><i>John Sverkersson</i> succeeded King Eric, being, on account
+of his fifteen years of age, first surnamed the <i>Young</i>,
+later <i>the Pious</i>. By confirming and extending the rights
+of the Church which his father granted he won the favor
+of the ecclesiastics, and the attempts made by Valdemar to
+have his consecration prohibited proved futile. Toward
+the end of his short reign (in 1220) King John undertook
+a crusade to Esthonia, where he left behind him his jarl,
+Charles, a brother of Birger Brosa, and Bishop Charles of
+Linkœping, with a part of the army. These all perished
+in an onslaught made on them by the heathen in August
+of the same year, and the ravages by Esthonians continued
+as before. King John died in the island of Visingsœ, in
+Lake Vetter, in 1222, like several of his predecessors, and
+was, like them, buried in the monastery of Alvastra.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eric Ericsson</i> now became king of Sweden. The royal
+babe was then six years of age, a halting and lisping little<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
+creature. The Church took him under its protection, but
+there was no powerful man to take hold of the government
+during his minority. A pretender rose in the person of
+<i>Knut the Tall</i>, a great grandson of St. Eric, like the king
+himself. He defeated Eric’s troops at Olustra, in 1229.
+Eric fled to Denmark, where he remained until the short
+and restless reign of Knut came to an end through his
+death, in 1232. Eric resumed the reins of government,
+with the Folkung, Jarl Ulf, at the helm.</p>
+
+<p>Pope Gregory IX., in 1230, gave commandment to the
+Swedish bishops to rouse the people to opposition against the
+ravages of the heathen in the Baltic provinces in the further
+parts of Finland. In 1237 he commands the Swedish bishops
+to have a crusade started against the heathen Tavasti
+in the interior of Finland. This crusade took place under
+the leadership of Birger Magnusson, who converted the
+barbarous Finns by the sword and erected a fort on the
+site of the later Tavastehus. Birger, according to Russian
+testimony, tried to extend the dominion of Swedish
+supremacy as far as to the river Neva, but was repulsed
+by the Russians.</p>
+
+<p>Peace had reigned in Sweden for some time when new
+conflicts ensued. The peasants of Upland made an uprising
+in 1247, but were conquered at Sparrsætra and punished by
+heavier taxes. A pretender rose in the person of Holmger,
+the son of Knut the Tall. He was captured and beheaded
+in 1248.</p>
+
+<p>A papal legate, Bishop William of Sabina, visited Sweden
+and arranged, in 1248, an ecclesiastical meeting at Skenninge,
+effecting the final separation of Church and State,
+and establishing the former as an independent power at the
+side of the latter. Archbishops and bishops were now to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
+elected by the ecclesiastics and not by the king. Celibacy,
+previously not enforced in the Swedish church, was then
+introduced, meeting with a good deal of opposition; for the
+ecclesiastical offices had already commenced getting hereditary,
+as had in earlier times the combined dignities of Asa
+priest and chieftain. Birger Magnusson had, shortly before
+the meeting of Skenninge, succeeded Ulf as jarl of the
+realm. This converter of the Tavasti was destined to play
+a most important part in Swedish history, shaping its destiny
+through the power of his iron will. He was the leader
+of the Folkung family and party, a nephew of Birger
+Brosa, and married to princess Ingeborg, a sister of the
+reigning king. <i>Birger Jarl</i>, as he is generally called,
+effected a satisfactory agreement with Norway at a meeting
+with Hakon in the summer of 1249, according to which
+the enemies of one realm should have no refuge, or support,
+in the other. Besides, it was agreed that the son of the
+Norwegian king should marry Rikissa, the daughter of
+Birger Jarl.</p>
+
+<p>King Eric died in 1250, at the age of thirty-four. He
+called himself Eric III., while in later times, when St. Eric
+was supposed to have been the ninth king of that name,
+he has been called Eric XI. He was said to have been
+peaceful, just and kind.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a><br />
+<span class="smaller"><i>The Mediæval State&mdash;The Folkung Dynasty</i></span></h2>
+
+<p>With Eric Ericsson the royal line of Saint Eric
+became extinct. The crown was, on account
+of his birthright, offered to <i>Valdemar</i>, the oldest
+son of Birger Jarl. He was crowned in Linkœping
+in 1251. From this period on, a new historic source is
+found in the rhymed chronicles, of which Swedish literature
+possesses several elaborate ones of more than 22,000
+verses in all. Of these the Old, or Eric’s, Chronicle, was
+written about 1320, and, like all the rest, anonymously.
+The verses are fine, the language pure and powerful; the
+portraits of historical personages are roughly drawn but
+interesting. Unfortunately these rhymed chronicles in
+general, and the Eric’s Chronicle in particular, dwell rather
+on the description of impressive events of pomp and splendor
+than on historical facts; and the facts given are not
+always reliable. The Eric’s Chronicle gives a brief review
+of events during the reigns of Eric and Valdemar; then for
+the events up to 1319 more fully.</p>
+
+<p>According to the Eric’s Chronicle, Birger Jarl wished
+to succeed Eric, but had to step aside for his son, who was
+of royal descent through his mother, King Eric’s sister.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
+But Birger Jarl remained the all-powerful, although uncrowned,
+ruler till his death.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the nobles were not satisfied with the election
+of Valdemar. They joined forces, gathering hired troops
+from Denmark and Germany. Birger met them at Hervadsbro
+and defeated them, capturing the leaders, who were
+beheaded. Among these were Philip, a son of Knut the
+Tall, and Knut Magnusson, with others of the Folkung
+family, which often was at war between themselves when
+great interests were at stake.</p>
+
+<p>After this battle peace reigned under the powerful and
+sagacious rule of Birger. An assault upon Denmark by
+King Hakon of Norway and Birger jointly was planned, but
+a peace agreement took its place, in 1253. In the further
+complications between Norway and Denmark, Birger took
+no part. When later King Christopher of Denmark called
+upon his northern neighbors for help against revolts in his
+own country, these were ready to respond; but at the sudden
+death of King Christopher these plans were frustrated.
+In 1260 Birger bettered the already friendly relations with
+Denmark, by arranging the marriage between King Valdemar
+and the Danish princess, Sophia, whereupon he, himself
+a widower, married Mechtild, a queen-dowager of Denmark.
+In Finland, conditions were the same as of yore,
+pagan tribes and Russian invasions rendering everything
+unsafe and perilous. Birger renewed the trade agreement
+with Lubeck, in 1251, with added privileges to Lubeck, but
+with the stipulation that those of its citizens who settled
+in Sweden must become Swedish subjects. In 1261 the
+same privileges were extended to Hamburg. It was at this
+period that the Hanseatic League was formed between the
+commercial centres of North Germany. The relations be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>tween
+the league and the Scandinavian countries waxed
+quite intimate and, at times, menacing to the political
+independence of the latter. But Sweden derived many
+benefits through the contact with the reviving culture of
+Southern Europe, which was brought about through the
+Hanseatic League; the newly opened mining industry and
+the prosperity of Swedish commercial centres particularly
+owing much to this influence. Stockholm became the largest
+and most important of Swedish towns during the days
+of Birger, although he was not its founder. Also with
+England, Birger was carrying on peaceful proceedings; yet
+their purpose is not known. In 1237, the king of England
+had granted the merchants of the island of Gothland free
+trade privileges. Birger was a great and sound legislator,
+although it is not known with certainty how many of the
+judicial reforms accredited to him originated in these days.
+He made the law that sister should have equal share
+of inheritance with brother, and the laws of sanctity of
+home, Church, Thing and woman, which formed the kernel
+of a set of laws, later called <i>Edsœre</i> (Pledged oath), which
+every crowned king and his foremost men must pledge
+themselves to uphold. He tried to make away with the
+ordeal of walking on, or the handling of, iron as a legal
+testimony of guiltlessness. Further, he prohibited the custom
+of self-imposed thraldom.</p>
+
+<p>The only act of Birger’s which has been condemned was
+his attempt to introduce feudalism. His second son, Magnus,
+was created a duke, and received, at Birger’s death,
+Sœdermanland, with the castle of Nykœping as a duchy.
+This gave rise to much strife and many conflicts within
+the new royal branch of the Folkungs, and endangered the
+unity of the kingdom. Birger, the last jarl of the realm,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
+was the first real statesman of Sweden, whose stern intellect
+and integrity of character won for his country an honored
+position among its neighbors, and for himself the admiration
+of many generations to come. He died in 1266.</p>
+
+<p>The first few years after Birger’s death were peaceful.
+The archbishop’s seat was removed to the present Upsala,
+where work was commenced on the magnificent cathedral.
+In 1271 the commercial privileges held by Lubeck and
+Hamburg were also granted to Riga.</p>
+
+<p>Valdemar was a weak and frivolous man, and his licentiousness
+gave his brother Magnus the idea of pushing him
+aside, and later deprived him of the loyalty and respect of
+his people. The difficulties with his brothers ended in open
+conflict; Magnus and his younger brother Eric turned to
+Denmark and Germany, where they hired an army, King
+Eric Glipping of Denmark helping them with troops on
+promise of good securities. The brothers invaded West
+Gothland and defeated a Swedish army at Hofva, in 1275,
+while the king with his best troops remained inactive at
+Tiveden. Valdemar fled to Norway, bringing his son Eric
+with him. Venturing back into Vermland, he was captured
+and brought before Duke Magnus. Valdemar went so far
+as to abdicate his throne, but the meeting ended in an
+agreement according to which <i>Magnus</i> was to become
+king of Svealand and Valdemar to keep Gothaland. Eric
+was made a duke, but died in the same year. Magnus
+was crowned at Upsala in 1276.</p>
+
+<p>King Valdemar did not long remain content with the
+new state of things. One month after Magnus’s coronation
+he arranged a meeting with him at Lœdœse, over which
+King Magnus Lagabœte of Norway presided, but without
+being able to effect an agreement between the brothers.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
+Valdemar now turned to King Eric of Denmark, and won
+an ally in him because Magnus had neglected to fulfil his
+promises. Magnus gained a supporter in Duke Gerhard I.
+of Holstein, whose daughter Helvig he married in November,
+1276.</p>
+
+<p>With the year 1277 war commences between Sweden
+and Denmark. Magnus invades Halland and Scania, while
+Valdemar, with a Danish army, enters Smaland, burning
+the town of Vexio. With King Eric, Valdemar enters
+West Gothland, capturing Skara. At last the Danes are
+defeated at Ettak. Early in 1278 peace is made at Laholm,
+Magnus promising to pay his debt to Eric, leaving the castle
+of Lœdœse as security. Each promises not to shelter the
+rebels against the other. Valdemar lost his cause and had
+to give up Gothaland and his royal title, keeping only his
+inherited estates. On account of his scandalous living, the
+nobles insisted upon his imprisonment, and ten years after
+his abdication he was placed in custody at the castle of
+Nykœping. He survived all his brothers, dying in 1302.
+His son Eric was imprisoned at the castle of Stockholm,
+receiving good treatment like his father. When his cousin
+Birger was crowned, in 1302, he was set free, spending the
+rest of his life in Sweden as a private citizen. During
+Magnus Ericsson’s minority he was a member of the king’s
+council. When Magnus was sole occupant of the throne
+he took the title of “King of the Swedes and Goths,”
+which, occasionally used before, henceforward became the
+customary one.</p>
+
+<p>A revolt against King Magnus took place shortly after
+the meeting at Laholm. Some of the nobles were dissatisfied
+with the favoritism shown foreigners, a complaint which
+was only too often justifiable, and forever repeated, in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>
+course of centuries, against the Swedish monarchs. Count
+Gerhard of Holstein was imprisoned, and the Danish
+knight, Ingemar, killed. The king invited the rebels to
+him at Gællqvist, where he in an unexpected way made
+them prisoners, and had them beheaded, in August, 1280,
+confiscating their property. This incident is characteristic
+of the time, but there is no other authority for it than the
+Chronicle. The reign of Magnus was comparatively short,
+but a happy and glorious one. The relations with the island
+of Gothland were made closer and more intimate, although
+the proud independence of its inhabitants remained largely
+intact. They were to pay increased scat, but continued
+their government without royal officials. The Guts were
+of Swedish origin, and their island formed since the ninth
+century a part of Sweden, but their isolated position and
+great commercial activity made them almost independent.
+About the year 1000 they seek for themselves protection
+from the Swedish king, and after their baptism they turn
+to the bishop of Linkœping for spiritual guidance. Thanks
+to its position, halfway between Germany, Russia and Sweden,
+Gothland gives rise to the most important commercial
+centre of Northern Europe after Lubeck. The inhabitants
+of Visby were Germans, to a great extent, and their conflicts
+with the rural population were frequent. King Magnus
+appears as an arbitrator in such cases with an authority
+great enough to impose his conditions. In spite of the
+inimical relations between Denmark and Norway, Magnus
+held peace with both.</p>
+
+<p>As a legislator Magnus was even more important than
+his father, shaping and reshaping laws which furthered the
+development of the country and wielding an influence upon
+its jurisdiction reaching down to the present day. At a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
+meeting of nobles at Alnsnœ, in 1280, King Magnus gave
+solemn pledge to the so-called Edsœre-laws of his father,
+and made the nobility into a privileged class. All the men
+surrounding him and his brother Bengt (made duke of
+Finland), and on their estates, together with the trusted
+men in the service of a bishop, were freed from paying taxes
+to the king. The same privilege was extended “to all men
+who served with a horse, whosoever they serve.” The exemption
+from taxes did not include those due the church
+or community, but only those due the king. The horse service
+(<i>ross</i> = later <i>rusttjenst</i>) meant to provide for a cavalry
+force of iron-clad men for military service, according to the
+demands of the time. The nobles saw to it that this privilege
+was made permanent even after they had discontinued
+the horse service, and that others were added to it. A law
+prohibiting <i>voldgæstning</i>, the custom of travellers of taking
+by violence, or without compensation, food and comfort from
+the rural population, was also made at Alnsnœ, and won for
+King Magnus the rustic but beautiful surname of <i>Ladulas</i>
+(Barn-lock). “For he wished to place such locks on the
+peasant’s barn, that no one should dare enter but at the
+will of the owner,” wrote Olaus Petri, the historian and
+reformer. An official was placed in every country town to
+see to the traveller’s comfort, and to his payment for it. At
+a meeting in Skenninge, in 1285, a law about <i>konungafrid</i>
+(royal sanctity) was made in order to prevent strife among
+the nobles and to make away with the ancient evil of revenge
+for bloodshed. This period of royal sanctity, when
+between men of the most strained relations peace should
+reign, commenced a fortnight after the king’s arrival had
+been announced at the Thing and lasted until he had by
+letter informed it of his departure out of the province. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
+one who abused this sanctity, or only carried weapons, was
+exiled and his property confiscated. Secret societies among
+the nobles were prohibited.</p>
+
+<p>Magnus was not only a great legislator, but saw to it
+that his laws were not broken. Personally he loved splendor
+and dignity, another trait through which he won the
+favor of the Swedes, who in all times have been fond of
+seeing their highest representatives surround themselves
+with impressive luxury and wealth. Magnus was in this
+respect the first mediæval monarch of Sweden, who kept
+a brilliant court, but at the same time was the pious and
+obedient son of the Church. He augmented the ecclesiastical
+privileges and founded several convents. In one of
+these, St. Clara of Stockholm, he installed his daughter
+Rikissa. Upon his death, which deplorable event took place
+in the island of Visingsœ, December 18, 1290, he was buried
+in the Franciscan convent church (the Riddarholm’s) in
+Stockholm, according to his own wish. He was the first
+monarch to be entombed in this the present Pantheon
+of Sweden. Three sons survived him, Birger, Eric and
+Valdemar.</p>
+
+<p>During the reign of Magnus, the development of mediæval
+institutions took rapid strides. This is noticeable
+also in the offices of those who surround the king. In
+the place of the jarl have been set two new dignitaries the
+<i>drotsete</i> and <i>marsk</i>, of the king, “the seater of the retinue”
+and “marechal” or “servant of the horse,” respectively.
+Circumstances heightened the importance of these offices
+and changed them from court into state positions, the president
+of the state council and the commander of the army.
+The <i>kansler</i> (chancellor), often a bishop, is another important
+royal office. The king’s council, consisting of bishops,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
+knights and men of social standing, surrounds the monarch
+at his command and according to his selection, the archbishop
+being the only ex-officio member. Important affairs
+of State and Church are decided on at the meetings of nobles,
+<i>herredagar</i>, no one taking part who is not asked, or not
+agreeable to the king. These meetings later developed into
+<i>riksdagar</i>, at which all classes of the people were represented.
+Taxes were collected for the king by bailiffs, who
+in compensation received fiefs, sometimes consisting only of
+certain estates, in other instances as much as a whole province
+or district. The right of taxation belonged to the people.
+Only in extraordinary cases the king was allowed to
+impose additional taxes, although such were sometimes imposed
+wrongfully, in spite of a law stipulated by King
+Magnus Barn-Lock.</p>
+
+<p><i>Birger</i> succeeded his father Magnus. He was only ten
+years of age, but his father had placed by his side a man
+who was to reign during his minority. Marsk <i>Tyrgils
+Knutsson</i> was the second of the great uncrowned rulers
+of whom Sweden was destined to receive a number almost
+as large as that of illustrious monarchs. Tyrgils Knutsson
+followed out the policy of peace and progress which Birger
+Jarl had commenced and King Magnus continued, making
+in all the happiest era of the Middle Ages. To Birger Jarl’s
+conquest of Tavastland in Finland, Tyrgils added that of
+Carelia. Two expeditions were sent to Carelia, in 1293 and
+1299, whose savage inhabitants were converted and made
+Swedish subjects. Viborg was built and formed a stronghold
+for further operations, while Landskrona, another fortified
+place, erected by Tyrgils, not far from the site of
+the present St. Petersburg, was soon lost to the Russians.
+Through the conquest of Carelia, better times commenced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
+for the Church of Finland, whose bishopric, in 1300, was
+moved to Abo.</p>
+
+<p>The legislative work of his great predecessors was continued
+by Tyrgils, who made possible the union of the various
+“lands” of Upland into one judicial district. The first
+justice was Birger Persson, who was at the head of the
+work of preparing a common law for the whole province
+(in 1296). Neutrality was preserved during the conflicts
+between Norway and Denmark. King Eric Menved of
+Denmark was, in 1296, married to King Birger’s sister,
+the pious Princess Ingeborg. In 1298 Birger was married
+to Eric’s sister Margaret in Stockholm, over the lavish
+splendor of which event the poet of the Chronicle goes
+into ecstasies of delight and felicitous description. Both
+these unions were prearranged by King Magnus, and the
+princess Margaret had been educated in Sweden for the
+purpose of becoming its queen.</p>
+
+<p>The king was now of age, but Marsk Tyrgils continued
+for several years at the helm. His relations to the Church
+show what a wise and vigorous statesman he was. When
+in the name of the king the privileges to the Church were
+once more granted, as by his predecessor, Tyrgils made the
+important exceptions that the Church should fulfil for its
+possessions the same military duty as all others in the country,
+and that certain large fines should be reserved for the
+king. The ecclesiastics took quietly to these restrictions at
+first, but soon an open conflict ensued. Another and greater
+one arose between the king and his brothers, Eric, duke
+of Sweden, and Valdemar, duke of Finland. It resembles
+very much the conflict between their uncle Valdemar and
+his brothers. In both cases there was a weak and deceitful
+king who was inferior, if not in wretchedness, at least in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
+courage, to one of the brothers. After the first conflict was
+ended, the dukes selected Marsk Tyrgils for their prey. In
+March, 1305, Tyrgils saw the king grant to the Church the
+important privileges held back until then. In December of
+the same year the king and his brothers came upon Tyrgils
+unprepared. He was imprisoned, and in a shameful manner
+dragged to Stockholm, travelling night and day through
+the cold of winter, probably by some fraudulent legal process
+found guilty of treason, and beheaded, February 10,
+1236. As a climax to this foul political murder, Tyrgils
+Knutsson was buried on the place of execution. Later, his
+body was removed to the church of Riddarholm and placed
+at the side of King Magnus, whose son he had served so
+faithfully.</p>
+
+<p>The conflict between the royal brothers burst into flame
+again, revealing some of the darkest and most shocking
+scenes of deceit, treachery and villany found in Swedish
+history. The strife commenced in April, 1304, for the first
+time, and continued, with few and short intermissions,
+until the autumn of 1318, with broken oaths and pledges,
+which were renewed and broken again, alliances and royal
+betrothals formed, ended and renewed, kingdoms and
+duchies divided and redivided, endless intrigues, rebellion
+and mutual invasions. The kings of Norway and Denmark,
+with their armies, and several German princes and
+hired troops, became actors in this bloody tragedy, which
+ended in the annihilation of the principals. The most
+dramatic incidents are known as “the Play at Hotuna”
+and “the Feast of Nykœping,” both taking place during
+the short intervals of peace. The former was enacted
+September 29, 1306, when the king invited his brothers
+to him at Hotuna in Upland. They accepted the invita<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>tion,
+only to carry the king and queen away as captives,
+forcing the former to give over to them his kingdom and
+his power, only leaving him the royal title. “The Feast
+at Nykœping” was held the night between December 10
+and 11, 1317. The king and queen invited the dukes to
+the castle, seized them in the night and threw them into
+a dungeon, where they both perished after six months of
+hunger and neglect. Birger did not derive any benefit from
+his fearful crime. The whole country rose against him and
+he died, after several years of exile, in 1321. Birger has
+generally been held forth as the responsible party in the
+crimes and evils of the conflict, but his brothers seem to
+have been guilty in about the same degree. Duke Eric
+was one of the most brilliantly gifted princes of his age,
+and jealousy on the part of the king was the spark that
+kindled the fire. But the bad example set by their father
+of depriving an older brother of his throne, and the great
+possessions and independence of the dukes, were the underlying
+causes. The destruction of both the contending
+parties was an unexpected solution and a great gain for
+Sweden, whose fate appeared sinister, with the prospect
+of dismemberment or dissolution, the dukes holding their
+vast possessions as heirlooms.</p>
+
+<p>During the conflict Norway had sided with the dukes,
+Denmark with the king. Duke Eric was married to Ingeborg,
+only child of King Hakon of Norway, and Duke
+Valdemar to his niece of the same name. <i>Mattias Kettilmundsson</i>
+was, in June, 1318, elected drotsete and regent.
+He led an army against Denmark in the interests of the
+duchesses, invading Scania and defeating the Danes near
+Hessleholm. November 11th of the same year peace was
+made in Rœskilde between the kings, Eric and Birger, on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
+one side, and King Hakon and the heirs of the dukes,
+on the other. May 8, 1319, King Hakon died, and <i>Magnus
+Ericsson</i>, the young son of Duke Eric, inherited the crown
+of Norway, and July 8th of the same year he was elected
+king of Sweden at Mora in Upland.</p>
+
+<p>For the attainment of this end Magnus’s mother, Duchess
+Ingeborg, and seven Swedish councillors had worked
+with great activity. They had taken part in shaping the first
+Act of Union of the North in June, 1319, and from Oslo,
+in Norway, hastened to have Magnus elected at the Stone
+of Mora, where the Swedish kings since time immemorial
+were nominated. The Act of Union stipulated that the two
+kingdoms were to remain perfectly independent, the king
+to sojourn an equally long part of the year in each, with
+no official of either country to accompany him further than
+to the frontier. In their foreign relations the countries
+were to be independent, but to support each other in case
+of war. The king was the only tie to bind them together.</p>
+
+<p>There was another Magnus whose candidacy was spoiled
+by this union. He was the son of King Birger, already, as
+a child, chosen king of Sweden in succession to his father.
+Magnus Birgersson, a prisoner at Stockholm, was beheaded
+in 1320, to make safe the reign of his more fortunate
+cousin. King Magnus was only three years old, and
+Drotsete Mattias Kettilmundsson presided over the government
+during his minority, the nobles of the state council
+having great power and influence. Both in Sweden and
+Norway the nobility had by this time attained a supremacy
+which was oppressive both to the king and the people, not
+so much through their privileges as through the liberties
+they took. Their continual feuds between themselves disturbed
+the peace of the country.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In 1332, King Magnus took charge of the government.
+He was a ruler of a benign and good disposition toward the
+common people, whose interests he always furthered. But
+he lacked strength of character and was not able to control
+the obnoxious nobles. The provinces of Scania and Bleking
+suffered greatly under Danish rule, which was changed into
+German oppression when handed over to the counts of Holstein
+as security for a loan. The people of Scania rose in
+revolt and asked for protection from King Magnus. At a
+meeting in Kalmar (in 1332) both provinces were united
+to Sweden. But the king had to pay heavy amounts in
+settlement, which were increased when Halland was procured
+in a similar way.</p>
+
+<p>King Magnus was, at his height of power, one of the
+mightiest monarchs of Europe, having under his rule
+the entire Scandinavian peninsula and Finland, a realm
+stretching from the Sound at Elsinore to the Polar Sea,
+from the river Neva to Iceland and Greenland. In 1335
+King Magnus rode his “Eriksgata,” when he announced
+that no Christian within his realm should remain a thrall,
+thus practically abolishing the remnants of slavery. In the
+following year he was crowned with his queen, Blanche
+of Namur.</p>
+
+<p>Magnus took great interest in legislation. During his
+minority the provincial laws were revised. The king himself
+accomplished the great and noble task of having these
+united into a state law (<i>landslag</i>), appointing a committee
+of three justices to do the work. The clergy was consulted,
+but refused to have ecclesiastical laws made for the whole
+kingdom. The state law was first considered in 1347, and
+was put in practice in 1352, being both a digest and an
+elaboration of the ancient provincial laws. In many an in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>stance
+of foreign or domestic conflicts, the people, through
+its enforcement, found help and shelter from the national
+spirit of this law.</p>
+
+<p>To the financial difficulties which beset the reign of King
+Magnus and made his life a burden the great plague was
+added. “The Black Death,” in 1350, came from England
+to Norway and spread with great rapidity and the most
+disastrous consequences throughout the North. In certain
+parts of Sweden one-third of the population perished, in
+other parts even a greater percentage, the plague raging
+with equal violence throughout all classes of society. King
+Magnus had for a long time contemplated revenge against
+the invasions made by the Russians into Carelia. He undertook
+an expedition, under the pretext of a crusade, which
+ended badly, the Swedish fleet being shut in by the Russians
+and saved only by means of digging a canal. The
+king was severely criticised for this crusade, which was construed
+as a punishment for his sins, and, besides, largely
+increased his debts. The pope was among his creditors,
+who, upon non-payment, placed Magnus under his ban.</p>
+
+<p>The union with Norway was not a happy one. As a
+minor, Magnus dwelt most of the time in Norway, but
+later principally in Sweden. This was contrary to the Act
+of Union, the state of things in Norway, furthermore,
+necessitating the almost continual presence of the king.
+For this reason his son, <i>Hakon</i>, was chosen king of Norway,
+in 1343, Magnus remaining in power until Hakon became
+of age, and his older son, <i>Eric</i>, chosen king, or heir-apparent,
+of Sweden, in 1344. It appears that King Magnus
+was in favor of this separation and had preconceived it in
+giving to his older son the Swedish name of Eric and to the
+younger the Norwegian name of Hakon, both equally char<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>acteristic
+of the royal lines of the respective countries. The
+two young kings caused their father considerable annoyance;
+but, upon the early death of Eric, Hakon entered more
+into harmony with King Magnus. Valdemar Atterdag, the
+crafty and enterprising king of Denmark, took an active
+part in the conflicts, pretending to support Magnus, while
+simultaneously depriving him of Scania, Halland and Bleking,
+which he captured almost without resistance. He
+landed in the island of Gothland, plundering Visby in a
+treacherous way. Upon his departure, his ships perished
+in a storm, the plundered treasures going down with these,
+the king himself escaping with difficulty. Valdemar arranged
+a marriage between his little daughter Margaret and
+King Hakon of Norway. Several Swedish nobles of great
+influence considered the treachery and impudence of Valdemar
+and the weakness of Magnus as going too far. They
+offered the Swedish crown to Albrecht, the son of King
+Magnus’s sister Euphemia. The offer was accepted by
+Duke Albrecht of Mecklenburg, the father of the young
+Albrecht, in behalf of his son. He made a sudden assault
+upon Stockholm in 1363, capturing it. At the Stone of
+Mora, Albrecht the Younger was chosen king of Sweden.
+Magnus was defeated and made a prisoner at Enkœping.</p>
+
+<p>King Magnus was taken to Stockholm and there imprisoned
+for some time, heavily laden with chains. King Valdemar
+deserted his cause, but the common people of Svealand,
+with whom Magnus had always been exceedingly
+popular, rose in order to free him. Soon King Hakon
+reached the very gates of Stockholm with a Norwegian
+army, whereupon Magnus was released. But he had to
+abdicate his throne, leaving for Norway, where he died,
+through an accident, in 1374.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Albrecht</i> was the rightful king of Sweden. At the
+death of Eric he became heir-apparent to the Swedish
+throne, but for having sped on the course of events in his
+own interest, neither he nor his father acquired any popularity.
+They surrounded themselves by a great number
+of Germans, who, through their licentiousness and overbearing
+manner, enraged the people. The country was
+practically in the hands of a few Swedish nobles, among
+whom the drotsete, Bo Jonsson Grip, through his high
+office and his immense wealth, bore the supremacy. Bo
+Jonsson is said to have been the wealthiest man who ever
+lived in the North, his possessions, fiefs and castles being
+of an astounding number, the most famous among the
+latter being Gripsholm in the Lake Mælar. He loaned
+money to the king against new castles and fiefs in security,
+and held Albrecht in the most humiliating relation of
+dependence. His enemies he persecuted without mercy,
+killing one before the high altar in the Franciscan church
+of Stockholm. When Bo Jonsson died, in 1386, the king
+tried to better conditions by confiscating to the crown some
+of his possessions. But he met with opposition from the
+nobles, who claimed that he did so only to enrich his German
+favorites. The king was helpless against his councillors,
+to whom he had handed over all his power. They
+were in possession of all the fortified castles, and if one
+of them died, the king had no right to select a successor
+without their permission. The executors of Bo Jonsson’s
+will ended by offering the crown to Margaret, Valdemar’s
+daughter, and queen-dowager of Norway. She accepted,
+promising the nobles that they should remain in undisturbed
+enjoyment of their great privileges. Margaret sent an army
+into West Gothland, consisting of men from all three of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
+Scandinavian countries, under the command of the Swede,
+Eric Kettilsson. King Albrecht met with an army to a
+great extent composed of German troops, and was defeated
+and made a prisoner at Falkœping, February 24, 1389.
+Albrecht was imprisoned at Lindholm, in Scania, for
+seven years, later returning to Mecklenburg.</p>
+
+<p>To the Folkung period belongs one of the most remarkable
+and renowned of Swedish women, herself, on her
+mother’s side, a Folkung, <i>St. Birgitta</i>, the daughter of
+the legislator and first justice of Upland, Birger Persson.
+Her parents were both pious and devoted to ascetic practices.
+As a child she had visions, the holy Mary appearing
+to her. When thirteen years of age she was married to Ulf
+Gumundsson, later justice of Nerike, also a pious man, with
+whom she made a pilgrimage to Spain. Birgitta lost her
+husband shortly afterward. At the Swedish court, where
+she was the highest functionary of Queen Blanche, she had
+seen political life at close range, gathering a deep and
+strong indignation against the mighty and powerful in
+the world. Her husband’s death moved her deeply, and
+the religious mysticism of her youth now burst forth with
+increased strength, her visions becoming numerous and important.
+That she believed in them herself there is no
+doubt, and she made the world believe her. At first she
+hurled admonitions and curses against King Magnus and
+his court; but the wretchedness of the whole world attracted
+her to its spiritual centre, Rome, where she lived for twenty-three
+years in continual and open protest against the vices
+of the popes and priests. She died in Rome, in 1373, at
+the age of seventy, after a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, seeing
+the two great ambitions of her life fulfilled: the pope returning
+to Rome from Avignon, and her creation, the order<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
+of St. Salvator, sanctioned by the pope. Birgitta was canonized
+by the pope in 1391, through the influence of Queen
+Margaret.</p>
+
+<p>Birgitta was the greatest political-poetic genius of the
+mediæval North. Her revelations fill eight volumes. She
+wrote them in Swedish, and had a priest translate them
+into Latin. Some of her original Swedish work is preserved.
+Birgitta appears to have thought in artistic images,
+and these images are of plastic form, often of consummate
+beauty, sometimes witty, sometimes avowedly comic, always
+effective. The melancholy charm of Sweden’s nature suffuses
+all her writings and renders to her peculiar mediæval
+mysticism a national temperament. From Swedish sceneries
+and animal life she borrows her most beautiful images.</p>
+
+<p>St. Birgitta has by some been considered as a reformer
+before Luther, but not quite correctly. Luther reformed the
+institutions; Birgitta aimed at reforming their upholders,
+and used against the pope and the priests a language almost
+as strong as Luther’s. Some of her ideas were not strictly
+in harmony with the Catholic dogmas; she insisted on a
+close personal union with God, without the mediation of
+priests or saints, fought for a universal knowledge of the
+Bible and the preaching of the Gospel in the popular vernaculars,
+and considered the sale of indulgences a mortal
+sin. Four hundred and seventy convents of her order, in
+which men and women were to collaborate for the instruction
+and spiritual guidance of the people, were after her death
+founded in the Scandinavian countries, Germany, Esthonia,
+Poland, Italy and the Netherlands, one existing in England
+up to the time of Elizabeth. The mother institution at
+Vadstena, in East Gothland, was of the greatest importance
+to the cultural development of Sweden and the North.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
+One of the greatest libraries of the Middle Ages was reared,
+and the first book-printing establishment of Sweden founded
+there in 1490. Within its walls a considerable literary activity
+prevailed, the religious literature of the time being
+copied, or translated into Swedish, and many original works
+written. The Swedish language, used by the Birgittine
+school of writers, tried, by approaching Danish forms, to
+establish a common literary language in the North, the
+Norwegian having approached the Swedish during the
+time of the close relations between the courts of the two
+countries. These efforts, for a time furthered by political
+relations, were unfortunately soon to be abandoned forever.</p>
+
+<p>Birgitta was a great genius in fetters. Her rare gifts
+were kept back in their development through the idiosyncrasies
+of her period. She was of an indomitable, aristocratic
+spirit, always remaining the noblewoman to whom
+it was natural to speak the truth to the princes of State and
+Church, because she considered herself their equal through
+the best blood of the North, of which she had her share.
+This religious mystic was a true child of her aristocratic
+age, which gave to Sweden two parallel lines, sometimes
+identical, of great legislators and weak and indulgent
+princes.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a><br />
+<span class="smaller"><i>Unionism versus Patriotism&mdash;Margaret, Engelbrekt
+and Charles Knutsson</i></span></h2>
+
+<p>Queen Margaret, the successor of Albrecht, for
+the first time in history united the three Scandinavian
+countries and their dependencies under one
+rule. Born in a prison in which King Valdemar of Denmark
+had placed his consort, Queen Hedvig, there remained
+in the character of Margaret something of the rigor and
+chill of her uncomely birthplace. When she was seven,
+she was engaged to King Hakon of Norway, and married
+to him at eleven years of age. In Norway, her education
+was continued for several years after her marriage under
+the stern supervision of Dame Martha, a daughter of
+St. Birgitta, who often applied corporal punishment to the
+young queen. Margaret early gave evidence of self-control
+and power of reflection, and her mind developed at the expense
+of her heart. Her son Olaf became king of Denmark
+upon Valdemar’s death, in 1375, and king of Norway upon
+that of Hakon, in 1380. Upon his death, in 1387, Margaret
+succeeded him, and two years later laid Sweden under her
+sceptre.</p>
+
+<p>Albrecht was captured, but the Germans still were in
+possession of several Swedish strongholds. These yielded
+to Margaret, one after the other, except Stockholm. In the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
+capital, the German influx of soldiers and merchants had
+made the foreign population exceedingly large. They now
+acted as oppressors. A secret league was formed which
+captured a great number of prominent Swedish citizens,
+who were cruelly tortured with wooden saws and then
+thrown into an old shed on the islet of Kæpplingeholm.
+The shed was ignited and the poor prisoners suffered a
+terrible death. German freebooters, especially the Vitalen
+or Victuallen Brotherhood, who provided the fortress of
+Stockholm with victuals, were plundering in the Baltic
+and Lake Mælar, and were the allies of the Germans of
+Stockholm. Margaret was powerless against them until
+she entered into an alliance with the Hanseatic towns.
+This ended the war; Stockholm surrendered and peace
+was made, in 1395. The plunders by sea-rovers in the
+Baltic were put an end to during Margaret’s reign, but
+cost heroic efforts and much money, while the influence
+of the Hansa grew into menacing proportions.</p>
+
+<p>Margaret was anxious to place the dynasty of the North
+firmly within her line of descent. In 1389, she selected her
+sister’s grandson, Eric of Pomerania, then six years old,
+her successor, and he was thus proclaimed in Norway. In
+1395, Eric was chosen king of Denmark and, in 1396, of
+Sweden. At his Swedish coronation in Kalmar, in 1397,
+Queen Margaret, who remained at his side as the real ruler,
+had the outline drawn of an <i>Act of Union</i>, which should
+forever unite the three Scandinavian kingdoms under one
+ruler. Each country was to preserve its constitution, laws
+and traditions unmolested, but they were to support each
+other in times of war. When a king was to be chosen,
+representatives of equal numbers from each country were
+to meet in Halmstad, the sons of kings to be favored by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>
+choice. This Act of Union was never carried into effect,
+according to legal forms. The sketch or outline of it, such
+as it is still preserved, was signed by representatives of the
+three countries, although not in equal numbers; but why
+Queen Margaret never allowed it to be enlarged into a
+legally binding document is not known. Her favorite
+idea was therein embodied, and she appeared to have an
+all-powerful influence over those necessary to carry it
+through.</p>
+
+<p>Margaret made it her object to strengthen the crown
+and reduce the power of the nobles. She cared naught
+about keeping her promises to the latter, confiscating their
+castles and possessions, and annulling their privileges.
+When they complained, reminding her of her promises in
+her letters to them, she replied: “Keep my letters; I shall
+certainly keep your castles.” All nobles created by Albrecht
+were entirely deprived of their privileges if they
+could not prove their due qualifications. The majority of
+forts erected during the war were pulled down. No taxes
+were longer imposed, except through written order of the
+government. These reforms were all rigorously carried
+out, according to the “Restitution of Nykœping” of 1396.
+Margaret succeeded in a remarkable way in reducing to
+normal proportions the power and influence of the Swedish
+nobility. The nobles, who were all-powerful and absolutely
+unyielding in Albrecht’s days, bowed to her gracefully
+and received meekly her severe conditions. An
+explanation can be found in the fact that they had no leader
+of authority and power among them, after the death of
+Bo Jonsson Grip. Further, Margaret was careful not to
+fill the important offices of drotsete and marsk, when
+vacant, thus making the personal presence and inter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>ference
+of the sovereign necessary on all important
+occasions.</p>
+
+<p>The love of the Swedish people should have been Margaret’s
+reward for her abolition of aristocratic oppression,
+if she had not been in a position which necessitated the
+imposition of heavy taxes. The existence of the common
+people was made weary and troublesome through the payment
+of the “queen’s tax,” the “stake tax” on each hearth,
+the “rump tax” on each head of cattle, and, worst of all, the
+“Gothland’s release.” Bailiffs, often of foreign birth, collected
+these taxes with great severity. When the queen became
+aware of the complaints against her and her bailiffs,
+she asked in a letter to the archbishop that the people would
+forgive her in God’s name. “Some of it one has not been
+able to better; some we and they might well have bettered,
+although what is done is done.” Without doubt, there was
+due reason for the heavy taxes in the unsettled relations
+with other countries which existed during Margaret’s reign;
+the support of the Hansa and a war with Holstein, commenced
+by King Eric, were expensive. The island of Gothland
+had been captured by the so-called German Order in
+the last days of Albrecht’s reign. When the island was redeemed
+through the payment of Swedish money, Margaret
+made the mistake of installing there a Danish bailiff, and
+it thus for a long time remained a Danish province. Margaret
+believed in the Union and counted no Scandinavian
+a foreigner in either country. But it was contrary to Swedish
+law to install foreigners as bailiffs and vassals, and as
+she appointed a great number of Danes to Swedish fiefs,
+and never a Swede to Danish positions of the same or
+equal importance, the Swedish complaints, on this point,
+were justified.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Margaret was as severe toward the ecclesiastics as
+toward the nobles. But when she noticed the forebodings
+of powerful resistance, she made important concessions.
+She was anxious to observe religious practices, joining the
+convent of Vadstena as a “worldly sister,” kissing the hands
+of all the monks and nuns on that occasion. She took interest
+in the conversion of the Laps, sending a baptized woman
+of their race, by the name of Margaret, to preach the Gospel
+among them.</p>
+
+<p>The war with Holstein concerning the possession of
+Schleswig had been brought to an armistice, and the
+queen sailed to Flensburg to conduct further negotiations.
+While still on board of her ship, death surprised her, in
+1412.</p>
+
+<p>Margaret has been called the Semiramis of the North
+and well deserves her widespread fame. During her reign,
+the Northern countries, through her wisdom and strength,
+enjoyed a degree of order which they missed both before
+and after. She put an end to the foreign influence which
+had governed Sweden. Yet her rule was a disappointment,
+and the Union also. She paved the way for a new foreign
+influence, by making a German prince her successor and
+by leaning too much on the Hansa. The aristocratic oppression
+was crushed by her, but she introduced the oppression
+through royal bailiffs. She promised to preserve the
+old territory of Sweden unmolested, but placed the island
+of Gothland under Denmark. The Union of which Queen
+Margaret was the champion her successors were not able
+to grasp or uphold in the spirit of her good intentions. To
+Sweden it came in an inauspicious time when it was not
+fit to receive it. Foreign oppression had irritated the people
+to resistance, and discontent was to give life to patriotism.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
+Sweden had recently developed into one joint constitutional
+body, the various provinces giving up their ancient
+laws for a state law, in which the old individual
+traits were gathered and recognized. We know how Sweden
+was settled, not by various tribes, but by pioneers who,
+from the old home of culture, Scania, penetrated to the
+wilderness above, settling one district after the other,
+which, one by one, developed into provinces, little states
+by themselves, later united into one realm with a common
+king. One by one these provinces had taken the lead in
+the political and cultural development, often the youngest
+before the oldest. Thus the Swedes, a younger branch of
+the Gauts, gave their name to the country and furnished
+the rulers, the Guts of the island of Gothland securing the
+commercial supremacy of the sea, and the Rus of the outskirts
+of Upland founding the Russian empire. Now it fell
+upon Dalecarlia, the most recently settled of Swedish provinces,
+to save freedom and independence to a newly regenerated
+state which was awakening to the consciousness of
+its solidarity of interests, aspirations and duties. From
+Dalecarlia came the first great political leader. From there
+he and his later successors received their chief support.</p>
+
+<p><i>Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson</i> is the earliest and greatest
+of the patriotic heroes of Swedish history. To the glory of
+his deeds and the noble simplicity of his character the death
+of a martyr gives added lustre. Engelbrekt was born at
+Kopparberg, in the mining district of Dalecarlia, where
+there were many German settlers. Possibly his early ancestors
+were among them; but for three generations at least
+they had been native-born Swedes, Engelbrekt’s father,
+as he himself, belonging to the Swedish nobility, although
+not of the influential families. Engelbrekt had received the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>
+chivalric education of his time at the courts of the great
+nobles, being next in rank to a knight, <i>væpnare</i> (squire),
+at the opening of his career. He was small of stature, but
+eloquent, courageous and of a lofty mind. The integrity
+of his character was absolute; his personal necessities were
+few and plain.</p>
+
+<p>King Eric was a highly educated and refined man, not
+without a certain ability, but entirely without discernment
+and patience for the various demands and conditions of the
+countries over which he was set to rule. His foreign bailiffs
+in Sweden, mostly Danes, with a fair sprinkling of
+Germans and Italians, were still less in sympathy with his
+Swedish subjects. They tried to manage them as they did
+the Danes and the inhabitants of more southern countries,
+for centuries accustomed to slavery, ignorant of the ancient
+spirit of independence of the Swedish yeomanry, abated
+but not suppressed. When oppression no longer kept within
+reasonable bounds, the Swedish patience came to an end,
+and first in the youngest and most solitary parts of the
+country.</p>
+
+<p>The most hated of Danish bailiffs was Jœsse Ericsson,
+of Westmanland and Dalecarlia. After having confiscated
+the horses of the peasants, he is said to have harnessed the
+men to plows and the women to grain-loads, once suffocating
+five peasants. Engelbrekt felt compassion for the
+misery of the suffering people and accepted the commission
+to seek the king, to make complaints in their behalf. He
+appeared before King Eric in Denmark, demanding punishment
+of the cruel bailiff and offering to go into prison or
+surrender his life if not speaking the truth, as was the
+custom of the time. The king gave him a letter to the
+Swedish council of state, demanding an inquiry which was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>
+promptly made. When Engelbrekt for a second time appeared
+with the corroboration of his statements from the
+Swedish councillors, the king sent him away in a fit of
+impatient rage. Upon his return, the Dalecarlians rose
+in a body, selecting Engelbrekt as their leader and marching
+south to Westeros. The councillors met and promised
+to have justice done in the case. But things remained the
+same until the following spring, in 1434. At midsummer
+the Dalecarlians commenced operations. The fort of Borganæs
+and the castle of Kœping were destroyed. Engelbrekt
+asked the people of Westmanland to join him, which
+they did to a man, the nobles also joining upon evidence
+of the determination of the popular leader. In Upsala,
+Engelbrekt found the people of Upland ready to join, and
+he made clear to the great multitudes the mission he had
+undertaken. He now felt strong enough to take a hand
+in the affairs of state; with the consent of the leading
+nobles reducing the taxes by one-third. Engelbrekt called
+upon a young, high-spirited nobleman, Eric Puke, to bring
+Norrland to revolt and destroy the forts of that district,
+which commissions Puke fulfilled to the letter, thereupon
+reinforcing Engelbrekt with his men. In the meantime,
+the people of western Sœdermanland rose by their own
+determination, destroying Gripsholm; the bailiff of the castle
+escaping with his treasures in boats over Lake Mælar.
+In Vermland and Dal the people followed these examples
+of revolt. The commander of the Stockholm fortress agreed
+upon an armistice, other castles surrendering or promising
+to surrender.</p>
+
+<p>Engelbrekt met the council of state at Vadstena, escorted
+by 1,000 men of his best troops. Without fear or haughtiness,
+he pleaded the cause of his country, advising the coun<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>cillors
+in firm and eloquent words to see to it that the foreign
+oppression came to an end. The council hesitated,
+Bishop Knut of Linkœping stating that the oath to the
+king could not be broken. To this Engelbrekt answered
+that the king had pledged many oaths but kept none,
+for which reason the people were freed from their oath.
+Upon a wholesome demonstration of force the councillors
+gave in and dictated a letter in which they broke their
+pledge to King Eric, yet giving as an excuse that they
+were compelled to do so. The revolt had now spread to all
+parts of the kingdom, at least 100,000 being armed to meet
+the emergency. But so carefully and quietly was the work
+of liberation performed that no harm was done in the parts
+where the peasant armies were moving. After having
+entered Halmstad, Engelbrekt returned to Westeros, where
+the army was scattered, but soon gathered again upon the
+report that the king with a fleet was approaching Stockholm.
+Upon his arrival, the king found Stockholm enclosed
+by a peasant army and returned to Denmark, forced
+to agree to an armistice. At a meeting in Arboga, Engelbrekt
+was elected regent. This was the first meeting in
+which representatives of the merchant class and the yeomanry
+took part, being thus the first <i>riksdag</i> or parliament
+composed of the four Estates&mdash;noblemen, ecclesiastics,
+burghers, and yeomen.</p>
+
+<p>King Eric promised, upon his return to Stockholm, to
+govern the country according to its laws and through Swedish
+men, appointing Krister Nilsson Vasa drotsete, and
+Charles Knutsson Bonde marsk. But so badly did he keep
+his promises that he was once more dethroned. The nobles
+hastened to elect Charles Knutsson regent, but through
+pressure which the peasants brought to bear it was agreed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>
+that he should share his power with Engelbrekt and lead
+the siege of Stockholm, while the latter should free the
+country from the bailiffs reinstalled by the king.</p>
+
+<p>Upon his second tour through the country, Engelbrekt
+was seized by illness, but being called to Stockholm by an
+important state affair, he started over the lakes thither from
+Œrebro. One evening he stopped at an islet in Lake Hielmar
+for the night. When he saw a boat approach with
+Mons Bengtsson on board he staggered on a crutch down
+to receive him. This man sprang ashore and assaulted
+Engelbrekt, who tried to ward off the blows of the axe
+with his crutch, but failing to do so he was killed on the
+spot, in April, 1436. The perpetrator of this beastly murder
+was a son of a noble with whom Engelbrekt had been
+engaged in some controversy which he had recently settled
+to the satisfaction of both parties. The murderer escaped;
+but, although shielded from punishment by Marsk Charles
+Knutsson, he was shunned by everybody, his high-born and
+wealthy relations for several centuries refusing to carry the
+proud family name (Natt och Dag) upon which he had
+brought shame.</p>
+
+<p>The memory of Engelbrekt is one of the most honored
+and most beloved in Swedish history. He waged the first
+battle against the oppression which foreign intrigues had
+brought upon his country, and saved from the peril of
+slavery the ancient freedom and independence of the Swedish
+people.</p>
+
+<p>Through a remarkable coincidence, a cousin of Engelbrekt’s
+murderer, Nils Bosson, a young follower of the
+popular hero, who took his mother’s family name of Sture,
+was to become the father and grandfather of two of the
+most revered of Engelbrekt’s successors; Nils Bosson him<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>self
+being as sympathetic and upright a type of nobleman
+as any time or country has produced.</p>
+
+<p>Charles Knutsson, after Engelbrekt’s death, was the
+most influential man in Sweden. But he was a very different
+man. Belonging to the highest aristocracy, he was himself
+of great wealth, highly talented, well read, and a great
+traveller. He was exceedingly handsome, dignified, amiable,
+eloquent, and possessed a voice of unusual charm and
+strength. But he was a prey to ambition, determined to
+make his way to the throne, but little careful in the selection
+of his means toward that end. He aroused the suspicion
+and hatred of Eric Puke, whom he irritated to revolt
+only to get him in his power. This noble but headstrong
+man was executed for treason, while Drotsete Krister Nilsson,
+who signed the death-warrant in the interest of
+Charles, himself was persecuted by the latter and deprived
+of all his fiefs save one. Charles showed great severity in
+punishing the peasants, who were Puke’s supporters, four
+of them being burned alive; thus losing the popular
+sympathy, while becoming an object of envy in the
+eyes of the nobles. These recalled King Eric, who
+was again found impossible and soon dethroned also in
+Denmark.</p>
+
+<p><i>Christopher of Bavaria</i>, a nephew of Eric, was elected
+to succeed him (in 1440) by the nobles of Denmark and
+Sweden. He was a good-natured man, who allowed the
+aristocrats of Sweden to rule as they pleased, only keeping
+an eye on Charles Knutsson. Christopher died in 1448.
+During his reign a new state law was issued in 1442, called
+“King Christopher’s land’s law,” although the king probably
+had very little to do with its form or stipulations. It
+offered a few improvements, but in general so closely resem<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>bled
+the older state law that the one was often mistaken for
+the other and both remained valid until 1736.</p>
+
+<p><i>Charles Knutsson (Charles VIII.)</i> returned from Finland,
+which duchy had been held under his supremacy, four
+months after Christopher’s death, and was by an overwhelming
+majority elected king of Sweden. Shortly after
+his coronation at Upsala he was elected king of Norway
+and crowned at Drontheim, in 1449. His reign opened with
+a lucky expedition to the island of Gothland. But in the
+following year King Charles lost both Gothland and Norway
+to Christian of Denmark, with whom the Unionist
+party of Sweden entered into secret plots against the king.
+Invasions and intrigues followed. Christian invaded Smaland,
+East Gothland and Vermland, to which Charles
+responded by an invasion of Scania, destroying the old
+town of Lund with nineteen of its twenty churches, the
+cathedral alone being spared. Christian took revenge by
+an invasion of West Gothland, capturing Lœdœse. Another
+Danish army marched through East Gothland, but
+met defeat at Holaveden through an onslaught made by
+Swedish peasants. The valiant Tord Bonde, a cousin
+of King Charles, took the Danes by surprise, recapturing
+Lœdœse. An armistice of two years was agreed on, in
+May, 1453.</p>
+
+<p>In the battle against open and secret enemies things
+turned out badly for King Charles. The best supporter of
+his cause, his cousin Tord, was murdered by a Danish traitor
+in his service, in 1456, and a new and dangerous enemy was
+encountered in the Church. The king had confiscated to the
+crown a number of estates which the Church had gained
+in an illegal way. While preparing for an expedition to
+Œland, and having instructed the archbishop to gather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>
+troops for him, Charles learned that this man, Jœns
+Bengtsson Oxenstierna, had turned against him. The
+archbishop deposited his ecclesiastical robe at the high
+altar of the Upsala cathedral and started, sword in hand,
+with his forces to meet the king. Charles tried to surprise
+him, but was himself caught in a trap and met his enemy
+on the ice of Lake Mælar. The encounter proved a defeat
+to Charles, who in haste stored his treasures in a convent
+in Stockholm and sailed for Dantzic.</p>
+
+<p><i>Christian</i> of Denmark was called in by the archbishop
+and chosen king of Sweden. Christian was a sagacious
+ruler, but his great need of money, incurred by the redeeming
+of Schleswig and Holstein, made him unpopular. As
+the easy-going Christopher had been surnamed “Bark-king,”
+on account of dearth experienced in Sweden during his
+reign, when the people had to mix bark with their flour,
+thus Christian, on account of his avidity, was called “The
+Bottomless Purse.” During Christian’s war with Russia,
+the archbishop was commissioned to collect the increased
+taxes, but failing to do so, to the full extent demanded,
+he was imprisoned at the command of the king. This
+caused indignation.</p>
+
+<p>Kettil Karlsson Vasa, a nephew of the archbishop, and
+the bishop of Linkœping, revolted and defeated the king
+and his army at Haraker’s church, in Westmanland, in
+1464. The victors then marched on Stockholm. The popular
+opinion of the country demanded the reinstallation
+of King Charles. The peasants wanted him “because
+Sweden was of old a kingdom, not a regent’s land or a
+diocese.” King Charles returned in the same year, but
+soon left the throne again on account of a conflict with
+Bishop Kettil. This latter turned to Christian, promis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>ing
+a safe return to the crown if he set free the archbishop.
+Christian immediately did so, the worthy bishops
+commencing operations against Charles, who, defeated and
+forsaken by all, abdicated his throne, January 30, 1465.
+The once upon a time richest man of Sweden was now
+deprived of all, Christian having taken his hidden treasures.
+He retired to Raseborg, a castle in Finland, which
+after some hesitation was granted him. “We have,” wrote
+he, “in such manner departed from Sweden, that never
+longeth us to return thither the third time.” He also complained
+of his misery in the following strophe of assonance
+verse:</p>
+
+<div class="center"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">While I was lord of Fogelwick<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Then I was both mighty and rich,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But since made the king of Svea land<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">I am a poor and unhappy man.<br /></span>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p>Great confusion reigned in Sweden during the next two
+years. Bishop Kettil, who styled himself regent, tried to
+conduct the government in common with the archbishop,
+but the great nobles did their own pleasure. At last one
+of them, Ivar Axelson Tott, who had the island of Gothland
+in fief, joined the party of Charles, marrying his
+daughter. His brother, Eric Axelson, was made regent.
+Nils Bosson Sture had been repeatedly asked to accept this
+dignity, as also the crown, but he refused. He and Sten
+Sture, of the original Sture family, who led the army under
+Bishop Kettil at Haraker, now made possible the second
+reinstallation of Charles, in 1467, the ambitious archbishop
+dying in the same year. But Charles was old and weary
+of the vanities of life, for which he had made so many sacrifices.
+It was only the valor and strength of the two Stures
+that made it possible for him to keep the crown and to die<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
+in the purple, in 1470. He designated Sten Sture as his
+successor at the rudder of state, but warned him not to
+seek the crown. “That ambition,” he said, “has crushed
+my happiness and cost my life.”</p>
+
+<p>Charles is very sympathetically dealt with in the New
+Rhymed, or Charles Chronicle, probably written by one of
+his men, who flatters him, as did the Old Chronicle the
+ill-fated Duke Eric. Still the Charles Chronicle and its
+continuations, the Sture Chronicles, are very important
+historic sources of these periods of Unionism versus Patriotism,
+from Margaret to Gustavus Vasa. The less reliable
+Prose Chronicle and the later historic works by Ericus Olai,
+Johannis Magnus and Olaus Petri, also throw light upon
+them. What all of these have in common is a fiery
+patriotic spirit, entirely lacking in the placid and artistic
+lines of the Old Chronicle as compared to the New. With
+the seeds of patriotism were sowed those of national hatred
+against a foreign foe. That the Dane and not the German
+was destined to be this national enemy was disastrous to the
+Union of the North, but probably a gain for the cultural
+development of Sweden. This period is rich in shorter
+poems on political men and conditions, all of a strongly
+democratic flavor. Among these the song about his friend
+Engelbrekt, by Bishop Thomas of Strengnæs, occupies a
+high place, but a still higher one the Song of Liberty, by
+the same high-minded patriot.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a><br />
+<span class="smaller"><i>Unionism versus Patriotism&mdash;Uncrowned Kings of
+the Sture Families</i></span></h2>
+
+<p>Sten Sture the Elder was chosen regent by
+the council of state and elected by the people
+at the Riksdag of Arboga, in 1471. For more than
+half a century following upon the reign of Charles VIII.,
+Sweden was governed by uncrowned kings, with the intermission
+of a few years. These regents had not any republican
+ideals in mind, nor were they secretly coveting the
+crown. Their ambition was simply to uphold a strong and
+firm national government by means of which foreign lordships
+could be made impossible, the people enjoy their rights
+and their liberty, and the government increase in power and
+authority at the expense of Church and nobility. The policy
+laid down by Sten Sture the Elder, and strictly adhered to
+by him and his successors, was of the broadly democratic
+spirit of Engelbrekt. This policy was strengthened by the
+high esteem in which the regents were held. Yet their
+position was a very difficult one, for although enjoying the
+full confidence of the people, they were regarded with envy
+and suspicion by the aristocracy, who never could be persuaded
+but that these noble uncrowned rulers were secretly
+scheming for obtainance of the royal crown.</p>
+
+<p>Sten Sture had the good fortune to inaugurate his reign<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
+with a glorious victory over King Christian, which put an
+end to Danish invasions during a whole generation. Christian
+arrived at Stockholm with a fine fleet and a magnificent
+army, taking his position at Brunkeberg, close to the north
+of the capital. Here a long and fierce battle was fought,
+October 10, 1471. Sten Sture commanded a large army of
+peasants, attacking Christian’s fortified position from the
+north, supported by Knut Posse, with burgher troops, from
+the south. At the third attack victory was won, Nils Bosson
+Sture arriving on the battle scene with an army of
+Dalecarlians. King Christian was wounded in the mouth;
+the famous Danish Oriflamme, Dannebrog, was captured,
+being surrounded by five hundred corpses of select Danish
+knights. Through the prestige of the great victory at
+Brunkeberg, Sten Sture managed to give Sweden ten
+years of undisturbed peace and comfort. Encouraged by
+the victory over the foreign invaders, the city of Stockholm
+took the lead in ridding the towns of undue influence,
+caused by the supremacy of German commerce. The
+town laws held a stipulation that half the number of councillors
+in each town council should be Germans. A petition
+headed by the burghers of Stockholm and circulated through
+the towns was acted upon, the council of state abolishing
+by law the stipulation in question. Free markets were established
+in the commercial centres Kalmar and Sœderkœping,
+and a new commercial town was founded on the Gotha
+River, to be called Gothahamn, although the name was
+changed to New Lœdœse. In spite of the supremacy of
+the Hanseatic League, commerce was good, the iron mines
+of Dalecarlia, Westmanland, Nerike and Eastern Vermland
+growing in importance, and silver being produced by various
+mines in Dalecarlia.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Lord Sten gave careful and loving attention to the needs
+of the yeomanry and the common people. He kept an open
+and watchful eye on the bailiffs, and carried out the demands
+of justice with severity. Many farms, desolate and
+neglected during the times of war, were brought under cultivation.
+Lord Sten made no decision in any matter of importance
+without consulting the yeomen and the burghers,
+as well as the nobles, at <i>Riksdagar</i>, the parliamentary nature
+of which was further developed. With a firm hand he
+held the nobles down to order and the requirements of a
+national democratic policy. The powerful brothers Ivar
+and Eric Tott especially caused him annoyance, the former
+holding the island of Gothland, the latter the duchy of Finland,
+in fief. It came to open hostilities with Ivar Tott
+who, defeated and deprived of his castles, fled to Denmark,
+taking revenge by turning the much contested island over
+to said power.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Sten was a very pious man, but he held the
+ecclesiastics under strict surveillance on account of their
+unpatriotic tendencies. But he collaborated with them
+for the establishment of a state university at Upsala, in
+which the archbishop, Jacob Ulfsson, was greatly interested.
+Sanctioned by the pope, the university was opened
+in 1477, with great ceremonies. One of its earliest professors
+was Ericus Olai, the author of the first but rather uncritical
+work of Swedish history, Chronica Regni Gothorum,
+written in awkward mediæval Latin, but in a style attractive
+through its vivacity. Latin was chiefly used by
+the learned and literary men. The cloisters and the cathedrals
+had schools where the young people were trained for
+the learned professions, chiefly the Church. For a university
+education, the institutions of Cologne, Prague, Leipzig<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
+and Bologna, but chiefly Paris, the greatest of them all, had
+been sought. The Swedes had three <i>collegia</i> in Paris, and
+the Scandinavians held there an honored position as scholars,
+the Swedes three times filling the office of rector
+or president of the Paris university, the highest dignity of
+learning in the world. Ingeborg Tott, the wife of Sten Sture,
+was a great friend of learning, having books printed at her
+expense and collecting a large library in the convent of
+Mariefred, founded by Lord Sten.</p>
+
+<p>The peace of the country was disturbed by a war with
+Russia. Attacks on the castle of Viborg had been made
+shortly after the battle of Brunkeberg, but warded off by
+Eric Tott, who in return invaded Russian territory. After
+his death the valiant Knut Posse was made commander of
+Viborg. The Russians, in 1495, made a violent attack upon
+the castle, damaging it considerably. But Posse led the
+defence with superior skill, repulsing the enemy with astounding
+force. This deed has become famous in popular
+traditions, both Swedes and Russians crediting Posse with
+an alliance of a supernatural order. The regent himself
+twice headed expeditions to Finland, forcing a new Russian
+army to retire over the frontier. Affairs were going
+badly on account of unsafety in Finland, and dearth and
+intrigues in Sweden. The council of state accused Lord
+Sten of not doing all he could for Finland while secretly
+fanning the discontent of the commanders, who made personal
+sacrifices of time and money by remaining with the
+army. It came to hot words between Lord Sten and
+the commander Svante Sture, the son of Nils Bosson. He
+returned home, although Lord Sten told him he was a
+deserter in so doing, “fleeing from the banner of state.”
+Svante Sture, who with Posse had made a glorious inroad<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
+upon Russian territory, now joined the aristocratic enemies
+of the regent, calling in King John (Hans) of Denmark.
+John succeeded Christian in 1482, and commenced intriguing
+for the Swedish crown. The Swedish nobles were anxious
+to have this good-natured monarch for ruler. Lord
+Sten was too sagacious to openly oppose them, when they,
+in the so-called <i>Recess of Kalmar</i> of 1483, declared <i>John</i>
+king of Sweden, the king promising the island of Gothland
+to Sweden, and all old privileges to the nobles. By means
+of skilful diplomatic operations, Lord Sten delayed matters
+to such an extent that it took fourteen years before John II.
+was king of Sweden in anything but name. But the time
+was ripe for Svante Sture’s open conflict with Lord Sten.
+The council, the archbishop leading, broke their faith with
+the regent, offering King John the crown. He came with
+an army to Stockholm, taking his position at Brunkeberg.
+An army of Dalecarlians marched upon the capital at the
+solicitation of Lord Sten, who awaited them with another
+army. The operations took an unfavorable turn on account
+of misapprehended movements, Lord Sten with difficulty
+saving his life. King John understood that a continued
+struggle would lead to his ultimate defeat and made peace.
+Lord Sten retired, but with the greatest fiefs given to any
+Swedish man; viz., the whole of Finland, with large possessions
+besides. When the king entered Stockholm, in
+October, 1497, it was at the arm of Lord Sten, to whom
+he said jestingly: “Have you now prepared everything well
+for me at the castle, Lord Sten; the table set with meat and
+ale, so that my guests may make merry?” Lord Sten answered
+in the same light spirit, pointing to the Swedish
+nobles who had joined the royal retinue: “That these know
+best who stand there behind you. They have it all both<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
+baked and brewed.” Later the king remarked: “Lord
+Sten, it is a bad inheritance you have bequeathed on me
+in Sweden; the peasants whom God created slaves you have
+made into lords, and those who should have been lords you
+try to make slaves.” At his coronation in Upsala, the king
+bestowed knighthood upon many Swedish nobles (something
+that had been beyond Lord Sten’s authority to do),
+upon his return to Denmark appointing Lord Sten to take
+the reins of government with three state councillors at his
+side.</p>
+
+<p>King John’s reign in Sweden was of short duration.
+He failed to return the island of Gothland to the Swedish
+crown and lost his prestige through an unsuccessful war in
+Ditmarschen. Svante Sture, who had not been dealt with
+according to his expectations, declared war upon the king
+and joined Lord Sten, who was in an unenviable position
+and glad to shake off the Union with Denmark, which he
+did, in 1501, when made regent for the second time. With
+a peasant army siege was laid to the castle of Stockholm,
+held by the energetic Queen Christine, who capitulated after
+a heroic struggle. Three days later King John appeared
+with an army, but returned, seeing that he came too late.
+Lord Sten retained Queen Christine at Vadstena for some
+time, later escorting her to the Danish frontier. Upon his
+return he was taken ill and died suddenly at Jœnkœping,
+December 14, 1503. With him the older or original line
+of the Sture family became extinct. Lord Sten was the
+greatest ruler since Margaret, and his rule, being of a more
+patriotic and democratic tendency, was of greater benefit
+to Sweden than hers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Svante Sture</i> succeeded Sten. He was of the younger
+Sture line, the son of the noble patriot, Nils Bosson, who in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
+the time of Charles VIII., as the friend of Engelbrekt and
+Bishop Thomas, had taken stand against the archbishop
+and the nobles, backed by the Dalecarlians, who adored
+him. Lord Svante was a very quick-tempered man, which
+led him into the conflict with Lord Sten. Unlike the regent
+and his own father, he never had experienced what Danish
+oppression meant, which accounts for his unwise decision in
+joining the Unionists. The war with Denmark lasted eight
+of his nine years of reign, which proves him an able soldier
+and a stanch patriot. His position from the start was less
+favorable than that of his predecessor, who could reign in
+the glory of his early victory at Brunkeberg.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Svante had in <i>Doctor Hemming Gad</i> a patriotic
+adviser of rare attainments and great learning. He had
+studied in Rostock, was for twelve years Lord Sten’s representative
+in Italy, and later bishop of Linkœping, although
+never sanctioned and finally placed under ban by
+the pope. Hemming Gad was the first democratic agitator
+of Sweden, a warm admirer of the Stures, and a good soldier.
+His statecraft he had evidently learned in Italy with
+her traditions of Machiavelli. His literary style is very
+characteristic, the language of a learned ecclesiastic with
+the oaths of a soldier. Those of his writings which are still
+extant prove a great love for the common people, a love
+which was returned by them. Having organized the revolt
+against King John, he evinced great slyness and presence
+of mind at the death of Lord Sten. To preserve its secrecy
+until Svante was forewarned and in possession of the castle
+of Stockholm, he had a man dress in the clothes of the deceased
+regent and continue the journey to the capital with
+Sten’s retinue.</p>
+
+<p>The Unionist party was as ready as ever to offer the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
+crown to King John, their representatives agreeing to pay
+a yearly tribute until he or his son Christian was chosen
+king. This agreement was made in 1509, but it called forth
+a storm of indignation from the patriots and the people, and
+was never considered by the government. Lubeck opened
+hostilities against Denmark and was joined by Sweden, the
+Unionists recommencing deliberations whenever it looked favorable
+for Danish interests. Lord Svante made sure of peace
+and safety for Finland before taking up the conflict with the
+Danes. On the eastern shore, Hemming Gad led the operations
+against the town and castle of Kalmar, held by the
+Danes. The town was soon captured, but the castle not
+before the end of 1510. Ake Hansson (Natt och Dag)
+fought with great valor and considerable success against
+the Danes on the western and southern frontier, until this
+“Tormentor of Denmark,” as he was surnamed, was killed
+in battle in 1510. On the sea the Danes were superior, a
+fleet under the command of Otto Rud and Soren Norrby
+plundering Abo in Finland. But when Lubeck’s fleet
+appeared the Danes were forced back. Peace was made,
+but soon broken. Lubeck sent a fleet to invade the coast
+of the Danish isles; Hemming Gad, with several Swedish
+ships, taking part in the expedition. Denmark did her best
+to crush Swedish resistance by inducing Russia to break the
+peace, the emperor to declare Sweden the arch enemy of
+the German empire, and the pope to place her under ban.</p>
+
+<p>More unfortunate to Sweden than these intrigues was
+the fact that King John in his son Christian had an able
+warrior and a great organizer. Prince Christian put down
+a revolt in Norway against Danish oppression, entering
+West Gothland with a superior army. The Unionists
+assembled to force the regent to abdicate, but he firmly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
+refused to do so. A rebellion seemed imminent, Lord
+Svante hastening to Westeros to confer with the people
+of the mining districts. Shortly after the opening of the
+meeting, Lord Svante died quite suddenly, after a stroke
+of paralysis, in January, 1512.</p>
+
+<p>The council of state selected Eric Trolle, a learned but
+unfit man of the Unionists, to succeed Lord Svante. But
+the popular opinion condemned him, and the council was
+forced to choose Svante’s son as his successor.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sten Sture the Younger</i> was barely nineteen years of
+age at his father’s death. Knighted when only five, he
+early distinguished himself as a warrior, winning fame
+for his chivalric spirit and noble character, and, like his
+illustrious namesakes, his father and grandfather, becoming
+the idol of the people. And he deserved their idolatry.
+More resembling his grandfather in the sweetness of his
+disposition than his sterner predecessors, he was as great
+a warrior as his father, to which he joined the sagacity
+and power of self-control characteristic of the elder Lord
+Sten. As a youth, he was made regent of a country in
+war, distress and peril. He was called away by death
+when only twenty-seven, leaving behind the memory of
+not one evil deed to soil the glory of his fair name, although
+continually placed in trying and dangerous positions
+of strife, rivalry, envy and rebellion. He made his
+will respected by high and low with a temperance in spirit
+and methods worthy of the highest admiration and the
+devoted love of the people. The young Lord Sten had a
+tender heart for the lowly and the suffering, never fearing
+to wring their rights from the oppressors, whosoever they
+were. He took great interest in the pursuits of peace, during
+the intervals allowed by his successful exploits in war.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
+In spite of the plague and other contagious diseases, which,
+together with the destruction of war, ravaged the country,
+he left it in a better condition than he received it. In
+many ways more farseeing than his contemporaries, his
+name will live on for centuries as one of the most beloved
+in Swedish history.</p>
+
+<p>With the younger Lord Sten, other new actors appeared
+upon the stage of Scandinavian history. Christian II. succeeded
+his father upon the throne of Denmark and Norway.
+In Sweden, Archbishop Jacob Ulfsson retired and was
+succeeded by Gustavus Trolle, a son of Lord Eric. The
+new archbishop was of a hateful and jealous disposition.
+He resolved to avenge the treatment his father had received
+at the hands of Lord Sten and the Swedish people by placing
+Christian on the throne. The young regent made no
+less than four attempts to win over this formidable enemy,
+but all in vain. He opened up a court at Stæket, in Upland,
+more brilliant than that of Lord Sten, and accepted
+subsidies from Denmark. At last, fully aware of the secret
+deliberations going on, Lord Sten surrounded Stæket and
+called a Riksdag at Arboga, in 1517, where it was resolved
+that Christian should never become king of Sweden, and
+that the siege of Stæket should be continued. Christian
+sent a little army to support his ally, but Lord Sten met
+it at Ladugardsland, outside of Stockholm, completely routing
+it. A new Riksdag was called at Stockholm before
+which the archbishop appeared upon truce. His language
+was haughty and disdainful. He said he was in his full
+right to support King Christian’s claims with mitre and
+sword, the pope sanctioning his policy; and to the pope
+alone he was responsible. The indignant Riksdag resolved
+that the archbishop should be deprived of his seat, being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>
+guilty of high treason, and that his castle should be burned.
+The resolution was written down and signed by all the bishops,
+none daring to oppose the yeomanry. Bishop Brask,
+of Linkœping, managed to conceal in the wax of his seal
+a paper with the words: “To this I am forced by necessity.”
+The archbishop returned to defend Stæket, but soon
+had to flee with his followers. It was only by using all his
+authority that Lord Sten could save his enemy’s life from
+the irate people. Trolle was forced to resign his seat and
+was imprisoned in a convent at Westeros, while his castle
+was torn down. Lord Sten wanted to appoint a successor
+to Trolle, but Bishop Brask objected that the pope might
+not consent to his removal. To this Lord Sten uttered the
+following manly words, hardly in touch with the policy of
+Rome: “I think that our most holy father, the pope, and
+the canonic law should not tolerate as the leaders of the
+Church, and as the precepts or mirrors to the people, men
+who are infested by open treason, in particular against their
+own country.” The Church tried various means to gain
+a settled condition of things. When Sten refused the royal
+crown from its hand, he was at last placed under ban.</p>
+
+<p>The hostilities with Denmark recommenced. King
+Christian appeared with a fleet and an army, in June,
+1518, laying siege to Stockholm. His attacks were valiantly
+repulsed, and Christian, fearing to be encircled by
+his enemies, marched away in a southeasterly direction,
+taking a firm position at Brennkyrka. A Swedish army
+met him from the south and gave battle one of the
+last days of July, 1518. It was a fierce conflict, ending
+with a victory for the Swedes. The chief banner was carried
+by the squire Gustavus Ericsson Vasa, who five years
+later was to become king of Sweden. Christian returned<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
+to attack Stockholm, once more in vain. He was to sail
+for Denmark, but was kept back by storms, great suffering
+being experienced by his men. Christian was forced to
+open deliberations, making very high demands. But Lord
+Sten refused to hold a meeting, postponing it to the following
+year. A few days later, King Christian sent word that
+he wanted the regent to visit him in his ship on important
+affairs. Lord Sten, always good-natured and ready to
+accept peace, thought that the king had changed his mind
+and was ready to go. But the burgomaster and council
+of Stockholm prevailed upon him not to go, sure that it
+would bring him into the enemy’s hands. Lord Sten took
+their advice and arranged for a meeting on land, sending
+six Swedish nobles as hostages to the king at his demand.
+Among these were Dr. Hemming Gad and Gustavus Ericsson
+Vasa. For two days Lord Sten waited in vain for the
+king to appear. Then he learned, to his dismay and indignation,
+that King Christian had sailed to Denmark, taking
+the hostages with him as prisoners, October 4, 1518.</p>
+
+<p>Christian collected all his forces and resources to crush
+Sweden. The whole of the following year was spent in
+preparations. Sweden was placed under ban by the pope,
+and Christian made himself his representative, the one who
+was to fulfil the heavenly punishment. In January, 1520,
+a large Danish army invaded Smaland and West Gothland.
+Lord Sten made an appeal to the people and gathered a
+peasant army, with which he met the superior force of the
+enemy at Bogesund, in West Gothland. The Swedish
+forces were arranged in line on the frozen surface of Lake
+Asund. Lord Sten rode in front of the line, encouraging
+his men, but was seriously wounded during the very first
+engagement and carried from the field. After two vain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>
+attempts, the Danes were victorious in overthrowing the
+Swedes. These gathered in the wooded hills of Tiveden
+for a last heroic resistance, which was broken; the Danes
+taking possession of the provinces to the north. Lord Sten,
+mortally wounded, died on the ice of Lake Mælar during
+his journey to Stockholm. Christian continued his march
+on Stockholm, the castle of which was heroically defended
+by Lord Sten’s consort, Christine Gyllenstierna, who also
+tried by support and exhortations to encourage other strongholds
+not yet surrendered to resist the Danes. The castle
+of Kalmar was defended by another heroic woman, Anna
+Bielke. But Christian won, through persuasions and deliberations,
+what he could not take by violence. His operations
+were carried on by Dr. Hemming Gad, who, for reasons
+unknown to history, had changed his old patriotic
+views and become a friend of Christian. In September,
+1520, Christian won Stockholm by peaceful agreement.
+The 4th of November he was crowned by Trolle, the reinstalled
+archbishop. At this occasion it caused considerable
+surprise that only Danes and Germans were knighted, the
+herald proclaiming that the country was won by sword, for
+which reason no Swede could be thus honored. This was
+in striking contrast to Christian’s proclamation of having
+ascended the throne by right of his descent from St. Eric.
+Worse things were to follow.</p>
+
+<p>The 7th of November a great number of Swedish nobles
+were called to the castle of Stockholm, where they were
+brought before a tribunal, the king presiding. The archbishop
+asked for remuneration for the sufferings caused him
+during Lord Sten’s reign. A jury of bishops and nobles
+convened. Christine Gyllenstierna was the first to answer
+to the accusations, holding forth that the Riksdag of Ar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>boga
+was responsible for the action taken against Trolle
+and bringing the signed document in evidence. The king
+answered by announcing that all who signed were under the
+ban of the pope; Bishop Brask was the only one acquitted,
+producing his written slip of reservation from under his
+seal, besides Bishop Otto of Westerns, who supported Trolle
+in his claims. In the evening all the accused were imprisoned
+and judgment passed on them the following morning.</p>
+
+<p>In the morning of November 8th, a solemn procession
+of convicts started from the castle to the grand square,
+hedged in by soldiers and executioners. The bishops Mattias
+of Strengnæs and Vincentius of Skara, in their ecclesiastical
+robes, came first, followed by thirteen noblemen and thirty-one
+town councillors and burghers of Stockholm. In the
+square, a Danish councillor of state from the porch of the
+court-house asked the masses not to be frightened. The
+archbishop, he said, had three times on his knees implored
+the king that justice should be done. Bishop Vincentius
+replied with great courage that the king had committed
+treason against the Swedes and called down divine punishment
+on him for such deeds. Two of the Swedish nobles
+followed the bishop with short addresses, admonishing the
+people not to believe in false letters and promises and to put
+down such tyranny as soon as within their power. King
+Christian, who from a window of a house facing the square
+looked down on the spectacle, now gave a sign for the
+executions to commence. First the bishops, then the state
+councillors, nobles and burghers were beheaded, among
+whom were two brothers of Christine Gyllenstierna and
+the father and brother-in-law of Gustavus Ericsson Vasa.
+Many burghers were captured in the street, or in their
+homes, and brought in to be executed, others being killed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>
+on the spot. Not less than eighty-two persons were that
+day executed, the number being increased during the following
+days by people killed in various ways. Olaus Petri,
+the reformer, who was an eyewitness, in his history gives
+a graphic description of the terrible scenes. He adds:
+“Yes, this was a horrible and cruel murder, such as no
+other prince who carried a Christian name ever committed
+before.” The corpses were burned, the remains of Lord
+Sten and one of his sons being taken from their graves and
+thrown into the flames. Christine Gyllenstierna, and the
+mother and sister of Gustavus Vasa, were with several
+other ladies carried to Copenhagen and thrown into a miserable
+dungeon. The mass murder has been called the Carnage
+of Stockholm, but it was extended also to Finland&mdash;where
+Dr. Hemming Gad was executed at Raseborg&mdash;and
+to the provinces. Christian marked his return through the
+Swedish mainland to Copenhagen by executions and mass
+murder everywhere; six hundred are estimated to have been
+killed through his order during his short stay in Sweden.</p>
+
+<p>Archbishop Trolle had taken a terrible revenge, and
+Christian thought he had crushed forever the stubborn
+Swedish resistance. But through this excess of cruelty the
+Union became insupportable, and the Swedish people resolved
+to throw off forever the connection with any foreign
+ruler. In the woods of Dalecarlia a man was hiding who
+soon was to step forward to lead the work of liberation and
+independence.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a><br />
+<span class="smaller"><i>Revolution and Reformation&mdash;Gustavus Vasa</i></span></h2>
+
+<p>Gustavus Ericsson Vasa, the man whom
+Providence had selected to save his country from
+anarchy and ruin, belonged to a noble family of
+Unionist sympathies, his great-grandfather being Drotsete
+Krister Nilsson Vasa. But the Vasa family had joined
+the cause of the patriots during the reigns of the Stures,
+simultaneously losing some of its earlier importance. The
+Vasas prided themselves on being the descendants of St.
+Eric and his line, and of St. Birgitta and the Folkungs.
+Its coat-of-arms consisted of a simple vase, or bundle of
+sticks. Gustavus Vasa was born May 12, 1496, at Lindholmen
+in Upland, at the mansion of his parents, Eric
+Johansson Vasa, state councillor, and Cecilia of Eka, a
+sister of Christine Gyllenstierna. His earliest years were
+spent with his mother at Rydboholm, another estate of his
+father’s, beautifully situated on an arm of the Baltic, only
+ten miles north of Stockholm. When a mere boy he was
+sent to the court of his granduncle, Sten Sture the Elder,
+who was childless. King John of Denmark noticed the
+bright little boy during a visit paid to Lord Sten. Young
+Gustavus took the command of all the other children at
+play and appeared to be a born leader. The king called the
+boy to him and asked him what his name was. Gustavus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>
+answered frankly. King John smilingly placed his hand
+on the boy’s head, saying: “Certainly thou shalt become
+a man in thy day if preserved in life.” The king intimated
+that he wanted to take him along to Copenhagen to
+supervise his education. But Lord Sten, who did not like
+this idea, hurriedly had Gustavus sent away, so that he
+could tell the king upon a second inquiry that the boy had
+returned to his parents. The young Gustavus was described
+as “attractive and welcome with everybody.”
+Gustavus was sent to Upsala to study at the age of thirteen.
+The University of Upsala was at that period in a
+state of stagnation. The first teacher who came in contact
+with Gustavus was a Dane named Master Ivar. According
+to the Prose Chronicle, he was a man who “was mean
+to everybody and who gave Gustavo drubbings.” It seems
+that the patriotic spirit early woke in the breast of this
+youth, who already in these days foreshadowed his own
+mission in the following words: “I will betake myself to
+Dalecarlia, rouse the Dalecarlians and batter the nose of the
+Jute.” When eighteen years of age, he was accepted as a
+squire at the court of Sten Sture the Younger, and Christine
+Gyllenstierna, his own aunt. He followed the younger
+Lord Sten in all his expeditions of war, taking part in the
+siege of Stæket and a battle of Dufnæs, and carrying
+the banner of state at Brennkyrka.</p>
+
+<p>A second time in his life it came to pass that Gustavus
+Vasa was considered a person whom the Danish king was
+desirious of carrying away. This time the king was Christian
+II., who gained his object by treachery and violence.
+Gustavus was one of the Swedish hostages who were offered
+to King Christian and by him carried away to Denmark.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus was handed over to Eric Banér, a relative of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
+his, who held in fief the castle of Kallœ in Jutland. The
+latter was placed under a heavy fine in case he allowed his
+prisoner to escape. Gustavus received a kind and generous
+treatment. He ate at the table of the lord and was allowed
+to wander at liberty in the close neighborhood of the castle.
+But the danger that menaced his country never left him
+in peace. He heard repeatedly of the great preparations
+made by Christian II. to crush the resistance of Sweden,
+and of the acts of violence to be perpetrated. Gustavus
+remained at Kallœ for a year, when he resolved to flee
+from a captivity which had become insupportable. One
+morning at sunrise, Gustavus Vasa put on the garb of a
+peasant and disappeared from the castle. He made good
+speed, reaching a seaport and escaping to Lubeck with a
+merchant vessel. In this friendly Hanseatic centre Gustavus
+expected armed support. Such was not granted, but
+he was shielded against Danish pursuit. Eric Banér arrived,
+having followed up his tracks, but his demands to
+have Gustavus surrendered were refused. After eight
+months of delay in Lubeck, Gustavus obtained leave and
+arrived in Sweden on board a German ship. He landed
+at Stensœ, a promontory outside of the town of Kalmar,
+while Christian II. was laying siege to Stockholm. Gustavus
+was resolved to do his utmost to rouse the people
+to active resistance against the invaders. The castle of
+Kalmar, next to that of Stockholm the firmest stronghold
+of Sweden, was in charge of Anna Bielke, the widow of
+the last commander. Gustavus strengthened the courage
+of the inhabitants of town and castle, but finding it impossible
+to accomplish anything for the defence himself, and
+unsuccessful in his attempts to bring the hired German
+troops up to a point of enthusiasm for the Swedish cause,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>
+he left Kalmar and continued his way through Smaland.
+But the population of this province had no patience to listen
+to his appeals for a revolt. The peasants answered him
+that if they remained faithful to the Danish king they were
+never to be in want of herring and salt. Some of them in
+their indignation sent arrows flying after the young patriot.
+In September he reached the Terna estate in Sœdermanland,
+where his sister and her husband, Joachim Brahe,
+resided. Lord Joachim had just received an invitation
+to be present at the coronation of King Christian in Stockholm.
+The attempts made by Gustavus to persuade the
+couple to abandon their intended journey to Stockholm were
+futile. Reaching his paternal estate of Ræfsnæs in Sœdermanland,
+he remained there in concealment for some time.
+He visited the old archbishop Jacob Ulfsson, who, after his
+retirement, lived in the neighboring monastery of Mariefred.
+The old prelate tried his best to persuade him to seek
+mercy and grace of King Christian, but the resolution of
+the young squire to free his country was only strengthened
+into an iron-cast determination. One of the servants who
+had followed Lord Joachim to the capital managed to make
+a safe return to tell Gustavus the terrible news of the Carnage
+of Stockholm. He was also told that a high price had
+been placed on his own head.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus at once prepared for flight. Accompanied by
+a single servant he secretly left Ræfsnæs one day toward
+the end of November, travelling on horseback northward to
+Dalecarlia. He arrived at Kopparberg in Dalecarlia, where
+he had his hair close cropped and put on peasant’s clothes.
+Putting an axe over his shoulder, he went about looking for
+employment. The first man whom he tried was Andrew
+Persson, a wealthy mine owner at Rankhytta. Gustavus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>
+found employment with him, taking part in the threshing.
+But the other servants soon detected that the new man had
+a carriage and habits different from their own, and they
+commenced to watch him closely. They noticed that he
+was not accustomed to the work, and one of the servant
+girls saw a collar of silk above the coarse blouse. Andrew
+Persson called before him the suspect, and was highly surprised
+when recognizing in him a comrade from the time
+of his student days at Upsala. He was favorably disposed,
+but was afraid of sheltering Gustavus, advising him to flee
+to the less thickly settled parts of the province, and to
+change often from one place to another. Gustavus continued
+his way in a westerly direction, following the shore
+of a lake named Runn, and arrived at Ornæs the following
+day. He knew he had an old comrade and friend in the
+owner of the place. This man, Arendt Persson, received
+him in the most hospitable manner, but was in his heart
+desirous of obtaining the price placed upon the head of the
+young squire. Gustavus went to bed in the attic, not suspecting
+treachery. The host himself accompanied him to
+his resting place, according to the mediæval custom. This
+done, Arendt travelled in great haste to one of his neighbors,
+the much-respected Mons Nilsson of Aspeboda.
+Arendt asked him to assist in capturing Gustavus Vasa;
+but Mons Nilsson flatly refused, taking no pains to hide
+his indignation. Arendt left and went past his own home
+to Sætra, which was the residence of the Danish bailiff.
+He started for Ornæs the following morning, accompanied
+by the bailiff and twenty men ready to capture the fugitive.
+But Arendt’s wife, Lady Barbro Stigsdotter (Swinhufwud),
+had not been inactive. Her suspicion was aroused when she
+noticed her husband travelling back and forth to disappear<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
+in the direction where the bailiff resided. She divined that
+the safety of her guest was threatened and decided to take
+action. Lady Barbro went to the attic, roused her sleeping
+guest and told him of the impending danger. Gustavus let
+himself down to the ground by means of towels fastened to
+the window-sill, assisted by Lady Barbro, who had a horse
+and sleigh in readiness for him, in charge of a faithful
+servant. He reached the residence of John, the priest of
+Sværdsjœ. Arendt was enraged when he found that Gustavus
+had made his escape. It is said that he from that
+day refused to ever see Lady Barbro again.</p>
+
+<p>The priest of Sværdsjœ held Gustavus in concealment
+for three days, but advised him to seek a more secure hiding
+place. He sent Gustavus to Swan Elfsson, a hunter to
+the king, who dwelt in Isala, a short distance from the
+church of Sværdsjœ. Gustavus had hardly reached this
+place before the men sent after him by the bailiff arrived.
+Gustavus stood by the oven warming himself after the ride.
+The wife of Swan Elfsson was busy baking bread. The
+men entered, asking if any stranger had been noticed in the
+neighborhood. The woman of the house saved the situation
+by resolutely dealing a blow with the bread spade to Gustavus,
+who was turning his back to her. In an irritated
+voice she said: “Why dost thou stand here gaping at the
+strangers? Hast thou never seen people before? Get thee
+at once out to the barn and do some threshing.” The men
+did not suspect in the snubbed servant the noble fugitive for
+whom they were looking. But Swan Elfsson was not sure
+of the safety of his guest if he remained in Isala. So he
+concealed Gustavus in a load of hay and left his house with
+the great unsettled districts as his destination. He met
+some Danish spies on the way. These suspected the peas<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>ant
+and pierced the load of hay with their lances repeatedly.
+Gustavus was wounded in the leg, but kept his breath and
+lay perfectly still. The spies were satisfied that everything
+was right and told Swan Elfsson to move on. But the
+peasant noticed that blood was dripping from his load, leaving
+scarlet tracks on the snow. He quickly drew his knife
+and cut his horse a deep wound in one foot. After a while
+the spies noticed the bloody tracks. They returned and
+commanded Swan Elfsson to halt, inquiring about the
+blood. Swan Elfsson pointed to the injured foot of his
+horse and succeeded in making them believe that the horse
+had met with an accident.</p>
+
+<p>Swan Elfsson left Gustavus at the village of Marnæs,
+situated in the Finn woods, where he was received by other
+hunters. These escorted the noble outlaw to a place further
+away in the woods, where he for three days remained in
+concealment under a big fallen fir tree. The peasants
+in the neighborhood brought food to him. The still hunt
+seemed to be at an end, and so Gustavus risked a visit to
+the church of Rettvik, situated on the eastern shore of Lake
+Siljan. He spoke to the yeomanry collected around the
+church after divine service, reminding them of the stanch
+patriotism and manliness of their ancestors, and imploring
+them to save their country from destruction. The yeomen
+of Rettvik gave a satisfactory answer, telling him that they
+were ready to resist the Danes. But as they had not heard
+the opinion of the people of the other parishes, there was
+nothing to be done for the moment.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus continued his way to Mora, one of the most
+densely populated parishes of Dalecarlia and situated on the
+northern shore of Lake Siljan. The priest of the parish
+was afraid to hide the outlaw, but confided him to a peas<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>ant,
+Tomte Mats, in the village of Utmeland. Gustavus
+remained for several days concealed in a vaulted cellar,
+which was reached only through a hole in the floor of the
+cottage above. One day the bailiff’s men entered to search
+for Gustavus. The woman of the house was busy brewing
+the Christmas ale. She saved Gustavus by quickly placing
+a big barrel over the hinged door, which covered the opening
+to the cellar. One of the holidays during Christmas
+Gustavus addressed the peasants of Mora when coming
+from church. He stood on a small hill near the churchyard.
+The noonday sun was shining brightly over the
+snowy landscape and a fresh northerly wind was blowing.
+Gustavus spoke in a loud voice and with great eloquence.
+He asked the men to reflect on what kind of government
+foreigners always had given Sweden, and to remember what
+they had themselves suffered and risked for the liberty of
+their country. He thought that the memory had not died
+either of the deeds of violence perpetrated by Jœsse Ericsson
+or of the deeds of heroism done by Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson.
+He then told them of the treacherous villany
+of King Christian and of the Carnage of Stockholm. “My
+own father,” he said, with tears in his eyes, “rather wished
+to die with his brethren, the honest lords, in the name of
+God, than to be spared and live in dishonor after them.”
+If the Dalecarlians wanted to save Sweden from thraldom,
+he was ready to offer himself as their leader in the name of
+the Almighty. The speech of Gustavus made a deep impression
+upon the men of Mora, and some of them were
+anxious to rise at once. The majority ruled, deciding that
+no action should be taken before the other parishes of Dalecarlia
+had been heard from. They advised Gustavus to
+seek a safer hiding-place further up in the woods. Gus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>tavus
+left Mora utterly discouraged, seeking the paths that
+led along the Dal River into desert wilds.</p>
+
+<p>At New Year of 1521 Lars Olsson, a soldier who had
+done good service in the times of the Stures, arrived at
+Mora, bringing particulars of the doings of King Christian.
+He told the peasants that the king had ordered gallows to
+be erected at every sheriff’s residence to mark the way of
+his Eriksgata. The peasants were touched to the quick and
+regretted having sent away the young nobleman. Lars
+Olsson advised them to call him back. Two expert ski
+runners were sent after Gustavus Ericsson, and after a
+ride of a night and a day through the woods, they overtook
+him close by the Norwegian frontier, which he was ready
+to cross in despair.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus returned to Mora and was made the leader
+of the peasants in that locality. With these men he started
+his work of liberation, which was the commencement of one
+of the most remarkable of revolutions that the world ever
+saw. In the beginning of February, 1521, Gustavus
+marched southward with a few hundred men. At Falun
+he captured the bailiff of the mines, confiscating the royal
+taxes. Returning to the starting point, he left it again,
+with an army of 1,500 men. Entering Norrland, where
+he was joined by the peasants of Gestrikland, and the
+burghers of Gefle, while the people of Helsingland asked
+for time to consider the matter, he learned upon his return
+how one of his commanders, Peder Swensson, had won a
+glorious victory over a Danish army 6,000 strong at the
+ferry of Brunnbæck, by the Dal River. Gustavus began
+training his troops, enforcing severe discipline and providing
+them with better arrows and longer lances. He declared
+war upon Christian in a formal way and marched<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>
+on Westeros, where the Danish troops had centred. The
+town and castle were captured in spite of a force of superior
+Danish cavalry.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus shifted his army into divisions which marched
+in various directions to capture the castles of surrounding
+provinces. The people of Upland reinforced the Dalecarlians,
+who were sent home to tend to their sowing. The
+Upland forces captured the archbishop’s seat during his absence,
+and were joined by Gustavus at Upsala, who made an
+exceedingly severe speech to the ecclesiastics, asking them
+to decide their nationality, whether they were Swedes or
+not. They asked permission to consult Archbishop Trolle,
+which was granted. “I will bring the reply myself,” said
+Trolle, starting from Stockholm with a splendid body of
+German troops. Gustavus was near being taken by surprise,
+but gathering troops he fought the archbishop, whose
+force met with a crushing defeat, and he escaped with
+difficulty to Stockholm.</p>
+
+<p>At midsummer, 1521, Gustavus arrived at Brunkeberg,
+laying siege to Stockholm. The capital was strongly fortified,
+and Norrby with a Danish fleet supported and relieved
+it. Twice the Danes routed the Swedish troops with the
+intermission of one year, but Gustavus provided reinforcements.
+He travelled through the country, visiting the
+forces who laid siege to the various Danish strongholds, these
+surrendering one by one. It was not a chain of glorious
+exploits, this work which Gustavus carried to a successful
+end, but one of infinite patience and sagacity, saddened by
+the news that the revengeful Christian had ended the lives
+of his captive mother and sister in the miserable Danish
+dungeon. Bishop Brask was scared into submission, turning
+his castle Stegeborg and part of his troops over to Gus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>tavus,
+who at a Riksdag at Vadstena was elected regent
+in August, 1521.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus entered into an alliance with Lubeck, and
+it sent a fleet to Stockholm, thus encircling it also from the
+sea. Norrby left with his ships and was nearly caught in
+the ice in the following spring. In Denmark, Christian’s
+reign came to an end. With his usual violence he attacked
+the nobles and the ecclesiastics in order to better the conditions
+of the peasants, for whom he had a tender sympathy.
+In so doing, he brought the nobles to open revolt against
+his rule. He left his throne in April, 1523. Now Gustavus
+found the opportune moment to accept the Swedish crown
+offered him. He called a Riksdag at Strengnæs, in June,
+1523, where Gustavus was chosen king of Sweden “by the
+councillors of state with the consent of the common people.”
+At this occasion a tax was agreed on to pay the German
+troops engaged in the siege of Stockholm, and to Lubeck
+for its timely support. In that very month Stockholm surrendered,
+and Gustavus held his proud entry into the capital
+on the eve of Midsummer day.</p>
+
+<p>The position of the king was a most difficult one. The
+crown was ruined through the previous state of anarchy
+and the expense of war. The Church was in undisturbed
+possession of its wealth, but not willing to yield any of its
+power or income. Christian was preparing a plan by which
+to recapture his lost crowns. Norrby, who had aspirations
+of becoming Christian’s regent in Sweden, tried to persuade
+Christine Gyllenstierna, lately set free from her prison, to
+marry him in order to obtain the prestige of the Stures.
+The common people, whom Gustavus so recently used to
+free the country, grew restive and rebellious when he could
+not at once grant them guarantees of comfort and prosperity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>
+in return. In a marvellous manner Gustavus understood
+how to face the situation and how to use to the utmost
+the resources within reach.</p>
+
+<p>When the outlawed youth of twenty-four spoke of revolt
+to the peasants at Mora, Martin Luther was burning the
+ban placed on him by the pope. There were several warm
+friends of Luther in Sweden, principally Olaus Petri, himself
+a pupil and friend of the German reformer, his brother,
+Laurentius Petri, and Laurentius Andreæ. Olaus was a
+soul of fire and enthusiasm. He was lacking in self-control,
+but possessed a power which if not restrained would
+have led him and his work of reform further than the goal
+set by Luther. The two Laurentii were, like him, men of
+learning and, in addition, of greater sagacity. The king
+took interest in these men. He was contemplating a reduction
+of the ecclesiastical power, and they were to prepare
+the soil by freeing the people from undue respect for the
+Roman Church and its worldly power. Laurentius Andreæ
+was made the king’s chancellor, and Olaus Petri secretary
+to the town council of Stockholm, later pastor of the Cathedral
+Church. Olaus preached in the Stockholm Cathedral
+fiery sermons against Rome and the pope, responded to
+sometimes by irate monks, sometimes by various projectiles
+from the audience. Gustavus took pains to fill the
+vacancies of the Church, which were many, by appointing
+able men. But he made two serious mistakes in making
+Master Knut, dean of Westeros, archbishop, and Peder
+Sunnanvæder, formerly secretary to Svante Sture, bishop
+of Westeros. He came in possession of a correspondence,
+which proved that Bishop Peder tried to bring the Dalecarlians
+to revolt, and when accusing him and finding Master
+Knut on the side of the defence, Gustavus deprived<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>
+them of their new dignities. The king commanded that
+a new bishop should be appointed and himself selected
+Johannes Magni as archbishop. This prelate, a very
+learned man, was the representative of Sten Sture in
+Rome, returning to his native land as a papal legate.
+Gustavus had a rupture with him when, according to his
+instructions, he demanded that Trolle should be reinstated
+as archbishop. Archbishop Johannes was lacking in moral
+courage; brushed aside by the tide of Reformation, he retired
+to Rome, where he died after writing the history of
+Sweden in Latin, <i>Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus</i>.
+Master Knut and Peder Sunnanvæder turned their steps to
+Dalecarlia, fanning the brewing malcontent and opening
+connections with Norrby, who styled himself the betrothed
+of Christine Gyllenstierna and made ready to attack Gustavus
+from the sea. Berndt von Melen, a German commander,
+in whom Gustavus placed much confidence, was
+to chase Norrby away from his stronghold, the island of
+Gothland, but turned a traitor, joining Norrby instead, in
+1524. Gustavus called a Riksdag at Westeros, in 1525,
+resolved to use his diplomacy to the utmost. Upon receiving
+a letter from the Dalecarlians, in which they stoutly
+swore off their allegiance to him on account of heavy taxes,
+foreign influence and disregard for the Church, the king
+offered to abdicate. The representatives at the Riksdag
+persuaded him to remain, whereupon the king sent the Dalecarlians
+a sagacious letter, promising to improve the state of
+things as much as possible, but pointing out the two prelates
+as traitors in conspiracy with the Danes. The Dalecarlians
+were pacified, Knut and Peder finding it safest to leave for
+Norway. In the following year the king met the revolting
+peasants of Upland at Old Upsala, where he in a fiery<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
+speech unfolded his policy toward the Church. The peasants
+resented; they wanted to keep their monks and their
+masses. The king commanded one of his followers to make
+a speech in Latin, the peasants shouting that they did not
+understand. “Why do you, then, love so dearly your Latin
+mass?” the king asked them smiling. A few days later
+Gustavus made a crushing speech against lazy and worthless
+ecclesiastics before the chapter of Upsala. The archbishop
+was sent away on diplomatic errands to Poland and
+Russia never to return. After his departure Bishop Brask
+became the chief representative of papal interests. He was
+patriotic, but never yielded an inch of the worldly power of
+the Church except to force, opposing the Reformation with
+his whole strength.</p>
+
+<p>The king followed up his policy by demanding for the
+crown two-thirds of the ecclesiastic tithe and by placing
+the ecclesiastics under the duties of <i>russtienst</i>, in 1526.
+The ex-prelates, Knut and Peder, were, upon the king’s
+request of an extradition, given up and sentenced to death
+for high treason. The king arranged for their triumphal
+entry of mockery into Stockholm in a most humiliating
+fashion, for which he has been criticised; also for the consummate
+manner in which the judges were appointed and
+judgment passed. But he set an example of warning to
+obnoxious and intriguing prelates that was appreciated by
+his contemporaries.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus gained the triumph of his policy by the famous
+Riksdag of Westeros in 1527. It was nothing else than a
+coup d’état, a revolution, which, with the establishment
+of the Reformation, gave his throne solidity and resources.
+The Diet was called under the pretext of taking measures
+against a new revolt in Dalecarlia and for the regulation of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
+dogmatic questions. There were present sixteen state councillors,
+four bishops, one hundred and twenty-nine knights
+and nobles, one hundred and five peasants, besides various
+priests, burghers and miners, but no representatives from
+Finland or Dalecarlia. In the great hall of the monastery
+the meeting was held, opening with a written address by
+the king, read by his chancellor, in which the situation
+of the country was set forth. The king refused to continue
+at the government, asking to be remunerated for personal
+losses and expense, and given a fief like any ordinary
+bailiff responsible to the crown. Only if fundamental reforms
+were made would he remain, not being able otherwise
+to cover the inevitable deficit of the treasury. Bishop Brask
+responded with the statement that he for his part was in
+duty bound to the king, but that Rome and its demands
+must, in the first place, be obeyed; showing by his remarks
+that he understood that the question was one of reducing
+the ecclesiastical power. The king rose and said in a burst
+of passion: “We have no further desire, then, to be your
+king. Verily, we had counted on quite another treatment
+at your hands. We now no longer wonder at the perversity
+of the people, since they have such advisers. Have
+they no rain, they blame us for it. Have they no sun,
+likewise. For dearth, hunger and plague we are responsible,
+as if we were not a man, but God. Yea, though we
+labor for you with our utmost power, both in spiritual and
+in temporal affairs, you would gladly see the axe upon our
+neck, but no one dares to grasp the handle. Monks and
+priests and all the creatures of the pope are to be placed
+above us, though we have little need of them. In a word,
+you all would lord it over us. Who under such circumstances
+would desire to govern you? Not the worst wretch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>
+in hell would wish the post, far less any man. Therefore
+we, too, refuse to be your king. We cast the honor from
+us, and leave you free to choose him whom you will. But
+be so kind as to let us leave the land. Pay us for our
+property in the kingdom, and return to us what we have
+expended in your service. Then we declare to you that
+we will withdraw never to return.” With tears of anger
+and emotion the king left the hall, leaving the assembly
+in consternation.</p>
+
+<p>After four days of pandemonium and deadlock, the representatives
+decided to give in and ask forgiveness of the
+king, who long disregarded the appeals made for his return.
+When re-entering he was greeted by commotion and the
+humblest demonstrations of respect and repentance. The
+next day, Midsummer day, votes were taken upon his propositions,
+each Estate of representatives sending up their vote
+with a written construction of the propositions. These were
+then revised by the state councillors in their final form,
+called “Westeros Recess,” with amendments called “Westeros
+Ordinantia.” The startling revolutionary stipulations
+of the “Recess” were chiefly these: Authority for the king
+(1) to take in possession the castles and forts of the bishops,
+whose retinues he was to fix as to numbers; (2) to dispose
+of the superfluous income of the clergy and to superintend
+the administration of the monasteries; authority for the
+nobility to resume title to all their property which had
+come in the possession of the Church since 1454; authority
+to have the Gospel preached all over the country in
+undefiled purity. Among the “Ordinantia” the most important
+were: (1) Vacancies in the parish churches were
+to be filled by the bishop under the supervision and right
+of suspension of the king; (2) the king was to fix the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
+amount of revenue due the bishops, chapters and clerks,
+and be entitled to use the surplus for the crown; (3) the
+priests were in secular suits to be responsible to secular
+courts; (4) the Gospel should be read in the schools. The
+king asked the bishops in person to surrender their castles,
+to which demand they all agreed.</p>
+
+<p>We may feel inclined to smile upon the drastic manner
+in which Gustavus enacted this important drama of Revolution,
+but must bear in mind his solitary position. He had
+no statesmen of ability at his side, nor men of great intellect
+and power to sustain him. He stood alone, and few knew
+as yet his superior qualities as a statesman and an organizer.
+The tame opposition, soon yielding to the appeals of
+the burghers and peasants, can only be explained through
+lack of leaders. Ture Jœnsson (Tre Rosor), the aristocratic
+chief of the opposition, was a vain and cowardly man.
+Bishop Brask, the head of the clergy, was old and more
+of a diplomatist than a man of action. The latest stanch
+Romanist, he gave up his cause, finding a pretext to leave
+the country and dying in his self-imposed exile. The ecclesiastical
+reforms were definitively arranged at a church
+meeting at Œrebro in the following year.</p>
+
+<p>It was one of the evils which beset the reign of Gustavus
+that revolts constantly occurred in various provinces and for
+various reasons. Dalecarlia took the lead. The inhabitants
+were not able to bear the distinction won by their great
+patriotic services in the times of Engelbrekt, the Stures,
+and Gustavus. Their complaints were mostly unreasonable,
+sometimes ridiculous, as when they tried to prescribe
+the kind of cloth and colors to be used at court, and so forth.
+There was no fable, however stupid, which was not readily
+believed by them and the responsibility placed on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>
+king. Particularly was everything eagerly swallowed which
+spoke of injustice committed against the descendants of
+the Stures. A daring pretender took advantage of this
+fact. He was born of the lowest peasant class, serving
+on an estate in Westmanland, where he had stolen a sum
+of money from his master. Appearing in Dalecarlia, where
+he claimed that he was a son of Lord Sten and Christine
+Gyllenstierna, he gained a great deal of support among the
+yeomen, who cried with him like children when he spoke
+of his noble father and asked them to pray for his soul.
+The false pretender had his instructions from Peder Sunnanvæder;
+he married in Norway a woman of noble birth,
+and, upon his return to Dalecarlia, surrounded himself with
+a regular court. An end was put to his career by a letter
+from Christine Gyllenstierna, written at the request of the
+king, in which she told the Dalecarlians that her son Nils,
+whom the pretender impersonated, had recently died, and
+that an impostor was misleading them. The false Nils Sture
+answered by claiming that he was born before marriage,
+the would-be-reason why his mother did not acknowledge
+him. This even the Dalecarlians found was a stretching of
+truth. The pretender, who had been stamping coins with
+his image and held the demeanor of a ruling prince, fled
+to Norway and thence to Rostock, where he was captured
+and beheaded. No blood was shed during this period of
+revolt; but the king, who was crowned at Upsala in 1528,
+proceeded from his coronation to Dalecarlia with an army
+of 14,000 men. He commanded the Dalecarlians to meet
+him, and forgave them after a severe sermon of reproach,
+making them surrender the chief supporters of the “Daljunker,”
+who were executed on the spot.</p>
+
+<p>No better was the outcome of a revolt prepared by some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>
+nobles of West Gothland in the following year. They tried
+in vain to make the population join with them. The king
+managed to obtain their secret correspondence, and had the
+guilty ones arraigned before a meeting at which he scrutinized
+and repudiated the false charges made against him.
+The nobles asked forgiveness and were pardoned, with the
+exception of two, who were beheaded. But the originators
+of the revolt had fled. They were Ture Jœnsson and
+Bishop Magnus of Skara. The former joined the deposed
+King Christian, who, in 1532, prepared an attack on Sweden
+in his attempts to recapture his crowns. With him were
+other such distinguished traitors as Gustavus Trolle and
+Berndt von Melen. Gustavus I. sent a splendid army
+to meet Christian near Kongelf. Christian withdrew in
+disappointment, leaving Ture Jœnsson behind in the
+streets of Kongelf, minus a head. Christian was imprisoned
+by his uncle, Frederic of Denmark, and died
+in captivity.</p>
+
+<p>In order to pay the debt to Lubeck it was decided at a
+meeting at Upsala, in 1530, that the bells of the churches
+should be taken to be melted down. Concessions to do so
+were asked and obtained from the various communities.
+But upon the surrender of the bells discontent grew up.
+In Dalecarlia it came to revolt and open violence. The
+people refused to give up their bells or took the surrendered
+ones back with force. Threatening letters were sent
+to the king, who at first pretended to ignore the whole matter.
+Christian was preparing his last attack, and prudence
+deemed advisable. The inducements made by the Swedish
+traitors to support Christian’s claims were scornfully repulsed
+by the Dalecarlians, who still continued with their
+insulting letters to the king. Gustavus answered them in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>
+a peaceful way. In 1533, at New Year, he suddenly appeared
+with an army in Dalecarlia, where the revolters also
+this time received a severe reproach and were forced to give
+up their leaders. These were executed, and that ended the
+last revolt of Dalecarlia.</p>
+
+<p>In the following year Sweden was forced into a war
+which lasted up to 1536, the so-called “Feud of the Counts,”
+the chief participants being the counts of Holstein, Oldenburg
+and Hoya. Sweden sided with Christian of Holstein,
+who fought for his rights to the throne of Denmark after
+his father Frederic, being opposed by the other counts and
+by Lubeck. Hard and repeated pressure was brought to
+bear on Svante Sture, a son of Lord Sten and Christine
+Gyllenstierna, to appear as a pretender against Gustavus;
+but the noble youth, who was sojourning in Germany,
+firmly withstood these temptations. His mother had married
+John Turesson, a son of the traitor Ture Jœnsson, who
+was as able a man as his father was a bad one, being the
+successful commander of a Swedish army which invaded
+the Danish provinces held by the count of Oldenburg. A
+Swedish fleet, created through sacrifices of nobles and
+peasants, distinguished itself repeatedly. The war ended
+in the defeat of Lubeck.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus had, since the end of the work of liberation,
+crushed the power of the Church, punished the revolting
+peasants, kept the aristocracy within bounds, and put an
+end to the supremacy of Lubeck. But he went still further,
+trying to deprive the Church of its last vestige of authority,
+to introduce a minute administration of the provinces and to
+enforce the absolute power of the crown. To these plans he
+was led by two foreign advisers, Georg Norman and Konrad
+Pentinger. But it must be said to the credit of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>
+king that their influence vanished when he saw that their
+“reforms” were not acceptable to the people. From this
+period of his reign, one noteworthy and wholesome measure
+remains, the reintroduction of the former hereditary order
+of succession to the throne. It was formulated and accepted
+at the Riksdag of Œrebro (Jan. 4, 1540), memorable also
+through death sentences pronounced upon two of the apostles
+of the Swedish Reformation. The king had long regarded
+his chancellor and the two brothers, Olaus and
+Laurentius Petri, the latter archbishop of Upsala, with
+suspicion. The climax was reached when a conspiracy
+by German burghers of Stockholm against the king’s life
+was discovered, and it was proved that Olaus Petri and
+Laurentius Andreæ were conscious of its purport, without
+making it known to the king. They were condemned to
+death, Archbishop Laurentius being forced to take a seat as
+one of the judges, but pardoned at the request of the burghers
+of Stockholm, on the grounds that the ministers had received
+their knowledge on the pledge of secrecy through
+confession. Laurentius Andreæ lost his position as the
+king’s chancellor. In the following year each church
+in the country was presented with a copy of the complete
+translation of the Bible, the work of the two reformers.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest, most serious and most expensive of peasants’
+revolts was that called the Dacke Feud (1542 and
+1543), after its leader Nils Dacke, a peasant born in Bleking,
+emigrated to Smaland, which became the scene
+of his revolt. The peasants were resolved to make war
+on the royal bailiffs, the nobles and the new religion, and
+found in Dacke an excellent leader, ferocious, daring and
+of some military ability. The forces sent by the king to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>
+meet him were repeatedly routed. The king was seriously
+alarmed, particularly since the revolt attracted attention
+abroad and was encouraged by Emperor Charles V., in
+the interests of the deposed Christian, his brother-in-law,
+and by several German princes. The emperor wrote to
+Nils Dacke a letter, preserved to this day, although it never
+reached its destination, in which Charles, with pride, recalls
+his Gothic (that is, according to the views of his time, Swedish)
+origin: “Sumus et nos de gente Gothorum.” Nils
+Dacke’s plan was to place Svante Sture on the throne. He
+wrote him a letter to this effect, which the noble Sture
+handed over to the king, together with the messenger who
+brought it. After much effort the king gathered an army
+of considerable strength, which was ordered against Dacke,
+who was defeated at Lake Asund. He fled and was pursued
+by the troops into Bleking, where he was captured and
+shot. This revolt cost Gustavus dearly, but was a good
+lesson in regard to the more immature of his reforms,
+against which it, to a great extent, was directed.</p>
+
+<p>Now the storms and trials of his reign were at an end,
+and Gustavus allowed to gather the fruit of his wise management,
+which itself grew wiser with his old age. In 1544
+the Union of Succession of 1540 was confirmed at Westeros.
+In matters of finance Gustavus laid the foundations of the
+modern state. The bailiffs were multiplied and made to
+give close accounts of the revenues. Fiefs granted to nobles
+before were now kept by the crown. The great nobles who
+held fiefs were placed under stricter control. The bloody
+Christian did useful work for the crown by ridding it of
+many unruly heads. The privileges granted by Westeros
+Recess were enforced, but the king saw to it that the nobility
+received back only what was properly due. But when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>
+the crown was concerned, property was taken from the
+Church to the greatest tension of these privileges, and likewise
+for the king’s private rights, by means of which less
+scrupulous tactics both the state and the king were enriched.
+The former came in possession of 12,000 farms,
+the latter of 4,000, in his case called “inherited estates.”
+As Gustavus was a great economizer, he left a treasury replete
+with money and uncoined silver, in spite of elaborate
+pomp on state occasions, expensive royal marriages and
+wooings, and a feud with Russia. From which of the two
+treasuries in his care expenses were paid, Gustavus was not
+overparticular. He set a good example as a practical
+farmer and agriculturist, the dairy at Gripsholm standing
+under the personal supervision of the queen, with twenty-two
+less ladylike assistants.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus created the nucleus to a standing army of hired
+troops, of natives and foreigners, about 15,000 in numbers,
+and provided Sweden with a considerable and well-equipped
+fleet. He encouraged the mining industry by supporting
+the silver mines of Sala and the copper mines of Falun.
+He introduced the working of iron, according to new methods,
+calling in German experts whose work he superintended
+in person. Putting an end to the supremacy of the Hanseatic
+commerce, he made treaties of commerce with the
+Netherlands and France, making Helsingfors in Finland
+the centre of the trade with Russia. On the western coast
+he founded the new town of Elfsborg, and ordered the inhabitants
+of New Lœdœse to move thither. To the common
+people Gustavus held an attitude which shows
+evidence of love and confidence. Many of his letters and
+messages to them abound in hints at practical methods in
+farming. The schools were improved and partly reorgan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>ized
+through the spirit of Reformation, while the University
+of Upsala lost in importance and prestige, the students again
+going abroad.</p>
+
+<p>The war with Russia, commencing in 1554, and marked
+by mutual invasions, offered no aspect of importance, and
+was ended by a treaty of peace in 1557.</p>
+
+<p>The founder of the famous royal line of Vasa was, personally,
+a man of prepossessing appearance, tall, and of
+commanding presence, having blond hair and beard, sharp
+blue eyes, full lips, rosy cheeks and a fine frame. He was
+fond of costly garments, and the styles of his day were becoming
+to him. Gustavus was of an amiable and cheerful disposition,
+although of a quick temper. He had a rare gift
+of winning the goodwill and confidence of all classes by
+addressing everybody according to their compass of intellect
+and conversation. He was fond of music, and played
+and sang. The lute was his favorite instrument, which he
+liked to play in his evenings of solitude. Gustavus possessed
+a rare intellect and a remarkable memory. Well
+aware of his own weakness to give way to his quick temper,
+he generally postponed all decisive action in matters of importance
+until sure of his full power of discernment. He
+was not a brilliant genius, but a typical prince of the Renaissance
+epoch, never afraid of taking action in instances
+without a precedence, or of the consequences of his actions.
+His letters and addresses evince an unusual degree
+of common sense, clothed in a language of manly vigor,
+terseness and humor, and are fine specimens of the modern
+Swedish, such as it meets us in this its period of
+rejuvenation, brought about by the spirit of the Reformation.
+There is something in the oral and literary eloquence
+of Gustavus Vasa which makes it easy to believe<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>
+that he was a descendant of Birgitta. Gustavus did not
+possess the fine erudition of his sons, who were considered
+to be men of learning in their time, for he early left his
+university studies for the court and the war; but he was
+able to pass such good opinions upon subjects of art and
+science that he astonished many who had made these a
+special study. He had the power of recognizing people
+whose faces he once had noticed after ten to twenty
+years of absence, and was also skilled in divining what
+character dwelt behind every face. What he once heard
+he never forgot. Where he had travelled once he could
+never mistake the road, and knew not only the names of
+the villages but also the names of the peasants whom he
+had met. His life was led by the unswaying principles of
+an earnest piety and high morals. His nephew, Peter
+Brahe the Elder, who in a chronicle has given the above
+picture of Gustavus Vasa, adds: “<i>In summa</i>, God had
+bequeathed him, above others, with great ability, high intellect
+and many princely virtues, so that he was well
+worthy of carrying sceptre and crown. For he was not
+only sagacious and kind above others, but also manly and
+able. He was sharp and just in passing sentences, in many
+cases being charitable and merciful.”</p>
+
+<p>The royal court was characterized by a joyous and elevated
+spirit. Every day after dinner all the courtiers collected
+in the dancing hall. The lady of ceremonies then
+entered with the ladies of the court, and the royal musicians
+dispensed music for dancing. Every other or third
+day the king went out hunting or horseback riding with
+the gentlemen and ladies of his court. The youths of the
+nobility once a week held exhibitions of fencing and
+other knightly sport, the king taking an interested and ac<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>tive
+part. Those who excelled received prizes in the form
+of rings of gold or chaplets of pearls and led the dance of
+the evening.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus I. was three times married. His first consort
+was young neurotic Catherine, princess of Saxony-Lauenburg,
+whom he married while the “Revolt of the Bells”
+was going on in Dalecarlia, and who died four years later,
+leaving him a son, Eric, of her own hysteric temperament.
+Shortly after the death of Catherine, the king married a
+young lady of the highest Swedish nobility, Margaret Leijonhufvud,
+with whom he lived in a long and happy union,
+ended by her death in 1551, and blessed by ten children,
+among whom the sons John, Magnus and Charles. Lady
+Margaret had been in love with the oldest son of Christine
+Gyllenstierna, Svante Sture, whom she renounced, and
+who married her younger sister Martha. Queen Margaret
+was a tender and high-minded woman, who won the love
+and absolute confidence of her royal consort, on whose quick
+temper she exerted a quieting influence, comforting him
+in hours of trouble and distress. She preserved as queen
+the plain and severe habits of her youth, having a personal
+superintendence over the dairies of the royal castles, especially
+those of Gripsholm and Svartsjœ. She was interested
+in brewing, baking and other household affairs, often making
+with her own hands the clothes of her children. When
+the king referred to Queen Margaret, he always called her
+“our dear mistress of the house.” The king remained a
+nobleman of his day in the purple. Royal splendor was displayed
+on great occasions only. Simplicity was the principle
+of every-day life. When entertaining his friends, the
+king took great pains to please and arranged many details
+himself. Upon one occasion of this kind at Gripsholm,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>
+Queen Margaret carried in the sweetmeats and cookies,
+while the king served the wine and asked his guests to be
+glad and make merry.</p>
+
+<p>Queen Margaret was suddenly taken ill while partaking
+in a pleasure trip on Lake Mælar, and died in 1551, after a
+touching farewell to her consort. In the following year the
+king married the young Catherine Stenbock, a daughter of
+Gustavus Stenbock, an intimate friend to the king, and
+Lady Brita Leijonhufvud, a sister of Queen Margaret. In
+the lives and fate of Catherine and Margaret there are
+several remarkable coincidences. Like Queen Margaret,
+Catherine was secretly in love with some one else when
+the royal proposal was made. Strange enough the object
+of Catherine’s secret affection was, like Margaret’s,
+a son of Christine Gyllenstierna, Gustavus Johnsson Tre
+Rosor. This young man was the grandson of conceited
+Ture Jœnsson and the son of able John Turesson, the
+second consort of Christine Gyllenstierna. The family
+name was Tre Rosor, after the coat-of-arms, which consisted
+of three roses. As her aunt Margaret must renounce
+the hero of her dreams, so also Catherine. Like his half-brother,
+Svante Sture, Gustavus Tre Rosor married the
+sister of his first love, and this marriage, like that of
+Svante, turned out a happy one. There was a last coincidence
+in the life of the two queens. When Margaret
+heard that the royal sponsor was coming, she knew his
+errand and concealed herself in an oak chest in a distant
+part of the castle of Ekeberg. Catherine, upon a similar
+occasion, ran down in the gardens of Torpa and hid herself
+behind a bush. The third marriage of the king was a
+happy one, in spite of the great difference in years between
+the consorts. The clergy tried to raise objections, holding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>
+that Gustavus and Catherine were too nearly related to
+make the marriage a legal one. After some severe pressure
+these objections were finally dropped.</p>
+
+<p>Queen Catherine thus expressed the state of her feelings
+after her marriage: “Gustavus is dear to me, but I shall
+never forget the Rose.”</p>
+
+<p>The king gave scrupulous attention to the education of
+his children. They were brought up in simplicity and sternness,
+but received a manifold training and a great amount
+of instruction. While they were studying at Upsala, hams
+and butter were sent them from the royal estates to make
+part of their breakfasts and suppers. In spite of these patriarchal
+endeavors, Eric and John grew up to be typical Renaissance
+princes, fond of extravagance and luxury. The
+king wrote once to Duke Magnus: “Our dear Lady Catherine
+sends thee five shirts which thou must bear in mind
+to take good care of; <i>item</i>, to keep thy head clean and not
+ride or run too much.” When his sons grew older, King
+Gustavus used to admonish them orally before the hearth
+or at the table, or by letters. His wise counsel recalls the
+terse and sharp advice of Havamal in the Edda: “Ye shall
+weigh all matters carefully, perform them quickly and
+stand by it, putting nothing off to the morrow; counsel
+not followed up in due time is like clouds without
+rain in times of dearth.” “To speak once and stand
+by it, is better than to talk one hundred times.” “Surround
+ye ever with able men of pure living; one shall
+believe of ye what one knows about them.” Duke Eric
+early caused him trouble by stubbornness, defiance and
+vanity. Duke John, the oldest child of Queen Margaret,
+long remained his favorite, but ended by causing him
+grief through disobedience and secret conspiracy with Eric.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>
+In his old age, King Gustavus suffered through failing
+health and melancholy. He complained because the fate
+of his country seemed uncertain on account of the unstability
+of his sons, and because his old friends, like John
+Turesson and Christine Gyllenstierna, passed away before
+him, leaving him alone in the world.</p>
+
+<p>When King Gustavus felt that the end was drawing
+near, he sent word to the four Estates or representative
+classes of the country, the nobles, clergymen, burghers and
+yeomen, to meet him at Stockholm around the Midsummer
+of 1560. He made known to the Estates his will, which his
+sons pledged themselves by oath to fulfil. Eric should inherit
+the crown, according to the will, but the three other
+sons were to receive duchies which they should govern with
+a good deal of authority. It became evident that the king
+had taken pains to provide liberally for his sons. But it appears
+as if he intended to make them all responsible in the
+maintenance of the work of their father, by distributing
+the power between them.</p>
+
+<p>When the Estates had collected in the hall of state the
+old monarch entered with his sons. After greeting those
+present he delivered his farewell address:</p>
+
+<p>“I respect the power of God, which with me has reinstalled
+the ancient royal line on the throne of Sweden. Ye
+have without doubt learned, and those of you who are somewhat
+advanced in years have seen for yourselves, how our dear
+fatherland, already for ages in distress and misery through
+foreign lordship, at last suffered the same through the grim
+despot King Christian, and how it pleased God to liberate
+us from this tyranny through me. For this it behooves us,
+high and low, master and servant, old and young, never to
+forget that same divine help. For what of a man was I to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>
+set myself against a mighty king, who not only ruled three
+kingdoms, but who also was related to the powerful emperor
+Charles V. and the noble princes of Germany. But
+God has performed the work, made me the worker of his
+miracle, and been my help and comfort during a reign of
+forty years, the cares of which have hastened me on with
+gray hairs to the grave. Forsooth, I could liken myself to
+King David,” and the tears came to his eyes, “whom God
+from a shepherd made to a reigning king over his people. I
+could not divine that glory, when I in woods and desert
+fells must needs conceal myself from the bloodthirsty
+swords of my enemies. Grace and blessing have in a wide
+measure been granted both me and you through the knowledge
+of God’s true Gospel, also in the shape of material
+abundance, which is evident all through the land, thank the
+Lord. If during my reign anything good has been accomplished,
+give ye God the glory of it. But for what there
+has been of failure and fault, I beg you, as faithful subjects,
+to forbear and forgive. God is my witness that it has not
+been by meanness, but by human weakness, that I have not
+been able to do better. My ambition has always been the
+improvement and welfare of the people of my country. I
+know full well that I have been a severe king in the eyes
+of many. Yet that day shall come when the children of
+Sweden willingly would dig me up from under the sod if
+that they could. My time soon is at an end. I need not in
+the stars or other signs search for my last moment; my
+body is to me the trustworthy messenger that I soon shall
+stand before the severe King of kings, to give account
+for the glorious but earthly crown of Sweden which I
+have worn.”</p>
+
+<p>The Estates listened with great emotion to the words of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>
+the old monarch. After the king had ceased speaking and
+his will had been sanctioned, Gustavus left the assembly
+supported by his sons and nodding his farewell to those
+standing near. Three months later he was taken ill, and
+September 29, 1560, the great liberator, revolutionist and
+organizer of his country expired.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a><br />
+<span class="smaller"><i>Reformation and Reaction&mdash;The Sons of Gustavus I.</i></span></h2>
+
+<p>Eric XIV. succeeded his father in 1560, commencing
+his reign under the most brilliant of auspices. But
+the old King Gustavus had foreseen that his sons
+would cause danger to the realm which he with infinite care
+had built up. After his forty years’ work of construction
+followed forty years of destruction which his elder sons
+brought to bear upon it. Fortunately, that work was so
+solid that it withstood this bravely, to rise rejuvenated
+when loving hands anew were laid to it.</p>
+
+<p>King Eric was one of the most gifted monarchs of his
+time, handsome, eloquent, learned, a fine linguist, a musician
+and artist. But his sharp reason carried him to the
+excess of suspicion, his artistic temperament into hysterics,
+and he was vain, overbearing, quick-tempered, licentious
+and cruel. His leaning toward mysticism made him devoted
+to astrology.</p>
+
+<p>Eric’s first ambition was to reduce the power of the
+dukes, convoking a Riksdag at Arboga, in 1561, where
+the “Arboga Articles” were formulated for such purpose,
+the dukes being forced to acquiesce. In order to reduce the
+distance between the dukes and the nobility, King Eric, at
+his coronation&mdash;celebrated with a lavish display of pomp at
+Upsala in June of the same year&mdash;instituted hereditary dig<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>nities
+of counts and barons. Svante Sture, Peter Brahe the
+Elder and Gustavus Johnsson Tre Rosor were created
+counts, the first and third one the sons of Christine
+Gyllenstierna, Peter Brahe being a cousin of Gustavus
+Vasa. Among the barons were Sten Leijonhufvud, Gustavus
+Stenbock, relatives of the dukes, and Clas Kristersson
+Horn (of Aminne). Only small fiefs were given with the
+new dignities, which were nothing but an outward sign of
+the distinction existing between a higher aristocracy already
+extant and the lower nobility. In order to strengthen his
+connection with the nobles, Eric made the estate on which
+a noble fixed his domicile exempt from <i>russtjenst</i>. He was
+jealous of his power and dignity, for which reasons he held
+sharp supervision over his officials. He instituted a supreme
+court, consisting of twelve men of low birth, who
+every three years made a tour of the country to hold court
+in the name of the king. These justices were the creatures
+of Eric, and soon brought on themselves discredit and hatred
+through their servile and cruel acts. Among these justices
+was Gœran Persson, an able and powerful man, revengeful
+and cruel, who soon rose to be the favorite and influential
+adviser of his master.</p>
+
+<p>Eric was intent upon making a great match, wooing
+Elizabeth of England, Mary Stuart of Scotland, Renata of
+Lothringia and Christine of Hesse, with more or less success,
+overlooking Margaret of Valois, who was anxious to
+marry him. His mistress, Carin Monsdotter, a child of the
+people, but beautiful and of a noble character, for whom he
+had formed a secret attachment, finally was made his queen.</p>
+
+<p>The German Order which held Esthonia and Livonia
+suffered during this period considerably through Russian invasions.
+The town of Reval, with a large part of Esthonia,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>
+was ceded to Sweden in 1562, upon the receipt of a loan,
+Eric immediately giving his attention to the depressed and
+enslaved peasants of that section. Later the grandmaster
+of the Order turned Livonia over to the king of Poland,
+who, in need of money, placed seven castles of this province
+at the disposal of John, duke of Finland. John had tendered
+a loan to the Polish king and married his sister Catherine.
+Eric considered these negotiations as harmful to his
+royal authority, and he asked his brother to give account of
+them in person. John refused, making the royal emissaries
+his prisoners. The Swedish Riksdag condemned John to
+death for high treason, and an army was despatched to Finland,
+which carried back Duke John and his consort as prisoners.
+John’s sentence was commuted to imprisonment at
+Gripsholm, proud Catherine choosing to share the fate of
+her husband (1563). The prison life of the ducal couple
+at Gripsholm was not an unpleasant one. They enjoyed
+a great deal of liberty and luxury at the splendid castle in
+Lake Mælar, King Eric sending his brother a copy of Boccaccio’s
+“Decamerone” in German, to read for a pastime.
+The duke read the work and translated it into Swedish.
+The room called “king John’s prison,” which is still preserved
+with the artistic decoration which Duke Charles later
+bestowed on it, served as sleeping apartment for the prisoners,
+and there Catherine gave life to two children, one of
+whom was to become the founder of the Polish line of Vasa
+kings. It is said that Duke Magnus became a prey to the
+disposition of insanity latent in his family, by being forced
+to sign the death sentence of his brother John, King Eric being
+anxious of having him share the responsibility. Magnus
+lived until quite an advanced age, but was never cured of
+his mental ailment. Even in his best hours he was not of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>
+very bright intellect. While sojourning at the castle of Vadstena,
+by the Lake Vetter, he had the vision of a mermaid,
+who coaxed him to follow her. The duke jumped from the
+window of his apartment into the moat below. He did not
+sustain any serious injury, but the incident made the unhappy
+prince famous in tradition and song.</p>
+
+<p>In May, 1560, a war commenced with Denmark which,
+with several intermissions, lasted for seven years. It has
+been called The Seven Years’ War of the North. About the
+same time that Eric became king of Sweden, the young
+ambitious Frederic II. ascended the throne of Denmark.
+In the days of Gustavus I., Christian III. had appropriated
+the Swedish emblem of three crowns for the Danish seal of
+state, as if by this proclaiming that the Union was considered
+still extant or that it could be re-established at the opportune
+moment. King Gustavus had protested, but with
+no result. When King Frederic kept up the irritating fact
+of preserving the Swedish emblem, King Eric answered
+by placing the emblems of Denmark and Norway in the
+Swedish seal of state. This made things worse and served
+as a nominal cause for war. The principal interest at stake
+was the supremacy in the Baltic provinces. The diocese of
+Œsel, which had accepted a Danish protectorate, was governed
+by a brother of the Danish king, who had entered into
+an alliance with Poland against Sweden, Denmark also joining
+it.</p>
+
+<p>In May, 1563, a Swedish fleet, commanded by Jacob
+Bagge, left Sweden to bring Princess Christine of Hesse,
+the promised bride of King Eric. A Danish fleet met them,
+at the island of Bornholm, and greeted the Swedish ships
+with some shots from their sharply loaded cannon. The
+Swedes returned the fire and a naval battle followed, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>
+ended in a defeat for the Danes, who lost their flagship.
+When Jacob Bagge arrived in Rostock, where he was to
+meet the princess, her father was found unwilling to let her
+sail on account of the insecurity brought about by the commencing
+naval hostilities. This would under ordinary circumstances
+have enraged the vain and sensitive king, but
+Eric forgot his rage in his delight at the naval victory.
+Jacob Bagge was rewarded with a triumphal entry into
+Stockholm upon his return. He entered the city on foot
+with a golden chain round his neck, followed by his sub-commanders
+and surrounded by the banners taken during
+the battle. The prisoners followed, in chains and with
+shaved heads. The king’s fool was dancing in front of
+them, playing on his fiddle. A Danish herald soon afterward
+reached Stockholm, declaring war with great pomp
+and ceremony on behalf of his royal master. The city of
+Lubeck sent a messenger to Stockholm on a similar errand,
+but was not received by the king. “Since he is sent by the
+mayor and council of his town and other similar lard-mongers,
+let him be heard and answered by the mayor and
+council of Stockholm,” was the royal order.</p>
+
+<p>Jacob Bagge was ordered to sea with the Swedish fleet
+later in the summer of the same year. He met the united
+fleets of Denmark and Lubeck at the island of Œland, in the
+Baltic. A terrible battle ensued, which lasted until the
+fleets were separated by the darkness of the night, without
+victory being won by either side. Jacob Bagge started out
+with his fleet again in the spring of the following year, commanding
+a new flagship, “The Matchless,” which carried
+two hundred cannon, most of them made out of church bells
+confiscated by Gustavus Vasa. A new battle was delivered
+between the islands of Gothland and Œland. The majority<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>
+of the Swedish ships had by a gale been separated from the
+admiral and his flagship, but Jacob Bagge fought valiantly
+for a whole day, continuing the battle the next morning. A
+catastrophe brought it to a close. “The Matchless” caught
+fire through some act of negligence, a barrel of powder exploding
+between the decks. Jacob Bagge then surrendered,
+and was taken on board one of the ships of Lubeck. The
+enemies took possession of the “The Matchless” in order to
+plunder it, but the immense ship exploded with a tremendous
+roar, sinking with everybody who was on board. Jacob
+Bagge did not long remain in Danish captivity. He returned,
+to be greeted with the greatest distinction, and died
+as governor-general of Stockholm.</p>
+
+<p>The war on land was at the beginning carried on only
+through mutual invasions, both sides giving proofs of cruelty
+and vandalism. Elfsborg surrendered to the Danes.
+A Swedish army, commanded by King Eric in person, entered
+the province of Halland, pillaging and plundering and
+laying siege to the town of Halmstad. King Eric suddenly
+raised the siege, when news came that King Frederic was
+approaching with an army. The Swedish troops scattered
+in various directions, one division being met and defeated
+by the Danes. The whole of Northern Norway was invaded
+by Swedish troops and temporarily subjugated. The
+entire kingdom of Norway was very near being altogether
+absorbed by Sweden. This would have been a happy solution
+of the Scandinavian question. Norway would have
+become one in language with Sweden and would have shared
+her glorious epoch of political grandeur which was to follow.
+The best families of Norway would have been entered side
+by side with the Swedish nobility at the knightly chapterhouse
+of Stockholm, and the countries would have had their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>
+later democratic and cultural development in common. But
+King Eric was too restless and undecided to make any lasting
+conquest, or union, possible. When Claude Collard, a
+young French nobleman, who was the conqueror of Northern
+Norway, was taken by surprise and captured, King
+Eric, to avenge this, devastated forty church parishes in
+Norway. The Danes invaded and plundered the provinces
+of West Gothland and Smaland, while the Swedes pillaged
+Bleking and Scania. The king had given orders
+that the population of a whole district should be killed. He
+wrote later about the fulfilment of this cruel command:
+“God granted luck, so that thousands of men were killed
+on the road and in the woods.” The province of Scania
+was devastated to a distance of one hundred miles from the
+Swedish frontier. A new invasion into Halland was made,
+in 1565, when Duke Charles, then fifteen years of age, commanded
+the artillery. The town of Varberg was attacked,
+but valiantly defended by the Danes. The young duke upon
+this occasion gave the first proof of his indomitable energy.
+He led the attack and persuaded the Swedes, by word and
+action, not to give it up. At last the walls were taken, the
+town being pillaged and burned. All men who could carry
+arms were killed, except a force of one hundred and fifty
+men of hired troops who entered Swedish service. A young
+French captain, Pontus de la Gardie, of a noble family of
+Languedoc, was among the latter. This man and his descendants
+were destined to play an important part in
+Swedish history.</p>
+
+<p>Clas Kristersson Horn was made commander of the
+Swedish navy after Jacob Bagge, in which position he covered
+his name with glory. He won a naval battle at Œland
+(in 1564) which lasted for two days. In the next year he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>
+added several victorious battles to his record, among which
+the principal ones were fought at Buchow, by the coast of
+Mecklenburg, and at the island of Bornholm. When he
+went to sea in the spring of 1566 no enemy dared appear.
+The united fleets of Denmark and Lubeck at last started
+out, but were defeated by Clas Horn at the island of
+Œland after a vehement battle. The vanquished fleets were
+caught in a gale in which sixteen ships perished with seven
+thousand men. Clas Horn with his Swedish fleet was master
+of the sea. In the following year no fleet appeared to
+meet his. The efforts of Gustavus I. to set the Swedish
+fleet in good order thus proved to be of the greatest consequence.</p>
+
+<p>The Danes were superior in the hostilities on land during
+the latter part of the war, thanks principally to their eminent
+commander, Daniel Rantzau. He made an unsuccessful
+attempt to recapture the town of Varberg, but gained, at
+Axtorna, a battle over a superior Swedish army (in 1565).
+When Rantzau saw the Swedes approaching for an attack,
+he held prayer with his troops, whereupon he arranged them
+for resistance. The Swedish infantry captured the Danish
+stronghold and artillery, but the hired German troops of the
+Swedish wings turned into flight. Rantzau made an attack
+upon the deserted infantry, and was victorious when nightfall
+ended the battle. The Swedes lost thirty cannon, and Nils
+Sture, the son of Count Svante Sture, was able to save the
+banner of state only by severing it from the pole and hiding
+it on his person. In the following year, Rantzau pillaged
+Smaland and West Gothland, and in 1567 he penetrated as
+far as East Gothland, where he was very near being caught
+in a trap by the Swedish troops. The interior struggle of
+Sweden caused hostilities to cease for some time.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The sad fate of his brother Magnus also befell King Eric.
+Evidences of approaching insanity were frequent and brought
+on horrible consequences. By licentiousness, mysticism and
+astrological speculations his mind became unsettled. It had
+been predicted that a blond man would dethrone him. Eric
+at first made his brother John the subject of his suspicions.
+After the duke’s imprisonment he suspected a rival in Nils
+Sture, who also was a blond. Eric accused him of ill behavior
+in the battle of Axtorna. The king’s court sentenced
+him to death, but Lord Nils escaped with a contumelious
+entry of mockery into Stockholm, on a miserable horse, and
+a crown of straw on his head. But frightened at the indignation
+aroused by his shameful act the king tried to undo it,
+and sent Lord Nils on an embassy to Lothringia, to bring
+the king’s proposal to Princess Renata.</p>
+
+<p>In the commencement of 1567, the king had several of
+the nobles arrested, on the suspicion of conspiracy, and carried
+to the castle of Upsala, where a Riksdag was convoked.
+Nils Sture arrived with the consent and betrothal ring of
+Princess Renata, but was thrown into prison. The king
+asked the Riksdag to pass a sentence of death upon the
+accused nobles. When this was refused, he was seized by
+fear and rage. Rushing into the prison of Nils Sture, he
+wounded him in the arm. Lord Nils drew out the weapon,
+a dagger, kissing its handle and returning it to the king,
+with a prayer for mercy, but was killed by the soldiers at
+the command of the king. Eric’s disposition immediately
+was changed, and he darted into Count Svante’s prison,
+begging forgiveness at his feet. The aged Sture’s answer
+was that he would forgive all, granted that no harm was
+done to his son. The king fled in despair from the castle
+and town, followed by some of his soldiers, one of whom he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>
+sent back with an order to kill all the nobles, “except Lord
+Sten.” As there were two by that name, these were spared,
+but Count Svante and his son Eric Sture, Abraham Stenbock
+and Ivar Ivarsson were killed. The Riksdag was forced to
+pass sentence for high treason upon the murdered men, at
+the instigation of Gœran Persson, whose perfidious advice
+had continually inflamed the sickened brain of his master.
+King Eric was for several days missing, and at last found
+wandering about in a peasant’s garb. Cared for by Carin
+Monsdotter, he slowly regained his reason, showing evidence
+of repentance by declaring the murdered nobles innocent and
+promising to compensate their families. During this spell
+he set free his brother John and dismissed Gœran Persson.
+But soon his evil disposition returned, and the resolution of
+his brothers to free the country from his rule must be acknowledged
+as a beneficent one. The nobles were brought
+to revolt, when Eric, in July, 1568, proclaimed Carin as his
+consort, and had her solemnly crowned Queen of Sweden.
+The dukes John and Charles were at first unsuccessful in
+their efforts, the king defeating their troops repeatedly.
+But in 1569 Stockholm was captured, Gœran Persson killed
+and the king forced to abdicate. The sentence passed upon
+Eric, by the Estates of the Riksdag, stipulated that he
+should be “imprisoned, but sustained in a princely manner,
+for the rest of his days.”</p>
+
+<p>Eric was at first held imprisoned in his own apartments
+at the royal castle, but was transferred to two of the vaults,
+called the “apartments of Lord Eskil.” They had served as
+a treasury during the reign of Gustavus I., but now stood
+empty. Queen Carin and her children were his company.
+After an unsuccessful attempt at flight, one room was taken
+away from him and the windows in the remaining one re<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>duced
+in size. The table of the royal prisoner was well provided
+for, but he was unmercifully treated by his warders.
+The cruel Olof Stenbock once deprived him of all his clothes.
+In a struggle which followed, he shot Eric in the arm and
+let him remain senseless in his blood for several hours.
+Some of the members of the former body-guard of Eric
+once attempted, but in vain, to set free the unhappy prisoner.
+In 1569 Eric was removed to Abo in Finland, where
+he was locked up in a secure prison. Two years later he
+was taken to Castellholm, in the archipelago of Aland, for
+fear that the Russian czar would liberate him by violence.
+Shortly afterward he was removed to the lovely castle of
+Gripsholm, where he had spent some of the happiest days of
+his youth, and where he once upon a time held his brother
+John imprisoned. At Gripsholm there is a gloomy dungeon
+which is said to have served as the prison of King Eric, but
+this is not authentic. Eric was treated comparatively well
+while at Gripsholm, enjoying the company of his family, a
+good table and plenty of servants. The recording books of
+the castle from this period speak of “the court of King
+Eric.” King John was, in the meantime, irritated by Russian
+hostilities and intrigues, the old supporters of Eric joining
+in the latter. The appeals of Duke Charles for the
+improvement of the condition of his poor imprisoned
+brother roused the suspicion of the king, who fostered dark
+plots against the prisoner. Eric was removed from Gripsholm
+and its pleasant associations, separated from his family
+and put in hard prison at Westeros. The warders received
+instructions to take his life if necessary. The state
+council and the archbishop sanctioned this order of the king.
+The last prison of the unhappy King Eric was Œrbyhus,
+where he suddenly died, exactly at a time when King John’s<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>
+fears of a revolt had reached a climax. Rumors that Eric
+had been poisoned were current, and Duke Charles also gave
+utterance of his belief that such was the case. In spite of
+the wars, cruelty and evil deeds of King Eric XIV., the
+Swedish people of his time had a good deal of devotion for
+him and his faithful consort. The country enjoyed good
+years during his reign and profited by the wise measures
+of his father.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus, the son of Eric XIV. and Carin Monsdotter,
+was born, in 1568, at Nykœping. When Queen Carin was
+separated from her imprisoned consort, her children, Gustavus
+and Sigrid, followed her to Finland, where she resided
+at Abo. In 1575 the young prince was harshly taken
+away from his mother, at the command of the state council,
+and sent to Prussia. The jealous and uneasy King John
+made him the subject of cruel persecutions. In spite of these
+he received a fine education, and is known to have embraced
+the Catholic religion. He was kindly received by King Sigismund
+of Poland, his cousin, at whose coronation in Cracow
+he is said to have been present, in the disguise of a beggar.
+A relation of intimate friendship existed between the outlawed
+prince and Emperor Rudolph of Austria, both of
+whom were devoted to the study of alchemy. King John
+refused to listen to the appeals for grace and support which
+Gustavus repeatedly made to him. Gustavus was not allowed
+to see his mother until the year of 1596, when the
+two had a touching meeting at Reval. He later made his
+home in Thorn, but left for Russia, in 1600, upon an invitation
+from Czar Boris. He was received in Moscow as a
+reigning prince; but when he refused to appear as a pretender
+to the Swedish throne, he was imprisoned. At the
+fall of Boris, Gustavus was set free, but again put in prison<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>
+by Dimitri. At the fall of the latter, in 1607, Gustavus once
+more regained his liberty, but died in Casijn, in the same
+year. This unhappy Gustavus Ericsson Vasa was a man of
+fine erudition and pure morals. He was a dreamer and of a
+sensitive disposition, being an ardent Catholic and fondly
+devoted to the country which had outlawed him.</p>
+
+<p>Sigrid Vasa, the daughter of Eric XIV., was twice married
+to members of the Swedish nobility. Ake Henricsson
+Tott, her son of the first marriage, was a distinguished warrior
+in the times of Gustavus II. Adolphus. Queen Carin
+died, in 1612, beloved and highly respected, at the beautiful
+estate of Liuksiala in Finland, given her in fief by King
+John.</p>
+
+<p><i>John III.</i> succeeded Eric, without sharing his power
+with his younger brother Charles, as he had promised.
+John was as learned and highly talented as Eric, and as
+vain, restless and unreliable. But while Eric was a mystic
+and a sceptic by turns, John was a Catholic, or leaning toward
+Catholicism, and a hypocrite who, under the pretence of
+meekness and piety, tried to hide his vanity, bad temper
+and utter selfishness. Like Gustavus I. and all his other
+sons, John was devoted to the fine arts, particularly to architecture,
+with an ardor that reached the vehemence of a passion.
+He planned a vast number of churches and castles,
+which he completed, utterly regardless of cost. The Swedish
+Castle Renaissance which was established by John and
+his brothers is influenced by contemporary Flemish art,
+severe and majestic in outline, graceful and profuse in interior
+decoration. Good specimens of it were the earlier
+castles of Stockholm and Svartsjœ, the castle of Vadstena
+remains so and, to a great extent, the beautiful and memorable
+castle of Gripsholm.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>At his coronation, John issued hereditary privileges to
+the nobility. <i>Russtjenst</i> became no longer essential. Legal
+offices were preserved for the nobles, the king’s supreme
+court being abandoned. John’s policy was to win the support
+of the aristocracy against Charles, who, indignant and
+sulky, kept within his duchy, consisting of the provinces of
+Sœdermanland and Vermland, with the town of Œrebro in
+addition.</p>
+
+<p>In 1570, an unsatisfactory peace was made with Denmark,
+Sweden ceding all the Norwegian and Danish territory
+in her possession, together with the island of Gothland,
+and agreeing to pay something like one hundred and fifty
+thousand dollars for the return of Elfsborg, held by the
+Danes. A friendly relation to hostile Poland commenced
+with John’s reign, but a long and bloody war with Russia
+began in 1570. The Russians tried repeatedly, but in vain,
+to capture Reval, plundering and killing the population of
+Esthonia, who remained faithful to Swedish rule. Henric
+Horn and Clas Tott won laurels for their heroic deeds, while
+the war was changed into more modern methods and to a
+successful issue by the Swedish general Pontus de la Gardie,
+who captured the provinces Keksholm and Ingermanland
+and the town of Narva.</p>
+
+<p>John III. had set two goals for his ambition: to return the
+Swedish church to Catholicism and to make his son Sigismund
+king of Poland. The latter he reached at the death
+of King Stephan in 1589, Sigismund succeeding him upon
+the throne. The former ambition John never attained,
+after years of stubborn and unreasonable perseverance giving
+up this pet idea. John made some attempts to bring
+order in the confused conditions of the church, but left it in
+a worse state of confusion than he found it. The crown and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>
+the aristocracy had deprived the church of nearly all its
+property and withheld its income from it. Archbishop
+Laurentius Petri complained of the miserable state of
+things, the ministers often being useless wretches and the
+service in some churches impossible to uphold for sheer lack
+of money. In 1572 the ecclesiastical matters were arranged
+at a meeting in Upsala, when a new church law was introduced,
+demanding higher qualifications for the ministers,
+who were to be elected by their congregations, and enforcing
+a school law. Laurentius Petri died in 1573 and was
+succeeded by Laurentius Petri Gothus. The new archbishop
+willingly subscribed to a set of rules, laid before
+him by the king, which reintroduced monasteries, worship
+of saints and the ceremonies of the Roman church. Jesuits
+were invited to the country, but met with little encouragement
+from the people. The very climax of John’s reactionary
+movements was formed by the introduction of his ritual,
+Liturgia, which was nothing else than an adaptation of the
+Catholic ritual. It was accepted by the Riksdag of 1577,
+but Charles refused to accept it for his duchy. The king
+had many conflicts with his brother, the latter always giving
+in to his wishes, except on this point. Ministers and
+university professors who refused to conform to the new
+ritual, or attacked it, were sheltered by the duke and, in
+many instances, given high offices. The king grew angry,
+but the duke remained firm and unyielding. When Queen
+Catherine died, in 1583, John’s Catholic fervor suffered a
+relapse, and ceased altogether after his marriage to young
+Protestant Gunilla Bielke, in the following year. He stubbornly
+stuck to his Liturgia for some time yet, but exiled
+the Jesuits, and dismissed with contumely ministers who
+had joined the Roman Church. During the last years of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>
+his reign, he said it was best to leave everybody a free
+choice in religious matters, regretting his Liturgia&mdash;which
+he once considered the gem of his own theological system&mdash;because
+it had caused so much trouble and confusion.</p>
+
+<p>Sweden suffered a great deal through the slack and
+unsteady government of King John. He spent unreasonable
+sums on his court and his craze for architectural marvels,
+while always short of funds for the necessities of war
+and internal improvements. Commerce and industries suffered
+and were brought to a standstill by dearth, hunger and
+pest. The population decreased; the towns were made
+bankrupt and many farms abandoned. Bad and greedy
+officials and the recommencing war with Russia increased
+the evils. After unsuccessful attempts to have his son leave
+Poland, where he had met with many difficulties, John entered
+into more intimate relations with his brother, who
+came to wield a beneficial influence on the government.
+John III. died 1592, malcontent and tired of life, his death
+being little regretted by the people.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most famous love episodes of Sweden dates
+from the reign of John III. It has no bearing upon the
+affairs of state, but is not devoid of value as an illustration
+of the history of civilization, giving us a glimpse of the private
+life of the nobles of that period and the standard of
+morals of their lives. The episode is told by Countess Anne
+Banér in a manuscript by her hand with the title: “In the
+following manner my blessed mother’s sister, Lady Sigrid
+Sture, lady of Salestad and Geddeholm, related what took
+place when Lord Eric Gustafson Stenbock carried away
+our blessed mother’s sister, Magdalen Sture, from Hœrningsholm.”</p>
+
+<p>The dowager-countess, Martha Sture, resided at the cas<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>tle
+of Hœrningsholm, enlarged to a four-story structure and
+fortified with four corner towers by her consort. She was
+a sister of Queen Margaret, the second queen of Gustavus
+I., and was married to the renounced lover of that sister,
+Count Svante Sture. The countess was called “King Martha,”
+partly because of her stern power and great authority,
+partly because it was known to have been her ambition to
+see her husband’s family grace the throne of a country
+which their forefathers had ruled as uncrowned kings. She
+had lived to see her husband and two sons killed by the
+insane Eric XIV., but she had yet two sons who would
+carry high the glorious name, on which there was not a
+stain of any kind. There were five daughters, Sigrid and
+Anne, married to members of the influential Bielke family,
+and Magdalen, Margaret and Christine, as yet unmarried.
+There was another young lady at Hœrningsholm, besides
+the daughters, the little Princess Sigrid Vasa, the daughter
+of King Eric XIV. and Carin Monsdotter, who had received
+a home with the stern “King Martha” while her mother
+was following the tracks of the deposed monarch from
+prison to prison.</p>
+
+<p>Between Magdalen Sture and Lord Eric Stenbock a passionate
+love sprang up. Lord Eric was a very fine young
+man, of an influential family and the brother of the queen-dowager,
+Catherine, third consort of Gustavus I. But, unfortunately,
+he was the nephew of Countess Martha, and,
+as a cousin of Magdalen, considered to be too closely related
+to her to make a marriage possible. Countess Martha was
+unwilling to listen to any appeals, and she was strengthened
+in her resolution by the old Archbishop Laurentius Petri,
+who still held the same opinions as when he, once upon a
+time, refused to grant his consent to a marriage between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>
+King Gustavus I. and young Lord Eric’s sister, because
+she was a niece of Queen Margaret. The years passed by,
+but no change came in the stubborn resistance of “King
+Martha.” Christmas eve of 1573, Lord Eric visited Hœrningsholm
+to remain until New Year. He brought with him
+costly presents which he offered as New Year’s gifts to
+Countess Martha, her daughters, chaplain and servants.
+He left to return on Palm Sunday with his sister Cecilia,
+the wife of Count Gustavus Tre Rosor. One morning a few
+days later, Lady Sigrid Bielke, who was visiting her mother,
+entered the so-called rotunda, a large room in one of the
+towers which Countess Martha and her daughters used as
+sleeping apartment. She was surprised to find her sister
+Magdalen kneeling and in tears. Lady Sigrid greeted her:
+“God bless you, you have a good deed in mind!” “God
+grant it were good,” answered Magdalen, rising. “Certainly
+it is good to make one’s prayers amid tears,” Sigrid
+said. Magdalen caught the hands of her sister and said:
+“My darling sister, if all the rest forsake me, you will not
+turn away your faithful heart from me.” Sigrid found the
+words and emotion of her sister strange, but did not suspect
+anything. “Why do you use such words to me?” she answered.
+“I do not believe that you are going to make an
+evil-doer out of yourself; there are none in the Sture family
+who have carried themselves in a way to make us turn our
+hearts away from them.” Tears came again to the eyes
+of Magdalen, but Sigrid was called into an interior room by
+her mother. Magdalen went to play with one of her little
+nieces, when Lord Eric entered. “Dear lady,” he said,
+“would you like to see the horse that I have given you?
+It is now waiting in the court.” Magdalen rose and left,
+escorted by her cousin. They met two of the women of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>
+household, whom Eric commanded to follow them. A horse
+and sleigh stood in the vaulted entrance. Magdalen was
+placed between the two servants, while Eric took his position
+back of them on the runners, holding the reins. In the castle
+court they met the chaplain and several of the servants, who
+thought it a pleasure ride and let them pass. When they
+rode down on the frozen lake, the two servants in the sleigh
+grasped the importance of the situation for the first time,
+and commenced praying Lady Magdalen to return. Lord
+Eric silenced them by displaying his short musket. A few
+moments later they were surrounded by a force of one hundred
+men on horseback, who formed an escort. They were
+a loan to Lord Eric by Duke Charles.</p>
+
+<p>The excitement at Hœrningsholm was great when the
+elopement was discovered. Margaret Sture happened to
+look through the window at the moment when the sleigh
+reached the lake. At her outcry Countess Martha and
+Sigrid joined her. The old countess fainted on the stairs
+when making for the court, and Sigrid was ordered to follow
+up the eloping couple. Countess Cecilia found her aunt
+on the stairs and hastened to assure her of the mortification
+that she felt at the daring and unsuspected deed of her
+brother, also expressing some surprise at the bad manner
+in which it was accepted. But then the old countess became
+wroth, exclaiming: “Go to the devil, and may God
+punish both you and your brother! And if you have any
+part in his scheme of robbing me of my dear child, betake
+yourself after him, so that no shame or dishonor may
+happen.” Countess Cecilia hastened to her sleigh and
+reached Sværdsbro, where her brother was stopping, ahead
+of Sigrid.</p>
+
+<p>When Lady Sigrid arrived at Sværdsbro, she was ad<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>mitted
+through the lines of soldiers only after some difficulty,
+finding tailors and seamsters busy cutting and sewing
+precious stuffs for clothing for Lady Magdalen and her servants,
+“for she left with uncovered head such as she went
+and stood in her mother’s house.” Sigrid tried to persuade
+her sister to return to her mother, who in her great sorrow
+was willing to forgive all if she only came back. Magdalen
+sat silent for a long time. Finally she said: “If you can
+vouchsafe me, that the lady, my mother, will grant that
+we shall belong to each other, since I have so dearly pledged
+myself to him, I shall return.” This Sigrid could not do,
+and Magdalen added, weeping sorely: “The last complication
+is then as bad as the first.” Lord Eric entered with
+his sister Cecilia. When Sigrid asked where he intended
+to bring Magdalen, he answered: “To Visingsœ, to the
+Countess Beatrix, my sister, where she shall remain until we
+obtain the consent to marry of the lady, her mother.” It
+was arranged that Cecilia should accompany Magdalen, and
+Sigrid try her best to win her mother’s consent. Magdalen
+sent home to her mother a piece of horn of the fabulous
+unicorn; “the only thing I have carried with me from my
+father’s house,” she added. This horn, which really was
+taken from the incisor of the narwhal, was in those days
+generally thought to be authentic and of miraculous power.</p>
+
+<p>Countess Martha was, in her grief and dismay, taken ill.
+She soon gathered strength enough to write to King John,
+her nephew, pleading her cause. King John at once took
+action in the matter, calling Lord Eric to account, and issuing
+a command to all ministers of the kingdom, prohibiting
+them to unite in marriage the two cousins. Eric Stenbock
+was on his way to Stockholm when he received the order
+of the king. Upon his arrival at the capital, he was impris<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>oned
+and deprived of all his offices. But Lord Eric had
+powerful friends in Duke Charles and the Stenbock family.
+As the king himself did not wish to be without his service,
+he was soon set free and reinstalled in his offices. He succeeded
+in obtaining the goodwill of the whole Sture family,
+but “King Martha” remained irreconcilable. More than
+a year had passed since the elopement. One day Lord Eric
+suddenly appeared at the castle of Visingsœ. He made,
+with Magdalen and his aunt, Lady Anne, a journey into
+the province of Halland, where a Danish minister joined the
+two cousins in marriage. The wedding was celebrated
+at the home of Eric’s father, Baron Gustavus Stenbock
+of Torpa. But Lady Magdalen was not happy. She
+grieved because of her mother’s hostile attitude, and continued
+to dress in black colors, as she had done ever since
+she left her mother. Duke Charles, the queen-dowager,
+the royal princesses, and all the members of the state council,
+yea, the king himself, wrote letters to the indignant
+countess, whose ire was rather increased than diminished
+thereby.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, after another year and a half, “King Martha”
+gave in to the tears and prayers of her daughters. Lady
+Magdalen returned to Hœrningsholm after three years of
+absence. She was not allowed to come up to the castle
+at first, but had to dwell in the building occupied by the
+baths. As the winter was approaching, and Lady Magdalen
+was soon to give life to a child, her brothers and sisters
+prevailed upon their mother to receive Lord Eric and
+his wife at the castle. The event was arranged in a conspicuous
+way. Countess Martha was seated in the place
+of honor in the great hall of the castle, surrounded by her
+daughters and sons-in-law, when Lord Eric entered with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>
+Magdalen. When the mother saw her pale and thin features,
+she was moved to tears, exclaiming: “Thou unhappy
+child!” Magdalen approached her on her knees, and the
+countess embraced her, stammering her forgiveness between
+tears. Magdalen remained at the castle, where she bore her
+husband a son, who was called Gustavus. Lady Martha
+invited the king, the duke and the princesses to be present
+at the baptism, at the same time granting Magdalen an
+equal share of inheritance with the other daughters. Lady
+Magdalen continued to dress in mourning as a self-imposed
+punishment for her disobedience to her mother. One day
+she was preparing to leave for a wedding, when her mother
+asked her the reason why she dressed thus. When “King
+Martha” learned why, she took a costly cross of diamonds
+intended for the bride and placed it on her daughter’s
+breast, telling her to put aside her black dresses. From
+that day joy and happiness seemed to return to Lady Magdalen,
+who commenced to put on lighter colors and to wear
+diamonds. Of Magdalen Stenbock&mdash;a child of these Stures,
+who so often had protected and preserved Sweden&mdash;Count
+Magnus Stenbock was a lineal descendant, he who during
+the reign of Charles XII. saved his country in the hour of
+its greatest peril and distress.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sigismund</i>, the son and successor of John III., was not
+apt to become more popular than his father. Born at the
+pleasant prison of Gripsholm, which yet was a prison, he was
+of a cold, unsympathetic disposition, a king of few words
+and hard to approach. At John’s death, Sigismund was
+twenty-six years of age and had reigned several years in
+Poland. Charles stepped to the front as the head of the
+government until Sigismund’s arrival.</p>
+
+<p>The Protestants, fearing the worst from their new Cath<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>olic
+king, decided to take firm and early action. The duke
+ordered a Riksdag at Upsala in February, 1593, the deliberations
+being held by the clergy alone. The Liturgia was
+abolished with the majority of Catholic church ceremonies,
+Luther’s catechisms, L. Petri’s ritual, church visitations,
+etc., being reintroduced. Abraham Angermannus was
+elected archbishop, and decision made for the re-establishment
+of the Upsala University. The duke had not been
+present at the deliberations, and appeared displeased because
+not consulted. He, who was secretly accused of being a
+Calvinist, pointed out more Catholic ceremonies to be abolished,
+whereupon the decisions won the sanction of the duke,
+the state council and the bishops. By this act the Lutheran
+Church was re-established, the Augsburgian Confession
+being laid down by the meeting as its corner-stone. When
+this action had been taken, the chairman, Nicolaus Bothniensis,
+a young Upsala professor, exclaimed: “Now Sweden
+has become <i>one</i> man, and we all have <i>one</i> God.”</p>
+
+<p>In August, 1593, King Sigismund arrived in Sweden,
+surrounded by Jesuits and Polish nobles, and with a sum
+of money wherewith to pay the expenses of a Catholic
+revival. To the demands made to sign the decisions of the
+Upsala meeting he gave a flat refusal. The conditions in
+Stockholm grew perilous, Jesuits and Lutheran ministers
+preaching denouncements upon each other in the churches
+and conflicts between the Polish troops and the populace
+taking place. In January, 1594, Sigismund, accompanied
+by the state councillors and the members of the Riksdag,
+came to Upsala for his father’s funeral and his own coronation.
+Duke Charles arrived with 3,000 men, whom he quartered
+in the neighborhood. He dismissed the papal legate,
+Malaspina, and his Jesuits from the funeral procession, be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span>fore
+it entered the cathedral, and told the king, in behalf
+of all, that no coronation would take place before the confessional
+liberty of the Lutheran Church was confirmed.
+The Estates declared themselves ready to sacrifice their lives
+for the pure faith. The king still refused his sanction,
+whereupon the duke replied that the Riksdag would be dismissed
+within twenty-four hours if he insisted. Sigismund
+gave in, upon the advice of the Jesuits, who told him that
+pledges to Lutherans were not binding. Sigismund was
+crowned and returned suddenly to Poland.</p>
+
+<p>The king had left matters in an unsatisfactory condition,
+placing six governors with great authority in various districts,
+but leaving the government to be conducted by the
+duke and the state council in common. This little pleased
+the energetic Charles, who soon called a Riksdag at Sœderkœping,
+in 1595, forcing the councillors to sanction this act
+and follow him to the Riksdag. In Finland, the governor,
+Clas Fleming, had tried to have a peace agreement with
+Russia postponed as an excuse to keep the navy and army
+at his disposal in the interest of the king. At Sœderkœping,
+Charles had himself chosen regent, the last vestige
+of Catholicism abolished, and the punishment of Fleming
+decided on. In consequence, the Catholics were dealt with
+in a merciless way through the instigation of the archbishop,
+whom the duke called an executioner on account
+of his recklessness. The convent of Vadstena was closed,
+its eleven nuns scattered and its property confiscated. In
+Finland a bloody revolt against the oppression of Fleming
+cost 11,000 people their lives. It was called the “War
+of Clubs,” on account of the rude weapons used by the
+peasants. The state council refused to consent to Fleming’s
+punishment, whereupon the duke suddenly resigned. But<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>
+he convoked a Riksdag at Arboga, in 1597, at which the
+councillors and nobles were absent, also the burghers. The
+peasants and clergy were abundantly represented and
+cheered the propositions of the duke to the echo. It was
+then decided that the king should be asked to return, until
+which event the duke was to remain regent, and that peace
+should be restored in Finland. Fleming died in the meantime
+and was succeeded by Arvid Stolarm, who also was one
+of the duke’s enemies. The Riksdag at Arboga was the
+first in the deliberations of which the state council had not
+taken a part. The councillors were disposed to punish the
+duke; but, not agreeing as to means, they left the country
+to seek the king.</p>
+
+<p>King Sigismund arrived in the summer of 1598 with an
+army of 5,000 Poles, gathering a good deal of strength by
+reinforcements from Gothaland. The duke had his stronghold
+in Svealand, the Dalecarlians rising to join him. The
+Uplanders warded off an attempt made by Stolarm to land
+with his army; they were led by Nicolaus Bothniensis, the
+Upsala professor, who called his exploit “a crusade.” The
+two princes met in East Gothland, near Stegeborg. The
+duke and his peasant army were surrounded by the king’s
+cavalry, and would have been doomed if not for the outcry
+of one of the king’s followers that his subjects would
+be killed on either side. The king gave order to stop the
+attack, feeling pity at the sight. The duke was deeply
+moved by this act and offered to leave the land with his
+family. But the deliberations which followed were without
+result.</p>
+
+<p>On the 25th of September a battle was fought at
+Stongebro, near Linkœping, ending in the defeat of the
+royal army. An armistice followed. The conditions of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>
+peace were that the king should remain in Sweden, dismissing
+his foreign troops, and take charge of the government.
+No one should be punished except five of the nobles, to be
+placed before a jury of ambassadors. The king agreed
+to the conditions, but soon left Sweden never to return. A
+meeting of nobles and clergymen, in 1599, accepted him
+as reigning king if willing to return within four months.
+In July, a Riksdag was called at Stockholm, which declared
+Sigismund dethroned and his son Vladislav king if sent
+to Sweden to be educated in the Lutheran faith. Sigismund
+took no heed of these stipulations, planning to regain
+his throne by force.</p>
+
+<p>Charles followed up the punishment with such unprecedented
+severity that it has left a stain upon his memory.
+Three nobles were beheaded after Kalmar was taken, and
+proceeding to Finland, the duke applied capital punishment
+to a wide extent, in more than twenty cases at Abo alone.
+At a Riksdag in Linkœping, in 1600, the duke appeared as
+an accuser against the five imprisoned nobles and several
+others, eight state councillors being among them. The
+accused, thirteen in number, were sentenced to death for
+high treason, but the majority were pardoned upon confession
+of guilt. The councillors Gustavus Banér, Eric Sparre,
+Sten Banér and Ture Bielke were beheaded. They were all
+men of learning and great ability, who had faithfully served
+their king. During John’s reign they had already suffered
+years of imprisonment for intrigues against a hereditary
+kingdom and a strong government.</p>
+
+<p><i>Charles IX.</i> was chosen king at the bloody Riksdag of
+Linkœping, and his son Gustavus Adolphus heir-apparent.
+The hereditary rights of Duke John, second son of John
+III., were acknowledged, and a duchy, consisting of East<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>
+Gothland and Leckœ Castle, granted him; but he was
+passed over as too young and too closely related to Sigismund.
+Measures to strengthen the financial administration
+and the army were passed.</p>
+
+<p>Sigismund prepared, by alliances with Catholic powers,
+to gather support, Charles turning to England and France
+for the same purpose. A conflict was unavoidable, and
+Charles decided to invade the disputed province of Livonia,
+which he captured, only to be ousted by the Polish general,
+Zamoisky. The castle of Volmar was long and heroically
+defended by the Swedes under Jacob de la Gardie, a son of
+General Pontus, and Charles Gyllenhielm, an illegitimate
+son of Charles IX. After their surrender the former received
+for five years a tolerable treatment, the latter a most
+severe one for twelve years. After attempts to place conditions
+on a better footing in Finland, where the peasants
+had long suffered through aristocratic oppression, Charles
+increased the army still further and invaded Livonia once
+more, in 1604. He met with a crushing defeat at Kerkholm,
+close by Riga, at the hands of the Pole, Chodkiewitz,
+losing 9,000 men. But the Poles did not understand how
+to use their victory, and the centre of the conflict changed
+to Russia.</p>
+
+<p>On Russian territory, the troops of Sigismund and
+Charles were to meet. The line of Rurik became extinct
+in 1598, its last descendant, Dimitri, being murdered.
+Great complications ensued with usurpers and two “false
+Dimitris” in succession. Sigismund supported the false
+Dimitris in order to gain ground and place the royal line
+of Vasa upon the throne of Russia after that of Rurik.
+Charles sided with Vassili Schuisky against the second false
+Dimitri. In 1607 an agreement was made that Sweden,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>
+upon the receipt of the province of Kexholm, should send
+an army to Russia to support Czar Vassili. In 1609, a
+small Swedish army, consisting of Swedes, Finns and some
+hired troops, entered Russia, under command of Jacob de
+la Gardie. It was received at Novgorod with the blaze
+of cannon and tolling of church bells. A victory was won
+at Tver over the pretender, but further progress was impeded
+by mutiny among the hired troops, the stubborn
+Finns returning home. With his 1,200 faithful Swedes,
+reinforced by hired troops to 5,000, De la Gardie made a
+daring march eastward to Moscow, scaring away the Polish
+army, attacking it and making a triumphant entry into the
+Russian capital. Sigismund was at Smolensk, and met
+De la Gardie at Klusina, winning the battle on account of
+renewed mutiny of the hired troops in the Swedish army.
+De la Gardie was given free leave with 400 men, upon
+pledge not to support Czar Vassili, and later captured the
+promised Kexholm, while Sigismund’s son Vladislav for
+a short time became czar of Russia.</p>
+
+<p>Although the short reign of Charles IX. was filled with
+continual warfare, the king never for a moment lost interest
+in the peaceful development of the country. He continued
+his father’s work in furthering the mining industry, and
+tried to build up the commerce and trade relations. He
+founded the city of Gothenburg, on the western coast, in
+the island of Hising, opposite Elfsborg, also founding the
+towns of Karlstad, Christinehamn, Mariestad and Philipstad.
+The aristocracy looked upon his administration with
+coldness. It received sanction of the privileges granted by
+John III., but nothing more, except in return for additional
+<i>russtjenst</i>. The peasants were his favorites and he was
+surnamed the “Peasant King.” To the Church, Charles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>
+stood in a good relation, supporting its re-established Reformation
+with his whole authority. Also the University
+had in him a patron, although he severely criticised the
+too conservative spirit in both, exchanging a series of pamphlets
+with the archbishop on theological questions, firm
+in his Calvinistic tendencies. To make the government
+stronger it was stipulated that four members of the state
+council were always to hold the four principal offices, with
+the titles of drotsete, kansler (chancellor), admiral and treasurer.
+The greatest economy was enforced at court and
+throughout the whole system of government, various minor
+country offices being established for the enforcement of
+order, justice and economy. The king was liberal only
+with severe orders and harsh words, the artistic tendencies
+of his youth succumbing to the cruel necessities of his
+reign.</p>
+
+<p>In private he was as severe as in public life. His first
+consort, Maria of the Palatinate-Zweibrucken, had a quieting
+influence upon him, but the second, Christine of Holstein,
+stern and sharp like the king, strengthened the harshness
+and violence of his disposition. During the last years
+of his reign, Charles gave his attention to the critical European
+situation, desiring to join the Netherlands, England,
+France and the Protestant German princes into an alliance
+against the forming Catholic league. This man, so assured
+of his power to reign and so unscrupulous as to his means,
+was very careful not to do any act of importance without
+the sanction of his people, and for a long time refused to be
+called king. In 1604 he agreed to accept that name, but
+was in 1606 ready to cede it to Duke John. Still, after his
+coronation he admitted the hereditary right of his nephew,
+who was a good-natured man without the qualifications<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>
+of a ruler. At the Riksdag of Norrkœping, in 1604, the
+crown was made hereditary among the descendants of
+Charles, also in the female line, provided that the monarch
+confessed the Lutheran faith and had not accepted the government
+of, or residence in, any other country.</p>
+
+<p>The stress placed upon Charles was greater than his
+originally strong health could carry. In 1609 he suffered a
+stroke of paralysis, which deprived him of his full power of
+speech. He still stood firm at the head of the government,
+with Prince Gustavus Adolphus, now sixteen years of age,
+at his side, who took part in the affairs of State and spoke
+for the paralytic king. The young and ambitious Christian
+IV. of Denmark thought that the opportune moment was
+come to turn down the rising power of Sweden. He declared
+war, in April, 1611, in spite of the efforts made by
+King Charles to avoid the conflict, pointing to Germany,
+where their joined forces would be needed. Christian captured
+the town of Kalmar, while its castle withstood his
+attacks, being handed over to him by treason. In his wrath
+and disgust, Charles sent word to Christian to meet him
+in a duel face to face, which the latter refused to do in a
+letter of abusive contempt. Gustavus Adolphus had made
+a dash into Bleking, capturing the store of provisions at
+Christianopel. In the autumn, the war came to a temporary
+standstill.</p>
+
+<p>Charles started for Stockholm from Kalmar, but was
+taken ill during the journey and died at Nykœping, October
+11, 1611, surrounded by his sons and councillors. To his
+death-bed came the news that Jacob de la Gardie had captured
+the important city of Novgorod, and that the Russians
+offered the crown to either of his sons, Gustavus Adolphus
+or Charles Philip. With Charles died the only worthy son<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>
+of Gustavus I. Vasa. In strength of intellect and stern
+power, he stands first among Swedish rulers. Devoted
+to the work of his great father, he educated the Swedish
+people, through hardships and sacrifices, to its political
+grandeur.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a><br />
+<span class="smaller"><i>Period of Political Grandeur&mdash;Gustavus II. Adolphus</i></span></h2>
+
+<p>Gustavus II. Adolphus is the greatest figure
+of Swedish history, revered and beloved as one of
+the noblest of heroes, a genius in whom the qualities
+of the great statesman and warrior were blended with
+the faith of a man ready to sacrifice his life for the loftiest
+of causes&mdash;religious liberty. Gustavus Adolphus was, by
+his own triumphant deeds and through his school of discipline,
+which turned out men worthy to follow up his work,
+destined to bring his country up to the fulfilment of its
+mission in the history of human progress, and to open for
+it an era of glory and political grandeur which its limited
+resources made it impossible to preserve, but which was
+fruitful of results for its later cultural evolution.</p>
+
+<p>The secret of Sweden’s success in solving the stupendous
+conflict between Catholicism and Protestantism, between
+reaction and progress, rested in the fact that this little
+country was eminently ready to wage a war for religious
+liberty. It had been more perfectly rejuvenated by the
+spirit of Protestantism than had, at the time, any other
+country. The mediæval state, completed later in Sweden
+than on the continent, also gave way there sooner and more
+completely than elsewhere. The yeomanry, never fully
+suppressed, had preserved its old spirit of independence,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>
+fostered and guided by patriotic leaders of the nobility,
+with or without a crown. The population was suffering,
+hungering, bleeding, but free, indomitable, and devoted to
+its once more hereditary kings of Swedish birth and to
+their new faith, which had made strong in them their old
+individuality of views and life.</p>
+
+<p>When Gustavus Adolphus ascended the throne, the
+country was in the greatest peril and distress, and had
+many a lesson to learn before entering the universal conflict
+of the Thirty Years’ War.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus Adolphus was born, Dec. 9, 1594, at the castle
+of Stockholm. When six years old, he followed his father
+to devastated Finland, returning through Norrland, for the
+settlement and future of which territory great plans were
+made. At ten, he was ordered to be present at the deliberations
+of the state council; at thirteen, he received petitions
+and complaints, rectifying wrongs and soothing suffering.
+His father said of him, in speaking of the fulfilment
+of great works, placing his hand on the curly blond head:
+“<i>Ille faciet.</i>” The prince received a severe and carefully
+supervised education, led by Johan Skytte. He acquired
+knowledge of a considerable number of languages, probably
+all in a mechanical way, except the Swedish and German,
+with both of which he was made equally and thoroughly
+familiar, speaking and writing the latter language with
+greater ease and perfection than the emperor Ferdinand,
+or Maximilian of Bavaria. In the sciences of economics
+and war he was well read, himself inaugurating novel
+theories in both. In him the best traits of the Vasa dynasty
+were admirably blended and enlarged. He possessed
+an acute intellect, far-reaching views of almost prophetic
+discernment, a mastery and patience in detail, and an in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>domitable
+strength of will. To the ceaseless and painstaking
+care of the welfare of his subjects, characteristic
+of his father and grandfather, were in him added a harmony
+of endowment and a gentleness of disposition which
+made him their superior. In him the turbulent blood of
+the Vasas was held in noble self-restraint. After his rare
+outbursts of passion, he made good his faults in a most
+royal manner. His youth was not without the temptations
+which beset all richly endowed natures, but they were vanquished
+as he grew up to the importance of his grand mission.
+He stood in the paternal attitude to his people so
+becoming to his grandfather, but lacked the fiery democratic
+tendencies and the sympathy for the untitled, unpretentious
+and lowly, so strong in his stern father. To his
+relatives he was as gentle as to his subjects, treating his
+resolute and ambitious mother, Christine of Holstein-Gottorp,
+with love and respect; on her demand sacrificing the
+love of his youth and intended bride, Ebba Brahe, who
+became the consort of victorious Jacob de la Gardie. Also
+to his brother Charles Philip he stood in an exemplary
+relation; but firmly refused to grant him privileges for his
+duchy of Vermland which could be injurious to the country
+at large.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus Adolphus was a man of commanding presence,
+tall and of a heavy frame. The color of his face was
+clear and light, his eyes blue, his hair and beard blond.
+Foreign contemporary authors called him “the golden king
+of the North.” He carried his head high, and his open,
+frank eye, and the clear voice of manly resonance, gave
+added charm to his noble appearance. Gustavus Adolphus
+possessed a majestic dignity of bearing coupled with the
+unfeigned kindness of a noble heart.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Charles IX. had left his son the Danish war as an inheritance.
+It was carried on in the provinces of the frontiers,
+and consisted chiefly in small conflicts, which caused
+fatigue and detriment without being decisive. The Danes
+entered the interior of Smaland during the first days of the
+year 1612. Gustavus Adolphus, in his turn, moved from
+the fort of Ryssby into the province of Scania, destroying
+by fire the town of Væ and several castles belonging to the
+wealthy nobility. During a smaller conflict which then
+took place, Gustavus Adolphus was in imminent danger
+of his life.</p>
+
+<p>The Swedes had made a camp for themselves at the
+cemetery of Vittsjœ, when suddenly surprised by a force
+of Danish cavalry. The Swedes fought with determination,
+but found it necessary to leave their camp. They
+took a firm stand on the frozen waters of the adjoining lake,
+but were forced to leave that position also. A tumult ensued,
+during which the ice gave way on the spot where the
+king found himself, for the moment, alone and without an
+escort. Per Banér, a son of Gustavus Banér, who was
+executed at Linkœping at the command of Charles IX.,
+perceived the king in the moment of greatest danger, and
+hastened with Thomas Larsson, a trooper from Upland,
+to rescue him. When in safety, the king at once unbuckled
+his silver belt, and, handing it to the trooper, said: “I
+shall remember thee with a piece of bread, which neither
+thou nor thy children shall ever find lacking.” Thomas
+Larsson received in the following year a farm in the province
+of Westmanland, which has remained in the possession
+of his descendants to this very day. Per Banér received
+in fief the estates which had been in the possession of his
+uncle, Sten Banér, also executed at Linkœping, and rose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>
+to the dignity of a state councillor during the minority of
+Queen Christine.</p>
+
+<p>It was the ambition of Christian IV. of Denmark to cut
+Sweden off from any communication with the North Sea.
+As Bohuslæn and Halland both were parts of the Danish dominion,
+there was only the small strip of territory surrounding
+the mouth of the Gotha River to conquer. The island
+of Hising constituted the larger part of it, and was the site
+of the new town of Gothenburg, which was defended by the
+fortress of Elfsborg. The town of New Lœdœse was situated
+on the opposite shore, some few miles up the river,
+defended by the fort of Gullberg. The Danish king approached
+Gullberg from Bohus, having with him a smaller
+force, which he considered sufficient in numbers. Gullberg
+was only a poor little nest, but it was valiantly defended
+by Morten Krakow and his wife, the stanch Lady Emerentia
+Pauli. One day the Danes made a violent attack.
+The ladders which they placed against the walls were
+crushed by heavy beams which the Swedes let fall down
+on them. In spite of this, the Danes succeeded in forcing
+the gates of the place. The position was a critical one for
+the Swedes. The commander had met with an accident
+and was unable to lead the defence. But Lady Emerentia
+resolved to take the command. She gave orders to the
+wives of the soldiers to fill up the vaulted passage of the
+gates with barrels, washtubs, timber, etc. When the Danes
+stormed on in a compact body, they were received by a
+downfall of scalding-hot lye, which the women kept pouring
+down on them from behind their barricade. The daughter
+of Lady Emerentia thus graphically describes the effect:
+“They lay in the vault and around the gates like scalded
+hogs.” Lady Emerentia had placed two pieces of artillery<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>
+on the top of a small building fronting the gates. They
+were loaded with broken horseshoes and the like and sent
+out a disastrous fire. The few surviving Danes fled hurriedly
+for their lives, leaving Lady Emerentia in proud
+possession of the fort. A second attack which was made
+later on proved as futile as the first. King Christian then
+gave command to abandon the plan of taking the fort. The
+Danish army collected in a field in front of Gullberg. But
+Lady Emerentia was vigilant. From the walls of the fort
+she espied a man of prepossessing appearance who rode a
+white horse. “Shoot that man!” was her immediate command
+to the nearest soldier. The shot took effect, killing
+the white horse, whose brains and blood spattered the king.
+For the man on horseback was King Christian. “That
+devilish crow does never sleep!” exclaimed the king, referring
+to the commander.</p>
+
+<p>King Christian turned on New Lœdœse, killing without
+mercy all the male inhabitants of the town. West Gothland
+was invaded, the province appearing to be an easy
+prey because the Swedish army, commanded by Duke John,
+had just left it to march into Halland. But the bailiff of
+Hœjentorp called on the peasants to rise, which caused the
+Danes to recede. The Danes next made an attack on the
+fortress of Elfsborg, commanded by Olof Strole. Elfsborg
+was defended with heroism, but when fire threatened to
+destroy the towers, Olof Strole at last surrendered. On
+account of their valiant conduct the commander and his
+men, who were reduced to 200, were granted free passage
+with their music and banners. The able Morten Krakow
+of Gullberg had been promoted to the fortress of Vaxholm.
+His successor surrendered Gullberg to the Danes shortly
+after the fall of Elfsborg. King Christian planned a series<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>
+of invasions in the year 1612, but, thanks to the vigilance
+of Gustavus Adolphus, he failed to accomplish the desired
+effect.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus Adolphus wanted peace with Denmark, and
+such was made at Knerœd in 1613, after a war of mutual
+invasions and without any decisive battles or conquests of
+territory. The frontiers were to remain the same as before
+the war; the Danish king was allowed to keep the emblem
+of three crowns, but had to resign his claims upon the Swedish
+crown. The fortress of Elfsborg remained in the hands
+of the Danes for six years, until $1,000,000, an exorbitant
+sum in those days, was paid for it. It cost the people of
+Sweden very dear to pay this sum, sacrifices being made
+by the king and his friends to contribute to it. But Elfsborg,
+the only approach to the North Sea, was indispensable.
+It was returned in a miserable condition, and Gothenburg,
+on the opposite side of Gotha River, destroyed.
+Gustavus Adolphus ordered Gothenburg to be moved to its
+present site, on the mainland, and endowed it with extensive
+commercial privileges, encouraging Dutch merchants
+to settle there.</p>
+
+<p>The war with Russia began once more in 1614. Gustavus
+Adolphus not having been found willing to accept the
+crown for his brother Charles Philip, the negotiations were
+dropped. Count de la Gardie resumed control of the movements,
+although the king was present in person. The
+Swedes won a great victory at Bronitz and captured the
+fortress of Augdof. An attempt to take Pskof was unsuccessful,
+Evert Horn, the hero of a hundred battles, losing
+his life; but the Russians were willing to make peace.
+Through the honorable peace of Stolbova, in February,
+1617, Russia gave up all claims on Esthonia and Livonia,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>
+and ceded to Sweden Ingermanland and Kexholm. This
+cut off the Russians from the Baltic, fixed the Swedish
+frontier on the lakes Ladoga and Peipus, and left Sweden
+in peace with the mightiest of her enemies during almost a
+century. The armistice with Poland ended in 1616, but
+after two years of insignificant movements it was continued
+up to 1620.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus II. Adolphus with untiring energy continued
+the work of building up the new state founded by Gustavus
+I. At the death of his father, the royal youth had won
+everybody by his gentleness and generosity. His first act
+was perhaps the wisest of all, in selecting among the councillors
+the young, highly talented Axel Oxenstierna as his
+chancellor. This couple have no peers in history, being
+united by the firmest of friendships and rising simultaneously
+to the highest ability of statesmanship, the gifts of
+the one wonderfully supplementing those of the other. The
+chancellor was cooler and slower than his royal friend. He
+placed supreme the duties to his country, but was of very
+aristocratic tendencies, through his influence leading the
+king still further away from the democratic principles of his
+father. To the nobility were granted the old privileges,
+with others in addition, which became menacing to the
+ancient freedom of the peasantry. The management of
+internal affairs and all branches of the administration were
+placed under various departments. They were presided
+over by the high functionaries and their offices chiefly filled
+by noblemen. A permanent supreme court was established
+in Stockholm, with the Drotsete as president, in 1614. In
+1623, a supreme court for Finland was established and a
+governor-general for that grandduchy appointed, who was
+also to be president of the court. In 1630, a supreme court<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>
+for the Baltic provinces was established at Dorpat. The
+Riksdag, governed by the new rules of 1617, was to convene
+yearly, and to consist of the four Estates of the kingdom:
+the nobility, clergy, bourgeoisie and yeomanry, each divided
+into various classes. These latter were as yet not quite
+distinct or organized, except those of the nobility, who, in
+1625, formed a knightly chapter, the Riddarhus, which kept
+a register of the legitimate noble families of Sweden and
+Finland and watched over the interests of its members.
+The Estate of the nobility was divided in three classes,
+lords, knights and squires. To the first belonged the
+holders of counties and baronies, to the second those whose
+ancestors held the rank of state councillors, and to the third
+the rest of the nobility. As each class had one vote in the
+Riksdag, the supremacy of lords and knights, called the
+“higher nobility,” was secure, when standing united, over
+the more numerous third class, the “lower nobility.” The
+king appointed the speaker of the nobility, the <i>landtmarskalk</i>,
+who also was the president of their chapter. The
+Swedish church had its greatest epoch during the period
+of political grandeur, being characterized by a remarkable
+strength of faith and by a praiseworthy energy and earnestness.
+The clergy, high and low, set beautiful examples of
+piety, learning and patriotism. It was beloved by the people
+and spoke in their behalf with authority and courage.
+Not able to win Gustavus Adolphus over to more democratic
+views, it won his admiration, and he surnamed the
+ministers “tribunes of the people.” The burghers, touched
+by the patriotic spirit, developed great energy during this
+period, trade and commerce having a devoted patron in
+the king, who, besides the new Gothenburg, founded twelve
+other towns in Sweden and Finland. The miners occupied<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>
+of old an uncertain position between burghers and yeomen.
+They were strengthened and encouraged by the personal
+interest which the king took in the mining industry. He
+visited the mines repeatedly, descending into the bowels
+of the earth to inspect the ore and the new methods introduced
+from abroad by foreign miners. Among the latter
+the immigrated Dutchman, Louis de Geer, exerted a beneficial
+influence upon that industry. The factories producing
+clothing and weapons for the army were also encouraged.
+The yeomen occupied a difficult, almost desperate position
+between the increasing privileges of the nobility and the increasing
+taxes of the crown. Their burdens were doubled
+and their rights reduced; yet sustained by the church, and
+believing in the lofty ideals of the king, they persevered,
+fulfilling their duties with a high degree of patriotism.</p>
+
+<p>No Swedish king has done so much for education as
+Gustavus Adolphus. To the University of Upsala he donated
+300 of his hereditary estates, founding its library,
+improving its courses, banishing misrule, and appointing
+his old teacher, John Skytte, its chancellor. He
+created the German University of Dorpat in Esthonia, in
+1632; later for some time moved to Pernau. Colleges were
+established in the larger towns. The king was, through
+his thorough studies of Swedish laws and conditions, in a
+position to take an active part in the reforms which he
+promulgated, never resting long in one place, but travelling
+from one point to another, where his presence was
+most necessary; shaping plans and reforms by his own
+judgment, to have them indorsed by the next Riksdag,
+and then enforcing them himself. Especially the army
+passed through an evolution, thanks to new methods, devised
+by the king, who was to win his victories through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span>
+the introduction of improved tactics and divisions, by means
+of which the troops were easier to move and the co-operation
+between the various weapons increased.</p>
+
+<p>In 1618 the “Thirty Years’ War” began. The dethroned
+Frederic of the Palatinate turned, among others,
+to Gustavus Adolphus for support, which the latter was
+not able to give in a direct way. But he promised to attack
+Poland as soon as the armistice was at an end, thereby
+making it impossible for Sigismund to support Emperor
+Ferdinand with troops. In 1621, Gustavus Adolphus commenced
+operations against Poland, taking the command
+himself. Riga and Mitau were captured, the former important
+commercial centre regaining its privileges, but sending
+representatives to the Swedish Riksdag and accepting
+a Swedish governor. After having conquered Livonia,
+Gustavus Adolphus entered Courland the following year,
+when an armistice was agreed to. Gustavus followed the
+events in Germany with increasing interest, forming the
+plan of an alliance between the Protestant powers. Learning
+that the emperor was willing to support Sigismund,
+Gustavus Adolphus offered to invade Silesia. But as Christian
+IV. of Denmark was anxious to lead the Protestant
+forces, Gustavus Adolphus quietly withdrew, resuming
+action against Poland. After a victory at Wallhof, he
+entered Polish Prussia, where he was dangerously wounded
+at Dirschau. The Poles were reinforced by imperial troops,
+but suffered a defeat at Gurzo; the Swedish general, Herman
+Wrangel, winning the day. When the considerable
+reinforcements of 10,000 men joined the Poles, the Swedes
+receded in good order. A smaller conflict occurred at
+Stuhm, famous because Gustavus Adolphus was twice in
+danger of his life during the struggle, which otherwise<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span>
+was of no importance. An imperial trooper caught him
+by the belt and tried to drag the king with him. According
+to the report of Axel Oxenstierna, the king loosened
+the belt and let it go. In so doing, he also lost his hat,
+which was carried to Vienna and preserved as a token of
+the “great victory.” Another trooper, shortly afterward,
+caught the king by the arm, aiming at the head with his
+sword. In the critical moment, Eric Soop, the colonel of
+a Swedish cavalry regiment, appeared, killing the trooper
+with a pistol-shot. Gustavus Adolphus referred to this
+struggle as the “hottest bath” that he was ever in.</p>
+
+<p>In September, 1629, an armistice was agreed to, at
+Altmark, to last for six years, during which period Sweden
+was to keep Livonia and the Russian towns of Elbing,
+Braunsberg, Pillau and Memel. The new acquisition of
+territory was small, but the revenue from these commercial
+towns, and from Dantzic, Libau and Windau, was considerable,
+and went to pay for the army expenses of the German
+campaign. The new temporary possessions in Prussia
+were formed into a Swedish governmental section, over
+which Axel Oxenstierna was appointed governor-general.</p>
+
+<p>What follows belongs to one of the most noted chapters
+of universal history. The unbroken chain of Swedish victories,
+the noble character of the king and the severe discipline
+upheld among his men, who commenced and ended
+their battles with prayers and hymns, astounded the world.
+The exalted nobility of Gustavus Adolphus appears to us
+all the more striking, contrasted with the faithlessness,
+vanity and cowardice of the contemporary reigning princes
+of Germany and Denmark. His victories appear all the
+more remarkable because the greatest warriors of the age&mdash;Tilly,
+Wallenstein and Pappenheim&mdash;were his adversaries.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span>
+He was received by the people of Germany as a liberator,
+and his memory is blessed by every thinking German, who
+admits that the Swedes, Gustavus Adolphus and Axel Oxenstierna,
+completed the work which the Germans, Luther
+and Melanchthon, created. The loftiness of the ideals
+which inspired Gustavus Adolphus have been doubted,
+but not with justice. He was brought up in a severely
+Christian home and the sincerity of his piety is unmistakable.
+His father’s clairvoyant views upon the coming
+religious conflict were familiar to him since his early youth,
+while he was, through his mother, related in blood to the
+majority of Protestant princes. Thus apparently predestined,
+as the greatest statesman and warrior of his age, to
+take up the cause of his persecuted brethren, he did not do
+so before the ambitious Christian IV. had utterly failed
+in his attempts and with contumely been forced to retire.
+It is not probable that Gustavus Adolphus ever thought
+of placing the crown of the Roman empire upon his head,
+but plausible to suppose that he had in view the formation
+of a strong union of the Protestant countries of Northern
+Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving Sweden, Gustavus II. convoked the representatives
+of his people, holding on his arm his little
+daughter Christine, four years old, for whom he asked their
+pledge of allegiance. His farewell speech was touching
+in its simplicity and the premonition of his tragic end.
+Not for worldly glory, but to save his country from peril
+and his brethren from distress, he undertook this risky war.
+“Generally,” he said, “it happens thus that the vessel hauls
+water until it goes to pieces. With me likewise, that I,
+who in so many perils for the weal of my country have
+shed my blood, and yet until this day have been spared<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span>
+through the grace of God, now at last must lose my life.
+For that reason I will this time commend you, the collected
+Estates of the realm, to the hand of God, the Supreme One,
+wishing that we, after this our miserable and burdensome
+life, according to the will of God, may meet again, to dwell
+in the celestial and infinite.” These words do not resemble
+the terse, striking speeches of his grandfather, but they bear
+the stamp of sincerity, and by them Gustavus Adolphus,
+his work and his purpose, are judged by the Swedish
+people.</p>
+
+<p>Midsummer Day, 1630, Gustavus Adolphus landed with
+his troops at the island of Ruden, on the coast of Pomerania.
+Two days later he proceeded to the larger island
+of Usedom. His troops consisted of 13,000 men. Gustavus
+Adolphus was himself the first to land. He knelt on the
+shore and prayed to God in a loud voice; his prayer moved
+those surrounding him to tears. When the king noticed
+it he said: “Do not cry, but pray to God with fervor.
+The more of prayer, the more of victory; the best Christian
+is the best soldier.” Then he took hold of a spade and
+commenced to assist personally in the work of building a
+camp. When it grew dark, the heavens were illuminated
+by the fire of burning villages, giving evidence of the manner
+in which the enemy conducted his warfare.</p>
+
+<p>The supercilious Wallenstein had been dismissed by the
+emperor at the time when Gustavus Adolphus landed in
+Germany, but his wild hordes were pillaging Pomerania.
+Yet Gustavus Adolphus had great difficulty in persuading
+the old duke of Pomerania to accept the alliance he offered
+him. But when this was done, it took the Swedes only a
+short time to clear the duchy of its enemies. The young
+landgrave of Hesse and the free city of Magdeburg were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>
+glad to accept an alliance with Gustavus Adolphus. A
+treaty was made with France, which country promised to
+pay subsidies to Sweden as long as the German war lasted.
+Tilly, who was in command of the imperial troops, approached
+Magdeburg. Gustavus Adolphus sent proper
+provisions to Magdeburg with an experienced commander,
+as he could not go himself, because the elector of Saxony
+refused to let him pass with his army through Saxon territory.
+Magdeburg was captured by Tilly, who sacked and
+destroyed it by fire in a most barbarous way.</p>
+
+<p>The discipline and moderation of the Swedish troops
+formed a great contrast to the reckless behavior of the imperial
+army. The Swedes left the peaceful inhabitants
+in undisturbed possession of their lives and property; the
+strictest order was maintained within the army; each regiment
+held morning and evening prayers in the open air;
+gambling, carousing and plundering were sternly prohibited.
+For these reasons the Swedish king and his army
+were received by the poor downtrodden people as saviors
+and liberators. Gustavus Adolphus deeply mourned the
+fall of Magdeburg, whose fate it had not been in his power
+to prevent. He took a fortified position at Werben, where
+the river Havel is joined by the Ube. Tilly entered Saxony
+with a hostile demeanor, not satisfied with the lukewarm
+friendship of the elector. Burning villages marked the way
+of his army. The poor elector, not knowing what to do, in
+his despair turned to Gustavus Adolphus, whom he had
+treated so coldly and begged him for help. The king at
+once was ready to forget past differences, and, joining
+forces with the elector, he marched toward Leipsic.</p>
+
+<p>Tilly, with 35,000 men, occupied an advantageous position
+near the village of Breitenfeld, not far from Leipsic,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span>
+at the summit of a long ridge of sandy hills. The infantry
+and the greater part of the cavalry were grouped in heavy
+divisions, forming one single line of battle with artillery
+behind at the very top of the hills. Tilly himself commanded
+the centre, while his able and fiery sub-commander,
+Pappenheim, had the command of the left wing, being in
+hopes to encounter the Swedish king personally. The
+Swedish army consisted of 22,000 men, who were joined
+by 11,000 Saxons.</p>
+
+<p>Early in the morning of September 7, 1631, the Swedes
+started toward Breitenfeld. Tilly turned pale, it is said,
+when he saw the order and firmness with which the Swedes
+marched up to take their positions on the narrow slips of
+ground between the Lober brook and the reach of the imperial
+cannon. The Swedes were arranged in a double line
+of battle, infantry in the centre and cavalry on the wings.
+Between the squadrons of cavalry divisions of musketeers
+were placed. The regimental artillery was distributed over
+a number of places. The king commanded the right wing
+in person, with John Banér as sub-commander. Teuffel
+led the centre and Gustavus Horn the left wing. The king
+had no confidence in the Saxons, for which reason he had
+arranged them by themselves at some distance to the left
+of the Swedish army. When everything was arranged, the
+king rode to the front. With his head uncovered, and his
+sword pointing to the ground, he prayed: “Almighty God,
+thou who holdest victory and defeat in the hollow of thy
+hand, turn thine eyes unto us, thy servants, who have come
+hither from distant dwellings to fight for liberty and truth,
+for thy holy Gospel. Give victory unto us for the glory
+of thy hallowed name! Amen!” The prayer of the king
+could be heard by almost every man of the army, and all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span>
+were touched and strengthened by his pious trust in a righteous
+cause. The Swedes of the right wing were soon attacked
+by Pappenheim and his cavalry. But the horses
+of the imperialists were frightened by the flashing fire of
+the musketeers, and the attack failed to have an effect.
+It was ended as quickly as it was begun. Pappenheim
+concluded to make an attempt to surprise the Swedes from
+the left side. But the king divined his plan. He ordered
+John Banér with the second line to make a movement by
+which to turn at an angle with the first and face the attack
+from the side. Pappenheim was surprised to find a new
+line facing him. A bloody struggle ensued. Seven times
+his men made an inroad on the Swedish line and were seven
+times repulsed, badly damaged by the fire of the musketeers.
+The Swedes, in their turn, made an attack which
+scattered Pappenheim’s forces from the field in wild flight.</p>
+
+<p>Tilly had with his light cavalry attacked the left wing
+of the Swedes. His men were mostly made up of Croats
+and other semi-barbarous people. When repulsed by the
+Swedes they concentrated their forces to crush the Saxons.
+These withstood the first assault, but the second routed
+them completely. The imperialists then made a second
+attack upon the left Swedish wing, made up of only 2,500
+men. Gustavus Horn acted with coolness and great presence
+of mind. He let the first line close in on the second
+till it was able to take a firm stand against the heavy force
+of the attacking enemy. The Swedes never for a moment
+lost their position, in spite of the frightful onslaught. The
+king arrived and remained for some time with the left wing.
+He ordered the Scotch brigade of hired troops to support
+him. The Scotch had cannon hidden behind their lines.
+These had a telling effect upon the attacking imperialists,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span>
+who were thrown back, suffering great losses. Everywhere
+the battle was fought with frenzy, the clouds of dust and
+smoke changing the day into night.</p>
+
+<p>The king made sure that the left wing of the enemy’s
+army was engaged in continued flight. Then he commenced
+an attack with his own right wing upon the imperial
+artillery, which had kept up a steady fire against the
+Swedish centre. Tilly’s cannon were captured at the first
+attempt and turned on the imperial troops, causing consternation.
+Horn opened an attack on his side and the
+king hastened to support him with his troops. Tilly tried
+in vain to lead his troops into the battle. Pappenheim had
+returned and gave brilliant proofs of personal courage. The
+defeat of the imperial army was unavoidable; it scattered
+in helpless confusion. Tilly lost his horse and was near
+being captured himself. Four of his best infantry regiments
+took a stand and tried to resist the conquering foe.
+These imperial soldiers, who never had suffered a defeat,
+preferred death to surrender. Tilly fled at last, followed by
+only 600 men. After five hours of fighting the Swedes had
+won a glorious victory. They finished the day with prayer
+and remained on the battlefield over night, arranged in
+order of battle. The following morning they entered the
+deserted camp of the enemy where a rich booty awaited
+them.</p>
+
+<p>The progress of Gustavus Adolphus along the shores
+of the river Main to the towns of Frankfort and Mayence
+was a march of triumph. In capturing Mayence, the
+Swedes fought the Spanish allies of the emperor. The
+towns surrendered to violence or by their own consent.
+Gustavus Adolphus made their inhabitants pledge their
+fidelity to him and strengthened his power with the rich<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span>
+resources of the Frankish country. Then he turned against
+Maximilian of Bavaria. Tilly, who was to defend Bavaria,
+was again encountered and defeated at Lech. He was carried
+from the battle mortally wounded and died soon afterward.
+Gustavus Adolphus made his triumphal entry into
+Munich, with Frederic of the Palatinate at his side. The
+danger to the crown lands of the emperor was imminent.</p>
+
+<p>Wallenstein was the most famous of German generals.
+Reticent and secretive, he appeared to be unable to feel
+mercy. He was devoted to the secret doctrines of astrology,
+which in him had taken the place of religion. He
+cared naught for the cause of religious liberty or the fall
+of the German empire, looking only for occasions to satisfy
+his own ambition and the means of obtaining power
+and wealth. He had served the emperor, who had raised
+him to the dignity of a duke of Mecklenburg, but had been
+dismissed and deprived of his dignities at the time of the
+arrival of Gustavus Adolphus on German soil. His downfall
+was caused by complaints of his insolence and recklessness,
+made by Maximilian of Bavaria and other German
+princes. Wallenstein retired to Prague, at the castle of
+which town he surrounded himself with princely luxury
+and comfort, scheming for revenge. His plan was to join
+the enemies of the emperor. He approached Gustavus
+Adolphus for such purpose, before the battle of Breitenfeld,
+and was delighted to hear of the defeat of Tilly. Gustavus
+Adolphus seemed at first inclined to take up relations with
+Wallenstein, but at the point where an agreement was to
+be made he suddenly changed his attitude. The king probably
+hesitated to accept the services of a man who had no
+other aim than to satisfy his own ambition. The emperor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span>
+was placed in a bad predicament, at the second defeat of
+Tilly, for want of an army to defend his lands and a commander
+to lead it. There was only one way out of the
+difficulty, and that was to pacify the mortally offended
+Wallenstein, and to persuade him to re-enter the service
+of the emperor. The emperor resigned himself to accept
+this humiliating condition, and Wallenstein agreed to resume
+command, but only at a high price. The name of
+Wallenstein was enough to bring thousands of warriors
+under the imperial banners, and Wallenstein was soon at
+the head of an army of sufficient proportions. His doctrine
+was that “the war should support itself,” according to
+which his soldiers were allowed to sack and plunder at will
+the countries through which they were passing. He cared
+naught for the recklessness of his subordinates, if they only
+showed blind obedience to him.</p>
+
+<p>Wallenstein expelled the Saxons who had invaded Bohemia.
+But he showed disinclination to assist the elector
+of Bavaria, who was compelled to leave his country. At
+Eger, Wallenstein was reinforced and marched on Nuremberg
+with an army of 60,000, prepared to meet Gustavus
+Adolphus. He was confident of his superior force. “Within
+four days,” he said, “it shall become evident whether
+I or the Swedish king is the master of Germany.” Gustavus
+Adolphus hastened to relieve Nuremberg, taking his
+position in the immediate neighborhood of said town. He
+had only 18,000 men with him, but he surrounded this army
+with solid fortifications, and Wallenstein dared not risk an
+attack, in spite of his superior force. Wallenstein took his
+position at the summit of three steep hills, surrounded by
+trenches and ramparts. His intention was to cut off the
+Swedes from all sources of supplies and force them to sur<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>render
+by starvation. “I shall teach the Swedish king,”
+he said, “a new method of warfare.”</p>
+
+<p>For nine weeks the two armies were facing each other.
+The suffering became great in both camps. The Swedes
+suffered most, although the inhabitants of Nuremberg tried
+their utmost to supply them with food. When the provisions
+were diminishing, the bonds of discipline were loosened.
+Especially the Germans of the Swedish army made themselves
+conspicuous by licentiousness and plunder. Gustavus
+Adolphus decided to try an attack on Wallenstein’s
+camp, in order to put an end to the critical state of things.
+He was so much more anxious to risk it, as his army had
+been considerably reinforced and was almost equal to Wallenstein’s
+in numbers. At noon, August 24, 1632, the
+Swedish army made ready for battle. The attack was first
+made on Burgstall, the most important one of the three
+hills occupied by the enemy. The battle was a fierce and
+bloody one, the whole mountain being clothed in fire and
+smoke. Several of the most distinguished of the Swedish
+officers were killed or captured. A bullet passed through
+the boot of the king; an officer was killed at his side. The
+Swedes were thrown back on one hand, while on the other,
+Duke Bernhard of Weimar, one of the German commanders
+of the king, succeeded in capturing one of the forts built on
+the Burgstall. But as the day was over and the army
+exhausted, the Swedes were not able to profit by their success.
+A heavy rain commenced, continuing through the
+night. This made it impossible to haul any cannon up to
+the captured fort, which was then abandoned. The Swedish
+army returned to the camp. This unsuccessful attack
+cost the Swedes almost 2,000 men. Gustavus Adolphus
+wrote in regard to it: “It was too much to be considered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span>
+a page’s trick, but too small to be of real earnest.” Wallenstein
+wrote of it. “Never in my life have I seen a more
+desperate fire, but I hope that the Swedes have lost their
+horns in this conflict.”</p>
+
+<p>The king broke camp a fortnight later, arranging his
+army into a line of battle. For four hours he waited for
+Wallenstein to come forward, but the latter did not risk
+an attack. Gustavus Adolphus intended to enter Swabia,
+to complete the conquest of Southwestern Germany. But
+Wallenstein, who soon afterward also broke camp, invaded
+Saxony. This caused the king to change his plans. He
+was obliged to follow Wallenstein in order to protect his ally
+and to avoid the danger of being cut off from the connections
+with his own empire. Wallenstein marked his way
+by cruel devastation, and the appeals of the unhappy population
+persuaded the king to take an early decision.</p>
+
+<p>The people of Saxony received Gustavus Adolphus with
+great enthusiasm, of which they gave evidence in the most
+exultant manner. People were seen kneeling everywhere
+on his way, imploringly stretching their hands toward him.
+The king was not content with their exaggerated devotion.
+“I fear that God is offended by their vain demonstrations
+of joy and soon shall show them that the one whom they
+adore as a god is naught but a weak and mortal man.”</p>
+
+<p>Wallenstein was in the neighborhood of Leipsic, at the
+little town of Lutzen. He had sent away Pappenheim, his
+best sub-commander, to Halle with a considerable force.
+Gustavus Adolphus found this circumstance favorable and
+decided on an attack.</p>
+
+<p>It was the 6th of November, 1632. A heavy mist covered
+the spacious fields around Leipsic. Wallenstein was,
+with the right wing of his army, close on Lutzen, the little<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span>
+town being set on fire, in order not to shield a clandestine
+attack. The flame of the conflagration appeared dull but
+magnified through the mists of the early morning. In
+front of the imperial army was the highway. Musketeers
+were stationed in and above the ditches, which were made
+deeper and provided with ramparts. The musketeers were
+so arranged that higher lines could shoot over the heads of
+the lower ones. Behind them was another chain of musketeers.
+The artillery was placed partly behind the musketeers,
+partly on the sides of a hill where some windmills
+were situated. The cavalry was placed on the wings, the
+infantry in the centre, both arranged in great square divisions.
+A courier had been sent to recall Pappenheim, as the
+army without his force counted only 18,000 men. The
+Swedish army was 20,000 strong and was arranged according
+to a plan similar to the one followed at Breitenfeld. It
+was arranged in two lines. Musketeers were interspersed
+among the cavalry. The regimental artillery was placed
+before the front. The king commanded the right wing,
+Nils Brahe the centre, Kniephausen the second line of the
+centre, and Duke Bernhard the left wing.</p>
+
+<p>The king, who for the time being had none of his best
+officers around him, spent the night in a wagon, together
+with Duke Bernhard and Kniephausen. He rose in the
+morning, dressed, without armor, in a blouse and a gray
+coat, and mounted his usual white charger, without having
+tasted food. He conducted in person the morning prayers
+of the army, when Luther’s psalm, “Eine feste Burg ist
+unser Gott,” was sung. After the song had ceased, the
+king made a short speech in Swedish, which he repeated in
+German. He said: “There you have the enemy. He is
+not now at the top of the hill or behind intrenchments, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span>
+in the open field. You know well how eagerly he has
+sought to avoid a conflict and that he is forced to fight
+because he cannot escape us. Fight, then, my dear countrymen
+and friends, for God, your country and your king. I
+will reward you all. But if you flinch, you know well that
+not a man of you will ever see his country again.” Then
+the psalm, “Versage nicht du Hæuflein klein,” the words
+of which were written in German by Gustavus Adolphus
+himself, was sung. The king gave the sign of attack by
+waving his sword over his head and cried: “Forward in
+God’s name; Jesu, Jesu, Jesu, help us to-day to strive
+to the honor of thy holy name!”</p>
+
+<p>It was eleven o’clock, and the mists had, to a great
+extent, scattered. The Swedish centre, with the battery
+behind, marched toward the highway. The left wing made
+an attempt to penetrate between the burning Lutzen and
+the batteries below the windmills. A terrible fire from
+muskets and cannon met the attacking Swedes. Whole
+lines of infantry were killed. The left wing suffered in
+particular. But when the Swedes reached their destination,
+the centre moved on with great force, cleaning the
+ditches of musketeers, capturing seven pieces of artillery
+and making two of the great squares of imperial infantry
+retire from their position. While fighting the third, the
+Swedes were surprised by the reserve and cavalry forces
+of the enemy, and had to abandon what they had taken,
+retiring into the open field.</p>
+
+<p>The king had, in the meantime, with the cavalry of the
+right wing, forced the ditches. When notified of the danger
+in which the centre was placed, he hurried to assist his
+infantry. At the head of his Smaland cavalry he moved
+on so quickly that he was separated from the rest of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span>
+forces. The king was near-sighted and the mist once more
+thickening. For these reasons he happened to ride close
+up to the lines of the imperial cuirassiers. His horse was
+wounded, and the king himself received a pistol shot in the
+arm. He turned to one of his companions, Duke Frantz
+Albrecht, of Sachsen-Lauenburg, with a request to be escorted
+out of the battle, but was at that instant wounded
+in the back, immediately falling off his horse. Duke Frantz
+Albrecht, only thinking of saving his own life, fled from the
+spot. But a German page, eighteen years of age, who accompanied
+the king, jumped from his horse and tried to
+assist the king in mounting it. Some imperial cavalrymen
+passed by. They inquired for the name of the wounded
+lord. The page tried to hide his identity, but Gustavus
+Adolphus answered: “I was once the king of Sweden.”
+One of the imperialists attempted to drag the king with
+him, but seeing some Swedish soldiers approaching, he sent
+in leaving a bullet through the wounded hero’s brain.</p>
+
+<p>The Swedes had been thrown back from the highway
+all over the line. The white horse of the king, with empty
+saddle and stained with blood, was seen galloping before
+the front. The message of mourning spread with lightning
+rapidity through the army, causing universal sorrow and
+anger. The ambition to avenge the death of the beloved
+king was kindled in every breast. Duke Bernhard at once
+assumed supreme command when notified of the catastrophe.
+The sagacious Kniephausen thought the battle lost
+and considered it best to retire in good order. The duke
+answered: “Here is not the question of retreat, but of revenge
+in victory or death.” The Swedish line of battle
+soon moved forward once more and with redoubled strength.
+The right wing, commanded by the valiant Stolhandske,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span>
+threw back the imperial troops who had caused the fall
+of the king. Nils Brahe once more carried the troops of the
+centre across the highway and captured for a second time
+the seven pieces of artillery. The left wing, commanded
+by Duke Bernhard, also moved forward victoriously, capturing
+the batteries at the windmill and pointing the cannon
+toward the enemy. When simultaneously some wagons
+loaded with powder for the imperial artillery exploded with
+a tremendous roar, the whole army of Wallenstein was
+thrown into a state of confusion. It was thought that the
+Swedes had made an attack from the rear. The cavalry
+fled in great numbers with the cries: “We know the king
+of Sweden! He is worst toward the end of the day.”</p>
+
+<p>But now another cry was heard: “Pappenheim is coming!
+Pappenheim is coming!” And so it was. Pappenheim
+arrived with his valiant cavalry at this important
+juncture. “Where is the king of Sweden to be found?”
+was his first question. When told that Gustavus Adolphus
+had been seen leading the right wing, he hurried thither,
+not knowing the fate that had befallen his royal enemy,
+and desirous of fighting him face to face. The imperialists
+recommenced the battle with renewed vigor. The scattered
+forces of cavalry and infantry were collected once more and
+were joined by the fresh troops of Pappenheim. The attacking
+Swedes met a stanch resistance. The latter were
+almost tired out, but preserved their courage. A contemporary
+writer says that a battle was never fought in a better
+way by troops who had for such a long stretch been in
+the fire. The Swedish losses were exceedingly heavy. The
+royal standard and several other banners were taken. The
+able Nils Brahe was killed, and the division of which he
+was the head fell to the very last man. But Pappenheim,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span>
+who rushed forward blindly, in his eagerness to meet the
+king of Sweden, was also killed, according to tradition,
+by a bullet from Stolhandske. “Pappenheim has fallen!
+All is lost!” shouted his men, and drew back discouraged.
+Wallenstein still thought there was a chance to hold the
+field against the exhausted enemy.</p>
+
+<p>Kniephausen had preserved the second line of battle in
+good order, resolved to cover the retreat he thought unavoidable.
+He had sent away smaller divisions to support
+the first line, but not in numbers enough to disturb the
+order of his own troops. Now he commanded his men to
+the front, to fill all the gaps of the first lines. When this
+was done, the Swedes made a third attack. The evening
+sun pierced through the mists for a moment, and Wallenstein
+in this light saw the Swedish army approach in a
+mighty solid line as at the opening of the battle. He was
+greatly surprised. This time the Swedes were resolved to
+conquer or die. Soldiers were heard to promise each other
+to stand by that resolution. For a third time the Swedes
+passed the highway and recaptured, after a bloody struggle,
+the disputed cannon. The wings of Wallenstein’s army
+were both in a state of dissolution. But his centre preserved
+two divisions which offered a stubborn resistance
+until sunset, when they were ordered to retreat. The
+Swedes had won the day, but were too tired to pursue the
+enemy. Following their custom, they rested over the night
+on the battlefield they had bought by their blood.</p>
+
+<p>The loss of troops had been heavy on either side,
+amounting to about 6,000 men altogether, or about one-third
+of the whole number of men engaged in the battle.
+The excitement was so great on both sides that no prisoners
+were made. The corpse of Gustavus Adolphus, bruised<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>
+and mangled, was found during the night under a heap of
+dead soldiers. A large monumental stone, with inscription,
+now marks the spot where the hero king lost his life. The
+Gustavus Adolphus Society of Germany is a living monument
+to his memory.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</a><br />
+<span class="smaller"><i>Period of Political Grandeur&mdash;Queen Christine</i></span></h2>
+
+<p>Christine was six years old when she succeeded
+her father. Her armies stood scattered through
+foreign lands, surrounded by enemies and faithless
+allies. Her country was covered with glory, but in direst
+distress. The most remarkable aspect of her father’s greatness
+now was to become apparent. Gustavus Adolphus had
+left behind men whom he had educated as statesmen, and
+generals capable of bringing his work to a successful end.
+First among the former was the state chancellor, <i>Axel
+Oxenstierna</i>, the friend and adviser of the hero king. He
+managed to keep the Swedish allies together and to establish
+harmony and unity of action between the Swedish commanders,
+supplying funds to carry on the war and strengthening
+the government at home with his courage and his
+wisdom. Oxenstierna was a statesman of considerable
+power before the death of the king; after it he grows in
+grandeur to carry the burden of unlimited responsibility
+placed on his shoulders. His coolness and dignity were
+a source of constant irritation to Richelieu, who said there
+was “something Gothic and a good deal of Finnish” about
+his proceedings in diplomatic affairs, while Mazarin said
+that if all the statesmen of his time were to be put aboard
+of one vessel, Oxenstierna should be placed at the helm.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span>
+The great chancellor always upheld the dignity of his country.
+When French diplomatists forgot themselves thus far
+as to use, in correspondence, their own language, instead of
+Latin, the recognized language of diplomacy in that day,
+Axel Oxenstierna gave instructions that they should be
+answered in Swedish.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of Gustavus Adolphus, the war in Germany
+lost more and more of its original aspect. The cause
+of Protestantism was dropped out of sight for political interests.
+The battles of Sweden were, to a great extent, and
+sometimes altogether, fought by foreign troops; but Swedish
+were the generals and statesmen who led the operations
+of the armies and the diplomatic deliberations. The success
+of Sweden, at first, seemed to have passed away with her
+great hero king. The imperialists won a great victory at
+Nœrdlingen in 1634. The young archduke, Ferdinand, had
+succeeded Wallenstein as their commander-general, the latter
+having been murdered at the request of the emperor.
+Ferdinand marched on the town of Nœrdlingen with an
+army of German and Spanish troops, the experienced Piccolomini
+being at his side. Duke Bernhard, who with an
+army had been taking possession of Franconia in his own
+personal interests, hastened to support the town and was
+joined by Gustavus Horn, who, with another army, had
+been stationed in Elsass. Count Horn gave the advice to
+await reinforcements, but the excitable Duke Bernhard
+opened an attack on the enemy, which necessitated an immediate
+battle. After eight hours of hard fighting, the imperialists,
+who were 30,000 strong, entirely routed the
+Swedish army of 18,000 men, not a single Swedish regiment
+being among them. Horn was made a prisoner.
+Duke Bernhard, who soon afterward with his troops entered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span>
+French service, acknowledged his fault, saying: “I was
+a fool, but Horn a wise man.” Sweden lost through this
+terrible defeat an army and two able generals. The Swedish
+conquests in South Germany were lost, and the German
+allies were scattered, the elector of Saxony joining the cause
+of the emperor. The armistice with Poland came to an end
+in 1635, and it was renewed for twenty-six years, at the
+cost of the Prussian seaports, with their lucrative revenues,
+which had paid for the expenses of the German war. Oxenstierna
+returned to Sweden to gather means wherewith
+to continue the war. The ordinary resources of Sweden
+were drained, and great sacrifices were needed. The
+Riksdag declared itself willing to “risk life, blood and
+means, until God grants a peace equal to the dignity of
+Sweden.”</p>
+
+<p>John Banér was the man who re-established the success
+of the Swedish arms. He resembled Gustavus Adolphus
+in greatness of mind and ability in war, paying back the
+execution of his father under Charles IX., by loyalty to
+the illustrious son of the latter. Banér was a typical soldier
+of the Thirty Years’ War, amiable, but licentious, and cruel
+to his enemies. An able tactician and strategist of inexhaustible
+resources, he had distinguished himself in the
+Polish war and later held many important commands. The
+death of Gustavus Adolphus stirred this strong man to the
+very depths of his soul. He left his army in Bavaria and
+arrived at Wolgast, resolved to leave the army. At the
+sight of the body of his beloved king, he was overcome by
+a paroxysm of grief. Axel Oxenstierna persuaded him to
+resume his command in order to bring the work of their
+dead master to completion. He marched with his army
+through Silesia to Bohemia, encamping before Prague.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span>
+After the battle of Nœrdlingen he retreated to Saxony,
+whose deceitful elector he reproached with harsh words.
+Intrigues by the latter to bring the German troops in Swedish
+service to mutiny were frustrated by Banér, who had
+only 2,000 Swedes and Livonians with him. The Saxon
+army followed Banér into Mecklenburg, but suffered a defeat
+at Dœmitz. Banér marched eastward and joined the
+Swedish force, which met him, from Prussia, commanded
+by Lennart Torstensson. The elector of Brandenburg also
+declared war on Sweden, Banér answering by invading his
+country. From the vicinity of Berlin, Banér continued his
+way through Saxony back to Mecklenburg, his German
+troops marauding with such cruelty that they were sharply
+remonstrated with by Banér, who said he found it strange
+that God did not instantly punish them.</p>
+
+<p>Banér was followed by the united armies of Austria and
+Saxony, but, having received reinforcements of Swedish
+troops, he turned on his tracks and met the enemy at Wittstock,
+in Brandenburg, September 24, 1636. The Swedish
+army consisted of 20,000 men, while the opposing force was
+much larger and occupied a favorable position on a hill.
+Banér won a glorious victory, thanks to a skilfully executed
+manœuvre. It grew dark, and the right wing of the
+Swedes was leading an almost forlorn hope against the
+overwhelming forces, when their left wing, after a difficult
+roundabout move, attacked the enemy from behind. Of
+the hostile armies every man was killed except a detachment
+less than 1,000 strong. The baggage, artillery and
+banners were taken, even the table silver of the elector and
+the imperial generals falling into the hands of the Swedes,
+who by this victory had regained their supremacy on German
+soil.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Banér had commenced the siege of Leipsic, when, upon
+news of an approaching army of the imperial allies, he was
+forced to undertake the famous “Retreat from Torgau,”
+which made him more celebrated than any of his great battles.
+He with his army was near being surrounded at the
+river Oder, but saved himself through a series of movements
+of the highest strategic skill. Cardinal Richelieu wrote that
+“this retreat, by means of which Banér saved 14,000 men,
+less a few fugitives and wounded, with cannon and baggage,
+against an army 60,000 strong, is to be compared to the most
+glorious deeds in history.” The enemy prided itself on having
+“caught Banér in a bag.” “Yes,” said Banér later,
+“surely they had me there, but they forgot to tie the string
+around.”</p>
+
+<p>In Pomerania, Banér received the reinforcements from
+Sweden which he had awaited, and once more invaded
+Saxony, where he won a grand victory at Chemnitz, in
+1639. The Swedish army invaded Bohemia, cruelly devastating
+the country. Banér made a daring attack upon
+Regensburg in order to make the emperor and the whole
+German diet his prisoners. Sudden thaws frustrated the
+plans, making it impossible for the Swedes to cross the
+Danube. A superior force was sent to meet Banér, who
+saved his army by another famous retreat back to Saxony.
+On the way Banér was attacked by a fever and died at Halberstadt,
+in 1641. When the imperialists learned of the
+death of the Swedish Leonidas, they thought they could
+easily defeat his army. The Swedes saw the approaching
+enemy and collected around the coffin of their dead hero,
+offering solemn pledges to fight for the glory of his name.
+They then made a sudden attack upon the imperial army,
+which suffered a thorough defeat at Wolfenbuttel. John<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span>
+Banér, triumphant in death like his great master, was buried
+in the Swedish Pantheon of the Riddarholm.</p>
+
+<p>Banér had expressed the wish that Lennart Torstensson
+should succeed him as commander-general of the Swedish
+armies. Lennart Torstensson was a greater warrior even
+than John Banér; no Swedish general, Gustavus Adolphus
+not excepted, ever reaching higher skill or perfection in the
+science of war than this crippled hero. Torstensson was
+of a noble although not influential family. He entered the
+service of Gustavus Adolphus as a body page to the king,
+later distinguishing himself as an artillery commander.
+Torstensson took an honorable part in the battle of Breitenfeld,
+but made a prisoner at Nuremberg, he lost his health,
+during one year’s captivity, in a miserable dungeon. During
+his later brilliant career he suffered greatly from rheumatism,
+and was mostly carried around in a litter throughout
+the battles which covered his name with undying fame.
+He was a pious man of a gentle and cheerful disposition,
+who tried his utmost to reintroduce among his troops the
+excellent moral behavior and severe discipline which had
+been lost after the death of Gustavus Adolphus.</p>
+
+<p>Torstensson with rigor suppressed the intrigues against
+Sweden which were secretly carried on within the army.
+Brandenburg received a new elector in Frederic William,
+who, ambitious and far-seeing, entered an alliance with the
+victorious power of the North. Torstensson now was enabled
+to invade the imperial crown lands, commencing with
+Silesia; but finding it necessary to force a battle he met the
+imperialists at Breitenfeld. October 23, 1642, the second
+great victory of Breitenfeld was won by Swedish arms.
+Archduke Leopold and Piccolomini led the imperial army,
+the latter general fighting as a common soldier to inspire<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span>
+courage by his example, but with no effect. The Swedes
+captured the baggage, cannon and banners of the enemy,
+taking 5,000 prisoners and leaving as many dead imperialists
+on the field. Torstensson conquered Leipsic on the
+following day.</p>
+
+<p>Torstensson marched through Bohemia and Moravia
+with the rapidity which characterized all his military movements,
+and penetrated to the very gates of Vienna, the emperor
+with difficulty saving himself from being made his
+prisoner. But suddenly he left and marched through Silesia
+to North Germany. He had received an order from the
+state council to attack Denmark. The great chancellor was
+out of patience with the perfidy and intrigues of Christian
+IV., who stood in secret connection with every one of Sweden’s
+enemies. No previous declaration of war was made.
+Torstensson captured the Danish duchies of Schleswig and
+Holstein before any one could prevent it, his army then taking
+possession of all Jutland. Gustavus Horn invaded
+Scania, almost completely capturing the whole province in
+spite of bands of freebooters among the peasants, called
+<i>Snaphaner</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Denmark was in danger of its very existence, but King
+Christian IV. did not forget his old wish to destroy the
+town of Gothenburg, whose growing prosperity caused him
+envy. He approached Gothenburg with a fleet, and viewed
+the town from the overlooking mountain of the Ramberg.
+His demands for a surrender were refused. Patriotic Louis
+de Geer had ordered from Holland a fleet at his own expense,
+which was to go to the support of Gothenburg. It
+did not arrive in time, but King Christian left to meet it,
+and it later proved of great value in the Swedish movements
+at sea, joining the Swedish fleet in the Sound. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span>
+latter, consisting of twenty-two ships under the command
+of Clas Fleming, sailed to the Danish waters, capturing
+the island of Femern, supported by Torstensson. An invasion
+of the island of Funen was planned, but could not be
+effected. A great naval battle between the Swedish and
+Danish fleets was fought July 6th. It caused great loss
+on either side, without being decisive. King Christian,
+who commanded his naval forces, lost one eye and received
+over twenty different wounds. The Swedes kept the place
+of battle, but sought the Bay of Skiel for repairs, where
+they were hedged in by the Danish fleet. Clas Fleming
+encouraged his followers to cut through the line, in which
+they were successful. A month later he was killed by a
+shot from the coast of Holstein, where the Danes had erected
+a fort. The Swedes avenged the death of their valiant
+commander by destroying the fort and killing its defenders.
+Fleming was succeeded by Charles Gustavus Wrangel, who
+saved the fleet to Sweden, returning to Femern in the autumn,
+joined by the Dutch fleet of Louis de Geer. The
+Danish fleet was met with October 13th, and at once scattered.
+The swift-sailing Dutch ships went in pursuit and
+destroyed all the seventeen Danish ships but two, which
+brought the news of the disaster to Copenhagen.</p>
+
+<p>King Christian, who had in vain expected support from
+the emperor, found himself defeated on every point, and
+had no other choice than to make peace. The treaty was
+signed August 13, 1645, at Brœmsebro, Denmark ceding
+the provinces of Jemtland and Herjedal and the islands
+of Gothland and Œsel. The province of Halland was to
+remain for thirty years in the possession of Sweden, which
+country was exempt from duties of toll for the traffic in the
+Sound. Denmark disavowed all claims of supremacy over<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span>
+Holstein, the duke of said country two years later formally
+placing himself under Swedish protection.</p>
+
+<p>Lennart Torstensson had fulfilled his task in Denmark
+and returned to Germany. At Jueterbogk, in Brandenburg,
+he met the imperial army, which had been sent to
+cut off his retreat from Denmark, and entirely routed it.
+After this victory Torstensson hastened to Bohemia, resolved
+to “attack the emperor in his heart and force him to make
+peace.” At Jankowitz, in Bohemia, Torstensson administered
+a new and crushing defeat to the imperialists, in 1645.
+The emperor, who himself had ordered his army to battle,
+had arrived in Prague to witness the defeat of the Swedes,
+which the Holy Virgin had promised him in a dream. He
+soon learned the news, which was quite different from that
+expected. The imperial commander-general, five generals
+and eight colonels were made prisoners by the Swedes, who
+captured the artillery and baggage of the enemy. The
+health of Torstensson was at that moment so good that he
+was able to lead the movements on horseback. He said
+that such a bloody battle would not be seen for a long time.</p>
+
+<p>Torstensson invaded Moravia, the fortresses surrendering
+and the inhabitants fleeing in terror. For a second time
+he stood at the walls of Vienna. The very fortifications
+which protected the bridge across the Danube were captured
+by the Swedes. The enemy, whom the elector of
+Saxony had promised to chase out of Germany, was now
+knocking at the gate of the emperor, who heard the report
+with consternation. But Lennart Torstensson was forced
+to surrender to a perfidious enemy, who came to his door
+without knocking. His rheumatic ailment returned with
+such violence that he was obliged to renounce his command
+and return from the fields where he had led none but vic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span>torious
+armies. He was succeeded by Charles Gustavus
+Wrangel. The latter had to give up the siege of Vienna,
+but maintained, in connection with the French, the supremacy
+in Germany until an honorable peace was won. Upon
+his return to Sweden, Lennart Torstensson was covered
+with distinctions, being made a baron and a count on one
+and the same day. He was appointed governor-general
+of West Gothland, Vermland, and the lately conquered
+Halland, with his seat at Gothenburg, where he built himself
+a palace (still the official residence of the governor of
+Gothenburg and Bohuslæn). Lennart Torstensson died
+in 1651, leaving behind the fame of one of the greatest warriors
+known to history, and a spotless memory.</p>
+
+<p>The treaty of peace of Westphalia was signed in October,
+1648. The representatives of Sweden were John Oxenstierna,
+a son of the great chancellor, and Adler Salvius.
+Sweden received, as a reward for her decisive and glorious
+part in the Thirty Years’ War, the following possessions:
+West Pomerania, with the islands of Rugen and Usedom;
+the western part of East Pomerania, with the island of
+Wollin; the town of Wismar, with surrounding territory,
+and the bishoprics of Bremen and Verden. With these
+German possessions followed three votes at the German
+Diet. The Swedish government was to receive a sum of
+several millions to defray the army expenses, of which
+Queen Christine recklessly ceded the larger part.</p>
+
+<p>Through these glorious conditions of peace Sweden rose
+to the rank of one of the mightiest of European empires,
+which held the balance of power in Northern Europe. Her
+possessions made the Baltic almost an “inland lake of Sweden,”
+and efforts soon followed to make it completely so.
+Sweden exerted a beneficent influence throughout her large<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span>
+possessions, which, from a cultural point of view, hardly
+can be overestimated. Her methods of planting the seeds
+of culture, by establishing Swedish and German universities,
+and by abolishing serfdom in the conquered lands, are
+worthy of the highest respect. But with her new political
+grandeur Sweden acquired formidable enemies; she had
+not the resources to sustain or defend her great possessions,
+and the development of the mother country was for a time
+misdirected by dreams of vain glory.</p>
+
+<p>The government of Sweden during Christine’s minority,
+according to the directions left by her father, consisted of
+the five highest officials of the realm. Among these the
+chancellor, through his experience and his former intimacy
+with Gustavus Adolphus, was the leading spirit, king in all
+except the name, and deserving the honorable surname of
+“our greatest civilian,” given him by Swedish historians.
+Unlike the majority of other uncrowned or crowned rulers,
+he did not use his power to secure wealth or distinction for
+himself and his family until upon his retirement. Offers
+to make him a ruling prince of Germany, and the young
+queen his son’s consort, were coldly refused. While the
+war was going on he strengthened the foundations of the
+centralization of the state by the government regulations
+of 1634. At the side of the supreme court of Stockholm
+another was established at Jœnkœping, for Gothaland, with
+a state councillor as president. The system of various government
+departments was enlarged upon.<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> The most important
+of these was the chancery, in which all business to
+come before the government was prepared. Departments
+for commerce and for mining were established. Sweden<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span>
+was divided into eleven administrative districts, <i>læn</i>, later
+increased to sixteen, each of these having a governor. Finland
+was divided into five districts. Count Peter Brahe
+the Younger, as governor-general of Finland, did more for
+this neglected country than was ever done before to right
+wrongs and foster prosperity. Livonia and Ingermanland
+received each their governor-general, the latter province,
+by repeated wars brought into a devastated condition, serving
+as a place of deportation. This system of administration
+won the admiration of the Continent and was in many
+instances copied as a pattern of perfection. The Swedish
+army was considered the finest in the world, and troops
+better trained or more victorious did not exist. At the end
+of the Thirty Years’ War about 100,000 men were under
+Swedish command. The majority of these were foreigners,
+who afterward were enlisted for continual service. Their
+officers were raised in great numbers to the rank of nobles
+and endowed with dignities and estates. The army was
+divided into twenty regiments, seven of which were Finnish.
+The town and coast population regularly furnished able
+men for the navy. Much was done to improve the interior
+communications by means of new roads and canals. A
+postal route was established between Stockholm and Gothenburg,
+and others followed. A Swedish postmaster in
+Hamburg had charge of the foreign mails. Newspapers
+were published, the government shaping for itself an organ
+for official announcement which is yet published.</p>
+
+<p>Great improvements were made in the mining industry,
+thanks principally to the efforts of the noble immigrant,
+Louis de Geer and his Walloons, who made the mines of
+Dannemora a source of riches. Weapons and cannon were
+manufactured not only for the army, but for exportation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span>
+also. The brass foundries were excellent. The towns began
+to flourish, especially Stockholm and Gothenburg,
+through commerce with Holland and the Baltic States. A
+Swedish colony, planned by Gustavus Adolphus through
+the South Company, created by him in Gothenburg, was
+founded in North America. In 1638 two ships, “Kalmar
+Nyckel” and “Fogel Grip,” arrived at the mouth of the
+Delaware River, where territory was procured through
+honest purchase from the Indians. The Dutch in neighboring
+colonies tried to persuade the Indians to oust the
+newcomers, but the Swedish governor, Peter Menuet, won
+their goodwill by fair dealing. The members of the colony
+of New Sweden were honest, upright people, who dwelt in
+peace with the natives. They accepted a governor appointed
+by the government, in the person of John Printz,
+but refused to tolerate among themselves criminals who
+later were despatched to their colony, and these had to be
+taken back. New Sweden after a few decades became the
+prey of the Dutch, but many American families point with
+justifiable pride to their descent from these honest and industrious
+Swedish settlers. A Swedish colony on the coast
+of African Guinea existed between 1650 and 1663, but was
+through treacherous dealings turned over to the Dutch.</p>
+
+<p>Much was done to build up the educational system,
+several new colleges were established, and regulations made
+to instruct the peasants. Peter Brahe founded the University
+of Abo, in 1640, while in Finland, and the German
+University of Greifswald, in Swedish Pomerania, was re-established.
+Swedish men of learning began to attract
+attention, such as John Skytte, who was considered the
+most brilliant Latin scholar of Europe in his day, Stiernhœk,
+the jurist, Bureus and Messenius, the historians, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span>
+Georg Stiernhielm, poet and antiquarian. The old Icelandic
+literature was discovered and began to exert a strong
+influence on literature and science, to a great extent
+strengthening their chauvinistic spirit. The Swedish poets
+Stiernhielm, Runius, Holmstrœm, Lucidor and the poetess
+Brenner, from the Eddic songs, which contain some of the
+oldest humorous poems in existence, learned how to write
+in a humorous vein, something entirely unknown in the
+German and French literatures of that day.</p>
+
+<p>The excellent government, of which Axel Oxenstierna
+was the leading spirit, had its defects. In its perfect system
+of administration, which in the main features stands
+unshaken to this day, there appeared to be no room for
+the people themselves to be governed. On account of the
+great allowances made to the nobles it was necessary to
+increase the taxes of the peasants. Many had to leave
+their homes and farms for want of resources to pay their
+taxes; others were forced away from their property by the
+nobles. There was danger of the destruction of the free,
+self-dependent yeomanry. A hatred against the nobility
+grew up. The great lords returned from the wars laden with
+booty, erected fine castles, and continued the high living
+to which they had become accustomed while abroad. The
+power of the nobility was increased by lavish donations from
+Queen Christine and by the appropriation of other crown
+lands which the government was forced to sell or mortgage
+on account of the wars. The clergy were the spokesmen
+of the peasant class at the Riksdag, every year demanding
+with greater emphasis a restitution to the crown of its property,
+which was held by the nobles.</p>
+
+<p>Queen Christine herself took the reins of government,
+in 1644, at the age of eighteen. She had inherited from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span>
+her illustrious father some of his genius, and from her
+mother, Marie Eleonore of Brandenburg, a peculiar nervous
+disposition. Her mother took no interest in her until the
+death of Gustavus Adolphus, when a flood of exalted tenderness
+suddenly was let loose over her. Count Jacob de
+la Gardie took the lead in opposing the undesirable and
+unstable character of this relation, Christine being separated
+from her mother and educated by the Countess-Palatine
+Catherine, a pious and noble woman, the older sister
+of Gustavus Adolphus. Greatly offended, Marie Eleonore
+left the country never to return. Queen Christine showed
+a remarkable faculty of absorbing knowledge. Well versed
+in a great number of languages, and well read in various
+sciences, particularly mathematics, she soon acquired fame
+as the most learned woman of her time. She was of frank
+countenance, slept little, cared little for dress, and was
+passionately fond of hunting and riding on horseback.
+Queen Christine possessed a sharp intellect, was daring
+and resolute, but headstrong, fickle, extravagant, and but
+little particular in her choice of favorites. Her vanity and
+egotism knew no bounds. At the beginning of her reign
+she took pains to give serious attention to the affairs of
+state. The great chancellor had been her instructor in
+economics and statecraft, but she repaid him by open coldness
+and secret antagonism. Her ambition to surround herself
+with scientists of note, particularly foreigners who flattered
+her vanity by blowing her fame to the four corners
+of the earth, killed her interest for politics. Later she was
+seized by the evil spirit of frivolity, abandoning herself to
+empty pleasures and to excesses of extravagance when her
+learned admirers were forgotten for unworthy favorites.
+Among the latter, Count Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span>
+for a long time all-powerful. The grandson of General
+Pontus and a daughter of John III., he was the son of
+Count Jacob de la Gardie and Ebba Brahe, and one of the
+most brilliant noblemen of Europe. In his youth he formed
+an intimate friendship with the dauphin of France, later
+Louis XIV., who throughout his life honored him with the
+title of “Mon Cousin,” or “Mon cher Cousin.” His ambition
+to become Queen Christine’s consort was never satisfied,
+nor was he allowed to accept the rank of a prince
+from the German emperor, but the queen made him the
+richest man in her realm. Magnus de la Gardie did not
+possess the sterling qualities of his ancestors, but was of
+great patriotism and lavishly liberal toward educational
+institutions, in this respect without a peer in Swedish history.
+In 1666 he founded the Academy of Antiquities,
+which was the first archæological institution in Europe,
+the Swedish antiquarians of the day, principal among them
+Bureus and Stiernhielm, doing valuable antiquarian research.
+In 1664, Count de la Gardie donated to the University
+Library of Upsala a highly valuable collection of
+manuscripts and books, chiefly from Iceland. In the collection
+was also the Gothic Bible translation of Bishop Wulfila
+in the only copy extant. Liberal with his silver, Count de
+la Gardie gave to the precious book a silver binding, as he
+had in earlier years presented to Queen Christine a silver
+throne (which is still in use). This book has an interesting
+history of its own.</p>
+
+<p>Codex Argenteus, the silver book, thus called on account
+of its silver binding, contains fragments of the four
+Gospels in the Gothic language. The translation was made
+from the Greek original by Bishop Wulfila (b. 318-d. 388),
+the apostle of the Goths. The writing is done in so-called<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span>
+encaustum (printing with heated stamps) of gold and silver
+letters on vellum of scarlet color. This copy is considered
+to have been made toward the end of the fifth or in the
+beginning of the sixth century, when the East Goths still
+held sway in Italy. Its early fortunes are unknown, but
+it is supposed that the book was found in the possession of
+the Visigoths (or West Goths) when their empire was seized
+by the Franks, and donated to the monastery of Verden by
+some munificent Frankish chief. Here, in the Benedictine
+abbey of Verden, on the river Ruhr, in Westphalia, the
+book was discovered at least as early as 1554, when the
+scholars Cassander and Gualther of Cologne are known to
+have had copies which can have been made from no other
+source.</p>
+
+<p>After the outbreak of the Thirty Years’ War, the Codex
+was transmitted to Prague for safety. In the year of
+1648, Prague, or rather the older portion of the town, was
+captured by the Swedish general, Count Hans Christopher
+Kœnigsmark, who, among the vast treasures of the Bohemian
+capital, found also the Codex Argenteus which he
+presented to Queen Christine. All the books and manuscripts
+of the queen were in the care of her librarian, Isaac
+Vossius, a learned but eccentric scholar of Dutch parentage.
+Vossius was at first Queen Christine’s teacher of Greek, not
+a very agreeable position, for the queen called him to the
+castle at three o’clock in the morning for her first hour.
+In 1650 he had to leave court and country on account of a
+quarrel with that light of learning, Claude de Saumaise
+(Salmasius), another one of the foreign scholars in favor
+with the queen. In 1653 he was called back, and again took
+charge of the books of the queen, but soon returned to Holland.
+Before his departure he gathered several costly books<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span>
+and manuscripts, among which Codex Argenteus, with or
+without the queen’s private permission, taking them with
+him. In 1670, Vossius came to England, where he died,
+in 1688, as court chaplain at Windsor. King Charles II. of
+England said of him: “Vossius believes in anything but the
+Bible.”</p>
+
+<p>When in Holland, the Codex Argenteus passed out of
+the hands of Vossius after his uncle Franziskus Junius had
+made a complete copy of it. Junius, called the “grandfather
+of modern philology,” published the first edition
+of Codex Argenteus at Dortrecht, in 1665, providing the
+beautiful fac-simile with parallel Old English texts and a
+Gothic glossary. In Holland the Codex changed hands
+repeatedly until found in Brabant by Samuel Pufendorff,
+in 1661, who, in the following year, bought it for Count
+de la Gardie, paying a sum of something like $1,200
+for it.</p>
+
+<p>Once more in Sweden the Codex Argenteus was made
+the subject of close attention, a new edition of it being published,
+in 1671, by Georg Stiernhielm, the innovator of
+Swedish language and literature.<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> That Bishop Wulfila’s
+Bible should ultimately harbor in Sweden does not seem
+out of place, for of all languages now spoken the Swedish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span>
+comes closest to the language of the Goths as crystallized
+during its classical epoch. The interest taken by Swedish
+scholars in the book has always been great and fruitful of
+results, in times when it was thought to be written in the
+mother tongue of all the Teutonic languages, as well as
+later, when Gothic was found to be, not the mother, but
+the oldest sister in the family.</p>
+
+<p>At the Riksdag of 1649 considerable dissatisfaction was
+directed against the nobility and the extravagance of the
+queen in deeding over to favorites all the possessions of the
+crown, in form of counties and baronies. The nobility
+sided against the queen, desirous of reducing her power.
+But Queen Christine received gracefully the complaints
+made, and promised to institute a reduction of taxes and
+payments. In the following year the commotion increased
+when the same taxes were asked as in time of war. The
+queen continued her policy of earnestly considering the
+requests of the lower Estates, thus gaining the controlling
+power. The nobility, suffering strife between its various
+classes, was forced to seek a shelter in the royal power it
+desired to crush, and humiliated itself before the queen.
+Christine received a joint appeal from the lower Estates
+for a restitution to the crown of all property illegally turned
+over to the nobility, but she managed to have the reform
+postponed upon promise of some minor privileges and a
+reduction of taxes. She refused the appeals of the nobility
+to have the clergymen and others punished who had used
+hard language against the aristocrats. But the discontent
+was spreading and turned against the queen personally.
+The ministers preached against the wrongs and violence
+of the mighty ones; the nobles and the peasants threatened
+each other. Peasants in Finland refused to work for aristo<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span>cratic
+masters, and a general rebellion seemed imminent.
+In the meantime Queen Christine was crowned at Upsala
+amid great display and elaborate festivities, the count-palatine
+Charles Gustavus, her cousin, being installed as heir-apparent
+to the throne.</p>
+
+<p>But Queen Christine was not able to still the storm
+around her. The finances of the crown were utterly ruined
+by her extravagance, and she dared not take by violence
+from the nobility what she had given by grace. In 1651
+she declared it to be her intention to leave the government,
+but was persuaded to remain. Her cousin was placed in a
+very difficult position, apparently taking no interest in what
+was going on, but following everything with the keenest
+attention. The son of John Casimir, count of Palatinate-Zweibrucken,
+and Princess Catherine, he was born at Nykœping
+in Sweden, in 1622, and designated as the future
+consort of Queen Christine. Charles Gustavus was educated
+in simplicity and rigor, and was, as his father before
+him, utterly neglected by Axel Oxenstierna and the government.
+He slept in a room without wallpaper, and when
+through with his lessons he sawed wood with his teacher,
+Professor Lenæus. Burning with ambition, and perhaps
+also in love with his brilliant cousin, he proposed to her
+repeatedly, but in vain. After several years of extensive
+travel he joined Lennart Torstensson, refusing a command
+and working himself up through the military degrees. He
+took an honorable part in the victory at Jankowitz, and
+was appointed supreme commander of the Swedish armies
+shortly before the close of the German war. When the
+opposition against Christine reached its climax a good deal
+was expected from Charles Gustavus, which he, on account
+of his singular position, could not undertake to do. A peti<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>tion
+replete with abusive language about the queen was sent
+him, asking him to take hold of the government. Charles
+turned the document over to the queen. Its author, the
+promising young Arnold Messenius, and his father, an able
+historian, suspected as having inspired his son, were accused
+of high treason, condemned to death and executed.</p>
+
+<p>This act of force produced an impression, and the new
+taxes demanded at the next Riksdag were granted without
+opposition. But the queen felt that the discontent was only
+subdued, not suppressed, and, having no further means to
+keep up a luxurious court, she did the wisest act of her
+reign, that of resigning, at Upsala, in June, 1654, Charles
+Gustavus being crowned the same day. The scene of her
+abdication was very impressive, Queen Christine carrying
+herself with noble and lofty dignity, an inheritance from
+her father which she made use of when she saw fit. Leaving
+the crown and the royal emblems, one by one, to the
+Riksdrotset, she descended the throne, from the lowest steps
+of which she spoke an eloquent and touching farewell to
+the four Estates of the Riksdag. She suddenly left the
+country after having secured for herself a princely income.
+At Innsbruck, the daughter of Gustavus Adolphus joined
+the Catholic church, thereby, and by her fame as a learned
+woman, creating a sensation. She died in Rome in 1689,
+after having made two unsuccessful attempts to regain her
+Swedish throne, and one equally unsuccessful to succeed
+the last king of the Polish line of the Vasa dynasty, and
+was buried in the church of St. Peter.</p>
+
+<p>Among the many learned men who at one time surrounded
+Christine were Vossius, Heinsius, Salmasius, Huet,
+Freinshemius, Loccenius, Meibom, Bœclerus, Ravius, Schefferus,
+and others. The greatest of them all, the philoso<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span>pher
+Cartesius (René Descartes), died in Stockholm, in
+1650.</p>
+
+<p>After the love-story of Gustavus Adolphus had come
+to an end, he long felt a disinclination to marry. His sister
+Catherine is said to have tried to rouse him to the necessity
+of choosing a consort. His answer was always: “Never
+mind, dear sister, you shall yourself bring up a son to inherit
+the crown and continue my work.” This son of Catherine
+became Queen Christine’s successor.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</a><br />
+<span class="smaller"><i>Period of Political Grandeur&mdash;Charles X. and
+Charles XI.</i></span></h2>
+
+<p>Charles X. was one of the most ambitious men
+ever placed upon a throne, and Europe was soon
+to realize that a new war-lord was come. His ambition,
+so long unsatisfied and secreted, burst forth with
+uncontrollable strength, in compass only to be equalled by
+his rare gifts of mind and heart. Charles Gustavus had
+suffered a good deal of neglect, coldness and hatred, but
+when ascending the throne he seemed to have forgotten all
+this. Oxenstierna died a few months after the abdication
+of Queen Christine, deeply impressed by the magnanimity
+and genius of the new sovereign. Charles Gustavus was
+one of the most highly gifted of Swedish monarchs. He
+had a great deal of interest in and rare discernment for the
+requirements of a peaceful development. But reared in
+the most warlike of times, when a reputation could be made
+only by winning so and so many “victorias” for the firm
+establishment of a hero’s “gloire,” Charles Gustavus
+thought that only the monarch favored by “Fama” would
+have the prestige to lead firmly the fate of his people. He
+often expressed the wish to rest from his campaigns in order
+to contemplate his work and make it beneficial to his people,
+but such a rest he never gave himself time to enjoy during
+his short and remarkable reign.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Charles burned with desire to gain fame in war, taking
+for pretext that the king of Poland, by his repeated claims
+to the Swedish throne, made peace treacherous and impossible.
+But such was the condition of affairs that something
+must be done to quiet the malcontent people, restore
+peace between the quarrelling classes, and reimburse the
+empty state treasury. At a Riksdag in Stockholm, in 1655,
+a restitution was proposed by the king and agreed to, according
+to which all estates which in earlier times had been
+rendering dues to the direct support of the court, army,
+fleet, or administration, should be confiscated to the crown;
+also one-fourth of the estates given away since the death
+of Gustavus Adolphus, and all estates fraudulently obtained.
+A committee to enforce the restitution was appointed,
+to be presided over by the able Herman Fleming.
+The restitution, far from radical in itself, was not completely
+carried through, thanks to the opposing nobles.
+But it proved effective for the moment, the king securing
+the goodwill of the people, temporary quiet and means to
+carry on the proposed war, to commence which Charles
+Gustavus received the somewhat reluctant consent of the
+faithful people whose financial state was a most despairing
+one. Charles X. thought in new conquests to find means
+to better their condition. Shortly after his coronation he
+married Hedvig Eleonore of Holstein-Gottorp.</p>
+
+<p>John II. Casimir of Poland, the younger son of Sigismund,
+like Vladislav, styled himself king of Sweden and
+had claims to Livonia. For this he should be punished.
+It was not the original intention of Charles X. to make
+himself king of Poland, but he was probably the first who
+ever devised a division of that unhappy country. The success
+of Charles X. was without a parallel. The strong for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span>tresses
+were captured, the armies surrendered and registered
+in Swedish service. After two months Charles X. entered
+the old capital of Cracow, John Casimir fled from his country,
+and, carried away by the frenzy of success, Charles
+Gustavus had himself crowned king of Poland. West
+Prussia was captured, and the elector of Brandenburg, who
+held East Prussia in fief, and the duke of Courland were
+forced to become the vassals of Sweden, in 1656.</p>
+
+<p>But Charles X. had roused an enemy that few invaders,
+however great, have been able to successfully encounter,
+the spirit of patriotism. The Poles, enticed to revolt by
+the Catholic clergy, found a leader in the noble Czarniecki,
+who commenced a war of liberation on the Swedish
+usurper. King John Casimir returned, and armies were
+gathered. Charles Gustavus was yet to do wonders of
+strategy, which aroused the amazement and fear of all
+Europe, but he was glad, when finding a good excuse,
+to extract himself from the affairs of Poland. In
+1656 he defeated Czarniecki at Golumbo, undertook the
+adventurous crossing of the river of San, and captured,
+and recaptured, the capital of Warsaw. The “three days’
+battle of Warsaw” (18th-20th of July, 1656) is one of the
+most famous in modern warfare, by which the reputation
+of Charles X., as one of the greatest warriors of his time,
+was firmly established. Charles X. had joined forces with
+the “great elector” of Brandenburg, who up to the last
+moment was unwilling to risk a battle of 22,000 men
+against an enemy twice as strong. Charles Gustavus was
+unyielding and turned it into a great victory. But his
+position became precarious, Russia, Germany, Holland and
+Denmark being hostile, joined by Brandenburg, the ambitious
+“great elector” not being satisfied with the Swedish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span>
+supremacy in East Prussia. To save himself from the
+dilemma with untarnished glory, Charles X. decided to
+fight Denmark, which country had declared war without
+suspecting the possibility of an attack.</p>
+
+<p>Lennart Torstensson, his master of strategy, had shown
+Charles X. how Denmark was to be attacked. With an
+army of only 8,000, but consisting of the choicest and most
+victorious troops in all Europe, Charles X. hastened in rapid
+marches through Pomerania and Mecklenburg, recaptured
+Bremen, and invaded through friendly Holstein all of Schleswig
+and Jutland, defeating the larger but inexperienced Danish
+army and capturing the strong fortress of Fredericia.</p>
+
+<p>Yet the new position was as precarious as the one in
+Poland, and Charles had to use all the skill of his diplomacy
+to save his little army from an assault by inimical Europe.
+France and England seemed unwilling to render him effective
+help. But when the elector of Brandenburg, who had
+taken upon himself the leadership of Sweden’s enemies,
+turned to the emperor, emphasizing the necessity of crushing
+the Swedish power in one blow, he received the following
+surprising answer: “The king of Hungary has no reason
+to be the enemy of the king of Sweden.” Charles had
+reached a secret understanding with Austria. By this
+move he gained time. Through what seemed almost a
+miracle, he was not only to save his army but lead it on
+to victory after a strategic deed, in originality and daring
+unique in the history of the world.</p>
+
+<p>The year of 1658 commenced with severe frosts.
+Charles X. conceived the daring plan of attacking the
+Danish isles by leading his army over the frozen sounds.
+He concluded to cross the sound of Lille Belt, opposite the
+islet of Brandsœ. His quartermaster-general, Eric Dahl<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span>berg,
+an engineer of great genius, ascertained that the ice
+was safe. One frosty winter morning, the 30th of January,
+the Swedish army, reinforced to 9,000 men, marched down
+on the ice, safely reaching Brandsœ at sunrise. A Danish
+army, arranged in order of battle in the island of Funen,
+was defeated. While crossing over to Funen, the ice
+cracked under two squadrons of cavalry, those who followed
+not daring to proceed. The king himself hurried
+past the dangerous place, pointing out a safe course, and
+the troops followed him.</p>
+
+<p>The most dangerous part remained to cross, the much
+wider sound of Store Belt, in order to reach Seeland.
+Charles first thought of taking the direct route of two
+miles, but commissioned Dahlberg to explore the condition
+of the ice across to the smaller islands to the south. Dahlberg
+did so, and said he would wager his head for its perfectly
+safe condition. In enthusiasm, Charles clapped his
+hands exclaiming: “Now, brother Frederic, we will converse
+in good Swedish!” In the night between the 5th and
+6th of February, the Swedish army marched from Svendborg
+in Funen over the ice to Langeland. “It was terrible,”
+wrote an eye-witness, “to march through the night
+over this frozen sea, where the horses’ hoofs had thawed
+down the snow on the ice, which was below two feet of
+water, and where we, in every moment, were in fear
+of striking the open sea.” At dawn the army landed in
+Langeland. During the rest for breakfast, frozen beer was
+chopped and distributed in pieces to the soldiers. The
+march continued over the still wider sound to Laaland,
+Eric Dahlberg in front, directing the march. Reaching
+Grimsted in Laaland at three o’clock in the afternoon, and
+proceeding to Nakskov, Charles Gustavus was met, at mid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span>night,
+by the burgomaster and council of said town, who
+surrendered its keys. The 9th of February, the army stood
+in Falster, and a few days later was collected at the captured
+castle of Vordingborg in Seeland. Peace was hastily
+offered and agreed to on the 17th, and the treaty of peace
+signed the 28th of February, 1658, at Rœskilde. The conditions
+were severe, Denmark ceding the provinces of
+Scania, Halland, Bleking and Bohuslæn, the whole district
+or diocese of Drontheim in Norway, and the island
+of Bornholm, and agreeing to hold the Baltic closed to
+hostile fleets with the help of Sweden. The last clause
+was a piece of a Scandinavian policy devised by the Swedish
+king.</p>
+
+<p>Charles X. now prepared to meet Brandenburg and
+Austria, once more siding against Sweden. It was necessary
+to keep Holland out from the Baltic, and when Charles
+X. found Denmark unwilling to keep the conditions of the
+recent treaty on that point, the war-lord became wrathful,
+dooming obnoxious Denmark to lose her very existence.
+But the spirit of patriotism, which so often had saved Sweden
+in instances of extreme danger, now sided with Denmark,
+as it had already sided with Poland. King Frederic
+declared he would die like a bird in its own nest, and roused
+the patriotism of the population of Copenhagen, which,
+badly defended, was hurriedly fortified at the news of an
+intended attack. Contrary to the advice of Eric Dahlberg,
+Charles X. made no instantaneous attack, but commenced
+a siege, although he did not bring with him the necessary
+means. The castle of Kronborg by Elsinore was captured
+and its cannon used against Copenhagen. The greatest
+enthusiasm prevailed in the Danish capital; the king slept
+in a tent by the fortifications, and especially the students<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span>
+and Norwegian sailors distinguished themselves by their
+valor and patriotism. Charles X. found it impossible to
+take Copenhagen and retired to some distance from the
+capital. What caused Charles to retire was the arrival
+of a Dutch fleet. It had been met by the Swedish fleet,
+under command of Charles Gustavus Wrangel, the hero
+of Fredericia and Kronborg. After six hours of hard fighting
+the Dutch forced the entrance to the Sound. Before
+leaving, the Swedish king resolved to make a desperate
+effort to capture Copenhagen, defended by 13,000 troops
+and by a patriotic population, with his 8,000 Swedes. The
+attack was made in the night of February 11, 1659, but the
+city, forewarned by traitors, tendered the Swedes a warm
+reception, consisting of artillery fire, stones, and scalding
+hot water. The Swedes lost 600 men and suffered their
+first and only defeat under the command of Charles X.</p>
+
+<p>The situation was grave. The Swedish army in Jutland
+was forced to retire; the troops of 5,000 men in Funen
+were defeated and made prisoners; a revolt took place in
+Bornholm, and the Danes recaptured the district of Drontheim.
+The powers united in their efforts to force Sweden
+and Denmark to a treaty of peace on the basis of the Rœskilde
+stipulations. Charles still held his head high, declaring
+that he would crush the fleets of the allies if they tried
+to interfere in the affairs of the North, striking a sharply
+discordant note in the concert of the powers. To Denmark
+he was willing to cede the district of Drontheim, but prepared
+to occupy that of Akkershus instead, when he was
+taken ill at the convening Riksdag at Gothenburg, dying
+February 11, 1660, in the palace erected by his friend Lennart
+Torstensson.</p>
+
+<p>Charles X. Gustavus was one of the most remarkable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span>
+men of his day, whose wonderful deeds of bravery and
+genius caused amazement through their brilliancy, and
+anxiety through their recklessness. At the first glance his
+appearance gave no idea of the real man. He was short,
+and of an unusually square and clumsy build, with a head
+of coarse proportions. But there was the fire of genius in
+his sharp blue eyes; under the black hair, and below the
+thin black mustache, there was a mouth of firm and resolute
+lines. In the versatility of his endowment, he stands
+as one of the first among Swedish kings, the rich gifts of
+the Vasas and the Wittelsbachs being united in him. As
+a warrior he was great, yet more of a tactician than a
+strategist. As a statesman his views were almost as clairvoyant
+as those of his grandfather, Charles IX., but he
+gave way to the impressions and impulses of the moment.
+He failed to make the Baltic a Swedish inland lake, but
+gained for his country the inestimable gift of a natural
+frontier to the east and south, by the acquisition of Bohuslæn,
+Halland, Scania and Bleking, provinces more valuable
+to Sweden than a whole empire south of the Baltic.</p>
+
+<p><i>Charles XI.</i> was a child of four years at the death of
+his father; his country at war with a world, and in a
+sorely afflicted condition. In the will of Charles X., the
+queen-dowager, Hedvig Eleonore, was named to preside
+over the government, with two votes, and the brother of
+Charles X., the duke Adolphus John, was to take a seat
+with her as Riksmarsk. This arrangement displeased the
+nobility, understanding that it was directed against their
+influence, and they had the duke excluded from the government.
+The lower Estates of the Riksdag sided with
+the duke, but soon gave up his cause as they found that
+he was utterly vain, quick-tempered, and without stability<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span>
+or genius. Lars Kagg, a good warrior, was appointed
+Riksmarsk in his place. Herman Fleming, the able state
+treasurer, was removed as disagreeable to the nobility, his
+ill-health being taken as an excuse, and was succeeded by
+Gustavus Bonde. Peter Brahe remained Riksdrotset, Magnus
+Gabriel de la Gardie state chancellor, and Charles Gustavus
+Wrangel state admiral. Kagg died in 1661 and was
+succeeded by Wrangel, Gustavus Otto Stenbock becoming
+state admiral.</p>
+
+<p>The first duty of the new government was to make peace
+for the bleeding country. This was effected in 1660 through
+the treaties of Oliva and Copenhagen, and in a most satisfactory
+manner, speaking high for the diplomatic ability
+of the governing ones, but also of the ignorance of
+the powers of the utter helplessness of Sweden, in great
+contrast to her outward political grandeur. Poland ceded
+Livonia to Sweden, and Denmark all the territory gained
+by Charles X., except the district of Drontheim and the
+island of Bornholm, while Russia was satisfied with the
+boundaries set by Gustavus Adolphus.</p>
+
+<p>The government, with care and consideration, made
+the necessary arrangements to have the new provinces
+intimately connected with the country. Representatives
+were sent to the Riksdag of 1664, and the University of
+Lund, in Scania, was founded in 1668. If to this is added
+that a good deal was done to encourage art and science,
+principally through Count Magnus de la Gardie, who was
+the Mæcenas of Sweden, the meritorious deeds of the government
+during Charles XI.’s minority are enumerated.
+The less that is said of it in addition, and of its leading
+men, the better for these. They were men of some patriotism,
+but, through their exceedingly aristocratic views and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span>
+lack of stability, unable to further the interests of their
+country, so badly in need of reform. There was not one
+of them who possessed the abilities of a statesman. They
+lived like princes in their counties, each holding court and
+possessing various considerable castles, all the members
+of the higher aristocracy upholding the same standard of
+luxury and power, appointing clergymen and judges, founding
+towns, and discussing the necessity of having mints
+and coins of their own. Magnus de la Gardie, count of
+Leckœ, and married to a sister of Charles X., was the
+greatest of these lords. Close to him came Peter Brahe,
+count of Visingsborg, and Charles Gustavus Wrangel,
+count of Skokloster. The barons approached the counts
+in their display of wealth. The lower nobility, whose
+members often served at the courts of the great lords, were
+not satisfied with this state of affairs. But in the contempt
+and oppression in which they held the lower classes, they
+agreed with the higher nobility, who made no secret of
+their intention to reduce the peasants to slaves. The peasantry,
+suffering and neglected, became the prey of a superstition
+which was shared by the more educated members
+of society, accusations and legal executions of witches becoming
+numerous.</p>
+
+<p>The government was not agreed between themselves
+upon many questions and turned to the state council for
+support. The old privileged class of councillors forced their
+influence upon the government, and the position between
+the two became quite intimate, at the same time difficult
+to define. The state council was as divided in its opinions
+as the government, which fact had a disastrous influence
+upon state politics and administration. Great negligence
+was shown in the various departments, the records of re<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span>ceipts
+and expenditures being imperfect, and a constant lack
+of funds existing. Forgery and thefts were committed by
+high and low officials. Administrative orders were not
+obeyed. The army and the navy suffered utter neglect.</p>
+
+<p>During such a state of affairs the abominable practice
+of receiving “subsidies” came into use. The government
+received, now from one foreign power, now from another,
+a large sum of money to back its respective interests with
+the military forces or the diplomatic influence of Sweden.
+This practice, ignoble in itself, injured the dignity of the
+state and had a demoralizing influence. Thanks to it,
+Sweden sided sometimes against, but mostly with, France,
+her old ally, who, in Count de la Gardie, had an enthusiastic
+friend. In 1662, Sweden schemed with France for
+the election of a French prince as king of Poland; in 1667,
+she formed, with England and Holland, a triple alliance
+against France. Louis XIV. soon won back the friendship
+of the government of Sweden, thus having this country as
+his only ally when reaching the climax of his success. At
+last the Swedish promises to send an army against the
+elector of Brandenburg were fulfilled. It was under the
+command of the old and invalid Count Wrangel, and suffered
+defeats at Ratenau and Fehrbellin, in 1675. These
+were of little importance, or extension, in themselves, but
+they injured the prestige of Sweden, so long supremely
+victorious on German soil, and caused her enemies to combine
+their efforts in order to regain their lost possessions.</p>
+
+<p>Charles XI. was declared of age at seventeen, in 1672,
+when he himself took charge of the government, yet for
+a few years standing under the influence of Count de la
+Gardie. King Charles was, as a child, physically weak,
+and the astrologers had prophesied that he would die an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span>
+infant. For this reason the queen-dowager, a very ordinary
+woman, gave all her attention to have her son develop
+a strong and sound constitution. The child was given its
+own way in everything, casting aside books and rules for
+his individual pleasures. King Charles grew up an ignorant
+self-willed and headstrong youth, who delighted in
+hunting and reckless riding on horseback. His companions,
+manners and language were not of the choicest order,
+and he remained all his life shy and awkward in demeanor.
+From his thirteenth year he was made acquainted with the
+routine of state affairs, but he lacked the qualifications to
+grasp them in detail. He surrounded himself with members
+of the lower nobility, but was well at ease only among
+ministers, burghers and peasants. Charles XI. was all his
+life of an unrestrained temper and an indomitable will, coming
+to the throne the most ignorant king Sweden had had
+for centuries. But he was pious, sincere and just, and his
+morals pure and severe. Through the hardest of lessons,
+Charles XI. was to develop his great uncultivated gifts,
+to become the liberator of his people and one of its most
+remarkable rulers.</p>
+
+<p>Sweden had to encounter many enemies after the battle
+of Fehrbellin, and a chain of disasters followed, nearly
+crushing the young king under their weight. Holland,
+Austria, Brandenburg and Denmark attacked the Swedish
+possessions, which were all captured, one after the other.
+Charles was not able to send reinforcements, the navy
+being in a miserable condition, and when rejuvenated,
+through strenuous effort, defeated by the excellent admirals
+Juel, of the Danish, and Tromp, of the Dutch, navy. The
+treasury was empty, the administration in disorder, and
+mistrust and strife reigned supreme. But the young king<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span>
+showed that he wanted to be obeyed, and managed, by
+hard work, to establish order, the Riksdag sacrificing means
+to organize the defence.</p>
+
+<p>The Danes were successful in their first expeditions on
+land also, their army having undergone a reorganization.
+King Christian V. marched into Scania, while his general,
+Gyldenlœve, invaded Bohuslæn and West Gothland. The
+hostile fleets captured the islands of Œland and Gothland.
+Charles XI., in a sinister state of mind verging on despair,
+at last had his army collected, and entered Halland, where
+Danish troops were encountered and defeated at Halmstad.
+This gave courage to the Swedes, who soon thought themselves
+invincible, when commanded by the young king
+himself. Charles received reinforcements through peasant
+troops, and was desirous to meet Christian in open battle.
+But the Danish army in Scania retreated until forced to
+meet the enemy near Lund. Here a bloody and decisive
+battle was fought, more than 8,000 men being killed, and
+resulting in a victory for the Swedes, who took 2,000 prisoners,
+fifty-one cannon, and the whole hostile camp, December
+3, 1676.</p>
+
+<p>In the following year Sweden suffered two defeats at
+sea, through the hands of Juel, but won another victory
+on land, at Landskrona, when the Danes lost 3,000 men.</p>
+
+<p>While Charles XI. fought with the courage of despair,
+Louis XIV. was supremely victorious over his enemies, soon
+appearing as the dictator of Europe, when peace was made
+at Nimwegen, in 1679. Finding Charles XI. resolved not
+to cede any of his territory, King Louis took a similar
+standpoint in his behalf, but contemptuously neglected to
+let the Swedish ambassadors take any active part in the
+deliberations. Louis XIV. made peace with the emperor,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span>
+Brandenburg and Denmark on behalf of Sweden, which
+country only ceded a small part of East Pomerania to Brandenburg.
+Charles XI. deeply felt the insolence of the benevolent
+dictator, and forced Christian V. to sign a treaty
+of peace at Lund, in 1680, as if Louis XIV. had no part in
+it. An agreement was made that Charles XI. should
+marry the sister of Christian V., the beautiful Ulrica
+Eleonore. Through her gentleness, piety and great benevolence,
+she soon acquired fame as one of the noblest queens
+of Sweden. Ulrica Eleonore led a quiet life, seldom being
+seen at court, where the vain and despotic queen-dowager
+held the first place. She was never able to win the affection
+of her consort until during her last illness. King
+Charles then, for the first time, understood what a treasure
+he had held unappreciated at his side, and watched over
+her with infinite care, bringing peace and sunshine into her
+last days. After her death, in 1693, the king became a
+prey to deep sorrow and remorse, which threw added gloom
+over his dark countenance. The queen had been active in
+upholding a good relation between the Scandinavian countries,
+often bitterly opposed by the queen-dowager, in the
+interests of Holstein.</p>
+
+<p>When peace was made, Charles XI. immediately took
+action in the matter of reform. He saw his country at the
+verge of utter ruin and the crown unable to help it. The peasants
+were losing their rights, one by one, and five-sixths of the
+crown lands were in the possession of the nobles. Brought
+up in ignorance and isolation, finding rottenness and incapability
+everywhere, it was no wonder that the king
+became strongly imbued by the spirit of absolutism, which
+pervaded all Europe. He followed the example of the monarchs
+of France and Denmark, learning from them how, by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span>
+secret agitation and pressure, to make the lower classes
+fervently appeal to him to take the absolute power in his
+hand. His principal adviser was <i>John Gyllenstierna</i>, a
+man of old, celebrated stock, but belonging to the lower
+nobility. Gyllenstierna was one of the greatest and most
+patriotic statesmen of his day. He first attracted attention
+as a champion of the lower nobility against the great lords
+for the restitution of crown lands. Raised to dignities and
+a high station, he never changed his position to the aristocrats
+in power, who thought they could win him over by
+favors. Seeing the absolute impossibility of reform, with
+the help of the nobles, Gyllenstierna turned to the king,
+whose whole confidence he won, inspiring him with plans
+of a Scandinavian peace policy, and a reform through the
+destruction of the aristocracy. Gyllenstierna died after
+having brought to the king his bride, a union which was
+the work of this able statesman.</p>
+
+<p>The Riksdag was convoked to meet October 5, 1680.
+Everything commenced quietly. No royal proposition was
+made; but a strong agitation had been set in motion
+among the four Estates, the three lower ones sending in a
+petition to make the royal power absolute, to have a restitution
+of crown lands made, and the government, during the
+king’s minority, brought to answer for their acts. Similar
+requests were sent up from the nobility, after many stormy
+scenes at the Riddarhus. Thus, toward the end of the
+Riksdag, with the petitions in, came the royal propositions
+which, when accepted, in one blow crushed the aristocracy,
+as a ruling class, and the antiquated state council, as an
+institution, and established the absolute power of the king.</p>
+
+<p>According to the resolutions of this memorable Riksdag,
+which marks a new era in Swedish history, a “grand com<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span>mission”
+was selected which fulfilled its duties with the
+greatest severity. The members of the former government
+and state council were made responsible for their administration,
+and themselves, or their heirs, sentenced to pay
+smaller or larger sums. Two-thirds of the whole amount
+was afterward given up, but the fines were nevertheless
+great. Count Nils Brahe, the heir of both Peter Brahe and
+Charles Gustavus Wrangel, and the wealthiest man in
+Sweden, had to pay something like $600,000 in fines, an
+immense sum in those days, and was reduced almost to poverty.
+The restitution department, assisted by two commissions,
+did equally thorough work under the pressure of the
+king. Ten counties and seventy baronies, with a great
+number of other crown lands of various classes, were confiscated.
+It cost the higher nobility dearly; Count Magnus
+de la Gardie, the all-powerful favorite of three monarchs,
+lost his immense wealth and died on a little estate left him,
+with one single servant out of his former princely retinue.
+The work of restitution was carried on without cruelty or
+injustice.</p>
+
+<p>A second restitution was to follow. The propositions
+were arranged at the Riksdag of 1682, in the same way
+as in 1680. This time the lower nobility was to suffer. All
+crown lands rendering less than $600 a year of income had
+been spared; now these were confiscated, without exception.
+In 1686 followed another blow. The dividends on the state
+loans were reduced, and a stipulation made that holders
+of bonds must refund what they, up to that date, had received
+above the new schedule. The same principle was
+applied in the redemption of mortgaged state lands. These
+new harsh measures were enforced with a great deal of severity,
+with incidental cases of injustice. The king showed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span>
+clemency only to certain parties in stringent need. The
+discontent of the nobles caused many of them to leave the
+country, as, for instance, Count Otto William von Kœnigsmarck,
+son of the conqueror of Prague, and himself the valiant
+defender of Pomerania against the hostile allies. Their
+example was followed by many nobles of Livonia, the
+measures of the restitution entirely crushing the nobility
+of that province, while its peasants, who were slaves,
+gained their liberty, and had every reason to bless the
+Swedish government.</p>
+
+<p>The power of absolutism grew steadily stronger. The
+king decided all matters alone, and prepared in advance the
+measures he proposed to the Riksdag, of whose sanction
+he was as independent as of that of the old state council.
+All officers and institutions were also changed in name from
+“state” to “royal” servants and instruments. The university
+professors were instructed to impress the students
+with the necessity and divine rights of an absolute ruler.
+The nobles were alone in their discontent. The other
+classes, especially the peasants, looked with satisfaction
+and approval on the work which crushed the enemies of
+their liberty and prosperity, and submitted willingly to the
+absolute power because it was in the hands of a patriotic
+king.</p>
+
+<p>Charles XI. used the revenues of the restitutions principally
+for the reorganization of army and navy. For the
+former he reintroduced a system which Gustavus Adolphus
+had applied, the so-called <i>Indelningsverk</i> (work of division),
+which, elaborated upon and firmly established by
+Charles XI., became the foundation of the Swedish army
+system. The whole country was divided into small sections,
+which were each to support an infantry soldier, or a sea<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span>man,
+and larger ones to support a cavalry soldier. This
+soldier received a hamlet with earth to till within his section,
+paying for it by work to the farmers or squires, while
+these paid for his equipment. In times of war the state
+paid his expenses. This changed the troublesome army
+element into useful members of state in times of peace.
+The officers were given small estates by the crown for their
+support. The army consisted, at the death of Charles XI.,
+of 65,000 men, well equipped. On the coast of Bleking
+extensive navy yards were built by Count Hans Wachtmeister
+and Eric Dahlberg, in a new town called Carlscrona.
+At great expense, the best fleet ever under Swedish
+command was constructed by Wachtmeister, who enjoyed the
+full confidence of the king. His excellent means wherewith
+to conduct a successful war, Charles XI. used to maintain
+a dignified peace, of which his country was badly in need.
+Bengt Oxenstierna held the reins of diplomacy, which had
+no attraction for Charles XI. The old alliance with France
+was broken off and close connections with William of
+Orange established for the maintenance of peace. Sweden
+regained its prestige, rising to a power whose support was
+sought by all. When William became king of England,
+Sweden was a member of the alliance against Louis XIV.,
+but contributed to the great European war only a few thousand
+soldiers, according to agreement, preserving, together
+with Denmark, an armed neutrality. Charles XI. lived
+to the proud moment when the powers selected Sweden as
+an arbiter in the deliberations for peace in Riswick, a
+worthy satisfaction gained over the earlier insolence of
+Louis XIV.</p>
+
+<p>Charles XI. improved the administration by filling the
+offices of the excellent institutions with excellent men. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span>
+he obtained by enforcing the necessity of obeying orders,
+supplying officials of all ranks, from the lowest upward,
+with new regulations which must be obeyed, also regulating
+their salaries. Sweden never had a greater lover of law
+and order than Charles XI., and he used his absolute power
+in their interests, trying to remold the old laws to suit modern
+requirements, and having a new church law, a masterpiece
+in its line, introduced. The church itself and its men
+had in Charles XI. an interested friend. New catechism,
+hymn book and ritual were prepared, and a new translation
+of the Bible completed, being published after his death.
+Commerce and mining industries were encouraged, while
+agriculture improved with the improvement of the financial
+conditions of the peasants. Charles XI. was not
+only a “peace king,” but a “peasant king,” who was
+ardently devoted to the improvement of the education and
+financial circumstances of the country population. He was
+of broadly democratic inclinations, finding his delight in
+moving among the humble and lowly as one of them. The
+peasants, who had been brushed aside by the great and
+powerful, were now brought to the front and took an
+active and important part in the affairs of state. Charles
+ruled over them with a stern husbandry, and asked great
+sacrifices of them for the maintenance of an armed defence;
+but no king has accomplished more in their true interest
+than he, or remains more clearly in their memory and traditions.
+He travelled continually through the country, avoiding
+the places where he would be received with ceremony,
+stopping in the houses of the farmers, and enjoying heartily
+what comfort these offered. In his appearance he was
+far from prepossessing. His features were not devoid of
+beauty, but gloomy; his figure strong and vigorous, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span>
+not impressive. Through an accident while hunting he
+became slightly lame. Although dearth and hard times
+set in during the last years of his reign, causing terrible
+losses of life through hunger and prostration, he could
+plainly tell the beneficent results of his administration.
+Charles XI. took the reins of state when disastrous war
+ravished a country which seemed doomed to destruction.
+He left it reformed, reorganized, rejuvenated and prosperous
+at his death, in 1697.</p>
+
+<p>The Period of Political Grandeur in Swedish history
+falls within the epoch of the history of art which has been
+called <i>Barocco</i>, an unbalanced offspring of the Renaissance,
+and a style characterized by great complicity, pretensions
+and ambitions, a renaissance in wigs of formidable proportions.
+After the great victories of the Thirty Years’ War,
+it seems as if the interchange of influences between art,
+literature, science, politics and religion was increased. The
+whole era becomes a Barocco period of bombast and chauvinism,
+the climax being reached in the form of the absolute
+monarchy of the age.</p>
+
+<p>In Sweden, as elsewhere, there was no lack of men of
+ability and brilliant genius; but, influenced by the spirit
+of their time, the works of most of them were bombastic
+and chauvinistic, like the artistic and political aspirations
+of the era. The artists were, as were at first the scholars,
+mostly foreigners. The native and imported scholars
+were characterized by great learning and versatility, but
+abused their genius by Utopian theories and vainglorious
+dreams, and violated the laws of history and sound
+research.</p>
+
+<p>Olof Rudbeck was not only the most learned and brilliantly
+gifted scholar of his day, but his genius also embod<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span>ies
+the eccentricities of the period in gigantic outlines. He
+was born at Westeros, in 1630, his father being the learned
+bishop, Johannes Rudbeckius. As a boy, he gave evidence
+of rare artistic and mechanic talents. He made
+drawings of exquisite designs, constructed clock mechanisms
+of wood, and was a skilled musician. His character
+was proud and violent. At sixteen he was through with
+his college course and ready to enter the university. The
+youth could not stand the change from his coarse jacket
+and fur coat into a coat of broadcloth with buttons such
+as the students wore, and was for his overbearing manner
+punished by his severe father with an additional year of
+college work. At the University of Upsala he caused from
+the start great surprise by his knowledge in all subjects.
+He devoted his attention chiefly to natural science, which,
+in that day, was a neglected study, and soon excelled his
+professors.</p>
+
+<p>At twenty, Rudbeck made a scientific discovery of great
+importance, which caused a stir in the whole learned world.
+By his discovery and theory of the lymphatic ducts, the
+blood circulation of the human body received a satisfactory
+explanation. Before the circle of scholars which surrounded
+Queen Christine, Rudbeck was allowed to demonstrate his
+anatomical discoveries, in 1652. Queen Christine, who
+earlier had been an admirer of his beautiful voice and
+musical abilities, loaded him with praise and gave him the
+means for a journey abroad. Rudbeck returned, in 1660,
+to Sweden, and was appointed professor of medicine at the
+University of Upsala. He planned the first botanic garden
+in the country, donating it to the university. He had illustrations
+made of the native plants and commenced a learned
+work on botany. The first hall of anatomy was erected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span>
+according to his proposition. As rector of the university,
+he established several important reforms, in spite of opposition,
+but supported by the chancellor, Magnus Gabriel de la
+Gardie, who was his friend and protector. To the stupendous
+mastery of all sciences, Rudbeck added a skill and
+cleverness in various branches of practical activity which
+made him carry, with honor, the nickname of “master at
+all trades.” He was an excellent financier, who succeeded
+in restoring the sound economy of the university. He built
+a fish pond, from which the tables of the learned professors
+were regularly supplied with fish. A book store and a book-printing
+establishment were erected by him, and for a time
+run at his expense. He repaired windmills, built houses,
+provided the university town with water works and street
+pavement, also arranging its postal service. Rudbeck was
+one of the finest composers and singers of his day, conducting
+the musical exercises at the university. He made fireworks
+and compasses for the Swedish navy, built fountains
+and organs, was a good poet and painter and an excellent
+etcher and drawer.</p>
+
+<p>Rudbeck does not owe his great renown to his mastery
+of any of these trades, arts or sciences, nor to any discovery,
+reform or invention by his versatile genius. It was his
+monumental work, “Atland or Manheim,” generally called
+“The Atlantica,” which made him world-famous. For
+centuries one had believed in the statement made by Jordanes,
+and based upon traditions current among his people,
+that the Goths who conquered Rome had migrated from the
+North, and that their ancestors, from the remotest period,
+were inhabitants of Sweden. Johannes Magnus constructed
+a line of Swedish kings, beginning with Magog,
+the son of Japhet, on the basis of which the sons of Gus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span>tavus
+Vasa, Eric XIV., and Charles IX., had accepted
+their high ordinals. In the time of Rudbeck it was considered
+a supremely praiseworthy effort to glorify the fatherland
+by strengthening its claims to a high antiquity. Rudbeck,
+the remarkable savant and able poet, got his head
+turned by the political grandeur of his country. He had
+in his youth read the story of Atlantis, found in Plato.
+Rudbeck undertook to prove, in “The Atlantica,” that the
+lost island, with its ancient ideal state from which the gods
+of antiquity were supposed to hail, was identical with Sweden.
+The work, in four large volumes, was written in Swedish
+and Latin of parallel columns. The first volume was
+printed in 1675, Rudbeck having made the types himself.
+In Sweden the work was greeted with an enthusiasm which
+had no bounds. The second volume was published by
+funds which Charles XI. with great generosity placed at
+the author’s disposal. The third volume was dedicated
+to the youthful Charles XII., a true child of the chauvinistic
+epoch, who hailed the book with delight. The fourth
+volume was in press when Upsala was destroyed by fire,
+in 1702. The aged Rudbeck led the battle against the
+ravaging element, by supreme exertions saving the university
+halls, at the expense of his home, his press and
+manuscripts, and the rest of the town. Rudbeck died in
+the autumn of the same year.</p>
+
+<p>The elaborate construction which Rudbeck had completed
+by means of ingenious deductions and learned guesswork
+succumbed with the political grandeur of Sweden.
+“The Atlantica,” which once had its place beside the Bible
+on the tables of the mighty ones, was ridiculed and forgotten.
+On the continent of Europe, where similar books
+had been written in Germany and Holland, making for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span>
+these respective countries similar claims, “The Atlantica”
+was at first received with surprise and admiration, later
+with doubt and criticism. The work, in spite of its mistakes,
+proved a foundation for archæological research, which
+gradually was developed into a science. In order to support
+the boldest and most impossible theories, the almost
+unparalleled power of combination of an eminent genius
+has brought together material which for the first time gave
+the suggestion of relationship between the Teutonic and the
+classical languages of Greece and Rome. Rudbeck was
+also the first to point out the unmistakable resemblance of
+the Old Norse and classical mythologies, as to the origin
+of which modern scholars have reached no absolute certainty,
+but radically different conclusions. The importance
+which Rudbeck placed upon popular customs and traditions
+was too great, but it has favorably influenced later students
+of ethnography and folk lore.</p>
+
+<p>If Rudbeck had limited himself to the demonstration that
+Sweden has been not the cradle of all races, but the original
+home of the Teutonic branch of the Aryan race, he might
+have been able to offer a theory, the truth of which modern
+science lacks, and forever may lack, the resources to
+disprove.</p>
+
+<p>Rudbeck had not been entirely without opponents in
+Sweden. The most noted among them was John Peringskiold,
+who criticised the opinion expressed by Rudbeck that
+the Runes were the oldest alphabet of the world. Peringskiold
+was a fine Icelandic scholar, and the first editor of
+Snorre Sturleson’s “Heimskringla.”</p>
+
+<p>A typical and highly valuable illustrated work from this
+period is the “Svecia Antiqua et Hodierna,” by Eric Dahlberg,
+the renowned quartermaster of Charles X. The text,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span>
+written by Dahlberg and translated into Latin by several
+scholars, was never published, the magnificent engravings
+not before 1716. The latter give an impressive portrayal
+of architectural Sweden during the reigns of the three
+Charleses, but are not quite reliable, as some of the
+castles and palaces in this work are provided with additions
+and embellishments which were never more than
+projected.</p>
+
+<p>There is no family who has wielded a greater influence
+over the Swedish church than that of Benzelius. The
+founder of the house, Eric Benzelius the Elder, and three
+of his sons were archbishops of Sweden, and two of his
+grandsons bishops of the state church. The first Archbishop
+Benzelius, born in 1632, was the son of a peasant,
+and took his name from the farm of Bentseby, of Lulea
+parish, in Norrland, where he was born; he and the three
+of his seven sons who were archbishops refused to be
+ennobled, the other members of the family adopting the
+name of Benzelstierna. The earlier generations of the
+family produced men of great talent and power, to whom
+the third one, although consisting of able men, could not
+be compared. The influence of this family in matters of
+religion, science and culture was strongly felt during the
+period of more than one century. The most remarkable
+member was Eric Benzelius the Younger, one of the most
+learned, active and patriotic men ever born in Sweden.
+Like the other members of the family, he perfected his
+education at foreign universities and made the personal
+acquaintance of Leibnitz, Thomasius, Malebranche, and
+other celebrated scholars. He was a historian, literary
+critic and philologist of merit, writing a history of Sweden
+and preparing an edition of Codex Argenteus, published<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span>
+in London after his death. He was highly appreciated by
+Charles XII., and was a friend of Polhem and Swedenborg,
+being married to a sister of the latter. Eric Benzelius was
+appointed archbishop, but died, in 1742, before he had
+entered office.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</a><br />
+<span class="smaller"><i>Period of Political Grandeur&mdash;Charles XII</i></span></h2>
+
+<p>Charles XII., the most famous of Swedish kings,
+was a boy of fifteen at the death of his father. He
+was born June 17, 1682, at the castle of Stockholm.
+The astrologers declared that Sweden was to receive a new
+war-lord, and that time they were not mistaken. Charles
+XII. was born in the same year as the absolute monarchy
+of Sweden, which power he was to abuse in such a great
+measure. Shortly after his birth, one of the speakers of the
+knightly chapter house, Justice Gyllencreutz, said while
+warning against the consequences of an absolute power:
+“A king may come who follows his own will, being more
+fond of war than peace, or utterly extravagant. History
+proves that changes of the constitution generally are beset
+by dangerous consequences; yea, that they often have
+brought destruction to the country and its people.” These
+words were prophetic.</p>
+
+<p>The early education of Charles was supervised by his
+mother, sweet Ulrica Eleonore, who taught him piety,
+modesty, gentleness and justice by her own example. He
+participated with earnestness in the morning and evening
+prayers, kneeling before the only Lord he ever acknowledged
+as his superior. His mother died when Charles was
+seven years of age, but the devotion in which he held her<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span>
+he fixed upon his sisters, Hedvig Sophie and Ulrica Eleonore,
+but especially upon the former. His religious feeling
+was deep and sincere, and he evinced early a love of truth,
+justice and pure morals which, like his brotherly devotion,
+followed him through life. The most remarkable trait in
+a son of Charles XI. was his power of self-control; but he
+was his father’s superior also in intellectual gifts, such
+as a ready memory, a good apprehension and a sharp discernment.
+His faults were early developed, and met, after
+the death of his parents, no restraint. He was taciturn,
+unapproachable, proud, self-willed and headstrong. He had
+from his grandfather inherited an ambition for the vain
+glory of war, which was led astray by his unrestrained power
+of imagination. From the age of five he was taught by the
+learned professor, Andreas Norcopensis, ennobled under the
+name of Nordenhielm, to whom he was very devoted and
+under whose guidance he received a good general education.
+The plain, able scholar influenced the young prince
+in a wholesome manner. When his teacher asked him how
+an honest man ought to be, the pupil, then seven years of
+age, answered: “He should be gentle but of great courage;
+fierce like a lion to his enemies, gentle like a lamb to those
+at home.” To the question if it were not better to avoid
+dangers in order to save one’s life, the little Charles answered:
+“No, it would be a shame to live in such a
+manner.”</p>
+
+<p>Charles XI. had drawn an outline of the course which
+the education of his son was to follow. The first place
+was given to study of the Bible and the Christian doctrines
+and the severe practice of religion. The prince was to
+learn Swedish and German early, to receive instruction
+in the laws and constitution of his country, and in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span>
+science of war, and to be trained in the arts of military
+drill, fencing and riding on horseback. He soon acquired
+the faculty of speaking Latin fluently, in the ordinary
+mechanical way, and learned some French. When his
+first governor, Eric Lindskiold, tried to interest him in the
+latter language by pointing out its usefulness in diplomatic
+intercourse with the French ambassador, the prince answered:
+“If I meet the king of France I will converse with
+him in his own language. When a French ambassador
+comes here, it is more appropriate that he learns Swedish
+on my account than I French on his.” His favorite studies
+were strategy and mathematics, which he made under
+the Swedish general, Charles Magnus Stuart. He often
+said that the one who was ignorant of mathematics was
+only a half human being. Charles was fond of riding the
+horses of his father, and followed the latter on his adventurous
+journeys and hunts. When only twelve years of age
+he killed his first bear. He early developed the reckless
+courage which made him so famous. Charles was exceedingly
+fond of reading the Eddic poems and the old hero
+Sagas of the North. He said he wanted to resemble the
+ancient hero kings, and wished he had, like many of them,
+a brother who would remain at home to rule the country
+in peace, while he, with his warriors, made a tour of the
+world. The prescription, made by his father, that the
+prince should be taught to make a moderate use of his
+absolute power, was, if carried out, of little consequence.
+Charles mourned deeply the losses of his mother and of his
+first teacher, Nordenhielm, which followed close upon each
+other, seeking, after that, more the company of his father.
+Charles XI. had a long private conversation with his son
+shortly before his death, pointing out the men in whom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span>
+he could confide. Among these Charles Piper occupied
+a conspicuous place. He remained ever the adviser of
+Charles XII., but never had his full confidence. The enigmatic
+king confided in nobody, and passed through life
+without opening his heart to any one.</p>
+
+<p>Charles XI. had appointed a government to reign during
+the minority of his son, to be presided over by Queen-dowager
+Hedvig Eleonore. But the Estates of the Riksdag,
+at the request of the nobility, declared Charles XII.
+of age when only fifteen. The young king placed the crown
+upon his head with his own hands at the coronation, and
+took charge of the government in November, 1697. Bengt
+Oxenstierna remained at the head of foreign affairs as the
+president of the chancery, while Charles took personal
+interest in continuing the life work of his father, the
+restitution of crown lands, which still went on. Charles
+Piper, who had been quite active in obtaining an early
+majority for the king, was raised to the dignity of a count,
+and became one of the most influential members of the state
+council. Charles was not influenced by anybody in spite
+of his youth. He listened to what the councillors had to
+say, then announced his resolutions with terse independence.
+He refused firmly the appeals of the nobility to reduce
+the demands of the work of restitution. He abolished
+the practice of torture, in spite of the unanimous vote of the
+state council to the contrary. When the aged Bengt Oxenstierna
+was anxious to have annulled a treaty with France, already
+signed, the young king answered tersely: “You have
+heard my opinion; I am the one who signed the treaty.”
+Charles took, in general, little interest in foreign affairs,
+except those concerning Holstein, to the duke of which
+country his elder sister was married.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The exuberant spirits of the youthful Charles found an
+outlet in daring exploits and plays of war. The somewhat
+older man, Count Arvid Bernhard Horn, the commander of
+the royal body-guard, took an active part in these as the
+most intimate comrade of the king. They went bear-hunting
+together, with wooden forks as their only weapon, fought
+naval battles with hand-spurts, made breakneck rides on
+horseback, etc. When the king was near being drowned
+in one of these “naval battles,” the only ones that Charles
+XII. ever fought, he was saved by Arvid Horn, who pulled
+him up by the hair. When Horn in some other game was
+badly hurt and taken ill, the king kept the night watch at
+his bedside. Upon the visits of Duke Frederic of Holstein,
+the two young princes indulged in escapades of the wildest
+kind, if one were to believe the reports made by the foreign
+ambassadors at Stockholm to their respective governments,
+and chiefly founded upon hearsay. His application to state
+affairs was almost constant and very arduous, for which
+reason these reports of the escapades and adventures of the
+youthful king are probably wild exaggerations, or mere
+fables.</p>
+
+<p>The reports of a young inexperienced king who gave
+up his time to sport and pastimes spread abroad, and the
+enemies of Sweden were led to believe that an opportune
+moment was come for an attack on the empire which held
+the balance of power in Northern Europe. Peter the Great,
+one of the most remarkable men of modern history, was
+czar of Russia. Engaged in his heroic task of reorganizing
+his barbarous empire to a modern European state, he was
+desirous of obtaining harbors on the coast of the Baltic,
+from which sea he was cut off by the Swedish possessions.
+August, a cousin of Charles XII., who was elector of Sax<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span>ony
+and king of Poland, was anxious to take possession
+of Livonia. King Frederic IV. of Denmark, also a cousin of
+Charles, wished to suppress the duke of Holstein, who had
+gained independence, thanks to the assistance of Sweden.
+Czar Peter and King August entered into a secret alliance
+with each other. While negotiations for continued peace with
+Sweden were still pending, the Russians secretly crossed
+the boundary in Ingermanland, Saxon troops entered Livonia,
+and the king of Denmark took possession of Holstein.
+The Swedish council of state was amazed at this
+triple danger. Charles simply remarked that it was strange
+that both of his cousins wanted war, and expressed the hope
+that God would support him in his righteous cause.</p>
+
+<p>Charles XII. was eighteen years of age when he entered
+this stupendous conflict. He was tall and slender, but
+broad-shouldered; he had a sympathetic face, dark-blue
+eyes, thin brown hair, and a carriage expressing courage
+and an indomitable spirit. Upon entering actual warfare,
+Charles renounced all pleasures and comforts. Sharing the
+severe discipline of his soldiers, he slept in a tent, ate of
+their rude food, and drank nothing but water. The wig,
+considered so indispensable in those days, was laid aside
+and he dressed, like the men of his body-guard, in a coat
+of coarse blue cloth with large brass buttons and yellow
+lining. His long sword was hung at a yellow leather
+girdle. He wore high boots and yellow trousers made
+of skin. In battle he was always found where the danger
+was most imminent.</p>
+
+<p>Charles turned first against Denmark. A Swedish fleet
+of forty-eight ships joined the naval forces of equal strength
+which the Swedish allies, England and Holland, had sent
+to meet it in the Sound. A more powerful combination has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span>
+never been seen before or after in Scandinavian waters.
+Charles embarked with his troops on one hundred Scanian
+ships and landed at Elsinore, August 4, 1699. He was
+impatient to reach shore, jumped into the water, which
+reached to his arms, and was followed by his troops,
+who carried their weapons high above the water. A sudden
+attack was made on the Danish troops on shore, who
+turned and fled. The Swedes made a temporary camp
+and prepared themselves for a march on Copenhagen.
+King Frederic was struck with terror and hastened to
+make peace with the duke of Holstein, who was left in
+undisturbed possession of his country through the treaty
+of peace at Traventhal. Charles withdrew his troops at
+once, although reluctantly, having wished to crush the
+power of Denmark. He had maintained the strictest discipline
+in his camp, and treated the inhabitants of the country
+with gentleness. The Danish peasants, who abundantly
+brought necessary provisions, said to the king: “You do
+us no harm because you are the son of our pious Ulrica
+Eleonore.” The king answered: “What I have done I
+have been forced to do. But rest assured that I shall from
+this day be the upright friend of your king.”</p>
+
+<p>Charles now turned against Russia. With an army of
+somewhat more than 8,000 men he sailed for Ingermanland
+to attack the invaders, at least five times as many in numbers,
+who were laying siege to the town of Narva. The
+majority of the Russian troops consisted of serfs who were
+taken directly from their work and were without any military
+training. This army of undisciplined serfs was to
+a great extent commanded by foreign adventurers. The
+news of the approach of the Swedish troops brought consternation.
+Several of the Russian officers shed tears, while<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span>
+the czar quickly left his army to gather more troops. The
+remarkable battle of Narva was fought November 20, 1700.
+King Charles offered the enemies a battle in the open field,
+but when they refused to accept or to come out, he attacked
+them in their trenches, which formed a semi-circle around
+the town of Narva, with the wings touching the river of the
+same name. The war-cry of the Swedes was: “With the
+help of God!” Their attack was favored by a snowstorm,
+which blew in the faces of the Russians, blinding them. The
+enemies could tell that the Swedes were few in numbers,
+but thought that reinforcements must be on the way. The
+trenches were filled with bundles of fagots, the ramparts
+were mounted, and the Russians thrown into confusion.
+The Russian cavalry fled at the opening of the artillery fire.
+The rest, crushed in between the walls of the town and their
+aggressors, tried to escape on every side. The Swedes soon
+had cut the immense Russian line of troops in twain at the
+centre. The half which consisted of the right wing moved
+down to the bridge over the Narva River. But the bridge
+gave way under the weight of the first 3,000 men, who
+found their graves in the river below. The rest of the right
+wing was hedged in between the Swedes and the river.
+The regiments of the Russian guards, who were the most
+experienced of the troops, fought bravely for some time,
+but great confusion ensued among the others, the soldiers
+wanting to kill their foreign officers, whom they blamed for
+the catastrophe. The chief commander, Duke de Croi, with
+several other foreigners, for this reason surrendered to the
+king.</p>
+
+<p>The Russian soldiers of the right wing, abandoned by
+their superior officers, made heroic efforts to defend themselves
+behind barricades which they erected for the mo<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span>ment.
+King Charles hastened to the spot, but was very
+near losing his life in passing through a swamp. He sank
+so deep that the water rose to his neck, and he could save
+himself only by leaving his horse, his sword, and one of his
+heavy boots behind in the mud. Without in the least improving
+his condition, the king took another horse and
+sought his way to the heart of the battle. The Russians
+were killed in masses, but did not surrender before King
+Charles had taken a Russian battery, thus depriving them
+of the last hope of being reunited with the left wing. The
+latter, who kept in the vicinity of their trenches, had fought
+with a good deal of courage. At nightfall two officers
+were sent from the right wing to ask the king for an
+armistice, which was granted. King Charles spent the
+night in his wet clothes, by the bivouac fire, on the ground,
+his head resting in the lap of one of his soldiers. In the
+morning, before dawn, two Russian generals arrived, demanding
+free leave for the remainder of the right wing.
+This was granted, but the superior officers had to remain
+as prisoners of war. The commander of the left wing also
+opened negotiations. Free leave was granted them upon
+the surrender of their arms. It must have been an impressive
+sight to see the body of 12,000 Russians, with
+heads uncovered, who passed in line by only half as many
+Swedes, depositing their banners and arms at the feet of
+Charles XII. It was a wise plan to keep as prisoners only
+the superior officers, for the Swedes had not the means at
+hand to watch and feed so many prisoners as those who
+were allowed a free leave. In the battle of Narva 18,000
+Russians were killed or captured; the hostile camp, baggage
+and artillery fell into the hands of the victors.
+Charles XII. made his solemn entry into Narva, where<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span>
+Te Deum was sung in the cathedral. Charles with his own
+hand crossed out all expressions of vainglory over the success
+or disdain of the vanquished which occurred in the
+official account of the victory to be sent to Stockholm.</p>
+
+<p>In the following year Charles XII. turned against his
+third enemy, King August. Saxon troops, 10,000 strong,
+were joined by 19,000 Russians, and had taken a strongly
+fortified position on the southern shore of the river Dvina.
+Charles decided to cross the river from Livonia and attack
+the enemy. The famous crossing of the Dvina was planned
+in all details by Eric Dahlberg, the venerable hero and
+engineer from the wars of Charles X. and Charles XI.
+Baron Dahlberg died not long after this memorable event.
+It was June 27, 1701. The Swedish infantry was carried
+across in prams, the cavalry on fleet-bridges provided with
+wooden walls on hinges, which, when erect, were a protection
+against the fire of the enemy, and, when let down,
+formed gangways for the landing. In front of all boats
+loaded with hay and straw were sent out, which were
+ignited, sending a thick, disagreeable smoke in the face of
+the enemy. The artillery in the prams kept up a disastrous
+fire. Charles XII. was one of the first to land, and opened
+the attack when only half of his infantry had reached the
+shore. The Russians soon scattered in wild flight. The
+Saxons withstood three powerful attacks, but at last followed
+the bad example set by their allies. The battle was
+fought and won before the Swedish cavalry had reached
+the shore. The bountiful provisions of the scattered army
+were captured. The crossing of the Dvina was executed
+under the direction of Charles Magnus Stuart and Count
+Magnus Stenbock.</p>
+
+<p>The victories of the young hero king and his valiant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span>
+soldiers aroused the admiration of all Europe, and much
+sympathy was expressed for Sweden, who had so successfully
+warded off a deceitful and unjust attack. Charles
+XII. received offers of peace from his enemies, but he did
+not accept them. He did not believe that his treacherous
+neighbors would keep their promises, and he was no doubt
+right. He ought to have crushed Russia first, but his victory
+over Czar Peter had been too easily acquired to make
+him realize the genius, power and resources of this semi-barbarous
+enemy. Charles considered King August a more
+formidable opponent, which was a mistake; but his suspicion
+that the latter would attack him from behind if he
+entered Russia would probably have proved to be well
+founded had circumstances permitted. So Charles invaded
+Poland, resolved to gain by the interior conflict which was
+disturbing the peace of that country. He wanted to dethrone
+August and select a prince who would keep faith
+with Sweden.</p>
+
+<p>The Polish empire had not taken any active part in the
+war against Sweden, but Charles XII. demanded that the
+Poles should prove their good faith by dethroning August
+and by choosing a native king. When they refused, he let
+his army enter Poland. For four years King Charles remained
+there, marching from one part of the country to the
+other. He conquered the Polish capitals of Warsaw and
+Cracow, and several other fortified places, winning over
+a considerable group within the nobility. In 1704 the Diet
+of Warsaw was called, at which the Polish nobles, in the
+presence of Swedish troops under the command of Count
+Arvid Horn, were compelled to deprive August of his
+crown and elect a new king according to the instructions
+of King Charles. The new king chosen was the noble, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span>
+incapable Stanislav Leczinski, who belonged to an aristocratic
+family of little influence and few connections. He
+was an upright and highly educated man, but lacked energy.
+King August was not willing to abdicate, for which
+reason King Charles pursued him into his hereditary land.
+The line of march to Saxony went through Silesia, a neutral
+country belonging to the empire of Austria. As the
+army of August had been allowed to pass this country,
+Charles argued that the same right must be granted him
+and his troops. At the river Oder, Charles was met by
+a number of persecuted Protestants, who, kneeling and
+weeping, prayed for his assistance in pleading their cause
+before the emperor. Charles promised them to do so, and
+kept his word.</p>
+
+<p>The Swedish army entered Saxony in the year 1706.
+The inhabitants, who had in a clear memory the acts of recklessness
+and cruelty committed by the troops of John Banér,
+fled for their lives, taking along all the property that could
+be moved. To their great surprise, they saw the Swedes
+encamp themselves as quietly as in time of serenest peace.
+No violence was committed. Nothing was taken, except
+in exchange for money. But a heavy war tax was imposed,
+which made both August and his people inclined to seek an
+early end of the war.</p>
+
+<p>Thanks to the means raised in this manner, the Swedish
+army was provided with an entirely new outfit of clothes
+and furnished with necessary provisions. Every regiment
+established a savings bank of its own, in which the soldiers
+deposited their earnings. The castle of Alt-Ranstædt was
+the headquarters of Charles XII., situated close by the
+memorable battlefield of Lutzen. The sojourn of Charles
+XII. in Saxony was an incident of universal importance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span>
+to the history of Europe. He had with his soldiers approached
+the scene of a conflict which was shaking the
+whole of Western and Southern Europe. The situation
+was such that it for the moment hung at the point of the
+victorious sword of Charles XII. The great question was
+whether he was resolved to take an active part in the universal
+conflict. Charles was besieged at his headquarters
+by princes, warriors and statesmen, who came to pay their
+respects, desirous of winning his favor and of getting an
+idea of his plans. The Swedish invasion of Saxony was
+highly beneficial to the interests of France, and Louis XIV.
+was the first to admit it, anxious to make the stay of
+Charles as long as possible, because it had caused a standstill
+in the hostilities against France. The Duke of Marlborough
+was among the visitors of Charles XII. He
+brought a letter of courtesy from Queen Anne, who wrote
+that the letter “came not from her chancery but from her
+heart, and was written by her own hand.” She longed
+to meet the famous king personally. The duke’s errand was
+to find out whether Charles was to join the fighting forces
+of Western Europe or to attack Russia. He was glad to
+learn that the latter move was the one which the king had
+in mind. Although the two great warriors expressed mutual
+admiration, neither was sympathetically impressed by
+the other. Charles XII. thought Marlborough looked “too
+fine” for a soldier, while the latter thought the rude simplicity
+of the king an affectation by which to obtain notoriety.
+On account of the great influx of distinguished visitors,
+the style of living was quite different at the royal
+headquarters of Alt-Ranstædt to what it was during the
+Polish and Russian wars. But the king kept up the heavy
+military drills and long individual expeditions on horseback,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span>
+which he thought indispensable. One of the first ones of
+the latter which he undertook was to visit the battlefield
+of Lutzen. The king remembered distinctly all that he
+had read about the famous battle, and made clear to his
+generals the various positions of the two armies. At
+Schwedenstein, the place where Gustavus Adolphus fell,
+he lingered for a long while in silence. At last he said:
+“I always have tried to live as he did. May God grant
+me the grace of dying in like manner.”</p>
+
+<p>King August was satisfied to conclude a treaty of peace,
+which was signed at Alt-Ranstædt. He renounced the
+crown of Poland and recognized Stanislav Leczinski as
+the legitimate king. August turned over John Reinhold
+Patkul, a Livonian traitor, who during the reign of
+Charles XI. had made himself disagreeably conspicuous,
+and who had been intriguing against Sweden ever since.
+Charles XII. was, in gentleness and justice, far in advance
+of his contemporaries, but he made an exception to his
+ordinary course of clemency in the case of Patkul, who
+was executed according to the cruel practice of the time.
+When the Swedish army left their camp, after peace was
+made, the regiments were for many miles followed by the
+grateful inhabitants, who, with tears in their eyes, gave
+evidence of their friendship. The reason was that the good-natured
+soldiers of the regular army had followed the habits
+of their country in assisting their temporary hosts in their
+various rural pursuits. The Swedes were greeted by the
+people of Silesia with great enthusiasm, out of gratitude for
+the improved conditions which the emperor had granted
+them, at the request of the king. Charles XII. thus
+made good, in a measure, the acts of violence committed
+by the Swedish army during the Thirty Years’ War,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span>
+and proved that he had at heart the cause of religious
+liberty.</p>
+
+<p>Czar Peter was now to be punished, when it was too
+late. The Russians had invaded the Baltic provinces and
+captured the fortress of Nœteborg, which Czar Peter gave
+the new and significant name of Schluesselburg. The new
+Russian capital of St. Petersburg, with formidable fortresses,
+was founded in 1703. The laborers were carried
+away by force from the various parts of the immense empire.
+They died in great numbers of prostration and of
+fevers, the Swedes also doing their best to impede the
+progress of the work. The vacancies were rapidly filled
+by new multitudes. While the Swedish king was fighting
+in Poland, the provinces of Ingermanland, Esthonia and
+Livonia were overrun by the Russians, who devastated the
+country with acts of cruelty. Dorpat was captured and
+Narva fell after a bloody conflict, being bravely defended
+by Rudolph Horn. The Russians destroyed the Swedish
+navy of the Lake Peipus and penetrated to the province
+of Courland where Charles XII. had left a considerable
+detachment of troops. The plan of Czar Peter to conquer
+Courland and cut off Charles from the connections with his
+empire was frustrated by General Adam Louis Lewenhaupt.<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>
+He met a formidable Russian force, several times
+as numerous as his own, at Gemauerthof, near Mitau,
+which he routed, in 1705.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Sweden stood alone in her struggle with Russia. The
+old alliance with England and Holland was no longer in
+existence. The continental powers were too busily engaged
+in the West to assist in checking the rising power of the
+Eastern giant. For the limited resources of Sweden he was
+too big already. Charles XII. had with him a stately and
+well-equipped army of 44,000, which, by contemporary
+authors, was pronounced to have consisted of the finest
+soldiers of the world. Charles was to attack Russia from
+Poland, for the devastated Baltic provinces could no longer
+support an army with the necessary provisions. General
+Lewenhaupt was to join him from Livonia with an army
+of 12,000 men and ample provisions. Another Swedish
+commander, General Lybecker, was to attack and destroy
+St. Petersburg, with an army of the same size, from his
+headquarters in Finland. The total of Swedish troops distributed
+in various directions amounted to 100,000, the
+largest regular army Sweden ever had put up. Charles
+had concluded to engage semi-barbarous allies in a battle
+against a semi-barbarous enemy. In 1707 he entered
+into an alliance with Turkey, and, about the same
+time, another with Mazeppa, an old ambitious Cossack
+leader who wanted to establish his supremacy over the
+steppes of Russia. The plans of Charles XII. for the invasion
+of Russia have often been severely criticised, but
+competent judges of our day have declared that they were
+not only elaborate but highly ingenious. They miscarried
+on account of arrangements which could not be made according
+to expectations, and on account of Czar Peter’s practice
+of laying bare and waste the parts of his own country
+through which the invaders were to pass. Furthermore,
+Charles had sent home to Sweden several of his best gen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span>erals,
+such as Arvid Horn and Magnus Stenbock. This
+was done after the successes in Poland, and was a good
+thing in itself, for the men mentioned were exactly those
+who were destined to save the very existence and honor
+of a country which was deprived of its political grandeur
+through the heedlessness of King Charles. But without
+them he was surrounded by inexperienced men only.
+Charles Gustavus Rehnskiold was the most conspicuous
+of these, a valiant but reckless man, who only understood
+certain details of the elaborate expedition.</p>
+
+<p>When the Swedes were approaching Russian territory,
+Czar Peter made offers of peace which the French ambassador
+urged Charles to accept. Charles answered: “He
+does not mean it. He wishes the world to believe that he
+wants peace and I war.” Czar Peter had organized his
+army through a wonderful exertion of energy, built new
+fortresses and strengthened the old ones, enforced discipline
+and gathered ammunition. Able officers had been trained
+in the repeated conflicts with the Swedes. These took the
+lead of the army movements.</p>
+
+<p>Charles left Poland with somewhat more than 30,000
+men, entering Lithuania and chasing the Russians before
+him. A last great victory was won by Charles XII. at
+Holovzin in Lithuania, in 1708. The Swedish army crossed
+the Dniepr and marched to Mohilev. Charles lingered in
+this place for a month, anxiously awaiting the arrival of
+General Lewenhaupt. The latter remained in Livonia during
+all this time, the letter ordering him to join the central
+army not reaching him in due time. The march was continued
+toward Smolensk, but King Charles thought that he
+could only reach Moscow over that route with the greatest
+difficulty, and changed his course, marching toward the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span>
+Ukraine to join Mazeppa and the Tartars. Mazeppa had
+been vexed by the long delay, and was, besides, not able
+to gather the forces which he had promised. Czar Peter
+captured his stronghold, and Mazeppa reached the Swedish
+army more like a fugitive than an ally. The expedition
+of General Lybecker against St. Petersburg proved a failure.
+Lewenhaupt, who had at last received his order,
+moved into Russia. At Liesna he met a hostile army considerably
+larger than his own. After a fierce battle, which
+involved a great loss of life, Lewenhaupt broke through the
+Russian lines. He had been forced to destroy the great
+amount of provisions which he had gathered, and reached
+the army of King Charles in a very different state than was
+anticipated. The king found himself in a difficult position,
+being cut off from all connections with his country and in
+want of provisions.</p>
+
+<p>The battle of Pultowa, which was fought June 28, 1709,
+decided for centuries the contest over the political supremacy
+of Northern Europe. Charles XII., with his army,
+which had been reduced to 18,000 men, laid siege to the
+important town of Pultowa, by the river Vorskla. The
+Russian army, 50,000 strong, under the command of Czar
+Peter, hastened toward the enemy. The fear of the terrible
+Swedes was as yet so strong in them that they did not
+risk an attack, but built a strongly fortified camp. King
+Charles, with his army in distress, further reduced to only
+12,000 men, and in want even of ammunition, saw no other
+way than to fight. He was himself wounded in the foot
+and unable to take command in person. General Rehnskiold,
+who led the cavalry, acted as general commander
+during the battle, which position he was not able to fill;
+Lewenhaupt commanded the right wing with decided suc<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span>cess.
+He forced the enemy to abandon three of its seven
+forts, and saw it once inclined to leave in flight. The left
+wing of the Swedish army was brought into disorder and
+receded. King Charles, who suffered greatly from his
+wounded foot, was carried on a litter between the lines,
+encouraging his soldiers and dealing out new orders. The
+litter was soon shattered, and the horse which the king
+mounted was shot under him. He saved himself by accepting
+the horse of one of his officers. Rehnskiold, who appeared
+nervous and confused, offered only a lame assistance
+with the cavalry. While riding back and forth in his heedless
+anxiety to be useful, without obtaining his object, he
+rode into the Russian lines and was made a prisoner. The
+same fate befell Count Piper, the aged adviser of King
+Charles. Lewenhaupt kept up his heroic struggle on the
+right wing, but his forces were greatly reduced by the fire
+of the Russian artillery. The Swedes had lost the battle.
+Their infantry had especially suffered great losses. A great
+number of the ablest officers were killed or made prisoners.
+As an illustration may be quoted the fact that among the
+killed were twenty-two officers of the Wrangel family.
+The Russians made no fierce pursuit, and the remnants of
+the Swedish army were given time to recede to the shore
+of the Dniepr where this river is joined by the Vorskla.
+The change of route toward the Ukraine had been made
+contrary to the advice of Count Piper; the march to the
+Dniepr was made contrary to that of Count Lewenhaupt.
+The Swedish troops were in fact shut in between the mighty
+rivers, which they lacked the means to cross, and the
+surrounding mountains, lined with Russian artillery.
+Charles was unwilling to leave his army, but Lewenhaupt
+persuaded him to save his life. Mazeppa had crossed the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span>
+Dniepr with his troops. Charles followed in the night of
+July 1st with 1,000 of his men. With 500 Swedes Charles
+reached the Turkish town of Bender, where he was at first
+resolved to remain only until his wound was healed. Lewenhaupt,
+who now was in command, surrendered to the
+Russians the following morning, with all the rest of the
+army. This course was inevitable; another battle would
+only have caused new and useless sacrifices of human lives.</p>
+
+<p>A sad fate awaited the Swedes in Russian captivity.
+Only a few saw their homes again, after years of suffering.
+Rehnskiold was among these. The majority, like Lewenhaupt
+and Piper, died in captivity. Considerable information
+about the experiences of the Swedish prisoners in
+Russia is found in their memoirs and note-books, preserved
+to this day. It appears that the treatment which they
+received varied greatly, according to circumstances. Czar
+Peter wished to keep the Swedish captives in the country
+as long as possible, with the object of favorably influencing
+his barbarous subjects by their superior abilities and culture.
+He had commanded clemency in their treatment; but his
+orders must have been disobeyed, for many Swedish soldiers
+are known to have perished in the sulphur mines.
+In Tobolsk and other towns of Siberia, Swedish majors and
+captains were in great numbers occupied in the humble
+pursuits of teachers, barbers, tailors, painters and blacksmiths.
+Some kept shops and others made articles of the
+Swedish sloyd, in which there was no competition in the
+market. The pastimes were music and theatricals. There
+were, among these thousands of prisoners, 9 generals, 17
+colonels, 27 lieutenant-colonels, 38 majors, 494 captains,
+975 lieutenants, 67 ministers of the Gospel, etc. A good
+many of these were Swedish subjects of German descent,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span>
+or foreigners in Swedish service. The prisoners tried their
+best to make it as pleasant for themselves as possible. They
+formed a little community of their own in Moscow, with
+Piper and Rehnskiold as their highest officials. Georg
+Nordberg, pastor of the body-guards, was made the president
+of a chapter-house, which held church conferences, issued
+texts for special services, examined and consecrated ministers.
+Czar Peter tried to attract some of the ablest officers
+to him by promises of liberty and remunerative positions.
+Many of the captives, seeing no prospect of freedom, decided
+to remain in the country, entered the Greek church
+and married Russian women. Some who could not endure
+captivity made a revolt at Kasan, killing the armed troops,
+and making an attempt to reach their own beloved country.
+The plot was frustrated and was of sinister consequences,
+for the Swedish captives commenced from that time, 1711,
+to be transported to Siberia in great numbers. This was
+only to move the important work of civilization eastward.
+The captives, instead of succumbing to the severe climate,
+unfolded the great energy of their race, cheerfully accommodating
+their lives to the new requirements and devoting
+their time to travels for scientific research, or mercantile
+purposes, in Russian service, or on their own responsibility.
+They made accounts and maps of undiscovered and unexplored
+parts of Siberia, gathering results which have
+been of great importance to later explorers, geologists and
+ethnographers. Principal among these scientists are Philip
+John von Strahlenberg, whose great book on Siberia was
+published in Leipsic in 1730, and John Anton Matérn and
+Peter Schœnstrœm, his collaborators; John Gustavus
+Renat, made a prisoner by the Kalmucks, whom he
+taught the secrets of manufacturing cannon and bombs,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span>
+and of printing books with movable types; Lorenz Lange,
+who was secretary of several Russian embassies to the
+imperial court of China, about which country he has given
+valuable information; John B. Muller, John Schnitscher
+and Ambjœrn Molin. Tobolsk was the centre of the Swedish
+colonies in Siberia, where a peculiar sect grew up among
+those of deep religious sentiment. A sectarian school, with
+more than 100 pupils, was established, and the German
+pietist, Aug. Herrman Francke, for some time supported
+the movement. Governor Gagarin, who wanted to make
+himself ruling sovereign of Siberia, arranged a formidable
+conspiracy. It was discovered, the governor was hanged,
+and the Swedish captives who were involved in it were sent
+still further away to Nerschinsk.</p>
+
+<p>If Charles XII., up to the date of the terrible battle of
+Pultowa, has deserved our sympathy, in spite of his faults
+and mistakes, it is impossible to look upon him in the same
+charitable light for the rest of his career. The great defeat
+and the loss of his army he described in letters to his sister,
+Ulrica Eleonore, and the state council, as small misfortunes,
+without consequence, which he was soon to repair.
+Instead of trying his utmost to obtain peace on the best
+possible conditions for his poor country, and instead of
+saving his unhappy army from the miseries of captivity,
+he made plans for new campaigns and demands for a new
+army. Czar Peter expressed more correct views of the
+situation. A few hours after the battle of Pultowa he
+wrote to Admiral Apraxin: “Now rests at last secure our
+city on the Neva.” And he was right. The period of
+the political grandeur of Sweden was at an end.</p>
+
+<p>Great was the renowned heroism of Charles XII. and
+his warriors. Still greater, although less renowned, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span>
+heroism with which his poor and neglected country suffered
+the disasters which these glorious deeds brought upon it.
+The regular troops of the army created by Charles XI.
+had not been sufficient. New regiments were, one after
+the other, created by means of increased taxes and repeated
+enlistments, until it appeared as if the whole male population
+was to be sent out in the endless wars, to be killed or
+imprisoned, and the distressed country doomed to inevitable
+destruction. Plague, hunger and emigration threatened
+to make away with those spared from military service.
+Swedes of the nineteenth century have difficulty in apprehending
+how the country was able to endure such terrible
+hardships.</p>
+
+<p>The consequences of the defeat at Pultowa soon became
+manifest. The enemies of Sweden had formed a better
+idea of the resources of the country than had its own ruler,
+and were resolved to profit by it. King August at once
+declared the treaty of Alt-Ranstædt to be null and void, and
+entered Poland, where he in a short time recovered his
+lost authority. Stanislav fled and sought a refuge on
+Swedish territory. King Charles later gave him his little
+hereditary land of Palatinate-Zweibrucken. King Frederic
+of Denmark declared war upon untenable grounds and had
+an army of 16,000 men invade Scania. Helsingborg was
+captured without difficulty. Great consternation was
+caused by this assault upon the unhappy and apparently
+defenceless country. The state council was brought to
+despair. The situation was saved by Count Magnus Stenbock,
+the able general. After having served as quartermaster-general
+of the Swedish army in Poland, he was sent
+back to Sweden, being governor-general of Scania at the
+time when this province was invaded. He had not with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span>
+him the necessary troops to meet the enemy, but left for
+Smaland, where he gathered an army of peasants, chiefly
+consisting of inexperienced but sturdy youths in wooden
+shoes and coats of goatskins. From Vexio, where he had
+met his new mustered troops, Stenbock returned to Scania,
+in February, 1710, obtaining the reinforcements of a few
+additional regiments, which swelled his army to the number
+of 14,000 men. The well-equipped Danish force, which,
+after an expedition into Bleking, returned to Scania, made
+a good deal of fun of the “Stenbuk og hands Gededrenge”
+(the mountain buck and his goatherds). Governor Stenbock
+understood how to gain the confidence and rouse the
+patriotism of his “goatherds.” He was soon sufficiently
+sure of their ability to risk a battle, which was fought at
+Helsingborg, February 28, 1710. The Danes, commanded
+by George Rantzau, were routed, and sought a refuge
+behind the walls of the town. The Danish losses were
+4,000 killed and wounded and 3,000 prisoners, with their
+camp, artillery and baggage. A few days later the Danes
+evacuated Scania, returning to Seeland. The victory of
+Helsingborg was the most glorious of the battles fought
+by Magnus Stenbock. It saved Sweden in the hour of
+direst distress, rekindling the hope which the battle of Pultowa
+had extinguished. It was the last time in Swedish
+history that the Danes entered Scania as enemies.</p>
+
+<p>The victory at Helsingborg was only one bright star
+in a night of darkness. In the Baltic provinces the disasters
+followed close upon each other. Count Nils Stromberg,
+the governor-general of Livonia, was forced to surrender
+the town of Riga, July 1, 1710, after having fought
+the Russians for months with great bravery. The enemies
+which forced the able Stromberg to give up his cause were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span>
+hunger and plagues. Not less than 40,000 Russians had
+lost their lives outside the walls of Riga. Within a few
+months Duenamuende, Pernau and Reval also surrendered.
+This made complete the Russian conquest of the Swedish
+empire in the Baltic provinces. The operations against
+Finland, begun earlier, were continued with success. The
+town and fortress of Viborg, which never had been occupied
+by foreign troops, were captured in June, and Kexholm in
+September. The country was unmercifully devastated,
+in spite of solemn promises to the contrary.</p>
+
+<p>That under such circumstances discontent against the
+absolute ruler was fostered seems only natural. During
+the first few years of the Carolinian campaign the noise
+of the great victories was stronger than the voices of discontent
+and complaint. When the glorious battles were
+not followed by treaties of peace, the grumbling voices
+grew louder. The king was at first not the object of the
+growing discontent, but the state council, which was considered
+to make greater demands than were necessary.
+The king was supposed to fight for a righteous cause
+against treacherous enemies, but the truth dawned on a
+good many that a government invested with absolute power
+was the cause of the misery. The battle of Pultowa
+brought to a mature state the thoughts of a change in the
+constitution, thoughts which for years had occupied the
+ablest men of the country. The double government was
+to a great extent responsible for the bad state of affairs.
+The king tried to rule with absolute power from his headquarters
+in Saxony, Poland and the Ukraine, with Piper
+as his adviser. At home the state council held the reins of
+government and sometimes acted in direct opposition to the
+instructions or intentions of the king. Charles XII. was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span>
+very jealous of his power, and the state council, foremost
+in which were a few men of the very highest ability, like
+Count Arvid Horn, was on this account sometimes unable
+to carry out its best endeavors. Charles by his methods
+brought confusion and uncertainty into the deliberations
+and acts of the government, injuring the commonwealth
+and the principles of an absolute monarchy as well. The
+king was not able to supervise the details of his administration,
+and unrighteous officers profited thereby, by their
+unlawful collections of taxes, causing open revolts of the
+suffering population in various parts of the country.</p>
+
+<p>The state council took no pains to hide the truth from
+the king, rather using strong colors in their descriptions
+of the critical condition in order to obtain the much-sought-for
+and needed peace, or at least the gratification of seeing
+the armies of the country used exclusively for the defence
+of its own possessions. King Charles considered the members
+of the state council as a body of weaklings, cowards
+and fools, who painted the devil on the wall because they
+lacked the courage and endurance to await the final and infallible
+triumph of his royal arms in a righteous cause.
+The climax was reached after the arrival of Charles at
+Bender. The state council commenced to negotiate for
+peace on its own responsibility. It also convoked a committee
+of the Estates of the Riksdag to a meeting for deliberations
+on measures which would better the hopeless conditions
+of the state and people. King Charles learned of it
+and sent from Bender a remarkable order, in which he absolutely
+forbade such meetings, “especially because the last
+convention of the Estates,” he wrote, “had no other consequence
+than to let them still plainer discover their impoverished
+condition.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>King Charles lingered in Bender, fascinated by the plans
+made by several Turkish princes of an armed support
+against his enemies, or at least an escort of troops for his
+return through Poland. The king succeeded in his efforts
+to force the sultan of Turkey to an attack on Russia. The
+Turks, 200,000 strong, made an invasion, according to plans
+drawn up by Charles, and were successful in completely
+surrounding a Russian army, commanded by Czar Peter in
+person, at the shores of the river Pruth. The czar saved
+himself by a supreme effort, sacrificing all his gold and the
+jewels of the czarina as bribes to the grand vizier, who commanded
+the Turkish army. This dignitary let the Russians
+escape, thus spoiling the plans of the whole campaign. To
+Charles it was a great disappointment. His hope to see the
+Russian giant crushed, and the defeat at Pultowa avenged,
+was gone forever. His plan of reaching Poland with
+Turkish troops to join Stenbock and a Swedish army was
+shaken with the loss of confidence in his barbarous allies.
+The perfidious grand vizier was punished, but the agreement
+of peace which he had made with the czar was sanctioned
+by the sultan, in 1711.</p>
+
+<p>The Swedish state council was quite reluctant to obey
+the repeated orders of the king for a new army, hesitating
+to impose new burdens upon the suffering people. The king
+grew impatient and there was no escape possible. Magnus
+Stenbock, the most popular man in all Sweden, set an
+example of personal sacrifices which was followed by many
+others, and a new army of 9,000 men was at last equipped
+with a navy to carry it across the Baltic to Pomerania.
+Stenbock landed in the island of Rugen, in September,
+1712, and increased his army to 14,000. He abandoned
+the idea to march toward Poland because the king remained<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span>
+at Bender, and entered Mecklenburg after having skilfully
+avoided meeting a superior force of Russian and Saxon
+troops, which followed him at a distance. Negotiations
+of peace had been commenced before the arrival of Stenbock,
+between the dethroned Stanislav of Poland, who was then
+in Pomerania, and King August. This caused a standstill
+in the operations, an armistice of a fortnight having been
+agreed to, with a prospect of renewal. The Danes made
+an end to it, entering Mecklenburg in December. When the
+armistice was at an end, Stenbock hastened with his troops
+to Gadebusch, where the Danish army was encamped, by
+this rapid move preventing the latter from joining the Russian
+and Saxon forces. Only a detachment of Saxon cavalry
+had succeeded in reaching the Danish camp. The
+battle of Gadebusch was fought December 9, 1712, and
+was the last of the great victories on land that a Swedish
+army ever won on the Continent. The Danes were crushingly
+defeated, and their allies found it safest to return to
+their former fortified positions. The Swedish artillery,
+commanded by Charles Cronstedt, distinguished itself in
+this battle against an enemy of superior strength. But
+Stenbock could not for any length of time keep up the
+struggle against the armies of three countries, not receiving
+any support from Sweden, nor sufficient provisions in Mecklenburg.
+When the Danes burned the town of Stade, Stenbock
+in revenge burned Altona, toward the end of the year.
+His army was reduced for lack of provisions, and Stenbock
+saw no other course to take than to shut himself up with
+his troops in the fortress of Tœnning, in the possession of
+the young duke of Holstein-Gottorp. Stenbock persevered
+in his hopes for support from Sweden, or friendly powers,
+in vain. Efforts were made in Sweden to send him troops<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span>
+and provisions, but did not prove successful. When death
+from starvation was impending, the valiant general concluded
+to surrender. May 6, 1713, it was agreed that Stenbock
+and his army of 11,000 men should become Danish
+prisoners, but that they should be exchanged at the earliest
+opportunity. King Frederic IV. of Denmark dishonestly
+neglected to fulfil this agreement, repeatedly and flatly
+refusing to exchange any of the prisoners. The hero of
+the victories at Helsingborg and Gadebusch at first received
+a tolerably good treatment in Danish captivity, which later
+was changed in a horrible manner. After years of cruel
+suffering, he died in a miserable dungeon, in 1717, one year
+prior to the death of Charles XII. This great descendant
+of Eric Stenbock and Magdalen Sture tried to kill the time
+of his captivity by carving in ivory, some articles of exquisite
+design by his hand still being preserved.</p>
+
+<p>At the surrender of Tœnning, Sweden lost her last
+army and her ablest general. Her king dwelt among the
+Turks in circumstances fraught with increasing dangers,
+and her enemies on every side stood ready for attack, the
+country being a prey to discontent and despair. Still her
+measure of misery and contumely was not filled.</p>
+
+<p>Charles XII. persevered in his strange sojourn at Bender,
+being a guest who caused the sultan continual worry
+through his great political influence. The king was resolved
+to leave Turkey only in one manner, and that was
+escorted by a Turkish force. He was successful in persuading
+the sultan to declare war on Russia once more, but Czar
+Peter hastened to make so many concessions that peace was
+made before any campaign was begun. King Frederic of
+Prussia offered Charles an alliance on the condition that
+he should at once return to Sweden. Charles seemed at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span>
+last inclined to do so, but then a conspiracy was brought
+to his notice, disclosing a plan by which the perfidious
+Turkish princes of his intended escort were to deliver him
+into the hands of King August of Poland. King Charles
+refused to leave Poland, and the conspirators effected an
+order from the sultan to attack Charles with an army of
+10,000 men, and bring him, dead or alive, to Adrianople.
+The order was executed February 11, 1713, Charles defending
+himself with his few hundred Swedes and some
+Poles of his escort against the overwhelming force of Turks
+and Tartars. The house of the king, near Bender, had
+been strongly fortified for the occasion. When the trenches
+were taken most of his men surrendered, but Charles remained
+with fifty Swedes in the house, which was built
+of wood, warding off the attack and putting the enemy
+to flight with a heroism vividly recalling the tales of the
+ancient Sagas. The Turks returned toward evening and
+ignited the building. The Swedes valiantly continued their
+struggle, fighting with their swords against the Turks, surrounded
+by heavy fire and by the smoke of the burning
+building. The king at last was forced to leave the house
+and tried to make his way to the neighboring chancery
+building, which was of stone and better fit to withstand
+an attack. Charles stumbled and fell, and was at once
+made prisoner, together with his followers. This peculiar
+incident, which has been called the Kalabalik, or Popular
+Tumult, of Bender, aroused universal surprise and dislike.
+Charles was conducted to a Turkish pasha, who treated him
+with respect. He was under supervision first at the town
+of Demotika, later at the palace of Timurtasz, both in the
+vicinity of Adrianople. Charles considered it incompatible
+with his royal dignity to call on the grand vizier. For this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span>
+reason it was given out that he was ill, and in his miraculous
+stubbornness he persevered in keeping his bed for a
+whole year! During all this time, Charles followed up his
+policy of governing Sweden from afar with absolute despotism.
+He prepared new rules for the chancery, attempting
+to change the form of administration from one of faculties,
+or colleges, to one of departments, or bureaus. He made
+negotiations of peace in the same spirit as of yore, viz.,
+without being willing to make any concessions, and planned
+new campaigns. For recreation he played chess and listened
+to music.</p>
+
+<p>In Sweden the peculiar Turkish adventures of Charles
+XII. were not understood or appreciated, and the country
+seemed forsaken by all, even by the king, who by many
+was thought to be insane. The state council saw no possibility
+of maintaining a government without the consent
+and goodwill of the people. Plans for a new constitution,
+a reduction of the royal power and a peace at any cost
+were in the air. Princess Ulrica Eleonore was called as
+a member of the state council and a Riksdag was convoked,
+to meet toward the end of 1713. The Estates declared that
+they were, in case of necessity, ready to seek peace under
+the auspices of the princess and the state council, and were
+in favor of appointing the princess to the regency. Arvid
+Horn, the leading spirit of the state council, used the utmost
+of his influence in keeping the Riksdag from the revolutionary
+acts which would be involved in making Ulrica
+Eleonore regent, but he saw to it that the declaration of the
+Riksdag, of intended peace-making through the princess
+and state council, was communicated to the king. Hans
+Henric von Liewen, one of the state councillors, was
+selected to carry this communication to the king, together<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span>
+with letters from the queen-dowager and the state
+council. Count Liewen gave a full and true account
+to the king, telling him in plain words that if he did
+not return home without delay his kingdom would be
+lost to him.</p>
+
+<p>King Charles at last decided to return to his country.
+He sent an embassy of seventy-two people to officially
+announce his departure to the sultan at Constantinople,
+made a loan of a considerable sum of money, and left
+Demotika with a large escort. In Wallachia he left the
+Turks behind, and continued on his way through Hungary
+and Germany, followed by two Swedish officers. The
+emperor of Germany, who was desirous of winning over
+the Swedish king for his plans, prepared a hospitable reception,
+but Charles passed Vienna <i>incognito</i> as Captain Peter
+Frisk. He rode on, through night and day, taking care
+of his own horse and never changing his clothes. Charles
+arrived at the gate of Stralsund, in Swedish Pomerania,
+in the night of November 11, 1714, accompanied by one
+officer. In a fortnight he had, on horseback, traversed a
+stretch of 1,300 miles.</p>
+
+<p>The situation at the arrival of Charles XII. in Stralsund
+was beset with new dangers and complications. Prussia
+had ceased to be friendly and was planning to seize the
+Swedish possessions in Germany. Hanover, united with
+England under the same ruler, had the same ambition.
+The dilapidated fortifications of Stralsund were attacked
+by Saxons and Danes, commanded by their respective
+kings, August and Frederic. For more than a year,
+Charles, with admirable heroism, withstood the siege.
+Once, while the king was dictating a letter to a secretary,
+the latter sprang to his feet in consternation, a bomb hav<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span>ing
+shattered the roof of the building. “The bomb, your
+majesty, the bomb!” exclaimed the scribe. Charles answered:
+“What connection is there between the bomb and
+my letter?” quietly continuing his dictation. The king
+found it at last impossible to keep up the defence of Stralsund,
+leaving it a stormy December night, and arriving
+safely in the town of Trelleborg, on the southernmost point
+of Sweden, December 15, 1715.</p>
+
+<p>What a different country that Sweden was which
+Charles XII. left in August, 1699, at the very summit
+of her political grandeur, to the impoverished and suffering
+Sweden in which he had now landed! And what a different
+man he had himself become during these sixteen years
+of absence! Sweden had won a new hero king, of greater
+fame than any of his predecessors or successors, but lost
+her prosperity for the time being and her political grandeur
+forever. The people received the king with demonstrations
+of joy and with reviving hope for an honorable peace. The
+state council and the intelligent few received him with
+badly concealed hopelessness and indifference. They knew
+that although the young ambitious king had changed to
+a world-famous hero, prematurely aged in victory and
+defeat, the unyielding stubbornness and the never satiated
+desire for glory had remained unchanged in Charles XII.
+Charles was met by a message from the dying queen-dowager,
+his grandmother, with an ardent prayer for peace.
+Charles answered to hopes and prayers, to silent indifference
+and despair, with a command of more money and more
+troops! He wanted peace, but as he spoke in the same
+terms as when he was the victorious commander of an
+apparently invincible army, nobody cared to consider his
+demands in earnest. The absolute power reached its last<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span>
+stage of development, a military despotism which had no
+other policy than war, no other administration than the
+one requisite to maintain and provide the requirements of
+war. The state council fell in deepest disgrace, and its
+functions ceased, in 1715.</p>
+
+<p>During the last years of his reign, Charles XII. took no
+advice of Swedish men. Foreign adventurers and schemers
+were in charge of the affairs of state, principal among
+whom was Baron George Henric Gœrtz. This man was
+a minister of state of the young duke of Holstein-Gottorp,
+in whose service he remained, and in whose interests, as a
+successor to Charles XII. on the throne of Sweden, he zealously
+worked, while developing into the all-powerful minister
+of the Swedish king. Charles granted him authority
+to act in his name in almost every branch of the government,
+interior as well as foreign. Gœrtz was a genius, but
+utterly reckless. For his acts the king was responsible, not
+he. Gœrtz was a foreigner and working for the cause of
+a foreign master. He tried to obtain loans abroad, made
+compulsory loans within the country, placed a tax on
+articles of luxury, and put in circulation coins of copper
+which were a kind of “promissory notes,” worthless in themselves,
+but each representing a Swedish dollar. At first
+these “coins of need” were issued to the amount of a sensible
+sum, but were soon increased in number at the command
+of Charles XII. himself, so that they represented higher
+sums than the crown could redeem, and thus lost their
+value. The people refused to take them, while the prices
+of everything in the market rose to an astounding height.
+The government, in order to save itself from this difficulty,
+took possession of all coined money and uncoined silver, and
+gave the “coins of need” in exchange, perpetrating several<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span>
+other scandalous acts of violence against the rights of private
+property.</p>
+
+<p>The situation grew almost insupportable. Commerce
+and industry, injured by the war, ceased entirely because
+nobody was inclined to sell, only to receive in exchange
+worthless coins. Wars and hard years combined in creating
+misery and distress everywhere. The peasants were recklessly
+treated, and a disregard for moral obligations grew
+out of the bad examples set by the government. The
+students and scientists had in great numbers been carried
+away by the bloody wars, and the interest in the fields
+of culture was slackened by the power of financial depression.
+The wealthy and well-to-do saw their means daily
+diminish, and, losing their interest in public welfare, they
+tried to save the remnants of their own property. The
+members of the state council were threatened by investigations
+which Gœrtz and his friends were scheming to institute
+against them. In the nobility, the plans for a change
+of the constitution matured, the leaders in this movement
+being Count Per Ribbing and the old Gyllencreutz, who
+had prophesied the outcome of an absolute monarchial
+government.</p>
+
+<p>Charles XII., in spite of his all-absorbing passion for
+war, did not lack interest for the pursuits of peace. He
+encouraged several men of genius, of whom two were
+eminently worthy of distinction; viz., Nicodemus Tessin,
+Junior, the architect, and Christopher Polhem, the engineer.</p>
+
+<p>Nicodemus Tessin was born in Nykœping in 1654. His
+father and namesake belonged to an old Pomeranian family,
+and had come to Sweden during the reign of Queen Christine.
+Nicodemus Tessin, Senior, was an able architect, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span>
+built the castle of Drottningholm for Queen-dowager Hedvig
+Eleonore, a moderately gifted but art-loving woman.
+The latter gathered around herself artists and architects
+at her castle of Drottningholm, in Lake Mælar, among
+whom were Ehrenstrahl, a famous artist of German birth,
+who founded the first school of Swedish painters. The
+younger Tessin belonged to this circle and was, in their
+respective times, in the favor of Charles XI. and Charles
+XII., acting as court architect to both. The work which
+won for him an immortal fame is the royal palace of Stockholm,
+an architectural creation worthy of the admiration
+of all Europe, and, in Sweden, standing unsurpassed to this
+day. It was planned and commenced by Tessin, but completed
+according to his plans a hundred years after his
+death. Charles XI. ordered a reconstruction of the old
+castle, which enterprise Tessin undertook. Shortly after
+the death of Charles XI., both the old and the reconstructed
+parts of the palace were burned, and the body
+of the king with difficulty saved from the conflagration.
+Charles XII. ordered Tessin to build an entirely new
+palace. The work was commenced in 1698, but was gradually
+abandoned during the war times, to cease shortly
+before the battle of Pultowa. Charles was highly interested
+in it and wrote from Turkey to Tessin about his
+views. Tessin intended to decorate the exterior according
+to the taste of his day, but Charles raised opposition, finding
+the severe beauty of the stern yet graceful outlines perfect
+in themselves. The work on the new palace was
+recommenced after the death of Charles XII. King Adolphus
+Frederic was the first who took up his residence within
+its walls. Tessin rose high on the social ladder. From
+Turkey, the king made him a count and chancellor of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span>
+University of Lund; after his return to Sweden he appointed
+him marshal-colonel. Tessin stood in strong
+opposition to Baron Gœrtz, and after the death of King
+Charles joined the leaders of the revolutionary nobles. He
+was of universal fame.</p>
+
+<p>Christopher Polhem was the first of great Swedish engineers
+and inventors. He was born at the ancient town
+of Visby, in the island of Gothland, in 1661, and was the
+son of a merchant, who died when Christopher was a child.
+When only twelve years of age he had to make his own
+living. As secretary to a widow of wealth, he early developed
+his genius as a mechanician, building his own shop
+of carpentry, sloyd, etc., making watches and devising
+smaller inventions. His want of a classical education was
+detrimental to him, and he commenced, when twenty-four
+years of age, to study Latin with various ministers in the
+country, in exchange for works of his genius and handicraft.
+At last he was able to enter the University of Upsala
+by means of recommendations from his last teacher.
+Soon after his arrival he created considerable attention and
+admiration by a proof of his ingenuity. Behind the high
+altar in the Upsala Cathedral there was a clock of the finest
+workmanship, devised in mediæval times by a monk of the
+monastery of Vadstena. It was out of order, and not for
+a hundred years had anybody attempted to set it right.
+Polhem undertook to reconstruct the whole work, connecting
+with the main mechanism all the hands which pointed
+out the hours of the day, the eclipses of the moon and the
+motions of the “ruling” planets, according to the system
+of the astrologers. Polhem succeeded in his task, and was
+allowed to test his invention of automatic haulers of ore in
+the mines. The college of mining, before which the inven<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span>tion
+was successfully demonstrated, accepted it, and Charles
+XI. appointed Polhem a mining engineer. In 1694, Polhem
+made an extensive journey through England and the Continent.
+In Paris he learned that several mathematicians
+were in vain endeavoring to construct a clock which would
+simultaneously show the time of the day in various countries
+and strike the hours at the same time. Polhem announced
+through the Swedish ambassador in Paris that he
+was willing to solve the problem. He constructed a model
+which gave universal satisfaction. Louis XIV. had a clock
+made after this model and gave it as a gift of honor to the
+Turkish sultan. Upon his return he proposed the founding
+of a <i>laboratorium mechanicum</i>, which in several respects
+served as a pattern for the later technological institutes
+of Stockholm and Gothenburg. The youthful Charles
+XII. embraced the idea with interest, but the promising
+institution came to a standstill during the wars. Among
+Polhem’s more remarkable inventions was one for the leading
+of water-power, to be used at considerable distances.
+Charles XII. said that a man like Polhem was not to be had
+for several centuries, and that for this reason he ought to be
+made useful as long as he lived. A task of gigantic proportions
+was intrusted to him&mdash;the construction of a dock
+for the navy yards at Carlskrona. The great engineer filled
+it in an admirable way, and was appointed councillor of
+commerce and ennobled under the name of Polhem, his
+original name having been Polhammar, which to modern
+ears sounds just as fine and a good deal more suggestive.</p>
+
+<p>Another gigantic task worthy of the genius of Polhem
+was the construction of a navigable route from the North
+Sea across the great inland seas of Sweden to the Baltic, but
+he was not allowed to finish it. Charles XII. intrusted the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span>
+work to Polhem, who was to have it ready in five years.
+In 1718, Polhem commenced by forming an immense sluice,
+by means of explosions in the rock at Trollhetta. The great
+waterfalls of said place were to be avoided and the work
+of completing the sluice was begun, when it was all destroyed
+by unknown enemies, who dropped beams and
+planks in the river above, which carried away the dam.
+The death of King Charles and the impoverished condition
+of the country made it impossible to continue the work on
+the great canal system, which had to wait for more than
+a century for its ultimate completion. With the death of
+Charles XII. the era of ambitious enterprises came to an
+end; but Polhem was employed in various works of mechanic
+improvements in the interest of agriculture, industry
+and manufactures. Czar Peter of Russia, King George
+I. of England, and several other monarchs made brilliant
+offers in order to win Polhem for their countries. He executed
+several works and inventions abroad, but loved his
+own country too much to leave it. Polhem exerted a great
+influence in the interest of his science, both by instruction
+and by the publication of technical works. Active to the
+last, he died in 1751. Polhem was a man of a harmonious
+endowment, amiable and dignified, and preserved his plain
+mode of living throughout his brilliant career.</p>
+
+<p>Gœrtz led with superior skill the negotiations for peace,
+while the impoverished country suffered untold miseries as
+a consequence of his unscrupulous financial schemes. He
+tried to benefit by the sudden but lasting enmity between
+Czar Peter and George I., desiring to gain the support of
+either against the other. The deliberations were held in the
+archipelago of Aland, with Gœrtz as the representative
+of the Swedish government. Czar Peter wanted to keep<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span>
+Ingermanland, Esthonia and Livonia, but was ready to
+cede Finland, which country he occupied, and to assist
+King Charles with troops in an attack on Denmark. Norway
+was to be the compensation for the lost Baltic provinces,
+and the attack on Denmark was to be made from Germany.
+Charles XII. had no confidence in the czar as an ally and
+had commenced the conquest of Norway directly and without
+his aid. No decision was reached in the negotiations
+with England.</p>
+
+<p>In February, 1716, Charles XII., from Bohuslæn and
+Vermland, made an invasion into Norway, penetrating over
+the Glom River to Christiania. He captured the capital,
+where he held his headquarters for several weeks, but was
+not able to take the fortress of Akershus, which, with its
+artillery, commanded the city. The Swedish army, 10,000
+strong, suffered a great deal from want of provisions and
+through a guerilla war, skilfully conducted by the Norwegians.
+Charles was in danger of being surrounded by the
+enemy, and with difficulty retreated to Sweden, over the
+Strait of Svinesund. The dangers were increased by the
+Norwegian naval hero, Peter Tordenskiold, who, with some
+Danish ships under his command, had destroyed a flotilla
+of Swedish transport vessels. An invasion into Scania by
+Denmark and her allies was planned for the summer, but
+did not materialize. King Charles took up his headquarters
+at Lund.</p>
+
+<p>The war offered no aspect of interest during the year
+1717, except some unsuccessful attempts made by Tordenskiold
+to capture the towns of Strœmstad and Gothenburg.
+Charles prepared another attack on Norway, and,
+by draining the last resources of his country, managed
+to equip an army of 60,000 men. In August, 1718, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span>
+smaller army, under the command of Charles Gustavus
+Armfelt, was sent through Jemtland over the mountains
+into the diocese of Drontheim. King Charles, with an
+army of 30,000 men, invaded Norway from Bohuslæn, Dal
+and Vermland, and took in possession the country east of
+the Glom River. Within a few days the king laid siege
+to the fortress of Fredericsten, close by the town of Fredricshall.
+November 27th the fort of Gyldenlœve was captured,
+and the Swedes moved their trenches ever closer
+to the fortress, which seemed doomed to surrender. In the
+evening of November 30th the king was seen in one of
+the trenches watching the work of his soldiers, and leaning
+against the rampart. He remained there a long time, not
+heeding the appeals of his officers, who grew uneasy on
+account of the apparent danger to his person. Suddenly
+his head sank down on his breast. A bullet from the fortress
+had reached him, penetrating his temples and causing
+instant death. He met death in the manner he most desired
+it, although not while engaged in battle.</p>
+
+<p>Charles XII. was of an enigmatic character, which attracts,
+through its strength and superiority over his contemporaries,
+but which is repulsive through its tenacity,
+unyielding sternness and inaccessibility to reason or persuasion.
+His moral greatness has won admiration. It had
+its limitations, but was superior to the standards of his time.
+His ideals were pure and lofty, but, through lack of contact
+with the realities and facts of life, only assumed a tragic
+grandeur, without proving beneficent to mankind. His
+faults were such that his education and experience as an
+absolute monarch aggravated them. Charles XII. was the
+most remarkable man of his age and one of the greatest
+soldiers that ever lived. He was also a great general,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span>
+although the proper balance between the soldier and the
+field marshal, perhaps, was to some extent lacking. The
+influence of his personality and example had a miraculous
+effect upon his soldiers. He suffered his one great defeat
+in open battle when wounded, suffering, and not able to
+exert his usual influence to its full extent.</p>
+
+<p>Charles XII. has been idolized by his countrymen of all
+ages, who in him have recognized an impersonation of
+all their chief national virtues, with a few of their national
+faults, enlarged into the image of a patriotic hero of almost
+supernatural grandeur. The Swedish people were forced
+to accept absolute power as a salvation from the impending
+thraldom of oligarchy. In Charles XII. it saw to what
+a climax of abuse this power could attain, even in hands
+which were deemed righteous and free from stains. With
+Charles XII. the political grandeur and the absolute monarchy
+of Sweden came to an end, although attempts to
+restore both were to be made. A new phase of her development,
+with new improvements and new evils, commenced
+with the reign of Ulrica Eleonore.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV</a><br />
+<span class="smaller"><i>Period of Liberty&mdash;The Aristocratic Republic</i></span></h2>
+
+<p>Ulrica Eleonore succeeded her brother Charles
+XII as the sovereign of Sweden. She was proclaimed
+queen by birthright, and called the Riksdag,
+willing to cede the absolute power. When the Riksdag
+convened a disagreeable surprise met her. The Estates
+refused to acknowledge her right to the crown, stating that
+both she and her older sister had deprived themselves of
+their rights of succession by marrying without the consent
+of the Estates of the Riksdag. Princess Hedvig Sophie was
+dead, but her son, the young Duke Charles Frederic of
+Holstein was in Sweden, ready to claim the throne. Ulrica
+Eleonore was compelled to yield gracefully. She sent a
+note to the Riksdag disclaiming her hereditary right, but
+declaring herself willing to accept the crown, with restriction
+of the absolute power. She was at once elected queen
+by the Riksdag of 1719, which then proceeded to pass a new
+constitution. Such a constitution had been formulated in
+advance by a new party, chiefly consisting of nobles, who
+aimed at introducing a royal government, restricted in its
+power by the state council and the Riksdag. They were
+successful in their efforts, but unfortunately lost their ablest
+leaders at the start, Per Ribbing dying soon after the first
+Riksdag, and Arvid Horn retiring from the government<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span>
+and council on account of a conflict with the queen. Thus
+the new government did not open up under favorable auspices.
+Baron von Gœrtz was captured and put to death
+for high treason without being granted the privilege of an
+appropriate legal defence. The queen overstepped her limit
+of power in being the active force in this illegal execution,
+anxious to rid herself of Gœrtz because he was the ablest
+man among the supporters of Duke Charles Frederic of
+Holstein. The duke gave up his chances and left for
+Russia, where he married a daughter of Czar Peter. The
+arrangements made to establish order in financial matters
+were not satisfactory. The management of the war with
+Denmark was miserable. The army was recalled from
+Norway and little done to protect the coast from attacks
+by the Danish fleet under Admiral Tordenskiold. This
+valiant naval hero, of Norwegian birth, who, during the
+reign of Charles XII., had made unsuccessful attacks on
+Strœmstad and Gothenburg, through cunning captured the
+strong fortress of Carlsten, but was unable to take New
+Elfsborg. Danckwardt, the commander who surrendered
+Carlsten, was executed by the Swedish government. The
+Swedish army of 6,000 men, which had entered the district
+of Dronthiem by the command of Charles XII., perished
+from hunger and cold when returning through the mountains
+of Jemtland. Only a few hundred survived to tell
+the terrible tale. The Russians sent a fleet to the Swedish
+shores with 40,000 men, and burned, in two expeditions,
+twelve Swedish towns in the middle and northern parts
+of the country. They avoided open battle, and when landing
+in great numbers were effectively repulsed.</p>
+
+<p>Under such conditions Sweden was anxious for peace.
+In compensation for various sums of money, Bremen and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span>
+Verden were ceded to Hanover in 1719, Pomerania, south
+of the river Peene, with Stettin, Usedom and Wollin to
+Prussia, in 1720, and Ingermanland, Esthonia, Livonia,
+with Viborg and Kexholm, and surrounding Finnish territory,
+to Russia, in 1721. Denmark had to give up all
+territory captured from Sweden, but received a sum of
+money in exchange for Carlsten, in 1720. Thus the Baltic
+empire of Sweden was swept away. It had been of importance
+during the time of the German war and for the
+shielding of new conquests in the Scandinavian Peninsula
+itself. Now its loss was a gain for Sweden, as it allowed
+her to concentrate her attention upon the interior development
+of the country.</p>
+
+<p>The tendency of Ulrica Eleonore to exert more power
+than was within her authority had created dissatisfaction,
+and when she commenced an agitation to have her consort,
+Prince Frederic of Hesse, share the throne with her, the
+crown was granted him only upon her own resignation from
+the government.</p>
+
+<p>Frederic I. was crowned in 1720 and Ulrica Eleonore
+retired from the government. Frederic left the Reformed
+and entered the Lutheran Church. The crown was to be
+inherited by his male issues only, in the union with Ulrica
+Eleonore. He showed a tendency for mixing in the affairs
+of state to further his own interests, but soon gave in to
+his easy-tempered, pleasure-loving nature, occupying himself
+exclusively with his hunts and his mistresses.</p>
+
+<p>The real ruler of Sweden, during the first two decades
+of Frederic’s reign, was <i>Arvid Horn</i>, one of the greatest
+of Swedish statesmen. His was not the work of building
+up the government of a strong and influential nation, like
+that of Oxenstierna or Gyllenstierna, nor were his their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span>
+grand, far-reaching views. But his mission was to raise
+from the dust his bleeding, downtrodden country, and to
+reinstall it in the honor and respect, not only of itself but
+of the world. Count Arvid Bernhard Horn was an opportunist,
+but one of the noblest kind, who by means of peace
+found the only way in which to protect and further the
+financial and cultural development of Sweden. He was
+an able soldier and a skilled diplomatist. The son of an
+illustrious but poor family, of the Finnish nobility, he entered
+the military service after a university course at Abo.
+He served in foreign armies, but was with Charles XII.
+in Stockholm as the best companion of his youth. As the
+commander of the royal body-guard he took an honorable
+part in the early victories of Charles XII., later being
+chosen to fulfil the delicate task of making the Polish
+nobles elect Stanislav king, in which he was eminently successful.
+After a short captivity he was released and returned
+to Sweden, where he became a member of the state
+council and president of the state chancery. In this position
+he repeatedly sent letters to Charles XII., in which
+he described the distress of the country, in eloquent words
+pleading its need of peace. Upon his return Charles XII.
+removed him from office with the other councillors, although
+he was the one who had saved the tottering throne for the
+king. Of this Ulrica Eleonore was aware and was glad to
+accept his resignation; when reinstated in his position he
+found that he could not preserve it with dignity in the face
+of the irregularities committed by the queen. Count Horn
+was responsible for the exclusion of Ulrica Eleonore from the
+government at King Frederic’s ascendency, but the latter
+was forced to accept Horn in his former position as the controlling
+power of the government. With due reason, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span>
+peaceful and honorable decades of Frederic’s reign have
+been named the “Period of Arvid Horn.”</p>
+
+<p>The new form of government introduced by Ribbing,
+Horn and others was nothing else than that of an aristocratic
+republic. The rights of the monarch, reduced in
+1719, were still further reduced in 1720. He had two votes
+in the state council and a deciding vote in deadlock, but
+besides the authority to appoint councillors from the candidates
+nominated by the Riksdag, and to appoint all higher
+officials, no other rights. The government was in the
+hands of the state council, consisting of sixteen members.
+The Riksdag decided all questions of taxes and legislation,
+and settled issues of peace and war. Each of the four
+Estates was represented in the committees, except in the
+“secret committee,” for international affairs, to which no
+yeoman could be chosen. Each Estate had its speaker.
+The president of the chancery was the minister of foreign
+affairs and consulted the secret committee on important
+questions, being the only head of a department who was
+allowed as a member of the state council. The nobility
+held the balance of power, much to the opposition of the
+lower Estates, who tried, by repeated agitation, to invest
+the king with the authority held by him before the days
+of absolute power. The nobility had done away with its
+three classes, and, with these abandoned, it was the majority,
+viz., the lower nobility, who were the governing class.
+The aristocracy tried its best to regain the privileges enjoyed
+during the reign of Queen Christine and Charles X.,
+but Horn forced it to be satisfied with those granted by
+Gustavus Adolphus. The power of the higher nobility was
+forever crushed by the loss of their immense possessions.
+The friction between the nobility and the lower Estates of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span>
+the Riksdag was constant, Horn siding with the former, but
+keeping them all in check.</p>
+
+<p>Arvid Horn led with superior skill and gentleness the
+management of foreign affairs. All influences from the
+powers and from the restless nobles to involve Sweden in
+a conflict of war were unsuccessful. A treaty was never entered
+into with any one power without another one formed
+with a power of the opposite continental party to counterbalance
+it. Thus England, France and Russia were unable
+to make Sweden an obedient ally, Horn upholding her
+independence, maintaining peace and inspiring respect.
+Utterly refusing to accept the bribes which were freely
+offered and considered the indispensable means of obtaining
+diplomatic influence in that day, Horn himself distributed
+bribes to gain his patriotic purposes. Horn’s great mistake
+was to refer the decision of foreign affairs in which he was
+opposed by members of the state council to the Riksdag and
+its secret committee. The latter commenced to act independently
+in important foreign matters. By signing an
+agreement with France, through which Sweden lost its
+former privilege of an independent policy, the committee
+ultimately caused his downfall, in 1738. Arvid Horn then
+retired, at the age of seventy-two, and died a few years
+later.</p>
+
+<p>During Horn’s peaceful administration the financial conditions
+improved, the state debt was reduced and the peaceful
+trades and industries were furthered. The great deed
+accomplished was the completion of a new state law which
+was published in 1734 and is in force to this very day.
+Arvid Horn was a perfect type of the great Carolin era, of
+pure and severe morals and modest requirements. In a day
+of increasing scepticism and levity, he ostentatiously pre<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span>served
+the rigid religious practices of his youth. He
+showed unreserved indignation at the unworthy and immoral
+conduct of the king, for which reason strained relations
+existed between them. Count Horn was of impressive
+form and carriage, controlling the quick temper of the warrior
+beneath the smooth and dignified bearing of the statesman.</p>
+
+<p>The decades which followed upon the fall of Arvid
+Horn were stormy ones and full of miseries. The friends
+of peace were called Caps and the warlike party Hats.
+The latter, now in power, commenced a war against Russia,
+which turned out badly, the Swedes being defeated at Vilmanstrand,
+in 1741, and at Helsingfors, in 1742. The government
+and secret committee felt ashamed of their work
+and had the poor generals, Charles Emil Lewenhaupt and
+Buddenbrock, executed for their lack of martial skill and
+good fortune. Peace was made with Russia in 1743, the
+towns of Fredericshamn, Vilmanstrand and Nyslott, in
+Finland, being ceded by Sweden, and the river Kymene
+made the boundary line.</p>
+
+<p>Next the Hats had to face a rebellion. In order to
+please Elizabeth of Russia, Czar Peter’s daughter, they
+had selected Charles Peter Ulric, her nephew and the son
+of the duke of Holstein, as heir-apparent to the Swedish
+throne, to which he was the nearest in right, Ulrica Eleonore
+dying without issue, in 1741. But when chosen as
+Elizabeth’s successor in Russia, the Hats selected Adolphus
+Frederic, prince bishop of Lubeck, who on his mother’s side
+was a descendant of Gustavus Adolphus. This caused
+popular discontent, the people, forgetful of past enmities,
+desiring to make Crown Prince Frederic of Denmark heir-apparent.
+The peasants at the Riksdag of 1742 proclaimed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span>
+loudly their desire of a personal union with Denmark-Norway,
+which would establish Scandinavia as one solid power
+against Russia. The peasants of Helsingland and Dalecarlia
+revolted. They gathered, and marching down to
+Stockholm, placed the government in a dangerous position
+by demanding the election of Crown Prince Frederic
+of Denmark and the execution of the two imprisoned
+generals. In that very moment peace was obtained with
+Russia, and the government persuaded the leaders of the
+rebellion, who had obtained admission to the Riksdag, that
+Adolphus Frederic must be chosen, since it was a part of
+the treaty of peace. Later the rebels, 3,500 in number,
+were forced to surrender. Their principal leader was
+executed.</p>
+
+<p>The Hats were at first led by Count Gyllenborg, who
+was succeeded by the brilliant Count Charles Gustavus
+Tessin, a son of the great architect, Nicodemus Tessin the
+Younger. Although not a statesman of any higher ability,
+Charles Gustavus Tessin was able to shake the oppressive
+influence of Russia. He was assisted by Prince Adolphus
+Frederic, who said he would rather resign than be a Russian
+vassal. A war seemed imminent, but was averted,
+Finland in the meantime being effectively fortified. The
+unconquerable fortress of Sveaborg was built near Helsingfors,
+and was the creation of Augustinus Ehrensverd. The
+Hats were eager in their attempts to encourage industry
+and manufacture, but did so at the expense of agriculture,
+and placed immense taxes on imported goods. A pioneer
+of industry was John Alstrœmer, who, in his town of
+Alingsos, built factories of various kinds. King Frederic
+died in 1751.</p>
+
+<p><i>Adolphus Frederic</i> was a good-natured and gentle man.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span>
+He was not averse to an increased royal authority, but was
+not energetic enough to exert a controlling influence or to
+push his claims. His consort was the ambitious and brilliantly
+gifted Louise Ulrica, the sister of Frederic the Great
+of Prussia. She tried to inspire the king to action. Continually
+occupied by ambitious schemes, she spoiled them
+herself, through lack of caution and stability. As crown
+princess, she stood close to Count Tessin, whom she hoped
+to win over for her plans. They devised the institution of
+the knightly orders of the Seraphim, the Sword and the
+North Star, the credit of their introduction being given to
+King Frederic I. Adolphus Frederic was forced to subscribe
+to the same minimum of royal privileges as those
+enjoyed by Frederic I. At court a party was formed
+which supported the king, who soon commenced to oppose
+the state council. In 1755 this went so far that he refused
+to sign a document from the council. The case was
+brought before the Riksdag, where, in spite of strong opposition
+from the peasants, a resolution was passed indorsing
+the action of the state council. Count Tessin, in friction
+with the court, resigned from all his positions. The Riksdag
+tried to reinstall him as governor of the royal princes,
+but gave in upon the request of Tessin. The Riksdag went
+to the extreme of having a stamp made of the king’s signature,
+to use in cases where he refused to sign, and also took
+upon itself to engage and dismiss teachers for the royal
+princes. At court indignation rose high, and a conspiracy
+was formed to take possession of the capital, with the state
+council and the speakers of the four Estates, in order to
+bring about a revolution with increased power for the king.
+The conspiracy was discovered, and Count Eric Brahe,
+Count Jacob Horn and six others of its leaders executed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A new humiliation to the court was Sweden’s alliance
+with Austria, Russia and France against Frederic the Great
+of Prussia. The plans laid out by the Swedes were as
+elaborate as those for the Russian war. But on account
+of poor equipment and repeated change of commanders
+nothing effective was done. When peace was made at
+Hamburg, in 1762, Sweden neither lost nor gained anything.
+The Swedes had fought no battles, and Frederic
+the Great said he would call the Swedish invasion of Pomerania
+a private fight at the frontier.</p>
+
+<p>The great expense of the profitless war gave the Caps
+an occasion to gain in influence, and at the Riksdag of
+1765 they overthrew the power of the Hats, in their turn
+summarily dismissing the councillors of their opponents.
+They introduced perfect liberty of the press in 1766, but
+went too far in their policy of economy, dangerously injuring
+the new industries by the withdrawal of loans and subsidies.
+The expensive factories came to a standstill and
+skilled workingmen emigrated. Popular opinion turned
+against these repeated changes and the endless strife of
+the parties, and felt inclined to criticise a Riksdag which
+had attained such power without giving a prosperous and
+secure administration in return. Foreign powers, encouraged
+by the court, tried to gain adherents of their various
+policies by bribes to councillors and members of the Riksdag,
+thus demoralizing state politics.</p>
+
+<p>The king received a valuable supporter in the crown
+prince Gustavus, who in 1767 became of age. He prevailed
+upon the king to resign when the state council refused to call
+an extraordinary Riksdag for the granting of added royal
+authority. The king did so, and the country was without
+a monarch for six days (December 15-21, 1768). The crown<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span>
+prince notified the presidents of the different administrative
+offices in Stockholm that his father had ceased to reign.
+The state council persisted; but had to give in, when the
+colonels of the regiments reported that they could no longer
+answer for their troops, since also the paymaster’s office was
+closed. The Riksdag convened in Norrkœping in 1769.
+The Caps suffered defeat in spite of strenuous efforts made
+for their preservation by the secret agents of the powers,
+anxious to see the anarchic condition of the government
+continue. But the court party failed in the exertions to
+have the royal privileges augmented. The intrigues of the
+foreign powers continued, and the crown prince left for
+France to insure her support in case of war. While the
+Hats were once more in power, Adolphus Frederic died
+suddenly in February, 1771.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus was to put an end to the party strife of the
+“Period of Liberty,” as it has been called. His own reign
+belongs properly to it, for he reaped the benefit of the seed
+it had been sowing. The Period of Liberty, with all its
+faults, forms an important chain in the cultural and political
+development of Sweden. Its form of government
+made necessary a varied and active part in public affairs,
+educating all classes of officials to a high degree of efficiency
+and the people at large to self-government. The
+Riksdag, through parliamentary activity and importance,
+developed an authority which, although too composite
+to govern itself, was enabled to act as a shield of steel
+against all abuse of the executive power. The national life
+never gathered a richer harvest of men of genius who
+worked for the progress of their country and for that of
+the world. The heroism of the Swedish people during the
+preceding period of suffering and distress bore fruit in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span>
+men like Emanuel Swedenborg, the inventor, naturalist,
+philosopher and founder of a new religion; Charles
+Linnæus; the founder of modern botany; Andrew Celsius,
+Junior, the inventor of the centigrade thermometer; John
+Ahlstrœmer, the pioneer of industry; John Ihre, the able
+philologist, and Olof von Dalin, the poet, humorist, and,
+with Sven Lagerbring, the first modern historian of Sweden.
+The Period of “Liberty,” viz., of an Aristocratic
+Republic, was the golden era of Swedish science, the latter
+for the first time becoming of universal fame and of universal
+importance. The scientists of this period belong to
+the fathers of modern research, basing their conclusions upon
+personal observation, in strong contrast to <i>their</i> fathers and
+precursors of the chauvinistic barocco period.</p>
+
+<p>Emanuel Swedenborg, the most remarkable man whom
+Sweden has ever brought forth, was born in Stockholm,
+June 29, 1688. His father was Jesper Svedberg, bishop
+of Skara, in West Gothland, and his mother Sara Behm.
+The tendency toward mysticism, an inheritance from his
+father, was noticed in him at an early age. He has told
+of himself that between the age of four and ten his thoughts
+were exclusively occupied with religious subjects. While
+in prayer, he sometimes entered a somnambulic condition,
+revealing things which surprised his parents, who said that
+angels spoke through him. As a child, he had the idea of
+God as one, without any conception of a Trinity. Later
+he received instruction in the systematic theology of his
+day. His father gave him a thorough training in the
+Oriental and classical languages. The early mysticism of
+the boy was supplanted by a thirst for knowledge of the
+phenomena of life and nature, coupled to a burning desire
+to illustrate his reading by practical experiments. Having<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span>
+entered the University of Upsala, he at first devoted himself
+to the study of the classical languages and literature, later
+to that of mathematics and natural science. When the
+university was visited by the plague in 1710, and almost all
+courses of instruction were interrupted, Swedenborg made
+a journey for scientific purposes to England, Holland,
+France and Germany. He returned in 1714, enriched with
+valuable results. In 1716-18 he published the first scientific
+journal of Sweden, “Dædalus Hyperboreus,” treating
+subjects of mathematics and physical science. In 1716 he
+came in close personal contact with Charles XII. at the
+university town of Lund. The king, being deeply impressed
+by his great learning and practical ability, appointed
+him assistant assessor of the college of mining. Swedenborg
+had, by the scholar Eric Benzelius, been made acquainted
+with the idea of the old Bishop Brask, of the time
+of Gustavus I., to “cut up the land” between the North Sea
+and the Baltic to make a navigable route through Sweden.
+Swedenborg gave close attention to this scheme, and communicated
+his plans to Charles XII., who became very much
+interested in them. Christopher Polhem was selected to
+build the great canal, and Swedenborg was made his assistant.
+We know from the sketch of Polhem’s life why the
+great work failed of accomplishment. Swedenborg gave
+a proof of his superior genius as a practical engineer during
+the siege of Fredericshall. Tordenskiold made the sea unsafe
+and had hedged in the Swedish fleet at Iddefiord. The
+Swedish boats and galleys were then carried overland to
+the town of Strœmstad, travelling the main road for fifteen
+miles on rolling machines devised by Swedenborg. After
+the death of Charles XII., whom he highly respected, Swedenborg
+travelled to Saxony and Hungary to study the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span>
+mining industry of these countries. Returning in 1722,
+he entered for the first time upon his work of the college of
+mining, becoming assessor a few years later. In 1719 he
+was ennobled with his brothers and sisters, when the change
+of name from Svedberg to Swedenborg was made. In 1724
+he declined to accept the chair of mathematics at the University
+of Upsala, dividing his time between his official
+work and his studies, until 1747, when he resigned from
+his position with a pension of the same amount as his salary.
+His religious works were commenced in 1745, and
+after that time he made repeated journeys to London or
+Amsterdam to have these printed, as they could not be published
+in Sweden on account of the strict and highly orthodox
+censure of that period.</p>
+
+<p>In 1744 the event occurred which Swedenborg in various
+places of his works has described as the opening of his
+spiritual sight, or the manifestations of the Lord to him
+in person. He had not, by geometrical, physical and metaphysical
+principles, succeeded in grasping the infinite and
+the spiritual, or their relation to the nature of man, but he
+had touched on facts and methods which seemed to conduct
+him in the right direction. He thought that God had led
+him into the natural sciences in order to prepare him for his
+later spiritual development. The visions of his boyhood
+returned, now conceived by a nature enriched by the experiences
+of a life spent in ardent and scientific research.
+The great seer remained a man whom everybody loved and
+respected. People who did not believe in his visions feared
+to ridicule them in the presence of this august savant. His
+manner of life was simple, his diet chiefly consisting of
+bread, milk and large quantities of coffee. He made little
+distinction between night and day, and sometimes lay for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span>
+days in a trance. His servants were often disturbed at
+night by hearing him engaged in what he called conflicts
+with evil spirits. His intercourse with spirits was often
+perfectly calm, in broad daylight, and with all his faculties
+awake. He held that every man and woman has the same
+power of spiritual intercourse, although not developed in
+the same degree as it was found in him.</p>
+
+<p>The work which established the scientific reputation of
+Swedenborg was published, in 1734, in three massive folios,
+at the expense of Duke Ludvig Rudolph of Brunswick.
+The second and third volumes describe the best methods
+employed in Europe and America in the manufacture of
+iron, copper and brass. The first volume contains a philosophical
+explanation of the elementary world which has
+aroused admiration as a beautiful, daring and consistent
+creation of human genius, worthy of being placed side by
+side with the works of Newton, and replete with remarkable
+ideas and anticipations of later discoveries. Swedenborg
+indicated the existence of the seventh planet forty
+years before Uranus was discovered by Herschel. He was
+the first to form an idea of the development of nebulæ from
+chaotic masses to concrete heavenly bodies, a hypothesis
+later perfected by Herschel, and the first to offer the theory,
+later developed by Buffon, Kant and La Place, of the solar
+origin of the planets and their satellites. As in astronomy,
+so also in physics and geology he preconceived great discoveries.
+His experiments and theories in physics have been
+confirmed by the discoveries of the polarity of light and the
+galvanometer and its magnetic properties. Swedenborg
+discovered before anybody else the great importance of
+magnetism and the fact that magnetism and electricity are
+manifestations of the same power. He made observations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span>
+concerning air and water which have been confirmed as to
+their correctness by Priestley, Cavendish and Lavoisier,
+who long were supposed to have been the first discoverers.
+In geology, he was the first to demonstrate that the Scandinavian
+peninsula, except the southern part of Scania, was
+a rising continent, proving the earlier level of the sea to
+have been much higher and the inland lakes to have stood
+in connection with the sea. Through his remarks on bowlders,
+he gave rise to the later theories of Berzelius and
+Sæfstrom of a bowlder period. Upon these researches followed
+great and remarkable works of anatomy, which, by
+later anatomists of the first rank, have been declared to be
+classics in the literature of physiology. His immense work,
+“Arcana Cœlestia,” and other theosophical writings which
+he has placed as a foundation for the New Church, and on
+which his present fame rests, were not so celebrated in his
+days as his scientific works. Like the latter, they were all
+written in Latin.</p>
+
+<p>The new religion, founded by Swedenborg, more spiritual
+than the old, has proved equally attractive to the individual
+and idealistic thinkers of all sects, Protestants and
+Catholics, Unitarians and Theosophists. Swedenborg made
+no attempt to establish a sect, and the New Church as an
+organization is the result of a movement which was started
+after his death.</p>
+
+<p>In his personal appearance Swedenborg was a middle-sized
+man of strong constitution. His head was of a fine
+shape, the color of his face somewhat dark and its expression
+pensive, but his blue eyes were large and radiant. His
+disposition was amiable. He was a man of the world, fond
+of music and society, especially of that of cultured women,
+and was often seen at court. He had a tendency to stutter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span>
+when speaking fast, for which reason he used a slow diction,
+characterized by choice and mature expressions. In
+his youth, he frequented the house of Christopher Polhem
+and fell in love with his daughter Emerentia. Both Polhem
+and Charles XII. favored the idea of seeing them
+united, the young girl of fourteen giving her consent. But
+young Emerentia was secretly in love with somebody else,
+and her health and disposition suffered under the strain.
+When Swedenborg discovered the truth, he gave his betrothed
+freedom from her allegiance. He ceased to visit the
+house of Polhem and never entered any other relation of
+love.</p>
+
+<p>In 1770, at the age of eighty-two, Swedenborg for the
+last time visited Amsterdam. John C. Cuno, who then
+saw him, thus described the impression which the aged
+visionary and thinker made upon him: “He looked so
+touchingly pious, and when I gazed into his smiling eyes
+of a heavenly blue, it always seemed to me that truth itself
+spoke from his lips.” Swedenborg left Amsterdam for
+London, where, on Christmas eve, 1772, he was struck
+by hemiplegia. After a few weeks he recovered his speech,
+and his faculties were clear to the last. The chaplain of the
+Swedish legation asked him if he had not formulated the
+doctrines of his new religion in order to gain fame, and if
+he wished to recall it all before he died. The yet partly
+paralyzed man raised himself into a sitting position, saying:
+“As true as it is that you see me here in front of you,
+as true is also all that I have written, and in eternity you
+will find a confirmation of it.” The chaplain asked him
+if he wanted to receive the sacrament. Swedenborg answered:
+“I need it not; for I am already a member of the
+other world; but your intention is good, and I will with joy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span>
+receive the sacrament in token of the bond of unity between
+heaven and earth.” Swedenborg died March 29, 1772, and
+was buried in the Lutheran church of London.</p>
+
+<p>Swedenborg was shrewd in worldly affairs and discussed
+politics and finance in the Swedish Riksdag for nearly a
+score of years after his visions and theological writings had
+begun to occupy most of his time.</p>
+
+<p>If the theological works of Emanuel Swedenborg at first
+were apt to discredit the results of his manifold scientific
+research in the eyes of those who did not share his theosophical
+views, the renown of the great religious thinker
+in later times has outshone the fame of which, as the versatile
+scholar and philosopher, he was so eminently worthy.
+With his younger contemporary, Charles Linnæus (or Carl
+von Linné), the case was different. There was in his career
+no radical change to divert or throw an umbrage over the
+fame he had won as a scientist of the very first rank.</p>
+
+<p>Charles Linnæus, the most celebrated of Swedish scientists,
+was born at Rashult, in Smaland, in 1707. His father
+was a minister of a very subordinate charge of the state
+church. The neighborhood in which the young Linnæus
+grew up was not fertile, but rich in flowers, which were
+the toys and comrades of his childhood. He made but little
+progress at his work in the college of Vexio, being more
+fond of collecting and examining plants than of studying
+Greek and Latin. It was the wish of his parents that he
+should become a minister and the assistant of his father;
+but the youth had so little inclination to pursue the life or
+studies of a clergyman that he at last found it necessary
+to tell his parents so. He had found a friend and protector
+in Doctor Rothman, a district physician, who encouraged
+him to follow his ambition of becoming a naturalist and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span>
+physician. Doctor Rothman supervised his studies in botany
+and succeeded in teaching him Latin by giving him
+the natural history of Pliny to study. In this manner Linnæus,
+who at college showed utter dislike for the classical
+languages, learned to write and speak Latin with ease.
+His teachers, who at first had advised his parents to let
+him quit the book, in order to take up some trade, were
+made aware of his gifted nature, but as he was found
+deficient in the regular courses, their recommendation,
+necessary for his admittance to the University of Lund,
+was very carefully worded. “The youths in our colleges
+may be likened unto little trees in a plant school, where
+it happens, although but rarely, that young trees upon
+which the greatest care have been lavished do not turn out
+well, but resemble wild stems, yet, when removed and transplanted,
+change their wild nature and develop into beautiful
+trees of agreeable fruit. Likewise, and for no other purpose,
+this youth is sent to the university, where he may
+venture into a climate favorable to his growth.” There
+was an accurate but unconscious prophecy concealed in this
+beautiful “recommendation,” which, curiously enough, has
+chosen the similes which were considered indispensable in
+the artificial language of the period from the world of
+plants, when speaking of the future flower king of the
+North.</p>
+
+<p>The young Linnæus made his way to the university
+town of Southern Sweden, walking the whole distance from
+Vexio to Lund, with a heavy knapsack and a light pocket-book.
+He was in hopes to win the protection of his uncle,
+the influential dean of the cathedral. Upon entering Lund,
+he heard all church bells tolling, and, upon inquiry, learned
+that they rang for the funeral of his uncle, the dean! A<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span>
+former teacher of his managed to have him enrolled at the
+university without having to turn in the diplomatic recommendation
+from his college. He took his bachelor’s degree
+and was kindly encouraged by Professor Chilian Stobæus,
+at whose house he was stopping. The mother of Stobæus
+told him to look after the young man from Smaland, who
+was in the habit of going to sleep with his candle left burning,
+thus liable to “lead the whole house into adventure.”
+When the learned professor looked into the matter he found
+his own works in the hands of the youth, who spent his
+nights reading them. After that all the books and the
+heartfelt sympathy of the scholar were at the command
+of Linnæus.</p>
+
+<p>In 1728 Linnæus, so advised by his earliest protector,
+changed his place of study to the University of Upsala,
+which at the time was better equipped and provided with
+a fine botanical garden. The young scholar endured a
+great deal of suffering for lack of funds, his father no
+longer being able to provide for his support. His diet was
+very light, and he wrapped his benumbed feet in paper to
+keep them from peeping out of his ragged shoes. His
+father called him home to reconsider his resolution as to
+a ministerial calling. Linnæus was ready to leave and
+paid a farewell visit to the botanic gardens. He lingered
+in melancholy thoughts before a rare flower which he intended
+to pluck. A harsh voice behind commanded him
+to leave the flower alone. Linnæus turned and stood face
+to face with the dean, Olof Celsius the Elder. In the interview
+which followed the young man surprised the dean,
+who was an able and enthusiastic botanist, by his exceptional
+knowledge of plants. Celsius inquired about his
+circumstances and ended by taking him into his house and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span>
+providing for his future. Shortly afterward Linnæus published
+a short but important treatise on the sexual life of
+plants, which he handed in to Professor Olof Rudbeck the
+Younger. This able scholar was forcibly struck by the ingenuity
+of the thoughts in the work, which contained the
+nucleus to the grand scientific system which Linnæus later
+developed. When, in 1730, Rudbeck obtained a vacation he
+had Linnæus installed as a lecturer of the botanic gardens.
+Shortly afterward Linnæus received the commission to pay
+a visit of botanic research to Lapland, on the plants of
+which he published a remarkable work. The journey was
+made on horseback, the young scholar returning deeply
+impressed by the grandeur of natural sceneries in the extreme
+North.</p>
+
+<p>Linnæus had to fight poverty and adversity for some
+time still. His mother, who always had regretted that he
+should “turn out a surgeon instead of a minister,” was elated
+over his first triumph when opening the field of a new science
+by his sexual system of plants. He suffered all the more at
+her death, which he was forced to conceal because he could
+not afford a mourning garb. Envious comrades put an end
+to his lectures at Upsala by having enforced, through petitions,
+an order against the filling of temporary vacancies
+by men who had not taken the doctor’s degree. It was
+found necessary for Linnæus to go abroad, and some
+money was subscribed by his friends for that purpose.
+In Holland he met the learned Professor Boerhave, who,
+on being made acquainted with his system of botany,
+which Linnæus then for the first time published, received
+him with tokens of unlimited admiration and friendship.
+It was by Boerhave that the continental fame of Linnæus
+was founded. The latter found, in the arranging of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span>
+great gardens of Hartekamp intrusted to him, a work both
+agreeable and instructive. In London, Linnæus broadened
+his experience with study of the rich collections of plants
+and naturalia which were made accessible to him by the
+celebrated scholar Hans Sloane, later the founder of the
+British Museum. The letter of recommendation from Boerhave
+was somewhat different to the one Linnæus had received
+at Vexio: “Linnæus, who hands you this letter,
+is the only one worthy to see you, and to be seen by you.
+Those who see you together look upon two men the peers
+of which the world does hardly possess.” After a stay in
+Paris, where the greatest scientists of France treated him
+with distinction, he returned to Holland, to find his friend
+Boerhave dying in Leyden. Linnæus kissed the hand of
+the dying man, who insisted on kissing the hand of Linnæus
+in return, pronouncing him the greater genius, of
+whom the world should expect and receive more.</p>
+
+<p>Linnæus, the celebrated founder of a new science, returned
+home as an unknown man. His ability as a physician,
+acquired at the University of Leyden, and his growing
+continental fame soon made him distinguished. In 1741
+he was appointed professor of medicine at Upsala, but
+changed chairs with the professor of botany. The study
+of the latter science was highly developed through the
+continued research of Linnæus, and became very popular,
+while giving a great impetus to the study of medicine.
+The grace and animation of Linnæus as a lecturer caused
+students and scholars to flock around him in hundreds.
+The botanic excursions led by Linnæus resembled daily
+marches of triumphs, the multitude of students escorting
+their beloved teacher back to the botanic gardens with
+flowers in their hats and with music of drums and French<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span>
+horns. Sweden, with Upsala as a centre, was for the first
+time in history considered a home of scientific culture, to
+which naturalists gathered from all parts of the world,
+America included. Pupils of ability and distinction were
+sent by Linnæus to strange and unknown quarters, from
+which they returned with new and unfamiliar plants, which
+were examined and classified by the flower king of the
+North. Linnæus was honored by his contemporaries in
+such a superlative manner as no one of his countrymen,
+before or after, and few other scientists of any age or country.
+Count Charles Gustavus Tessin has the credit of having
+encouraged him in his work and improved his career
+upon his return from the Continent. When ennobled, Linnæus
+changed his name to Von Linné, the earlier form
+being the more familiar to English readers. King Gustavus
+III. presented him with the estate Hammarby, where
+he liked to dwell, surrounded by his flowers and his family,
+resting from the fatigue caused by the endless stream of
+distinguished pilgrims who came to visit his flower court
+at Upsala. The offers of foreign monarchs to have him
+come and dwell with them were many and liberal. In 1739
+he married the love of his youth, Maria Elizabeth Moræus,
+“and never since felt an inclination to leave Sweden.”</p>
+
+<p>Linnæus in many respects resembled Swedenborg, being
+convinced that his acceptance of truth was the correct one
+and disliking disputes. Like Swedenborg, he was pious,
+modest, benevolent and sincere. Of his own exterior and
+disposition Linnæus has himself given the following characteristic
+account: “Linnæus was not tall, not small, lean,
+brown-eyed, light, quick, walked briskly, did everything
+promptly, disliked slow people, was sensitive, easily moved,
+worked continuously and could not spare himself. He was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span>
+fond of good food and drank good drinks, but never to excess.
+He cared little for exteriors, considering that man
+should adorn his dress and not vice versa. Faculty meetings
+were not his delight, or business, for he was made for
+quite other things, and had other things in mind than those
+which there were discussed and decided upon.” In the
+preface to the late edition of his principal work, “Systema
+Naturæ,” the following noteworthy paragraph is found: “I
+saw the shadow of the Supreme Being go past me, and
+I was seized with respect and admiration. I searched for
+His footsteps in the sand&mdash;what power, what wisdom! I
+saw how the animals existed only by means of the plants,
+the plants by means of the lifeless particles, and these in
+their turn constitute the earth. I saw the sun and stars
+without number hanging suspended in the air, held by the
+hand of the Being of beings, the artist of this grand masterpiece.”</p>
+
+<p>Linnæus died January 10, 1778, and was buried in the
+cathedral of Upsala. His botanic system has been superseded
+by others, but the influence that his researches and
+discoveries have exerted on the natural sciences and medicine,
+has not ceased to be benignantly felt, nor have the
+utmost results of his researches been as yet attained.</p>
+
+<p>Andrew Celsius, professor of astronomy at Upsala,
+acquired fame as a writer on astronomy and was successful
+in his efforts to have an observatory built at the university.
+In 1742 he introduced his invention, the Celsius
+or centigrade thermometer, which is of almost indispensable
+practical value in all physical and chemical experiments.
+Olof Celsius, Senior, the able botanist, Orientalist and
+patron of Linnæus, was his uncle, he thus being a cousin
+of Olof Celsius, Junior, whose brightly written histories of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span>
+Gustavus Vasa and Eric XIV. were translated into contemporaneous
+French and German.</p>
+
+<p>John Ahlstrœmer accomplished more for the resurrection
+of the downtrodden industry of his country than
+any one else, and therefore justly deserves the name of the
+Father of Swedish Industry. This man, who occupies an
+honored place in Swedish history, was born in 1685, of poor
+parents, at the town of Alingsos, in West Gothland, his
+original name being John Toresson. He worked himself
+up in various mercantile positions in Stockholm and other
+towns, later coming to London, where he engaged in business
+of his own and became an English citizen. He saw
+with regret that his countrymen sent their money abroad
+to obtain articles which they could manufacture at home,
+and was seized with the ambition to introduce into Sweden
+the industries which constitute the foundation of England’s
+mercantile wealth.</p>
+
+<p>When Charles XII. returned to Sweden, Ahlstrœmer
+went there also, trying to win the king to his industrial
+plans. He did not succeed, but found in Christopher Polhem
+a man who listened to and appreciated them. Ahlstrœmer
+intended to return to England, but was captured by
+the Danes during the journey. On account of his English
+citizenship he soon regained his liberty, visiting England
+and the Continent, and carefully selecting everything which
+he had in view of sending to Sweden as the requisite instruments
+for his plans. This work sometimes involved great
+danger, as the buying of looms for hose and ribbon, fulling
+vats, dyes, etc.; for the great manufacturing countries were
+keeping jealous watch that the secrets of their industries
+should not become known abroad. In a town in Holland,
+Ahlstrœmer barely missed being pelted with stones by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span>
+mob. Pursued by the revenue authorities, he managed to
+escape with his ship, arriving safely in Gothenburg with
+the valuable cargo and skilled laborers in his employ.
+Shortly afterward he arrived in his native town of Alingsos,
+where the industrial enterprises were established. The
+Riksdag at first was unwilling to grant him the necessary
+concessions, the clergy especially being averse to allow so
+many foreign workingmen free confession of their Catholic
+religion. In 1724 the concessions were at last obtained, and
+Ahlstrœmer began his course, which he was resolved should
+result in the fostering of the same industrial activity in his
+impoverished country, which he, with surprise, had noticed
+in England and on the Continent.</p>
+
+<p>In establishing his enterprises, Ahlstrœmer exhausted
+his resources, and when he tried to form a company to keep
+them going he was met with stubborn resistance, caused
+by ignorance and jealousy. He succeeded at last in obtaining
+the financial backing of some wealthy mine owners of
+Vermland, who took shares in his enterprises. The Riksdag
+of 1726 encouraged him by placing high protective or
+prohibitive tariffs on foreign articles which could be produced
+in the country. In the following year King Frederic
+paid a visit to Alingsos, spending a whole day in looking
+over the mills and factories. The king said that
+he would rather own the stock of goods of Ahlstrœmer
+than the largest arsenal in his kingdom, and saw to it that
+his servants were dressed in broadcloth manufactured at
+Alingsos.</p>
+
+<p>Alingsos saw its population suddenly increase from 300
+to 1,800 and entered upon an era of prosperity. Ahlstrœmer’s
+factories formed almost a little town of their own beside
+the older one. There were twelve looms for the manufact<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span>uring
+of broadcloth, forty-five looms for wool, and, besides,
+cotton mills, dye works for wool and silk, hose factories,
+an English tannery and various other industrial works. Also
+a foundry, with eight communicating shops, where all kinds
+of household articles of simple and composite metals were
+manufactured. Alingsos was made a kind of normal school
+of industry for the whole country. The foreign master
+workmen, who at the beginning had charge of the factories,
+instructed in time a great number of native apprentices, who
+later found employment elsewhere, thus distributing to
+various parts the experience obtained at Alingsos. Wool
+was the principal material in the factories, and in order
+to obtain a refined quality, Ahlstrœmer imported stocks of
+foreign breeds. He commenced with English sheep, the
+Riksdag of 1727 granting him the use of the royal estate
+Hœjentorp for the purpose. Angora goats were later imported
+and seemed to thrive.</p>
+
+<p>Ahlstrœmer did his country a great service by introducing
+the cultivation of potatoes. The first shipment of
+this useful plant arrived in 1723, with workingmen imported
+from France. As soon as the plant was seen to stand the
+climate, larger quantities were sent for. Potatoes were
+cultivated in the vast fields around Alingsos at a period
+when they were exhibited in the botanic gardens of the Continent
+as rare plants from Peru. Prejudice at first interfered,
+but when the soldiers returned home from Pomerania
+with the habit of eating potatoes, and planted such
+around their cottages, the popularity of the Peruvian plant
+was assured. Ahlstrœmer also introduced the cultivation
+of tobacco and several dye plants. The coal mines, near
+Helsingborg, in Scania, commenced to be operated at his
+instigation. When the Academy of Science was instituted,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span>
+in 1739, Ahlstrœmer was made one of its members. The
+Academy of Science served originally and in that era of
+utilitarianism a more practical purpose than later. The
+Cap administration of Arvid Horn gave comparatively little
+attention to the enterprises of Ahlstrœmer, having more
+in view to develop agriculture than industry. When the Hats
+got into power the conditions were reversed. Count Charles
+Gyllenborg, the successor of Arvid Horn as president of the
+chancery, in order to set a good example, always dressed in
+broadcloth of Swedish manufacture. Ahlstrœmer was
+made a councillor of commerce, and ennobled, while his bust
+was placed in the Exchange of Stockholm and medals issued
+in his honor by the Academy of Science.</p>
+
+<p>Ahlstrœmer was a middle-sized man of a strong constitution.
+He was amiable, courteous and hospitable, ever
+ready to conduct visitors through his factories and warehouses.
+His energy was as great as his kindness, and he
+refused to recognize an enemy in anybody. The large
+profits of his plants he mostly spent on other patriotic
+enterprises, leaving hardly any other inheritance to his sons
+than an excellent education. During the last few years
+of his life he suffered the consequences of a stroke of paralysis.
+He died in 1761, and thus was saved from witnessing
+the destruction which was caused to the new factory
+industry and his own works at Alingsos by the reckless
+policy of the new Caps.</p>
+
+<p>Olof Dalin is the principal poet and writer of the Period
+of Liberty, strongly influencing not only the creative minds
+of his own day, but also those who with more or less right
+have been counted as belonging to the Gustavian Period.
+Dalin was the son of a minister in the province of Halland
+and a relative of Professor Andrew Rydelius of Lund, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span>
+historian of the older generation, who conducted the course
+of his studies. He came to Stockholm in 1726, where several
+positions in various state departments afforded opportunity
+for study in libraries and archives. Dalin, from
+the year 1732 to 1734, published a magazine called “The
+Swedish Argus,” which, with the English “Spectator” as
+a pattern, contained articles on public and individual morals,
+with allusions to the facts of contemporary life. This publication
+caused a great stir and became very popular on
+account of the acute logic and excellent language of its
+editor. Dalin was appointed royal librarian by the Riksdag,
+and, on the recommendation of Count Tessin, teacher
+to the young crown prince Gustavus.</p>
+
+<p>Dalin was an enthusiastic admirer of the glorious epoch of
+Swedish history and of the character of Charles XII., which
+caused him to join the party of the Hats. When the latter
+utterly failed in their attempts to restore the political grandeur
+of the past, and Dalin witnessed the excesses of the
+rivalling parties, he joined the secret agitators for an increased
+royal power. In the literary and artistic circle of
+the brilliant Queen Louise Ulrica, Dalin was the leading
+spirit. He was not unaware of the conspiracies and intrigues
+of the queen, and is supposed to have been the author
+of several of the sharp notes which the king added to the
+records of the state council. The Hats, who took offence
+at his sharp satires, made him resign from his position as
+the teacher of the crown prince. After the conspiracy
+of the court party was detected, Dalin was called before a
+committee of the Estates and by order dismissed from the
+court. Dalin used the time of his compulsory isolation for
+the writing of a history of Sweden. This work, which
+never was carried further than to the end of the Period<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span>
+of Reformation, is characterized by an attractive style,
+but is not reliable as to facts.</p>
+
+<p>Dalin was allowed to return to the court in 1761. He
+stood in great favor and was covered with testimonials of
+appreciation. He died in 1763, at the moment when King
+Adolphus Frederic was resolved to make him a state councillor.
+Dalin was the first writer who made Swedish history
+popular, and exerted, by his poems and his magazine,
+and by his education of Gustavus III., a considerable influence
+upon the history of his own time.</p>
+
+<p>In point of scientific research the historical works of
+Sven Lagerbring have a much higher value than Dalin’s
+history, although they lacked the literary excellence of
+the latter. Lagerbring, who, born in Scania, was professor
+of history at the University of Lund, carried his work to the
+times of Charles VIII. A shorter history of his was translated
+into French and long formed the chief source of continental
+knowledge of Swedish history.</p>
+
+<p>As a poet Dalin had a rival in the somewhat younger
+Hedvig Charlotta Nordenflycht, one of the most interesting
+characters in Swedish history of literature. Her works,
+chiefly consisting of lyrics and idyls, show a long chain
+of development from the taste of the Carolinian period to
+that of the Gustavian epoch. In her deep emotional nature
+and enthusiasm for all cultural movements she stands without
+a rival. Receiving an annuity from the government,
+she was after many adversities able to maintain a literary
+salon. The men who met there, like Gustavus Philip
+Creutz and Gustavus Frederic Gyllenborg, were the founders
+of an academic style in poetry, as was Charles Gustavus
+Tessin in eloquence.</p>
+
+<p>John Ihre is perhaps the most highly gifted of Swedish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span>
+philologists and the first whose research had a lasting scientific
+value. He stood at the summit of contemporary European
+study of language, and rose a head or more higher
+than the philologists of his own country in that day. The
+period was characterized by a movement for the purification
+and analyzation of the language, Dalin expressing his wish
+to speak the truth to the Swedes in pure Swedish, and the
+Academy of Science taking pride in publishing their important
+papers in the mother tongue. Eric Benzelius, an able
+critic of the Gothic, and interested in Swedish dialect research,
+was one of the precursors of Ihre; and so was Olof
+Celsius, Senior, professor of Greek, later of Oriental languages,
+who was the first to fix the age of the majority
+of Runic inscriptions as dating from the Christian era.</p>
+
+<p>John Ihre was born, in 1707, in Lund, where his father
+was a professor of theology, a talented, witty and learned
+man. The young Ihre lost his father in 1720, after which
+time his uncle, Archbishop Steuchius of Upsala, had charge
+of his education. He later studied modern languages at the
+University of Jena, made the acquaintance of the contemporary
+philologists of Holland, and also studied at the universities
+of London, Oxford and Paris. After an absence
+of three years he returned, soon to be connected with the
+University of Upsala, where he remained for forty-two
+years as professor of rhetoric and politics. Ihre was a liberal,
+outspoken man, who was severely censured for his opinions
+upon political and religious subjects, once by the Riksdag
+being sentenced to pay fines and receiving a warning from the
+chancellor of the university. When the clergy upon another
+occasion warned the philosophers not to mix in theological
+subjects, Ihre defended himself in the following terms in
+a letter to the chancellor, Count Charles Gustavus Tessin.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span>
+“Gracious lord! I teach <i>eloquentiam</i>, <i>politicam</i> and the
+states, with all things pertaining to them. To become a
+heretic I possess neither genius nor stupidity enough, less
+an evil purpose. Therefore I am willing to forego all theology,
+if only an allowance of it be made large enough for
+my private practice and edification in Christianity. I never
+intended to go any further.”</p>
+
+<p>Ihre left religion and politics alone, and received many
+high distinctions in return for his great scientific merits.
+When ennobled, he kept his old family name, stating that
+he was “somewhat known abroad under the name of Ihre,”
+while if he changed it to Gyllenbiorn or Vargstierna, it
+would take “some time to announce this new disguise.”
+He was renowned for his ready wit, and wielded a considerable
+influence in academic circles. Ihre was satisfied
+with his position and his science, and was not willing to
+exchange them for a political career.</p>
+
+<p>Ihre was led to the study of the Teutonic languages in
+their oldest forms by his desire to find a consistent spelling
+and correct understanding of the words in his own language.
+He was desirous of freeing it from foreign words,
+but only when those substituted were as expressive and
+comprehensible as the old. Ihre was a pioneer in the field
+of dialect lexicographers, publishing the outline of a Swedish
+dialect dictionary in 1766, and wrote a number of works
+pertaining to the historic forms of Gothic, Lappish, Finnish
+and Old Norse. Special importance is due to his epoch-making
+research concerning the language of the Codex Argenteus.
+He once for all settled the controversy, proving
+the Codex to contain the Gothic Bible translation of Bishop
+Wulfila against the assertions of M. Lacroze of Berlin, who
+claimed that it was written in Frankish. In regard to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span>
+Edda of Snorre Sturleson, he declared it to be intended as
+an introductory study of poesy, a handbook of poetics for
+young scalds, an opinion which has been fully established
+in a much later time. By these and other theories Ihre
+attained a much higher standpoint as a scientific critic than
+his contemporaries. He spoke of the resemblance between
+the Teutonic and the classical languages, without being able
+to find the reasons. He even to some extent anticipated the
+great discovery which after its formulator has been called
+Grimm’s Law, by pointing out “a certain regularity of consonant
+shift” in the Teutonic languages.</p>
+
+<p>The monumental work of Ihre and the crowning effort
+of his life was prepared between the years 1750-1759. This
+Glossarium suiogothicum, published at the expense of the
+government, is the best Swedish dictionary of the eighteenth
+century. Ihre by his severe critical method kills
+the wild etymologies of the “Rudbeckian philology,” turning
+to Old Swedish for the derivations, and, where this gave
+no satisfaction, to the Old Icelandic, “because this language
+nine hundred years ago was separated from our own and
+has remained undisturbed by foreign influence.” From the
+Old Northern dialects he turned to Old High German, Old
+English and Gothic, the last mentioned of which he considered
+the mother of the Teutonic languages. Many of
+Ihre’s etymologies have not been able to withstand the
+scrutiny of later criticism, but his great etymological dictionary
+is the product of versatile knowledge and unusual
+insight, and has not only exerted a profound influence upon
+his own period but also served as a model for later epochs
+of philological research.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV</a><br />
+<span class="smaller"><i>Gustavian Period&mdash;Gustavus III. and Gustavus IV.
+Adolphus</i></span></h2>
+
+<p>Gustavus III., with his brilliant endowment, one
+of the most illustrious, and, in spite of his glaring
+faults, one of the most beloved, of Swedish monarchs,
+was the first king since Charles XII. who was born
+in Sweden. For this very reason, and on account of his
+amiable and charming disposition, he had won for himself
+the sympathy of the people even before his succession to the
+throne. This nephew of Frederic the Great of Prussia had
+inherited the genius, ambition and pride of his gifted mother,
+all enlarged and intensified, and the gentleness and good
+nature of his father. He was in every particular a child
+of his time, and every inch a king. Gustavus was decidedly
+French in education, taste and superficiality, but had by his
+first teacher Dalin been inspired with a deep love of his
+country, its history, language and traditions. He handled
+the Swedish and French languages with equal skill, and
+a more eloquent monarch has never graced a throne. He
+was passionately fond of theatricals and impressive ceremony,
+and, like his mother and illustrious uncle, he surrounded
+himself with men of genius. Gustavus was betrothed
+to Princess Sophie Magdalene of Denmark when
+only four years of age, and married her when twenty. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span>
+union was arranged by the Riksdag, contrary to the wish
+of Gustavus’s parents. Gustavus appeared at first to be
+deeply in love with the gentle and unpretentious princess,
+but she soon found herself as neglected by her consort as
+she was detested by his mother. The crown prince early
+began to hate the form of government which had brought
+so much humiliation to his parents. This absolutism of the
+Riksdag, which could be bought and sold through bribery
+by foreign powers, he considered dangerous to the independence
+and welfare of the country, and was resolved to
+change the balance of power to the hands of the king,
+of whose dignity and importance he held an exalted opinion.</p>
+
+<p>At the death of his father, Gustavus was in France,
+returning with the agreement of a secret alliance. At the
+Riksdag of 1771, where the Caps once more came into
+power, Gustavus III. signed a pledge with new restrictions
+of the royal authority. But while the king officially seemed
+to desire a pacification of both parties, and his time was
+principally occupied with theatricals, embroideries and costumes,
+he was secretly arranging a conspiracy. He was
+crowned in May, 1772, and in August the news of a revolt
+in Scania, led by John Christian Toll, reached the capital.
+The king feigned surprise, but waited for similar news from
+Finland, whence Jacob Magnus Sprengtporten was to bring
+troops to Stockholm. As Sprengtporten’s movements were
+somewhat delayed, the king had to take action himself.
+In the morning of August 19th he entered the officers’ hall
+of the body-guards, where he delivered a patriotic address,
+asking the officers to follow him as their ancestors had followed
+Gustavus Vasa and Gustavus Adolphus. He was
+greeted with an enthusiasm which soon spread throughout
+the capital, assuring the king of perfect loyalty. The state<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span>
+councillors were quickly arrested and order given that no one
+should be allowed to leave the capital. The Riksdag was
+called together August 21st, and addressed by the king in
+an eloquent speech which gave a striking view of the situation
+and its perils. He declared that he was not going to
+touch liberty, only to abolish misrule by the establishment
+of a firm administration. Then was read the proposition
+for a constitution which the king had prepared. The king
+alone was to be the executive, appointing higher officials
+and councillors, making alliances with foreign powers, but
+not commencing any war of attack without the consent of
+the Riksdag. The state council was to consist of seventeen
+members with deliberative, but no executive, power. The
+Riksdag was to convene at the order of the king, taxation
+and legislation to be decided on by the king and Riksdag
+in common. The judicial power of all committees was to be
+abolished. The Riksdag accepted the royal propositions,
+and one of the most smoothly and skilfully managed <i>coups
+d’état</i> ever attempted was accomplished, much to the dismay
+of Russia, Prussia and Denmark. During half a score
+of years the country enjoyed a happy peace, the king winning
+the love of his people and being active in administrative
+improvements.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus III. was intensely interested in literature and
+art, and a writer of considerable ability, composing
+dramatic works of French pattern but with patriotic subjects.
+In his best creations he is influenced by Shakespeare.
+Among the poets whom he encouraged were Kellgren, Leopold,
+Creutz, Gyllenborg, Oxenstierna, Adlerbeth, the creators
+of a classical school of Swedish poetry and drama,
+influenced by the contemporary French writers. Above
+these towers Charles Michael Bellman, who, with his com<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span>posite
+and rich endowment, became the first great national
+poet, and of an originality as remarkable as that of any
+genius in the literature of the world. The humor introduced
+into Swedish literature through the contact with the
+songs of the Edda, in Bellman reaches its perfection, while
+his poetry in exquisite and triumphant grace of form outrivals
+that of his classical contemporaries. His poems were
+almost all produced under the inspiration of the moment,
+even if later remodelled, and sung to the lute to melodies
+of the day, or of his own composition. His impressionistic
+power of description leads the thought to the modern
+artists, while his ambition to unite the arts of poetry,
+music and plastics makes him a precursor of Neo-Romanticism.
+There is not one accent of chauvinism, not even a
+note of patriotism, in his songs, yet he is the most beloved
+of Swedish poets, recognized as the highest exponent of the
+lyrico-rhetorical temperament of his people, a mixture of
+melancholy humor and exuberant joy in a graceful yet
+stately form. Anne Marie Lenngren was a highly talented
+poetess, who preserves the classic form for her verse, in
+which she ridicules the faults and vices of her period. Thorild
+and Lidner were men of great genius, but of somewhat
+bizarre and neglected literary form, influenced by contemporary
+Romanticism in Germany. Sweden continues to
+add a number of names to the galaxy of men distinguished
+in the service of natural science, those of Bergman and
+Scheele, the founders of modern chemistry, being the most
+renowned. To the Academy of Science and Academy of
+Art, established during the Period of Liberty, Gustavus
+added a Swedish Academy and a National Theatre for the
+encouragement of poetry, eloquence, music and drama.
+It is during this period that the Swedish language devel<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span>oped
+the beauty and plasticity for which it holds the first
+rank among Teutonic dialects, and is considered one of the
+most musical languages of the world. Of artists, the painters
+Hœrberg, Hillestrœm and Roslin rose to great continental
+fame, while Sergel, through the genius and tendencies
+of his works one of the most remarkable sculptors of
+modern times, won renown for his name, but hardly the
+very highest perfection within his possibilities. His statue
+of Gustavus III. is the finest monument of Stockholm.</p>
+
+<p>Sweden, so rich in great poets, artists and scientists,
+is poor in philosophers, content with the systems of thinkers
+in more favored countries. Swedenborg is an important
+exception to this rule. Not satisfied with an original system,
+with pure reason as the fundamental principle, he divined a
+system in which philosophy and religion are inseparably
+united. Kant, when made acquainted with Swedenborg’s
+earlier system, was utterly astonished, expressing fear that
+he himself had been an object of thought-transference,
+when writing his celebrated work, “Kritik der reinen Vernunft.”
+The system of Descartes was followed by Swedish
+philosophers of the Carolinian epoch. During the Period
+of Liberty and the reign of Gustavus III., Locke, Voltaire
+and Diderot were supreme. At the close of the eighteenth
+century, Kant began to exert great influence, Benjamin
+Hœijer being his talented and individualistic disciple, and
+enjoying the reputation of having been Sweden’s greatest
+original thinker. Charles August Ehrensverd, an able warrior
+and statesman of the Gustavian epoch, devised an
+attractive and novel, although slightly dilettantic, system
+of his own, the Philosophy of Fine Arts.</p>
+
+<p>The suspicions that Gustavus III. was not satisfied with
+the share of power which he obtained in 1772, and that he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span>
+was anxious to gain fame by the means of war, were found
+to be justified. In 1786 he called a Riksdag, at which most
+of his propositions, to his great surprise, were stubbornly
+opposed. Catherine II. of Russia was intriguing with the
+Finnish nobles for the purpose of establishing the independence
+of Finland under Russian protection. But she was
+careful not to commence hostilities. Attempts made by
+Gustavus III. to bring the Norwegian people in revolt
+against Denmark failed. And so Gustavus, who had no
+authority to begin a war of attack, arranged for a simulated
+Russian assault on the Finnish boundary, executed by Finnish
+peasants in disguise. He declared war on Russia, in
+June, 1788, although nobody was found willing to believe
+in the feigned cause of it. The actual hostilities were
+opened by a brilliant naval battle at Hogland, fought with
+success by the Swedish fleet under command of Prince
+Charles, the brother of the king, against the Russians.
+The king had arrived in Finland resolved to attack St.
+Petersburg, which plan he was obliged to change. All
+further operations came to a sudden standstill through
+mutiny among the Finnish officers in the royal camp at
+Anjala, 113 of them signing a document in which they
+pledged themselves to force the king to make peace and to
+convoke the Riksdag. Another document offering peace
+and a union of Finland to Russia was despatched to St.
+Petersburg with Jægerhorn, one of the leaders. The officers
+received a favorable answer from Russia, which
+was handed to the king, and the whole army was made
+acquainted with the proceedings. The king found himself
+in a most perilous position, out of which he was
+saved as by a miracle. Denmark declared war, and the
+king hastened to embrace the opportunity to leave with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span>
+honor the trap in which his life and liberty were in
+danger.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus III. sent word to several provinces, asking the
+inhabitants to rise in defence of their country. He went
+himself to Dalecarlia, where he addressed the peasants when
+coming from church, as had Gustavus Vasa. Everywhere
+the population rose in arms. The king hastened to Gothenburg,
+which was threatened by the Danes, and had the city
+strongly fortified. England and Prussia sided with Sweden,
+and the Danes found it best to retire from Swedish territory.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus had won the game. Now for the stakes! He
+called a Riksdag in 1789. Through his personal courage
+and patriotism, Gustavus III. had recaptured the love of
+his people. The nobility was hated and despised on account
+of its responsibility for the mutiny at Anjala and for its
+intrigues with Russia. Gustavus III. consequently stood
+exceedingly well with the three lower Estates of the Riksdag,
+but lost their respect through the many violations of
+the law which he committed in forcing upon the Riksdag
+a new constitution which made him a ruler with almost
+absolute power. The nobility stubbornly refused to accept
+any change in the constitution. There were many stormy
+scenes, both among the nobles and in the presence of the
+king, who also paid a visit to the Riddarhus, which he left
+with the statement that the nobles were willing to subscribe,
+the latter loudly protesting. Axel von Fersen the Elder and
+several other aristocratic leaders were held in a prolonged
+arrest. Archbishop Troil told the king that he did not wish
+to be the first archbishop after Gustavus Trolle to sell the
+liberty of his country, and begged to be excused from being
+present at the deliberations. The poet and royal favorite<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span>
+Adlerbeth, himself a nobleman, pleaded in the Riksdag the
+right of his Estate to take action on the royal propositions.
+These were in private signed by the speakers of the four
+Estates and pronounced by the government as accepted, and
+were called an “Act of Union and Security.” This new
+constitution gave almost absolute power to the king. The
+state council was once more, and forever, swept away and
+not even mentioned in the constitution. It was divided into
+a supreme court and a department for “the preparation
+of public affairs.” By taking half of their members only
+from the nobility, the greatest privilege of that class was
+annulled. To the peasants was extended the privilege of
+buying land originally belonging to the nobility. By hard
+pressure, and in opposition to the nobles, the king forced the
+Riksdag to take the responsibility for the state debt, which
+had increased considerably.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus III. opened the Riksdag as the most popular
+man of the country. He closed it as an absolute sovereign
+who had lost the love of his people and aroused the revengeful
+hatred of the nobility. Gustavus III. was now enabled
+to continue the Russian war at will. His sub-commander
+Stedingk won a victory over the Russians at Porosalmi,
+the latter being led by Sprengtporten, the former supporter
+of Gustavus III., now a soldier of Empress Catherine. He
+was killed in the battle. Prince Charles won a victory at
+Œland, but was by negligence of his sub-commander detained
+from reaping its benefits, Charles August Ehrensverd
+defeated a superior Russian naval force at Svensksund
+with the “Skerry Fleet,” the creation of his father, Augustinus
+Ehrensverd. At the order of the king, he then met
+a still larger fleet and was defeated. Dissatisfied with the
+king and the result, the valiant hero and philosopher made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span>
+his report in the following laconic phrase: “Your majesty
+has no longer any Skerry Fleet,” and resigned from his
+position as admiral-general. In the following year, 1780,
+the combined naval forces of Sweden were shut up by the
+Russian fleet in the bay of Viborg, and seemed doomed to
+destruction. But the king gave orders that all the ships
+should force a passage, and this heroic effort was successfully
+made, through the lines of colossal Russian warships
+chained together. The Russian losses were great, and also
+those of the Swedes, on account of an explosion on board one
+of the ships. The Russians were anxious to gain the victory
+that escaped them at Viborg, and decided on July 9th,
+the day of Empress Catherine’s coronation, as an appropriate
+date. The battle was fought at Svensksund, and
+turned into a humiliating defeat, the Russians losing 53
+ships, 643 cannon and 14,000 men, and the imperial flag
+of state; twenty-six of these ships were entered in the
+Swedish navy. Peace was made at Værælæ a month later.
+No change of territory was involved, but an end was put to
+Russian intrigues, and Sweden had once more and forever
+demonstrated her power of taking care of her independence.</p>
+
+<p>The revolution in France made a deep impression upon
+the factions which in Sweden were secretly continuing their
+struggle. The nobility, in their aristocratic republicanism,
+sided with the revolutionists, while the king, an intimate
+friend of Louis XVI., tried to save the monarchy. Gustavus
+III. left Sweden in the summer of 1791, in order to
+receive Louis XVI. and his family at the frontier, while
+Count Axel von Fersen the Younger, a son of the old aristocratic
+party leader who had taken part with distinction
+in the American revolutionary war, was very near to saving
+the royal family through a flight from Paris. King<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span>
+Gustavus III. waited in vain for the royal fugitives, but
+commenced active operations for the forming of an alliance
+between Sweden, Russia, Prussia, Austria and Spain
+against republican France. Sweden and Russia made a
+treaty of mutual defence, but the negotiations for a general
+alliance were not at a favorable point when Gustavus
+III. himself fell by the aristocratic republicans of his own
+country.</p>
+
+<p>A conspiracy between the nobles had been formed, the
+majority being men of the highest station. Jacob John
+Anckarstrom, a retired officer, was found willing to commit
+the deed of killing the hated despot. After several unsuccessful
+attempts, the act was accomplished at a mask ball
+in the Royal Opera, the king being shot through the hip.
+All of the accomplices present were arrested, and, much
+to their disappointment, the king not dying instantly, their
+plan for a revolution was thus frustrated. Gustavus III.
+was shot March 16, 1792, and died March 26, 1792, suffering
+his fate with fortitude and great presence of mind. He
+appointed his brother Charles and his favorite, Charles Gustavus
+Armfelt, members of the government during the
+minority of his son, Gustavus Adolphus.</p>
+
+<p>The devotion of his country returned to Gustavus III.
+at his deathbed, never to leave him. In spite of his superficiality,
+violation of the law, disregard for a constitutional
+government, and adventurous and expensive wars, solid
+reasons remain to love and respect his memory. His noble
+patriotism, frank heroism, brilliant genius and great generosity
+are worthy of high praise. His revolution of 1789
+brought disastrous consequences, but he furthered the
+progress of democracy by annihilation of the aristocratic
+republic and saved his country from the tragic fate of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span>
+Poland. Even if the Period of Liberty is to be credited
+for a great deal of the cultural development during his
+reign, Gustavus has a large share therein, and Esaias
+Tegnér is right in his eulogy when he says:</p>
+
+<div class="center"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">“There rests o’er Gustav’s days a golden shimmer,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Fantastic, foreign, frivolous, if you please;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But why complain when <i>sunshine</i> caused the glamour?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Where stood we now if it were not for these?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">All culture on an unfree ground is builded,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And barbarous once the base of patriotism true;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But wit was planted, iron-hard language welded,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The song was raised, life more enjoyed and shielded,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And what Gustavian was, is, therefore, Swedish too.”<br /></span>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p>In the mixture of patriotism and unreserved cosmopolitanism,
+true genius and superficiality, earnestness and recklessness
+in the character of Gustavus III., the Swedes have
+recognized peculiarities of their own national temperament,
+for which they are tempted to love him as dearly, although
+not considering him to be as great, as his two predecessors
+and namesakes on the Swedish throne. By his eloquence,
+wit and amiability, his personality charmed even his enemies.
+In contrast to the sombre autocrats of the Barocco
+period, Gustavus III. was a typical Rococo monarch, and
+he tried to give the charms and grace of the Rococo epoch
+to his surroundings. In appearance, he was of middle size,
+slender and graceful, with a face which bespoke genius, and
+eyes of unusual size and brilliancy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gustavus IV. Adolphus</i> was a boy of thirteen at the
+death of his father. His uncle, Prince Charles, was regent
+in name, but Baron Reuterholm, the latter’s favorite, was
+the real head of the government. Compared to the eccentric
+but energetic, generous and liberal despotism of Gustavus
+III., Reuterholm’s was a rule of pettiness, incapa<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span>bility,
+revenge and hypocrisy. Prince Charles was a good
+soldier, but early lost all energy through dissipation and
+a natural tendency to mysticism, secrecy and simulation.
+Reuterholm was a good worker, but of no ability as a statesman,
+sharing and increasing the love of mysticism and
+superstition characteristic of his master. The new policy
+was to estrange the friends and favorites of Gustavus III.
+as much as possible, they all being sent away under various
+pretexts. Prince Charles had from the start declared invalid
+the postscript of the king’s will, according to which
+Count Armfelt was to take part in the government. Later
+a conspiracy, with Armfelt as the leader, was detected,
+when he, who was abroad and later entered Russian service,
+was declared to have forfeited his property, rank and life.
+A young woman, Lady Madelaine Rudenschiold, who was
+one of the conspirators, was punished by being exhibited
+to the mob on the place of execution and afterward imprisoned.</p>
+
+<p>Prince Charles was criticised for the leniency shown
+toward his brother’s murderers, perhaps without justice,
+for the dying king had pleaded clemency in their behalf.
+Only Anckarstrom was executed, the other conspirators
+all receiving surprisingly mild sentences. This was contrasted
+to the petty and revengeful hatred shown the opponents
+of the new government, and one now recalled the
+fact that Gustavus III. in his last moments had refused
+to see the prince. That Charles also had aspirations of his
+own seems evident from the fact that he had the young
+king examined by physicians, raising doubt as to his physical
+and mental fitness to ever take a hand in the government.</p>
+
+<p>Reuterholm made himself hated and ridiculous by his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span>
+pettiness. Thus restrictions were placed on extravagance
+in food and clothing, the use of coffee for some time being
+entirely prohibited. The Swedish Academy was disbanded
+because it did not make Reuterholm a member. The liberty
+of the press was extended and then suddenly restricted.
+Thorild, the writer and poet, was exiled for agitation
+against the old division of the Riksdag into four houses,
+“because its four Estates always have been bringing about
+one unsettled state.” Characteristic of the opinion of Reuterholm’s
+administration are the words which the warrior
+and philosopher, Charles August Ehrensverd, gave him in
+the course of a quarrel between the two: “Monsieur is ambitious
+to govern, but monsieur does not know how.” The
+best things accomplished during this period were the establishment
+of a military academy at Carlberg, and improvements
+of the Bible translation and the ritual and hymn-book
+of the church.</p>
+
+<p>The attitude toward France was changed with the
+change of government, Sweden being the first power to
+recognize the French republic. With that country and
+Denmark close intimacy was formed, which enraged Russia
+and England. In order to pacify the empress, old negotiations
+for a marriage between King Gustavus Adolphus and
+Alexandra, a niece of Empress Catherine II., were reopened
+and a decision reached. The king left for St. Petersburg.
+When the great ceremony was to take place, the empress
+sat there waiting with her brilliant court for several hours.
+No Gustavus Adolphus appeared. In the last moment he
+had been asked by a priest to grant his future consort,
+Alexandra, liberty to practice her Greek Catholic faith in
+public, which he refused to do, thus dropping the whole
+matter. The indignant empress was suddenly taken ill and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span>
+died a few weeks later. Soon afterward the king married
+the beautiful princess Frederica of Bade.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus IV. Adolphus was declared of age and took
+charge of the government when eighteen (in 1796). Reuterholm
+was dismissed, and Prince Charles retired. The king
+surrounded himself with the friends of his father, Armfelt
+and Toll being recalled, the latter taking excellent care of
+foreign affairs, as far as his authority went. But Gustavus
+IV. ruled alone, without favorites or influential advisers.
+This was most unfortunate, for he was entirely without the
+gifts of a regent. He was a lover of order, economy, justice
+and pure morals, but through lack of mental and physical
+strength his good qualities were misdirected. His
+father’s tragic fate had a sinister influence upon his mind,
+the equilibrium of which was shaken also by the outrages
+of the revolutionists in France. Of a morbid sensibility,
+and without inclination to confide in any one, his religious
+mysticism led him into a state close to insanity. He imagined
+himself to be a reincarnation of Charles XII., while
+in Napoleon he recognized the monster of the Apocalypse,
+which he himself was sent to fight and conquer.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus IV. went to an extreme in his fear of liberal
+movements, placing severe censorship on the periodical
+press, book market and universities. Benjamin Hœijer,
+the great philosopher, for some time left his chair at Upsala
+and the country. A man who was resolved to “go even
+to the doors of hell in search of truth” could not be in sympathy
+with the bigot despot. Hard times, produced by
+failure of crops and fisheries, and by maritime losses during
+the war between England and France, threw added umbrage
+over the reign of Gustavus IV. He convoked a
+Riksdag, in 1800, in order to raise money to cover the debts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span>
+involved by his predecessor. He never repeated the experiment.
+The nobles sanctioned the absolute rule, but stormy
+sessions ensued over the royal propositions, six nobles resigning
+from titles and privileges, six others their seats
+in the Riksdag. The peasants, almost as unyielding, were
+pacified by Toll. By his own authority, the king mortgaged
+the Swedish city of Wismar, in Mecklenburg, to the
+ruler of said duchy for a period of one hundred years, in
+receipt for a sum of some two million dollars.</p>
+
+<p>There was no question in which the insanity of the king
+became more apparent or disastrous than in his foreign
+policy. An alliance of armed neutrality between Sweden,
+Russia and Denmark came to naught through the inactivity
+of Gustavus IV., and he stubbornly refused to
+accept the repeated offers of Napoleon of an alliance with
+France in the combat with the powers. Things took a
+sinister aspect when an intimate alliance was effected between
+Napoleon and Alexander of Russia, in 1807. Napoleon
+had lost patience with the lunatic king, and tried to
+call forth a catastrophe by urging Alexander to capture
+Finland, which he at first was unwilling to do. The French
+invaded Swedish Pomerania, and Toll was able to save the
+little Swedish army of 10,000 only by means of a most skilful
+diplomacy. Denmark, attacked by England, declared
+war against Sweden. Gustavus IV. made great preparations,
+sending Armfelt with one army to the Norwegian
+frontier and Toll with another to Scania. The regular
+army counted 100,000 men, and a great force of militia was
+organized. But through gross incapability of the government
+the majority of troops were never used, the militia
+suffering immensely through neglect and hunger.</p>
+
+<p>Czar Alexander at last decided to capture Finland. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span>
+called it himself an act of bad faith and treason against a
+relative and ally, and in a treacherous way he carried on his
+preparations. The Swedish ambassador was misled as to
+the object of the latter, and when informed received exaggerated
+accounts as to the force which was to invade Finland.
+Gustavus IV. was alarmed and gave the old and
+incapable field-marshal, Klingspor, appointed to command
+the army in Finland, directions to save his troops in the best
+way possible. And so commenced, in February, 1808, the
+war which after a heroic struggle was to separate the Finns
+from their Swedish brethren. Not only were the Finnish
+troops possessed of the noblest patriotic spirit, but they had
+also courageous and distinguished commanders, who, if
+duly supported and intrusted with more authority, would
+probably have been able to ward off the attack. Conspicuous
+among the latter were C. J. Adlercreutz, born in Finland,
+the hero of Siikajoki, Lappo and Oravais; G. C. von
+Dœbeln, the victor of Juutas, and J. A. Sandels, the hero
+of Pulkkila, Indensalmi and Virta, all three of them veterans
+from the war of Gustavus III.</p>
+
+<p>The aged General Klercker commanded a Finnish army
+at Tavastehus, where Klingspor arrived with his royal orders,
+which were for retreat and evacuation of the country. The
+troops were deprived of their hopes of a battle and forced
+to make a retreat of nearly 600 miles, suffering from cold
+and hunger. The retreat continued without interruption
+for two months, until the army, in April, found itself between
+Brahestad and Uleoborg. A battle was fought at
+Siikajoki, April 18th, the sub-commander, General Adlercreutz,
+receiving instructions to make a stand against the
+enemy until the safety of the army supplies could be insured.
+After five hours of fighting, the Finns won a glo<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span>rious
+victory over the Russians. But royal orders for a
+continued retreat arrived, and the Russians took possession
+of Siikajoki.</p>
+
+<p>As long as Sveaborg, the Gibraltar of the North, was
+safe, the final outcome of the struggle must remain undecided.
+Sveaborg, the creation of Augustinus Ehrensverd,
+is situated on seven islets and consists of several strong
+works partly cut out of the rock and in an admirable way
+protecting and supplementing each other. The fortress was
+defended by 6,000 men, with 1,000 cannon and ample provisions
+of all kinds; in the harbor a division of the Swedish
+navy was at anchor. Olof Cronstedt, the commander, was
+dissatisfied with the king and a secret supporter of Prince
+Charles. His sub-commander, Jægerhorn, a brother of the
+leader of the Conspiracy of Anjala, was a traitor, probably
+in understanding with the Russians even before the war.
+A little army of 4,000 Russians under the command of Van
+Suchtelen was sent against Sveaborg. This force was too
+small to make a serious attack; it was not able to capture
+any of the fortifications; the naked rocks made it impossible
+to build any earthworks. What the Russians could not
+effect by force they accomplished by treachery, winning
+over the commanding officers of Sveaborg through threats
+and promises. When the Swedish and Finnish soldiers saw
+the queer behavior of their officers they planned a mutiny;
+but this was not carried out on account of lack of leadership.
+The officers tried by the most shameful lies to pacify
+the soldiers, Jægerhorn taking the leading part in these
+proceedings. Sveaborg surrendered May 3d, all Swedes
+being made prisoners of war, but the Finns given free
+leave. When the troops saw the small force of Russians
+and their miserable equipment they were enraged, breaking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span>
+their weapons and tearing their banners to pieces. Cronstedt,
+Jægerhorn and the other commanding officers became
+Russian citizens, and received high outward distinctions;
+but by both Russians and Finns they were ever treated with
+cold contempt on account of their shameless treason.</p>
+
+<p>With the fall of Sveaborg, all hope of saving Finland
+was lost. In the summer of 1808, her army fought several
+glorious battles under the command of Adlercreutz, Dœbeln
+and Sandels, but in the autumn it was attacked by a superior
+Russian force and was nearly closed in between Old
+Carleby and Vasa. Gripenberg stood with one division at
+Old Carleby, furthest to the north, Dœbeln lay prostrated
+by illness at New Carleby, and Adlercreutz stood with the
+central body of troops at Oravais, about twenty miles south
+from the latter town. The Russian army attacked the force
+which was with Dœbeln, resolved to cut off Adlercreutz
+from a retreat. One attack was already made at Juutas,
+near New Carleby, when Dœbeln, alarmed by the news and
+heedless of his serious illness, was seen approaching. His
+men received him with enthusiasm, collected their scattering
+forces and proved victorious over the attacking enemy.
+The Russians retreated and Adlercreutz was saved.</p>
+
+<p>The famous battle of Oravais was fought the following
+day, September 14th. The Swedish army was arranged
+on a promontory in the sea, with artillery on a hill to the
+north, close to which a detachment of the regiment of Helsingland
+was arranged in an excellent position. Another
+detachment of the same regiment was by a little brook at
+the south base of the promontory, with two cannon, under
+the command of Count William von Schwerin, a boy of sixteen
+years. At this latter point the battle was begun at five
+o’clock in the morning. The Russians, 8,000 strong, with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span>
+twenty cannon and commanded by Kamenski, approached
+a bridge leading over the brook. The 400 Swedes offered
+a plucky resistance to the overwhelming force. Every time
+the bridge was filled by Russians, Schwerin swept it clear
+with the fire from his two cannon. This heroic struggle
+was kept up for four hours, when the Helsings had no more
+cartridges for their guns wherewith to support the artillery
+fire. The aide-de-camp Biornstierna, who was despatched
+thither by Adlercreutz, saw a pitiable sight. Most of the
+officers of the 400 Swedes were killed and the Russians were
+storming across the bridge in heavy masses. “Now,
+count,” cried Biornstierna, “let us see what your artillery
+amounts to!” Schwerin let the Russians approach until
+only fifty feet from the cannon, when he ordered: “Fire!”
+The whole first fine of the Russian column fell. Schwerin
+gave command to have the cannon dragged a hundred
+yards back and then fired, with the same disastrous effect.
+Thus the retreat was made from hill to hill. At last the
+young hero received a mortal wound and his men were
+surrounded on every side. With a final effort he rose to
+his feet, broke through the lines with his valiant Helsings,
+and died in the midst of the Swedish troops.</p>
+
+<p>Adlercreutz closely watched the movements of the Russians,
+and saw an opportunity to break through their centre,
+which was successfully done, the enemy turning into flight.
+It looked like an overwhelming defeat for the Russians,
+when reinforcements arrived in the last moment, and the
+exhausted Swedes had to stop fighting on account of the
+darkness of the night. After a battle of fifteen hours
+the Swedes had lost 2,600 men, or nearly one-third of their
+forces, but not one single cannon or banner. The remnants
+of the army followed the “royal orders of retreat,” crossing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span>
+the Swedish frontier. Finland was lost and Sweden proper
+in danger.</p>
+
+<p>Only a revolution could save the country. The republican
+aristocrats were the ones to bring it about. A conspiracy
+among them was formed, George Adlersparre and
+Ch. H. Anckarsverd being the leaders. When it was rumored
+that the former, with the western army division,
+of which he was the commander, had left the Norwegian
+frontier and was marching on Stockholm, Gustavus IV.
+sent order to Toll in Scania to meet him with his troops,
+while the king seemed to make preparations to leave.
+Great excitement reigned in Stockholm, and General Adlercreutz,
+who recently had been received in the capital
+with enthusiasm, resolved to take action in preventing the
+king’s departure. Accompanied by half a dozen officers,
+he entered the king’s bedchamber the morning of March
+13th, and took possession of the king in person, who made
+a struggle and later a frustrated attempt to escape. The
+body-guards were persuaded to remain inactive. Prince
+Charles was proclaimed regent. Neither this fact nor the
+arrest of the king seemed to impress the population, who
+received the news with ice-cold reserve. The king was
+conducted to Drottningholm, and later to Gripsholm, where
+he signed the document of abdication, finally to be escorted
+out of the country with his family, never to return. He
+died in St. Gallen in 1837.</p>
+
+<p>The regent’s first duty was to ward off the Russian invasion
+of Norrland and to obtain peace. Napoleon congratulated
+Sweden on having got rid of the “supremacy
+of a fool,” and sanctioned an armistice, granted by his
+general Marshal Bernadotte, who commanded an army
+in Seeland, ready to attack Sweden. Peace was made in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span>
+Paris, Sweden receiving back Pomerania in return for a
+promise to close its own harbors against English ships.
+Peace with Denmark was made, with no change of territory
+on either side. Attempts to rout the Russian army of invasion
+at Ratan, in West Bothnia, were unsuccessful, but
+it withdrew by its own choice. In the treaty of peace
+signed at Fredericshamn, September 17, 1809, Finland, the
+archipelago of Aland and a part of Swedish Bothnia were
+ceded to Russia, the rivers of Torne and Muonio to form the
+boundary line.</p>
+
+<p>Finland, since time immemorial in intimate relations
+with Sweden, from whom she had received a portion of her
+population, had for 600 years with her mother country
+formed integral parts of the same realm. Sweden had
+given to Finland her religion, constitution, laws, privileges
+and culture, and in return received her fidelity and a host
+of patriotic men eminent in affairs of war and peace. Together
+the Swedes and Finns had fought on the battlefields
+of Europe for the political grandeur of their country and
+the religious liberty of the world. United to Russia, Finland
+preserved her institutions and privileges unmolested, and
+has, up to date, enjoyed a peaceful development greater than
+would perhaps have been her share under Swedish rule.
+The mother country was after this great loss forced to concentrate
+her energy on a more solid material progress, and
+has, according to the prophecy of Esaias Tegnér, “within
+the boundary of Sweden reconquered Finland.” The Finns
+have proved themselves to be one of the most talented and
+energetic of nations. Out of the two million inhabitants
+of Finland, two-fifths are Swedish, forming the nobility and
+the majority of the cultured classes. Already at the time
+of the separation from Sweden was born the national singer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span>
+of Finland, John Ludvig Runeberg, who was to become the
+greatest poet that ever wrote in the Swedish language and
+one of the greatest that ever lived. In his immortal songs
+of “Finland’s latest war,” the two countries have a great
+common inheritance. Sweden dreamed of reconquering
+Finland as soon as a good warrior ascended the throne.
+This hope was given up forever. But the most intimate
+sympathy still reigns between the two countries. In case
+that harm to Finland or her home-rule should be done,
+and her independence be lost, the Swedish people would not
+be in a position to avenge such a crime, but it would cause
+profound grief and indignation, and would be considered
+a shameful act of violence which the glory of no peace
+emperor would suffice to cover.</p>
+
+<p>By the revolution of 1789, Sweden for a second time
+in her history surrendered her liberty into the hands of an
+energetic and patriotic ruler only to see the absolute power
+utterly abused by an incompetent successor. The loss and
+suffering were almost as great as at the death of Charles
+XII., but the era of democracy, peace and prosperity so
+much closer at hand. It was the spirit of the aristocratic
+republicanism which caused the timely downfall of absolute
+monarchy, but it was in its turn destined to fall for the
+spirit of democracy and a constitutional government.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI</a><br />
+<span class="smaller"><i>The Constitutional Monarchy&mdash;Charles XIII. and the
+early Bernadottes</i></span></h2>
+
+<p>Charles XIII. succeeded his nephew. He was
+chosen king after a new constitution had been
+formulated and accepted by the Riksdag of 1809.
+Charles XIII. was one of the most unsympathetic of Swedish
+kings, but his reign marks a new period in Swedish
+history, commencing the era of constitutional government.
+The new constitution to which the king subscribed was not
+a radical document; it only reduced the power of the king.
+Hans Jærta, one of the nobles who had renounced their
+privileges and been active in the conspiracy against Gustavus
+IV., was the leading spirit of the constitutional committee
+and was appointed secretary of state in the new
+cabinet. Urgent appeals of the peasant Estate to reduce
+or abolish the privileges of the upper classes were of no
+avail, no reform of state or society yet being made. A
+proposition by Count von Platen to introduce a compulsory
+militia defence was voted down. This Riksdag, which
+lasted for a year, gave fuller liberties to the press, which at
+once used it to voice the popular dissatisfaction with the
+state of affairs. It was necessary to select an heir to the
+throne, as the old king was childless, Prince Christian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span>
+August of Augustenborg being chosen, much in opposition
+to the nobles, who wanted the son of Gustavus IV.</p>
+
+<p>The prince of Augustenborg, who was Danish governor-general
+of Norway, accepted, and was adopted by the king,
+changing his name to Charles August. He was a plain,
+resolute and active man, unattractive in appearance, but
+of a kind and noble character. Beloved by the lower
+classes, who had effected his selection, he was treated coldly
+by the Gustavian aristocrats and by Queen Hedvig Elisabeth
+Charlotte (Princess of Oldenburg), who all favored the
+selection of young Gustavus, the son of exiled Gustavus
+IV. Reports of attempts to poison the heir-apparent were
+in circulation even before he arrived in Sweden. Prince
+Charles August himself often said that he thought he would
+die young by some stroke of paralysis, but he paid no attention
+to the warnings given him. During a parade of troops
+at Qvidinge, in Scania, he was suddenly seen to lose consciousness
+and dropped dead from his horse. Peculiarities
+in the investigation of the corpse, led by his physician,
+caused a second post-mortem examination, in which the
+celebrated chemist Berzelius took part. The report seemed
+in favor of the supposition that the death was caused by
+poison. The indignation of the populace knew no bounds.
+The friends of the government tried to coin political money
+by insinuating that the Gustavians, particularly Count
+Axel von Fersen the Younger and his sister, Countess
+Piper, were the responsible parties. At the burial of the
+dead prince the mob of Stockholm perpetrated one of the
+most hideous murders of a man who was without doubt
+innocent. When Count Fersen, in the capacity of marshal
+of the realm, was to open the procession, he was warned
+not to do so, but in pride and sense of duty resolved to meet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span>
+his fate. Approaching the church of Riddarholm, his carriage
+was pelted with stones, Fersen himself seeking shelter
+in various places, but being pursued by the mob and killed.
+Fersen had sought protection in a body of troops, whose
+officers commanded them to turn him over to the mob.
+Thus perished a man who, with Curt von Stedingk, had
+received the order of Cincinnatus from the hands of George
+Washington, and who once was so near saving Louis XVI.
+and Marie Antoinette from their cruel fate. Fersen’s
+brother was saved only by mere chance and his sister by a
+flight in disguise. The mob now was resolved to attack
+Countess Piper, who was thought to be at the castle, and
+the queen herself. But the authorities, who had brought
+shame on themselves by their unwillingness to save Fersen,
+interfered, directing a few shots of cannon against the mob,
+dispersing it and killing many (June 10, 1810).</p>
+
+<p>Sweden was once more without an heir-apparent to the
+throne. Frederic, the brother of Charles August, was
+favored by the king. Frederic VI. of Denmark was a
+candidate, but the old national hatred against the Danes
+was still too strong to make his selection possible. A count
+of Oldenburg was also mentioned by some. The Gustavians,
+to whom Adlercreutz belonged, dared not openly push
+their candidate of the old royal line. The patriotic noblemen
+in power were anxious to see some great general
+chosen, regardless of a royal pedigree, who could recapture
+Finland. King Charles sent two emissaries to Napoleon
+to notify him of the death of Charles August and the selection
+of his brother. Then one of the most original and
+daring schemes ever attempted on such a line was carried
+through by Count Otto Mœrner, one of the emissaries. On
+his own responsibility, he inquired of Marshal Bernadotte,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span>
+one of Napoleon’s ablest generals, if he would consent to
+become heir-apparent to the Swedish throne. Bernadotte
+consented, and the consent of Napoleon was obtained
+through the Swedish ambassador in Paris. Upon his return,
+Mœrner was ordered to leave the capital by the minister
+of state, who blamed him for his unauthorized action.
+But from Upsala Mœrner led an eager agitation, with the
+result that the Riksdag of Œrebro selected Bernadotte,
+who was represented by a secret emissary. Thus the two
+generals who, at the abdication of Gustavus IV., were, one
+in Norway, the other in Denmark, with troops ready to
+attack Sweden, both within one year were chosen to succeed
+Charles XIII.</p>
+
+<p>Jean Baptiste Jules Bernadotte was born at Pau, in
+South France, in 1764. The son of a lawyer, he worked
+himself up in the army and was by the Revolution enabled
+to reach the high military stations for which his eminent
+genius had destined him. Next to Napoleon the ablest
+of French generals, he opposed the imperial tendencies of
+the latter, but was later repeatedly used by the emperor
+to fulfil important duties as a warrior, diplomatist and
+statesman, receiving the rank of a marshal of France and
+the title of Prince of Ponte Corvo. Related by marriage,
+the two were never on terms of intimacy, and the Swedish
+politicians who thought to please the emperor, and gain
+a strong point with him by the selection of Bernadotte, were
+mistaken. Bernadotte joined the Lutheran church at Elsinore
+and landed in Sweden October 20, 1810. By his impressive
+appearance, his amiability and his genius, he soon
+won all hearts. As he never acquired the Swedish language,
+and as his superior ability as a statesman and warrior
+was not always comprehended, he suffered often<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span>
+through misunderstandings by his new countrymen, who
+never ceased to admire his eminent genius. Prince Charles,
+or Charles Johann, as he called himself henceforward, was
+of a commanding presence and had an interesting face,
+surrounded by black curly hair. His fascinating ways and
+winning disposition held captive the admiration even of his
+political opponents. Prince Charles refused to submit to
+the undue influence with which Napoleon tried to fetter
+him, and always carried high and with patriotic independence
+the interests of his adopted country.</p>
+
+<p>Napoleon soon found reason to be offended with Sweden.
+Through the peace of Paris, Sweden had agreed to close its
+harbors to England, but in Gothenburg, which town had
+suffered destruction by fire and was recently rebuilt, a lively
+traffic was secretly carried on, connecting England with
+Northern Europe and enriching Gothenburg. Napoleon
+was enraged and forced Sweden to declare war on England,
+which power, realizing the circumstances, did not
+open any hostilities, and allowed the commercial traffic to
+continue, although more secretly. Prince Charles, who
+from the start exerted a strong influence upon the government,
+effected an approach to Russia and England to save
+the dignity of Sweden, much to Napoleon’s dismay. He
+also put the army in a satisfactory condition by recruiting.
+This caused a revolt in Scania, which was subdued with
+severity. The Riksdag of 1812 passed a law for the establishment
+of a compulsory militia, all men between twenty-one
+and twenty-five years old being registered in classes
+according to age and instructed in military tactics and
+discipline.</p>
+
+<p>Napoleon tried by various methods to subdue and humiliate
+the independence of his Swedish ally, which, when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span>
+fruitless, led him to acts of hostility. Prince Charles made
+peace with England and an alliance with Russia, who
+promised 20,000 men to assist in the conquest of Norway.
+When Napoleon and Alexander of Russia commenced war
+against each other, popular opinion in Sweden sided with
+the former, but Prince Charles, who knew in detail the
+nature of Napoleon’s power and its lack of a solid foundation,
+tried to make his views clear. He met Alexander
+personally, agreeing with him on plans of mutual action, at
+Abo in 1812. After Napoleon’s unsuccessful march against
+Russia, Swedish opinions changed and Bernadotte had free
+hands to follow up his policy. England formed an alliance
+with Sweden, agreeing to support the conquest of Norway
+and ceding the island of Guadeloupe (later sold to France
+by Sweden). In 1813, 25,000 Swedish troops were sent
+to Germany, joining the continental allies, who, divided
+in three armies, were to attack Napoleon, according to
+plans mostly mapped out by Prince Charles of Sweden.
+The latter was to command the Northern army of 100,000
+men, Swedes, Prussians, Russians and English, but his
+position was a difficult one, for his superior tactics were
+misunderstood by his subordinates and by Blucher, the
+valiant but headstrong commander of 50,000 Prussians,
+who formed the Silesian army. But through the battles
+of Grossbeeren (August 23d), Dennewitz (September 6th),
+and Leipsic (October 16-19), the eminence of Bernadotte’s
+genius was fully brought out, his leadership and the Swedish
+troops taking honorable part in each. Napoleon and his
+armies were defeated and pursued by the allies. The monarchs
+voted a resolution of thanks to Prince Charles, who,
+with his army, marched northward to carry out the ultimate
+object of his policy, the conquest of Norway, the plans of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span>
+which had been made by Count Platen and handed him
+before he ever left Paris.</p>
+
+<p>Denmark had declared war on Sweden and sided with
+Napoleon. By turning against Denmark the former Marshal
+Bernadotte saved himself from the necessity of making
+an attack on the country of his birth. Lubeck surrendered,
+the Danes were defeated at Bornhœved, Kiel and Glucksburg
+were captured, and the whole of Holstein occupied. An
+armistice was agreed to. Denmark offered the diocese of
+Drontheim, but Prince Charles was resolved to expel Denmark
+from the Scandinavian Peninsula. January 14, 1814,
+peace was made at Kiel, Denmark ceding to Sweden the
+whole of Norway, except Iceland and Fero Islands, and
+receiving Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rugen in
+compensation.</p>
+
+<p>Norway, united with Denmark ever since the days of
+Queen Margaret, in a relation of more or less neglected
+conditions, during which her original independence was
+lost, had of late not been satisfied to remain under Danish
+supremacy. The governing class of officeholders was to
+a great extent of Danish origin and tendencies, and the
+patriotism of the population at large dates from a later
+period. Among the more cultured classes the revolution in
+France and close relations with England had fostered a
+desire for political independence. The Danes made use
+of this fact in order to try to maintain the relation with
+Denmark in some way. The Danish crown prince, Christian
+Frederic, was in 1813 made governor-general of Norway.
+He was a man of some brilliant gifts, but without
+any great ability. By journeys in the country he acquired
+popularity and adherents. In February, 1814, a
+meeting was held at Eidsvold by men of prominence, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span>
+declared the prince regent. May 17th a constitution was
+adopted and Christian Frederic elected king of Norway.
+His courteous offer of extending his rule to Sweden was
+there met by derision. After a triumphal return to Stockholm,
+Prince Bernadotte gathered his forces and attacked
+Norway both by land and sea, the aged King Charles XIII.
+having command of the navy. An army of 20,000 Swedes
+entered Norway under command of Von Essen, who captured
+the fortifications at Svinesund. The navy took possession
+of the islands in the archipelago outside of Fredericstad,
+which town was captured, with the fortress Kongsten,
+100 cannon and considerable stores of weapons and provisions.
+The Norwegian army of 30,000 men was located in
+various places with the central body of troops at Moss.
+The plan of Prince Charles was to enclose it from all sides.
+A smaller Swedish force of 3,000 men was repulsed by the
+Norwegians in two conflicts at Lier and Medskog, celebrated
+by the latter as important victories. In the meantime
+the Swedish army proceeded northward and the fleet
+penetrated to the bay of Christiania. The plan to enclose
+the Norwegian army at Moss was being carried into effect
+in order to finish the war by one single battle, when negotiations
+for peace were begun.</p>
+
+<p>Prince Charles was anxious to have the conflict brought
+to a rapid close because he feared that the powers, envious
+of Sweden’s good fortune and dissatisfied with the refusal
+of Prince Charles to join in an attack on France, might
+take unfavorable decisions at the approaching congress of
+Vienna. Prompted by these reasons, and perhaps influenced
+by his experience of revolutionary movements, Prince
+Charles offered to sanction Norway’s constitution only with
+such changes as were necessary for a union with Sweden,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span>
+besides demanding the abdication and speedy departure
+of Christian Frederic. On these terms peace was made at
+the convention of Moss, August 14, 1814. At the first
+meeting of the Norwegian Storthing, or Diet, the terms of
+peace were sanctioned and Charles XIII. chosen king
+of Norway. At the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, treaties
+were signed between Sweden and Prussia and between Denmark
+and Prussia, according to which Swedish Pomerania
+and Rugen were ceded to Prussia on the payment of about
+$2,000,000, and the duchy of Lauenburg ceded to Denmark.
+In the relation between Sweden and Norway no change was
+made, and Denmark lost all hope of the restitution of the
+latter country.</p>
+
+<p>The great moderation shown by Prince Charles in the
+acquisition of Norway has been criticised in various ways,
+but none of the arguments used against it have themselves
+been able to bear a critical test. The idea of uniting
+the two countries as independent states was older in Sweden
+than the very constitution of Norway which Prince Charles
+accepted. It was the idea of the leading men in Sweden
+who had dethroned Gustavus IV. in 1809. The Scandinavian
+Union is not the best imaginable, has brought Sweden
+no added power or security, and has placed her king in
+a difficult position. The only bond of union is the king,
+the two countries each having their constitution, diet and
+cabinet. There is only one department in common, the one
+of which the Swedish minister of foreign affairs is the head
+and which settles all relations with other countries for both
+Sweden and Norway. Three members of the Norwegian
+cabinet are residents of Stockholm, to prepare affairs pertaining
+to the Norwegian administration and to partake in
+affairs involving both countries. These stipulations are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span>
+made by the Act of Union, accepted in 1815 by the Diets
+of both countries. According to the Norwegian constitution,
+the king can use no greater force than 3,000 men outside
+the Norwegian boundary, except with the special consent
+of the Diet. Thus Sweden cannot in case of war expect
+any solid support from her sister country. The loose connections
+of the Union did not become apparent during the
+reigns of Charles XIII. and his successor, and the powers
+of Europe were not aware of them. Thus the Union served
+its purpose as offering a solid front of unity and strength
+to the powers who were dividing and redividing almost
+every territory on the map of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Charles XIII. died in February, 1818, at the age of
+seventy, and his talented queen followed him a few months
+later.</p>
+
+<p><i>Charles XIV. Johann</i> was fifty-four years of age when
+ascending the throne, but a man in his prime. To the
+dignity of the crown he brought a great personal influence,
+and his fame as a warrior, which spread throughout
+Europe. The firm diplomatic relations with Russia were
+continued, but approaches to England were also made.
+Charles XIV. gave close personal attention to the administration,
+being especially interested in the defence, finances,
+canals and roads. With his brilliant genius, quick temper
+and sense of superiority, the king sometimes reigned more
+alone and by his own decision than was considered advisable;
+but in the majority of cases he was influenced by the
+able men of his cabinet&mdash;Wetterstedt, Rosenblad, Skjœldebrand,
+Cederstrom and Wirsén. An intimate friend of the
+king was Count Magnus Brahe, who, though not a member
+of the cabinet, influenced the government more than was
+thought compatible with its dignity. Count Brahe, the head<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span>
+of one of the most distinguished of aristocratic families, used
+his great influence over the king mostly in a noble way, himself
+being raised to the highest dignities of the state. He
+was blindly devoted to the king, followed him like a shadow,
+taking infinite care of him during his last illness, and dying
+only a few months after his royal friend.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most remarkable works carried on during the
+reign of Charles XIV. was the Gotha Canal system, which
+was brought to completion. The old bishop Brask had
+spoken of a connection between the lakes of Venar and Vetter,
+and the great Oxenstierna thought of a canal between
+the North Sea and the Baltic across Sweden. Charles XII.
+had ordered Polhem to make a trafficable passage around
+the waterfalls of Trollhetta, which was done after new plans
+during the reign of Gustavus IV. During the Period of
+Liberty, Daniel Thunberg had made plans for the whole
+canal system. But Count Balzar von Platen was the man
+to make the great work a realized fact, devoting his whole
+life to it, conquering distrust, opposition and lack of funds.
+He spent six years in preliminary surveys before taking up
+the agitation for the realization of his plans. During the
+whole progress of the work, his efficient activity in looking
+after every detail could only be compared to his constant
+agitation in the Riksdag for the support of the immense
+enterprise and his scrupulous attention to the financial part
+of it. When the great canal was opposed as an unpatriotic
+scheme, endangering the defence of the country, Platen
+answered by completing plans for a colossal fortress in the
+heart of the canal system, which, when erected, became
+the strategic stronghold of Sweden, and was named Carlsborg.
+Platen died as governor-general of Norway, seeing
+his great life-work nearing completion. The Gotha Canal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span>
+is the most remarkable of its kind in Europe, being 259
+miles long, with 74 locks, many of which have been cut out
+of solid granite hills. It is of great value to commerce and
+affords a most picturesque scenic tour.</p>
+
+<p>Charles XIV. met with a power in politics which, from
+the start not strong enough to carry away victory, ended
+by attaining its goal. It was the liberal opposition in the
+Riksdag, supported by a liberal press. Charles XIV., in
+his native country, had seen to what an infamy the abuse
+of liberal forms of government could lead, and he was
+sternly resolved to antagonize any movement which aimed
+to introduce more democratic principles in the handling
+of state affairs and in the remodelling of the system of
+representation. Charles XIV. was in a delicate personal
+position. He was the only one of the Napoleonic marshals
+who preserved his throne after the fall of the emperor, and
+the strong continental reaction looked askance at this new
+man who wore one of the oldest crowns of Europe. But
+his great reputation as a warrior and statesman, and his
+persistent peace policy, ought to have been to him sufficient
+guarantees of the fidelity of his subjects. Charles XIV.,
+in the agitation against the self-willed cabinet, saw an
+enmity against himself. By a network of secret detectives,
+the king tried to uncover conspiracies and plots which
+existed in his imagination only, or in that of those who were
+aware of his weakness and sought to gain personal favors
+by making use of it. The severity with which the press
+was censured and its members punished created a bitterness
+against the king personally, which ceased only during
+the few last years of his reign. With the new constitution
+a law establishing full liberty of public utterance in print
+was enacted, but a temporary restraint had been placed on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></span>
+this liberty, in 1812, on account of violent newspaper attacks
+upon Russia. The government still made use of this
+restraint, which caused many severe legal sentences and
+subsequent bitterness.</p>
+
+<p>Among the press organs of that period the “Argus” and
+“Aftonbladet” were the most conspicuous in their attacks
+upon the conservative government; Lars Hierta, one of the
+ablest of Swedish editorial writers, was the publisher of the
+latter. His paper was repeatedly confiscated. Anders
+Lindeberg was the publisher of “Stockholmsposten.” In
+an agitation against the royal monopoly in theatrical affairs,
+Lindeberg threw out the accusation that the king, for
+purely economical reasons, opposed a reform in those matters.
+He was arraigned and a sentence of death passed
+upon him, which was commuted to three years’ imprisonment.
+But Lindeberg refused to accept any clemency,
+declaring himself ready and resolved to die. The government,
+who dared not take his life, was in a delicate predicament,
+but saved itself and Lindeberg by announcing pardon
+of “political criminals,” at the anniversary of the king’s first
+arrival in Sweden. Jacob Crusenstolpe, a novelist and
+writer of note, was one of the intimate friends and supporters
+of the government, but turned liberal, attacking the
+king in a pamphlet. He was sentenced to three years’
+imprisonment, which created great commotion and a revolt
+in Stockholm, not subdued except after a bloody conflict
+with the troops (July, 1838). Crusenstolpe continued
+writing from his prison.</p>
+
+<p>The principal leaders of the opposition in the Riksdag
+were L. Boye, F. B. von Schwerin and C. H. Anckarsverd
+among the nobles, and Anders Danielsson among the peasants.
+This opposition criticised the government for negli<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span>gence,
+extravagance and incompetency. Its policy was an
+entire reconstruction of the state, politically, socially and
+financially, on the basis of a constitutional government.
+The opposition commenced by establishing the right of free
+deliberations in the Riksdag. At the Riksdags of 1827 and
+1828 the government was severely taken to task on account
+of the sale of ships to the Spanish insurgents in South
+America. The king was inclined to join England against
+Spain, but had to recede on account of pressure from Russia
+and the continental powers. The sales were partly annulled
+and the Swedish government experienced a considerable
+financial loss. Cederstrom was the responsible party, but
+upon his resignation his able successor Wirsén was able
+to cover up his tracks.</p>
+
+<p>If Sweden was forced to change her policy in the South
+American affair she was found unyielding in the settlement
+of the boundary questions with Russia. This power was
+anxious to obtain a slice of the Norwegian Finnmark, with
+excellent ice-free harbors at the bay of Varanger. In the
+ultimate settlement with Russia, in 1826, a great territory
+was ceded, but not any of the important harbors.</p>
+
+<p>In 1840 the opposition had waxed strong enough to effect
+one of its most desired reforms, the constitutional reconstruction
+of the cabinet. This body was made to consist
+of ten members, of whom seven were to be the heads of the
+various state departments, those of justice, foreign affairs,
+army, navy, civil service, finance and ecclesiastics.<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> As
+a consequence of this change in the constitution, several
+cabinet members resigned and were succeeded by men more
+in touch with the opposition.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The greatest of contemplated reforms was a new system
+of representation, but the opposition was not able to carry
+it through. At the first revolution of Gustavus III., Stedingk
+favored a reconstruction of the Riksdag after the
+model of the English parliament. Gustavus III, was afraid
+to cause complications by the introduction of such a novelty,
+but considered it gravely at the time of his second
+revolution. In 1830, the idea was taken up by the opposition,
+and Anckarsverd and the eminent lawyer Richert made
+up a plan for a new Diet, according to the plan of the Norwegian
+Storthing. This plan, with the idea of one chamber,
+instead of two, was repeatedly discussed at the Riksdag
+of 1840, but not adopted. This remarkable Riksdag,
+which lasted seventeen months, did considerable for the
+improvement of education and was ultimately dismissed
+by Charles XIV., in a speech of a conciliatory spirit,
+which went far toward restoring the old popularity of
+the king.</p>
+
+<p>Charles XIV. died March 8, 1844, at the age of eighty-one.
+During the last years of his reign he received strong
+and repeated evidence of the love of his people, especially
+upon the occasion of his twenty-fifth anniversary as king
+of Sweden. “No one has made a career like mine,” he said
+shortly before his death. He was a child of the revolutionary
+epoch, favored by its opportunities to receive a high
+station, without being sullied by any of its vices. If it be
+true that his position often was made difficult through lack
+of appreciation by his new subjects, it is not less true that
+he, through lack of intimacy with the Swedish language,
+national character and traditions, was unable to further the
+development of his new country, in the same degree as
+would a native provided with such rich endowment. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></span>
+sun of Charles XIV., which rose in brilliancy, set in the
+glory of full appreciation.</p>
+
+<p>The reign of Charles XIV. produced a new line of eminent
+scientists and was the golden age of Swedish literature.
+The remarkable genius of J. J. Berzelius remolded
+the science of chemistry, placing it on a basis where there
+are hardly any limits to its scope. Elias Fries devised a
+new system of botany. Sven Nilsson, a distinguished zoölogist,
+also became the founder of a new science, comparative
+archæology. K. J. Schlyter edited a complete collection
+of the old provincial laws, a work of equal importance
+to philology and jurisprudence. P. H. Ling invented the
+Swedish system of gymnastics and founded the Central
+Institute of Gymnastics in Stockholm, where the Swedish
+massage or movement cure has won a scientific development
+worthy of its world-wide fame. E. G. Geijer,
+as a philosopher, was a noble follower of Hœijer, while as
+a historian he is the greatest genius of his country. As a
+poet and composer Geijer is also noteworthy. Professor
+of history at Upsala, he was once accused of heterodoxy,
+but acquitted. His political career was remarkable. Geijer
+was a firm supporter of the government and conservative
+principles, until fifty-seven years of age, when he joined the
+opposition.</p>
+
+<p>The world of letters was divided in parties as bitterly
+opposed to each other as those of the political world. The
+old Gustavian school, of which Leopold remained the last
+representative, was attacked by the “New School,” which,
+inspired by German Romanticism, was brimful of inspiration,
+imagination and feelings, but very little that was original,
+clear or national. Of this so-called “phosphoristic”
+school Atterbom was the distinguished leader. Stagnelius, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></span>
+poet of rare attainments, but who died early, belongs in this
+group. The New School was in turn attacked by the “Gothic
+Society,” a school of national Swedish Romanticism, which
+introduced a cult of the Old Northern spirit of individuality,
+terseness and power. Ling and Geijer were among the
+leading men of this school, whose enthusiasm for everything
+national had a lasting influence upon the research for, and
+gathering of, folk lore, songs, traditions, customs, and every
+trait of the popular culture of bygone days. In Franzén
+and Wallin, Sweden had two religious poets of the very
+first rank. More famous than any of these was Esaias
+Tegnér, the second great national poet of Sweden, whose
+“Frithiof’s Saga” was destined to become the most celebrated
+literary work of all Europe in its day, appearing in
+a vast number of translations in a great number of languages.
+Tegnér was in sympathy with the old Gustavian
+school, but a member of the Gothic Society, and by his
+choice of subjects in harmony with the national school.
+There is a wonderful richness of sparkling life and wit in
+Tegnér’s poems, but they are sometimes overladen by the
+vivid ornamental images in which they abound. Tegnér
+was a man of extremely broad and liberal views on every
+phase of human life and effort. He hated with the whole
+power of his fiery soul the mysticism, obscurantism and
+morbid sensualism of his age. He was the sworn enemy
+of the “Holy Alliance” and the reactionary powers in state,
+church and literature. In his chivalrous spirit and love of
+the great individuals, he became the admirer of Charles
+XIV., whose policy he therefore supported. Tegnér is not
+the one who in the grandeur and faultlessness of his creations
+has attained the very highest rank among Swedish
+poets, but is the greatest and most unbiased thinker among<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></span>
+them, and has as such exerted a beneficial influence upon
+the national consciousness and cultural development. Tegnér’s
+judgment upon one of his Gustavian precursors may
+be repeated in his own case: “Perchance the greatest not
+as poet, but as genius.”</p>
+
+<p><i>Oscar I.</i> was forty-five years of age at the death of his
+father. He was the only son of Charles XIV. and Queen
+Desideria, the latter a daughter of a French merchant by
+the name of Clary. Oscar was, in 1823, married to Princess
+Josephine of Leuchtenberg, a granddaughter of the
+French empress of the same name. It was a difficult position,
+the one held by the heir-apparent. Charles XIV. was
+jealous of his own power and popularity and suspected his
+son of being in sympathy with the opposition. The prince,
+distanced as far as possible from the affairs of state, devoted
+himself to the study of social and economic subjects. He
+gave a great deal of attention to the study of prisons and
+the care of prisoners, seeking by pamphlets to spread his
+sympathies for the latter and to improve their conditions.
+Oscar I. was fondly devoted to the fine arts, himself a
+talented painter and composer. He did not possess his
+father’s brilliant genius or power of personal influence,
+although an upright man of great talent and exceedingly
+prepossessing in appearance. Oscar was of a mild, sagacious
+disposition, who liked to go into detail and take
+time for investigation and decision. He was not a man
+of action, and lacked somewhat consistency in carrying
+out plans of a wider scope. Oscar I. had a little of the
+autocrat of the father in him and often acted on his own
+judgment, without taking the advice of his cabinet. Being
+the loyal, highly cultured and patriotic man that he was,
+he in various ways furthered the development of his country.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Few kings have ascended a throne under such enthusiasm
+and joyful aspirations on the part of the people as
+King Oscar I. Several important reforms were enacted
+at the Riksdag which met in 1844, and the king gave his
+sanction to them all. It was decided that the Riksdag
+should meet every third instead of every fifth year, the liberty
+of the press was augmented, and to women were given
+equal rights in the stipulations of inheritance and marriage.
+The last-mentioned reform was bitterly opposed by the
+nobles, who feared it would, to a great extent, annul their
+privileges. The law was passed by the three lower Estates,
+in spite of the nobles, and was sanctioned by the king.
+Oscar I. took great pains to have the industries freed from
+the restraint under which they had been suffering during
+the reign of his predecessor.</p>
+
+<p>King Oscar surrounded himself with men of a more
+modern type than his father’s advisers. They were in
+touch with the principles of the opposition, although far
+from radical, and more respected for their character than
+for their ability. The opposition, which had been so harsh
+during the administration of Charles XIV., was toned
+down considerably; but complaints were soon heard that
+the new government was neither consistent nor resolute
+in its liberal policy and that courtiers and young officers
+won an unduly rapid promotion. Soon an opposition of a
+new order was organized against the administration. The
+conservatives, finding that it leaned too much on the liberal
+principles, attacked it for this reason. A powerful
+conservative party at the Riksdag was organized, with
+Hartmansdorff as the leader among the nobles and Archbishop
+Wingard among the clergy. Attacked by liberals
+and conservatives alike, and not supported by either,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></span>
+the government was of an undecided and vacillating
+tenor.</p>
+
+<p>The French revolution of 1848 influenced Swedish politics
+in several ways. The “friends of reform,” viz., the
+party desiring a parliamentary reorganization, were incited
+by the republican tendencies. The masses of Stockholm
+on one occasion gave vent to their feelings by demonstrations
+which were of a menacing character. Great crowds
+collected outside the place where a “reform banquet” was
+held. There it was resolved to attack the houses of Hartmansdorff
+and several other leading conservatives. The
+owners placed themselves in safety, but the windows of the
+houses were broken by the mob, who also threw stones at
+the troops. The tumult was quenched, but not without
+bloodshed. The press was greatly agitated for a long time
+afterward, using language against the government that was
+by no means choice. The liberals in the Riksdag commenced
+to take an attitude as decided as the one held by
+the conservatives. From this time on King Oscar showed
+great coldness to the liberals, and surrounded himself with
+advisers more in harmony with the conservatives.</p>
+
+<p>The proposition for a reorganization of the Riksdag, made
+in 1840, was not accepted, but a committee was appointed
+in 1848 to make a new proposition, which failed to please
+either government or Riksdag. The king then had a
+new proposition prepared, based upon general elections.
+The liberals did not think the royal proposition democratic
+enough and offered one of their own. Both of these were
+defeated at the Riksdag of 1850, thanks to the opposition
+of nobility and clergy. A third one was made by Hartmansdorff,
+but also failed to please, not being conservative
+enough for the nobles. Hartmansdorff aroused so much<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</a></span>
+hatred among his fellow nobles that they refused to be
+seated on the same bench with him during the sessions.
+After a period of perfect isolation the old conservative leader
+was judged with greater leniency by his former followers.
+Shortly before his death, in 1856, he sent them the following
+greeting: “Ask the nobles not to stand up so long for their
+privileges, they will lose nothing by surrendering them.”
+It seemed as if the interest for parliamentary reform had
+died out during the latter part of King Oscar’s reign, but
+such was not the case; it only gathered force in the quiet,
+and the king was right when defining it as a “question
+which could never fall.”</p>
+
+<p>The influence of the revolution of 1848 also was felt in
+the foreign relations of Sweden. The German population of
+Holstein and Schleswig tried to sever their connections with
+Denmark in order to effect a union with Germany, Prussia
+taking upon herself to liberate said provinces. Denmark
+made various efforts to gain the active support of Sweden.
+The so-called “Scandinavism” was a good means to obtain
+this end. This movement, which aimed at the establishment
+of a closer union between the three Scandinavian countries,
+based upon the fact of the common origin of their inhabitants,
+had originated at the University of Copenhagen. The
+meetings of scientists and students, in 1842 and 1843, at
+Stockholm, had given growth to this movement, which was
+of a very high-strung nature, but, as far as the Danes were
+concerned, also of an egotistical motive. Charles XIV. had
+been averse to this “students’ policy,” but Oscar I. was
+sympathetically impressed by it. “Scandinavism” rose
+high in 1848, especially at the universities, and King Oscar
+sent a communication to the Prussian government to the
+effect that he was resolved to oppose any attack on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span>
+Danish isles. An army of 20,000 men was ordered to
+Scania to give weight to this statement. A smaller division
+of it was even for a time quartered in the island of Funen.
+The German troops which had invaded Jutland soon retired
+and hostilities ceased for some time. King Oscar effected
+an armistice of seven months in August, 1848. As a result
+of the war between Denmark and Germany during the next
+few years an agreement followed, according to which Holstein
+and Schleswig would for some time remain under
+Danish supremacy.</p>
+
+<p>King Oscar had, from the commencement of his reign,
+tried to meet all demands for reform made by his Norwegian
+subjects, who were anxious to demonstrate to the
+world the perfect independence of their country. The king
+himself took the initiative steps to give Norway a national
+flag of its own, the two countries up to the reign of Oscar
+having had one common official flag. He also instituted the
+Norwegian knightly order of St. Olaf in resemblance to
+the older Swedish orders of Seraphim, Vasa, etc., and gave
+permission to place the name of Norway before that of Sweden
+in the Norwegian royal title. For these reasons public
+opinion in Sweden expected Norwegian concessions in regard
+to the Act of Union, which seemed in need of revision.
+A committee of men from both countries was appointed to
+make the revision, but the Norwegian members opposed all
+measures involving any change, expressing themselves in
+such emphatic terms that it was found best to leave the
+deliberations of the committee unpublished. In 1854 the
+Norwegian Storthing decided to abolish the office of a governor-general.
+King Oscar refused to sanction this law,
+but allowed the office to remain vacant during the rest of
+his reign.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Intemperance had grown to be an evil from which the
+Swedish people greatly suffered since the reign of Gustavus
+III., when alcohol began to be produced in great quantities
+by the common people. The king encouraged the temperance
+movement, which was very fruitful in results. In 1853
+the Riksdag abolished the free and unrestrained production
+of alcohol, which was changed into a regular industry and
+placed under heavy taxation. From 1855 onward, the principles
+of free trade were adopted for commerce and trade
+through the influence of J. A. Gripenstedt, the minister of
+finance, and seemed to have beneficial results in every
+branch of industrial and commercial activity. The state
+revenues were greatly increased and the surplus spent in
+improvements of the widest scope. The means of interior
+communications were vastly improved. In 1853 the network
+of the state electric telegraph began to spread and
+now embraces every part of the country. The agitation
+for the construction of railways had long been an active
+one. The first one constructed was a private railway between
+Œrebro and Arboga. In 1854 the Riksdag decided
+on the construction of trunk lines in Southern Sweden, to be
+built and controlled by the state. The Riksdag of 1856
+appropriated a sum of $5,000,000 for that purpose. The
+railways were rapidly and solidly built under the supervision
+of Baron Nils Ericsson, the highly talented brother of
+John Ericsson, the world-famous inventor of the propeller,
+the caloric engine, the steam hose and the “Monitor.”</p>
+
+<p>The relations with Russia were not the best during the
+latter part of King Oscar’s reign. The Russian claims on
+the harbors at the bay of Varanger were repeated in 1847,
+and when deliberations for a settlement were opened, in
+1851, Russia showed a tendency to take possession of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span>
+desired places. In the conflict between Russia, on one hand,
+and Turkey, supported by England and France, on the
+other, Sweden sided with the latter, especially after Russia
+had failed to recognize an alliance of neutrality under arms
+formed by Sweden-Norway and Denmark. In 1855 Sweden
+entered an agreement with France, promising not to cede
+any territory to Russia in case of a conflict. In 1856 peace
+was made at Paris; the only favor won by Sweden was
+a pledge made by Russia not to fortify the archipelago of
+Aland.</p>
+
+<p>King Oscar was a very hard worker and also fond of the
+pleasures of life. His health was injured through illness,
+in 1857, and he never recovered. The premature death of
+his second son, Prince Gustavus, a talented composer and
+highly popular, had a disastrous influence on him. King
+Oscar I. died July 8, 1859, after a long illness, beloved by
+the two nations who, during his reign, had enjoyed the
+happiest epoch of their history.</p>
+
+<p>Romanticism in literature had an important second blossom
+during the reign of King Oscar I. and his successor.
+With the exception of Runeberg and Almquist, it offers no
+name of the very first rank. But Runeberg, the Homer
+of the North, does not belong to Sweden alone, and Almquist,
+the only great Romanticist, had made his appearance
+during the preceding epoch. Charles John Ludvig Almquist
+was a genius of great versatility and exceptional endowment.
+He wrote with equal force in all branches of
+literature; besides the poet, dramatist and prosaist, being
+a good philologist and well versed in a number of practical
+pursuits. He anticipated the ideas of which George Sand
+became a champion, and wrote charming peasant idyls long
+before Auerbach and Bjœrnson. His most important work<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</a></span>
+is an ambiguous creation, conceived somewhat in the form
+of Boccaccio’s “Decamerone,” but much larger, and containing
+productions in every imaginable artistic form. It is
+called <i>Tœrnrosens bok</i> (The Book of the Wild Rose).
+Almquist has not, like Bellman and Tegnér, crystallized
+the Swedish national character in a lyrical form, but he
+remains, in spite of glaring defects, the most versatile and
+supremely gifted genius of Swedish literature.</p>
+
+<p>Nybom, Bœttiger, Malmstrœm, Sætherberg and Strandberg
+were talented lyric poets of this epoch, Von Braun,
+Sturzen-Becker and Sehlstedt good humorists, while Bœrjesson,
+Blanche, Jolin, Dahlgren and Frans Hedberg wrote
+successfully for the stage. Swedish women were destined
+to win fame for themselves by bringing the novelistic form
+to a richer development; principal among whom were Frederica
+Bremer, Sophie von Knorring, Emilie Carlén and
+Sophie Schwartz, while the men Crusenstolpe, Sparre, Mellin,
+Ridderstad and Starbæck cultivated the field of historical
+fiction, for which Swedish history offers such a
+wealth of appropriate subjects.</p>
+
+<p>Swedish composers of note were becoming numerous,
+although the field in which they chiefly excel is the
+rather limited one of lyric song, the most spontaneous
+medium of expression for the lyrico-rhetoric Swedish temperament.
+As the composer of “lieder” or <i>visor</i>, Adolphus
+Lindblad, an intimate friend of Mendelssohn, occupies a
+revered place in the history of music. Close to him stand
+Crusell, Nordblom and Josephsson, while Hæffner, Otto
+Lindblad, one of the noblest composers in this line, Prince
+Gustavus and Vennerberg are famous principally for their
+part songs.</p>
+
+<p>The cultivators of dramatic and orchestral composition<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</a></span>
+have as yet been comparatively few. Chief among them
+is Bervald; further, Norman and Hallstrœm. In a later
+contemporary epoch, Hallén, Aulin, Sjœgren, Stenhammar
+have considerably brightened this aspect of cultural development.
+Gunnar Vennerberg occupies an honored place as
+a poet, humorist and composer in one. There seems to be a
+deeply rooted tendency in the Swedish national temperament
+to unite the various branches of artistic creation, which
+would stamp it as romantic in its very essence if there did
+not run a vein of stunningly realistic portrayals through the
+works of such composite nature. In the art of Bellman this
+tendency has found its highest exponent. Bellman selected
+for his subjects the life of the lower middle classes in the
+Swedish capital of his day. His Fredman sings of the experiences
+of himself and his friends. Vennerberg has
+chosen the student’s life at the University of Upsala as the
+subject of his duets between two students, “Gluntarne,” in
+which are mirrored as faithfully, and sometimes as artistically,
+as by Bellman the humorous and pathetic scenes which
+have fascinated the poet and composer.</p>
+
+<p>Swedish song for the first time acquired universal fame
+through Jenny Lind, who has had many successors, but no
+peer as a dramatic singer. Contemporaneous with Jenny
+Lind were a number of highly talented histrionic artists,
+principal among whom were Lars Hjortsberg, Nils William
+Almlœf, Olof Ulric Torsslov, Emilie Hœgquist and Carl
+Georg Dahlquist. The Swedish stage has set a good example
+for the preservation of the highest standards of the
+language, and in this line exerted a great cultural influence.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[Pg 391]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII</a><br />
+<span class="smaller"><i>Parliamentary Reform&mdash;Charles XV</i></span></h2>
+
+<p>Charles XV., the eldest son of Oscar I., succeeded
+his father, having for two years presided
+over the government during king Oscar’s last illness.
+King Charles was of gigantic stature, exceedingly
+handsome and of a manly and noble bearing. There dwelt
+a fiery soul within him, conscious of its power, longing for
+heroic deeds and in sympathy with all that was noble in life
+and art. The king possessed an abundance of youthful
+energy and vivacity. He was a passionate hunter and a
+gay companion, who surrounded himself with men equally
+boisterous and gay. He was fond of jokes and merry pastimes,
+and took no pains to hide his weaknesses, which were
+of a convivial nature. In his social intercourse the king
+was exceptionally open and frank, treating everybody alike
+in a good-natured, hearty manner, winning the whole heart
+of his people. He understood better than any king since
+Charles XI. how to put himself in cordial relation with the
+masses of the people. But fond of playing practical jokes
+on high and low, he did not like to receive in the
+same measure. Charles XV. was devoted to the pursuits
+of art. Especially in his youth, he wrote poetry and distinguished
+himself as a landscape painter through his love
+for typical Swedish sceneries. Sweden did not at first know<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[Pg 392]</a></span>
+what to expect of her new ruler, and no one was able to predict
+the course of his policy. There were fears that his
+youthfulness and his fiery southern temperament might lead
+him to feel satisfied with the exterior of things or that he
+might give way to the impulses of the moment. These
+fears soon proved to be without foundation. The king had
+chosen as his maxim “Land shall with law be built,” from
+the old provincial law of Upland, and he remained, with
+very rare exceptions, true to the constitutional spirit of
+these words. He had the good fortune to find highly
+capable advisers, in whose hands he placed the details
+of the administration, and, in contrast to his father, was
+satisfied to give his attention exclusively to matters of a
+more general importance. He gave his unreserved support
+to his cabinet, occupying a position above all party interests.
+Charles XV. often sacrificed, sometimes only after considerable
+internal struggle, his own personal sympathies and
+inclinations at the request of the advisers when he saw that
+the welfare of his country and his own royal dignity demanded
+such a sacrifice. On account of this, his true constitutional
+spirit, he deserved as a ruler the blind adoration
+of his people. His summer residence, the castle of Ulricsdal,
+in the neighborhood of Stockholm, he changed into
+an artistic abode, with choice collections in various lines.
+Charles XV. had, in 1850, married Princess Louise of the
+Netherlands, of the royal house of Orange. Their daughter,
+Louise, was married to the crown prince of Denmark,
+and is still in life, while King Charles had to suffer the
+premature losses of his only son and of his consort.</p>
+
+<p>The cabinet which surrounded Charles XV. was one
+of the strongest bodies of its kind that ever controlled the
+government of Sweden. During his regency, Crown Prince<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[Pg 393]</a></span>
+Charles appointed Baron Louis de Geer minister of justice
+and Ludvig Manderstrœm minister of foreign affairs. These
+men continued their duties during the reign of Charles XV.,
+while Gripenstedt, as minister of finance, followed up his
+beneficent activity for the emancipation and development of
+the national industries. The historian, Frederic Ferdinand
+Carlson, had been the teacher of King Charles and had
+successfully continued the monumental work of Swedish
+history, left unfinished by Geijer. Carlson occupied, during
+the greater part of the reign of Charles XV., the position
+of minister of ecclesiastics (church and education), in
+which capacity he did great work for the improvement
+of educational affairs. The high schools and colleges were
+reorganized through new regulations of 1859, being the
+work of Carlson before his appointment to the cabinet.
+Carlson also improved the public, or common, schools.
+King Charles was a warm friend of public instruction. In
+one of his speeches from the throne he said: “This is my
+ambition that a true and living culture shall penetrate our
+people and with its blessings reach the humblest of its
+cottages.”</p>
+
+<p>The relations between Sweden and Norway, during the
+first few years of the reign of Charles XV., were strained.
+The Norwegian Storthing once more voted the abolition of
+the office of a governor-general. It was thought that the
+king, who earlier, as viceroy of Norway, had spoken in a
+spirit of acquiescence upon this question, would sanction the
+vote of the Storthing. But in Sweden great indignation was
+felt. It was known and understood that the Act of Union
+contained nothing in regard to the office in question, but
+was created by a stipulation in the constitution of Norway
+which admitted the possibility of its being filled by a Swede.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[Pg 394]</a></span>
+The Norwegian view was that the Storthing had exclusive
+right to decide the question, while the Swedish view was
+that it was a question concerning the Union and to be decided
+on by the diets of the two countries. Practically the
+Swedes were right; theoretically, and from a purely patriotic
+standpoint, which considered necessary the development
+of a perfect national independence even at the expense
+of the Union, the Norwegians were right. Ankarsverd,
+well known since the days of Charles XIV., made a motion,
+at the Swedish Riksdag of 1859, for the revision of the Act
+of Union on the basis of the treaty of Kiel, which motion
+in Norway was accepted as an insult. V. F. Dalman made
+a motion that the Estates should ask the king not to render
+a decision in the question of a Norwegian governor-general
+before the Riksdag had had an opportunity to look into the
+international aspect of the question. Great was the commotion
+caused by this issue, both in the diets and the press
+of the two countries. Swedish pamphlets were circulated
+which accepted the possibility of a dissolution of the Union.
+But in Norway, where the security of a union with Sweden
+had become apparent, especially during the conflict with
+Russia, such utterances were repudiated. Both of the motions
+in question were passed by the four Estates of the
+Riksdag, but put in such a shape that a request to have
+a revision of the Act of Union made was sent up to the king,
+with the demand for a royal proposition on that issue. The
+king was then asked to consider the question of a Norwegian
+governor-general in connection with that revision. As
+there was a difference of opinion also in the cabinets of the
+two countries, the final decision rested with the king alone.
+The sagacity and discernment of which King Charles gave
+evidence saved the situation and is worthy of praise. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[Pg 395]</a></span>
+declared in the Norwegian cabinet that he could not sanction
+the abolition of the office of a governor-general.
+Shortly afterward, he gave in the Swedish cabinet as his
+opinion the advisability of postponing, for the time being,
+all deliberations of a revision of the Act of Union. By
+doing so, the king quieted the high feelings in both countries,
+and peace returned. It had become apparent to both
+Swedes and Norwegians that the Union was the result of
+great political foresight because it was preserved through
+the increasing feeling of faith and of the necessity of mutual
+protection. That great obscurity existed in regard to
+the affairs regulating the Union had also become evident.</p>
+
+<p>The reforms and improvements which were effected
+during the reign of Charles XV. were highly important.
+New criminal and maritime codes were made at the Riksdag
+of 1862, and sanctioned by the government. Through
+the new regulations passed in the same year the foundations
+for increased municipal home rule were laid. Such home
+rule was as old as the country itself, but, in the same degree
+as the state organization, had attained a higher development,
+and the centralization of the administration was realized;
+it had weakened and was in peril of being entirely
+lost. Now the time was come for the powers of state to
+give municipal home rule new strength, adapting its old
+forms and creating new ones, in accordance with modern
+requirements. Laws were made which gave the towns the
+right to elect members to local assemblies (<i>stadsfullmœgtige</i>),
+with authority to act in behalf of their communities.
+Similar institutions (<i>kommunalstæmmor</i>) were arranged for
+the country communities. <i>Landsting</i> were instituted in
+every governmental district, or <i>læn</i>, at which representatives,
+elected by the people, were to take action on the pub<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[Pg 396]</a></span>lic
+affairs of the district, especially on such that pertained
+to sanitary conditions, communications, etc. The conditions
+for suffrage and elective franchise in municipal affairs
+were based on personal income. The old class distinctions
+were thus disregarded and a return made to the still older
+democratic institutions of the ancient Teutonic communities,
+in which every free man is entitled to his word and vote in
+public affairs. But those only are considered “free” who
+by their work can gain enough to pay their taxes in return
+for the privileges of a citizen. The church got a representation
+of its own in the clerical assembly (<i>kyrkomœtet</i>), which
+meets every fifth year and consists of equal numbers of ministers
+and laymen.</p>
+
+<p>The government in the municipal reforms found a basis
+for the reorganization of the Riksdag. The royal proposition
+for a new parliamentary representation, placed before
+the Estates in 1862, was built upon the municipal suffrage
+and the Landstings or district assemblies, the latter being
+authorized to elect the members of the senate, or First
+Chamber. The old system of representation corresponded
+as little with the new municipal home rule as with the general
+tendencies in politics and social life. The nobility had
+lost its old importance. It was no longer advisable for the
+clergy to take a leading part in political affairs. A new
+industrial class of wealth and prominence had formed and
+demanded a representation in the burgher class. The peasants
+had ever since 1809 been carrying on their agitation for
+a reduction of taxes and abolition of the class privileges.
+They had met with an overwhelming opposition, which
+would fall with the old system of representation. A parliamentary
+reform had been fervently discussed ever since
+1840. The municipal home rule reforms of 1862 had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[Pg 397]</a></span>
+brought the question closer to a solution. The burghers
+and peasants at the Riksdag of 1860 petitioned the government
+to present a royal proposition for the reorganization
+of the Diet. Baron Louis de Geer, the minister of justice,
+was the author of this proposition, which was presented in
+1862 and placed on the table until the next Riksdag. The
+great question was acted upon at the Riksdag of 1865.
+There was a great deal of commotion on account of the
+opposition which was expected from the nobility and clergy.
+The discussions in the periodical press and in pamphlet form
+were lively. The country population preserved its peaceful
+and sensible demeanor, but the excitement in the towns was
+considerable and increased as the decision drew nearer.
+The majority of towns and several rural communities in
+their close proximity sent deputations to Stockholm, who
+tendered their best wishes to the able minister of justice
+for the success of his proposition. The commotion
+in Stockholm was so great that troops were ordered
+ready in case of an emergency. The 4th of December
+the proposition was voted on by the burghers and
+peasants. At the question of the speaker, whether they
+were willing to accept the royal proposition, the peasants
+rose to their feet in a body and gave their answer with one
+laconic yea. A few of the burghers spoke against the proposition,
+but it was carried also in their Estate, and by an
+overwhelming majority. Long and heated discussions took
+place among the nobility and clergy. The clergymen were
+generally opposed to the parliamentary reform, but feared
+to be found remaining as the only opponents in the storm of
+disapproval which would follow. For this reason they postponed
+their decision until the nobility had taken action upon
+the proposition.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[Pg 398]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There rested a spirit of real grandeur over the deliberations
+at the Riddarhus upon this occasion, when the question
+of a voluntary surrender of the aristocratic privileges was
+to be decided. The Swedish nobility had its class instincts
+and prejudices, but very rarely it had been found lacking in
+men of the loftiest patriotism and highest attainments, ever
+ready to take the lead in the defence of the independence
+of their country or to follow up faithfully the ambitions of
+their great rulers. Arrangements had been made to allow
+noblemen from distant parts and of very limited means to
+be present, if not during the time of the discussions, which
+lasted four days, at least at the casting of the vote. Never
+in the memorable history of the knightly chapterhouse had
+more eloquent language or loftier thoughts been heard than
+upon this occasion. Both supporters and opponents of the
+royal proposition spoke with great sagacity and discernment.
+The former spoke of the inadvisability of a representation
+by Estates and by hereditary privileges, and of the dangers
+of a further postponement of the needed reform. The latter
+nicely scrutinized the royal proposition, which was considered
+to give too great influence to the peasants, to weaken
+the executive power and to depend upon municipal reforms
+as yet untried. They further considered the upper house,
+or First Chamber, too homogeneous with the Second to be
+able to exert the conservative or retaining power expected
+from it. The members of the cabinet all spoke with fervor
+and persuasive power in favor of the royal proposition,
+especially De Geer, Gripenstedt and Carlson. The outcome
+was that the royal proposition was accepted by a vote of 361
+yeas against 294 nays. The nobility as a class thus left the
+political arena voluntarily and with honor. Now the turn
+was come to the clergy, who unanimously accepted the royal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[Pg 399]</a></span>
+proposition without further discussion. The result was
+accepted with outbursts of enthusiasm from all over the
+country, but especially from the towns. The four Estates
+adjourned June 22, 1866, forever, and the law of the new
+system of parliamentary representation was sanctioned the
+same date.</p>
+
+<p>The royal proposition, which became the law of a new
+Diet, is based upon the principle of general elections. The
+Riksdag meets at the commencement of every year. It is
+divided into two houses or Chambers. The members of the
+First Chamber, or upper house, are elected for a term of
+nine years, partly by the Landstings, or district assemblies,
+partly by the assemblies of towns which do not take part
+in a Landsting. Elective to the First Chamber are those
+who have a yearly income of at least $1,000 from some
+business or enterprise, or as the interest on a capital of their
+own. These members, or senators, must be at least thirty-five
+years of age; they do not enjoy any compensation.
+The members of the Second Chamber, or lower house, are
+elected by every judicial district in the country which has
+no more than 40,000 inhabitants and by every 10,000 inhabitants
+of a town. Towns which have a population of
+less than 10,000 inhabitants are joined into election districts
+of from 6,000 to 12,000 inhabitants. Elective to the Second
+Chamber are those who pay taxes on an income of at least
+$200 a year and who are twenty-five years of age. These
+members are compensated for the time spent at the Riksdag.
+The ordinary Riksdag, which meets every year, lasts
+for a period of at least four months. The extraordinary
+Riksdag is called by the king whenever he finds it necessary.
+The members of the cabinet are elective as members
+of the Riksdag, and should, during all sessions, be present<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[Pg 400]</a></span>
+at the deliberations of the Chambers. The standing committees
+remain the same as during the time of the old system.
+Special and temporary committees are appointed
+when considered necessary. When the two Chambers end
+in a conflicting vote upon one and the same subject, the
+committee which prepared it for discussion should try to
+obtain a satisfactory solution. If such fails, the question
+is dropped for that year. The expenses of state, the state
+appropriations and the management of the national bank,
+when involved, form exceptions to this rule and are voted
+upon by both Chambers together, the majority of votes
+from both making the decision.</p>
+
+<p>A new era in Swedish history opens up with the acceptance
+of the parliamentary reform. The constitution itself
+had suffered no change, except in points of contact with the
+new rules of the Riksdag. But the powers of state no
+longer held to each other the same position as of yore. The
+government hitherto had, in the very division into four
+Estates, a support against powerful class and party interests.
+An equally solid support was not to be expected
+from a Riksdag of only two Chambers, which in questions
+of state appropriations is practically one. For this reason
+many would have preferred the establishment of a system
+which, instead of abolishing the mediæval arrangement of
+four Estates, would have added as many classes as there
+are really extant in the modern state, to gain the desired
+equilibrium through a manifold and dynamically operating
+representation. As things shaped themselves after the two
+Chamber system, the government ought more than ever
+to have a conservative, retaining power in order to preserve
+the proper balance. But such was not the case, for the
+Riksdag had been placed in a position to watch and control<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[Pg 401]</a></span>
+the executive power much closer than before, thanks to its
+authority to fix for each year the appropriations and expenditures
+of the state. The stipulation that the members
+of the cabinet are to take part in the deliberations of the
+Chambers gives another pillar of strength to the Riksdag.
+If the ministers of state are to exert any influence upon the
+decisions of the Riksdag, it is requisite to have its full confidence.
+The king is forced to select for his cabinet such
+members as are supposed to have an influence with the
+representatives of the people. The influence of the Riksdag
+has been steadily increasing ever since 1867.</p>
+
+<p>While the issue of a parliamentary reform occupied the
+attention of all public-spirited men, the interest in the political
+situation of Europe was hardly less intense. The sympathy
+with the unhappy Poles was almost feverish. In
+1863 two motions were made at the Riksdag to petition the
+government to take an active part in the restoration of the
+kingdom of Poland, by means of diplomatic intervention.
+The position of the government was a difficult one. The
+complications between Denmark and Germany had recommenced,
+and it was important to stand in good relations to
+Russia. The Swedish public did everything to make these
+relations precarious, by demonstrations of various kinds in
+favor of Poland, warlike newspaper articles and subscriptions
+of money to the leaders of the revolt. Thanks to the
+sagacity and tactful demeanor of Manderstrœm and the
+common sense of the Riksdag the motions in question were
+defeated and a dangerous conflict avoided. Complications
+of a more serious nature arose on account of the reopened
+conflict between Denmark and Germany. The Danish government
+had failed in its efforts to make a satisfactory
+arrangement in the relations between the crown and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[Pg 402]</a></span>
+duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. The Germans repeatedly
+mixed themselves up in the interior affairs of Denmark, and
+the Danes themselves were divided into several parties.
+King Frederic VII. at last concluded to give up the idea
+of gathering in the duchies as integral parts of the kingdom,
+satisfied to sacrifice the ultimate connection of Holstein and
+Lauenburg with the crown, but resolved to connect the
+originally Danish Schleswig with Denmark. The purely
+German parts were, through the so-called “March Patent” of
+1863, separated from the rest of the monarchy, while Schleswig
+was reunited with it, according to the constitution. This
+policy was approved by the Scandinavian party in Sweden
+and Norway, supported by Swedish diplomacy, and, in the
+first place, by Charles XV. himself. King Charles was
+inspired by general sympathy with the Scandinavian movement
+and by personal friendship for Frederic VII. to follow
+up the Scandinavian policy of his father. The two Scandinavian
+monarchs met twice during the summer of 1863
+and influenced the Swedish-Norwegian and Danish cabinets
+to draw the outline of a treaty of defence on the basis of the
+river Eider as the Danish boundary to the south. The Danish
+government made the proposition for a new constitution
+according to which Schleswig was to be united to Denmark.
+This was contrary to the promise made by King Frederic
+to the German powers in 1852. The proposition for a new
+constitution was placed before the Danish Diet and accepted.
+Two days later, November 15, 1863, King Frederic suddenly
+died, before he had sanctioned the new law. This was a
+severe blow. The popular king left his beloved people in a
+most inopportune moment, fraught with peril and disastrous
+mistakes. The people of Schleswig and Holstein renewed
+an old contention in regard to the right of succession. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[Pg 403]</a></span>
+new Danish king, Christian IX., gave in to the pressure
+brought to bear on him by his cabinet and the inhabitants
+of Copenhagen. He signed the new constitution, which
+gave to the German powers a valid excuse to interfere.
+The Prussian and Austrian troops crossed the river Eider to
+make good the agreements of 1852.</p>
+
+<p>The Swedish-Norwegian government was placed in an
+embarrassing position. The alliance of defence that was
+planned was to a great extent based upon the relations of
+personal friendship between Charles XV. and Frederic VII.
+Sweden was not legally pledged to shield Denmark as a
+consequence of the acceptance of the new constitution. But
+Sweden had taken a conspicuous part in the deliberations,
+for which reason a change of policy could not be made without
+considerable difficulty. The liberal organs of the Swedish
+press, headed by “Aftonbladet,” whose editor was
+August Sohlman, did everything in their power to make
+such a change an impossibility. But Sweden was not prepared
+to make war on two of the great powers of Europe,
+especially as no other power was willing to join in an alliance
+in behalf of Denmark. The change must be made; and
+was effected, principally because of the persuasive arguments
+and resolute demeanor of Gripenstedt. King Charles resolved
+to take the painful measures of a retreat. The
+standpoint of his government he gave to the Riksdag in the
+following words: “It cannot be expected from us that we
+should place our sword on the scale of justice without considering
+if the object can be attained with the resources at
+our command.” It was a supreme sacrifice that Charles
+XV. made when, for the safety of his countries, he was
+forced to draw back the hand of support and comradeship
+which he had offered a brother in distress. The noble<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[Pg 404]</a></span>-hearted
+king, in one of his poems, has given a touching
+expression of the sorrow he felt in being unable to assist
+Denmark in her hour of peril. King Charles might, with
+proper resources at his command, have proved a formidable
+enemy. He had given evidence of possessing all the qualities
+requisite for the make-up of a great general, without
+doubt an inheritance from his two grandfathers, Prince
+Bernadotte and Eugene Beauharnais. A few hundred
+Swedish and Norwegian volunteers took an honorable part
+in the Danish war, which was the only practical result of
+the Scandinavian policy. The Swedish press was violent
+in its attacks upon the government for its change of policy.
+In March, 1864, the mob of Stockholm assailed the residences
+of Manderstrœm, Gripenstedt and other cabinet
+members, breaking the windows with stones.</p>
+
+<p>Poor Denmark was left alone. Napoleon III. made the
+mistake of not attempting to defeat Prussia before she had
+reached her climax of strength. He was tied up with his
+Mexican adventure and unwilling to help Denmark.
+Charles XV. could not endure to see Denmark thus deserted.
+Privately he offered Christian IX. an alliance
+which stipulated that the three Scandinavian kingdoms
+should be joined into a union with one common foreign
+policy and common defence. Charles was also willing to
+make the succession one, if necessary. This alliance was to
+embrace only such parts of Denmark which were not to
+enter the German union. Sweden-Norway would do their
+utmost to prohibit a separation between Denmark and
+Schleswig. Denmark refused to accept this offer. Her leading
+statesman, Monrad, held stubbornly to the idea of an undivided
+Danish monarchy. For this reason, Denmark was
+for a second time abandoned to fight out alone her uneven<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[Pg 405]</a></span>
+battle. It ended in the loss of Holstein, Lauenburg and the
+greater part of Schleswig, through the treaty of Vienna,
+October 30, 1864. In Denmark a hard feeling against the
+Swedes and Norwegians sprang up as a consequence of
+the disastrous war fought without allies; and the Scandinavian
+policy and enthusiasm had received a blow from
+which they have never fully recovered. Charles XV. did all
+in his power to revive them. He had the pleasure of uniting
+the efforts of Sweden, Norway and Denmark in a peaceful
+work of great significance, the first Scandinavian Exposition
+of Industry and Art, which was opened at Stockholm
+in June, 1866. The consequence was a perfect Norwegian
+conquest of Sweden, in a cultured sense. The painters
+Tidemand and Gude captured the prizes. The composers
+Kierulf and Nordraak took the lead in song and music.
+Ibsen and Bjornson became the craze in literature. The
+literary contact with Norway was begun in 1861, when
+Lorenz Dietriechson was appointed a docent at the University
+of Upsala, and for the first time made the contemporary
+Norwegian and Danish poets acquainted in Sweden.
+What Sweden received from Norway was a quaint, late-born
+Romanticism of a strong national flavor. When this
+Romanticism was changed into stern Realism its influence
+upon Swedish culture, especially her literature, was only
+increased, Swedish literature receiving strong realistic impulses
+from the neighboring Scandinavian countries. The
+Norwegian influence ceased, when the Swedes at last became
+aware that there was in it a deeply pessimistic trait,
+akin to the stern Norwegian and Scotch Christianity, which
+is incompatible with the Swedish national temperament,
+slightly inclined to melancholy, but of a robust and irrepressible
+desire to live and enjoy.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[Pg 406]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Charles XV. followed up his practical Scandinavian
+policy by marrying his only daughter Louise to Crown
+Prince Frederic of Denmark. King Charles was as unsuccessful
+in his noble efforts to unite more closely his two
+kingdoms as in his foreign policy. The king allowed some
+time to pass in order to let the ill-feeling, caused by the conflict
+of 1859 and 1860, die out. In February, 1865, he
+considered that the moment had arrived to institute the
+review of the Act of Union. He appointed a committee
+of Swedes and Norwegians to prepare the proposition of a
+new Act of Union, on the basis of perfect equality and
+right to decide separately all matters, except such pertaining
+to the Union. The committee performed the work, but
+their proposition was defeated at the Norwegian Storthing of
+1871, at the instigation of John Sverdrup and K. Motzfeldt.
+The Swedish Riksdag for this reason also failed to accept
+it. At the close of the Riksdag, King Charles made the
+following utterance in regard to the defeated proposition:
+“What has now failed to attain success shall perhaps win
+out without difficulty when the two nations once have
+learned to place confidence in each other, as the result of a
+more intimate intercourse.” He saw with great satisfaction
+the completion of a railway which forever unites the
+Swedish and the Norwegian capitals with ties of steel.</p>
+
+<p>The administration of Charles XV. persevered in its
+liberal policy concerning questions of economy and jurisprudence.
+This was particularly noticeable in commercial
+matters. The idea of free trade had won ascendency in
+Europe. Napoleon III. had entered a treaty of commerce
+with England, in strict opposition to the protective system.
+Other nations were one by one admitted into the free-trade
+system by means of new treaties. Sweden made a treaty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[Pg 407]</a></span>
+of commerce and navigation in 1865. This step was severely
+criticised by the Riksdag of 1865-1866, both from
+a constitutional and financial point of view. Gripenstedt
+was accused of leading the way over demolished industries,
+but he defended his position with great eloquence. The
+treaty was ratified in spite of the powerful opposition in the
+Riksdag. The press condemned both the treaty and the
+government in the most violent language.</p>
+
+<p>The first Riksdag of the new parliamentary system met
+January 19, 1867. The “Landstings” had sent to the
+First Chamber the most prominent men of the country. It
+was a truly representative gathering, a house of peers
+elected by the people. Lagerbielke, the landtmarshal of the
+preceding Riksdag, was appointed speaker. The Second
+Chamber counted a larger number of peasants as representatives
+than of any other class. Anton Nicolaus Sundberg,
+then bishop of Carlstad, now archbishop of Sweden,
+was made speaker of the Second Chamber. The power of
+the peasants made itself felt at once. There was formed
+a strong and influential party, the <i>landtmanna</i>, or countrymen’s
+party, consisting of small landowners. The peasants
+constituted the majority, but the party also counted
+many titled and untitled country gentlemen in interests
+united with them. The founder of the party was Count
+Arvid Rutger Posse, later minister of state. Emil Key and
+the peasants Charles Ifvarsson and Liss Olof Larsson were
+among the leaders of the party. The policy of the Landtmanna
+party demanded simplification of the administration,
+economy in the matter of appropriations and a solution of
+the questions of the defence and taxation in harmony with
+the interests of the owners of the soil. The party followed
+up its policy with stern consistency from Riksdag to Riks<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[Pg 408]</a></span>dag,
+until in perfect control of the whole government. The
+opposition consisted of “the Intelligence” or intellectual
+party, which, without a solid constitution or a fixed policy,
+has in vain fought the spreading influence and power of the
+Landtmanna party. The latter has gone almost too far in
+its endeavors for economical reform, but has also given
+evidence of appreciation of the material needs of a cultural
+development, appropriating large sums for the benefit of
+science and education.</p>
+
+<p>The army question was the most important issue of
+Swedish politics. The events of 1866 had made it evident
+that a strengthening of the defences was necessary. King
+Charles was anxious to have the question solved in a satisfactory
+manner, finding therein the only reliable safeguard
+for the future independence of Sweden. It was apparent
+that any attempts to settle the question in accordance with
+the system adopted by Charles XI. would be devoid of
+result. It was based upon direct taxation of the soil and
+must be opposed by the strong majority of small landowners
+of the Landtmanna party. A compromise policy was
+for this reason begun in 1867, the question of an abolition
+of the land tax being connected with the army question,
+although the two ought to have had no connection. The
+question was started with promises of a reduction or exemption
+of the duties of the old army system as compensation
+for the acceptance of a new arrangement for the country’s
+defence. The government made an army proposition to the
+Riksdag of 1869, promising several reductions to the landowners
+who furnished soldiers according to the old system
+(<i>indelningsverket</i>). The proposition was prepared
+by a committee, of which the new minister of war, Gustavus
+Rudolph Abelin, was the chairman. It was based<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[Pg 409]</a></span>
+upon the preservation of the old system for the furnishing
+of the body force of officers and men. The larger
+force was to be provided for through militia. The militia
+was to be drilled in the neighborhood of their various homes
+during sixty days of the year. The proposition was not
+accepted. The militia compulsory service, as the duty of
+every citizen for the defence of his country, had nothing
+to do with the regular army as provided by the stipulations
+of the old system. But the majority of the Second Chamber
+confused the two and refused to allow the establishment
+of the former on a wider basis, because the offers made to
+reduce the burdens of the old system did not appear to them
+liberal enough. In 1871 another proposition was made by
+Abelin to the Riksdag. It was similar to the first one, and
+its cause was eloquently pleaded by Abelin, Axel Gustavus
+Adlercreutz, minister of justice, Peter Axel Bergstrœm,
+minister of civil service, and Gunnar Vennerberg, minister
+of ecclesiastics. They warned against the mistake of attaching
+impossible conditions to the acceptance of the proposition.
+The proposition for an extended militia service was
+accepted by both Chambers. But when the Second Chamber
+raised, as a condition for its acceptance, the suspension,
+for fifteen years, of the old system which provided for the
+regular army, the government found it impossible to grant
+this, and the proposition was dropped.</p>
+
+<p>King Charles was grieved and vexed with the fate of the
+army bills. The Franco Prussian war made it, in his opinion,
+of added importance to Sweden to have her defences
+remodelled. He called an extraordinary session of the
+Riksdag, in the autumn of 1871, when Abelin brought out
+a third proposition. It was chiefly of the same contents
+as the preceding ones. But a remarkable change in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[Pg 410]</a></span>
+public opinion had now taken place, as to the advisability
+of retaining the old system. Men who looked upon the
+question more from a military than an economic point of
+view entertained doubts as to the practical value of the old
+regular army as the body force of a compulsory militia.
+Military officers commenced to attack the old system as the
+basis of a new army. The Landtmanna party persevered
+in the request for an abolition of the old system, and this
+killed the army bill at the extraordinary Riksdag.</p>
+
+<p>Together with the request for an abolition of the old
+army system, demands for redemption from other burdens
+placed upon the owners of the soil made themselves heard.
+The land-tax was the principal one of these burdens and
+caused as much difference of opinion as the army system.
+The Landtmanna party considered the land-tax to be of the
+same nature originally as other taxes, which ought to be
+more evenly distributed and shared by all classes in the
+same proportion. The Intelligence party was of the opinion
+that the land-tax in the course of time had come to be
+rents or mortgages which always were taken into consideration
+at the exchange of property, as reducing the stock value
+of the property in question. To free a present generation
+from the payment of land-tax, was in the eyes of the opposition,
+an injustice to the other classes whose taxes thereby
+were to be increased. The Landtmanna party had, in 1869,
+commenced an agitation for the reduction of the land-tax
+for shorter periods and on a small scale at first, but with
+increasing demands at every new Riksdag.</p>
+
+<p>The government, whose members had been the champions
+of parliamentary reform, was soon disregarded by the
+triumphant party, while its old opponents never forgot it.
+The earlier advisers of the king retired one by one when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[Pg 411]</a></span>
+they saw their influence in the Riksdag vanish. King
+Charles himself took the defeat of the army bills deep at
+heart. His health commenced to fail in 1871, and when his
+faithful consort died, in the same year, having exposed her
+own health in her attempts to improve the condition of the
+king, the latter grew worse. After a trip abroad for his
+health, King Charles XV. died at Malmœ, September 18,
+1872, deeply mourned by the two nations. In the following
+year his youngest brother Nicolaus August, duke of Dalecarlia,
+died, leaving only two of the children of Oscar
+I., Oscar Frederic, duke of East Gothland, and Princess
+Eugenie. The history of Charles XV. carries the principal
+traits of his character. His sweeping reforms in social,
+political and economical matters, and his great plans for the
+future, even if sometimes immature, or high-strung, were
+always characterized by loftiness of purpose. A typical
+Swede both in his merits and his faults, this was the secret
+of the immense popularity of King Charles, which always
+followed him, although he never sought it.</p>
+
+<p>The philosopher Christian Jacob Bostrœm is the most
+popular of Swedish thinkers and the first who founded a
+national system and school of philosophy, idealistic and
+rational, and in strict opposition to the system of Hegel.
+Bostrœm was born in Pitea, in 1797, was the teacher of the
+sons of Oscar I., and succeeded the able philosopher Samuel
+Grubbe, a talented follower of Hœijer, as professor of philosophy
+at the University of Upsala. Bostrœm was a highly
+fascinating and suggestive teacher, while he neglected his
+literary production, which is neither exhaustive nor quite
+representative of his philosophy. He exerted a considerable
+influence by his outline of a philosophical state, which
+pleased the conservatives, while a much more widespread<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[Pg 412]</a></span>
+and lasting impression was produced by his criticism of the
+doctrines of a hell and a devil. A whole literature sprang
+into life, discussing vehemently the existence or non-existence
+of the fiend. To this literature and the works and
+writings of Bostrœm is to be credited the spirit of religious
+tolerance which characterized life and literature during the
+reign of Charles XV. It fostered in the cultured few a
+leaning toward Unitarianism or Theosophy, while it gave
+rise to a shallow materialism and religious indifference in
+the less cultured classes and individuals.</p>
+
+<p>The artistic, literary and musical life bore a decided
+resemblance to the intellectually interested but dilettantic
+king. Charles XV. was surrounded by a great number of
+painters who, although possessing a good deal of talent,
+succeeded only in the smaller field of genre painting. Remarkable
+exceptions are J. F. Hœckert, Marcus Larsson
+and C. H. L. D’Uncker, who possessed sterling genius and
+acquired great fame. Several promising painters, like
+George von Rosen, developed later the full scope of their
+power. The sculptor J. P. Molin was highly talented, a
+worthy follower of B. E. Fogelberg, who had enriched
+Swedish art with a number of highly important sculptures.</p>
+
+<p>In the world of letters, the spirit of dilettantism was
+more strongly felt than in art, Swedish literature, after its
+several glorious epochs, experiencing one of its most stagnant
+periods. A veritable giant among pygmies was Victor
+Rydberg, whose remarkable novel, “The Last Athenian,”
+appeared in 1859, but whose principal productivity as a poet
+and scientist belongs to a later period. So do, to a great
+extent, the best works of the poets Eduard Beckstrœm, also
+an able dramatist, and Count Carl Snoilsky. Zacharias
+Topelius, the Walter Scott and Hans Christian Andersen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[Pg 413]</a></span>
+of Finland, must be mentioned here. Writing in the Swedish
+language, and for his principal work using subjects of
+Swedish history, he was as highly beloved in Sweden as in
+Finland. His excellent series of historical novels, called
+“The Surgeon’s Stories,” have been translated into several
+languages. His juvenile stories are not characterized by the
+same degree of inventive power as are the tales by Andersen,
+but Topelius had the latter’s ability of placing himself in
+intimate contact with the pure minds of all ages.</p>
+
+<p>In the most national of Swedish cultural elements, the
+song, the epoch of dilettantism found its most beautiful and
+lasting expressions. The quartet and chorus singing at the
+universities of Upsala and Lund was cultivated to the highest
+standards of excellence and had a splendid repertory in
+the songs of Otto Lindblad, Vennerberg, Prince Gustavus,
+Josephsson, Crusell, Cronhamn, etc. The Upsala students
+caused a great sensation by their singing at the Paris Exposition
+of 1867, and have repeated their successes at the Paris
+Exposition of 1878, and in Berlin in 1898. Swedish quartets
+of men’s and women’s voices have travelled all over the
+world and made a lasting fame for this minor but bewitching
+branch of musical art. As dramatic singers of the first
+rank, Louise Michaëli and Christine Nilsson have been the
+worthy successors of Jenny Lind. To this period, as well
+as to the next, belongs Elisa Hvasser, the greatest and most
+versatile actress Sweden has ever had. This artist was
+equally at home in the farce and melodrama, but excelled
+in the tragic parts of the Shakespeare, Schiller, and Ibsen
+repertory. Indispensable in their positions at the Royal Theatre
+of Stockholm, Michaëli, the songstress, and Hvasser,
+the tragedienne, did not travel, thereby losing the fame a
+world would have been only too glad to give them.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[Pg 414]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII</a><br />
+<span class="smaller"><i>Progress and Prosperity&mdash;Oscar II</i></span></h2>
+
+<p>Oscar II. ascended the throne at a moment when
+universal peace was restored after the great conflict
+between France and Germany, and when an
+age of commercial prosperity for Sweden seemed to have
+begun. King Oscar had received the same superior education
+as his older brothers, is as brilliantly gifted as they
+were and of a more scholarly mind. As a writer on scientific
+subjects, a poet and an orator, Oscar II. had distinguished
+himself before his succession to the throne. The
+new king offered the best of securities for a sound administration
+in his thorough and versatile knowledge, wide experience
+in public affairs, and rich and harmonious endowment.
+Oscar II. still did not find it easy to gain the love
+and admiration of the Swedish people, of which he is so
+eminently worthy. He was the successor of one of the most
+popular of rulers that the country ever saw, but King Oscar
+has lived to see his own popularity almost outrival that of
+his predecessor. King Oscar is, at seventy, a handsome,
+spirited gentleman, with that dignity which age, rare attainments,
+high intelligence and a noble soul grant their common
+possessor. This the most learned and popular monarch
+of Europe is of a tall, commanding figure, six feet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[Pg 415]</a></span>
+three inches in height, of a handsome, expressive face, with
+cheeks of a ruddy color and mild blue eyes.</p>
+
+<p>Oscar II. has shown great discernment in his arrangement
+of dynastic matters. Himself married to the fervently
+religious Princess Sophie of Nassau, the king has
+married his oldest son, Crown Prince Gustavus Adolphus,
+to Princess Victoria of Bade, a granddaughter of Emperor
+William I. of Germany, and a great-granddaughter of
+Gustavus IV. of Sweden. His third son, Prince Charles,
+duke of West Gothland, is married to Princess Ingeborg of
+Denmark, a granddaughter of Charles XV. of Sweden.
+These unions are well calculated to accentuate the increasing
+political, commercial and cultural intimacy with Germany,
+the Scandinavian policy of his predecessor and the
+desire of King Oscar to see the descendants of the old royal
+line of Sweden as heirs to the crown. In giving his consent
+to the marriage of his second son, Prince Oscar (Bernadotte),
+to Lady Ebba Munck, of the Swedish nobility, King
+Oscar has given evidence of the fact that he is not a match-maker
+regardless of the feelings of the parties involved.
+Prince Oscar, formerly Duke of Gothland, upon renouncing
+his share of inheritance to the two thrones, was allowed to
+marry the choice of his heart. King Oscar has tried to heal
+the wounds of the past by opening the vaults of the church
+of Riddarholm to the sarcophagi of Gustavus IV. and his
+son, and by giving Queen Carola of Saxony, the only living
+granddaughter of the former, repeated proofs of esteem and
+considerate distinction.</p>
+
+<p>King Oscar with his crowns had received as an inheritance
+two important problems to be solved&mdash;the reorganization
+of the Swedish army and the settlement of the difficulties
+in the relations between the two states of the Union.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[Pg 416]</a></span>
+The latter has not yet found a satisfactory solution, although
+the king has devoted to it his most strenuous attention
+and the best of his efforts, in honest application to his
+royal motto: “The Weal of the Brother Nations.”</p>
+
+<p>The reorganization of the Swedish army was not effected
+until after twenty years of parliamentary struggle. The
+road of a compromise policy which was opened in 1867 was
+followed up at the Riksdag of 1873, in all the long chain
+of years royal army bills being repeatedly rejected. In
+1885 the government and Riksdag agreed on a remission
+of thirty per cent of the military taxes of landowners in
+exchange for new regulations for the militia compulsory
+service. In 1887 the Riksdag sanctioned the total abolition
+of the “indelta,” or cantoned troops, as far as the navy was
+concerned, which was the first step toward the reorganization
+of the navy, and the same year the militia law of 1885
+went into effect.</p>
+
+<p>The old Landtmanna, or agrarian party, in 1888 gave
+place to a new protectionistic party. A contested election
+of twenty-two members from Stockholm gave a sudden
+majority to the protectionists, O. R. Themptander, the able
+minister of state, resigning. The army bill did not fare
+well at first. In spite of the fact that the Landtmanna
+party was brushed aside, the old enemies of an army reform,
+the landowners, nobles and peasants alike, still being
+strong enough to successfully oppose it. The Riksdag of
+1888 passed a grain tariff, which went into effect February
+14th of the same year, enforcing several other points of a
+protective tariff system.</p>
+
+<p>King Oscar called an extraordinary, or special, session
+of the Riksdag, October 18, 1892, when royal propositions
+were offered and accepted. The land-tax was abolished and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[Pg 417]</a></span>
+a new army bill passed. According to the stipulations of
+the latter, the <i>beværingstid</i>, or period of liability for every
+citizen to bear arms, was extended to embrace twenty years
+instead of twelve, viz., eight years in the first ban of the
+<i>landtværn</i>, or militia, four years in the second ban, and
+eight years in the <i>landstorm</i>, or final levy. The first ban of
+militia is in time of war to form an integral part of the
+first fighting line, the second ban forming a reserve for
+the first fighting line. The final levy is to be called out
+for garrison duty exclusively, and for the defence of the
+country against foreign invasion. Six military districts
+have been established, five distributed along the entire coast
+of Sweden, the sixth inland in the western provinces to be
+a reserve ready to be used at the point and moment most
+needed. The reorganized army in active service is composed
+of <i>værfvade</i>, or enlisted troops, and <i>indelta</i>, or cantoned
+troops, the expenses also of the latter being paid by
+the government. The royal guards, chasseurs, hussars,
+artillery, and engineers are enlisted for two years up to
+eight. The militia troops are distributed among both the
+enlisted and the cantoned troops, the length of service with
+the colors being ninety days in time of peace. The infantry
+in which all the cantoned troops serve consist of twenty-six
+regiments and two battalions. The line is armed with
+Remingtons of 8.8 millimetres calibre. There are eight
+regiments of cavalry and six regiments and six batteries
+of field artillery, forty batteries in all, with 240 cannon.
+The effective of the active army, in 1896, was 1,953 officers,
+571 employees, 1,779 non-commissioned officers, 1,641 musicians
+and 38,802 men, with 6,852 horses. The war effective
+is 272,994 men, besides 180,000 in the <i>landstorm</i>. The
+chief fortifications of Sweden are Carlscrona, on the south<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[Pg 418]</a></span>
+coast; two fortresses outside of Stockholm, viz., Vaxholm
+and Oscar Fredericsborg; and, in the interior, Carlsborg,
+near Lake Vetter. The navy comprises 4 turret ships, with
+10-inch armor, armed each with 2 10-inch and 4 5.9-inch
+guns, and having a total displacement of 12,450 tons; 4
+armor clad monitors, 9 armored gunboats, 3 corvettes,
+9 first-class and 5 second-class gunboats, 2 torpedo cruisers,
+7 first-class and 9 second-class torpedo boats, 5 torpedo
+launches, and 12 school ships. The navy is manned by 267
+officers and about 4,500 sailors, not including conscripts
+to the number of 8,500 men. The entire cost of the defence
+of Sweden exceeds ten million dollars a year.</p>
+
+<p>The movement for a reorganization of the defences has
+not been caused by any change in the policy of peace, which
+has faithfully been carried out by all the rulers of the
+Bernadotte dynasty. The ruler of Sweden and her people
+desire peace, but not as a gift of mercy from the great
+powers, but as a self-chosen right which can be effectively
+defended if necessary. The ever-increasing armament of
+the European powers has made a strengthening of the
+Swedish arms unavoidable, but the Swedish government
+was the first to announce its readiness to accept the invitation
+of Czar Nicholas II. of Russia to a conference for the
+discussion of a general reduction of the regular armies.
+Germany was made the pattern for the reorganization of
+the army and navy, the Swedish government having followed
+the German also in the treatment of the labor question,
+with schemes of accident and old-age insurance, accepted
+by the Riksdag.</p>
+
+<p>King Oscar, at his succession to the throne, gave evidence
+of his desire to meet the reasonable demands of his
+Norwegian subjects. He sanctioned, in 1873, the abolition<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[Pg 419]</a></span>
+of the office of a governor-general of Norway, the government
+at Christiania to be presided over by a Norwegian
+minister of state. To the later Norwegian demands for
+a separate flag, consular service and ministry of foreign
+affairs, King Oscar has been unyielding. The flag question
+is of subordinate importance. King Oscar, in 1899, has
+refused to sanction the resolution of the Storthing, three
+times passed, for a flag without the mark of Union, for the
+reason that the flag with that mark was offered to Norway
+by his father, Oscar I., and gratefully accepted when the
+country had no colors at all, except the Swedish. The
+Swedish people will carry their old flag with the mark of
+Union, irrespective of any changes made in the Norwegian
+colors. More serious are the questions of consular and
+diplomatic service. In 1893, the Swedish government offered
+to compromise by establishing a common ministry of
+foreign affairs whose head might be indifferently a Swede
+or a Norwegian. This was rejected by the Norwegian
+Storthing. The same offer was made in 1837, when the
+dispute first arose, provided that the Norwegian troops
+should share the duty of the common defence of both kingdoms.
+The Swedish Riksdag of 1893 passed a resolution,
+in compliance with which King Oscar for a second time
+refused to sanction the bill of Norwegian consulates.</p>
+
+<p>The diametrically opposite views which are held in regard
+to the relations of Sweden and Norway are, to a great
+extent, caused by a misconception of the nature of the
+Union. In lack of a Union parliament, it has by many
+been considered to be only a personal union of two countries
+under the same king. Such is not the case. It is true that
+the two countries are both free and independent states and
+that the king is the only visible bond between them, accord<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[Pg 420]</a></span>ing
+to the Act of Union, but the Union is nevertheless an
+<i>actual</i> and not a <i>personal</i> one. If it was only personal, the
+king could at will, or when forced to do so, resign his power
+in one of the countries and continue his reign in the other.
+The Act of Union cannot be changed except upon a resolution,
+enacted in both of the respective diets, and with the
+sanction of the king in behalf of the Union. A change can
+be made at the same Swedish Riksdag at which it is proposed,
+at the Norwegian Storthing not until the next regular
+session. As a consequence the Union cannot be dissolved
+by the representatives of either country alone, and the king
+cannot dissolve it by exercising any power of his own. The
+king cannot abdicate one throne without abdicating the
+other, for the first paragraph of the Act of Union stipulates
+that the two countries shall be indissolubly and irrevocably
+united under the rule of the same king. No abdication can
+be granted, except by common consent of the two diets in
+joint session. When the two thrones are empty, without
+an heir-apparent, a new king shall be elected by the two
+diets in common. What underlies the Norwegian claims
+of a separate foreign ministry is, besides to own an outward
+sign of the country’s independence, a desire for a
+closer constitutional control of diplomatic affairs. From
+the Swedish side the desirability of a Union parliament and
+a greater authority for the Union government has been
+expressed. The Swedes have been found unwilling to grant
+any change of the constitution of the Union, except the
+right be added for the Union government to dispose of the
+military forces of both countries, in equal proportion, for
+the common defence. King Oscar’s standpoint in the
+Unionist conflict has contributed much to increase his popularity
+in Sweden, where his firm refusal to sanction any<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[Pg 421]</a></span>
+measure which would cause a weakening to the Union has
+been received with the highest approval.</p>
+
+<p>A committee to review the relations of the Union and
+propose a revision of its charter was appointed in 1897, but
+failed to accomplish anything, the views of the Swedish and
+Norwegian members differing too radically in their opinions.
+It is to be hoped that the ultimate solution of the
+unionist conflict, whensoever it come or whatsoever it be,
+will bring the two countries of the Scandinavian peninsula
+closer together, without any great sacrifice on either side,
+least of all of their independence.</p>
+
+<p>During the more than eighty years of peace which Sweden
+has enjoyed under the rule of the Bernadotte dynasty,
+she has developed her constitutional liberty and her material
+prosperity in a high degree. The dreams of glory by
+conquest belong to days gone by, but in the fields of peaceable
+industries she has attained a greatness which the world
+begins to realize. At the expositions of Paris in 1867, 1878
+and 1889, of Vienna in 1873, of Philadelphia in 1876 and of
+Chicago in 1893, Swedish industry and art have taken part
+with honor in the international competition. The railways
+of Sweden have incessantly spun a more and more extended
+network of steel over the country, opening connections for
+enterprises in new districts and furthering commerce and
+industrial art in a wide measure. Oscar II. is an enthusiastic
+friend of railway improvements, the state having built
+and acquired a quite considerable length of road at his initiative.
+The length of Swedish railways, in 1896, was 6,145
+miles, of which 2,283 miles belonged to the state, compared
+to a total of 1,089 miles of Norwegian railways.</p>
+
+<p>The post-office, which was made a government department
+by Axel Oxenstierna, in 1636, annually transmits 130<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[Pg 422]</a></span>
+million letters and parcels. The telegraph lines have not
+reached a very high state of development; still there are
+14,600 miles of telegraph. The telephone has made much
+more progress, far surpassing that of any other country
+in Europe. The total length of the connections exceeds
+40,000 miles, and the number of apparatus is more than
+25,000. Stockholm makes the widest use of the telephone
+of any city in the world, with her 300,000 inhabitants
+having a telephone for every thirty. Sweden has
+developed into a commercial country of no inconsiderable
+rank, notwithstanding her isolated position. Exports and
+imports each exceed yearly in value $100,000,000, the imports
+being 344,290,000 kronor and the exports 311,434,000
+kronor in value, in 1895, a Swedish krona being about
+twenty-eight cents. The commercial value of the foreign
+trade amounts to thirty-nine dollars in yearly average for
+each inhabitant of Sweden, which is about as much as in
+France. The imports chiefly consist of coal, coffee, salt,
+cotton and wool, while the exports are timber products,
+about forty per cent of the whole, iron and steel, the best
+in the world, machinery, butter, cattle, matches, etc. The
+inland navigation and commerce are very lively. The state
+finances are in a prosperous condition. The budget of
+1898 showed total receipts of 120,086,000 kronor, of which
+14,229,000 was surplus from proceeding budgets.</p>
+
+<p>Thanks to the well equipped and regulated system of
+instruction, the general education has been so highly advanced
+that Sweden, in this respect, holds the very front
+rank among the nations. Besides the national universities
+of Upsala and Lund and the state medical college of Stockholm,
+city universities at Stockholm and Gothenburg have
+been recently founded which are quickly developing. All<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[Pg 423]</a></span>
+study at the universities consists of post-graduate work,
+there being about thirty colleges in various parts of the
+country which lead their pupils as far as the demands
+requisite for entering the universities. The Swedish university
+courses are of unexcelled thoroughness and completeness.
+The so-called Peasant High Schools are peculiar
+to Scandinavia, having originated in Denmark. There are
+twenty-five such high schools in Sweden, which give to
+young men and women of the peasant class a higher education
+than is available in the common schools, of which latter
+there are 10,702, with 692,360 pupils and 13,797 teachers.</p>
+
+<p>Scientific research progresses with energy and success,
+and Sweden possesses to-day a great number of eminent
+scholars, even if the epoch of men of universal genius appears
+to be a thing of the past there as elsewhere. Swedish
+scientists have opened closer relations with their co-workers
+in all parts of the world. The energy of King Oscar has
+brought about several congresses of science at Stockholm.
+In the natural sciences, Sweden still holds an honored place,
+in physics offering two great names, Eric Edlund and A. J.
+Angstrœm, the latter celebrated for his work on the solar
+spectrum, which forms the basis for the spectral analysis.
+Death has claimed these men and also J. A. H. Gyldén,
+an eminent astronomer; J. G. Agardh, C. W. Blomstrand,
+H. O. Nathorst, J. E. Rydquist, able botanist, chemist,
+agriculturist, and philologist, respectively; Pontus Wikner,
+the most remarkable of the disciples of the philosopher
+Bostrœm, and Victor Rydberg, the philosophical poet,
+novelist and polyhistor.</p>
+
+<p>Among the most noteworthy of living Swedish scholars
+are Adolph Norén, Axel Koch and Esaias Tegnér, Junior,
+philologists; Hans Hildebrand and Oscar Montelius, archæ<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[Pg 424]</a></span>ologists;
+P. Fahlbeck, Nils and Magnus Hœjer, Martin
+Weibull, Ernest Carlson, historians; A. M. Mittag-Leffler,
+mathematician; Hugo Hildebrandsson, meteorologist; E. A.
+H. Key, E. O. T. Westerlund, Anton Wetterstrand, F. J.
+Biornstrœm, T. F. Hartelius, Curt Wallis, prominent in
+various branches of medical science.</p>
+
+<p>King Oscar with fervent interest and unfailing liberality
+has encouraged various scientific explorations, and has had
+the satisfaction to see the greatest geographical discoveries
+of the century successfully made by Swedes, the circumnavigation
+of Asia and Europe, and the discovery of the
+Northeast Passage by Baron N. A. E. Nordenskiold, and
+the exploration of Central Asia by Sven Hedin, which has
+forever settled the learned disputes of ages. A third expedition,
+the most daring of scientific exploits ever attempted,
+still keeps the world in suspense as to its final outcome.
+July 11, 1897, S. A. Andrée, a scientifically experienced
+aëronaut, with two companions, Nils Strindberg and Knut
+Frænkel, started in a balloon constructed for the purpose,
+and with provisions for three years, from an island of
+Spitzbergen, with the purpose of reaching the North Pole.
+The daring aëronauts have not been heard from since their
+departure, but authorities like Baron Nordenskiold have
+expressed the best of hopes that they may have reached
+Franz Joseph’s Land in safety, whence they might regain
+settled regions.<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> S. A. Andrée belongs to a class of men,
+the Swedish engineers, who have won distinction for their
+ability, and on whom the examples set by Christopher
+Polhem and John Ericsson have had a stimulating influ<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[Pg 425]</a></span>ence.
+There are among them two inventors of the very
+first rank, who belong to the reign of Oscar II., Alfred
+Nobel (d. 1896), the inventor of dynamite, and Gustavus
+de Laval, the Swedish Edison. The latter is world-famous
+for his separator and other inventions, which have revolutionized
+the dairy industry. Alfred Nobel, the disciple of
+John Ericsson, has not only the glory of having invented
+one of the most useful helpers of mechanic and industrial
+progress, but also that of having set aside his vast fortune,
+amounting to something like $12,500,000, for public purposes.
+The money is so invested as to constitute a fund
+the interest of which shall be applied to five equal annual
+prizes, to be awarded for the most important discovery or
+improvement in chemistry, physics or medicine, for the
+work in literature highest in the ideal sense, and to the one
+who shall have acted most and best for the fraternity of
+nations, the suppression or reduction of standing armies,
+and the constitution and propagation of peace congresses.
+The first prize, physics and chemistry, shall be awarded by
+the Academy of Science of Sweden; that for physiology and
+medicine by the Carolin Institute of Stockholm; the literary
+prize by the Swedish Academy; and that for the propagation
+of peace by a commission of five members elected by
+the Norwegian Storthing. He especially directed that in distributing
+these prizes no consideration of nationality shall
+prevail, so that he who is most worthy of it shall receive
+the reward, whether he be Scandinavian or not. It seems
+that the sum of each of the five annual prizes thus instituted
+will amount to $75,000. The inventor of dynamite was
+deeply interested in all that was done to promote peace by
+congresses and societies. He always considered that by improving
+war material, and thus increasing the dangers of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[Pg 426]</a></span>
+war, he was contributing his share toward the pacification
+of the world. Alfred Nobel has, by the manner in which
+the Norwegian Storthing is made an active party in the disposition
+of his will, indicated <i>his</i> view upon the Union of
+Sweden and Norway and his hopes for a peaceful solution
+of their conflicts.</p>
+
+<p>Swedish literature, after the period of dilettantism and
+epigones, has, during the reign of Oscar II., twice been
+rejuvenated and continues its development on broadened
+paths and with a wider scope. The eighties were characterized
+by a strong realistic movement, which went far
+in daring truth of description and brought problems of a
+social, religious and political nature under discussion in
+works of a novelistic or dramatic form. In naturalism,
+it never went to the extremes of the other Scandinavian
+literature. The movement was to a great extent brought
+on by Norwegian and Danish influence, and soon subsided
+for want of solid and fascinating art to maintain it. The
+Swedish champion of this movement, although without the
+restrictions of any school, was August Strindberg, a genius
+of extraordinary endowment. Through the versatility and
+power of his talent, he created new forms for the Swedish
+drama, novel, short story and essay. In his battle against
+reactionary conservatism he went too far; an excitable
+nature, led into extremes, but he has had the manly courage
+to confess and regret his mistakes. Strindberg, who is an
+able historian, ethnographer, naturalist and sinologue, is the
+most versatile and prolific of contemporary writers. In the
+wide scope of his genius and originality of his methods,
+Strindberg is one of the most remarkable dramatists that
+ever lived. His autobiographical works are of supreme
+importance, both to the students of literature and psychol<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[Pg 427]</a></span>ogy.
+Among his masterpieces are “Master Olof,” the great
+historic drama of his youth, “Swedish Fates and Adventures,”
+and “Utopia Realized,” two series of short stories,
+and “The Father,” a modern drama of unsurpassed tragic
+grandeur.</p>
+
+<p>Several women took an active part in the literary discussion
+of social problems, with more or less justice considered
+as the champions of women’s rights. Among these Anne
+Charlotte Leffler, duchessa di Cajanello, in spite of her
+premature death, developed into a novelist of merit who
+will be placed side by side with Bremer, Knorring and
+Carlén.</p>
+
+<p>The golden lyres of Romanticism were silenced and the
+epigones were hushed by the sarcasms of Realism. Count
+Snoilsky and Victor Rydberg were the only poets of the
+earlier period who sang with inspiration and were listened
+to. After the realistic movement of the eighties came a
+romantic reaction with new lyrics and new novelists, who
+avoided the ruthlessness of the realists, but had profited by
+their merits. This new movement cannot be called a school,
+for it is marked by its great versatility of subjects and great
+elasticity of treatment. If the definition of realistic art
+be “a piece of nature seen through a temperament,” that
+of the new movement may be “an artistic temperament
+attuned to pieces of nature,” a sensitive and supple talent
+which has an almost unlimited capacity to tell every story
+just in the vein its particular subject demands. Pre-eminent
+in this movement stand Ola Hansson, Selma Lagerlœf,
+Verner von Heidenstam, Gustaf af Geijerstam, Peter Hallstrœm,
+Thor Hedberg, Oscar Levertin, all fine novelists,
+almost all good poets, and Geijerstam, an able dramatist.
+One of the most interesting and supremely gifted poets<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[Pg 428]</a></span>
+Sweden has ever had is Gustaf Frœding, who generally
+excels, sometimes abuses, his remarkable versatility in finding
+a true lyric expression for the very widest range of subjects.
+Sigurd Hedenstierna is the most popular humorist,
+witty in his sketches, but impossible as a novelist. The
+greatest humorists are August Strindberg and Gustaf
+Frœding. Contemporary Sweden has very few and no
+great literary critics, but some good literary historians
+in Henric Schueck, Karl Warburg and Oscar Levertin.
+She has a number of able journalists, most distinguished
+among whom is their Nestor, S. A. Hedlund, of Gothenburg,
+a fiery but dignified champion of a liberal government,
+religious tolerance, social evolution and cultural
+progress.</p>
+
+<p>Swedish literature has a long pedigree compared to
+Swedish art, which is hardly more than two centuries old.
+All the more remarkable, then, is its rapid growth and high
+degree of excellence. The first school of Swedish painters
+was founded by the German Ehrenstrahl, giving to Swedish
+art the cosmopolitan character it has preserved to this day,
+influenced by continental but chiefly French art. Swedish
+painters early attracted attention abroad. Gustavus Lundberg,
+with a picture of Boucher and his wife, won the
+greatest success of the Salon of Paris, in 1743. Peter
+Adolphus Hall, “painter to the king and the children of
+France,” has been called the Van Dyck of the miniature
+painters. He resided in Paris up to the time of the revolution
+and took part in the storming of the Bastile. Alexander
+Roslin was, from the year 1760, installed in the
+Louvre as painter to the king and councillor of the French
+Academy. In 1771 he carried home a prize which the immortal
+Greuze could not capture, much to the dismay of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[Pg 429]</a></span>
+Diderot, and died as the most famous and wealthy artist
+of the period. In a later period, Italy attracted many
+Swedish artists, and later still, in the sixties of the present
+century, the influence of Germany, especially of the Dusseldorf
+school, was strongly felt. John Frederic Hœckert
+won the first prize of the Paris Exposition of 1855 with his
+large picture “Divine Service in the Lapmark.” When the
+glories of Hœckert were almost forgotten at home, Edward
+Wahlberg, in the seventies, was ushered into celebrity as
+one of the greatest landscape painters of modern times,
+equally appreciated in Germany, as later in France, and new
+French laurels were won by Hugo Salmson, William von
+Gegerfelt and August Hagborg. Since then French influences
+have become solidly established, with a few important
+artists of the Munich school, like C. G. Hellquist and
+Julius Kronberg. The climax of artistic honors was
+reached by Nils Forsberg, whose picture, “The Death
+of a Hero,” carried home the first prize of the French
+Salon in 1888 (not an exposition medal), a distinction which
+no Swede and exceedingly few non-French artists ever won.
+The repeated successes which Swedish painters have won
+at expositions of Europe were more than duplicated by
+the enthusiastic approval granted it at the World’s Fair
+in Chicago in 1893. The truth is that Sweden possesses
+a number of eminent painters in every branch of painting,
+except the marine, which has been but sparingly represented
+since the days of Marcus Larsson. The most famous among
+them are, besides those already mentioned, Richard Bergh,
+Oscar Biorck, Eva Bonnier, Gustavus Cederstrœm, Prince
+Eugene, Eugene Jansson, Ernst Josephson, Nils Kreuger,
+Carl Larsson, Bruno Liljefors, Charles Nordstrœm, Allan
+Œsterlind, Georg and Hanna Pauli, George von Rosen,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[Pg 430]</a></span>
+Robert Thegerstrom, and A. L. Zorn. It has been said
+of the Swedish painters, by way of complaint, that they
+are not, as their brethren in Denmark and Norway, in any
+marked degree national. Swedish art has, for its characteristic
+boldness and superiority in modern technique, loftiness
+of purpose, great individuality of expression and depth of
+feeling. Be these characteristics national or cosmopolitan,
+the Swedish painters are certainly a great credit to their
+country. To King Oscar it must be in a high degree satisfactory
+to see the artistic tendencies of his family culminate
+in the works of his youngest son, Prince Eugene, who,
+being in the front line of the advance corps of art, paints,
+from dreamy, inner life, pictures which are the delight of
+artists and true connoisseurs.</p>
+
+<p>The sculptors are less numerous, but the art of Sergel,
+Fogelberg and Molin have found worthy perpetuators and
+innovators in Per Hasselberg, John Bœrjesson, Frithiof
+Kjellberg, Alfred Nystrœm, Christian Ericsson, Th. Lundberg
+and Ingel Fallstedt. To the art of metal engraving
+on coins and medals Sweden has offered some works of the
+very highest value by J. E. Ericson, P. H. Lundgren, Lea
+Ahlborn and Adolphus Lindberg.</p>
+
+<p>Architecture cannot boast of any continuous chain of
+brilliant development. Since the days of Nicodemus Tessin
+there have been few great architects until in very recent
+times, when architecture has received a sudden impetus
+which has made its progress and results as remarkable, or
+almost more so, than that of the other arts. To Helgo
+Zettervall a number of elaborate national works of construction
+and restoration have been intrusted and, as a
+rule, carried through in a meritorious manner, although
+sometimes giving occasion for serious criticism. An im<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[Pg 431]</a></span>portant
+influence was exerted by Frederic William Scholander,
+more by his teaching than by his works. It is principally
+his pupils who in the last few decades have almost
+revolutionized the building methods and architectural aspect
+of the capital, and endowed Gothenburg and other towns
+with works of architectural distinction. Pre-eminent among
+modern architects are I. G. Clason, Gustavus Wickman,
+K. F. von Gegerfelt, Adrian Peterson, Hans Hedlund,
+Valfried Karlson, A. F. Anderberg, E. Lallerstedt. The
+Vasa, or Swedish Castle Renaissance, which with good
+effect has been reintroduced for monumental buildings,
+seems to lead architecture on to a wholesome national
+development, combining impressive outlines and solidity
+with elaboration and grace of interior decoration.</p>
+
+<p>The foremost composers of orchestral music have been
+mentioned above. Sweden maintains her reputation as
+being the country of song through the compositions by
+Hedenblad, Kœrling, Svedbom, Sjœgren and Arlberg,
+while Sœderman has brought the form of the ballad, based
+on national folk music, to the highest development. The
+royal opera of Stockholm recently moved into new and
+elegant quarters erected on the site of the old opera house
+built by Gustavus III. It possesses, in Caroline Œstberg,
+Mathilde Linden, Arvid Œdman, C. F. Lundquist and J.
+Elmblad, dramatic singers of high rank, while Sweden, in
+Louise Pyk, Mathilde Grabow Taube and Solomon Smith,
+owns concert singers of great eminence. The international
+firmament of song has two Swedish stars of considerable
+magnitude in Sigrid Arnoldsson-Fischhoff, a colorature
+songstress, and Ellen Nordgren-Gullbrandson, a Wagner
+singer. The greatest actor is Emil Hillberg, a noble
+creator of Ibsen and Strindberg rôles, while the country<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[Pg 432]</a></span>
+recently lost its ablest comedian in the death of Knut
+Almlœf.</p>
+
+<p>Sweden of to-day offers an attractive picture of a country
+in a high degree cultured and prosperous, but no country
+or period is entitled to reap only benefits or enjoy undisturbed
+happiness. No progress is obtained without struggle
+and relapses, and a good must give way for something
+better. Beneath a surface generally smiling and serene
+formidable religious and social forces are in motion. The
+Swedish state church is divided into two camps, which
+resemble a high and a low church, out of which the whole
+may come forward strengthened and rejunevated. The
+various sects are not all satisfied with the degree of liberty
+they enjoy. A shallow materialistic movement of anti-religious
+tendencies, which styled itself Utilitarian, caused some
+sensation in the latter eighties and early nineties, more
+through the somewhat too severe manner in which it was
+suppressed than through any of its own merits. There are
+agitators for a separation of state and church who are
+opposed by some of the stanchest friends of a constitutional
+monarchy. A separation of educational and church
+affairs seems desirable. The yeomen have regained the
+predominant position in political life which was theirs in
+the time of the ancient Teutonic communities, using their
+power in a way which is not always beneficial to the other
+classes or the state at large. The great class of country
+population, which has been in vain striving to rise to the
+privileged class of landowners, if even on the smallest
+scale, have emigrated in vast numbers. The emigration,
+which has given America at least 1,200,000 inhabitants of
+Swedish birth or parentage, is one of the most astounding
+phenomena of the century. It has, to a large extent, sub<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[Pg 433]</a></span>sided,
+but may be revived if the pressure for social improvement
+is found of no avail. The workingmen are resolved
+to gain a representation and are striving to attain the introduction
+of general suffrage. The weapons they use are
+principally strikes, but may also turn to wholesale emigration.
+In 1893 the advocates of universal suffrage arranged
+for the election of a convention by popular vote, the first
+Folksriksdag, which addressed an appeal to the legal Riksdag,
+to consider an amendment for the extension of the
+suffrage. The liberals and radicals are interested in this
+agitation, and brought out their full vote to the Folksriksdag.
+The conservative party ignores the whole movement,
+probably not wisely. The towns are seeking an extended
+representation and bitterly oppose the curtailment of the
+rights already enjoyed, fearing the reactionary tendencies
+of the conservatives, who have their strength in the large
+agrarian population. Anarchism is something unknown
+in Sweden. The socialistic agitation, which is spreading
+among the classes without a political representation, is carried
+on without any great bitterness and entirely without
+lawless means.</p>
+
+<p>Any practical or theoretical agitation for a republic there
+is none in Sweden, the population as a whole not finding
+salvation from the defects of government or society in any
+outward change of rule. Civil service is enforced to the
+letter, and the social pressure from above downward is of a
+nature caused by financial or educational supremacy only
+and would remain the same under republican rule. The
+Swedes are proud of their history and the long and unbroken
+chain of their political and social development. Their
+neighbors accuse them of having traces of the chauvinism
+of bygone days, but not altogether with justice. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[Pg 434]</a></span>
+national anthem of Sweden can be quoted in their justification.
+It speaks, in one instance, of the country as enthroned
+on memories of a glorious past when its name
+filled the world; but that name is the North, to whose
+grandeur and loveliness of nature the whole song is a panegyric.
+The name of Sweden is not even mentioned, a fact
+which does not point to a narrow or antiquated form of
+patriotism. There is in the nature of the Swedes a tendency
+to delight in the display of dignified luxury, which
+was known to Tacitus. The Swedes love to see the crown
+of one of the oldest states of Europe carried with dignity
+as an emblem of their ancient independence. The
+Swedish king has in reality less power than the President
+of the United States, but the Swedes have an inherited
+faculty of confidence and loyalty of which their king receives
+his full share. The Swedes become excellent citizens
+of a republic for that very reason: reverence for, and loyalty
+to, the institutions and historial development of the
+country in which they dwell. Among the Scandinavian
+nationalities, the Swede has been characterized as the nobleman
+or aristocrat, on account of his love of luxury and the
+joys of life, his dignity, diplomatic talent and lyrico-rhetoric
+temperament. It is true that his dignity seldom forsakes
+the Swede; when it does, something of the soldier of the
+Thirty Years’ War comes to the surface. To her diplomatic
+talent, more than to her glorious victories, Sweden owes
+her superiority in size, prosperity and political importance,
+as compared to her Scandinavian neighbors.</p>
+
+<p>The fundamental laws of the kingdom of Sweden are:
+1. The constitution of June 6, 1809; 2. The amended regulations
+for the formation of the Riksdag of June 22, 1866;
+3. The law of royal succession of September 26, 1810; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[Pg 435]</a></span>
+on the liberty of the press of July 16, 1812. According to
+these statutes, the king must be a member of the Lutheran
+church, and have sworn fealty to the laws of the land. His
+person is inviolable. He has the right to declare war and
+make peace after consulting the state council. He nominates
+to all higher appointments, both military and civil;
+concludes foreign treaties, and has a right to preside in the
+supreme court of justice. The princes of the blood royal
+are excluded from all civil employments. The king possesses
+legislative power in matters of political administration,
+but in all other respects that power is exercised by the
+Riksdag, in concert with the sovereign, and every new law
+must have the assent of the crown. The right of imposing
+taxes is vested in the Riksdag. The executive power is in
+the hands of the king, who acts under the advice of a cabinet
+or state council, the head of which is the minister of
+state. It consists of ten members, seven of whom are ministerial
+heads of departments and three without departments.
+All the members of the cabinet are responsible for the acts
+of the government.</p>
+
+<p>Eric Gustavus Bostrœm is minister of state, holding
+office since 1891, after the protectionists had got into power
+and the compromise cabinets which followed were a thing
+of the past. The other ministers without departments,
+Baron A. L. E. Akerhielm and S. H. Wikblad, have remained
+in office since the days of compromise cabinets. The
+other members who have been in office from five to eight
+years are as follows: Count L. V. A. Douglas, minister
+of foreign affairs; P. S. L. Annerstedt, minister of justice;
+Baron A. E. Rappe, minister of war; J. C. E. Christerson,
+minister of marine; J. E. von Krusenstierna, minister of
+interior; Count H. Hansson Wachtmeister, minister of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[Pg 436]</a></span>
+finance; G. F. Gilljam, minister of education and ecclesiastical
+affairs.</p>
+
+<p>King Oscar II., in the jubilee year of 1897, which
+marked the completion of a quarter of a century of his
+reign, received innumerable proofs of the love of the two
+nations under his rule and of the high esteem in which he
+is held by the governments and citizens of foreign countries.
+The occasion was celebrated by a large and highly successful
+Scandinavian exposition at Stockholm in the summer,
+Russia, with Finland, also taking part, and by a series of
+festivities about September 21st, the date of his succession
+to the throne. King Oscar has always given sympathetic
+attention to the United States, especially to their citizens
+of Swedish birth. Several deputations from America called
+upon the king in the jubilee year. Among these was a
+male chorus of fifty-four members, belonging to the American
+Union of Swedish singers. The singers were invited
+to the royal castle and received and feasted by the aged
+monarch with cordial simplicity, in all royal splendor, without
+any of its pomp or ceremony. To the hearty songs of
+his unpretentious guests, King Oscar responded with one
+of the eloquent speeches for which he is so justly famous,
+assuring them that, although citizens of another land, they
+were still followed by the loving interest of their mother
+country and her monarch. When the singers intoned one
+of the songs by Prince Gustavus, the king joined them with
+his sonorous tenor voice, smilingly calling their attention
+to the fact that he had not forgotten his students’ songs.
+The anniversary of the seventieth birthday of Oscar II. was
+celebrated January 21, 1899, a slight gloom being cast over
+it on account of the temporary illness of the king. Oscar
+II. fully recovered after a few months of rest and recreation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[Pg 437]</a></span>
+and bears every indication of attaining the same advanced
+age, with the same unimpaired activity, as his grandfather,
+which would mean another decade added to the era of undisturbed
+peace. Crown Prince Gustavus Adolphus, who
+is yet little known in Norway, enjoys great popularity in
+Sweden, where his harmonious, sagacious nature and resolute
+energy are highly respected.</p>
+
+<p>The reign of Oscar II. in Sweden has been marked by
+reactionary movements in Church and State, but the king
+has been in such close contact with his people that they
+have recognized in him a sovereign who stands above the
+parties. The king has used the conservative elements of his
+country to strengthen her defences and to maintain the
+Union with Norway, which have been the great goals of
+his policy of peace. To sum up King Oscar’s standpoint
+in the Norwegian question, he is willing to grant Norway
+home rule in its fullest extent, but refuses to grant her
+separate control of foreign affairs, which he considers incompatible
+with the idea of the Union. In this standpoint
+King Oscar is backed by the convictions of the overwhelming
+majority of Swedes, who see in the dissolution of the
+Union a danger to Sweden, Norway, or both countries, of
+sharing the fate of unhappy Finland, which the civilized
+world is now deeply deploring. The danger which menaces
+the sons of Suomi has touched all Scandinavians to the
+quick, and it would seem that the new century shall witness
+a restoration of the Scandinavian policy. If the movement
+to bring this about meets with success, it is to be
+hoped that, from the start, it shall have rather the actual
+wants than the ideal rights of the independent Scandinavian
+states in view. From the point of view of citizens of the
+United States we cannot but sympathize with a movement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[Pg 438]</a></span>
+which may establish a union of independent states into a
+realm of imperial government, less an emperor. Let there
+rather be two or three kings in the North, with one solid
+union government and a common and equal defence in case
+of war, than two or three foreign ministers with as many
+different policies and a divided and unequal defence.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The ancient name of this province, Viken, probably is the key to
+the disputed etymology of the word <i>Viking</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> These were not departments in the sense of bureaus, but <i>collegia</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Through the efforts of the Swedish scholar, Eric Benzelius, Junior,
+a third edition was published at Windsor in 1750. J. K. Kohn’s edition
+dates from 1805, founded on the works of the Swedish scholars Sotberg
+and Ihre. Of later editions, the one by Professor A. Uppstrœm, of
+Upsala, of 1854 to 1857, is considered to be the standard one. A fine
+American edition has, in recent years, been published by Dr. G. H. Balg,
+of Mayville, Wis. The history of Codex Argenteus, after once for all
+being placed in the University Library of Upsala, has not been altogether
+uneventful. In 1834 ten of the 187 leaves were stolen and remained
+missing for twenty-three years. One of the trusted janitorial
+attendants of the library had taken them in the hope of obtaining a
+great sum of money for them, but later dared not dispose of them. On
+his death-bed he surrendered the stolen leaves.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Lewenhaupt is a German translation of the old Swedish family
+name of Leijonhufvud, and carried by a branch whose members held
+the dignity of counts. Almost similar is the derivation of Von Rosen
+from Tre Rosor, etc. During the Period of Political Grandeur, and later,
+it was a habit of certain branches of the old Swedish nobility to translate
+or Germanize their names in this way. The burghers and clergymen
+followed the custom when being ennobled, Archaic spelling was
+preserved, or adopted, in most cases.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> The ecclesiastic department is also the department of education.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> A. C. Nathorst, an able scientist and explorer, started in the summer
+of 1899 with an expedition to Greenland in search of Andrée and
+his companions.</p></div></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[Pg 439]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX">INDEX</a></h2>
+
+<ul class="index"><li><h3>A</h3></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Abelin, G. R., <a href="#Page_408">408-410</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Abo, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">peace treaty (in 1743), <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">University of Abo (see <a href="#Universities">Universities</a>).</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Absolutism, Absolute Monarchy, <a href="#Page_255">255-258</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300-301</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Academic style, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Academy, of Antiquities, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of Art, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of Science, <a href="#Page_336">336-337</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Swedish, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">French, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Military, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Adalvard, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Younger, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Adam of Bremen, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Adlerbeth, G. G., <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Adlercreutz, C. J., <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360-361</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">A. G., <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Adlersparre, George, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Admiral, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">State, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Adolphus Frederic of Sweden, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317-320</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Adolphus John, Duke, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Adrianople, <a href="#Page_297">297-298</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Africa, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aftonbladet, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Agardh, J. G., <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Agne, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Agnefit, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Agriculture. See <a href="#agriculture">Sweden</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ahlborn, Lea, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Ahlstroemer" id="Ahlstroemer">Ahlstrœmer</a>, John, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334-337</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Akerhielm, A. L. N., <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Akkershus, district of, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">fortress of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aland archipelago, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">peace deliberations at, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Albrecht the Elder, duke of Mecklenburg, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Younger, king of Sweden, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96-97</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alemannians, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alexander I. of Russia, <a href="#Page_357">357-358</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alexandra, princess of Russia, <a href="#Page_355">355-356</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alexandria, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alf, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alfred the Great, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alingsos, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334-337</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alliance, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Triple, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alliterative prose, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">verse, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Almlœf, N. V., <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Knut, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Almquist, C. J. L., <a href="#Page_388">388-389</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alnsnœ, meeting at, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alof, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alps, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alrek, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Altmark, armistice of, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Altona, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alt-Ranstædt, <a href="#Page_279">279-281</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">peace treaty signed at, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alvastra, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ambassadors, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Amber, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="America" id="America">America</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">South America, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">American Union of Swedish Singers, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Amsterdam, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anastasius, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anatomy, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">hall of, <a href="#Page_262">262-263</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anckarstrœm, J. J., <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[Pg 440]</a></span></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anckarsverd, C. H., <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anderberg, A. F., <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Andreae" id="Andreae">Andreæ</a>, Laurentius, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Andrée, S. A., <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Ane" id="Ane">Ane</a>, or Aune, King, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Angermanland, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Angermannus, Abraham, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anglii, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anglo-Saxon, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">See also <a href="#OE">Old English</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Angstrœm, A. J., <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anjala Conspiracy, <a href="#Page_348">348-349</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anne of England, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Annerstedt, P. S. L., <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ansgar, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53-55</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antiquarian, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">See also <a href="#Arcaeology">Archæology</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anund, Swedish kings: <a name="Broet_Anund" id="Broet_Anund">Brœt-Anund</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Anund, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="Anund_Jacob" id="Anund_Jacob">Anund, or Jacob</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62-63</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Apocalypse, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Apostles, Swedish, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53-55</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Apraxin, Admiral, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arabs, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arboga, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arboga articles, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arcana Cœlestia, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Archæan rocks, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Arcaeology" id="Arcaeology">Archæology</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423-424</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Archbishop, <a href="#Page_54">54-55</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266-267</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Architecture" id="Architecture">Architecture</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265-266</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302-303</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430-431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arctic explorations, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sea, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Stone Age, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ardan. See <a href="#Jordanes">Jordanes</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ardgard, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Argus, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Swedish, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristocracy, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238-239</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250-251</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristocratic republic, republicans, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">See also <a href="#higher">Nobility, higher</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arlberg, Fritz, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Armfelt: Charles Gustavus, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Gustavus Maurice, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Army. See <a href="#army">Sweden</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arnoldsson, Sigrid, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aros, East (see <a href="#Upsala">Upsala</a>).</li>
+<li class="isub1">Aros, West (see <a href="#Westeros">Westeros</a>).</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aryan race, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">See also <a href="#Indo_European">Indo-European</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Asa, Princess, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Asa creed, <a href="#Page_31">31-34</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Asia, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Askold, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aspeboda, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Astrology, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Astronomy, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Asund, Lake, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">battle of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Atland" id="Atland">Atland</a>, Atlantica, <a href="#Page_263">263-265</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Atlantis, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Atterbom, P. D. A., <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Atterdag. See <a href="#Atterdag">Valdemar</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Attundaland, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aude, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Audils" id="Audils">Audils</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37-38</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Auerbach, B., <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Augdof, fortress of, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Augsburgian Confession, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">August II., elector of Saxony and king of Poland, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277-279</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">August, Prince Nicolaus, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aulin, Tor, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aune. See <a href="#Ane">Ane</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Austria: Swedish empire in the Baltic provinces, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51-52</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Austria-Hungary, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Avignon, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Axelsson. See <a href="#Tott">Tott</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Axtorna, battle of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aztec, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+
+<li><h3>B</h3></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bade, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bagge, Jacob, <a href="#Page_164">164-166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bailiffs, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Baltic_dominion" id="Baltic_dominion">Baltic dominion</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51-52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Baltic_Provinces" id="Baltic_Provinces">Baltic Provinces</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198-199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291-292</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baltic Sea, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Ban" id="Ban">Ban</a>, Militia, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Papal, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Banér, Sten, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Anne, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Eric, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Gustavus, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Per, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">John, <a href="#Page_207">207-208</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222-225</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Banner of State, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Barangoi, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Barbro" id="Barbro">Barbro</a>, Stigsdotter, <a href="#Page_134">134-135</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bark-king, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[Pg 441]</a></span></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Barn-lock, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Barocco, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Barons, Baronies, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bastile, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bavaria, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beauharnais, Eugene, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beckstrom, Edward, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Behm, Sara, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bellman, C. M., <a href="#Page_345">345-346</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bells, revolt of. See <a href="#Bells">Revolts</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Belt, Lille, <a href="#Page_245">245-246</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Belt, Store, <a href="#Page_246">246-247</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bender, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="Kalabalik" id="Kalabalik">Kalabalik of</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Benedictine monastery, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bengt, Duke, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bengtsson, Jœns. See <a href="#Oxenstierna">Oxenstierna</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bentseby, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Benzelius" id="Benzelius">Benzelius</a>: Eric the Elder, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Eric the Younger, <a href="#Page_237">237</a> note, <a href="#Page_266">266-267</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Benzelstierna. See <a href="#Benzelius">Benzelius</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beowulf, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bergh, Richard, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bergman, T. O., <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bergstrœm, P. A., <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Berlin, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bernadotte, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="Prince_Oscar" id="Prince_Oscar">Prince Oscar</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">See also <a href="#Charles_XIV">Charles XIV</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bernard of Clairvaux, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Bernhard_Weimar" id="Bernhard_Weimar">Bernhard</a>, duke of Weimar, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bervald, F. N., <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Berzelius, J. J., <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beværingstid, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bible, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Gothic (see <a href="#Gothic_Bible">Gothic</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">translations of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bielke, Anna, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="Gunillan" id="Gunillan">Gunillan</a>, queen, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sten, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ture, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bielo-Jesero, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Biœrkœ, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Biœrn, Swedish kings, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Biorck, O., <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Biornstierna, M. F. F., <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Biornstrœm, F. J., <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Birger, Brosa, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Jarl, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78-83</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">King, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88-91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Persson, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Birgitta" id="Birgitta">Birgitta</a>, St., <a href="#Page_97">97-99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Birka, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Bishops" id="Bishops">Bishops</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112-113</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145-146</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bjœrnson, B., <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Black Death, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blanche, queen of Sweden and Norway, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blanche, August, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bleking, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blenda, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blomstrand, C. W., <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Blot_Sven" id="Blot_Sven">Blot-Sven</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blucher, General, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bo Jonsson. See <a href="#Grip">Grip</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Boccaccio, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bœclerus, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bœrhave, <a href="#Page_330">330-331</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bœrjesson, John, dramatist, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">John, sculptor, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bœttiger, C. V., <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bogesund, battle of, <a href="#Page_126">126-127</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bohemia, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bohus, fortress of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bohuslæn, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bologna, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bonaparte. See <a href="#Napoleon">Napoleon</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bonde, Charles Knutsson (see <a href="#Charles_VIII">Charles VIII</a>.);</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Tord, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Gustavus, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bonnier, Eva, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Borgannæs, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Boris of Russia, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bornhœved, battle of, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bornholm, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">naval battle of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bosphorus, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bosson, Nils. See <a href="#Nils_Bosson">Sture</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bostrœm, C. J., philosopher, <a href="#Page_411">411-412</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Botany" id="Botany">Botany</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331-333</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bothnia, Gulf of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bothnia, West, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bothniensis, N. O., <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Bottomless Purse,” <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Botvid, St., <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Boucher, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bourgeoisie. See <a href="#Burghers">Burghers</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Boye, L., <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brabant, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brage-bowl, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brahe, Joachim, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Peter, the Elder, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ebba, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Nils, the Elder, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Peter, the Younger, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Nils, the Younger, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Eric, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Magnus, <a href="#Page_374">374-375</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brahestad, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[Pg 442]</a></span></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Brandenburg" id="Brandenburg">Brandenburg</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Elector of, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Great Elector of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brandsœ, <a href="#Page_245">245-246</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brask, Bishop Hans, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Braun, V. A. D. von, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Braunsberg, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bravols, battle of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Breitenfeld, battles of. See <a href="#Leipsic">Leipsic</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bremen, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bremer, Frederica, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brenner, S. E., <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brennkyrka, battle of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bridget, St. See <a href="#Birgitta">Birgitta</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bring. See Lagerbring.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Britain, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">British Isles, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Museum, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brœmsebro, peace treaty at, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brœt-Anund. See <a href="#Broet_Anund">Anund</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bronitz, battle of, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bronze Age, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16-20</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brunbeck, battle of, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brunkeberg, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">battles of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buchow, naval battle of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buddenbrock, M. H., <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Budget. See <a href="#budget">Sweden</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buffon, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bureus, John, <a href="#Page_232">232-235</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Burghers" id="Burghers">Burghers</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Burislev, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Byzantium, Byzantine, <a href="#Page_22">22-23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+
+<li><h3>C</h3></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cabinet, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Swedish (see <a href="#cabinet"></a>Sweden).</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cadet School. See <a href="#Carlberg">Carlberg</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Calmar. See <a href="#Kalmar">Kalmar</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Caloric engine, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Calvinism, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Canute" id="Canute">Canute</a> the Great, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Caps,” <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Carelia" id="Carelia">Carelia</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Carin_Monsdotter" id="Carin_Monsdotter">Carin Monsdotter</a>, queen, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170-173</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carl. See <a href="#Charles">Charles</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Carlberg" id="Carlberg">Carlberg</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Carleby" id="Carleby">Carleby</a>, Old, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">New, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carlén, Emelie, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carlsborg, fortress of, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Carlscrona" id="Carlscrona">Carlscrona</a>, navy yards at, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Carlson" id="Carlson">Carlson</a>, F. F., <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ernest, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Carlstad" id="Carlstad">Carlstad</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carlsten, fortress of, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carnage of Stockholm, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carolin Institute, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cartesius. See <a href="#Descartes">Descartes</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Casijn, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Caspian Sea, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cassander, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Castellholm, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Castles, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Catechismus, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Catherine_Countess_Palatine" id="Catherine_Countess_Palatine">Catherine, Countess Palatine</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Catherine" id="Catherine">Catherine</a> (queens of Sweden), of Saxony-Lauenburg, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="Catherine_Stenbock" id="Catherine_Stenbock">Stenbock</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Monsdotter (see <a href="#Carin_Monsdotter">Carin Monsdotter</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="Jagello" id="Jagello">Jagello</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Catherine II. of Russia, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355-356</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Catholicism, Catholic, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182-184</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cavendish, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cederstrom, O. R., <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Gustavus, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Celibacy, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Celsius" id="Celsius">Celsius</a>, Andrew, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Olof, Senior, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Olof, Junior, <a href="#Page_333">333-334</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Celtic swords, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">tribes, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chambers (of the Riksdag), <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399-401</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Chancellor" id="Chancellor">Chancellor</a>, of State, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a> (see also <a href="#PotC">President of the Chancery</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">king’s, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the University, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Great (see <a href="#Axel_Oxenstierna">Axel Oxenstierna</a>).</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chancery, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="PotC" id="PotC">president of the</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Charles" id="Charles">Charles</a> (kings of Sweden): VII. Sverkersson, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="Charles_VIII" id="Charles_VIII">VIII</a>. Knutsson, <a href="#Page_108">108-114</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="Charles_IX" id="Charles_IX">IX</a>. <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170-174</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181-191</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">X. Gustavus, <a href="#Page_239">239-241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242-249</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">XI. <a href="#Page_249">249-268</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270-271</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">XII. <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268-309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[Pg 443]</a></span></li>
+<li class="isub1">XIII. <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365-374</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="Charles_XIV" id="Charles_XIV">XIV</a>. <a href="#Page_367">367-373</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374-380</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">XV. <a href="#Page_391">391-413</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Charles, Bishop, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Charles, Jarl, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Charles_Philip" id="Charles_Philip">Charles Philip</a>, son of Charles IX., <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Charles, son of Oscar II., <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Charles V., emperor, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Charles II. of England, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Charles_Chronicle" id="Charles_Chronicle">Charles’s Chronicle</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Charles Frederic of Holstein-Gottorp, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Charles Peter Ulric of Holstein-Gottorp, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chauvinism, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chemistry, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chemnitz, battle of, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chicago, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">China, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chodkiewitz, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Christerson, J. C. E., <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Christian" id="Christian">Christian</a> (kings of Denmark): I. <a href="#Page_111">111-113</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">II. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124-129</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">III. <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">IV. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196-198</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226-227</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">V. <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="Christian_VIII" id="Christian_VIII">VIII</a>. <a href="#Page_371">371-373</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">IX. <a href="#Page_403">403-404</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Christian August (Charles A.), Prince, <a href="#Page_365">365-367</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Christian Frederic, Prince. See <a href="#Christian_VIII">Christian VIII</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Christiania, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Christianity, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">influence of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">introduction of, <a href="#Page_53">53-55</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">opposition to, <a href="#Page_58">58-61</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Christianopel, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Christine" id="Christine">Christine</a> (queens of Sweden), <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220-241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Christine of Denmark, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Christine of Hesse, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164-165</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Christinehamn, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Christopher" id="Christopher">Christopher</a>, kings of Denmark, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, and of Sweden, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Christopher’s, King, Land Law. See <a href="#state_law">Sweden, State Law</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chronica regni gothorum, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chronicles, <a name="Prose_Chronicle" id="Prose_Chronicle">prose</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">rhymed, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Church, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174-176</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">law, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">See also <a href="#Clergy">Clergy</a>, <a href="#Bishops">Bishops</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cimbrian Peninsula, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">See also <a href="#Jutland">Jutland</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cincinnatus, Order of, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cistercians, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Civil service, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clary. See <a href="#Desideria">Queen Desideria</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clason, I. G., <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Clergy" id="Clergy">Clergy</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145-146</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398-399</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Codania, Codanian Bay, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Codex_Argenteus" id="Codex_Argenteus">Codex Argenteus</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235-238</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Bildstenianus, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Bureanus, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coffee prohibited, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coins, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of need, <a href="#Page_301">301-302</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Collard, Claude, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colleges, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Collegia, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a> note.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cologne, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a href="#colonies">Colonies</a>, <a href="#commerce">Commerce</a>, <a href="#communities">Communities</a>, <a href="#constitution">Constitution</a>. See Sweden.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Constantine_Porphyrogenitus" id="Constantine_Porphyrogenitus">Constantine Porphyrogenitus</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Constantinople, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Continent. See <a href="#Europe">Europe</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Copenhagen, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">siege of, <a href="#Page_247">247-248</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">peace treaty of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Corvey, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cossacks, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Council, Councillors, State (or royal), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292-293</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344-345</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Council, Town, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Councillor of Commerce, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Counties, counts, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Courland, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cracow, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Creutz, G. P., <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Croats, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Croi, Duke de, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cronhamn, J. P., <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cronstedt, Charles, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Olof, <a href="#Page_359">359-360</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crown prince, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Crown_lands" id="Crown_lands">Crown lands</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="Crown_lands_restitution" id="Crown_lands_restitution">restitution</a> of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256-258</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crusades, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crusell, B. F., <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[Pg 444]</a></span></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crusenstolpe, M. J., <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cuno, John C., <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Czar (see <a href="#Russia">Russia</a>), Czarina, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Czarniecki, Stefan, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+
+<li><h3>D</h3></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dacke “Feud,” <a href="#Page_150">150-151</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dacke, Nils, <a href="#Page_150">150-151</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dag, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dahlberg, Eric, <a href="#Page_245">245-246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265-266</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dahlgren, Frederic Aug., <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dahlquist, C. G., <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dal, province of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">River, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dalecarlia, Dalecarlians, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133-139</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dalin, O. von, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337-339</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dædalus Hyperboreus, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Daljunker,” <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dalman, V. F., <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Danckwardt, Henric, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Danes, Danish. See <a href="#Denmark">Denmark</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Danielsson, A., <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dannebrog, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dantzic, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Danube, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">David, St., <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dearth, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Decamerone, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">De Geer. See <a href="#Geer">Geer</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">De la Gardie. See <a href="#Gardie">Gardie</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Delaware River, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Democracy, Democratic, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Demotika, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Denmark" id="Denmark">Denmark</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56-57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126-127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195-198</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226-228</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245-248</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253-255</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273-274</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295-296</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348-349</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371-373</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385-386</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dennewitz, battle of, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Descartes" id="Descartes">Descartes</a>, René, <a href="#Page_240">240-241</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Desideria" id="Desideria">Desideria</a>, Queen, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Diderot, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Diet, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">See also <a href="#Riksdag">Riksdag</a> and <a href="#Storthing">Norwegian Storthing</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dietriechson, Lorenz, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dilettantism, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dimitri, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">false Dimitris, <a href="#Page_187">187-188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Diplomacy, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dir, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dirschau, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ditmarschen, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dniepr River, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">cataracts of the, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dœbeln, G. C. von, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dœmitz, battle of, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dolmens, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Domalde, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Domar, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dorpat, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">University of (see <a href="#Universities">Universities</a>).</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dortrecht, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Douglas, L. V. A., <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Drama, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426-427</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431-432</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dramatic singers, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Drontheim, diocese or district of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Drotsete" id="Drotsete">Drotsete</a>, Drotset (Riks-), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Drottningholm, castle of, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Duchies, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185-186</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Duenamuende, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dufnæs, battle of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">D’Uncker, C. H. L., <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dusseldorf School, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dutch, Dutchman. See <a href="#Holland">Holland</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dvina, crossing of the, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dygve, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+
+<li><h3>E</h3></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eadgils. See <a href="#Audils">Audils</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">East Gothland. See <a href="#Gothland">Gothland</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ebo, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ecclesiastics. See <a href="#Clergy">Clergy</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Edda, Eddic songs, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Snorre’s, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Edlund, Eric, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Edsœre laws, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Education, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eger, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[Pg 445]</a></span></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Egil, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Egino, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ehrenstrahl, D. K., <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">School of Painters, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ehrensverd, Augustinus, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ch. A., <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350-351</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eider, River, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eidsvold, meeting held at, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eka, Cecilia of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ekeberg, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elbing, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elective kingdom. See <a href="#Kingdom">Kingdom</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Electricity, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elfsborg, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">New, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elfsson, Swan, <a href="#Page_135">135-136</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elgaros, battle of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elisabeth of Russia, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elizabeth of England, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elmblad, Johannes, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elsass, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Elsinore" id="Elsinore">Elsinore</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Emigration, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432-433</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Emund, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Engelbrekt, Engelbrektsson, <a href="#Page_105">105-109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">song about, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">England, English, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306-307</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eric (Danish kings): Ejegod, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="Glipping" id="Glipping">Glipping</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Menved, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of Pomerania (see <a href="#Eric_XIII">Swedish King Eric XIII</a>.).</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eric, Norwegian Jarl, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eric (Swedish kings): <a href="#Page_36">36</a>; <a href="#Page_36">36-37</a>; <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Edmundsson, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Biœrnson Segersæl, <a href="#Page_55">55-57</a>; <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Arsæl, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">IX. (St. Eric), <a href="#Page_73">73-74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">X. <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">XI. <a href="#Page_77">77-79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">XII. <a href="#Page_94">94-95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="Eric_XIII" id="Eric_XIII">XIII</a>. <a href="#Page_101">101-110</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="Eric_XIV" id="Eric_XIV">XIV</a>. <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161-173</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eric (Swedish princes): Birgersson, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Magnusson, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89-92</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Valdemarsson, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Erics_Chronicle" id="Erics_Chronicle">Eric’s Chronicle</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ericson, J. E., <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ericsson, <a name="Joesse" id="Joesse">Jœsse</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">John, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Nils, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Christian, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eriksgata, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Erimbert, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eskil, St., <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eskil’s apartments, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Essen, H. H. von, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Estates" id="Estates">Estates</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204-205</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398-399</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Esthonia, Esthonians, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307-312</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ethnography, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ettak, battle of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eugene, Prince of Sweden, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eugenie, Princess, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Euphemia, Princess, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Europe" id="Europe">Europe</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Expositions, Scandinavian, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">World’s, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eyfórr, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eystein, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li><h3>F</h3></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fahlbeck, P., <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Falkœping, battle of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fallstedt, I., <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Falster, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Falun, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Father, The,” <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Father of Swedish Industry, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fehrbellin, battle of, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Femern, naval battles of, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ferdinand (emperors): II. <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">III. <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fero Islands, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fersen, Axel von, the Elder, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Younger, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366-367</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Feudalism, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Feud of the Counts, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fiedrundaland, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fiefs, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Finance. See <a href="#finance">Sweden</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fine Arts, Philosophy of, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Finland" id="Finland">Finland</a>, Finns, Finnish, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357-364</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412-413</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">language, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Finnmark, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Finn woods, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[Pg 446]</a></span></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fiolner, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fleming, Clas Ericsson, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Clas Larsson, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Herman, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flemish art, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flensburg, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flower king of the North, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fogelberg, B. E., <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fogel Grip, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fogelwick, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Folk lore, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Folksriksdag, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Folkungs, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Folkung dynasty, <a href="#Page_80">80-99</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Forsberg, Nils, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">France, French, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Franciscan, convent, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Church (see <a href="#Riddarholms_Church">Riddarholm’s Church</a>).</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Francke, A. H., <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Franconia, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Franco-Prussian War, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frankfurt, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Franks, Frankish, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frantz, Albrecht, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Franz Joseph’s Land, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Franzén, F. M., <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frederic I. of Sweden, <a href="#Page_312">312-317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frederic (kings of Denmark): I. <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">II. <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">III. <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">IV. <a href="#Page_273">273-274</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">V. <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">VI. <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">VII. <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frederic of Augustenborg, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frederic, crown prince of Denmark, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frederic of Holstein, <a href="#Page_272">272-274</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frederic of the Palatinate, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frederic (kings of Prussia): I. <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">II. (the Great), <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frederic William, the Grand Elector. See <a href="#Brandenburg">Brandenburg</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frederica, Queen, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fredericia, fortress of, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fredericshall, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fredericshamn, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">peace treaty at, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fredericstad, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fredericsten, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fredkulla. See <a href="#Margaret_Fredkulla">Margaret</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fredman, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Free trade, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407-408</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Freinshemius, John, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frey, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Friedland. See <a href="#Wallenstein">Wallenstein</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fries, Elias, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frithiof’s Saga, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frode (Danish kings): <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frœding, Gustaf, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Funen, island of, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fuxerna, battles of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fyris, River, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fyrisvols, battles of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li><h3>G</h3></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gad, Dr. Heming, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gadebush, battle of, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gagarin, governor, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gallia, Gallic, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gardarike, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Gardie" id="Gardie">Gardie</a>, Pontus de la, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Jacob, <a href="#Page_187">187-188</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198-199</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Magnus Gabriel, <a href="#Page_234">234-235</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gautland. See <a href="#Gothaland">Gothaland</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Gauts" id="Gauts">Gauts</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Gauzbert" id="Gauzbert">Gauzbert</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Geátas, <a href="#Page_30">30-31</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Geer" id="Geer">Geer</a>, Louis de, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226-227</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Louis, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gefle, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gegerfelt, K. F. von, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">William, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Geijer, Eric Gustavus, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Geijerstam, Gustaf of, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Geirthiof, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gellandri, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gellivara, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gemauerthoff, battle of, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Geology, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">George I. of England, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">George Sand, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gepidæ, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gerhard, Count of Holstein, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Germania, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Germans, Germany, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385-386</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401-405</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414-418</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">emperor, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[Pg 447]</a></span> <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Order, <a href="#Page_162">162-163</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gestilren, battle of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gestrikland, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gibraltar of the North, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Giljam, G. F., <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gisslan. See Hostages.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Glaciers, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Glipping. See <a href="#Glipping">Eric (Danish kings)</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Glom River, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Glossarium sviogothicum, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Glucksburg, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gluntarne, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Goertz, G. H., <a href="#Page_301">301-302</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306-307</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gœtar. See <a href="#Gauts">Gauts</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gold finds, <a href="#Page_22">22-23</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Golumbo, battle of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gospel, <a href="#Page_53">53-55</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Gotha_Canal" id="Gotha_Canal">Gotha Canal</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305-306</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375-376</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gotha River, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gothahamn, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Gothaland" id="Gothaland">Gothaland</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gothenburg, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gothenburg University. See <a href="#Universities">Universities</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Gothland" id="Gothland">Gothland</a>, East, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">West, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Island of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Goths, of Continental Europe, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235-236</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of Sweden (see <a href="#Gauts">Gauts</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">Teutons, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">East, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">West, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gothic, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="Gothic_Bible" id="Gothic_Bible">Bible</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> (see further <a href="#Codex_Argenteus">Codex Argenteus</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">invasions, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">language, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237-238</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">society, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">glossary, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gothic law, West, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gotland, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gottorp. See <a href="#Holstein_Gottorp">Holstein-Gottorp</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Government. See <a href="#government">Sweden</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Governor, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Governor-general, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of Norway, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394-395</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418-419</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Grabow" id="Grabow">Grabow</a>, Mathilde, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grammar, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Greece, Greek, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">myths, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">church, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gregory, VII. <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">IX. <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grimm’s law, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grimsted, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Grip" id="Grip">Grip</a>, Bo Jonsson, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gripenstedt, J. A., <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gripsholm, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grossbeeren, battle of, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grubbe, Sam, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guadeloupe, island of, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gualther, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gude, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gudlaug, <a href="#Page_36">36-37</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guinea, African, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gullberg, fort of, <a href="#Page_196">196-197</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gullbrandson, Ellen, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gunilla, Queen. See <a href="#Gunillan">Bielke</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gurzo, battle of, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gustavian period, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343-364</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gustavus, Adolphus Society, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gustavus (kings of Sweden): <a name="Gustavus_I" id="Gustavus_I">I</a>. Vasa, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130-160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="Gustavus_II_Adolphus" id="Gustavus_II_Adolphus">II. Adolphus</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192-219</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">III. <a href="#Page_319">319-320</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343-353</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">IV. Adolphus, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353-362</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gustavus (princes of Sweden): Ericsson (see <a href="#Gustavus_Ericsson">Vasa</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">Prince of Vasa, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Frans G. Oscar, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Oscar G. Adolphus, crown prince, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guta, Saga, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gutai, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gutnic, Guts, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gutorm, Jarl, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guttones, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gyldén, J. A. H., <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gyldenlœve, general, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">fort of, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gyllenborg, Charles, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">G. F., <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gyllencreutz, Charles G., <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gyllenhielm, C. C., <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gyllenstierna, Christine, <a href="#Page_127">127-129</a>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[Pg 448]</a></span> <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">John, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gymnastics, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Central Institute of, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li>
+
+<li><h3>H</h3></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hadrian IV. See <a href="#Nicolaus">Nicolaus of Alba</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hæffner, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hagbard, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hagborg, A., <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hake, <a href="#Page_36">36-37</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hakon (Norwegian kings): <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Magnusson, <a href="#Page_94">94-95</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hakon, Swedish regent, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Halberstadt, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Haleygians, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hall, P. A., <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Halland, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hallén, Andreas, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hallstrœm, Ivar, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Peter, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Halmstad, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Halsten, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hamburg, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">peace treaty of, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hammarby, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Handbook. See <a href="#Ritual">Ritual</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hanover, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hans. See <a href="#John_II">John II</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hansa, Hanseatic, <a href="#Page_81">81-82</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hansson, Ola, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Haraker, battle of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Harald, king of Denmark, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Harald (kings of Norway): Fairhair, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hardrade, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Harald, Hildetand, king of Sweden and Denmark, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hare’s Leap, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hartekamp, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hartelius, T. J., <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hartmansdorff, J. A. von, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384-385</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hasselberg, Peter, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Hats,” political party, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Havamal, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Havel River, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Heathen Revival, <a href="#Page_59">59-61</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hedberg, Frans, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Thor, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hedenblad, Ivar, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hedenstierna, A., <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hedin, Sven, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hedlund, S. A., <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hans, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hedvig, queen of Denmark, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hedvig, Eleonore, of Sweden, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Elisabeth Charlotte, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hedvig, Sophie, Princess, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Heidenstam, V. von, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Heimskringla, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33-41</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Heinrich (the Lion), <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Heinsius, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Heir-apparent, <a href="#Page_316">316-317</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365-366</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Helga. See <a href="#Olga">Olga</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Helge. See <a href="#Oleg">Oleg</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Helge, Danish king, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hellquist, C. G., <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Helsingborg, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">battle of, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Helsingfors, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">battle of, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">University of (see <a href="#Universities">Universities</a>).</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Helsingland, Helsings, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">regiment of, <a href="#Page_360">360-361</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Helsingœr. See <a href="#Elsinore">Elsinore</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Helvig, Queen, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Henric, St., <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Herger, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Herjedal, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Herredag (-ar), <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Herschel, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Herulians, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hervadsbro, battle of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hesse, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hessleholm, battle of, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Heterodoxy, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hielmar Lake, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hierta: Hans (see <a href="#Jaerta">Jærta</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lars, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hildebrand, Hans, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hildebrandsson, H. H., <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hillberg, Emil, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hillestrœm, Peter, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hiortsberg, L., <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hising, island of, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="History" id="History">History</a>, Historians, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24-32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33-34</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46-47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333-334</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337-339</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412-413</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hœckert, J. F., <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hœgquist, Emelie, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hœijer, B. C. H., <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hœjentorp, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hœjer, Nils, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Magnus, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[Pg 449]</a></span></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hœrberg, Peter, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hœrningsholm, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hofva, battle at, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hogland, naval battle at, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Holaveden (Holavid), battle at, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Holland" id="Holland">Holland</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236-237</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Holmfrid, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Holmgard, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Holmger, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Holmstrœm, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Holovzin, battle of, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Holstein, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">counts of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Holstein_Gottorp" id="Holstein_Gottorp">Holstein-Gottorp</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Holy Alliance, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Holy Virgin, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Horn: Clas Kristersson, Baron, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167-168</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Henric, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Evert, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Gustavus, <a href="#Page_207">207-208</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221-222</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Arvid Bernhard, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310-311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312-316</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Rudolph, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Jacob, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hotuna, play at, <a href="#Page_90">90-91</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hoya, counts of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Huet, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Hugleik" id="Hugleik">Hugleik</a> (O. E. Hygelâc): Swedish king, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Danish king, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Humor, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hungary, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Husaby, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hvasser, Elisa, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hvin. See Tiodolf.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hygelâc. See <a href="#Hugleik">Hugleik</a>.</li>
+
+<li><h3>I</h3></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Iaroslaf" id="Iaroslaf">Iaroslaf</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ibn, Fosslan, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ibsen, H., <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Iceland, Icelanders, Icelandic, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60-61</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">language, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">sagas, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">scalds, saga men, <a href="#Page_60">60-61</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Iddefjord, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ifvarsson, Charles, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Igor" id="Igor">Igor</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ihre, John, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339-342</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Illrade. See <a href="#Ingiald">Ingiald</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Imperial army: Imperialists, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">crown lands, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Imports. See <a href="#exports_imports">Sweden</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Indelningsverk, Indelta, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Indensalmi, battle of, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Indians, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Indo_European" id="Indo_European">Indo-European</a> language, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Industry, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Inge (Swedish kings): the Elder, <a href="#Page_68">68-70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Younger, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ingeborg, duchesses, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">princesses, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ingegerd, Princess, <a href="#Page_61">61-62</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Queen, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ingemar, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Ingermanland" id="Ingermanland">Ingermanland</a> (Ingria), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Ingiald" id="Ingiald">Ingiald</a>, Illrade, <a href="#Page_39">39-40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ingria. See <a href="#Ingermanland">Ingermanland</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ingvar. See <a href="#Igor">Igor</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Innocent III., <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Intelligence_party" id="Intelligence_party">Intelligence party</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Interchanging dynasties, <a href="#Page_74">74-79</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Interdict. See <a href="#Ban">Ban</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Iron Age, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20-24</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Isala, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Isborsk, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Isiaslaf, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Italy, Italians, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ivar, Master, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ivar, Vidfamne, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ivarsson, Ivar, of Strœmstad, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li><h3>J</h3></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jacob. See <a href="#Anund_Jacob">Anund Jacob</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jacobi, Petrus. See <a href="#Sunnanaeder">Sunnanvæder</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jægerhorn, G. H., <a href="#Page_359">359-360</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">J. A., <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Jaerta" id="Jaerta">Jærta</a>, Hans, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jagello. See <a href="#Jagello">Catherine</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jankowitz, battle of, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jansson, Eugene, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Japhet, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jarl, jarls, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57-58</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the realm, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jaroslaf. See <a href="#Iaroslaf">Iaroslaf</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jedvard, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jemtland, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jesuits, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jœnkœping, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jœns, Bengtsson. See <a href="#Oxenstierna">Oxenstierna</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jœsse, Ericsson. See <a href="#Joesse">Ericsson</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[Pg 450]</a></span></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Johannes, Magni (Johannes Magnus), <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142-143</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">John, archbishop, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="John_duke" id="John_duke">duke</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">prince, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">John (kings): I. <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="John_II" id="John_II">II. Hans</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119-120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130-131</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="John_III" id="John_III">III</a>. <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170-172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173-176</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">John, Casimir, count of Palatinate-Zweibrucken, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">John, Casimir, king of Poland. See <a href="#John_Casimir">Vasa</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jolin, J. C., <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jomsborg, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Jordanes" id="Jordanes">Jordanes</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jornandes. See <a href="#Jordanes">Jordanes</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jorsalafare. See <a href="#Sigurd">Sigurd</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jorund, <a href="#Page_36">36-37</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Josephine, Queen, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Josephsson, J. A., <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ernst, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Juel, Niels, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jueterbogk, battle of, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Junius, Franziskus, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Justinian, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Jutland" id="Jutland">Jutland</a>, Jutes, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Juutas, battle of, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
+
+<li><h3>K</h3></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kæpplingeholm, Massacre of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kagg, Lars, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kalabalik of Bender. See <a href="#Kalabalik">Bender</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kallœ, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Kalmar" id="Kalmar">Kalmar</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Nyckel, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Recess of, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Union of (see <a href="#Union">Union</a>).</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kalmucks, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kamenski, M. K., <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kansler. See <a href="#Chancellor">Chancellor</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kant, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Karelen. See <a href="#Carelia">Carelia</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Karin. See <a href="#Carin_Monsdotter">Carin</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Karl. See <a href="#Charles">Charles</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Karlberg. See <a href="#Carlberg">Carlberg</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Karleby, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">see also <a href="#Carleby">Carleby</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Karlskrona. See <a href="#Carlscrona">Carlskrona</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Karlson, Valfried, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Karlsson. See <a href="#Carlson">Carlson</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Karlstad. See <a href="#Carlstad">Carlstad</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kasan, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Katarina. See <a href="#Catherine">Catherine</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Keksholm. See <a href="#Kexholm">Kexholm</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kellgren, J. H., <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kerkholm, battle at, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kettilmundsson, Mattias, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Kettilsson" id="Kettilsson">Kettilsson</a>, Eric, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Kexholm" id="Kexholm">Kexholm</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Key, Emil, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">E. A. H., <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kief, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kiel, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Bay of (see <a href="#Skiel">Skiel</a>).</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kierulf, Halfdan, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Kingdom" id="Kingdom">Kingdom</a>, elective, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">hereditary, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“King Martha.” See <a href="#King_Martha">Leijonhufvud</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kjellberg, F., <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Klercker, Charles N., <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Klingspœ, W. M., <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Klusina, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Knaphœfde. See <a href="#Ragnvald">Ragnvald</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Knerœd, peace treaty of, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kniephausen, Dodo von, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Knights, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Knightly Chapter (see <a href="#Riddarhus">Riddarhus</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">orders, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Knorring, Sophie von, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Knud. See <a href="#Canute">Canute</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Knut (Swedish kings), Ericsson, <a href="#Page_74">74-76</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Tall, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Knut, Folkung, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Bishop, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Master, <a href="#Page_141">141-143</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Koch, Axel, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kœnigsmarck, von, H. C., <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">O. W., <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kœping, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kœrling, Aug., <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kol, king (Eric Arsæl), <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">pretender, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kolbrænna. See <a href="#Anund_Jacob">Anund Jacob</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kollandsœ, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kommunalstæmmor, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Konghæll, Kungkæll, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Konungafrid, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kopparberg, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Krakow, Morton, <a href="#Page_196">196-197</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kreuger, Nils, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kristian, Kristiern. See <a href="#Christian">Christian</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kristina. See <a href="#Christine">Christine</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kristofer. See <a href="#Christopher">Christopher</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Krivitchi, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kronberg, Julius, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kronborg, fortress of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Krusenstierna, J. E. von, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kyrkomœtet, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li>
+
+<li><h3>L</h3></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Laaland, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Labor question, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[Pg 451]</a></span></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lacroze, M., <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ladoga, Lake, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ladugardsland, battle of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ladulas (Barn-lock). See <a href="#Ladulas">Magnus</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Læn, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lagerbielke, Gustavus, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lagerlœf, Selma, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Laholm, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lallerstedt, E., <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Landskrona (in Sweden), battle of, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">(in Finland), <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Landsting, <a href="#Page_395">395-396</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Landstorm, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Landtmanna party, <a href="#Page_407">407-408</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Landtmarskalk" id="Landtmarskalk">Landtmarskalk</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Landtværn, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lange, Lorenz, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Langeland, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Languedoc, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">La Place, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lapland, Lapmark, Laps, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">language, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">“Divine service in the Lapmark,” <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lappo, battle of, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lars. See <a href="#Laurentius">Laurentius</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Larsson, Thomas, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Liss Olof, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Marcus, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Carl, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Latin, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lauenburg, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Laurentius" id="Laurentius">Laurentius</a>. See <a href="#Andreae">Andreæ</a> and <a href="#Petri_Laurentius">Petri</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Laval, Gustavus de, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lavoisier, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Laws. See <a href="#legislation">Sweden</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">League, Catholic, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lech, battle of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leckœ, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leczinski (see <a href="#Stanislav">Stanislav</a>), <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leffler, A. M. (Mittag-), <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Anne Charlotte, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leibnitz, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leijonhufvud, <a href="#Page_282">282</a> note;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Margaret (see <a href="#Margaret_Leijonhufvud">Margaret, queens of Sweden</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">Martha (<a name="King_Martha" id="King_Martha">King Martha</a>), <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sten, baron, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Leipsic" id="Leipsic">Leipsic</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">first battle of, <a href="#Page_206">206-209</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">second battle of, <a href="#Page_225">225-226</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leire, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lena, battle of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lenæus, J., <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lenngren, Anne Marie, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leonidas, the Swedish, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leopold, C. G., <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leopold I., emperor (1640-1705), <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leuchtenberg, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Levertin, Oscar, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lewenhaupt, <a href="#Page_282">282</a> note;</li>
+<li class="isub1">A. L., <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285-287</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">C. E., <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leyden, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Libau, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Liberty, song of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">period of, <a href="#Page_310">310-342</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320-321</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Libraries, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lidner, Bengt, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Liesna, battle of, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Liewen, H. H. von, <a href="#Page_298">298-299</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Liljefors, Bruno, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lind, Jenny, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lindberg, A., <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lindblad, A. F., <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Otto, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lindeberg, A., <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Linden, Mathilde, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lindholm (-en) in Scania, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Upland, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lindskiold, E., <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ling, P. H., <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Linkœping, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">conference at, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Linnæus (von Linné), Charles, <a href="#Page_327">327-333</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Literature. See <a href="#literature">Sweden</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lithuania, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Liturgia, <a href="#Page_175">175-176</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Liuksiala, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Livonia, Livonians, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290-291</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lober Brook, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Loccenius, John, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Locke, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lodbrok. See <a href="#Ragnar">Ragnar</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lœdœse, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">New, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">London, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Longobardians, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lord, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lothringia, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Louis le Débonnaire (the Pious), <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">XIV. <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254-255</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">XVI. <a href="#Page_351">351-352</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Louise" id="Louise">Louise</a>, Princess, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Queen, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Louise Ulrica, Queen, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lovisa. See <a href="#Louise">Louise</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[Pg 452]</a></span></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lubeck, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lubetch, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lucidor, Lasse (Johansson), <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ludvig Rudolph of Brunswick, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Luitprand, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lulea, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lund, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">battle of, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">peace treaty at, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">University of (see <a href="#Universities">Universities</a>).</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lundberg, Gustavus, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Theodor, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lundquist, C. F., <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Luther, Lutheran, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lutzen, battle of, <a href="#Page_213">213-219</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">battlefield of, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lybecker, George, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lymphatic ducts, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+
+<li><h3>M</h3></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Machiavelli, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mæcenas of Sweden, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mælar, Lake, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Magdeburg, <a href="#Page_205">205-206</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Magnetism, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Magnus (Danish princes): M. Nilsson, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">M. Henricsson, <a href="#Page_72">72-74</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Magnus, Bishop, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Magnus (kings of Norway): M. Barfod, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">M. Lagabœte, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Magnus (kings of Sweden): M. <a name="Ladulas" id="Ladulas">Ladulas</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82-88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">M. Ericsson, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92-95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Magnus (princes of Sweden): Magnus Birgersson, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="Magnus_Vasa" id="Magnus_Vasa">M. Vasa</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163-164</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Magog, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Main, River, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Malaspina, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Malebranche, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Malmstrœm, B. E., <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Malmœ, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Manderstrœm, Count, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Manheim. See <a href="#Atland">Atland</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Margaret, missionary to the Laps, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Margaret_Fredkulla" id="Margaret_Fredkulla">Margaret Fredkulla</a>, Princess, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Margaret (queens of Sweden), <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Valdemarsdotter, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100-105</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="Margaret_Leijonhufvud" id="Margaret_Leijonhufvud">Leijonhufvud</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Margaret of Valois, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maria, queen of Sweden, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marie Antoinette, Queen, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marie Eleonore, Queen, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mariefred, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mariestad, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marlborough, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marnæs, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mars, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Marsk" id="Marsk">Marsk</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Martha, Dame, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Massilia, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Master Olf,” <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Masudi, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Matchless, The, <a href="#Page_165">165-166</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Materialism, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Matérn, J. A., <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mathematics, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mattias, Bishop, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maximilian of Bavaria, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mayence, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mazarin, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mazeppa, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mechtild, Danish queen, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mecklenburg, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Medelpad, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mediæval. See <a href="#Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Medical science, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Meibom, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Melanchthon, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Melen, Berndt von, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Memel, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mendelssohn, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Menuet, Peter, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Meri, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Messenius, John, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Arnold J., <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Arnold, the Younger, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Metals, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mexico, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Michaëli, Louise, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Middle_Ages" id="Middle_Ages"></a>Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64-129</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Midsummer, Midnight, sun, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Miklagard, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mines, miners, mine owners, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200-201</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Mining, College of, <a href="#Page_304">304-305</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ministers, church, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="Ministers_state" id="Ministers_state">state</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[Pg 453]</a></span> (secretary), <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of foreign affairs, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of justice, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of finance, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of ecclesiastics, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of war, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of civil service, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of marine, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of interior, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Missionaries, <a href="#Page_53">53-55</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mitan, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mœrner, Otto, <a href="#Page_367">367-368</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mohilev, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Molin, Ambjœrn, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">J. P., <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Monitor, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Monrad, D. G., <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mons Bengtsson. See <a href="#Mons_Bengtsson">Natt och Dag</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Montelius, Oscar, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mora, in Dalecarlia, <a href="#Page_136">136-138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Stone of, in Upland, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Moravia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Moræus, Maria Elis, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Moscow, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Moss, Convention of, <a href="#Page_372">372-373</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Motzfeldt, K., <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Muller, J. B., <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Munck, Lady Ebba, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Munich School of Painters, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Muonio, River, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Music" id="Music">Music</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389-390</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">national folk, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mutiny, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mysticism, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mythology, classical, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Swedish (see <a href="#mythology">Sweden</a>).</li>
+
+<li><h3>N</h3></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nakskov, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Namur, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Napoleon" id="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> I., <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369-371</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Napoleon III., <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Narva, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">battle of, <a href="#Page_274">274-277</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">river, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nassau, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nathorst, H. O., <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">A. C., <a href="#Page_424">424</a> note.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Natt och Dag, <a name="Mons_Bengtsson" id="Mons_Bengtsson">Mons Bengtsson</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Nils Bosson (see <a href="#Nils_Bosson">Sture</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ake Hansson, <a href="#Page_122">122</a> (see also <a href="#Sture">Sture</a>).</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nerigon, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nerike, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nerschinsk, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nestor, <a href="#Page_46">46-47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Netherlands, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Neva, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">New Church, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">New Rhymed Chronicle. See <a href="#Charles_Chronicle">Charles Chronicle</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">New School, <a href="#Page_380">380-381</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Newton, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nicholaus II. of Russia, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Nicolaus" id="Nicolaus">Nicolaus of Alba</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nils Bosson (Natt och Dag). See <a href="#Nils_Bosson">Sture</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nils, king of Denmark, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nilsson, Mons, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sven, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Christine, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nimwegen, peace treaty of, <a href="#Page_254">254-255</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Niord, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nithard, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nobel, Alfred, <a href="#Page_425">425-426</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nobility, Nobles, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="higher" id="higher">higher</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256-257</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">lower, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>,</li>
+<li class="isub1">speaker of (see <a href="#Landtmarskalk">Landtmarskalk</a>).</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nœrdlingen, battle of, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nœteborg, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Norcopensis. See <a href="#Nordenhielm">Nordenhielm</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nordanskogs, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nordberg, G., <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nordblom, J. E., <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nordenflycht, Hedvig Charlotta, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Nordenhielm" id="Nordenhielm">Nordenhielm</a>, Andreas, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nordenskiold, Baron, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nordgren, Ellen, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nordraak, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nordstrœm, Charles, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Norman, Normandie, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Norman, Georg, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">F. V. L., <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Norén, Adolph, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Norrby, Sœren, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Norrkœping, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Norrland, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">North, the Scandinavian, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[Pg 454]</a></span></li>
+
+<li class="indx">North Pole, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">North Sea, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">North Star, Order of the, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Northeast Passage, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Northern language, common, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">oldest form, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">tribes, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">industrial arts, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">literature, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Northmen, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Norway, Norwegians, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166-167</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371-374</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393-395</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418-421</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">governor-general question, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393-395</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418-419</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">constitution, <a href="#Page_373">373-374</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">cabinet, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394-395</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">consular and diplomatic service, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">defence, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">flag, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">culture, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">government, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">king, <a href="#Page_373">373-374</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Minister of State, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">railways, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">royal title, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="Storthing" id="Storthing">Storthing</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393-394</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425-426</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">viceroy, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Novgorod, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nuremberg, <a href="#Page_211">211-212</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nurmanni, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nykœping, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Feast of, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Restitution of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nyslott, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nystrœm, Alfred, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
+
+<li><h3>O</h3></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oder, River, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Odin, <a href="#Page_31">31-32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Œdman, A., <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Œland, island of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">naval battles of, <a href="#Page_165">165-166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167-168</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Œrbyhus, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Œrebro, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Œsel, island of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Œstberg, Caroline, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Œsterlind, A., <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ohio, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ôhthere. See <a href="#Ottar">Ottar</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Olaf (Norwegian kings) Tryggvasson, <a href="#Page_57">57-58</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Haraldsson, <a href="#Page_61">61-62</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hakonsson, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Olai, Ericus, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Olaus, Petri (Master Olof). See <a href="#Olaus_Petri">Petri</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oldenburg, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">counts of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Old Chronicle. See <a href="#Erics_Chronicle">Eric’s Chronicle</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Old Danish, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="OE" id="OE">Old English</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Old High German, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Old Icelandic. See <a href="#Old_Norse">Old Norse</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Old_Norse" id="Old_Norse">Old Norse</a> language, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">literature, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">mythology, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Old Swedish language, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">literature, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66-67</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">laws, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66-67</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Oleg" id="Oleg">Oleg</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Olga" id="Olga">Olga</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oligarchy, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oliva, peace treaty of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Olof (Swedish kings), <a href="#Page_40">40-41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Skœtkonung, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57-62</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Næskonung, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Olsson, Lars, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Olustra, battle of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Opposition, Conservative, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Liberal, <a href="#Page_376">376-378</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">See also <a href="#Intelligence_party">Intelligence Party</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Orange, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oravais, battle of, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360-362</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ordeals, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Orientalists, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ornæs, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Orosius, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oscar Fredericsborg, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oscar (kings of Sweden): I. <a href="#Page_382">382-390</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">II. <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414-438</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oscar, Prince. See <a href="#Prince_Oscar">Bernadotte</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oslo, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Ottar" id="Ottar">Ottar</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37-38</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Otto, Bishop, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Oxenstierna" id="Oxenstierna">Oxenstierna</a>, Jœns Bengtsson, <a href="#Page_112">112-113</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="Axel_Oxenstierna" id="Axel_Oxenstierna">Axel</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220-221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">John, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Bengt, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">John Gabriel, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Oxford, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li>
+
+<li><h3>P</h3></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Palæolithic Civilization, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Palatinate-Zweibrucken, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[Pg 455]</a></span></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pappenheim, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207-209</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217-218</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Paris, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">expositions, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">peace treaties, <a href="#Page_362">362-363</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">University, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Parliament" id="Parliament">Parliament</a>, Parliamentary Reform, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384-385</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396-401</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Passage-graves, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Patkul, J. R., <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Patriotism, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pau, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pauli, Emerentia, <a href="#Page_196">196-197</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">George, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hanna (Hirsch-P.), <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peasant. See <a href="#Yeoman">Yeoman</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peasant High Schools, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peasant-king, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peene, River, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peipus, Lake, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pentinger, Konrad, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peringskiold, John, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pernau, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Person, Andrew, <a href="#Page_133">133-134</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Arendt, <a href="#Page_134">134-135</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Gœran, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peru, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peter Frisk, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peter’s Pence, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peter the Great, <a href="#Page_272">272-273</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peterson, Adrian, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Petri, <a name="Olaus_Petri" id="Olaus_Petri">Olaus</a> (Master Olof), <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="Petri_Laurentius" id="Petri_Laurentius">Laurentius</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Laurentius P. Gothus, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philadelphia Exposition, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philip, king, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Folkung, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Duke (see <a href="#Charles_Philip">Charles, Princes of Sweden</a>).</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philipstad, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Philology" id="Philology">Philology</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339-342</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Philosophy" id="Philosophy">Philosophy</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240-241</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411-412</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phosphoristic School, <a href="#Page_380">380-381</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Physical science, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324-325</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Physiology, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Piccolomini, General, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pillau, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Piper, Charles, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Louise Sophie, <a href="#Page_366">366-367</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pitea, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Plague, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Platen, Baltzar B. von, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Plato, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pliny, the Elder, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Poland, Polish, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243-245</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278-279</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Polar Circle, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sea, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Polhammar. See <a href="#Polhem">Polhem</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Polhem" id="Polhem">Polhem</a>, Christopher, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304-306</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Emerentia, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Poliané, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Polotsk, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pomerania, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294-295</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pomponius Mela, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ponte Corvo, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pope, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97-98</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Porosalmie, battle of, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Porphyrogenitus. See <a href="#Constantine_Porphyrogenitus">Constantine P</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Portugal, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Posse, Knut, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Arvid, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Potatoes, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Powers, Continental, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Prague, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Press, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376-377</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">law, <a href="#Page_434">434-435</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pretenders, <a href="#Page_55">55-56</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187-188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Priestley, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Priests, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Primas of Sweden, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Printz, John, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Prisons, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Prokopios, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Propeller, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Prose Chronicle. See <a href="#Prose_Chronicle">Chronicle</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Protective system, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">protectionistic party, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Protestantism, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182-184</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281-282</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Province, Provincial, <a href="#Page_5">5-6</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64-65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">laws (see <a href="#provincial_laws">Sweden</a>).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[Pg 456]</a></span></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Prussia, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385-386</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pruth, River, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pskof, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ptolemy, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pufendorff, S., <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Puke, Eric Kettilsson (see <a href="#Kettilsson"></a>Kettilsson);</li>
+<li class="isub1">Eric (Nilsson), <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pulkkila, battle of, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pultowa, battle of, <a href="#Page_285">285-286</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pyk, Louise, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pyteas, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+
+<li><h3>Q</h3></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Quaternary period, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Qvidinge, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
+
+<li><h3>R</h3></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ræfsnæs, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Ragnar" id="Ragnar"></a>Ragnar, Swedish king, <a href="#Page_41">41-42</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">R. <a name="Lodbrok" id="Lodbrok">Lodbrok</a>, sea-king, <a href="#Page_41">41-42</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Ragnvald" id="Ragnvald">Ragnvald</a>, jarl, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61-62</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">king, <a href="#Page_70">70-71</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">prince, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Railways. See <a href="#railways">Sweden</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ramberg, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rankhytta, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rantzau, Daniel, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">George, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rappe, A. E., <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Raseborg, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rashutt, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ratan, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ratenau, battle of, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ravius, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Realism, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426-427</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Reform Banquet, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Reform, Parliamentary. See <a href="#Parliament">Parliament</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Reformation, Reformers, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140-146</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">language, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Reformed Church, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Regensburg, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rehnskiold, C. G., <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285-286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Renaissance" id="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Swedish Castle, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Renat, J. G., <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Renata of Lothringia, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Restitution. See <a href="#Crown_lands">Crown Lands</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rettvik, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Reuterholm, G. A., <a href="#Page_353">353-356</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Reval, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Revolts, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107-108</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141-143</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146-151</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316-317</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of <a name="Bells" id="Bells">Bells</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148-149</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Revolution, French, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Swedish, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349-352</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rheims, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ribbing, P., <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Richelieu, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Riddarholms_Church" id="Riddarholms_Church">Riddarholm’s Church</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Riddarhus" id="Riddarhus">Riddarhus</a>, The, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ridderstad, C. F., <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Riga, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291-292</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rikissa, princess, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">queen, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Birgersdotter, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Riksdag" id="Riksdag">Riksdag</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183-184</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349-350</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356-857</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394-395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396-401</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407-411</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416-418</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">regulations of the, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Riksdrotset. See <a href="#Drotsete">Drotsete</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Riksmarsk. See <a href="#Marsk">Marsk</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rimbert, Archbishop, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ring (“Sigurd Ring”), <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Riswick, peace treaty of, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Ritual" id="Ritual">Ritual</a> and hymn-book, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rock-carvings, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rococo, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rœskilde, peace treaties of, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rolf Krake, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Romanticism (Neo-), <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380-381</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388-389</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rome, Roman, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rosen, von, <a href="#Page_282">282</a> note;</li>
+<li class="isub1">George von, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rosenblad, M., <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Roslagen, <a href="#Page_48">48-49</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Roslin, Alex., <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rosstjenst. See <a href="#Russtienst">Russtienst</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rostock, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rostof, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rothman, Dr., <a href="#Page_327">327-328</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Royal offices, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">sanctity, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">title, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[Pg 457]</a></span></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rud, Otto, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rudbeck, Olof, the Elder, <a href="#Page_261">261-265</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Olof, the Younger, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rudbeckius, J., <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ruden, Island of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rudenschiold, Madelaine, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rudolph, emperor, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rugen, Island, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ruhr, River, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Runeberg, J. L., <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Runes, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21-22</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Runius, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Runn, Lake, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ruotsi, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rurik, <a href="#Page_47">47-49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rus, Rûs, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Russia" id="Russia">Russia</a>, Russians, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46-52</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274-277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282-287</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291-292</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348-349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350-351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357-362</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387-388</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">captivity, <a href="#Page_287">287-289</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">language, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">names, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Russtienst" id="Russtienst">Russtienst</a>, Rusttjenst, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rydberg, Victor, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rydboholm, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rydelius, Andrew, <a href="#Page_337">337-338</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ryssby, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+
+<li><h3>S</h3></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sachsen (Saxony)-Lauenburg, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sæfstrom, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sætherbey, H., <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sætra, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Gallen, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Olaf, Order of, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Peter of Rome, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Petersburg, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Salvator, Order of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sala, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Salestad, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Salmasius, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Salmson, H., <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Salon, French, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Salvius, A., <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">San, River, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sandels, J. A., <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Saxo, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Saxons, Saxonland, Saxony, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206-208</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279-282</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scandia, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scandinavia, Scandinavian, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">languages, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">peninsula, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">policy, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402-406</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437-438</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">religion, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scandinavism, <a href="#Page_385">385-386</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scandza, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scania, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290-291</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scheele, C. W., <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schefferns, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schleswig, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schluesselburg, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schlyter, K. J., <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schœnstrœm, P., <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scholander, E. W., <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schools, school laws, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schueck, H., <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Schuisky" id="Schuisky">Schuisky</a>, Vassili, <a href="#Page_187">187-188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schwartz, Sophie, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schwedenstein, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schwerin, von W., <a href="#Page_360">360-361</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">F. B., <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scotland, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scylfingas. See <a href="#Skilfings">Skilfings</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Secret Committee, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Seeland, <a href="#Page_246">246-247</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sehlstedt, Elias, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Semiramis of the North, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Separator, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Seraphim, Order of the, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Seven Years’ War, of the North, <a href="#Page_164">164-168</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Continental, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Siberia, <a href="#Page_287">287-289</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sigfrid, St., <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Sigismund" id="Sigismund">Sigismund</a> of Sweden and Poland, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182-186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Signe, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Signjótr. See <a href="#Sineus">Sineus</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sigrid Storrada, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sigtuna, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sigurd, King, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Sigurd" id="Sigurd">Sigurd</a> Jorsalafare, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Siikajoki, battle of, <a href="#Page_358">358-359</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[Pg 458]</a></span></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Silesia, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281-282</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Siljan, Lake, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Simon. See <a href="#Gauzbert">Gauzbert</a> and <a href="#Stenfi">Stenfi</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Sineus" id="Sineus">Sineus</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sjœgren, Otto, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skara, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skee Finns, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skenninge Conference, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">meeting, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skerry fleet, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skialf, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Skiel" id="Skiel">Skiel</a> (Kiel), Bay of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Skilfings" id="Skilfings">Skilfings</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skjœldebrand, A. F., <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skokloster, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skytte, Johan, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Slavs, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47-50</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sloane, Hans, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Smaland, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Smith, S., <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Smolensk, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Snaphaner, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Snoilsky, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Snorre Sturleson, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Socialism, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sœderkœping, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sœderman, August, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sœdermanland, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sohlman, Aug., <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Soop, Eric, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sophia (queens of Sweden), <a href="#Page_81">81</a>; <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sophie Magdalene, queen of Sweden, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sound, the, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">naval battle of, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">South Company, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spain, Spanish, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sparre, P. G., <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sparrsætra, battle of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spectator, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spitzbergen, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sprengtporten, J. M., <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Squire, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stade, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stadsfullmægtige, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stæket, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stagnelius, E. J., <a href="#Page_380">380-381</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Stanislav" id="Stanislav">Stanislav</a> of Poland, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Starbæck, George, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Steam hose, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stedingk, C. von, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stefan, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stegeborg, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stellin, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stenbock (see <a href="#Catherine_Stenbock">Catherine, queens of Sweden</a>), Brita, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Gustavus, Baron, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Olof,<a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Eric, <a href="#Page_176">176-182</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Magdalen (see <a href="#Magdalen_Sture">Sture</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cecilia, <a href="#Page_178">178-180</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Beatrix, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Anne, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Gustavus, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Gustavus Otto, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Magnus, Count, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294-296</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Stenfi" id="Stenfi">Stenfi</a> (Stephan), <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stenhammar, W., <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stenkil, <a href="#Page_67">67-68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stensœ, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stephan of Poland, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Steuchius, Archbishop, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stiernhielm, Georg, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stiernhœk, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stiklastad, battle of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stobeus, Chilian. <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stockholm, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231-232</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Royal Palace, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">City University (see <a href="#Universities"></a>Universities);</li>
+<li class="isub1">Exchange, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Posten, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Royal Theatre, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stolarm, Arvid, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stolbova, peace treaty of, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stolhandske, Torsten, <a href="#Page_216">216-217</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stone Age, <a href="#Page_11">11-16</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">cists, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stongebro, battle of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Strahlenberg, J. von, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stralsund, siege of, <a href="#Page_299">299-300</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Strandberg, C. W. A., <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Strengnæs, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Strindberg, August, <a href="#Page_426">426-427</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Nils, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Strœmstad, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Strole, Olof, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stromberg, Nils, <a href="#Page_291">291-292</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stuart, Mary, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Charles Magnus, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stuhm, battle of, <a href="#Page_202">202-203</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[Pg 459]</a></span></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Sture" id="Sture">Sture</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">original line: Sten Sture, the Elder, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114-120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130-131</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Natt och Dag branch: <a name="Nils_Bosson" id="Nils_Bosson">Nils Bosson</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108-109</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Svante Nilsson, <a href="#Page_118">118-123</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sten Sture, the Younger, <a href="#Page_123">123-129</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Nils Stensson, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Svante Stensson, Count, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169-170</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Nils Svantesson, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Eric, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Martha (see <a href="#King_Martha">Leijonhufvud</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sigrid, <a href="#Page_176">176-182</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="Magdalen_Sture" id="Magdalen_Sture">Magdalen</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176-182</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Anne, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Margaret, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Christine, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sture Chronicles, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sturzen-Becker, O. P., <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Styrbiœrn Starke, <a href="#Page_55">55-56</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Subsidies, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Succession, Royal, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">law of, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Suchtelen, von, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sud, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Suevian Sea, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Suiones, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sundberg, Archbishop, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sunnanskogs, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Sunnanaeder" id="Sunnanaeder">Sunnanvæder</a>, Peder, <a href="#Page_141">141-143</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Suomi, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Supreme Court. See <a href="#supreme_court">Sweden</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Surgeon’s Stories,” <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sværdsbro, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sværdsjœ, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Svartsjœ, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sveaborg, fortress of, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359-360</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Svealand, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Svecia,” <a href="#Page_265">265-266</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Svedberg, Jesper, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Svedbom, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sveijder, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Svein, Norwegian jarl, <a href="#Page_57">57-58</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sven. See <a href="#Blot_Sven">Blot-Sven</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Svend (Danish kings): Tjufvuskægg, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Estridsen, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Grade, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Svendborg, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Svensksund, naval battles of, <a href="#Page_350">350-351</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sverdrup, J., <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sverker, the Old, <a href="#Page_71">71-73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Younger, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75-77</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sviar, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sviatoslaf, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Svinesund, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Svithiod, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Svolder, battle of, <a href="#Page_57">57-58</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Swabia, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sweden, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229-230</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320-321</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363-364</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432-434</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">administration (see <a href="#government">Government</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="agriculture" id="agriculture">agriculture</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">alcohol industry, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">architects (see <a href="#Architecture">Architecture</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="army" id="army">army</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201-202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258-259</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408-410</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415-418</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="art" id="art">art</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428-431</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">botanists (see <a href="#Botany">Botany</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">broadcloth, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="budget" id="budget">budget</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="cabinet" id="cabinet">cabinet</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391-392</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394-395</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399-400</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">canals (see <a href="#Gotha_Canal">Gotha Canal</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">civilization (see <a href="#cultural_development">Cultural Development</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">climate, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="colonies" id="colonies">colonies</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="commerce" id="commerce">commerce</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81-82</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">communications, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="communities" id="communities">communities</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">composers (see <a href="#Music">Music</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="constitution" id="constitution">constitution</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255-258</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292-293</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349-350</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">court, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">court party, <a href="#Page_318">318-320</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">criminal code, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">crown, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174-175</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a> (see also <a href="#Crown_lands_restitution">Crown lands, restitution of</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="cultural_development" id="cultural_development">cultural development</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30-31</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59-61</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71-72</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98-99</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117-118</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141-142</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232-233</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261-267</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302-306</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321-341</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345-347</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380-381</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388-390</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411-413</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422-433</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">dairy industry, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">defence, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417-418</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">departments, state, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a> (see also <a href="#cabinet">Cabinet</a> and <a href="#Ministers_state">Ministers</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">dialect research, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">electric <a name="telegraph" id="telegraph">telegraph</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">emblem, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">engineers, <a href="#Page_424">424-426</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">estates (see <a href="#Estates">Estates</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="exports_imports" id="exports_imports">exports and imports</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="finance" id="finance">finance</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301-302</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">forests,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[Pg 460]</a></span> <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">fundamental laws, <a href="#Page_434">434-435</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">geographical discoveries, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">geology, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="government" id="government">government</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101-104</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149-150</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152-153</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161-162</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249-252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256-257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259-260</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292-293</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300-302</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310-311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354-355</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383-384</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395-401</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410-411</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>,<a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">graves, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">historians (see <a href="#History">History</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">industries, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334-337</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">inland seas, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">inventors, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425-426</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">kings, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64-65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382-383</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434-435</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">land-tax, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">language, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47-48</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346-347</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="legislation" id="legislation">legislation</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85-86</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395-401</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416-418</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="literature" id="literature">literature</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66-67</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337-339</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345-347</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380-382</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388-389</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412-413</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426-428</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">loanwords, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">manufactures, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335-336</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">maritime code, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">metal engraving (see <a href="#art">Art</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">migrations, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">military districts and divisions, <a href="#Page_417">417-418</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">militia, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">mining industry, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230-232</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">municipal government, <a href="#Page_395">395-396</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="mythology" id="mythology">mythology</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31-32</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">national anthem, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">national character and temperament, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389-390</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433-434</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">naturalists (see <a href="#science">Science</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">navigation, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">navy, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226-227</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258-259</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">one realm, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64-65</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">painters (see <a href="#art">Art</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">philologists (see <a href="#Philology">Philology</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">philosophers (see <a href="#Philosophy">Philosophy</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">political grandeur, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192-309</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">population, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">possessions, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a> (see also <a href="#territory">Territory</a>, <a href="#Finland">Finland</a>, and Baltic <a href="#Baltic_dominion">Dominion</a> and <a href="#Baltic_Provinces">Provinces</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">postal service, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">proper names, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="provincial_laws" id="provincial_laws">provincial laws</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66-67</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="railways" id="railways">railways</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">regent, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353-356</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362-364</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392-393</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Riksdag (see <a href="#Riksdag">Riksdag</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">scenery, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="science" id="science">science</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304-306</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324-325</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">sculptors (see <a href="#art">Art</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">seal of state, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">sects, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">singers, song (see <a href="#Music">Music</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">sloyd, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">state, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64-65</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="state_law" id="state_law">state law</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">state treasurer, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">statesmen, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315-316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392-393</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">suffrage, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="supreme_court" id="supreme_court">supreme court</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">taxes, taxation, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">telephone system, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="territory" id="territory">territory</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">towns, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">town laws, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">tribes, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Swedenborg, E., <a href="#Page_321">321-327</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Swedish Fates and Adventures,” <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Swinhufvud. See <a href="#Barbro">Barbro Stigsdotter</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sword, Order of the, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Systema Naturæ, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
+
+<li><h3>T</h3></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tacitus, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tartars, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Taube, Mathilde. See <a href="#Grabow">Grabow</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tavastehus, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tavasti, Tavastland, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tchudi, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Te Deum, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tegnér, Esaias, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381-382</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Esaias, Junior, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Telegraph. See <a href="#telegraph">Sweden</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Temperance movement, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Terna, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tessin, Nicodemus, Senior, <a href="#Page_302">302-303</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Nicodemus, Junior, 302<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[Pg 461]</a></span>-<a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Charles Gustavus, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Teuffel, General, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Teutons, Teutonic, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">ancestors, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">languages, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">communities, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">migrations, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">mythology, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">origin, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">sea,<a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">state, <a href="#Page_64">64-65</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">traditions, <a href="#Page_29">29-30</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">tribes, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thegerstrom, Robert, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Themptander, O. R., <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Theology, <a href="#Page_340">340-341</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Theophilus, Emperor, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Theosophy, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thermometer, Centigrade, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">See <a href="#Celsius">Celsius</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thing (Assembly), <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thiodulf of Hvin, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thirty Years’ War, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202-229</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thomas, Bishop, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thomasius, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thor, <a href="#Page_30">30-31</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thorild, T., <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thorn, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thorvald, Hialte, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thraldom, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thule, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thunberg, D., <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tidemand, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tilly, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206-209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210-211</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Timutarsz, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tiundaland, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tiveden, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tobacco, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tobolsk, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tœnnig, fortress of, <a href="#Page_295">295-296</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Tœrnroseus bok,” <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Toll, J. C., <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tomte Mats, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Topelius, Z., <a href="#Page_412">412-413</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tordenskiold, Peter, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Toresson. See <a href="#Ahlstroemer">Ahlstrœmer</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Torgau, retreat from, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Torgny, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tormentor of Denmark, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Torne, River, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Torpa, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Torsslov, O. U., <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Torstensson, Lennart, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225-229</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Tott" id="Tott">Tott</a>, Eric Axelson, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ivar Axelson, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ingeborg, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ake, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Clas, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Traventhal, peace treaty of, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tre Rosor, <a href="#Page_282">282</a> note;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ture Jœnsson, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">John Turesson, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Gustavus Johnsson, Count, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trolle, Eric, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Gustavus, Archbishop, <a href="#Page_124">124-125</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127-128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trollhetta, waterfalls of, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tromp, Admiral, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Truso, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Truvor" id="Truvor">Truvor</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tryggve. See <a href="#Truvor">Truvor</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Turgot, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Turkey, Turks, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296-298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tver, battle of, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tyr, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tyrol, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+
+<li><h3>U</h3></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ube, River, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ukraine, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Uleoborg, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ulf, jarls, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>; <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ulf Gudmundsson, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ulfhild, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ulfsson, Jacob, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ulrica Eleonore, queens of Sweden, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>; <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ulricsdal, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Union" id="Union">Union</a>, Act of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101-102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166-167</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372-374</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">nature of the, <a href="#Page_419">419-421</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">revision of the, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394-395</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Union government, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">defence, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">parliament, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Unionism, Unionist party, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393-395</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415-416</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Unitarianism, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">United States, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437-438</a> (see also <a href="#America">America</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">President of, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Universities" id="Universities">Universities</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340-341</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422-423</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Unne, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Upland, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Uppstrœm, A., <a href="#Page_137">137</a> note.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Upsala" id="Upsala">Upsala</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[Pg 462]</a></span> <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331-332</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">cathedral, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">meeting, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">University (see <a href="#Universities">Universities</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">University Botanical Garden, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Library, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Observatory, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">temple, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Uranus, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Usedom, island of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Utilitarianism, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Utmeland, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Utopia Realized,” <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
+
+<li><h3>V</h3></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vadstena, <a href="#Page_98">98-99</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Værælæ, peace treaty of, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Værend, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Værfvade, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Væringar, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Valdemar of Sweden, <a href="#Page_80">80-84</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Valdemar (kings of Denmark): Seier, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="Atterdag" id="Atterdag">Atterdag</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Valdemar, Prince, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89-91</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vandals, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vanlande, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Varanger Bay, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387-388</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Varberg, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Variagi, Varangians, <a href="#Page_46">46-53</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Varinians, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vasa dynasty, family, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Original line: Krister Nilsson, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Kettil Karlsson, <a href="#Page_112">112-113</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Eric Johansson, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Gustavus Ericsson (see <a href="#Gustavus_I">Gustavus I</a>.);</li>
+<li class="isub1">Eric (see <a href="#Eric_XIV">Eric XIV</a>.);</li>
+<li class="isub1">John (see <a href="#John_III">John III</a>.);</li>
+<li class="isub1">Magnus (see <a href="#Magnus_Vasa">Magnus, Princes of Sweden</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">Charles (see <a href="#Charles_IX">Charles IX</a>.);</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="Gustavus_Ericsson" id="Gustavus_Ericsson">Gustavus Ericsson</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172-173</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sigrid, <a href="#Page_172">172-173</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sigismund (see <a href="#Sigismund">Sigismund</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">John, Duke (see <a href="#John_duke">John</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">Charles Philip (see <a href="#Charles_Philip">Charles</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">Catherine (see <a href="#Catherine_Countess_Palatine">Catherine, Countess-Palatine</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">Gustavus Adolphus (see <a href="#Gustavus_II_Adolphus">Gustavus II. Adolphus</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">Christine (see <a href="#Christine">Christine, queens of Sweden</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="Polish_line" id="Polish_line">Polish line</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sigismund (see <a href="#Sigismund">Sigismund</a>);</li>
+<li class="isub1">Vladislav, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a name="John_Casimir" id="John_Casimir">John II. Casimir</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243-244</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vasa Renaissance. See <a href="#Renaissance">Renaissance</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vasa, town, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vassili, Czar. See <a href="#Schuisky">Schuisky</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vaxholm, fortress of, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Venar, Lake, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vends, Vendish, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vennerberg, Gunnar, <a href="#Page_389">389-390</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Verden, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vermland, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vessi, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Verzage nicht,” <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vettar, Lake, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vexio, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Viborg, fortress of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Victoria, crown princess of Sweden-Norway, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vienna, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Congress of, <a href="#Page_372">372-373</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Exposition, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">peace treaty of, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">siege of, <a href="#Page_228">228-229</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Viken <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Viking Age, Vikings, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44-63</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vilmanstrand, battle of, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vincentius, Bishop, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Virdar, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Virta, battle of, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Visbur. <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Visby, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Visigoths, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Visingsborg, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Visingsœ, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vistula, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vitalen, or Victualen Brotherhood, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vitesjœ, battle of, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vladimir, St., <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vladislav. See <a href="#Polish_line">Vasa, Polish line</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Voldgæstning, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Volga, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Volmar, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Voltaire, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vordingborg, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vorskla, River, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vossius, <a href="#Page_236">236-237</a>.</li>
+
+<li><h3>W</h3></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wachtmeister, Hans, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hans Hansson, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wahlberg, Edward, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wallachia, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[Pg 463]</a></span></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Wallenstein" id="Wallenstein">Wallenstein</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210-218</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wallhof, battle of, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wallin, J. O., Archbishop, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wallis, Curt, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Walloons, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">War of Clubs, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Warburg, K., <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Warsaw, battle of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">conquest of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">diet of, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Washington, George, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Weibule, M., <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Weimar. See <a href="#Bernhard_Weimar">Bernhard, Duke of Weimar</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wendland, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Werben, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Westerbotten, West Bothnia, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Westerlund, Dr., <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Westeros" id="Westeros">Westeros</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ordinantia and Recess, <a href="#Page_145">145-146</a>; <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">West Gothland. See <a href="#Gothland">Gothland</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Westmanland, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Westphalia, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Peace of, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wetterstedt, G. af, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wetterstrand, Dr., <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wickman, G., <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wikblad, S. H., <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wikner, Pontus, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">William, Bishop of Salima, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">William I. of Germany, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">William of Orange, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Windau, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Windsor, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wingard, C. F. af, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wirsén, G. F. af, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wismar, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Witches, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Witmar, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wittelsbachs, The, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wittstock, battle of, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wolfenbuttel, battle of, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wolgast, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wollin, island of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Women’s rights, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wrangel, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Herman, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Charles Gustavus, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wulfila, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wulfstan, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+
+<li><h3>Y</h3></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a name="Yeoman" id="Yeoman">Yeoman</a>, Yeomanry, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ynglinga Saga, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33-41</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ynglingatal, <a href="#Page_33">33-41</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ynglings, Yngling kings, <a href="#Page_33">33-41</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Yngvar, <a href="#Page_38">38-39</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Yngve, Swedish kings, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>; <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">York, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Yrsa, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li><h3>Z</h3></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zamoisky, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zettervall, H., <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zoölogy, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zorn, A. L., <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li></ul>
+
+<div class="transnote">
+<p>Transcriber's notes:</p>
+
+<p>Some entries in the index appeared out of alphabetical order. They
+have been moved.</p>
+
+<p>The following is a list of changes made to the original.
+The first line is the original line, the second the corrected one.</p>
+
+<p>Page 252:</p>
+
+<p>
+in 1672, <span class="u">whon</span> he himself took charge of the government,<br />
+in 1672, <span class="u">when</span> he himself took charge of the government,</p>
+
+<p>Page 429:</p>
+
+<p>
+Prince Eugene, Eugene Jansson, <span class="u">Ernest</span> Josephson, Nils Kreuger,<br />
+Prince Eugene, Eugene Jansson, <span class="u">Ernst</span> Josephson, Nils Kreuger,</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Sweden, by Victor Nilsson
+
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+</pre>
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Sweden, by Victor Nilsson
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Sweden
+
+Author: Victor Nilsson
+
+Release Date: January 8, 2014 [EBook #44624]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SWEDEN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Ann Jury, Paul Clark and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+    Transcriber's Note:
+
+    Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as
+    possible. Some changes have been made. They are listed at the end of
+    the text.
+
+    Italic text has been marked with _underscores_.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS]
+
+
+
+
+                      THE WORLD'S BEST HISTORIES
+
+                                SWEDEN
+
+                                  BY
+                         VICTOR NILSSON, PH.D.
+               AUTHOR OF "LODDFAFNISMAL, AN EDDIC STUDY"
+
+                          _WITH FRONTISPIECE_
+
+                 THE CO-OPERATIVE PUBLICATION SOCIETY
+                          NEW YORK AND LONDON
+
+
+                            COPYRIGHT 1899
+                       BY PETER FENELON COLLIER
+
+
+
+
+SWEDEN
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+ INTRODUCTION                                                          5
+
+
+ CHAPTER I
+
+ SWEDEN IN PREHISTORIC AND EARLY HISTORIC TIMES--ARCHAEOLOGICAL
+    FINDS AND CLASSICAL TESTIMONY                                     11
+
+
+ CHAPTER II
+
+ DAWN OF SWEDISH HISTORY--HEIMSKRINGLA AND YNGLINGATAL                33
+
+
+ CHAPTER III
+
+ THE VIKING AGE--ANSGAR, THE APOSTLE OF SWEDEN                        44
+
+
+ CHAPTER IV
+
+ EARLY CHRISTIAN ERA--STENKIL'S LINE AND INTERCHANGING DYNASTIES      64
+
+
+ CHAPTER V
+
+ THE MEDIAEVAL STATE--THE FOLKUNG DYNASTY                              80
+
+
+ CHAPTER VI
+
+ UNIONISM VERSUS PATRIOTISM--MARGARET, ENGELBREKT AND CHARLES
+    KNUTSSON                                                         100
+
+
+ CHAPTER VII
+
+ UNIONISM VERSUS PATRIOTISM--UNCROWNED KINGS OF THE STURE
+    FAMILIES                                                         115
+
+
+ CHAPTER VIII
+
+ REVOLUTION AND REFORMATION--GUSTAVUS VASA                           130
+
+
+ CHAPTER IX
+
+ REFORMATION AND REACTION--THE SONS OF GUSTAVUS I.                   161
+
+
+ CHAPTER X
+
+ PERIOD OF POLITICAL GRANDEUR--GUSTAVUS II. ADOLPHUS                 192
+
+
+ CHAPTER XI
+
+ PERIOD OF POLITICAL GRANDEUR--QUEEN CHRISTINE                       220
+
+
+ CHAPTER XII
+
+ PERIOD OF POLITICAL GRANDEUR--CHARLES X. AND CHARLES XI.            242
+
+
+ CHAPTER XIII
+
+ PERIOD OF POLITICAL GRANDEUR--CHARLES XII.                          268
+
+
+ CHAPTER XIV
+
+ PERIOD OF LIBERTY--THE ARISTOCRATIC REPUBLIC                        310
+
+
+ CHAPTER XV
+
+ GUSTAVIAN PERIOD--GUSTAVUS III. AND GUSTAVUS IV. ADOLPHUS           343
+
+
+ CHAPTER XVI
+
+ THE CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY--CHARLES XIII. AND THE EARLY
+    BERNADOTTES                                                      365
+
+
+ CHAPTER XVII
+
+ PARLIAMENTARY REFORM--CHARLES XV.                                   391
+
+
+ CHAPTER XVIII
+
+ PROGRESS AND PROSPERITY--OSCAR II.                                  414
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The kingdom of Sweden occupies the eastern and larger part of the
+Scandinavian peninsula, covering an area of one hundred and seventy
+thousand six hundred and sixty square miles, with a population of
+somewhat more than five millions. Sweden is of nearly the same width,
+from east to west, throughout her whole length. If the country were
+divided into four equal parts, the southernmost part would correspond
+to the district of Gothaland, the next to the district of Svealand,
+consisting of most of what is north of the lakes Venar and Vetter
+and what is south of the Dal River, while the two remaining parts
+together would make up the district of Norrland. Gothaland, in
+ancient times called _Sunnanskogs_ (South of the Woods), consists of
+the old provinces Scania, Bleking, Smaland and East Gothland by the
+Baltic, Halland and Bohuslaen by the North Sea, and West Gothland of
+the interior. Svealand, or _Nordanskogs_, consists of the provinces
+Soedermanland and Upland by the Baltic, south and north of Lake Maelar,
+respectively, Dal, Vermland and Dalecarlia on the Norwegian frontier,
+and Nerike and Westmanland of the interior. Norrland consists of the
+provinces of Gestrikland, Helsingland, Medelpad, Angermanland and
+Westerbotten by the Gulf of Bothnia, a branch of the Baltic, and
+Herjedal, Jemtland and the Lapmark on the Norwegian frontier. A great
+number of islands form part of the kingdom, of which the two largest,
+Gothland and OEland, are situated in the Baltic. One-twelfth of the
+area, or as much as the whole state of Denmark, consists of water.
+
+Sweden is politically united with Norway and ruled by the same king,
+these united kingdoms forming the largest realm in Europe next to
+Russia, Sweden herself ranking as the sixth in size.
+
+Sweden is a country which offers striking varieties in scenery and
+conditions. In the southernmost province of Scania, an ancient home of
+culture, the nightingale and the stork dwell in the fertile plains,
+and the walnut, mulberry and chestnut trees render ripening fruit.
+Central Sweden is a wooded plateau, rich in rocky hills and inland
+seas. Although barren lands occupy large areas, these parts are
+characterized by a loveliness and picturesqueness which are still more
+pronounced in the northern provinces along the coast. Only in the inner
+mountainous regions of Norrland is the scenery of real grandeur where
+the white-capped giants appear in vast groups, or in isolated peaks
+of six thousand to seven thousand feet in altitude, where a hundred
+glaciers with glacier rivers, moraines and erosions cover a surface
+almost as large as the glaciers of Tyrol, and where, in the turbulent
+course of mighty rivers, are formed tremendous waterfalls, one of them,
+The Hare's Leap, being the largest in Europe.
+
+Geologically considered, Sweden is situated around the centre of the
+ancient Scandinavian land-ice, and in the greater part of the country
+only two of the geological series, the oldest and the youngest, are
+represented. Thus the uneven, undulating surface of the Archaean rocks,
+on which almost the whole country is firmly set, is in general covered
+with quaternary deposits of gravel and clay. The mountains are rich in
+iron ore, the streams and lakes in fish, the woods in game, but the
+soil, itself of a good quality, unfortunately rich in stones. This
+last-mentioned circumstance, together with the rather severe climate,
+which yet is a good deal milder than might be expected, especially in
+the southern and western parts of the country, makes agriculture, which
+is the most important industry, profitable only on the extensive plains
+of Scania, Upland and West and East Gothland. Still barley and rye are
+cultivated within the Polar Circle, ripening in remarkably short time
+under the nocturnal light of the Midsummer sun. Dense forests cover
+Sweden in the very same latitude in which Greenland is clad by eternal
+ice. The short summers are of a surpassing loveliness. In Norrland
+there is a Swedish _laen_, or governmental district, of the size of
+the State of Ohio, on which, between the 5th of June and the 11th of
+July, the sun never sets. If the earth was perfectly plain and even
+one would be able to see the sun above the horizon continually during
+this period. But these northerly regions are very mountainous, and
+consequently you will have to climb a high peak in order to see the
+wonderful sight of a sun which stands still when it should set, and
+which marks the difference between night and day only by a rolling
+motion in the horizon. There is no country in the world where so many
+places for such observation are reached so easily as in Sweden. One may
+travel the whole distance from the southernmost point of the country to
+the very base of a mountain, Gellivara, Sweden's Klondike, from which
+the midnight sun can be seen for thirty-seven nights in succession.
+But although the sun itself is visible only from the mountain peaks
+above the Polar Circle, the nocturnal light steeps the whole realm in
+midsummer-night's dreams of magic colors and reflections.
+
+The Swedish people are of Teutonic stock and have lived in the land
+they still inhabit for at least four thousand years, during this entire
+period not having assimilated other nationalities, or at least to no
+extent worth mentioning, so that the Swedish nation is of an origin far
+purer than any other at present existing.
+
+The kingdom of Sweden is the most ancient of the states still extant in
+Europe, for all historical monuments prove that the Swedes have kept
+to about their present territory, perfectly independent of foreign
+nations, probably for a long time divided into lesser communities,
+but for the past twelve hundred years united in one single realm. The
+languages spoken in the Scandinavian North belong to the Teutonic
+family of Indo-European languages, and seem to have been one and almost
+homogeneous up to the time of the Viking Age (about 700-1060), when
+various dialects commence to be distinguished. The old uniform language
+has been preserved in Northern loanwords in the Finnish and Lap
+languages and in about one hundred of the oldest Runic inscriptions.
+The early Old Swedish, from the Viking Age to somewhat later than
+1200, did not differ much from the Old Norse (the Old Norwegian and
+Old Icelandic), while the difference from the Old Danish was almost
+imperceptible. The sources for the study of this language period are
+about two thousand later Runic inscriptions and nearly one hundred Old
+Swedish loanwords, almost all proper names, in the Russian language.
+The classical period of Old Swedish falls between 1200 and about 1350.
+Its most important monuments are the provincial laws and a manuscript
+collection of saintly legends, called Codex Bureanus. The language
+of this period offers a number of dialects, of which only one, the
+Gutnic, is strictly defined. In the next period of Old Swedish, from
+1350 to the Reformation, a universal language for the whole country
+is distinguished. The so-called Oxenstiern manuscripts and Codex
+Bildstenianus are the chief sources of our knowledge of this language
+period, mostly of religious contents. Modern Swedish dates from the
+Reformation, its later period being counted from the publication of
+the state law in 1734. The Swedish language seems to be based chiefly
+upon the dialect of Soedermanland, with influences from other dialects.
+Among the Scandinavian languages, Swedish ranks next to the Icelandic
+in point of purity, and is the foremost of them all in point of beauty.
+
+The Swedes are a hardworking, industrious and intelligent race, not
+fully conscious of their own rich endowment and slow to push their
+individual claims. In moments of danger and distress, this people
+give evidence of an active heroism, which offers a great contrast to
+their usual quiet and peaceful demeanor. The Swedish nation is endowed
+with an unusual inventive power, which has placed it in the first
+rank of scientific research, having produced a quota of initiative
+spirits, as originators, founders and innovators of sciences, which
+is considerably larger than that of any other modern country, in
+proportion to the population. The national temperament is, like the
+soil, composed of extremes. With the serene quiet and almost sullen
+tranquillity goes a patience of extraordinary endurance which, when
+it gives in, surprises by the passion which takes its place. To the
+melancholy trait in the Swedish character is contrasted a great desire
+for the pleasures of life and exuberant animal spirits. Under a quiet
+surface, the Swede conceals a rapid comprehension and an almost morbid
+sensitiveness, sometimes causing people of other nationalities to judge
+him slow of intellect or perfidious, when he is only slow of action or
+indisposed to show his feelings. The most valuable inheritance from
+his ancestors is his moral courage, while the ancient Northern trait
+of self-restraint is often carried to an extreme. Akin to both is his
+dignity. He possesses great musical and improvisatorial gifts which
+complete his lyric-rhetorical temperament.
+
+There are some 6,000 Laplanders and some 20,000 Finns living in the
+furthest North, and foreigners to the number of about 20,000 dwell in
+Sweden, mostly Norwegians, Finns and Danes. More than 99 per cent of
+the population consists of native Swedes, and 99.9 per cent belong to
+the Lutheran state church or the Protestant denominations.
+
+The principal towns are Stockholm, the capital, with 300,000
+inhabitants, enchantingly beautiful in situation, on the mainland and
+islands at the outlet of Lake Maelar into the Baltic; Gothenburg, with
+120,000 inhabitants, the chief commercial centre, at the mouth of the
+Gotha River, by the North Sea; Malmoe, with 60,000 inhabitants, in
+Scania, by the Sound. The university towns of Upsala, in Upland, and
+Lund, in Scania, have 25,000 and 17,000 inhabitants, respectively.
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF SWEDEN
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+_Sweden in Prehistoric and Early Historic Times--Archaeological Finds
+and Classical Testimony_
+
+
+The Swedes, although the oldest and most unmixed race in Europe,
+realized very late the necessity of writing chronicles or reviews of
+historic events. Thus the names of heroes and kings of the remotest
+past are helplessly forgotten, and lost also the history of its
+earliest religion and institutions.
+
+But Mother Earth has carefully preserved most of what has been
+deposited in her bosom, and has repaid diligent research with
+trustworthy and irrefutable accounts of the age and various degrees
+of civilization of the race which inhabited Sweden in prehistoric
+times. Thus it has been proved that Sweden, like most other countries,
+has had a Stone Age, a Bronze Age, and an Iron Age. But there is
+absolutely no evidence to prove the now antiquated theories of various
+immigrations into Sweden by different races on different stages of
+civilization. On the contrary, the graves from the remotest times,
+through all successive periods, prove by the form of the skulls of
+those buried in them that Sweden has, through all ages, been inhabited
+by the same dolichocephalic, or long-headed, race which constitutes the
+overwhelming majority of her people to-day.
+
+Sweden, physically considered, is not of as high antiquity as some
+countries of Europe. Yet it has been inhabited during the last four
+thousand years, at least. In the quaternary period the Scandinavian
+peninsula was a centre of a glacial movement which spread its
+disastrous influences over Western Russia, Northern Germany and
+Holland. In that period no vegetable or animal life was possible in
+Sweden. From the fact that the earliest stone celts found in Sweden
+and Denmark are not polished, archaeologists were led to suppose that
+the Stone Age of the North was contemporaneous with the Palaeolithic
+civilization in Western Europe. But this standpoint has been found
+untenable, because it has later become evident that the fauna
+surrounding the earliest inhabitants of the Northern countries was ours
+and not a quaternary one.
+
+The oldest types of finds of _the Stone Age_ in the North have been
+discovered in the refuse-heaps on the Danish coast. These refuse-heaps,
+consisting of stone implements, shells, bones, etc., do not occur in
+Sweden, but the implements characteristic of them are found scattered
+over some parts of the southernmost Swedish province of Scania. The
+shape of these earliest finds is exactly the same as of those of the
+later Stone Age, the only difference being that the former are not
+polished. But there are transitions between the classes, and the act of
+polishing must be regarded as an important phase of progress.
+
+The Stone Age of Sweden is quite remarkable. If the remains of the
+earlier period are scanty, the finds from the later one are all the
+more numerous. With the exception of Denmark and a part of North
+Germany, there is no European country which can boast of such rich and
+beautiful relics from the later Stone Age as the southern part of
+Sweden. The finds in the other countries mentioned are almost exactly
+like those of Sweden from the Stone and the Bronze Ages, both as far as
+implements and skulls are concerned, proving them to have been settled
+by the same race.
+
+The weapons and implements from the Stone Age consist of axes, daggers,
+spearheads, arrowheads, saws, and knives of flint; axes, gauges,
+handmills of stone; fishhooks and arrowheads of bone; earthenware,
+etc., etc. The graves of this period are dolmens, passage-graves, and
+stone cists, the last mentioned either uncovered or covered with a
+barrow. The different forms of burial places seem to indicate four
+successive stages of the period. Through their existence it becomes
+probable that the inhabitants of Sweden during the Stone Age had fixed
+dwelling places.
+
+A dolmen is a grave-chamber of which the walls are formed of large,
+thick stones set up edgewise, covered with one huge block of stone
+as a roof, all the stones being rough outside and smooth inside.
+The passage-graves are built in the same way, but are larger and
+distinguished by a long covered passage leading to it. These graves are
+surrounded by a low barrow, upon the top of which the huge roof-stones
+were originally visible. Dolmens and passage-graves occur in Sweden in
+considerable numbers along the coast of Scania, on the plains of West
+Gothland and in Bohuslaen, more sparsely in other parts of West Gothland
+and in Halland, with stray cases of graves of a similar construction in
+Nerike and Western Soedermanland. It is important to note the regions in
+which these graves have been found, for they must be identical with the
+parts of the earliest settlements. Such graves are also very common in
+Denmark, while only one has been found in Norway.
+
+The stone cists resemble very much the chamber of a passage-grave.
+They are larger and four-sided, and built of somewhat thinner stones.
+Stone cists standing partly visible above the barrow constitute a
+form peculiar to Sweden, occurring in great numbers in West Gothland,
+Bohuslaen, Dalsland and Southwestern Vermland, while the covered stone
+cists appear in the same provinces and in Nerike, East Gothland,
+Smaland, Bleking and the Island of Gothland.
+
+During the Stone Age the bodies were buried unburned, in a recumbent
+or sitting position. By the side of the dead body was usually placed a
+weapon, a tool, or some ornaments, sometimes also earthenware vessels,
+now filled only with earth. These vessels may once have contained
+food. The elaborate graves seem to indicate a belief in a future life.
+The food, if any such was placed by the side of the dead, would not
+necessarily point to the fact that such a future life was imagined
+merely as a continuation of earth life. The heathen Scandinavians of a
+later age believed that the dead remained for some time in their burial
+place before reaching their ultimate destination. For their possible
+wants during this intermediate state food was left with the dead body.
+
+The total number of relics of stone found in Sweden is 64,000. Of these
+only 4,000 belong to Svealand and Norrland, while of all the rest found
+in Gothaland 45,000 belong to Scania alone.
+
+In a much later age the Scandinavians were regarded as pure barbarians.
+For this reason it is important to observe that graves from the Stone
+Age show that the Swedes in that remote period had several domesticated
+animals, the dog, horse, ox, swine, sheep, and, perhaps, also the goat.
+Hence they were certainly a pastoral people, not living exclusively
+by hunting and fishing. But whether they practiced agriculture cannot
+be decided in the present state of our knowledge. The fact that the
+very oldest graves are found in the most fertile districts of Southern
+Sweden seems to speak in favor of the supposition that agriculture was
+known and appreciated.
+
+Of metals, even of gold, the people of the late Stone Age were entirely
+ignorant, also of the art of writing. Hence no monuments of their
+language will ever be found. Still it is highly probable that the
+Teutonic ancestors of the Swedes began to settle in the land from the
+beginning of the Stone Age.
+
+It is true that some skulls, very much like those of the Laps, have
+also been found in the graves of the Stone Age; but it must be borne
+in mind that these burial places, impressive through their size and
+the amount of work and mechanical skill necessary for their erection,
+can be believed to have been originally intended only for kings or
+chieftains, and their families. It was probably a custom, as in later
+heathen times, to bury with such distinguished people a number of
+slaves, dead or alive. The presence of skulls of a non-Scandinavian
+type can thus be explained, without the necessity of accepting the
+theory of an early mixture of two races.
+
+In the northern part of Sweden have been found relics of stone, usually
+of slate, which do not appear to have belonged to the people of the
+dolmens or passage-graves. They bear a close resemblance to those found
+in Finland and in other countries inhabited by Laps, Finns and peoples
+related to them. This seems to prove that these so-called Arctic stone
+implements are relics of the Laps and belong to the time when this
+people was still ignorant of the use of metal. Judging from the number
+of relics found on the coast, from Westerbotten to Gestrikland, and
+in Dalecarlia, the Laps dwelt also in somewhat more southerly parts
+of Sweden than at the present day. So far south as in the middle
+provinces, no Arctic stone relics have been found, still less in any of
+the southern provinces. This seems to indicate that the Laps and the
+Swedes did not dwell in the same parts of the country during the Stone
+Age, and their intercourse, if any, must have been of a very accidental
+and casual nature.
+
+That the Stone Age lasted a very long time in the North is proved by
+the fact that it reached a far higher development there than anywhere
+else in Europe. The best authorities think that it must have ended
+rather before than after 1500 B.C., or 3,500 years before our time.
+
+_The Bronze Age_ followed upon the Stone Age. Flint exists in Sweden
+and was easily found. There are also copper mines, but their working
+is of comparatively modern date. The copper of the Bronze Age must
+have been brought from abroad, and tin, necessary for the production
+of bronze, is foreign to Scandinavia. The knowledge of the working of
+any metal proves an immense progress. Yet there are strong grounds
+for the opinion that the beginning of the Bronze Age in Sweden was
+not connected with any great immigration of a new race, but that the
+inhabitants learned the art of working bronze by intercourse with other
+nations. The resemblance of the graves during the last part of the
+Stone Age and the early part of the Bronze Age points most strongly to
+such a conclusion. From Asia the knowledge of bronze, and the higher
+civilization dependent on it, had gradually spread itself over the
+continent of Europe, in a northerly and northwesterly direction, until
+it reached the coasts of the Baltic.
+
+The Bronze Age of Sweden began about 1500 B.C., and lasted for a
+thousand years, or until the beginning of the fifth century before
+Christ. The period has been divided into an Earlier and a Later
+Bronze Age, a division which has been questioned as to its absolute
+correctness. The works from the former are decorated with fine spiral
+ornaments and zigzag lines. The graves generally contain remains of
+unburned bodies. The antiquities of the Earlier Bronze Age, almost
+without an exception, appear to be of native workmanship. They are
+distinguished by artistic forms and point to a highly developed taste
+in the working of bronze. They generally surpass in this respect the
+relics of the Bronze Age found in almost all other European countries.
+The works belonging to the Later Bronze Age are characterized by a
+very different taste and style of ornamentation, though even they are
+often the result of great skill. The spiral ornaments are no longer
+predominant, but the ends of rings, knife-handles, and the like, are
+often rolled up in spiral volutes.
+
+During this period the dead were always burned. Buttons, sword-hilts,
+and other works of bronze were sometimes decorated with pieces of amber
+and resin inlaid. Objects are also often found overlaid with thin
+plates of gold.
+
+Remarkable are the rock-carvings from this period. The Swedes of the
+Bronze Age understood, by a kind of picture-writing, how to preserve
+the memory of important events, although an alphabet of any kind was
+unknown. The rock-carvings have been found abundantly in Bohuslaen
+(formerly a part of West Gothland) and East Gothland, but also occur
+in Scania and other parts of Sweden. At the time of the arrival of
+Cortez in Mexico the Aztecs were exactly on the same standpoint. In
+spite of their high civilization, they were in the Bronze Age and
+possessed a picture-writing, but were not acquainted with an alphabet.
+In Sweden, as in Mexico, there certainly once existed an oral tradition
+necessary for its interpretation, which, now lost, leaves little hope
+for their present or future explanation. Yet they throw considerable
+light on Swedish civilization during this remote period. Thus they
+show that horses were already used for riding and driving. Cattle are
+represented. In pairs these are harnessed to a plow, which is being
+driven by a man. Boats are depicted, generally very large ones, without
+masts, but with thirty pairs of oars or more. They are usually unlike
+at the two ends, sometimes adorned with an animal's head in the high
+and narrow stem, sometimes with a similar decoration also in the stern.
+
+The rock-carvings tell us nothing of the dwellings or the dress of
+the Swedes in the Bronze Age. All the instruments and tools necessary
+for the construction of wooden houses existed and appear to have been
+in use. The material was ever abundantly supplied by the Swedish
+forests, but it was not strong enough to withstand the influence of
+time. All the more surprising it is that articles of dress from such a
+remote period as the Earlier Bronze Age, 1000 B.C., should have been
+preserved to our time. Still such is the case, thanks to a combination
+of exceptionally favorable circumstances. These garments are of wool of
+a very simple substance; some have been worn by men, others by women.
+The man's dress consisted of an unbrimmed cap of thick woven wool, a
+wide circular mantle, a kind of tunic, kept together with a woollen
+belt, and some narrow strips of wool which probably covered the legs.
+In a man's grave was found a shawl of wool with fringes. The woman's
+dress consisted then, as it does now, chiefly of two garments, a jacket
+with sleeves and a long robe, the latter held together with a belt of
+wool, ending in ornamental tassels. Large mantles, of mixed wool and
+cow hair, were used as wraps. The women wore splendid bronze ornaments,
+such as finger-rings, bracelets, torques and brooches. From the finds
+it becomes apparent that many women in those days carried weapons, a
+dagger often being found at the side of the body.
+
+Besides swords and axes of beautiful workmanship, fishhooks, sickles
+and the different parts of harness have been found; also vessels of
+gold or bronze, evidently used for temple service. The Swedes of the
+Bronze Age were not acquainted with the art of forging the heated
+metal, but they possessed much technical skill in the art of casting.
+When the implement was taken out of the mold it was dipped in cold
+water, and very often the surface was ornamented by means of punches
+made of bronze. Their good taste was as highly developed as their
+skill. That the work was done in the North is proven by numerous
+finds of the very molds in which weapons and agricultural implements
+were cast. During the Stone Age only Gothaland and parts of Svealand
+were inhabited. The finds of the Bronze Age prove that the limits of
+the population were about the same during this period. The southern
+provinces continued to be the more thickly settled. Twenty times as
+many finds have been made in the soil of Scania as in the rest of the
+country. Norrland was hardly settled to any extent until the Iron Age,
+and has offered comparatively few finds from the Bronze Age, the total
+of which for the whole of Sweden amounts to about 4,000.
+
+_The Iron Age_ followed upon the Bronze Age. It lasts to this very day,
+we ourselves still living in the Iron Age; but the term is generally
+applied to that part of the period which commences with the close of
+the Bronze Age, and ends with the fall of heathendom. During the Iron
+Age, the Swedes first became acquainted with iron, silver, brass, lead,
+glass, stamped coins from foreign lands, and learned how to solder
+and gild metal. Archaeologists have divided the period into two main
+parts, the Earlier and the Later Iron Age, both with subdivisions. The
+Earlier Iron Age includes the time from the fifth century B.C. to about
+the beginning of the fifth century A.D. The first half of the Earlier
+Iron Age is characterized by swords with both blades and sheaths made
+of iron, thin crescent-shaped knives, brooches of iron, collars, and
+decorative plates overlaid with bronze. The graves resemble those from
+the end of the Bronze Age, containing burned bones in urns, or laid
+together in a heap. This circumstance makes it more than probable that
+the first introduction of iron in the North was not connected with any
+immigration of a new people. The finds of the earliest Iron Age are not
+very rich, but they prove that the people who have left them behind had
+been subjected to a very strong influence from the Gallic tribes living
+close to the south of the Teutonic area of population. Then came the
+second half of the Earlier Iron Age, characterized by a strong Roman
+influence. It commences with the extension of the Roman empire toward
+the North, about the beginning of the Christian era, and winds up
+with the beginning of the fifth century, when Teutonic migrations and
+invasions put an end to the power of Rome. In the hostile or friendly
+relations between Romans and Teutons the Swedes were not involved.
+But by the peaceful ways of commerce the influence of Rome penetrated
+to the people of the North. Great numbers of Roman coins have been
+found in Sweden, and also vessels of bronze and glass, weapons, etc.,
+as well as works of art, all turned out of workshops in Rome or its
+provinces. Out of about 4,760 Roman coins of this time found in Sweden,
+no less than 4,000 were found in the remarkable Island of Gothland,
+in the southern half of the Baltic, 90 in the neighboring island of
+OEland, 650 in Scania, but only 23 on the mainland of Sweden, excluding
+Scania. About 250 were found in Bornholm, 600 in Denmark, but only 3
+in Norway. It becomes evident from these finds that there existed a
+regular traffic over the Baltic, through Germany, between the Island of
+Gothland and the Roman provinces, from the epoch of the Marcomannic war
+down to the time of Septimius Severus. Similar finds have been made on
+the southern shore of the Baltic, showing that the traffic came from
+the southeast, along the valleys of the Vistula and the Oder.
+
+One of the most important discoveries of this period was the art of
+writing, which the inhabitants of the North seem to have acquired soon
+after the beginning of the Christian era. The earliest alphabetic
+symbols in Sweden, and the only ones used there during the whole of
+heathen times, were _runes_. These were probably invented a little
+before the Christian era by a South Teutonic tribe, in imitation of
+the Roman writing which the Teutons received from one of the Celtic
+tribes living just to the north of the Alps. The Roman characters were
+adapted for the use of inscriptions in stone and wood, the curves being
+changed into straight lines. The Runic characters, in use among all
+Teutonic tribes, were twenty-four in number; these older runes were, by
+the Scandinavians, later simplified and reduced to sixteen. There is
+a number of inscriptions in older runes in Sweden, dating from about
+300 to 500 A.D. They are found chiefly on stones and gold bracteates,
+also in England, France, Germany, Wallachia and the west of Russia. All
+belong to about the same date, and are of Teutonic origin. The early
+Runic inscriptions do not contain any accounts of historically known
+persons or events. Yet they are of the greatest historical importance,
+for they show that during the Earlier Iron Age, in the fourth and fifth
+centuries, the language of Sweden, and consequently also the people,
+were Teutonic. These inscriptions in Sweden and neighboring countries
+give samples of the earliest known form of the Northern language,
+which is considerably different from its descendants, the Old Swedish,
+Danish, Norwegian and Icelandic, but very much resembling the language
+spoken by the Goths on the Danube during the same period.
+
+The Later Iron Age commences with the fifth century and stretches to
+the beginning of the eighth century A.D. When Italy had been overrun
+by the "barbarians," the centre of the old civilization shifted to
+Byzantium, and there are many traces of an active intercourse with the
+capital of the Byzantine rule in the finds made in Swedish soil. Most
+of these finds consist of gold coins of the fifth century, the majority
+of them having been found in the islands of OEland and Gothland. The
+stream of gold coming from Byzantium must have been quite considerable,
+having its source in the tribute which many of the Byzantine emperors
+had to pay to the Goths on the Danube. They are the very same emperors
+whose names appear on the coins found in Sweden. The great number of
+costly and beautiful ornaments of gold found in Sweden, and dating from
+this period, must have been made out of Roman and Byzantine coins,
+melted down. One of the largest hoards of gold ever found in Europe
+was discovered in the Swedish province of Soedermanland. Its weight was
+twenty-seven pounds, and it contained several ornaments of consummate
+workmanship.
+
+Remarkable are the graves from this period, discovered in the province
+of Upland. They are barrows containing the more or less mouldering
+remains of a large boat in which the dead man has been buried unburned
+with his weapons, horses, and other domestic animals. The swords found
+in these graves are of iron with hilts of beautiful designs in gilded
+or enamelled bronze. The shields and helmets are often of elaborate
+workmanship. Unlike the swords, which mostly, or perhaps always, are of
+foreign, generally of Celtic make, these ornaments and weapons are of
+domestic origin.
+
+It appears, from the many beautiful and artistic finds in Swedish
+soil, as if the inhabitants have benefited by their situation,
+aside and outside of the rest of the world. Continual migrations
+subjected the tribes of the continent to repeated changes and to a
+never-ceasing series of new and heterogeneous impressions. The tribes
+of the North remained on the same spot, and their whole development
+was slower but more consistent. The foreign influences penetrated
+slowly and gradually, without crushing the old civilization. The
+industrial arts blossomed not so often in the North as in the South,
+but steadier, giving a clearer expression of the national traditions
+and peculiarities. These circumstances make the study of Northern
+antiquities of absorbing interest.
+
+Before the end of this period, not only Gothaland and Svealand, but
+also the coast of Norrland, as far north as the province of Medelpad,
+were inhabited. As a whole, the first part of the Later Iron Age forms
+a transition between the Earlier Iron Age and the Viking Age, the
+archaeological finds of which we must leave aside to take up the threads
+of the earliest history. The Viking Age is exceedingly rich in stones
+with inscriptions in the later runes, some of these inscriptions being
+quite lengthy, and containing strophes of alliterative verse in Old
+Swedish.
+
+Before entering into an account of early Swedish history, let us
+gather what information the classical writers of history have to give
+in regard to the countries of the North, or rather whatever of such
+information that has been preserved to our day.
+
+The Scandinavian countries are for the first time mentioned by the
+historians of antiquity in an account of a journey which Pyteas from
+Massilia (the present Marseille) made through Northern Europe, about
+300 B.C. He visited Britain, and there heard of a great country, Thule,
+situated six days' journey to the north, and verging on the Arctic Sea.
+The inhabitants in Thule were an agricultural people who gathered their
+harvest into big houses for threshing, on account of the very few sunny
+days and the plentiful rain in their regions. From corn and honey they
+prepared a beverage (probably the mead). By Thule is no doubt meant the
+Scandinavian peninsula, or rather the western coast of it. Pyteas also
+tells of the land of amber, or the southern shores of the Baltic, where
+the _guttones_ are dwelling. As the northern and southern shores of the
+Baltic from the very earliest period seem to have been inhabited by
+the same race which has shared the same development and civilization,
+there is every reason to recognize the name _guttones_ as identical
+with the one given to the inhabitants of the Swedish Gothaland and
+Island of Gothland.
+
+Several centuries pass without any notice of Scandinavia in the
+classical literature. In the still preserved manuscripts of the
+geographical work by Pomponius Mela, written in the middle of the
+first century A.D., is found a reference to Codania, a large and
+fertile island inhabited by Teutons. Codania is likely some scribe's
+misspelling of Scandinavia
+
+Pliny the Elder, who himself visited the shores of the Baltic in
+the first century after Christ, is the first to mention plainly the
+name of Scandinavia. He says that he has received advices of immense
+islands "recently discovered from Germany." The most famous of the
+many islands situated in the Codanian Bay was Scandinavia, of as yet
+unexplored size; the known parts were inhabited by a people called
+_hilleviones_, who gave it the name of another world. When he speaks
+of the British isles, Pliny again gives notice of islands, situated
+opposite Britain in the Teutonic Sea, without suspecting their identity
+with Scandinavia. He mentions Scandia, Nerigon, the largest of them
+all, and Thule. Scandia and Scandinavia are only different forms of the
+same name, denoting the southernmost part of the peninsula, and is yet
+preserved in the name of the province of Scania. Nerigon stands for
+Norway, the northern part of which is mentioned as an island by the
+name Thule. It is not surprising to find the classical writers ignorant
+of the fact that Scandinavia was not a group of large islands, but one
+great peninsula, as the northern parts were as yet uninhabited and
+their physical connection with Finland and Russia unknown.
+
+Tacitus is the first who mentions the Swedish name. In his work
+"Germania," of such great importance for the knowledge of the ancient
+Teutons, their conditions and institutions, and written about 100 years
+after Christ, the Baltic is described as an open sea called the Suevian
+Sea, shut out from the west by the Danish mainland of Jutland, by the
+Romans called the Cimbric Peninsula. The eastern shore is the country
+of amber. The Swedes are by Tacitus called Suiones, and he speaks of
+them thus:
+
+"Next occur the communities of the Suiones, seated in the very sea,
+who, besides their strength in men and arms, also possess a naval
+force. The form of their vessels differs from ours in having a prow
+at each end, so that they are always ready to advance. They make no
+use of sails, nor have they regular benches of oars at the sides: they
+row, as is practiced in some rivers, without order, sometimes on one
+side, sometimes on the other, as occasion requires. These people honor
+wealth; for which reason they are subject to monarchial government,
+without any limitations or precarious conditions of allegiance. Nor
+are arms allowed to be kept promiscuously, as among the other Teutonic
+nations: but are committed to the charge of a keeper, and he, too,
+a slave. The pretext is that the sea defends them from any sudden
+incursions, and men unemployed, with arms in their hands, readily
+become licentious. In fact, it is for the king's interest not to
+intrust a noble, a freeman, or even an emancipated slave, with the
+custody of arms."
+
+These remarks by Tacitus, in all their brevity, are of great
+importance. Boats, exactly corresponding to the description as given,
+have been found in Swedish graves of this period, and that they were
+used for river traffic, to bring the gold and products of Rome and
+Byzantium up the Vistula and Oder, is evident. The great opulence
+in dress and temple service of which the archaeological finds bear
+witness, and of which later writers also speak as characteristic of the
+Swedes, is a proof of the wealth that at all times has attended naval
+dominion. Thus far all the statements being fully corroborated, one
+cannot but place great importance upon those that follow. The Roman
+historian tells us that, on account of the honor which the Swedes held
+for wealth, they were subject to a monarchial government, without any
+limitations; that is, the crown was hereditary, not elective. This
+coincides in every way with Swedish conditions of political affairs,
+such as we know them from later times. The important conclusions to be
+gathered from the statements of Tacitus, are that the Swedes already
+at the dawn of the Christian era held the political supremacy in the
+Scandinavian peninsula, or at least in its eastern and southern parts,
+and that the various lesser communities stood in allegiance to the
+hereditary king of the Sviar (Svear), or Swedes in a limited sense, the
+inhabitants of Svealand.
+
+The psychological conclusions made by Tacitus, on the basis of his own
+statements, hold good of the Swedes of to-day as well as of those of
+2,000 years ago. They still honor wealth and a monarchial government
+and consider the sea their best defence against foreign foes.
+
+Ptolemy, the Alexandrine geographer of the second century after Christ,
+speaks of the Scandinavian islands, situated east of the Cimbrian
+peninsula. The fourth and most easterly of these is the one originally
+called Scandeia. He enumerates six tribes which inhabit it, the names
+being unrecognizable, except the one of Gutai, Gauts or Goths, by him
+for the first time mentioned as dwelling in Scandinavia.
+
+To this information, gathered from classical authors, nothing is
+added for the next four hundred years in regard to the countries of
+the North. Only in the sixth century, when Rome has succumbed before
+the Gothic invasions, and the Teutonic tribes have divided between
+themselves the provinces of the West Roman empire, new information
+about Sweden is given by a Byzantine author, Prokopios, a contemporary
+of emperor Justinian. He mentions Scandinavia by the name Thule, and
+says he bases his statements upon information obtained from people "who
+come from there."
+
+Prokopios says that in the immense island of Thule, in the northern
+part of which the midnight sun can be seen, thirteen large tribes
+occupy its inhabitable parts, each tribe having its own king. One of
+the largest tribes is the Gauts (the Goetar, or the inhabitants of
+Swedish Gothaland). These tribes very much resemble the people of
+southern Europe, with the exception of the Skee Finns, who dress in
+skins and live from the chase.
+
+Prokopios tells a remarkable story about an immigration to Sweden of
+Herulians, a Teutonic tribe closely connected to the Goths on the
+Danube. In the beginning of the sixth century, it happened that the
+Herulians, after an unsuccessful war with the Longobardians, were
+divided into two branches, of which the one received land from the
+emperor Anastasius south of the Danube, while the other made a resolve
+to seek a home in the Scandinavian peninsula. When they had passed
+the Slavs, they came to uninhabited regions, whence they continued
+to the country of the Varinians, and later to that of the Danes. The
+Danes granted them a free passage and the use of ships, in which they
+crossed to the island of Thule. Here the Herulians went to the Gauts
+and were well received by them. Some decades later the Herulians in
+South Europe were in want of a king. They resolved to send messengers
+to their kinsmen who had settled in Sweden, hoping that some descendant
+of their old royal family might be found there who was willing to
+assume the dignity of king among them. The messengers returned with
+two brothers who belonged to the ancient family of rulers, and these
+were escorted by two hundred young Herulians from Sweden. That this
+immigration really took place there is no doubt. The district of Sweden
+where these kinsmen of the Goths settled was early distinguished
+from the surrounding ones, inhabited by the Gauts of Sweden, through
+the peculiarities of its laws and customs, of which some survived
+into the commencement of the nineteenth century. This district forms
+the southern part of the province of Smaland, called Vaerend, its
+inhabitants Virdar, and the adjoining province of Bleking.
+
+The Gothic historian Jordanes, or Jornandes, called Master Ardan, who
+was a contemporary of Prokopios, has taken upon himself to explain
+the reason of the strange resolve of the Herulians to seek a home in
+Sweden. He speaks of the traditions of the East Goths, which tell of
+their descent from the people of the North. Similar traditions also
+have existed among the West Goths, Longobardians, Gepidae, Burgundians,
+Herulians, Franks, Saxons, Swabians and Alemannians. Thus Jordanes: "In
+the North there is a great ocean, and in this ocean there is a large
+island called Scandza, out of whose loins our race burst forth like a
+swarm of bees and spread over Europe." The island of Scandza, he says,
+has been _officina gentium_, _vagina nationum_--the source of races,
+the mother of nations. And thence also the Goths have emigrated.
+
+Material is lacking to prove the historical truth of the Teutonic
+traditions which point to Scandinavia as the cradle of the Teutonic
+tribes. But Jordanes, the first historian of Teutonic birth who speaks
+of Scandinavia, stands at the cradle of Swedish history, and, as a
+modern historian has expressed it, his shadow throws an umbrage across
+the whole field of Swedish historical research. The mistake, based upon
+Jordanes' history, of identifying the Swedish Gauts with the Goths has
+caused a great deal of mischief and ridiculous chauvinism, Gothic and
+Swedish history and royal lines being mixed up or put in connection
+with each other.
+
+In leaving aside the Teutonic traditions of the island of Scandza, or
+Scania, as the cradle of the race, let us quote a remark by Tacitus
+which seems to point to the conclusion that such traditions were
+current already in the first century of the Christian era: "I should
+think that the Teutons themselves are aborigines, and not at all mixed
+through immigrations or connections with non-Teutonic tribes. For those
+desiring to change homes did not in early times come by land, but in
+ships across the boundless and, so to speak, hostile ocean--a sea
+seldom visited by ships from the Roman world."
+
+The Old English poem of Beowulf must also be mentioned among the
+sources which throw light on early Swedish history. Whether the Geatas
+of Beowulf are identical with the Jutes of Denmark, or with the Gauts
+of Sweden, is a much disputed question. Although, phonetically, the
+Old English name Geatas corresponds to the Old Swedish _Gautar_,
+it seems most plausible to suppose that by this term is meant the
+Jutes, and not the inhabitants of Swedish West or East Gothland. This
+accepted, the poem does not contain much about the Swedes. But the
+information, therein given, of the Swedish kings is of great value,
+because it renders the service of a firm chronological support to the
+facts gathered from another source. This source, of vastly greater
+importance, is the Ynglinga Saga, or rather the poem around which it is
+spun, in Heimskringla, of which more in the next chapter.
+
+The first information of the religion practiced by the inhabitants of
+Scandinavia is given by Prokopios, who says that they worshipped many
+gods and spirits of the sky, air, earth, sea, and also some who were
+supposed to dwell in springs and rivers. Offerings were constantly
+made, the chief ones being of human beings, for which the first
+prisoner made in a war was destined. This sacrifice was made to "Mars,"
+who was the highest god. The statements of Prokopios without doubt
+are correct. The Scandinavian war-god who corresponds to the Mars of
+classical mythology was Tyr. Odin, originally the ruler of the wind,
+became the highest god during the Viking Age. He is an aristocratic
+god, the god of the select few, whose cult succeeded that of Tyr as the
+cult of the latter had succeeded that of Thor, the thunderer, as the
+highest god. The idea of a supreme God was probably unknown until the
+contact with Christianity, or at least not common. Thor, the peasant
+god, is probably the oldest of the gods of Teutonic mythology, the
+representative of stern power and law-bound order. Thor was the most
+popular god of the Swedes, to judge from the great number of ancient
+Swedish proper names of which his forms a part. Besides Thor, Odin and
+Frey were the most honored. All the other gods and goddesses mentioned
+in Old Norse literature were probably known, but few of them much
+worshipped in Sweden.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+_Dawn of Swedish History--Heimskringla and Ynglingatal_
+
+
+Snorre Sturleson, the great historian and poet of Iceland, of the
+earlier half of the thirteenth century, is considered to be the author
+of the history of the kings of Norway which, after the first words of
+the first chapter, has been called Heimskringla. As an introduction
+to the work he has put the saga of the Yngling kings of Sweden, of
+whom many of the Norwegian kings were supposed to be descendants. The
+Ynglinga Saga is a paraphrase to the much older song of Ynglingatal,
+a poem composed by the Norwegian poet Thiodulf of Hvin (who lived
+in the latter part of the ninth century) in praise of the supposed
+Swedish ancestors of the Norwegian king Ragnvald. The Ynglings were
+probably not identical with the kings of Upsala, who were of the
+race of the Skilfings, but of South Swedish or Danish origin. It is
+either out of ignorance, or out of sagacity, that the poet selected
+the Upsala rulers as originators of the Norwegian line of kings, but
+he has been unfortunate in the choice of a name for the dynasty. The
+poem itself is a trustworthy historical document, at least as far as
+the times are concerned which come comparatively close to the time
+of its own composition, the first part containing many traits of a
+mythical character. The saga spun around it is far from trustworthy.
+Of the poem evidently the first, or first few, strophes are missing,
+but the "historian" supplies the vacuum with stories of the gods Odin,
+Niord and Frey, whom he, according to the ideas of his time, changes
+from gods into historic kings, the first who ruled Svithiod (Sweden).
+Among learned men in Snorre's day there was a craze for tracing the
+pedigree of all nations of any renown back to some of the heroes of
+ancient Troy. Snorre serves us a saga of Odin's migration from Troy
+which, besides being confuse, would appear only ridiculous, if it
+had not wielded about as highly disastrous an influence upon correct
+conceptions of Swedish history as the work by Jordanes. This migration
+saga is found in a still more elaborate form in an introduction to
+Snorre's Edda, and is responsible for the erroneous opinion held by
+earlier Swedish historians, that the Swedes had migrated from Asia
+under the leadership of a chief who called himself Odin, and that the
+Swedes and the Gauts were, if not of different origin, at least of a
+habitation of differing age in their present locations.
+
+Based upon the information found in Ynglinga Saga we will give a review
+of the history of the early kings of Sweden, although the first dozen,
+and more, of these kings are of a doubtful "historic" character. At
+the dawn of history, Sweden was, like most other countries of Northern
+Europe, divided into petty communities, each ruled by a king. These
+communities seem to have been nearly identical with the "lands"
+or later provinces into which Sweden is yet divided, although the
+administrative divisions are different. In spite of the fact that it
+is about 1,200 years since these communities were united into one
+single realm, the inhabitants preserve to this day their respective
+peculiarities of customs and language.
+
+The most important among the chieftains of Sweden was, since time
+immemorial, the king of Upsala, who conducted the sacrifices and temple
+service at Upsala, the oldest and most celebrated place of heathen
+worship in the Scandinavian North. Originally, he had under his rule
+only one-third of the present province of Upland, the chief settlement
+of the Sviar, or Swedes in a limited sense. The Upsala kings belonged
+to the ancient royal race of Skilfings (or "Ynglings," according to
+Snorre), who traced their origin from the gods. The founder of the
+dynasty as accepted by Thiodulf and others was _Yngve_, who is said
+to have built the great temple at Upsala, moving thither the capital
+from the older Sigtuna and contributing to the temple all his lands and
+riches. Yngve's son was _Fiolner_. King Fiolner was drowned by accident
+in a huge vessel full of mead, during a visit paid to King Frode in
+Denmark.
+
+His son _Sveigder_ disappeared during a journey which he made in order
+to find Odin, the old. Both the names Fiolner and Sveigder appear to
+be mythical. Sveigder's son _Vanlande_ was a great warrior. He is said
+once to have taken up his winter abode in Finland, which, together with
+several archaeological finds, point to an early intercourse between
+Sweden and Finland. _Visbur_ succeeded his father Vanlande, marrying
+the daughter of Aude (the Rich), whom he afterward left and took
+another wife, bringing on himself a curse by so doing. Visbur's sons
+fell unexpectedly over him, burning him in his house. _Domalde_, his
+son, succeeded him. During a great famine in Svithiod he was offered
+to the gods in order to obtain good seasons. Domalde's son and
+grandson, _Domar_ and _Dygve_, both reigned and died in peace. _Dag_,
+the son of Dygve, was so wise a man that he understood the language
+of birds. _Agne_, the son of Dag, was the ruler after him. One summer
+he invaded Finland with his army. When the Finns gathered there was a
+great battle, in which Agne gained victory, subduing all Finland. The
+daughter of a conquered chief, Skialf, was carried back to Sweden as
+his bride. But after a drinking feast, Agne was hanged in a tree by
+Skialf and her men. The place where this happened was called Agnefit,
+and is said to be identical with the site of Stockholm, the later
+capital of the country. _Alrek_ and _Eric_ became kings after the
+death of their father Agne. They got into a dispute one day while out
+walking. Having no weapons, they assailed and killed each other with
+their horses' bridles. Their successors, _Yngve_ and _Alf_, the sons
+of Alrek, shared a similar fate, killing each other in the royal hall
+by the high-seat. After them _Hugleik_, the son of Alf, became king of
+the Swedes. On the Fyrisvols, the plains by the river Fyris in Upland,
+Hugleik was killed in battle against a famous sea-king Hake, who
+subdued the country and became king of Svithiod. The saga mentions that
+this Hake was a brother of Hagbard, whose love for the king's daughter,
+Signe, cost him his life. This love story is one of the most famous in
+the North and much spoken of in saga and song. The spot where Hagbard
+was hanged in a tree is still pointed out. When Hake had ruled as king
+for three years, _Jorund_ and _Eric_, the sons of Yngve, returned
+with warships and warriors. They had grown up and become famous by
+conquering the king Gudlaug, of the Haleygians in Norway, whom they had
+met in Denmark. Now they met King Hake and his army at the Fyrisvols.
+In the battle, Eric was killed and Jorund fled to his ship. But King
+Hake was himself so grievously wounded that he ordered a warship to be
+loaded with his dead men and their weapons, and himself to be placed
+upon it. The sails were hoisted and the ship set on fire, and out it
+flew, with the dying king on board, between the skerries to the sea.
+Jorund now became king in Upsala. When he was one summer marauding in
+Jutland, he met a son of King Gudlaug, in the battle with whom he was
+overpowered, captured and hanged.
+
+King _Aune_ or _Ane_ was the son of Jorund. He was a wise man who
+made great sacrifices to the gods. Being no warrior he lived quietly
+at home. Twice he fled from Upsala, on account of Danish invasions,
+remaining in West Gothland twenty-five years each time, and holding
+sway at Upsala for an equally long time between his periods of exile.
+He lived to become 110 years of age. The secret of his longevity was
+that he sacrificed one of his sons to Odin every tenth year, and was
+granted in return a decade of prolonged life. When about to sacrifice
+his tenth son, the people interfered, and he died from old age. The
+last ten years of his life he was very feeble, drinking out of a horn
+like an infant. He was buried in a mound at Upsala.
+
+King _Egil_ was the son of Ane, and, like his father, no warrior.
+Under his reign and that of his son, king _Ottar_, Sweden suffered a
+good deal of trouble from Denmark. The Danish king Frode had helped
+Egil against the revolt of one of his subjects, and demanded from
+his son a scat, or tribute, in return. Ottar fell in battle against
+the jarls of Frode. Both he and his son _Audils_, who ruled Svithiod
+after him, are mentioned in Beowulf as Ohthere and his son Eadgils
+of the royal Swedish line of the Scylfingas (Skilfings). This fact
+gives to Swedish history its first reliable date. The Danish king
+Hugleik, a contemporary of King Ottar, died in 515 A.D., which renders
+with a certainty Ottar's reign as falling in the first part of the
+sixth century. Audils ruled for a long time and often went on viking
+expeditions to Saxonland, Denmark and Norway. In Saxonland, Audils
+captured the household of King Geirthiof, among whom was a remarkably
+beautiful girl, called Yrsa. The king married her, but she was
+afterward taken to Denmark by King Helge of Leire after a successful
+plundering expedition in Svithiod. Helge had a son by her, Rolf Krake,
+but Yrsa returned to her first husband, after being told by Queen Alof,
+the wife of Geirthiof, that Helge was her father and Alof her mother.
+When Rolf Krake later became king his men once helped King Audils in
+one of his expeditions in Norway. King Rolf's men did not receive the
+compensation promised them, and Rolf came to Upsala to demand it for
+them. King Rolf was warned by his mother Yrsa that Audils was not well
+disposed, and he and his men made in haste for their ships. King Audils
+and his men started out in their pursuit. Then Rolf took a horn filled
+with gold, a recent gift of his mother, emptying its contents on the
+plain. Audils and his men stopped to pick up the gold, and Rolf thus
+made his escape. Rolf Krake is one of the most famous of Danish heroes.
+In the poetic language of the Old Northern literature, gold is often
+called "the seed of the Fyrisvols" or "Rolf Krake's seed." As King
+Audils once rode around the hall at a sacrifice his horse stumbled and
+fell, and the king was killed.
+
+_Eystein_, the son of Audils, ruled after him and was succeeded by his
+son _Yngvar_. Eystein was never able to defend his people against the
+Danes, while Yngvar was a successful warrior, both at home and abroad.
+But one summer when he was fighting in Esthonia he was killed by the
+Esthonians. He was buried in a mound close to the seashore.
+
+_Anund_ was Yngvar's son and successor. He went to Esthonia to avenge
+his father, ravaging the country and returning with great booty. In
+his time there were fruitful seasons in Svithiod. On this account, and
+because he made many roads, cleared the woods and cultivated the new
+land, he became one of the most popular of early Swedish kings. He was
+called _Broet-Anund_, viz., Anund Roadmaker.
+
+_Ingiald_, the son of Anund, became king in Upsala after his father. He
+was the most remarkable of all the Ynglings (Skilfings), for, through
+violence and cunning, he united all the communities of Sweden into
+one realm. When his father died, the king at Upsala was certainly the
+supremely powerful ruler in Svithiod, but not the only one, for there
+were many district-kings who were to a great extent independent. There
+were not only kings in East Gothland, Soedermanland, and Nerike, but
+in Upland there were, besides the Upsala king, also kings in each of
+the three "lands" into which this province was formerly divided; viz.,
+Tiundaland, Attundaland, and Fiedrundaland. Ingiald ordered a great
+feast to celebrate the fact that he had come to the throne after his
+father, and invited seven other kings, all of whom were present, except
+Granmar, king of Soedermanland. When the Brage-bowl, on which promises
+were made, was carried in, King Ingiald made a solemn vow to enlarge
+his dominions by one-half, toward all the four corners of the world,
+or die. In the evening Ingiald set fire to the hall, and all the six
+royal guests perished with their followers. Ingiald took possession
+of all the dominions belonging to the unfortunate kings. In the next
+year he surrounded the hall in which King Granmar found himself at the
+time, killing him and taking his land in possession. "It was a common
+saying," Snorre tells us, "that King Ingiald had killed twelve kings
+and deceived them all under pretence of peace; therefore he was called
+Ingiald Illrade (the evil-adviser)." His daughter, Asa, was of the same
+disposition as her father. She was married to Gudrod, king of Scania,
+but had to flee from the land after having caused the death of her
+husband and his brother. When it was learned that King Ivar, nephew of
+Gudrod, had entered Svithiod with an army, Asa counselled her father to
+set fire to the hall of the king after his men were drunk and asleep.
+Thus perished Ingiald Illrade with his daughter, very much in the same
+fashion in which he had killed so many of the petty kings.
+
+For the centuries following upon Ingiald's death, Snorre has a very
+short, or almost no account to give about Sweden and her rulers. What
+can be gathered from other sources, principally from late Icelandic
+sagas, is not trustworthy, mythical and fictitious elements being
+discernible.
+
+After Ingiald, _Ivar Vidfamne_ (the Far-stretching) is said to have
+ruled Sweden, "also Denmark, Saxonland, all of Austria and one-fifth
+of England." One account has it that Ivar was the head of a new
+dynasty in Sweden. As he was originally king of Scania, perhaps these
+were the real Ynglings. Another source claims for the succeeding
+Swedish kings descent from the old race of the Ynglings (viz., the
+Skilfings). Ingiald's son Olof, according to Snorre, fled to the woods
+of Vermland, until then uninhabited, and later came to Norway. But it
+is a misunderstanding of Thiodulf's lines which causes Snorre to say
+that King Olof was buried close by the Lake Venar, in Vermland. The
+province of Vermland was inhabited much earlier than in Olof's time,
+and the Olof who became the founder of a Norwegian dynasty was probably
+a Danish prince.
+
+_Harald Hildetand_ of Denmark is said to have succeeded Ivar, and to
+have ruled over as much territory as his mother's father. Several
+sources speak of King Harald and the battle of Bravols, in which his
+life was ended and which battle generally is taken as a historic
+milestone, marking the opening of the Viking Age. It was fought
+somewhere about the year 740. King Harald had become old and almost
+blind. In Svithiod and West Gothland, the kings Sigurd and Ring (by
+the sagas made into one hero by the name "Sigurd Ring") ruled under
+Harald, while he reigned himself over Denmark and East Gothland. The
+relations were good at first, but their aspect soon changed. After
+great preparations on either side, Ring met Harald on the plains of
+Bravik in East Gothland. The battle was a long and bloody one and the
+most renowned in song and saga. King Harald, too old to take an active
+part, mounted a chariot, which carried him into the midst of the fight.
+When King Ring at last saw the chariot empty, he understood that the
+aged king had fallen and gave the sign that the battle should come to
+an end. King Ring caused the remains of his fallen foe to be burned
+with great pomp and ceremony on a pile with his horse, weapons and many
+a costly treasure of gold and silver. King _Ring_ was said to have been
+ruler of Sweden and Denmark after King Harald. The sagas mention the
+hero, _Ragnar Lodbrok_, as his son and successor. While this great
+viking and sea-king appears to have been a historic personage in the
+earlier half of the ninth century, it is impossible that he could have
+been identical with King Ring's son _Ragnar_, or that he or his sons
+ever were kings in Upsala or Sweden.
+
+With the first attempts to introduce Christianity into Sweden (of which
+more later) a more definite knowledge of Swedish rulers and conditions
+is gained. When Ansgar, the apostle of Sweden, visited the country
+for the first time, about 830, the ruling king was _Bioern_. Shortly
+afterward King _Anund_ is mentioned. He fled from his land, but was
+reinstated with the help of the Danes. King _Olof_ was on the throne
+at the time of Ansgar's second visit to Sweden, about 850. These kings
+must have been of the same family as those who held the throne up to
+the middle of the eleventh century, for their names all occur again in
+the line of later Swedish kings, the reigns of whom fall in the broad
+light of history.
+
+We have seen how Ingiald Illrade joined the various communities into
+one single realm. Although there is doubt whether this realm from the
+start embraced all Sweden, there is no historical evidence or any
+reliable traditions whatever to show that Sweden was ever divided into
+smaller kingdoms after the death of King Ingiald. When Ansgar reaches
+Sweden he travels through half of the country in order to reach the
+commercial centre of Birka, where the king of Sweden is dwelling.
+No other king, great or petty, is spoken of, while the contemporary
+Icelanders mention jarls (earls) in Gothaland, which proves that the
+once independent kings in that district were made away with.
+
+Of particular importance is the account of a journey which a certain
+Wulfstan made to the North, at the close of the ninth century. This
+account is given in an Old English translation of Orosii Historia,
+credited to King Alfred of England. Thus it runs: "Wulfstan said that
+he went from Schleswig to Truso in seven days, that the ship was all
+the way running under sail. Wendland was on his right, but Langeland,
+Lolland, Falster and Scania on his left, and all these lands belong
+to Denmark, and then Bornholm was on our left, which has a king of
+its own. Then after Bornholm, the lands of Bleking, Moere, OEland, and
+Gotland, were first on our left, and these lands belong to Sweden."
+
+Wulfstan's account, besides furnishing evidence to prove the political
+consolidation of Sweden, also gives a good idea of the size of the
+country in this period. The once independent province of Scania, which
+had kings of its own, already belongs to Denmark. So does also the
+province of Halland, while Bohuslaen belongs to Norway. Dal and Vermland
+are contested provinces between the kings of Sweden and Norway, while
+great parts of Norrland are yet uninhabited, except by Laps, who ramble
+from one place to another, without a fixed dwelling place. In King
+Alfred's Orosius, Danish Jutland and Swedish Gautland (Gothaland) are
+alike called _Gotland_, which recalls the supposition of the majority
+of modern scholars that Gotland was in the earliest times the common
+Teutonic name of the North, and Goths the common name of its Teutonic
+inhabitants.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+_The Viking Age--Ansgar, the Apostle of Sweden_
+
+
+"In the North there is a great ocean, and in this ocean there is a
+large island called Scandza, out of whose loins our race burst forth
+like a swarm of bees and spread over Europe." These were the words the
+Gothic historian Jordanes put on parchment, inspired by the popular
+traditions of a Teutonic migration from the North. Historic evidence is
+lacking to prove or disprove the truth of these words. But they may be
+applied to the phenomenon which has given its name to the _Viking Age_.
+
+The Viking expeditions seem to stand in connection with the great
+Teutonic migrations, at least to be related to them in nature. The
+Teutons of the North were not directly affected by the migrations, but
+at the close of the eighth century the same restlessness and desire of
+expansion appear to have taken possession of the Northmen as in earlier
+times of their relatives in more southerly lands. And it was a timely
+move, for the energy and strength with which these had in their time
+suffused Europe were dying out. Europe was in need of new blood and
+iron to wake her from her anaemia and to build up new institutions. The
+North was freed from a turbulent and lawless element and was brought in
+closer contact than ever before with the learning and culture of the
+world. For centuries the Northmen had through their southern kinsmen
+been in contact with continental culture. But now they came out to see
+for themselves, to make themselves a place in a wider and richer world,
+or to bring home from there what they most desired of beauty, riches
+and culture. They were not delicate as to means. Violence was with them
+as natural as their freedom of individuality was indispensable. Yet
+they were to play a most important part in the cultural development
+of Europe, furnishing her with institutions of imperishable iron and
+changing the darkness of the Middle Ages into an era of chivalry in
+spirit and in deeds.
+
+The Viking expeditions were always undertaken by free men, and were
+in the North, from remotest times, considered not only an honest but
+an honorable occupation. Slaves and freed men were excluded. The
+leaders--often kings or their sons--were always men of noble descent or
+of importance. As the Viking expeditions took on larger proportions,
+they became more and more organized; from random expeditions,
+undertaken by individuals, they developed into national undertakings,
+led by the king or his chieftains, not for a pastime, but in completion
+of a national policy. On account of this latest aspect, it is but
+just to divide the field in which the Northmen were active according
+to their respective nationalities. With such a division applied, the
+Viking expeditions to the West, to Britain, France, Portugal and Spain
+do not pertain to Swedish history, for they were planned and undertaken
+principally by Danes and Norwegians. It is true that there were many
+Swedish participants also in these expeditions, as the sagas and the
+memorial stones on Swedish soil tell us; also true that some of the
+later Swedish provinces, like Bohuslaen[1] and Scania, sent out their
+large contingents of Vikings and sea-kings to the West, and that one of
+the oldest Swedish homes of culture, West Gothland, had an appropriate
+channel to the West, by way of the mighty Gotha River, through which
+without doubt many a Viking expedition was sent; yet the leaders were
+in a majority of cases Danish or Norwegian chieftains. For similar
+reasons the Viking expeditions to the East belong by right to Swedish
+history. In them the participants and chieftains were Swedes, to an
+overwhelming majority, and, from time immemorial, Swedish districts
+from which the expeditions were started.
+
+To Russia the Swedes first went on marauding expeditions; but after the
+countries of the North had been shaped into three large monarchies,
+they came to Russia upon special invitation, in order to found there a
+realm of strong and consistent government. This becomes evident from
+the testimony of the Russian historian Nestor, a monk in Kief, who
+lived in the latter part of the eleventh century. About the founding
+of the Russian empire by the Swedes he has the following remarkable
+statements:
+
+"In the year 6367 (after the creation of the world, which is the 859th
+after the birth of Christ) the Variagi (or Varangians) came across the
+sea, taking tribute from the Tchud and the Slavs," etc.--"In the year
+6370 (862 A.D.) they chased the Variagi back across the sea, giving
+them no tribute and commencing to govern themselves, but it turned out
+badly with legal affairs, tribe rose against tribe, causing strife,
+and a rebellion was started. Then they said between themselves: 'Let
+us seek a prince who will govern us and reason with us justly!' And
+they went across the sea to the Variagi, to the Russians, for thus
+were the Variagi called, just as others were called Sviar, others
+Nurmanni, others Anglii, and others Goths. And the Tchudi (the Slavs
+of Novgorod), the Slavs, the Krivitchi and the Vessi said to the
+Russians, 'Our land is great and fruitful, but it lacks order and
+justice; come and take possession, and govern us!' And three brothers
+with their followers were selected, and they took the whole of Rus with
+them and came. And the oldest, Rurik, took his abode in Novgorod, the
+second, Sineus, his in Bielo-Jesero, and the third, his in Isborsk;
+his name was Truvor. After two years Sineus and his brother Truvor
+died. Rurik then took the whole power into his hands and gave towns
+over to his men, giving to one Polotsk, to another Rostof, and to a
+third Bielo-Jesero. And into these towns the Variagi have migrated; the
+earlier inhabitants in Novgorod were Slavs, in Polotsk, Krivitchi, in
+Rostof, Meri, and in Bielo-Jesero, Vessi."
+
+That the Variagi were of Swedish descent, and that it was they who
+gave the name of Russia to the Slav countries, is proved beyond the
+possibility of a doubt. A most weighty argument is the large number of
+Swedish names in the list of Variag princes who reigned in Russia. It
+would not have been possible for Nestor to devise the more than one
+hundred leading names of Swedish origin which occur in his chronicle.
+Furthermore, it has been shown that there are fifteen Swedish loanwords
+in Russian. This is very much. Great and powerful nations have left
+behind a good deal less in modern languages, the Vandals three words,
+the Burgundians four or five, the Herulians one. Although the Swedes in
+Russia had no literature in their ancestral language, they have left
+behind more words than the majority of Teutonic tribes founding states
+and nations. The Old Swedish equivalents to some of the most important
+proper names which meet us in early Russian history are as follows:
+Rurik--Hroerekr, Sineus--Signjotr, Truvor--Tryggve, Oleg--Helge,
+Olga--Helga, Igor--Inge, Ingvar.
+
+For two hundred years after Rurik, all the leading men in Russian
+history carry Swedish names, and all the czars of Russia were the
+descendants of Rurik, up to the year 1598. The emperor and historian
+Constantine Porphyrogenitus, speaking of Russia, makes the distinction
+between the Slavs and the Russians proper. In his description of the
+cataracts of the Dniepr, he gives to each the Russian and the Slav
+name, and these Russian names are nearly all understood by reference
+to old Swedish roots. Examples are Gellandri (Gellandi)--the Noisy,
+Eyforr--the Always Turbulent. Luitprand, the Italian chronicler,
+speaking of the Russians, says: "The Greeks call them Russians, we call
+them properly Northmen." The annals of St. Bertinus tell how Emperor
+Theophilus recommended some Russian envoys to Louis le Debonnaire, but
+how he, taking them for Norman spies, threw them into prison. The first
+Russian Code of Laws, compiled by Iaroslaf, presents a striking analogy
+to the Old Swedish laws.
+
+The Slavs must have originally borrowed the name Russian from the
+Finns, who, up to the present day, call the Swedes _Ruotsi_. The name
+is in Sweden connected with a part of the coast of Upland still called
+Roslagen. The etymology of the name is Old Swedish _rodr_ (rudder)
+and _roethsmenn_ (oarsmen). Roslagen means "associations of oarsmen."
+The district is famous for its large peculiar rowboats. By the term
+Russians, the Slavs originally meant people from Roslagen, later Sweden
+in general. But when these Russians had become the founders of a new
+empire, south of the Baltic, it became necessary to devise a new name
+for the inhabitants of Sweden. This name was found in Variagi. Only
+the Swedes seeking employment as sworn warriors in the service of the
+new Russian dynasty, or in the body-guard of the Byzantine emperors,
+were originally thus called. But when the name of the new nation of
+Swedes and Slavs became Russians, the Swedes, and the Scandinavians
+in general, became known as Variagi. The etymology of the word has
+been given as the Old Swedish _var_ (_sacramentum_) and _vaeringar_
+(_sacramentarii_, soldiers bound by oath). The same name applied to
+Swedes, or Northmen, occurs frequently in slightly altered forms in
+Greek and Arabic manuscripts.
+
+While Rurik and his brothers were building towns, which probably
+means the fortifying of ancient villages, two other Variagi, Askold
+and Dir, who were not of the family of Rurik, went down to Kief, and
+reigned over the Poliane. It was they who began the expeditions against
+Byzantium in 865. In speaking of this, Nestor calls the Bosphorus
+_Sud_, an Old Swedish word meaning a sound. The Bosphorus is also
+called Sud on a Swedish memorial stone over a man who was killed in a
+similar expedition.
+
+Oleg, the fourth brother of Rurik, was his successor, his son Igor
+being yet a minor. He was an energetic man and a great administrator.
+
+Smolensk, Lubetch and Kief were captured, and Askold and Dir put to
+death. Between the years 879-912, Oleg organized the Russian empire.
+For the sake of commerce, he tried to preserve peace with the Greeks,
+but when difficulties arose he called in new armies from Sweden and
+great expeditions started against Byzantium. But these Variagi were
+an unruly element, and, in order to satisfy their desire for war and
+booty, the Russian rulers always let a plundering expedition to the
+Caspian Sea follow every unsuccessful attack upon Byzantium; also when
+war with the Greeks was avoided through decrees of peace, expeditions
+to the Caspian Sea took place.
+
+These expeditions against the Arabs, who inhabited the coasts of the
+Caspian Sea, were neither in any marked degree successful. Masudi
+is the first author among the Arabs who mentions the expeditions of
+the Swedes. They came down the river Volga in their ships. The Arabs
+describe the "Rus" as blond and "tall as palm-trees." The burial of a
+Rus is described by Ibn Fosslan, who visited Bulgaria in 921. "The hero
+was burned in a ship with weapons, horses, dogs and a woman." In 965,
+the Israelite, Ibrahim Ibn Jakub, made a journey to Germany. He tells
+that the Arabs in his day with Rus (Russians) meant partly the Swedes
+of Sweden, "who often came in ships from the West to plunder," partly
+the Swedes settled in Russia, "who speak the language of the Slavs, on
+account of admixture with them."
+
+It was the destiny of the Swedes in Russia to exchange their language
+for that of the Slavs and finally to absorb Slav customs. Such might
+not have been the case if they had been greater in numbers, or if their
+coming had been deferred to a later, Christian period, when to a strong
+form of government would have been added a strong Church organization.
+Yet their influence was greater than that of the Vikings in any other
+country, for the Russian empire was entirely a Northern creation.
+
+To follow further the Rurik dynasty would lead us away from Swedish
+into Russian history. But let us mention that Oleg was succeeded
+by Rurik's son Igor, who also was a great war-lord, and undertook
+the third expedition of Russians and Variagi against Byzantium. His
+widow was the celebrated Olga, who was converted to Christianity
+and afterward canonized. She reigned during the minority of her son
+Sviatoslaf, whose conversion she was never able to effect. Sviatoslaf's
+son and grandson, Saint Vladimir and Jaroslaf the Great, were the
+Clovis and the Charlemagne of Russia.
+
+After the conquest of Kief, Oleg commanded a tribute to be paid to the
+Variagi "for the preservation of peace." This tribute to the Swedes
+was paid up to the death of Jaroslaf, who in 1019 gave assurance to
+the king of Upsala that it should be paid regularly, Vladimir having
+neglected to do so. This tribute could be nothing else than a scat
+paid to the king of Sweden by the rulers of Russia during the ninth
+and tenth centuries. Sweden possessed in those days a large territory
+south of the Baltic, which paid scat to the king of Upsala. It was
+called Austria (_Austerike_), and reference to it under this name is
+often made in sagas, chronicles and inscriptions. Ynglinga Saga gives
+incidents of close Swedish connections to Finland and the Baltic
+provinces, and archaeological finds point to Swedish settlements in
+Finland, already in the prehistoric period. Memories of conquests are
+preserved in statements by the Icelanders and by Saxo, the Danish
+historian, about the Austria of which the Swedish kings Ivar Vidfamne,
+Harald Hildetand, "Sigurd" Ring and Ragnar "Lodbrok" were rulers.
+Closest to an exact statement comes Snorre, who says that King Eric
+Edmundson of Sweden ruled over Finland, Carelia, Esthonia, Courland
+and "wide over all Austria." These countries belonged to Sweden until
+King Olof Skoetkonung "let all his scatlands get away from him." The
+chronicler Rimbert says that Courland, by which he means the Baltic
+provinces, in 850 belonged to Sweden. Shortly after this date fall,
+according to Nestor, those of the first Swedish contact with interior
+Russia (859) and of the founding of the Russian empire by Rurik (862).
+The Swedish dominion in the Baltic provinces, as well as the early
+Russian empire, must consequently have held a position similar to the
+one of Normandie to France and England.
+
+The old Swedish name for Russia was Gardarike, for Novgorod Holmgard
+and for Byzantium Miklagard, which mean "Country of towns," "Island
+town," and "Great town," respectively.
+
+Vladimir of Russia, in 980, sent a number of Variagi to the emperor.
+But already the emperors had probably surrounded themselves with
+a small standing army of Variagi or Barangoi, as they were called
+by the Greeks. They were treated with a good deal of respect and
+consideration, and in the North it was considered a distinction
+to have served in Miklagard, which even the sons of kings eagerly
+sought for. Soon not only Swedes, but also Norwegians, Danes and
+Icelanders were attracted, and Icelandic sources have a good many,
+in part wildly exaggerated, accounts of the Variagi and their
+experiences in Miklagard. The Northmen were relied upon to support the
+tottering empire, and were despatched to the points where the hardest
+combats were fought. They had officers of their own nationality,
+and the strictest discipline was maintained. About the year 1050
+a detachment of Variagi were accepted into the body-guard of the
+emperor, surrounding his person on all great occasions and in public;
+also keeping watch over the imperial palace. When the emperor died,
+they had, according to Snorre, the privilege of passing through his
+treasury, each taking along all he could carry off. Another privilege
+of theirs was that they were allowed to keep their heathen faith in the
+midst of the Christian surroundings.
+
+Many and various as the reasons for the Viking expeditions must have
+been, the principal cause that led to their abolition was the contact
+with Christianity abroad, and the introduction of its teaching in the
+heathen North. The first missionaries to Sweden were sent by Louis the
+Pious, but Christianity was not entirely unknown before their arrival.
+For centuries, the Swedes had through commercial expeditions stood
+in direct or indirect contact with the Christian world, and this had
+brought home some knowledge of "the white Christ" and his gospel of
+peace. Many Northmen had been baptized while dwelling in foreign lands,
+and many must the Christian thralls have been who continually were
+brought into the country. The influence these elements exerted probably
+could be traced to the ennobling and developing of heathen myths,
+rather than to direct Christian conversions. And a similar influence of
+Roman and Greek myths, without doubt, exerted upon the North in earlier
+historic times.
+
+Ansgar, a learned and pious monk from the convent of Corvey, became the
+apostle of Sweden. He had spent two years in Denmark as a missionary
+when called upon by Emperor Louis to visit Sweden. Louis the Pious had
+received the assurance by Swedish emissaries that the new faith would
+not meet with any obstacle, and that many were willing to embrace it.
+Ansgar started in the year of 830, accompanied by Witmar, also of the
+Corvey convent. They were well received by King Bioern, and were able
+to comfort many Christians in Swedish captivity, besides converting
+some of the inhabitants. Among the converts was the powerful Jarl
+Herger, who for a long period was the chief supporter of Christianity
+in Sweden. After about a year and a half, Ansgar and Witmar returned
+to the emperor, who, satisfied with the result of their mission,
+erected a special archbishopric in Hamburg for the spiritual needs of
+the North. Ansgar was made the archbishop and, with Ebo, archbishop
+of Rheims, apostolic legate among Swedes, Danes and Slavs. At the
+same time, Gauzbert was made the first bishop of Sweden under the
+name of Simon. He went to Sweden and was well received by its king
+and people. But a revolt against the new faith soon rose among the
+heathens, not issuing from the king but from the people. Gauzbert
+was captured and with contumely escorted out of the country, while
+his relative, Nithard, was killed, thus becoming the first Christian
+martyr in Sweden. For seven years the country was without a preacher
+of the Gospel, until Ansgar sent thither a new missionary, Ardgar,
+who stayed there preaching until the death of Herger. In the meantime
+Vikings had destroyed Hamburg, and not before its bishopric had been
+united to that of Bremen was Ansgar in a position to visit Sweden for
+a second time. This he effected early in the fifties of the ninth
+century, coming this time as a kind of ambassador from the kings of
+Denmark and Germany to give more importance to his mission. The heathen
+partisans, who recently had accepted the departed King Eric among the
+gods, resented, and the reigning king, Olof, dared not grant Ansgar
+the right to preach. The difficulty was solved through the ancient
+custom of throwing dice. Ansgar was successful in the proceedings,
+and his cause was then brought before the Thing (or Assembly) for
+deliberation. The people decided that permission should be granted to
+preach the Gospel, principally on the grounds set forth by an old man
+who rose to remind the Thing that the new God had already helped a good
+many, and that it was a good thing to have him to fall back on when
+the old gods failed. After having built churches and baptized a great
+number, Ansgar returned home, leaving behind Erimbert, a relative of
+Gauzbert's. Archbishop Rimbert was Ansgar's successor, himself visiting
+Sweden. After his death, the archbishops of the North seem to have
+ceased taking interest in Swedish missions. The little church, left
+to itself, soon succumbed. When at last one of the archbishops, Unne,
+woke up to the necessity of visiting Sweden, he found that the Gospel
+was forgotten. He was himself surprised by death while in Sweden, and
+buried in the town of Birka, in 936. Numerous graves of the earlier
+Christians in Sweden have been found on the site of the old commercial
+centre of Birka in the island Bioerkoe, in the Lake Maelar, unburned
+bodies in wooden coffins, and the graves without mounds.
+
+King _Eric Edmundson_ was a contemporary of Rimbert. He was engaged in
+building up a Swedish dominion in Finland and on the southern shores
+of the Baltic. With King Harald Fairhair of Norway he was disputing
+the supremacy over the province of Vermland. He was succeeded by his
+son _Bioern_ who is said to have reigned for fifty years. _Olof_ and
+_Eric_, Bioern's two sons, succeeded him, the former dying suddenly at
+a banquet. His young son, _Styrbioern Starke_ (the Strong), one of the
+most famous of Swedish heroes, demanded his share of the kingdom when
+only twelve years old. When King Eric told him he was yet too young,
+Styrbioern two springs in succession installed himself on the mound of
+his father, by so doing making claim upon his inheritance, according
+to old usage. But when he came to the Thing to demand his share in the
+government he was chased away with stone-throwing. King Eric gave him
+sixty ships with men and weapons to try his luck in Viking expeditions.
+Styrbioern won great fame during several years of continual warfare in
+the Baltic, capturing the mighty Jomsborg, a celebrated Viking nest in
+the island of Wollin, later turning his weapons upon Denmark, where he
+made the Danish king Harald Gormson Bluetooth a prisoner. He now felt
+strong enough to attack his uncle, King Eric. Harald Bluetooth was to
+help him, but failed to do so. Styrbioern sailed with a fleet to Sweden;
+after having landed he burned his ships to make a return impossible.
+King Eric met him at the Fyrisvols and fought a battle which was said
+to have lasted for three days. Styrbioern fell, and with him the larger
+part of his army. His uncle, the king, was after this called _Eric
+Segersaell_ (the Victorious). After the battle the king ascended a high
+mound, promising a great compensation to the one who could compose a
+song in praise of the victory. The Icelander Thorvald Hialte, who never
+previously or afterward appeared as a scald, came forth and recited
+two strophes which are preserved to our day, receiving a costly armlet
+of gold as reward. This battle--next to the one at Bravols, the most
+famous in the heathen North--was fought in 988.
+
+King Eric invaded Denmark and took possession of the country, making
+the son of Harald Bluetooth an exile, to which facts Saxo, the Danish
+historian, testifies. In Denmark Eric was baptized, the first Swedish
+king about whom this is said. But upon his return to Sweden he also
+returned to the old gods. Eric Segersaell was king of Sweden and Denmark
+until his death, which occurred in 994. His first consort, Sigrid
+Storrada (the Proud), from whom he later separated, played quite an
+important part in the history of her time. After the death of Eric,
+she married the exiled Svend Tjufvuskaegg (their son being Canute the
+Great), who through this matrimony came to the throne of Denmark.
+
+_Olof Skoetkonung_, the son of Eric and Sigrid, succeeded his father.
+His surname is supposed to mean "the lap king," but he was no longer
+a minor at the death of King Eric. King Olof was not a powerful or
+energetic ruler, like the father. He let go, one after the other, the
+lands of his crown. Denmark regained its independence, and he lost
+also the scat-paying dominions south of the Baltic. Shortly after Olof
+ascended the throne, the Norwegian king, Olaf Tryggvason, had demanded
+Sigrid Storrada in marriage and obtained her consent. But when King
+Olaf asked her to become a Christian, she refused to change faith,
+whereupon he insulted her. Sigrid told him that this should cause his
+death. Two years later, when Sigrid was the wife of King Svend of
+Denmark, she prevailed upon her son and her husband to join hands in
+assailing Olaf Tryggvason, who was expected back from an expedition
+to the lands of the Vends. The compact was made, and the Norwegian
+jarls, Eric and Svein, entered it. These all collected an immense
+fleet, which assailed the unsuspecting Olaf at Svolder, close by the
+coast of Pomerania. The Norwegian king lost the day and his life. This
+famous battle was fought in 1000, the kings of Sweden and Denmark also
+taking a personal part in it. Norway was divided between the victors.
+The Swedish king received as his share the districts of Drontheim and
+Bohuslaen. These he granted to Jarl Svein, who was the betrothed of
+his sister Holmfrid. Fifteen years later they were recaptured by the
+Norwegian king.
+
+Olaf Tryggvason had been a devout Christian. His sister Ingeborg was
+married to Jarl Ragnvald of West Gothland, who was baptized and invited
+Christian missionaries to Sweden. Through such influences King Olof
+Skoetkonung was at last converted and baptized by Sigfrid, a German
+missionary, at Husaby in West Gothland, in the year 1008. Sigfrid, who
+has been supposed to be of English parentage and a bishop of York,
+evidently came from Germany. He preached for a long period in West
+Gothland and Vaerend, in the latter district once being attacked by
+heathen men, who killed three of his companions. King Olof himself saw
+to it that the murderers were punished, and Sigfrid continued his noble
+work without molestation. He was later worshipped as a saint. Among
+other missionaries who were active in converting the various provinces
+may be mentioned the Anglo-Saxon St. David, the apostle of Westmanland,
+the Anglo-Saxon St. Eskil and the Swede St. Botvid, the apostles of
+Soedermanland, and the German Stenfi, or Simon, the apostle of Norrland.
+St. David was a contemporary of St. Sigfrid, while the others were a
+few generations younger. It was first through influence from England
+and Denmark, during the reign of Canute the Great, that Swedish
+conversions became more widespread and general.
+
+King Olof's conversion met with a great deal of opposition, especially
+in Svealand, which longest remained heathen. Upsala, with its temple,
+was the heathen stronghold of the North, and there the king had always,
+as one of his principal duties, to preside over the great sacrifices.
+King Olof was forced to accept the decision of a Thing which granted
+him freedom to select some part of the kingdom wherein to build
+churches and perform the duties of the new cult, but which forbade
+him to use his influence toward the conversion of his subjects. For
+this reason Olof dwelt principally in the more and more christianized
+West Gothland, in the capital of which province, Skara, a bishop
+was installed. The name of the first bishop was Turgot. Only after
+more than two centuries of endeavor was the Christian Church firmly
+established in Sweden, in the middle of the eleventh century; but
+even at that time the great mass of the people were heathen in name.
+The heathen party was so strong that it could for a long time, and
+occasionally with success, keep up the battle against Christianity. It
+took yet another century before the complete victory of Christianity
+was an assured fact.
+
+The reasons for the slow progress of Christianity in Sweden were many,
+the principal one not being an opposition to the Christian doctrines.
+The superstitious change easily from one cult to another. The sceptics
+do not believe more in one god than in another. Of heathen sceptics
+there were a great many in the North who believed in nothing else
+than their own strength. But it was the Christian morals which were
+so difficult for the Swedes to accept. Accustomed to great personal
+liberty, they could not endure the restraint which Christian morals
+placed upon the individual. The very spirit of Christianity, with its
+kindliness and meekness, was not attractive to the Northman, who
+in his own mental and physical force found a tower of strength. The
+period of the first attempts at conversion was not well chosen. The
+whole North was inflamed by the Viking rage for war and plunder. Then
+followed a period of disinterestedness when the good seed was sown but
+the field neglected. Later the too arduous zeal of the priests called
+forth criticism and resistance from the Swedes, so tardy in making a
+decision and so careful in weighing reasons for and against.
+
+To this must be added the great prestige of the Upsala temple as the
+heathen arc of worship in the North, and the influence of the scalds
+and saga men of Iceland. Iceland was discovered in 870, and settled
+principally by Norsemen from the British Isles and from the western
+coast of Norway, but also to some extent by Swedes and Danes. Sudden
+and brilliant was the rise of Icelandic culture, and Icelandic scalds
+overran the whole territory of the North. At the court of every king
+and jarl these were at home, sometimes in great numbers, and soon
+to the exclusion of the native poets. For their poetry, both as to
+contents and form, they were chiefly dependent upon the heathen myths
+and traditions, and the result of their popularity must have been a
+perfect heathen revival in those days of growing scepticism. Through
+intercourse with Christians in Britain, the Icelanders had borrowed
+many a noble trait, and their taste found admirers in the old North,
+where such influence must have been felt through centuries of indirect
+contact with lands of classical or Christian culture. We are told
+of the great number of southern coins found in Swedish soil. Which
+travel further and faster, thoughts or coins, and which are the more
+impressionable? So although it would be unjust to deprive the Icelandic
+poetry, the impressive and grand Eddic songs and the more artificial
+court-poetry, of any of its beauty or originality, it is not right to
+ascribe all the culture, whose blossom it is, to Iceland, or Iceland
+and Norway, to the exclusion of Sweden and Denmark, or the Teutonic
+world at large. Good epic poetry has been written all over Teutondom.
+In Sweden strophes in the very metre of the majority of Eddic poems
+have been found on tombstones. In the same manner with the contents
+of the Eddic poems. Granting important exceptions, we think that the
+heathen myths have been the same in the East as in the extreme West.
+The very fact that Icelandic court-poetry was accepted and enjoyed by
+continental chieftains presupposes a thorough knowledge and mastery of
+the more popular poetry of Eddic songs of gods and heroes.
+
+Hence the revival of heathendom in the North, by which a king like Olof
+Skoetkonung for a long time was influenced, finding his chief delight in
+the association with poets and saga men.
+
+In Norway, Olaf Haraldson had ascended the throne, and he put an end to
+Swedish dominion in the Norwegian districts. This caused strife, and
+also considerable annoyance to the provinces touching the frontier.
+Popular feeling rose high in Sweden, when the demands for a peace
+guarantee with Norway were disregarded by King Olof. Jarl Ragnvald
+sided with the people, desiring a union between the Norwegian king and
+King Olof's daughter Ingegerd. At a great Thing held in Upsala, in
+1018, King Olof listened to Norwegian emissaries pleading for peace
+and a royal marriage. Jarl Ragnvald complained of the annoyance caused
+to his people of West Gothland. King Olof became indignant, but was,
+through the forcible yet dignified appeal for peace by Torgny, the
+_lagman_ (justice) of Tiundaland, compelled to a promise of peace and
+a concession of marriage. But the king did not keep his promises. A
+betrothal was arranged but soon annulled by Olof, and the Norwegian
+king was in vain expecting his promised bride. At the instigation of
+Jarl Ragnvald, Olaf Haraldson married King Olof's illegitimate daughter
+Astrid. As this was done without the consent of her father, Ragnvald
+dared not remain in Sweden. He went to Gardarike (Russia), where he
+died shortly afterward, in 1019, his widow, the princess Ingegerd, in
+Novgorod becoming the wife of the Russian ruler Jaroslaf.
+
+In Sweden, trouble was brewing against the king, who had broken faith
+with his people, and in order to avoid open revolt King Olof was
+forced to divide his power with one of his sons, who, although yet
+a minor, was solemnly elected king. He had in baptism received the
+name of _Jacob_, which so displeased his heathen subjects that it
+was changed to _Anund_. King Olof also agreed to maintain peace with
+Norway, meeting his son-in-law at Konghaell, in Bohuslaen, in 1019, for
+a peace agreement. King Olof died two years later and was buried by
+the church of Husaby, where he was baptized. He was the first king who
+introduced coinage into Sweden. The earliest coins were made of silver
+by Anglo-Saxons settled in Sigtuma, and resemble closely Anglo-Saxon
+coins of the same period.
+
+After the death of his father King Anund ruled alone. He entered into
+an alliance with his brother-in-law of Norway against Canute, who now
+was king both of Denmark and England. During Canute's absence, Anund
+and Olaf invaded Denmark. In the subsequent strife between Olaf and
+Canute, Anund took no active part. King Olaf had to flee to Russia.
+Upon his return he gathered an army in Sweden, with the help of Anund,
+and entered Norway through Jemtland. At Stiklastad he met the much
+superior Norwegian army, and lost his battle and his life, in 1030.
+After his death, the sentiment in Norway changed radically, and he was
+worshipped as a saint throughout the North.
+
+Of Anund's reign little is known. Adam of Bremen, an ecclesiastic,
+whose history of the diocese of Hamburg and Bremen, during the period
+788-1072, is one of the most important sources of Swedish history
+in heathen times, says of Anund: "Young in years, he excelled in
+wisdom and piety all his predecessors; no king was more beloved by
+the Swedish people than Anund." The historian gives as his authority
+the Danish king Svend Estridsen, who as an exile stayed at Anund's
+court. Anund died in 1050 and was succeeded by his older half-brother
+_Emund_, surnamed _the Old_. He was the son of a freed woman, the
+daughter of a Vendish chief. For this reason he had been passed over
+at the first election. Emund was educated by his mother's relatives,
+was baptized, but was not much of a Christian. He was popular neither
+with the new Christian church nor with the people at large. Emund's
+unpopularity with the masses was caused by an agreement with Denmark in
+regard to the boundaries when he ceded the province of Bleking. Emund
+died in 1060. With him the old royal line became extinct. A new line
+comes to the throne of Sweden, where, with the general acceptance of
+Christianity, a new era commences.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+_Early Christian Era--Stenkil's Line and Interchanging Dynasties_
+
+
+The sources of Swedish history during the first two centuries of the
+Middle Ages are very meagre. This is a deplorable fact, for during that
+period Sweden passed through a great and thorough development, the
+various stages of which consequently are not easily traced.
+
+Before the year of 1060 Sweden is an Old Teutonic state, certainly of
+later form and a larger compass than the earliest of such, but with
+its democracy and its elective kingdom preserved. The older Sweden,
+such as it had existed at least since the days of Ingiald Illrade,
+was in regard to its constitution a rudimentary union of states. The
+realm had come into existence through the cunning and violence of the
+king of the Sviar, who made away with the kings of the respective
+lands, making their communities pay homage to him. No change in the
+interior affairs of the different lands was thereby effected; they
+lost their outward political independence, but remained mutually on
+terms of perfect equality. They were united only through the king, who
+was the only centre for the government of the union. No province had
+constitutionally more importance than the rest, no supremacy by one
+over the other existed. On this historic basis the Swedish realm was
+built, and rested firmly until the commencement of the Middle Ages.
+In the Old Swedish state-organism the various parts thus possessed a
+high degree of individual and pulsating life; the empire as a whole was
+also powerful, although the royal dignity was its only institution. The
+king was the outward tie which bound the provinces together; besides
+him there was no power of state which embraced the whole realm. The
+affairs of state were decided upon by the king alone, as in regard to
+war, or he had to gather the opinion of the Thing in each province; any
+imperial representation did not exist and was entirely unknown, both
+in the modern sense and in the form of one provincial, or sectional,
+assembly deciding for all the others. The latter form is one of
+transition, the modern form the ripe fruit, both brought out by the
+historic development. In society there existed no classes. It was a
+democracy of free men, the slaves and freed men enjoying no rights.
+The first centuries of the Middle Ages were one continued process of
+regeneration, the Swedish people being carried into the European circle
+of cultural development and made a communicant of Christianity. With
+the commencement of the thirteenth century Sweden comes out of this
+process as a mediaeval state, in aspect entirely different to her past.
+The democratic equality among free men has turned into an aristocracy,
+with aristocratic institutions, the hereditary kingdom into an
+elective, or, at least, into one close upon turning into an elective,
+kingdom, while the provincial particularism and independence have
+given way to the constitution of a centralized, monopolistic state. No
+changes could be more fundamental.
+
+For lack of sources the historians were, until quite recently, led
+to the belief that the change was due to one tribe in gaining the
+ascendency over another, the political supremacy changing from one part
+of the country to another. The epoch was called "The Struggle between
+Swedes and Goths," "The Struggle about the election of kings between
+Swedes and Goths." Now it is generally admitted that the struggle was
+between principles, not between tribes. The circumstances sometimes
+were such that one section or province opposed others, but these
+divisions never were identical or at all depended upon racial or tribal
+conditions. It was a struggle between heathendom and Christianity,
+democracy and aristocracy, provincial particularism and centralized
+state unity.
+
+The old provincial laws of Sweden are a great and important inheritance
+which this period has accumulated from heathen times. The laws were
+written down in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, but they bear
+every evidence of high antiquity. Many strophes are found in them of
+the same metre as those on the tombstones of the Viking Age and those
+in which the songs of the Edda are chiefly written. In other instances
+the text consists of alliterative prose, which proves its earlier
+metrical form. The expressions have, in places, remained heathen,
+although used by Christians, who were ignorant of their true meaning,
+as, for instance, in the following formula of an oath, in the West
+Gothic law: "Sva se mer gud hull" (So help me the gods). The laws show
+a good many individual traits and differences, but these are not of
+such a serious character as to give evidence of having been formulated
+by tribes of different origin. A remarkable exception is formed by
+the laws of matrimony and inheritance for the inhabitants of Vaerend
+and Bleking, who, it will be remembered, are the descendants of the
+Herulian immigration in historic times. In lieu of a missing literature
+of sagas and poetry, these provincial laws give a good insight into
+the character, morals, customs and culture of the heathen and early
+Christian times of Sweden. From the point of philology they are also
+of great value, besides forming the solid basis of later Swedish law.
+How the laws could pass from one generation to another, without any
+codification, depends upon the facts that they were recited from memory
+by the justice (_lagman_ or _domare_), and that this dignity generally
+was inherited, for centuries being carried by the descendants of one
+and the same family.
+
+Interesting is the appendix to the law of the island of Gothland,
+the Guta Saga, being the fragment of a history of the island and its
+first contact with Christianity through a visit by St. Olaf of Norway.
+The style is the same simple and serene one as in the Icelandic
+sagas; while the Gutnic dialect, in which it is written, more closely
+resembles the Gothic of Bishop Wulfila in vowel sounds than the
+language of any other known dialect. Quite an important appendix is
+found in the older form of the West Gothic law, consisting of lines of
+the kings of Sweden, with short but highly valuable accounts of their
+reigns and characteristics.
+
+_Stenkil_ was the name of King Emund's successor. He was a jarl and
+married to Emund's sister. The statement that he was born in West
+Gothland is not confirmed by the authorities. His father's name was
+Ragnvald, and it seems likely that this Ragnvald was identical with the
+jarl spoken of above, who died in Russia. Stenkil had close relations
+with Russia, for his son Inge was called in from that country to
+succeed his father. If Jarl Ragnvald was Stenkil's father, this only
+made his selection as king more plausible, being then the half-brother
+of Isiaslaf of Russia and the brother-in-law of the reigning kings of
+Hungary, France and Norway. King Stenkil was a devout Christian, but
+of a sagacious disposition, careful not to offend his heathen subjects
+by any Christian propaganda. He was a giant in size, and although
+phlegmatic, an ardent sportsman. Adalvard, exiled by Emund, returned
+and did active work as bishop of Skara, also converting the population
+of Vermland. Even among the heathen of Svealand, Christianity got a
+foothold, Adalvard the Younger being established as bishop in Sigtuna,
+close by the pagan centre of Upsala. But when he, in conjunction with
+Egino, of the newly erected bishop's chair of Lund, schemed for the
+destruction of the heathen temple of Upsala, he was removed by the
+command of the king, who found that such a plan, if carried through,
+would prove disastrous to both Church and throne.
+
+During the short reign of Stenkil there was a conflict with Norway, an
+exiled Norwegian jarl having been granted possessions in Vermland. King
+Harald Hardrade invaded Gothaland, punishing this insult by a victory
+over the Swedes. No further complications ensued, perhaps on account of
+the close family relations of the two rulers.
+
+Stenkil died in 1066, leaving two sons, _Halsten_ and _Inge_, both
+minors. During their minority two men, both named _Eric_, relatives of
+Stenkil and the old royal line, fought for supremacy, and both fell
+in the contest for the crown. Hakon of West Gothland took hold of the
+reins of state and kept them for thirteen years, until King Halsten
+became of age, Hakon himself dying. Halsten was a devout Christian
+like his father, but less sagacious, trying to force the new faith
+upon the heathen of Svealand. For this reason he was dethroned, and
+his brother Inge called in from Russia. But King Inge was a Christian
+enthusiast like his brother, and was subsequently driven away by
+the irate inhabitants of Svealand, who now called to the throne his
+brother-in-law _Sven_, surnamed _Blot-Sven_ (_Sven, the Sacrificer_),
+of heathen faith. The royal brothers dwelt undisturbed among the
+Christians, but after three years King Inge, in old heathen style,
+surrounded and set fire to the domicile of Blot-Sven, who with all
+his household perished within. King Inge resumed his reign, likely
+very much in his old spirit, for two other pretenders, although less
+formidable, appeared: _Olof Naeskonung_ (_Nose-king_) and a son of Sven,
+called _Kol_ or _Eric Arsaell_. Two papal documents are preserved from
+Inge's reign. They consist of letters from Gregory VII., making appeals
+for closer relations between the pope and the Swedish king.
+
+An invasion was made from Norway, whose king, Magnus Barfod, subdued
+the inhabitants of the province of Dal. King Magnus built a fortified
+place on the island of Kollandsoe in Lake Venar, close to the shore of
+West Gothland, but it was captured by King Inge, who set its occupants
+free, but without their weapons. Two battles were fought at Fuxerna,
+the Norwegians being victors in the first, the Swedes in the latter.
+Peace was effected at a meeting between the two kings at Kunghaell in
+the summer of 1101, when it was agreed that the frontiers should remain
+as they were before the war. King Eric Ejegod was also present at
+the meeting, where the betrothal between King Magnus and King Inge's
+daughter Margaret was agreed upon. On account of the original nature of
+the meeting the Swedish princess was surnamed Fredkulla (Peace-Maiden).
+
+In 1103 the bishopric of Lund was raised to the dignity of an
+archbishopric, yet not becoming perfectly independent of the
+archbishopric of Hamburg-Bremen. The archbishop of Lund received the
+title of Primas of Sweden, preserved long after Sweden had obtained its
+own archbishop.
+
+King Inge died in 1111, receiving, by the appendix to the West Gothic
+law, credit for "having ruled Sweden with manliness, without breaking
+the law which governed each province." About his brother Halsten,
+who died before him, the same source says: "He was sagacious and
+good-natured; the cases brought before him were bettered, and Sweden
+became worse through his death." At the time of Inge's death, Jemtland
+was persuaded to pay scat to the Norwegian king, but it remained in
+connection with the church of Sweden.
+
+Inge's son Ragnvald died before him, and Halsten's sons, _Philip_ and
+_Inge the Younger_, ascended the throne. They were of a more peaceful
+disposition toward the heathen than their predecessors, Christianity
+making great progress during their reigns. Philip died in 1118, Inge
+following him in 1125; his death was said to have been caused by
+poison. The epitaph over the two runs thus: "Sweden fared well while
+they lived," in the terse language of the source quoted above. With
+them the race of Stenkil became extinct in the male line.
+
+In 1123 the Norwegian king, Sigurd Jorsalafare, undertook a crusade
+to the eastern parts of Smaland, which were still heathen. "Crusades"
+of this kind were not uncommon during that period, and were hardly
+anything else than Viking expeditions in Christian disguise.
+
+Great confusion ensued through the extinction of Stenkil's line.
+_Ragnvald Knaphoefde_, probably the son of Olof Naeskonung, was
+chosen king, but lost his life through the contemptuous neglect of
+an ancient custom. The newly elected king should always make a tour
+of the realm, receiving homage and giving assurance of his good
+faith to the population of the various provinces. The provincial
+laws had stipulations as to the nature and number of the _gisslan_
+(hostages) to meet and escort him through each province. This tour,
+called _Eriksgata_, Ragnvald undertook without accepting hostages upon
+entering West Gothland. He was killed at Karleby, in 1130, by the
+peasants, indignant at what they considered an insult to all the West
+Goths. These had, moreover, made another choice in Magnus Nilsson, the
+son of Margaret Fredkulla in her second marriage. Magnus never made
+claim to the Swedish throne, endeavoring to become king of Denmark,
+after his father, Nils Svendsen, but losing his life in the attempt.
+
+_Sverker_, who had married the widow of the younger Inge, was in 1133
+chosen king by the East Goths, and the Up-Swedes (in the provinces
+north of Lake Maelar), having no special choice of their own, also
+agreed on him. After the death of Magnus Nilsson, the West Goths joined
+by formally acknowledging King Sverker, who, born in East Gothland,
+has been supposed to be the son of Eric Arsaell, without solid reasons.
+During Sverker's reign ecclesiastical matters developed. The old
+bishoprics of Birka and Sigtuna were changed into that of (Old) Upsala,
+where the pagan temple seems to have been at last changed into a
+church. New bishoprics were created in Linkoeping, Strengnaes, Westeros
+and Vexio. The whole of Swedish Finland formed one diocese. The famous
+Bernard of Clairvaux was asked by King Sverker and his queen Ulfhild to
+send monks of his order, and several Cistercian convents were founded.
+The quiet and scholarly monks from France, no doubt, soon began to
+exert a beneficial influence of importance, through the means of their
+superior culture. A papal legate, Nicolaus of Alba (later Pope Hadrian
+IV.), visited Sweden in 1152, meeting all the dignitaries of Church and
+State for a conference at Linkoeping. The legate was willing to give to
+Sweden an archbishop, but the matter was postponed, since no agreement
+could be reached in regard to the archbishopric's seat. Measures for
+the establishment of the Church on a firmer basis and the payment of
+Peter's pence to Rome were agreed on.
+
+Sverker was a good and peaceful monarch, but seems with old age to have
+lost some of his authority. A war with Denmark was brought on through
+an escapade of his son John, who had carried away two Danish women of
+noble birth. He returned them, and was himself killed by the peasants
+at a Thing. Yet the Danish king, Svend Grade, had the excuse for an
+invasion and entered Smaland with an army in the winter of 1153-54.
+The brave inhabitants of Vaerend gave him a hearty welcome, and he soon
+returned to Denmark. It is an old tradition that a woman by the name
+of Blenda was chiefly instrumental in this result. When the peasants
+feared to attack the superior enemy, she had a splendid meal spread
+for the foe. After the Danes had partaken heavily of its eatables and
+drinkables, they were surprised and routed by their hitherto invisible
+hosts and hostesses.
+
+King Sverker, now called "the Old," was murdered by his valet while
+starting for the Christmas matins in 1155 or 1156. The murder was,
+without doubt, committed at the instigation of the Danish prince Magnus
+Henricsson, who on his mother's side was a great-grandson of Inge the
+Elder, and who in this manner made his first attempt to reach the
+throne of Sweden.
+
+Already, in 1150, the Up-Swedes had in _Eric_, the son of Jedvard,
+found a man in their opinion better suited to rule Sweden than Sverker
+the Old. His mother is said to have been the daughter of Blot-Sven
+and the sister of Kol, while his father was "a good and rich yeoman."
+Through a mistake he was named _Eric IX._, but is more commonly known
+as _St. Eric_. One source calls him "lawgiver," although nothing is
+definitely known of his activity in this direction. At the death of
+Sverker, his son Charles was certainly of age, but the growing fame
+of King Eric made it useless for him to force his right, and Eric was
+recognized as king of the whole realm.
+
+King Eric was a warm friend of the Christian propaganda in his own
+country, and by crusades spread the faith outside of its borders. It
+was only natural that Sweden should turn its attention to Finland,
+with which country it had stood in close relations since the remotest
+period, and where Swedish settlements in all times existed. Accompanied
+by Bishop Henric of Upsala, King Eric sailed with a fleet to the
+southwestern part of Finland, or the province now called Finland
+Proper, where the inhabitants were forced to receive baptism. This
+crusade must have taken place late in the fifties of the twelfth
+century. Eric soon returned, but Bishop Henric remained with other
+priests to have Christianity firmly established. These efforts met
+with considerable difficulty, and Henric was murdered by one of his
+converts. He was later worshipped as the patron saint of Finland.
+
+The pious King Eric was attacked by the perfidious prince Magnus
+Henricsson at East Aros (the present or New Upsala), in 1160. It is
+said that Eric was attending mass at the Trinity Church, when he was
+told of the approach of his enemy. He remained till the service was
+over, after which he went to meet his fate. He was overcome and slain
+by the superior force. His pious life and virtues and the miracles
+which were said to have been worked at his grave made him the patron
+saint of Sweden, although never canonized by the Church of Rome. His
+bones are preserved in a shrine of gilt silver behind the high altar in
+the cathedral of Upsala, and were in Catholic days objects of worship.
+Oaths were taken "by the power of God and Saint Eric the King," his
+banner was carried in war, and the city of Stockholm still has his
+image on its shield.
+
+_Charles Sverkersson_ (_Charles VII._) now made valid his claims, the
+whole people rising to support him against the usurper Magnus. In the
+following year Magnus was killed by the indignant people. During the
+reign of Charles some important novelties in Church and State were
+introduced. Sweden received, in 1164, her first archbishop in Stefan,
+a monk of Alvastra. The archbishop's seat was first Old Upsala.
+Instead of jarls in the various parts, there is from this time on a
+jarl for the whole kingdom at the side of the king, whom he assists
+in the government of the state, sometimes obtaining a power rivalling
+that of his master. The first jarl of the realm was Ulf, the second
+Gutorm. The rivalry noticeable between the different provinces, which
+all thought themselves called upon to select a new line to rule after
+Stenkil's, ceased at the death of Saint Eric. What follows is a rivalry
+of interchanging dynasties. Charles Sverkersson was, in April, 1167,
+surprised by a pretender to the throne, Knut Ericsson, who deprived him
+of crown and life, while his little son Sverker was saved and carried
+away to the queen's uncle, Valdemar the Great of Denmark.
+
+_Knut Ericsson_ was the son of Saint Eric, and ruled Sweden for
+twenty-five years in peace. In his youth he had made one unsuccessful
+attempt to reach the throne, after which he fled to Norway. After the
+death of King Charles he had to fight two pretenders, Kol and Burislev,
+the latter said to have been a son of King Sverker.
+
+During this period the Baltic and its coasts were continually disturbed
+by heathen sea-rovers from the southern shores. A fleet of this kind
+entered Lake Maelar in 1187 and destroyed by fire the town of Sigtuna,
+which, as a mercantile centre, had succeeded the earlier destroyed
+Birka. The second archbishop of Sweden, John, was killed by the
+invaders. The first preliminary plan for the fortification of the
+present site of Stockholm was probably then laid, in order to prevent
+further invasions, and a little town commenced to grow up.
+
+Conditions in Finland were not satisfactory. Invasions by Esthonians
+and Vends were frequent, while the Finns themselves were troublesome
+and little devoted to the new faith. Bishop Henric's successor was
+killed, but Sweden continued to send bishops during the next hundred
+years.
+
+The relations with foreign powers were peaceable, the first known
+treaty between Sweden and a German prince being entered into by King
+Knut and Duke Heinrich of Saxony and Bavaria, in regard to trade
+relations with Lubeck. King Knut died in the winter of 1195. He had
+four sons, but although he had selected one of them for his successor,
+"with general consent and through election by the foremost men in
+Sweden," _Sverker the Younger_, the son of King Charles, succeeded him.
+That this could take place without serious objection of Knut's sons
+can only be explained by the influence wielded by the Church and the
+nobles. The latter had already grown up to strength and importance.
+Their leader was the mighty jarl, Birger Brosa, who had succeeded
+Gutorm. He was of the influential family of Folkungs, which, one of the
+first in the land, soon aspired to the throne. Birger, himself married
+to a Norwegian princess, gave his own daughter Ingegerd in marriage to
+the new king, and remained in power.
+
+King Sverker sought the favor of the Church by supporting its claims.
+In a document of the year 1200, by which he donates some property to
+the church of Upsala, historians have seen the privileges extended to
+the Church as an independent power of state, whose members could be
+arraigned before an ecclesiastic forum only, and whose property was
+to be exempt from taxation. This is the spirit of the document; but
+the king had not, at that period, the right to grant such extensive
+privileges. King Sverker, and probably each of his successors, in turn,
+gave only an assurance of their sympathy with the Church policy, which
+was to its full extent an assured victory only toward the close of the
+thirteenth century.
+
+In 1202, Birger Brosa died, and with him the firm support against the
+pretenders had fallen. The sons of Knut now made open revolt, leaving
+their places at Sverker's court. In 1205, Sverker gave battle to them
+at Elgaros, three of the brothers being killed and the fourth, Eric,
+fleeing to Norway. But a few years later he returned with an army,
+and Sverker found it safest to retire to Denmark, whence he returned
+with a splendid army, which King Valdemar II. Seier, had placed at
+his disposal. But this army was defeated at Lena, in West Gothland,
+in 1208, and Sverker returned to Denmark, now turning to the pope,
+Innocent III., who in vain threatened the pretender with his ban.
+Sverker entered Sweden with a new Danish army, but was killed at the
+battle of Gestilren, in West Gothland, in 1210.
+
+_Eric Knutsson_ now came to undisturbed possession of the throne and
+thus remained until his death in April, 1216, his reign being short and
+uneventful. He was the first king of Sweden of whom it is known with
+certainty that he was anointed and crowned, thus placing himself under
+the protection of the Church. His queen, Rikissa, a sister of Valdemar
+II., returned to Denmark after his death, there giving life to a son,
+who was named Eric, after his father. King Valdemar tried in vain to
+have this royal babe placed on the Swedish throne.
+
+_John Sverkersson_ succeeded King Eric, being, on account of his
+fifteen years of age, first surnamed the _Young_, later _the Pious_.
+By confirming and extending the rights of the Church which his father
+granted he won the favor of the ecclesiastics, and the attempts made
+by Valdemar to have his consecration prohibited proved futile. Toward
+the end of his short reign (in 1220) King John undertook a crusade
+to Esthonia, where he left behind him his jarl, Charles, a brother
+of Birger Brosa, and Bishop Charles of Linkoeping, with a part of the
+army. These all perished in an onslaught made on them by the heathen
+in August of the same year, and the ravages by Esthonians continued as
+before. King John died in the island of Visingsoe, in Lake Vetter, in
+1222, like several of his predecessors, and was, like them, buried in
+the monastery of Alvastra.
+
+_Eric Ericsson_ now became king of Sweden. The royal babe was then six
+years of age, a halting and lisping little creature. The Church took
+him under its protection, but there was no powerful man to take hold of
+the government during his minority. A pretender rose in the person of
+_Knut the Tall_, a great grandson of St. Eric, like the king himself.
+He defeated Eric's troops at Olustra, in 1229. Eric fled to Denmark,
+where he remained until the short and restless reign of Knut came to an
+end through his death, in 1232. Eric resumed the reins of government,
+with the Folkung, Jarl Ulf, at the helm.
+
+Pope Gregory IX., in 1230, gave commandment to the Swedish bishops
+to rouse the people to opposition against the ravages of the heathen
+in the Baltic provinces in the further parts of Finland. In 1237 he
+commands the Swedish bishops to have a crusade started against the
+heathen Tavasti in the interior of Finland. This crusade took place
+under the leadership of Birger Magnusson, who converted the barbarous
+Finns by the sword and erected a fort on the site of the later
+Tavastehus. Birger, according to Russian testimony, tried to extend
+the dominion of Swedish supremacy as far as to the river Neva, but was
+repulsed by the Russians.
+
+Peace had reigned in Sweden for some time when new conflicts ensued.
+The peasants of Upland made an uprising in 1247, but were conquered
+at Sparrsaetra and punished by heavier taxes. A pretender rose in the
+person of Holmger, the son of Knut the Tall. He was captured and
+beheaded in 1248.
+
+A papal legate, Bishop William of Sabina, visited Sweden and arranged,
+in 1248, an ecclesiastical meeting at Skenninge, effecting the
+final separation of Church and State, and establishing the former
+as an independent power at the side of the latter. Archbishops and
+bishops were now to be elected by the ecclesiastics and not by the
+king. Celibacy, previously not enforced in the Swedish church, was
+then introduced, meeting with a good deal of opposition; for the
+ecclesiastical offices had already commenced getting hereditary, as had
+in earlier times the combined dignities of Asa priest and chieftain.
+Birger Magnusson had, shortly before the meeting of Skenninge,
+succeeded Ulf as jarl of the realm. This converter of the Tavasti was
+destined to play a most important part in Swedish history, shaping its
+destiny through the power of his iron will. He was the leader of the
+Folkung family and party, a nephew of Birger Brosa, and married to
+princess Ingeborg, a sister of the reigning king. _Birger Jarl_, as
+he is generally called, effected a satisfactory agreement with Norway
+at a meeting with Hakon in the summer of 1249, according to which the
+enemies of one realm should have no refuge, or support, in the other.
+Besides, it was agreed that the son of the Norwegian king should marry
+Rikissa, the daughter of Birger Jarl.
+
+King Eric died in 1250, at the age of thirty-four. He called himself
+Eric III., while in later times, when St. Eric was supposed to have
+been the ninth king of that name, he has been called Eric XI. He was
+said to have been peaceful, just and kind.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+_The Mediaeval State--The Folkung Dynasty_
+
+
+With Eric Ericsson the royal line of Saint Eric became extinct. The
+crown was, on account of his birthright, offered to _Valdemar_, the
+oldest son of Birger Jarl. He was crowned in Linkoeping in 1251.
+From this period on, a new historic source is found in the rhymed
+chronicles, of which Swedish literature possesses several elaborate
+ones of more than 22,000 verses in all. Of these the Old, or Eric's,
+Chronicle, was written about 1320, and, like all the rest, anonymously.
+The verses are fine, the language pure and powerful; the portraits of
+historical personages are roughly drawn but interesting. Unfortunately
+these rhymed chronicles in general, and the Eric's Chronicle in
+particular, dwell rather on the description of impressive events of
+pomp and splendor than on historical facts; and the facts given are not
+always reliable. The Eric's Chronicle gives a brief review of events
+during the reigns of Eric and Valdemar; then for the events up to 1319
+more fully.
+
+According to the Eric's Chronicle, Birger Jarl wished to succeed Eric,
+but had to step aside for his son, who was of royal descent through his
+mother, King Eric's sister. But Birger Jarl remained the all-powerful,
+although uncrowned, ruler till his death.
+
+Many of the nobles were not satisfied with the election of Valdemar.
+They joined forces, gathering hired troops from Denmark and Germany.
+Birger met them at Hervadsbro and defeated them, capturing the leaders,
+who were beheaded. Among these were Philip, a son of Knut the Tall, and
+Knut Magnusson, with others of the Folkung family, which often was at
+war between themselves when great interests were at stake.
+
+After this battle peace reigned under the powerful and sagacious rule
+of Birger. An assault upon Denmark by King Hakon of Norway and Birger
+jointly was planned, but a peace agreement took its place, in 1253. In
+the further complications between Norway and Denmark, Birger took no
+part. When later King Christopher of Denmark called upon his northern
+neighbors for help against revolts in his own country, these were
+ready to respond; but at the sudden death of King Christopher these
+plans were frustrated. In 1260 Birger bettered the already friendly
+relations with Denmark, by arranging the marriage between King Valdemar
+and the Danish princess, Sophia, whereupon he, himself a widower,
+married Mechtild, a queen-dowager of Denmark. In Finland, conditions
+were the same as of yore, pagan tribes and Russian invasions rendering
+everything unsafe and perilous. Birger renewed the trade agreement
+with Lubeck, in 1251, with added privileges to Lubeck, but with the
+stipulation that those of its citizens who settled in Sweden must
+become Swedish subjects. In 1261 the same privileges were extended to
+Hamburg. It was at this period that the Hanseatic League was formed
+between the commercial centres of North Germany. The relations between
+the league and the Scandinavian countries waxed quite intimate and, at
+times, menacing to the political independence of the latter. But Sweden
+derived many benefits through the contact with the reviving culture
+of Southern Europe, which was brought about through the Hanseatic
+League; the newly opened mining industry and the prosperity of Swedish
+commercial centres particularly owing much to this influence. Stockholm
+became the largest and most important of Swedish towns during the
+days of Birger, although he was not its founder. Also with England,
+Birger was carrying on peaceful proceedings; yet their purpose is
+not known. In 1237, the king of England had granted the merchants of
+the island of Gothland free trade privileges. Birger was a great and
+sound legislator, although it is not known with certainty how many
+of the judicial reforms accredited to him originated in these days.
+He made the law that sister should have equal share of inheritance
+with brother, and the laws of sanctity of home, Church, Thing and
+woman, which formed the kernel of a set of laws, later called _Edsoere_
+(Pledged oath), which every crowned king and his foremost men must
+pledge themselves to uphold. He tried to make away with the ordeal
+of walking on, or the handling of, iron as a legal testimony of
+guiltlessness. Further, he prohibited the custom of self-imposed
+thraldom.
+
+The only act of Birger's which has been condemned was his attempt to
+introduce feudalism. His second son, Magnus, was created a duke, and
+received, at Birger's death, Soedermanland, with the castle of Nykoeping
+as a duchy. This gave rise to much strife and many conflicts within
+the new royal branch of the Folkungs, and endangered the unity of
+the kingdom. Birger, the last jarl of the realm, was the first real
+statesman of Sweden, whose stern intellect and integrity of character
+won for his country an honored position among its neighbors, and for
+himself the admiration of many generations to come. He died in 1266.
+
+The first few years after Birger's death were peaceful. The archbishop's
+seat was removed to the present Upsala, where work was commenced on the
+magnificent cathedral. In 1271 the commercial privileges held by Lubeck
+and Hamburg were also granted to Riga.
+
+Valdemar was a weak and frivolous man, and his licentiousness gave
+his brother Magnus the idea of pushing him aside, and later deprived
+him of the loyalty and respect of his people. The difficulties with
+his brothers ended in open conflict; Magnus and his younger brother
+Eric turned to Denmark and Germany, where they hired an army, King
+Eric Glipping of Denmark helping them with troops on promise of good
+securities. The brothers invaded West Gothland and defeated a Swedish
+army at Hofva, in 1275, while the king with his best troops remained
+inactive at Tiveden. Valdemar fled to Norway, bringing his son Eric
+with him. Venturing back into Vermland, he was captured and brought
+before Duke Magnus. Valdemar went so far as to abdicate his throne, but
+the meeting ended in an agreement according to which _Magnus_ was to
+become king of Svealand and Valdemar to keep Gothaland. Eric was made a
+duke, but died in the same year. Magnus was crowned at Upsala in 1276.
+
+King Valdemar did not long remain content with the new state of things.
+One month after Magnus's coronation he arranged a meeting with him at
+Loedoese, over which King Magnus Lagaboete of Norway presided, but without
+being able to effect an agreement between the brothers. Valdemar now
+turned to King Eric of Denmark, and won an ally in him because Magnus
+had neglected to fulfil his promises. Magnus gained a supporter in Duke
+Gerhard I. of Holstein, whose daughter Helvig he married in November,
+1276.
+
+With the year 1277 war commences between Sweden and Denmark. Magnus
+invades Halland and Scania, while Valdemar, with a Danish army, enters
+Smaland, burning the town of Vexio. With King Eric, Valdemar enters
+West Gothland, capturing Skara. At last the Danes are defeated at
+Ettak. Early in 1278 peace is made at Laholm, Magnus promising to
+pay his debt to Eric, leaving the castle of Loedoese as security. Each
+promises not to shelter the rebels against the other. Valdemar lost his
+cause and had to give up Gothaland and his royal title, keeping only
+his inherited estates. On account of his scandalous living, the nobles
+insisted upon his imprisonment, and ten years after his abdication he
+was placed in custody at the castle of Nykoeping. He survived all his
+brothers, dying in 1302. His son Eric was imprisoned at the castle of
+Stockholm, receiving good treatment like his father. When his cousin
+Birger was crowned, in 1302, he was set free, spending the rest of his
+life in Sweden as a private citizen. During Magnus Ericsson's minority
+he was a member of the king's council. When Magnus was sole occupant of
+the throne he took the title of "King of the Swedes and Goths," which,
+occasionally used before, henceforward became the customary one.
+
+A revolt against King Magnus took place shortly after the meeting
+at Laholm. Some of the nobles were dissatisfied with the favoritism
+shown foreigners, a complaint which was only too often justifiable,
+and forever repeated, in the course of centuries, against the
+Swedish monarchs. Count Gerhard of Holstein was imprisoned, and the
+Danish knight, Ingemar, killed. The king invited the rebels to him
+at Gaellqvist, where he in an unexpected way made them prisoners, and
+had them beheaded, in August, 1280, confiscating their property. This
+incident is characteristic of the time, but there is no other authority
+for it than the Chronicle. The reign of Magnus was comparatively short,
+but a happy and glorious one. The relations with the island of Gothland
+were made closer and more intimate, although the proud independence of
+its inhabitants remained largely intact. They were to pay increased
+scat, but continued their government without royal officials. The Guts
+were of Swedish origin, and their island formed since the ninth century
+a part of Sweden, but their isolated position and great commercial
+activity made them almost independent. About the year 1000 they seek
+for themselves protection from the Swedish king, and after their
+baptism they turn to the bishop of Linkoeping for spiritual guidance.
+Thanks to its position, halfway between Germany, Russia and Sweden,
+Gothland gives rise to the most important commercial centre of Northern
+Europe after Lubeck. The inhabitants of Visby were Germans, to a great
+extent, and their conflicts with the rural population were frequent.
+King Magnus appears as an arbitrator in such cases with an authority
+great enough to impose his conditions. In spite of the inimical
+relations between Denmark and Norway, Magnus held peace with both.
+
+As a legislator Magnus was even more important than his father, shaping
+and reshaping laws which furthered the development of the country
+and wielding an influence upon its jurisdiction reaching down to the
+present day. At a meeting of nobles at Alnsnoe, in 1280, King Magnus
+gave solemn pledge to the so-called Edsoere-laws of his father, and
+made the nobility into a privileged class. All the men surrounding him
+and his brother Bengt (made duke of Finland), and on their estates,
+together with the trusted men in the service of a bishop, were freed
+from paying taxes to the king. The same privilege was extended "to
+all men who served with a horse, whosoever they serve." The exemption
+from taxes did not include those due the church or community, but only
+those due the king. The horse service (_ross_ = later _rusttjenst_)
+meant to provide for a cavalry force of iron-clad men for military
+service, according to the demands of the time. The nobles saw to it
+that this privilege was made permanent even after they had discontinued
+the horse service, and that others were added to it. A law prohibiting
+_voldgaestning_, the custom of travellers of taking by violence, or
+without compensation, food and comfort from the rural population, was
+also made at Alnsnoe, and won for King Magnus the rustic but beautiful
+surname of _Ladulas_ (Barn-lock). "For he wished to place such locks on
+the peasant's barn, that no one should dare enter but at the will of
+the owner," wrote Olaus Petri, the historian and reformer. An official
+was placed in every country town to see to the traveller's comfort, and
+to his payment for it. At a meeting in Skenninge, in 1285, a law about
+_konungafrid_ (royal sanctity) was made in order to prevent strife
+among the nobles and to make away with the ancient evil of revenge for
+bloodshed. This period of royal sanctity, when between men of the most
+strained relations peace should reign, commenced a fortnight after the
+king's arrival had been announced at the Thing and lasted until he had
+by letter informed it of his departure out of the province. The one
+who abused this sanctity, or only carried weapons, was exiled and his
+property confiscated. Secret societies among the nobles were prohibited.
+
+Magnus was not only a great legislator, but saw to it that his laws
+were not broken. Personally he loved splendor and dignity, another
+trait through which he won the favor of the Swedes, who in all times
+have been fond of seeing their highest representatives surround
+themselves with impressive luxury and wealth. Magnus was in this
+respect the first mediaeval monarch of Sweden, who kept a brilliant
+court, but at the same time was the pious and obedient son of the
+Church. He augmented the ecclesiastical privileges and founded several
+convents. In one of these, St. Clara of Stockholm, he installed his
+daughter Rikissa. Upon his death, which deplorable event took place
+in the island of Visingsoe, December 18, 1290, he was buried in the
+Franciscan convent church (the Riddarholm's) in Stockholm, according
+to his own wish. He was the first monarch to be entombed in this the
+present Pantheon of Sweden. Three sons survived him, Birger, Eric and
+Valdemar.
+
+During the reign of Magnus, the development of mediaeval institutions
+took rapid strides. This is noticeable also in the offices of those
+who surround the king. In the place of the jarl have been set two new
+dignitaries the _drotsete_ and _marsk_, of the king, "the seater of
+the retinue" and "marechal" or "servant of the horse," respectively.
+Circumstances heightened the importance of these offices and changed
+them from court into state positions, the president of the state
+council and the commander of the army. The _kansler_ (chancellor),
+often a bishop, is another important royal office. The king's council,
+consisting of bishops, knights and men of social standing, surrounds
+the monarch at his command and according to his selection, the
+archbishop being the only ex-officio member. Important affairs of State
+and Church are decided on at the meetings of nobles, _herredagar_,
+no one taking part who is not asked, or not agreeable to the king.
+These meetings later developed into _riksdagar_, at which all classes
+of the people were represented. Taxes were collected for the king by
+bailiffs, who in compensation received fiefs, sometimes consisting only
+of certain estates, in other instances as much as a whole province
+or district. The right of taxation belonged to the people. Only in
+extraordinary cases the king was allowed to impose additional taxes,
+although such were sometimes imposed wrongfully, in spite of a law
+stipulated by King Magnus Barn-Lock.
+
+_Birger_ succeeded his father Magnus. He was only ten years of age,
+but his father had placed by his side a man who was to reign during
+his minority. Marsk _Tyrgils Knutsson_ was the second of the great
+uncrowned rulers of whom Sweden was destined to receive a number
+almost as large as that of illustrious monarchs. Tyrgils Knutsson
+followed out the policy of peace and progress which Birger Jarl had
+commenced and King Magnus continued, making in all the happiest era of
+the Middle Ages. To Birger Jarl's conquest of Tavastland in Finland,
+Tyrgils added that of Carelia. Two expeditions were sent to Carelia,
+in 1293 and 1299, whose savage inhabitants were converted and made
+Swedish subjects. Viborg was built and formed a stronghold for further
+operations, while Landskrona, another fortified place, erected by
+Tyrgils, not far from the site of the present St. Petersburg, was soon
+lost to the Russians. Through the conquest of Carelia, better times
+commenced for the Church of Finland, whose bishopric, in 1300, was
+moved to Abo.
+
+The legislative work of his great predecessors was continued by
+Tyrgils, who made possible the union of the various "lands" of Upland
+into one judicial district. The first justice was Birger Persson, who
+was at the head of the work of preparing a common law for the whole
+province (in 1296). Neutrality was preserved during the conflicts
+between Norway and Denmark. King Eric Menved of Denmark was, in 1296,
+married to King Birger's sister, the pious Princess Ingeborg. In 1298
+Birger was married to Eric's sister Margaret in Stockholm, over the
+lavish splendor of which event the poet of the Chronicle goes into
+ecstasies of delight and felicitous description. Both these unions were
+prearranged by King Magnus, and the princess Margaret had been educated
+in Sweden for the purpose of becoming its queen.
+
+The king was now of age, but Marsk Tyrgils continued for several
+years at the helm. His relations to the Church show what a wise and
+vigorous statesman he was. When in the name of the king the privileges
+to the Church were once more granted, as by his predecessor, Tyrgils
+made the important exceptions that the Church should fulfil for its
+possessions the same military duty as all others in the country,
+and that certain large fines should be reserved for the king. The
+ecclesiastics took quietly to these restrictions at first, but soon an
+open conflict ensued. Another and greater one arose between the king
+and his brothers, Eric, duke of Sweden, and Valdemar, duke of Finland.
+It resembles very much the conflict between their uncle Valdemar and
+his brothers. In both cases there was a weak and deceitful king who
+was inferior, if not in wretchedness, at least in courage, to one of
+the brothers. After the first conflict was ended, the dukes selected
+Marsk Tyrgils for their prey. In March, 1305, Tyrgils saw the king
+grant to the Church the important privileges held back until then. In
+December of the same year the king and his brothers came upon Tyrgils
+unprepared. He was imprisoned, and in a shameful manner dragged to
+Stockholm, travelling night and day through the cold of winter,
+probably by some fraudulent legal process found guilty of treason, and
+beheaded, February 10, 1236. As a climax to this foul political murder,
+Tyrgils Knutsson was buried on the place of execution. Later, his body
+was removed to the church of Riddarholm and placed at the side of King
+Magnus, whose son he had served so faithfully.
+
+The conflict between the royal brothers burst into flame again,
+revealing some of the darkest and most shocking scenes of deceit,
+treachery and villany found in Swedish history. The strife commenced
+in April, 1304, for the first time, and continued, with few and short
+intermissions, until the autumn of 1318, with broken oaths and pledges,
+which were renewed and broken again, alliances and royal betrothals
+formed, ended and renewed, kingdoms and duchies divided and redivided,
+endless intrigues, rebellion and mutual invasions. The kings of Norway
+and Denmark, with their armies, and several German princes and hired
+troops, became actors in this bloody tragedy, which ended in the
+annihilation of the principals. The most dramatic incidents are known
+as "the Play at Hotuna" and "the Feast of Nykoeping," both taking place
+during the short intervals of peace. The former was enacted September
+29, 1306, when the king invited his brothers to him at Hotuna in
+Upland. They accepted the invitation, only to carry the king and
+queen away as captives, forcing the former to give over to them his
+kingdom and his power, only leaving him the royal title. "The Feast at
+Nykoeping" was held the night between December 10 and 11, 1317. The king
+and queen invited the dukes to the castle, seized them in the night and
+threw them into a dungeon, where they both perished after six months of
+hunger and neglect. Birger did not derive any benefit from his fearful
+crime. The whole country rose against him and he died, after several
+years of exile, in 1321. Birger has generally been held forth as the
+responsible party in the crimes and evils of the conflict, but his
+brothers seem to have been guilty in about the same degree. Duke Eric
+was one of the most brilliantly gifted princes of his age, and jealousy
+on the part of the king was the spark that kindled the fire. But the
+bad example set by their father of depriving an older brother of his
+throne, and the great possessions and independence of the dukes, were
+the underlying causes. The destruction of both the contending parties
+was an unexpected solution and a great gain for Sweden, whose fate
+appeared sinister, with the prospect of dismemberment or dissolution,
+the dukes holding their vast possessions as heirlooms.
+
+During the conflict Norway had sided with the dukes, Denmark with the
+king. Duke Eric was married to Ingeborg, only child of King Hakon of
+Norway, and Duke Valdemar to his niece of the same name. _Mattias
+Kettilmundsson_ was, in June, 1318, elected drotsete and regent. He led
+an army against Denmark in the interests of the duchesses, invading
+Scania and defeating the Danes near Hessleholm. November 11th of the
+same year peace was made in Roeskilde between the kings, Eric and
+Birger, on one side, and King Hakon and the heirs of the dukes, on the
+other. May 8, 1319, King Hakon died, and _Magnus Ericsson_, the young
+son of Duke Eric, inherited the crown of Norway, and July 8th of the
+same year he was elected king of Sweden at Mora in Upland.
+
+For the attainment of this end Magnus's mother, Duchess Ingeborg, and
+seven Swedish councillors had worked with great activity. They had
+taken part in shaping the first Act of Union of the North in June,
+1319, and from Oslo, in Norway, hastened to have Magnus elected at
+the Stone of Mora, where the Swedish kings since time immemorial were
+nominated. The Act of Union stipulated that the two kingdoms were to
+remain perfectly independent, the king to sojourn an equally long part
+of the year in each, with no official of either country to accompany
+him further than to the frontier. In their foreign relations the
+countries were to be independent, but to support each other in case of
+war. The king was the only tie to bind them together.
+
+There was another Magnus whose candidacy was spoiled by this union.
+He was the son of King Birger, already, as a child, chosen king of
+Sweden in succession to his father. Magnus Birgersson, a prisoner
+at Stockholm, was beheaded in 1320, to make safe the reign of his
+more fortunate cousin. King Magnus was only three years old, and
+Drotsete Mattias Kettilmundsson presided over the government during
+his minority, the nobles of the state council having great power and
+influence. Both in Sweden and Norway the nobility had by this time
+attained a supremacy which was oppressive both to the king and the
+people, not so much through their privileges as through the liberties
+they took. Their continual feuds between themselves disturbed the peace
+of the country.
+
+In 1332, King Magnus took charge of the government. He was a ruler
+of a benign and good disposition toward the common people, whose
+interests he always furthered. But he lacked strength of character and
+was not able to control the obnoxious nobles. The provinces of Scania
+and Bleking suffered greatly under Danish rule, which was changed
+into German oppression when handed over to the counts of Holstein as
+security for a loan. The people of Scania rose in revolt and asked for
+protection from King Magnus. At a meeting in Kalmar (in 1332) both
+provinces were united to Sweden. But the king had to pay heavy amounts
+in settlement, which were increased when Halland was procured in a
+similar way.
+
+King Magnus was, at his height of power, one of the mightiest monarchs
+of Europe, having under his rule the entire Scandinavian peninsula and
+Finland, a realm stretching from the Sound at Elsinore to the Polar
+Sea, from the river Neva to Iceland and Greenland. In 1335 King Magnus
+rode his "Eriksgata," when he announced that no Christian within his
+realm should remain a thrall, thus practically abolishing the remnants
+of slavery. In the following year he was crowned with his queen,
+Blanche of Namur.
+
+Magnus took great interest in legislation. During his minority the
+provincial laws were revised. The king himself accomplished the great
+and noble task of having these united into a state law (_landslag_),
+appointing a committee of three justices to do the work. The clergy was
+consulted, but refused to have ecclesiastical laws made for the whole
+kingdom. The state law was first considered in 1347, and was put in
+practice in 1352, being both a digest and an elaboration of the ancient
+provincial laws. In many an instance of foreign or domestic conflicts,
+the people, through its enforcement, found help and shelter from the
+national spirit of this law.
+
+To the financial difficulties which beset the reign of King Magnus and
+made his life a burden the great plague was added. "The Black Death,"
+in 1350, came from England to Norway and spread with great rapidity and
+the most disastrous consequences throughout the North. In certain parts
+of Sweden one-third of the population perished, in other parts even a
+greater percentage, the plague raging with equal violence throughout
+all classes of society. King Magnus had for a long time contemplated
+revenge against the invasions made by the Russians into Carelia. He
+undertook an expedition, under the pretext of a crusade, which ended
+badly, the Swedish fleet being shut in by the Russians and saved only
+by means of digging a canal. The king was severely criticised for
+this crusade, which was construed as a punishment for his sins, and,
+besides, largely increased his debts. The pope was among his creditors,
+who, upon non-payment, placed Magnus under his ban.
+
+The union with Norway was not a happy one. As a minor, Magnus dwelt
+most of the time in Norway, but later principally in Sweden. This
+was contrary to the Act of Union, the state of things in Norway,
+furthermore, necessitating the almost continual presence of the king.
+For this reason his son, _Hakon_, was chosen king of Norway, in 1343,
+Magnus remaining in power until Hakon became of age, and his older son,
+_Eric_, chosen king, or heir-apparent, of Sweden, in 1344. It appears
+that King Magnus was in favor of this separation and had preconceived
+it in giving to his older son the Swedish name of Eric and to the
+younger the Norwegian name of Hakon, both equally characteristic of
+the royal lines of the respective countries. The two young kings caused
+their father considerable annoyance; but, upon the early death of Eric,
+Hakon entered more into harmony with King Magnus. Valdemar Atterdag,
+the crafty and enterprising king of Denmark, took an active part in the
+conflicts, pretending to support Magnus, while simultaneously depriving
+him of Scania, Halland and Bleking, which he captured almost without
+resistance. He landed in the island of Gothland, plundering Visby in a
+treacherous way. Upon his departure, his ships perished in a storm, the
+plundered treasures going down with these, the king himself escaping
+with difficulty. Valdemar arranged a marriage between his little
+daughter Margaret and King Hakon of Norway. Several Swedish nobles of
+great influence considered the treachery and impudence of Valdemar
+and the weakness of Magnus as going too far. They offered the Swedish
+crown to Albrecht, the son of King Magnus's sister Euphemia. The offer
+was accepted by Duke Albrecht of Mecklenburg, the father of the young
+Albrecht, in behalf of his son. He made a sudden assault upon Stockholm
+in 1363, capturing it. At the Stone of Mora, Albrecht the Younger was
+chosen king of Sweden. Magnus was defeated and made a prisoner at
+Enkoeping.
+
+King Magnus was taken to Stockholm and there imprisoned for some time,
+heavily laden with chains. King Valdemar deserted his cause, but the
+common people of Svealand, with whom Magnus had always been exceedingly
+popular, rose in order to free him. Soon King Hakon reached the
+very gates of Stockholm with a Norwegian army, whereupon Magnus was
+released. But he had to abdicate his throne, leaving for Norway, where
+he died, through an accident, in 1374.
+
+_Albrecht_ was the rightful king of Sweden. At the death of Eric he
+became heir-apparent to the Swedish throne, but for having sped on
+the course of events in his own interest, neither he nor his father
+acquired any popularity. They surrounded themselves by a great number
+of Germans, who, through their licentiousness and overbearing manner,
+enraged the people. The country was practically in the hands of a few
+Swedish nobles, among whom the drotsete, Bo Jonsson Grip, through his
+high office and his immense wealth, bore the supremacy. Bo Jonsson
+is said to have been the wealthiest man who ever lived in the North,
+his possessions, fiefs and castles being of an astounding number, the
+most famous among the latter being Gripsholm in the Lake Maelar. He
+loaned money to the king against new castles and fiefs in security,
+and held Albrecht in the most humiliating relation of dependence.
+His enemies he persecuted without mercy, killing one before the high
+altar in the Franciscan church of Stockholm. When Bo Jonsson died, in
+1386, the king tried to better conditions by confiscating to the crown
+some of his possessions. But he met with opposition from the nobles,
+who claimed that he did so only to enrich his German favorites. The
+king was helpless against his councillors, to whom he had handed over
+all his power. They were in possession of all the fortified castles,
+and if one of them died, the king had no right to select a successor
+without their permission. The executors of Bo Jonsson's will ended by
+offering the crown to Margaret, Valdemar's daughter, and queen-dowager
+of Norway. She accepted, promising the nobles that they should remain
+in undisturbed enjoyment of their great privileges. Margaret sent
+an army into West Gothland, consisting of men from all three of
+the Scandinavian countries, under the command of the Swede, Eric
+Kettilsson. King Albrecht met with an army to a great extent composed
+of German troops, and was defeated and made a prisoner at Falkoeping,
+February 24, 1389. Albrecht was imprisoned at Lindholm, in Scania, for
+seven years, later returning to Mecklenburg.
+
+To the Folkung period belongs one of the most remarkable and renowned
+of Swedish women, herself, on her mother's side, a Folkung, _St.
+Birgitta_, the daughter of the legislator and first justice of Upland,
+Birger Persson. Her parents were both pious and devoted to ascetic
+practices. As a child she had visions, the holy Mary appearing to her.
+When thirteen years of age she was married to Ulf Gumundsson, later
+justice of Nerike, also a pious man, with whom she made a pilgrimage
+to Spain. Birgitta lost her husband shortly afterward. At the Swedish
+court, where she was the highest functionary of Queen Blanche, she
+had seen political life at close range, gathering a deep and strong
+indignation against the mighty and powerful in the world. Her husband's
+death moved her deeply, and the religious mysticism of her youth now
+burst forth with increased strength, her visions becoming numerous and
+important. That she believed in them herself there is no doubt, and
+she made the world believe her. At first she hurled admonitions and
+curses against King Magnus and his court; but the wretchedness of the
+whole world attracted her to its spiritual centre, Rome, where she
+lived for twenty-three years in continual and open protest against
+the vices of the popes and priests. She died in Rome, in 1373, at
+the age of seventy, after a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, seeing the two
+great ambitions of her life fulfilled: the pope returning to Rome from
+Avignon, and her creation, the order of St. Salvator, sanctioned by
+the pope. Birgitta was canonized by the pope in 1391, through the
+influence of Queen Margaret.
+
+Birgitta was the greatest political-poetic genius of the mediaeval
+North. Her revelations fill eight volumes. She wrote them in Swedish,
+and had a priest translate them into Latin. Some of her original
+Swedish work is preserved. Birgitta appears to have thought in artistic
+images, and these images are of plastic form, often of consummate
+beauty, sometimes witty, sometimes avowedly comic, always effective.
+The melancholy charm of Sweden's nature suffuses all her writings and
+renders to her peculiar mediaeval mysticism a national temperament. From
+Swedish sceneries and animal life she borrows her most beautiful images.
+
+St. Birgitta has by some been considered as a reformer before Luther,
+but not quite correctly. Luther reformed the institutions; Birgitta
+aimed at reforming their upholders, and used against the pope and the
+priests a language almost as strong as Luther's. Some of her ideas
+were not strictly in harmony with the Catholic dogmas; she insisted on
+a close personal union with God, without the mediation of priests or
+saints, fought for a universal knowledge of the Bible and the preaching
+of the Gospel in the popular vernaculars, and considered the sale of
+indulgences a mortal sin. Four hundred and seventy convents of her
+order, in which men and women were to collaborate for the instruction
+and spiritual guidance of the people, were after her death founded in
+the Scandinavian countries, Germany, Esthonia, Poland, Italy and the
+Netherlands, one existing in England up to the time of Elizabeth. The
+mother institution at Vadstena, in East Gothland, was of the greatest
+importance to the cultural development of Sweden and the North. One
+of the greatest libraries of the Middle Ages was reared, and the first
+book-printing establishment of Sweden founded there in 1490. Within
+its walls a considerable literary activity prevailed, the religious
+literature of the time being copied, or translated into Swedish,
+and many original works written. The Swedish language, used by the
+Birgittine school of writers, tried, by approaching Danish forms, to
+establish a common literary language in the North, the Norwegian having
+approached the Swedish during the time of the close relations between
+the courts of the two countries. These efforts, for a time furthered by
+political relations, were unfortunately soon to be abandoned forever.
+
+Birgitta was a great genius in fetters. Her rare gifts were kept back
+in their development through the idiosyncrasies of her period. She was
+of an indomitable, aristocratic spirit, always remaining the noblewoman
+to whom it was natural to speak the truth to the princes of State and
+Church, because she considered herself their equal through the best
+blood of the North, of which she had her share. This religious mystic
+was a true child of her aristocratic age, which gave to Sweden two
+parallel lines, sometimes identical, of great legislators and weak and
+indulgent princes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+_Unionism versus Patriotism--Margaret, Engelbrekt and Charles Knutsson_
+
+
+Queen Margaret, the successor of Albrecht, for the first time in
+history united the three Scandinavian countries and their dependencies
+under one rule. Born in a prison in which King Valdemar of Denmark had
+placed his consort, Queen Hedvig, there remained in the character of
+Margaret something of the rigor and chill of her uncomely birthplace.
+When she was seven, she was engaged to King Hakon of Norway, and
+married to him at eleven years of age. In Norway, her education
+was continued for several years after her marriage under the stern
+supervision of Dame Martha, a daughter of St. Birgitta, who often
+applied corporal punishment to the young queen. Margaret early gave
+evidence of self-control and power of reflection, and her mind
+developed at the expense of her heart. Her son Olaf became king of
+Denmark upon Valdemar's death, in 1375, and king of Norway upon that of
+Hakon, in 1380. Upon his death, in 1387, Margaret succeeded him, and
+two years later laid Sweden under her sceptre.
+
+Albrecht was captured, but the Germans still were in possession of
+several Swedish strongholds. These yielded to Margaret, one after
+the other, except Stockholm. In the capital, the German influx of
+soldiers and merchants had made the foreign population exceedingly
+large. They now acted as oppressors. A secret league was formed which
+captured a great number of prominent Swedish citizens, who were cruelly
+tortured with wooden saws and then thrown into an old shed on the
+islet of Kaepplingeholm. The shed was ignited and the poor prisoners
+suffered a terrible death. German freebooters, especially the Vitalen
+or Victuallen Brotherhood, who provided the fortress of Stockholm with
+victuals, were plundering in the Baltic and Lake Maelar, and were the
+allies of the Germans of Stockholm. Margaret was powerless against
+them until she entered into an alliance with the Hanseatic towns. This
+ended the war; Stockholm surrendered and peace was made, in 1395.
+The plunders by sea-rovers in the Baltic were put an end to during
+Margaret's reign, but cost heroic efforts and much money, while the
+influence of the Hansa grew into menacing proportions.
+
+Margaret was anxious to place the dynasty of the North firmly within
+her line of descent. In 1389, she selected her sister's grandson,
+Eric of Pomerania, then six years old, her successor, and he was thus
+proclaimed in Norway. In 1395, Eric was chosen king of Denmark and,
+in 1396, of Sweden. At his Swedish coronation in Kalmar, in 1397,
+Queen Margaret, who remained at his side as the real ruler, had the
+outline drawn of an _Act of Union_, which should forever unite the
+three Scandinavian kingdoms under one ruler. Each country was to
+preserve its constitution, laws and traditions unmolested, but they
+were to support each other in times of war. When a king was to be
+chosen, representatives of equal numbers from each country were to
+meet in Halmstad, the sons of kings to be favored by choice. This Act
+of Union was never carried into effect, according to legal forms. The
+sketch or outline of it, such as it is still preserved, was signed by
+representatives of the three countries, although not in equal numbers;
+but why Queen Margaret never allowed it to be enlarged into a legally
+binding document is not known. Her favorite idea was therein embodied,
+and she appeared to have an all-powerful influence over those necessary
+to carry it through.
+
+Margaret made it her object to strengthen the crown and reduce the
+power of the nobles. She cared naught about keeping her promises to the
+latter, confiscating their castles and possessions, and annulling their
+privileges. When they complained, reminding her of her promises in her
+letters to them, she replied: "Keep my letters; I shall certainly keep
+your castles." All nobles created by Albrecht were entirely deprived
+of their privileges if they could not prove their due qualifications.
+The majority of forts erected during the war were pulled down. No taxes
+were longer imposed, except through written order of the government.
+These reforms were all rigorously carried out, according to the
+"Restitution of Nykoeping" of 1396. Margaret succeeded in a remarkable
+way in reducing to normal proportions the power and influence of the
+Swedish nobility. The nobles, who were all-powerful and absolutely
+unyielding in Albrecht's days, bowed to her gracefully and received
+meekly her severe conditions. An explanation can be found in the fact
+that they had no leader of authority and power among them, after the
+death of Bo Jonsson Grip. Further, Margaret was careful not to fill the
+important offices of drotsete and marsk, when vacant, thus making the
+personal presence and interference of the sovereign necessary on all
+important occasions.
+
+The love of the Swedish people should have been Margaret's reward
+for her abolition of aristocratic oppression, if she had not been
+in a position which necessitated the imposition of heavy taxes. The
+existence of the common people was made weary and troublesome through
+the payment of the "queen's tax," the "stake tax" on each hearth, the
+"rump tax" on each head of cattle, and, worst of all, the "Gothland's
+release." Bailiffs, often of foreign birth, collected these taxes
+with great severity. When the queen became aware of the complaints
+against her and her bailiffs, she asked in a letter to the archbishop
+that the people would forgive her in God's name. "Some of it one has
+not been able to better; some we and they might well have bettered,
+although what is done is done." Without doubt, there was due reason
+for the heavy taxes in the unsettled relations with other countries
+which existed during Margaret's reign; the support of the Hansa and a
+war with Holstein, commenced by King Eric, were expensive. The island
+of Gothland had been captured by the so-called German Order in the
+last days of Albrecht's reign. When the island was redeemed through
+the payment of Swedish money, Margaret made the mistake of installing
+there a Danish bailiff, and it thus for a long time remained a Danish
+province. Margaret believed in the Union and counted no Scandinavian
+a foreigner in either country. But it was contrary to Swedish law to
+install foreigners as bailiffs and vassals, and as she appointed a
+great number of Danes to Swedish fiefs, and never a Swede to Danish
+positions of the same or equal importance, the Swedish complaints, on
+this point, were justified.
+
+Margaret was as severe toward the ecclesiastics as toward the nobles.
+But when she noticed the forebodings of powerful resistance, she made
+important concessions. She was anxious to observe religious practices,
+joining the convent of Vadstena as a "worldly sister," kissing the
+hands of all the monks and nuns on that occasion. She took interest in
+the conversion of the Laps, sending a baptized woman of their race, by
+the name of Margaret, to preach the Gospel among them.
+
+The war with Holstein concerning the possession of Schleswig had been
+brought to an armistice, and the queen sailed to Flensburg to conduct
+further negotiations. While still on board of her ship, death surprised
+her, in 1412.
+
+Margaret has been called the Semiramis of the North and well deserves
+her widespread fame. During her reign, the Northern countries, through
+her wisdom and strength, enjoyed a degree of order which they missed
+both before and after. She put an end to the foreign influence which
+had governed Sweden. Yet her rule was a disappointment, and the Union
+also. She paved the way for a new foreign influence, by making a
+German prince her successor and by leaning too much on the Hansa. The
+aristocratic oppression was crushed by her, but she introduced the
+oppression through royal bailiffs. She promised to preserve the old
+territory of Sweden unmolested, but placed the island of Gothland
+under Denmark. The Union of which Queen Margaret was the champion her
+successors were not able to grasp or uphold in the spirit of her good
+intentions. To Sweden it came in an inauspicious time when it was not
+fit to receive it. Foreign oppression had irritated the people to
+resistance, and discontent was to give life to patriotism. Sweden had
+recently developed into one joint constitutional body, the various
+provinces giving up their ancient laws for a state law, in which
+the old individual traits were gathered and recognized. We know how
+Sweden was settled, not by various tribes, but by pioneers who, from
+the old home of culture, Scania, penetrated to the wilderness above,
+settling one district after the other, which, one by one, developed
+into provinces, little states by themselves, later united into one
+realm with a common king. One by one these provinces had taken the
+lead in the political and cultural development, often the youngest
+before the oldest. Thus the Swedes, a younger branch of the Gauts, gave
+their name to the country and furnished the rulers, the Guts of the
+island of Gothland securing the commercial supremacy of the sea, and
+the Rus of the outskirts of Upland founding the Russian empire. Now it
+fell upon Dalecarlia, the most recently settled of Swedish provinces,
+to save freedom and independence to a newly regenerated state which
+was awakening to the consciousness of its solidarity of interests,
+aspirations and duties. From Dalecarlia came the first great political
+leader. From there he and his later successors received their chief
+support.
+
+_Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson_ is the earliest and greatest of the
+patriotic heroes of Swedish history. To the glory of his deeds and the
+noble simplicity of his character the death of a martyr gives added
+lustre. Engelbrekt was born at Kopparberg, in the mining district of
+Dalecarlia, where there were many German settlers. Possibly his early
+ancestors were among them; but for three generations at least they had
+been native-born Swedes, Engelbrekt's father, as he himself, belonging
+to the Swedish nobility, although not of the influential families.
+Engelbrekt had received the chivalric education of his time at the
+courts of the great nobles, being next in rank to a knight, _vaepnare_
+(squire), at the opening of his career. He was small of stature,
+but eloquent, courageous and of a lofty mind. The integrity of his
+character was absolute; his personal necessities were few and plain.
+
+King Eric was a highly educated and refined man, not without a certain
+ability, but entirely without discernment and patience for the various
+demands and conditions of the countries over which he was set to rule.
+His foreign bailiffs in Sweden, mostly Danes, with a fair sprinkling
+of Germans and Italians, were still less in sympathy with his Swedish
+subjects. They tried to manage them as they did the Danes and the
+inhabitants of more southern countries, for centuries accustomed to
+slavery, ignorant of the ancient spirit of independence of the Swedish
+yeomanry, abated but not suppressed. When oppression no longer kept
+within reasonable bounds, the Swedish patience came to an end, and
+first in the youngest and most solitary parts of the country.
+
+The most hated of Danish bailiffs was Joesse Ericsson, of Westmanland
+and Dalecarlia. After having confiscated the horses of the peasants,
+he is said to have harnessed the men to plows and the women to
+grain-loads, once suffocating five peasants. Engelbrekt felt compassion
+for the misery of the suffering people and accepted the commission to
+seek the king, to make complaints in their behalf. He appeared before
+King Eric in Denmark, demanding punishment of the cruel bailiff and
+offering to go into prison or surrender his life if not speaking the
+truth, as was the custom of the time. The king gave him a letter to
+the Swedish council of state, demanding an inquiry which was promptly
+made. When Engelbrekt for a second time appeared with the corroboration
+of his statements from the Swedish councillors, the king sent him away
+in a fit of impatient rage. Upon his return, the Dalecarlians rose in
+a body, selecting Engelbrekt as their leader and marching south to
+Westeros. The councillors met and promised to have justice done in
+the case. But things remained the same until the following spring, in
+1434. At midsummer the Dalecarlians commenced operations. The fort of
+Borganaes and the castle of Koeping were destroyed. Engelbrekt asked the
+people of Westmanland to join him, which they did to a man, the nobles
+also joining upon evidence of the determination of the popular leader.
+In Upsala, Engelbrekt found the people of Upland ready to join, and he
+made clear to the great multitudes the mission he had undertaken. He
+now felt strong enough to take a hand in the affairs of state; with
+the consent of the leading nobles reducing the taxes by one-third.
+Engelbrekt called upon a young, high-spirited nobleman, Eric Puke,
+to bring Norrland to revolt and destroy the forts of that district,
+which commissions Puke fulfilled to the letter, thereupon reinforcing
+Engelbrekt with his men. In the meantime, the people of western
+Soedermanland rose by their own determination, destroying Gripsholm;
+the bailiff of the castle escaping with his treasures in boats over
+Lake Maelar. In Vermland and Dal the people followed these examples
+of revolt. The commander of the Stockholm fortress agreed upon an
+armistice, other castles surrendering or promising to surrender.
+
+Engelbrekt met the council of state at Vadstena, escorted by 1,000 men
+of his best troops. Without fear or haughtiness, he pleaded the cause
+of his country, advising the councillors in firm and eloquent words
+to see to it that the foreign oppression came to an end. The council
+hesitated, Bishop Knut of Linkoeping stating that the oath to the king
+could not be broken. To this Engelbrekt answered that the king had
+pledged many oaths but kept none, for which reason the people were
+freed from their oath. Upon a wholesome demonstration of force the
+councillors gave in and dictated a letter in which they broke their
+pledge to King Eric, yet giving as an excuse that they were compelled
+to do so. The revolt had now spread to all parts of the kingdom, at
+least 100,000 being armed to meet the emergency. But so carefully
+and quietly was the work of liberation performed that no harm was
+done in the parts where the peasant armies were moving. After having
+entered Halmstad, Engelbrekt returned to Westeros, where the army was
+scattered, but soon gathered again upon the report that the king with
+a fleet was approaching Stockholm. Upon his arrival, the king found
+Stockholm enclosed by a peasant army and returned to Denmark, forced
+to agree to an armistice. At a meeting in Arboga, Engelbrekt was
+elected regent. This was the first meeting in which representatives
+of the merchant class and the yeomanry took part, being thus the
+first _riksdag_ or parliament composed of the four Estates--noblemen,
+ecclesiastics, burghers, and yeomen.
+
+King Eric promised, upon his return to Stockholm, to govern the country
+according to its laws and through Swedish men, appointing Krister
+Nilsson Vasa drotsete, and Charles Knutsson Bonde marsk. But so badly
+did he keep his promises that he was once more dethroned. The nobles
+hastened to elect Charles Knutsson regent, but through pressure which
+the peasants brought to bear it was agreed that he should share his
+power with Engelbrekt and lead the siege of Stockholm, while the latter
+should free the country from the bailiffs reinstalled by the king.
+
+Upon his second tour through the country, Engelbrekt was seized by
+illness, but being called to Stockholm by an important state affair,
+he started over the lakes thither from OErebro. One evening he stopped
+at an islet in Lake Hielmar for the night. When he saw a boat approach
+with Mons Bengtsson on board he staggered on a crutch down to receive
+him. This man sprang ashore and assaulted Engelbrekt, who tried to ward
+off the blows of the axe with his crutch, but failing to do so he was
+killed on the spot, in April, 1436. The perpetrator of this beastly
+murder was a son of a noble with whom Engelbrekt had been engaged in
+some controversy which he had recently settled to the satisfaction
+of both parties. The murderer escaped; but, although shielded from
+punishment by Marsk Charles Knutsson, he was shunned by everybody, his
+high-born and wealthy relations for several centuries refusing to carry
+the proud family name (Natt och Dag) upon which he had brought shame.
+
+The memory of Engelbrekt is one of the most honored and most beloved in
+Swedish history. He waged the first battle against the oppression which
+foreign intrigues had brought upon his country, and saved from the
+peril of slavery the ancient freedom and independence of the Swedish
+people.
+
+Through a remarkable coincidence, a cousin of Engelbrekt's murderer,
+Nils Bosson, a young follower of the popular hero, who took his
+mother's family name of Sture, was to become the father and grandfather
+of two of the most revered of Engelbrekt's successors; Nils Bosson
+himself being as sympathetic and upright a type of nobleman as any
+time or country has produced.
+
+Charles Knutsson, after Engelbrekt's death, was the most influential
+man in Sweden. But he was a very different man. Belonging to the
+highest aristocracy, he was himself of great wealth, highly talented,
+well read, and a great traveller. He was exceedingly handsome,
+dignified, amiable, eloquent, and possessed a voice of unusual charm
+and strength. But he was a prey to ambition, determined to make his
+way to the throne, but little careful in the selection of his means
+toward that end. He aroused the suspicion and hatred of Eric Puke,
+whom he irritated to revolt only to get him in his power. This noble
+but headstrong man was executed for treason, while Drotsete Krister
+Nilsson, who signed the death-warrant in the interest of Charles,
+himself was persecuted by the latter and deprived of all his fiefs save
+one. Charles showed great severity in punishing the peasants, who were
+Puke's supporters, four of them being burned alive; thus losing the
+popular sympathy, while becoming an object of envy in the eyes of the
+nobles. These recalled King Eric, who was again found impossible and
+soon dethroned also in Denmark.
+
+_Christopher of Bavaria_, a nephew of Eric, was elected to succeed him
+(in 1440) by the nobles of Denmark and Sweden. He was a good-natured
+man, who allowed the aristocrats of Sweden to rule as they pleased,
+only keeping an eye on Charles Knutsson. Christopher died in 1448.
+During his reign a new state law was issued in 1442, called "King
+Christopher's land's law," although the king probably had very little
+to do with its form or stipulations. It offered a few improvements, but
+in general so closely resembled the older state law that the one was
+often mistaken for the other and both remained valid until 1736.
+
+_Charles Knutsson (Charles VIII.)_ returned from Finland, which duchy
+had been held under his supremacy, four months after Christopher's
+death, and was by an overwhelming majority elected king of Sweden.
+Shortly after his coronation at Upsala he was elected king of Norway
+and crowned at Drontheim, in 1449. His reign opened with a lucky
+expedition to the island of Gothland. But in the following year King
+Charles lost both Gothland and Norway to Christian of Denmark, with
+whom the Unionist party of Sweden entered into secret plots against
+the king. Invasions and intrigues followed. Christian invaded Smaland,
+East Gothland and Vermland, to which Charles responded by an invasion
+of Scania, destroying the old town of Lund with nineteen of its twenty
+churches, the cathedral alone being spared. Christian took revenge by
+an invasion of West Gothland, capturing Loedoese. Another Danish army
+marched through East Gothland, but met defeat at Holaveden through an
+onslaught made by Swedish peasants. The valiant Tord Bonde, a cousin
+of King Charles, took the Danes by surprise, recapturing Loedoese. An
+armistice of two years was agreed on, in May, 1453.
+
+In the battle against open and secret enemies things turned out badly
+for King Charles. The best supporter of his cause, his cousin Tord, was
+murdered by a Danish traitor in his service, in 1456, and a new and
+dangerous enemy was encountered in the Church. The king had confiscated
+to the crown a number of estates which the Church had gained in an
+illegal way. While preparing for an expedition to OEland, and having
+instructed the archbishop to gather troops for him, Charles learned
+that this man, Joens Bengtsson Oxenstierna, had turned against him. The
+archbishop deposited his ecclesiastical robe at the high altar of the
+Upsala cathedral and started, sword in hand, with his forces to meet
+the king. Charles tried to surprise him, but was himself caught in a
+trap and met his enemy on the ice of Lake Maelar. The encounter proved
+a defeat to Charles, who in haste stored his treasures in a convent in
+Stockholm and sailed for Dantzic.
+
+_Christian_ of Denmark was called in by the archbishop and chosen king
+of Sweden. Christian was a sagacious ruler, but his great need of
+money, incurred by the redeeming of Schleswig and Holstein, made him
+unpopular. As the easy-going Christopher had been surnamed "Bark-king,"
+on account of dearth experienced in Sweden during his reign, when the
+people had to mix bark with their flour, thus Christian, on account of
+his avidity, was called "The Bottomless Purse." During Christian's war
+with Russia, the archbishop was commissioned to collect the increased
+taxes, but failing to do so, to the full extent demanded, he was
+imprisoned at the command of the king. This caused indignation.
+
+Kettil Karlsson Vasa, a nephew of the archbishop, and the bishop of
+Linkoeping, revolted and defeated the king and his army at Haraker's
+church, in Westmanland, in 1464. The victors then marched on Stockholm.
+The popular opinion of the country demanded the reinstallation of
+King Charles. The peasants wanted him "because Sweden was of old a
+kingdom, not a regent's land or a diocese." King Charles returned in
+the same year, but soon left the throne again on account of a conflict
+with Bishop Kettil. This latter turned to Christian, promising a
+safe return to the crown if he set free the archbishop. Christian
+immediately did so, the worthy bishops commencing operations against
+Charles, who, defeated and forsaken by all, abdicated his throne,
+January 30, 1465. The once upon a time richest man of Sweden was now
+deprived of all, Christian having taken his hidden treasures. He
+retired to Raseborg, a castle in Finland, which after some hesitation
+was granted him. "We have," wrote he, "in such manner departed from
+Sweden, that never longeth us to return thither the third time." He
+also complained of his misery in the following strophe of assonance
+verse:
+
+    While I was lord of Fogelwick
+    Then I was both mighty and rich,
+    But since made the king of Svea land
+    I am a poor and unhappy man.
+
+Great confusion reigned in Sweden during the next two years. Bishop
+Kettil, who styled himself regent, tried to conduct the government
+in common with the archbishop, but the great nobles did their own
+pleasure. At last one of them, Ivar Axelson Tott, who had the island of
+Gothland in fief, joined the party of Charles, marrying his daughter.
+His brother, Eric Axelson, was made regent. Nils Bosson Sture had
+been repeatedly asked to accept this dignity, as also the crown, but
+he refused. He and Sten Sture, of the original Sture family, who led
+the army under Bishop Kettil at Haraker, now made possible the second
+reinstallation of Charles, in 1467, the ambitious archbishop dying in
+the same year. But Charles was old and weary of the vanities of life,
+for which he had made so many sacrifices. It was only the valor and
+strength of the two Stures that made it possible for him to keep the
+crown and to die in the purple, in 1470. He designated Sten Sture as
+his successor at the rudder of state, but warned him not to seek the
+crown. "That ambition," he said, "has crushed my happiness and cost my
+life."
+
+Charles is very sympathetically dealt with in the New Rhymed, or
+Charles Chronicle, probably written by one of his men, who flatters
+him, as did the Old Chronicle the ill-fated Duke Eric. Still the
+Charles Chronicle and its continuations, the Sture Chronicles, are
+very important historic sources of these periods of Unionism versus
+Patriotism, from Margaret to Gustavus Vasa. The less reliable Prose
+Chronicle and the later historic works by Ericus Olai, Johannis Magnus
+and Olaus Petri, also throw light upon them. What all of these have
+in common is a fiery patriotic spirit, entirely lacking in the placid
+and artistic lines of the Old Chronicle as compared to the New. With
+the seeds of patriotism were sowed those of national hatred against a
+foreign foe. That the Dane and not the German was destined to be this
+national enemy was disastrous to the Union of the North, but probably
+a gain for the cultural development of Sweden. This period is rich
+in shorter poems on political men and conditions, all of a strongly
+democratic flavor. Among these the song about his friend Engelbrekt, by
+Bishop Thomas of Strengnaes, occupies a high place, but a still higher
+one the Song of Liberty, by the same high-minded patriot.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+_Unionism versus Patriotism--Uncrowned Kings of the Sture Families_
+
+
+Sten Sture the Elder was chosen regent by the council of state and
+elected by the people at the Riksdag of Arboga, in 1471. For more than
+half a century following upon the reign of Charles VIII., Sweden was
+governed by uncrowned kings, with the intermission of a few years.
+These regents had not any republican ideals in mind, nor were they
+secretly coveting the crown. Their ambition was simply to uphold
+a strong and firm national government by means of which foreign
+lordships could be made impossible, the people enjoy their rights and
+their liberty, and the government increase in power and authority
+at the expense of Church and nobility. The policy laid down by Sten
+Sture the Elder, and strictly adhered to by him and his successors,
+was of the broadly democratic spirit of Engelbrekt. This policy was
+strengthened by the high esteem in which the regents were held. Yet
+their position was a very difficult one, for although enjoying the full
+confidence of the people, they were regarded with envy and suspicion
+by the aristocracy, who never could be persuaded but that these noble
+uncrowned rulers were secretly scheming for obtainance of the royal
+crown.
+
+Sten Sture had the good fortune to inaugurate his reign with a
+glorious victory over King Christian, which put an end to Danish
+invasions during a whole generation. Christian arrived at Stockholm
+with a fine fleet and a magnificent army, taking his position at
+Brunkeberg, close to the north of the capital. Here a long and fierce
+battle was fought, October 10, 1471. Sten Sture commanded a large
+army of peasants, attacking Christian's fortified position from the
+north, supported by Knut Posse, with burgher troops, from the south.
+At the third attack victory was won, Nils Bosson Sture arriving on the
+battle scene with an army of Dalecarlians. King Christian was wounded
+in the mouth; the famous Danish Oriflamme, Dannebrog, was captured,
+being surrounded by five hundred corpses of select Danish knights.
+Through the prestige of the great victory at Brunkeberg, Sten Sture
+managed to give Sweden ten years of undisturbed peace and comfort.
+Encouraged by the victory over the foreign invaders, the city of
+Stockholm took the lead in ridding the towns of undue influence, caused
+by the supremacy of German commerce. The town laws held a stipulation
+that half the number of councillors in each town council should be
+Germans. A petition headed by the burghers of Stockholm and circulated
+through the towns was acted upon, the council of state abolishing by
+law the stipulation in question. Free markets were established in
+the commercial centres Kalmar and Soederkoeping, and a new commercial
+town was founded on the Gotha River, to be called Gothahamn, although
+the name was changed to New Loedoese. In spite of the supremacy of the
+Hanseatic League, commerce was good, the iron mines of Dalecarlia,
+Westmanland, Nerike and Eastern Vermland growing in importance, and
+silver being produced by various mines in Dalecarlia.
+
+Lord Sten gave careful and loving attention to the needs of the
+yeomanry and the common people. He kept an open and watchful eye on
+the bailiffs, and carried out the demands of justice with severity.
+Many farms, desolate and neglected during the times of war, were
+brought under cultivation. Lord Sten made no decision in any matter
+of importance without consulting the yeomen and the burghers, as well
+as the nobles, at _Riksdagar_, the parliamentary nature of which was
+further developed. With a firm hand he held the nobles down to order
+and the requirements of a national democratic policy. The powerful
+brothers Ivar and Eric Tott especially caused him annoyance, the former
+holding the island of Gothland, the latter the duchy of Finland, in
+fief. It came to open hostilities with Ivar Tott who, defeated and
+deprived of his castles, fled to Denmark, taking revenge by turning the
+much contested island over to said power.
+
+Lord Sten was a very pious man, but he held the ecclesiastics under
+strict surveillance on account of their unpatriotic tendencies. But he
+collaborated with them for the establishment of a state university at
+Upsala, in which the archbishop, Jacob Ulfsson, was greatly interested.
+Sanctioned by the pope, the university was opened in 1477, with great
+ceremonies. One of its earliest professors was Ericus Olai, the author
+of the first but rather uncritical work of Swedish history, Chronica
+Regni Gothorum, written in awkward mediaeval Latin, but in a style
+attractive through its vivacity. Latin was chiefly used by the learned
+and literary men. The cloisters and the cathedrals had schools where
+the young people were trained for the learned professions, chiefly
+the Church. For a university education, the institutions of Cologne,
+Prague, Leipzig and Bologna, but chiefly Paris, the greatest of them
+all, had been sought. The Swedes had three _collegia_ in Paris, and the
+Scandinavians held there an honored position as scholars, the Swedes
+three times filling the office of rector or president of the Paris
+university, the highest dignity of learning in the world. Ingeborg
+Tott, the wife of Sten Sture, was a great friend of learning, having
+books printed at her expense and collecting a large library in the
+convent of Mariefred, founded by Lord Sten.
+
+The peace of the country was disturbed by a war with Russia. Attacks
+on the castle of Viborg had been made shortly after the battle of
+Brunkeberg, but warded off by Eric Tott, who in return invaded Russian
+territory. After his death the valiant Knut Posse was made commander of
+Viborg. The Russians, in 1495, made a violent attack upon the castle,
+damaging it considerably. But Posse led the defence with superior
+skill, repulsing the enemy with astounding force. This deed has become
+famous in popular traditions, both Swedes and Russians crediting Posse
+with an alliance of a supernatural order. The regent himself twice
+headed expeditions to Finland, forcing a new Russian army to retire
+over the frontier. Affairs were going badly on account of unsafety
+in Finland, and dearth and intrigues in Sweden. The council of state
+accused Lord Sten of not doing all he could for Finland while secretly
+fanning the discontent of the commanders, who made personal sacrifices
+of time and money by remaining with the army. It came to hot words
+between Lord Sten and the commander Svante Sture, the son of Nils
+Bosson. He returned home, although Lord Sten told him he was a deserter
+in so doing, "fleeing from the banner of state." Svante Sture, who
+with Posse had made a glorious inroad upon Russian territory, now
+joined the aristocratic enemies of the regent, calling in King John
+(Hans) of Denmark. John succeeded Christian in 1482, and commenced
+intriguing for the Swedish crown. The Swedish nobles were anxious to
+have this good-natured monarch for ruler. Lord Sten was too sagacious
+to openly oppose them, when they, in the so-called _Recess of Kalmar_
+of 1483, declared _John_ king of Sweden, the king promising the island
+of Gothland to Sweden, and all old privileges to the nobles. By means
+of skilful diplomatic operations, Lord Sten delayed matters to such an
+extent that it took fourteen years before John II. was king of Sweden
+in anything but name. But the time was ripe for Svante Sture's open
+conflict with Lord Sten. The council, the archbishop leading, broke
+their faith with the regent, offering King John the crown. He came with
+an army to Stockholm, taking his position at Brunkeberg. An army of
+Dalecarlians marched upon the capital at the solicitation of Lord Sten,
+who awaited them with another army. The operations took an unfavorable
+turn on account of misapprehended movements, Lord Sten with difficulty
+saving his life. King John understood that a continued struggle would
+lead to his ultimate defeat and made peace. Lord Sten retired, but
+with the greatest fiefs given to any Swedish man; viz., the whole
+of Finland, with large possessions besides. When the king entered
+Stockholm, in October, 1497, it was at the arm of Lord Sten, to whom he
+said jestingly: "Have you now prepared everything well for me at the
+castle, Lord Sten; the table set with meat and ale, so that my guests
+may make merry?" Lord Sten answered in the same light spirit, pointing
+to the Swedish nobles who had joined the royal retinue: "That these
+know best who stand there behind you. They have it all both baked and
+brewed." Later the king remarked: "Lord Sten, it is a bad inheritance
+you have bequeathed on me in Sweden; the peasants whom God created
+slaves you have made into lords, and those who should have been lords
+you try to make slaves." At his coronation in Upsala, the king bestowed
+knighthood upon many Swedish nobles (something that had been beyond
+Lord Sten's authority to do), upon his return to Denmark appointing
+Lord Sten to take the reins of government with three state councillors
+at his side.
+
+King John's reign in Sweden was of short duration. He failed to return
+the island of Gothland to the Swedish crown and lost his prestige
+through an unsuccessful war in Ditmarschen. Svante Sture, who had
+not been dealt with according to his expectations, declared war upon
+the king and joined Lord Sten, who was in an unenviable position and
+glad to shake off the Union with Denmark, which he did, in 1501, when
+made regent for the second time. With a peasant army siege was laid
+to the castle of Stockholm, held by the energetic Queen Christine,
+who capitulated after a heroic struggle. Three days later King John
+appeared with an army, but returned, seeing that he came too late.
+Lord Sten retained Queen Christine at Vadstena for some time, later
+escorting her to the Danish frontier. Upon his return he was taken ill
+and died suddenly at Joenkoeping, December 14, 1503. With him the older
+or original line of the Sture family became extinct. Lord Sten was the
+greatest ruler since Margaret, and his rule, being of a more patriotic
+and democratic tendency, was of greater benefit to Sweden than hers.
+
+_Svante Sture_ succeeded Sten. He was of the younger Sture line, the
+son of the noble patriot, Nils Bosson, who in the time of Charles
+VIII., as the friend of Engelbrekt and Bishop Thomas, had taken stand
+against the archbishop and the nobles, backed by the Dalecarlians,
+who adored him. Lord Svante was a very quick-tempered man, which led
+him into the conflict with Lord Sten. Unlike the regent and his own
+father, he never had experienced what Danish oppression meant, which
+accounts for his unwise decision in joining the Unionists. The war with
+Denmark lasted eight of his nine years of reign, which proves him an
+able soldier and a stanch patriot. His position from the start was less
+favorable than that of his predecessor, who could reign in the glory of
+his early victory at Brunkeberg.
+
+Lord Svante had in _Doctor Hemming Gad_ a patriotic adviser of rare
+attainments and great learning. He had studied in Rostock, was for
+twelve years Lord Sten's representative in Italy, and later bishop of
+Linkoeping, although never sanctioned and finally placed under ban by
+the pope. Hemming Gad was the first democratic agitator of Sweden,
+a warm admirer of the Stures, and a good soldier. His statecraft he
+had evidently learned in Italy with her traditions of Machiavelli.
+His literary style is very characteristic, the language of a learned
+ecclesiastic with the oaths of a soldier. Those of his writings which
+are still extant prove a great love for the common people, a love which
+was returned by them. Having organized the revolt against King John, he
+evinced great slyness and presence of mind at the death of Lord Sten.
+To preserve its secrecy until Svante was forewarned and in possession
+of the castle of Stockholm, he had a man dress in the clothes of the
+deceased regent and continue the journey to the capital with Sten's
+retinue.
+
+The Unionist party was as ready as ever to offer the crown to King
+John, their representatives agreeing to pay a yearly tribute until
+he or his son Christian was chosen king. This agreement was made in
+1509, but it called forth a storm of indignation from the patriots and
+the people, and was never considered by the government. Lubeck opened
+hostilities against Denmark and was joined by Sweden, the Unionists
+recommencing deliberations whenever it looked favorable for Danish
+interests. Lord Svante made sure of peace and safety for Finland before
+taking up the conflict with the Danes. On the eastern shore, Hemming
+Gad led the operations against the town and castle of Kalmar, held by
+the Danes. The town was soon captured, but the castle not before the
+end of 1510. Ake Hansson (Natt och Dag) fought with great valor and
+considerable success against the Danes on the western and southern
+frontier, until this "Tormentor of Denmark," as he was surnamed, was
+killed in battle in 1510. On the sea the Danes were superior, a fleet
+under the command of Otto Rud and Soren Norrby plundering Abo in
+Finland. But when Lubeck's fleet appeared the Danes were forced back.
+Peace was made, but soon broken. Lubeck sent a fleet to invade the
+coast of the Danish isles; Hemming Gad, with several Swedish ships,
+taking part in the expedition. Denmark did her best to crush Swedish
+resistance by inducing Russia to break the peace, the emperor to
+declare Sweden the arch enemy of the German empire, and the pope to
+place her under ban.
+
+More unfortunate to Sweden than these intrigues was the fact that King
+John in his son Christian had an able warrior and a great organizer.
+Prince Christian put down a revolt in Norway against Danish oppression,
+entering West Gothland with a superior army. The Unionists assembled
+to force the regent to abdicate, but he firmly refused to do so. A
+rebellion seemed imminent, Lord Svante hastening to Westeros to confer
+with the people of the mining districts. Shortly after the opening
+of the meeting, Lord Svante died quite suddenly, after a stroke of
+paralysis, in January, 1512.
+
+The council of state selected Eric Trolle, a learned but unfit man
+of the Unionists, to succeed Lord Svante. But the popular opinion
+condemned him, and the council was forced to choose Svante's son as his
+successor.
+
+_Sten Sture the Younger_ was barely nineteen years of age at his
+father's death. Knighted when only five, he early distinguished
+himself as a warrior, winning fame for his chivalric spirit and
+noble character, and, like his illustrious namesakes, his father and
+grandfather, becoming the idol of the people. And he deserved their
+idolatry. More resembling his grandfather in the sweetness of his
+disposition than his sterner predecessors, he was as great a warrior as
+his father, to which he joined the sagacity and power of self-control
+characteristic of the elder Lord Sten. As a youth, he was made regent
+of a country in war, distress and peril. He was called away by death
+when only twenty-seven, leaving behind the memory of not one evil deed
+to soil the glory of his fair name, although continually placed in
+trying and dangerous positions of strife, rivalry, envy and rebellion.
+He made his will respected by high and low with a temperance in spirit
+and methods worthy of the highest admiration and the devoted love of
+the people. The young Lord Sten had a tender heart for the lowly and
+the suffering, never fearing to wring their rights from the oppressors,
+whosoever they were. He took great interest in the pursuits of peace,
+during the intervals allowed by his successful exploits in war. In
+spite of the plague and other contagious diseases, which, together with
+the destruction of war, ravaged the country, he left it in a better
+condition than he received it. In many ways more farseeing than his
+contemporaries, his name will live on for centuries as one of the most
+beloved in Swedish history.
+
+With the younger Lord Sten, other new actors appeared upon the stage
+of Scandinavian history. Christian II. succeeded his father upon the
+throne of Denmark and Norway. In Sweden, Archbishop Jacob Ulfsson
+retired and was succeeded by Gustavus Trolle, a son of Lord Eric. The
+new archbishop was of a hateful and jealous disposition. He resolved to
+avenge the treatment his father had received at the hands of Lord Sten
+and the Swedish people by placing Christian on the throne. The young
+regent made no less than four attempts to win over this formidable
+enemy, but all in vain. He opened up a court at Staeket, in Upland, more
+brilliant than that of Lord Sten, and accepted subsidies from Denmark.
+At last, fully aware of the secret deliberations going on, Lord Sten
+surrounded Staeket and called a Riksdag at Arboga, in 1517, where it was
+resolved that Christian should never become king of Sweden, and that
+the siege of Staeket should be continued. Christian sent a little army
+to support his ally, but Lord Sten met it at Ladugardsland, outside of
+Stockholm, completely routing it. A new Riksdag was called at Stockholm
+before which the archbishop appeared upon truce. His language was
+haughty and disdainful. He said he was in his full right to support
+King Christian's claims with mitre and sword, the pope sanctioning his
+policy; and to the pope alone he was responsible. The indignant Riksdag
+resolved that the archbishop should be deprived of his seat, being
+guilty of high treason, and that his castle should be burned. The
+resolution was written down and signed by all the bishops, none daring
+to oppose the yeomanry. Bishop Brask, of Linkoeping, managed to conceal
+in the wax of his seal a paper with the words: "To this I am forced by
+necessity." The archbishop returned to defend Staeket, but soon had to
+flee with his followers. It was only by using all his authority that
+Lord Sten could save his enemy's life from the irate people. Trolle
+was forced to resign his seat and was imprisoned in a convent at
+Westeros, while his castle was torn down. Lord Sten wanted to appoint a
+successor to Trolle, but Bishop Brask objected that the pope might not
+consent to his removal. To this Lord Sten uttered the following manly
+words, hardly in touch with the policy of Rome: "I think that our most
+holy father, the pope, and the canonic law should not tolerate as the
+leaders of the Church, and as the precepts or mirrors to the people,
+men who are infested by open treason, in particular against their own
+country." The Church tried various means to gain a settled condition of
+things. When Sten refused the royal crown from its hand, he was at last
+placed under ban.
+
+The hostilities with Denmark recommenced. King Christian appeared with
+a fleet and an army, in June, 1518, laying siege to Stockholm. His
+attacks were valiantly repulsed, and Christian, fearing to be encircled
+by his enemies, marched away in a southeasterly direction, taking a
+firm position at Brennkyrka. A Swedish army met him from the south
+and gave battle one of the last days of July, 1518. It was a fierce
+conflict, ending with a victory for the Swedes. The chief banner was
+carried by the squire Gustavus Ericsson Vasa, who five years later was
+to become king of Sweden. Christian returned to attack Stockholm, once
+more in vain. He was to sail for Denmark, but was kept back by storms,
+great suffering being experienced by his men. Christian was forced to
+open deliberations, making very high demands. But Lord Sten refused to
+hold a meeting, postponing it to the following year. A few days later,
+King Christian sent word that he wanted the regent to visit him in his
+ship on important affairs. Lord Sten, always good-natured and ready to
+accept peace, thought that the king had changed his mind and was ready
+to go. But the burgomaster and council of Stockholm prevailed upon him
+not to go, sure that it would bring him into the enemy's hands. Lord
+Sten took their advice and arranged for a meeting on land, sending six
+Swedish nobles as hostages to the king at his demand. Among these were
+Dr. Hemming Gad and Gustavus Ericsson Vasa. For two days Lord Sten
+waited in vain for the king to appear. Then he learned, to his dismay
+and indignation, that King Christian had sailed to Denmark, taking the
+hostages with him as prisoners, October 4, 1518.
+
+Christian collected all his forces and resources to crush Sweden.
+The whole of the following year was spent in preparations. Sweden
+was placed under ban by the pope, and Christian made himself his
+representative, the one who was to fulfil the heavenly punishment. In
+January, 1520, a large Danish army invaded Smaland and West Gothland.
+Lord Sten made an appeal to the people and gathered a peasant army,
+with which he met the superior force of the enemy at Bogesund, in
+West Gothland. The Swedish forces were arranged in line on the frozen
+surface of Lake Asund. Lord Sten rode in front of the line, encouraging
+his men, but was seriously wounded during the very first engagement
+and carried from the field. After two vain attempts, the Danes were
+victorious in overthrowing the Swedes. These gathered in the wooded
+hills of Tiveden for a last heroic resistance, which was broken; the
+Danes taking possession of the provinces to the north. Lord Sten,
+mortally wounded, died on the ice of Lake Maelar during his journey
+to Stockholm. Christian continued his march on Stockholm, the castle
+of which was heroically defended by Lord Sten's consort, Christine
+Gyllenstierna, who also tried by support and exhortations to encourage
+other strongholds not yet surrendered to resist the Danes. The castle
+of Kalmar was defended by another heroic woman, Anna Bielke. But
+Christian won, through persuasions and deliberations, what he could
+not take by violence. His operations were carried on by Dr. Hemming
+Gad, who, for reasons unknown to history, had changed his old patriotic
+views and become a friend of Christian. In September, 1520, Christian
+won Stockholm by peaceful agreement. The 4th of November he was crowned
+by Trolle, the reinstalled archbishop. At this occasion it caused
+considerable surprise that only Danes and Germans were knighted, the
+herald proclaiming that the country was won by sword, for which reason
+no Swede could be thus honored. This was in striking contrast to
+Christian's proclamation of having ascended the throne by right of his
+descent from St. Eric. Worse things were to follow.
+
+The 7th of November a great number of Swedish nobles were called to
+the castle of Stockholm, where they were brought before a tribunal,
+the king presiding. The archbishop asked for remuneration for the
+sufferings caused him during Lord Sten's reign. A jury of bishops and
+nobles convened. Christine Gyllenstierna was the first to answer to the
+accusations, holding forth that the Riksdag of Arboga was responsible
+for the action taken against Trolle and bringing the signed document
+in evidence. The king answered by announcing that all who signed were
+under the ban of the pope; Bishop Brask was the only one acquitted,
+producing his written slip of reservation from under his seal, besides
+Bishop Otto of Westerns, who supported Trolle in his claims. In the
+evening all the accused were imprisoned and judgment passed on them the
+following morning.
+
+In the morning of November 8th, a solemn procession of convicts
+started from the castle to the grand square, hedged in by soldiers
+and executioners. The bishops Mattias of Strengnaes and Vincentius of
+Skara, in their ecclesiastical robes, came first, followed by thirteen
+noblemen and thirty-one town councillors and burghers of Stockholm.
+In the square, a Danish councillor of state from the porch of the
+court-house asked the masses not to be frightened. The archbishop,
+he said, had three times on his knees implored the king that justice
+should be done. Bishop Vincentius replied with great courage that the
+king had committed treason against the Swedes and called down divine
+punishment on him for such deeds. Two of the Swedish nobles followed
+the bishop with short addresses, admonishing the people not to believe
+in false letters and promises and to put down such tyranny as soon
+as within their power. King Christian, who from a window of a house
+facing the square looked down on the spectacle, now gave a sign for the
+executions to commence. First the bishops, then the state councillors,
+nobles and burghers were beheaded, among whom were two brothers of
+Christine Gyllenstierna and the father and brother-in-law of Gustavus
+Ericsson Vasa. Many burghers were captured in the street, or in their
+homes, and brought in to be executed, others being killed on the spot.
+Not less than eighty-two persons were that day executed, the number
+being increased during the following days by people killed in various
+ways. Olaus Petri, the reformer, who was an eyewitness, in his history
+gives a graphic description of the terrible scenes. He adds: "Yes, this
+was a horrible and cruel murder, such as no other prince who carried
+a Christian name ever committed before." The corpses were burned, the
+remains of Lord Sten and one of his sons being taken from their graves
+and thrown into the flames. Christine Gyllenstierna, and the mother
+and sister of Gustavus Vasa, were with several other ladies carried
+to Copenhagen and thrown into a miserable dungeon. The mass murder
+has been called the Carnage of Stockholm, but it was extended also to
+Finland--where Dr. Hemming Gad was executed at Raseborg--and to the
+provinces. Christian marked his return through the Swedish mainland to
+Copenhagen by executions and mass murder everywhere; six hundred are
+estimated to have been killed through his order during his short stay
+in Sweden.
+
+Archbishop Trolle had taken a terrible revenge, and Christian thought
+he had crushed forever the stubborn Swedish resistance. But through
+this excess of cruelty the Union became insupportable, and the Swedish
+people resolved to throw off forever the connection with any foreign
+ruler. In the woods of Dalecarlia a man was hiding who soon was to step
+forward to lead the work of liberation and independence.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+_Revolution and Reformation--Gustavus Vasa_
+
+
+Gustavus Ericsson Vasa, the man whom Providence had selected to save
+his country from anarchy and ruin, belonged to a noble family of
+Unionist sympathies, his great-grandfather being Drotsete Krister
+Nilsson Vasa. But the Vasa family had joined the cause of the
+patriots during the reigns of the Stures, simultaneously losing some
+of its earlier importance. The Vasas prided themselves on being the
+descendants of St. Eric and his line, and of St. Birgitta and the
+Folkungs. Its coat-of-arms consisted of a simple vase, or bundle of
+sticks. Gustavus Vasa was born May 12, 1496, at Lindholmen in Upland,
+at the mansion of his parents, Eric Johansson Vasa, state councillor,
+and Cecilia of Eka, a sister of Christine Gyllenstierna. His earliest
+years were spent with his mother at Rydboholm, another estate of his
+father's, beautifully situated on an arm of the Baltic, only ten miles
+north of Stockholm. When a mere boy he was sent to the court of his
+granduncle, Sten Sture the Elder, who was childless. King John of
+Denmark noticed the bright little boy during a visit paid to Lord Sten.
+Young Gustavus took the command of all the other children at play and
+appeared to be a born leader. The king called the boy to him and asked
+him what his name was. Gustavus answered frankly. King John smilingly
+placed his hand on the boy's head, saying: "Certainly thou shalt become
+a man in thy day if preserved in life." The king intimated that he
+wanted to take him along to Copenhagen to supervise his education. But
+Lord Sten, who did not like this idea, hurriedly had Gustavus sent
+away, so that he could tell the king upon a second inquiry that the
+boy had returned to his parents. The young Gustavus was described as
+"attractive and welcome with everybody." Gustavus was sent to Upsala
+to study at the age of thirteen. The University of Upsala was at that
+period in a state of stagnation. The first teacher who came in contact
+with Gustavus was a Dane named Master Ivar. According to the Prose
+Chronicle, he was a man who "was mean to everybody and who gave Gustavo
+drubbings." It seems that the patriotic spirit early woke in the
+breast of this youth, who already in these days foreshadowed his own
+mission in the following words: "I will betake myself to Dalecarlia,
+rouse the Dalecarlians and batter the nose of the Jute." When eighteen
+years of age, he was accepted as a squire at the court of Sten Sture
+the Younger, and Christine Gyllenstierna, his own aunt. He followed
+the younger Lord Sten in all his expeditions of war, taking part in
+the siege of Staeket and a battle of Dufnaes, and carrying the banner of
+state at Brennkyrka.
+
+A second time in his life it came to pass that Gustavus Vasa was
+considered a person whom the Danish king was desirious of carrying
+away. This time the king was Christian II., who gained his object by
+treachery and violence. Gustavus was one of the Swedish hostages who
+were offered to King Christian and by him carried away to Denmark.
+
+Gustavus was handed over to Eric Baner, a relative of his, who held
+in fief the castle of Kalloe in Jutland. The latter was placed under a
+heavy fine in case he allowed his prisoner to escape. Gustavus received
+a kind and generous treatment. He ate at the table of the lord and was
+allowed to wander at liberty in the close neighborhood of the castle.
+But the danger that menaced his country never left him in peace. He
+heard repeatedly of the great preparations made by Christian II. to
+crush the resistance of Sweden, and of the acts of violence to be
+perpetrated. Gustavus remained at Kalloe for a year, when he resolved
+to flee from a captivity which had become insupportable. One morning
+at sunrise, Gustavus Vasa put on the garb of a peasant and disappeared
+from the castle. He made good speed, reaching a seaport and escaping
+to Lubeck with a merchant vessel. In this friendly Hanseatic centre
+Gustavus expected armed support. Such was not granted, but he was
+shielded against Danish pursuit. Eric Baner arrived, having followed
+up his tracks, but his demands to have Gustavus surrendered were
+refused. After eight months of delay in Lubeck, Gustavus obtained leave
+and arrived in Sweden on board a German ship. He landed at Stensoe,
+a promontory outside of the town of Kalmar, while Christian II. was
+laying siege to Stockholm. Gustavus was resolved to do his utmost to
+rouse the people to active resistance against the invaders. The castle
+of Kalmar, next to that of Stockholm the firmest stronghold of Sweden,
+was in charge of Anna Bielke, the widow of the last commander. Gustavus
+strengthened the courage of the inhabitants of town and castle, but
+finding it impossible to accomplish anything for the defence himself,
+and unsuccessful in his attempts to bring the hired German troops up
+to a point of enthusiasm for the Swedish cause, he left Kalmar and
+continued his way through Smaland. But the population of this province
+had no patience to listen to his appeals for a revolt. The peasants
+answered him that if they remained faithful to the Danish king they
+were never to be in want of herring and salt. Some of them in their
+indignation sent arrows flying after the young patriot. In September
+he reached the Terna estate in Soedermanland, where his sister and
+her husband, Joachim Brahe, resided. Lord Joachim had just received
+an invitation to be present at the coronation of King Christian in
+Stockholm. The attempts made by Gustavus to persuade the couple to
+abandon their intended journey to Stockholm were futile. Reaching
+his paternal estate of Raefsnaes in Soedermanland, he remained there in
+concealment for some time. He visited the old archbishop Jacob Ulfsson,
+who, after his retirement, lived in the neighboring monastery of
+Mariefred. The old prelate tried his best to persuade him to seek mercy
+and grace of King Christian, but the resolution of the young squire to
+free his country was only strengthened into an iron-cast determination.
+One of the servants who had followed Lord Joachim to the capital
+managed to make a safe return to tell Gustavus the terrible news of
+the Carnage of Stockholm. He was also told that a high price had been
+placed on his own head.
+
+Gustavus at once prepared for flight. Accompanied by a single servant
+he secretly left Raefsnaes one day toward the end of November, travelling
+on horseback northward to Dalecarlia. He arrived at Kopparberg in
+Dalecarlia, where he had his hair close cropped and put on peasant's
+clothes. Putting an axe over his shoulder, he went about looking for
+employment. The first man whom he tried was Andrew Persson, a wealthy
+mine owner at Rankhytta. Gustavus found employment with him, taking
+part in the threshing. But the other servants soon detected that the
+new man had a carriage and habits different from their own, and they
+commenced to watch him closely. They noticed that he was not accustomed
+to the work, and one of the servant girls saw a collar of silk above
+the coarse blouse. Andrew Persson called before him the suspect, and
+was highly surprised when recognizing in him a comrade from the time
+of his student days at Upsala. He was favorably disposed, but was
+afraid of sheltering Gustavus, advising him to flee to the less thickly
+settled parts of the province, and to change often from one place to
+another. Gustavus continued his way in a westerly direction, following
+the shore of a lake named Runn, and arrived at Ornaes the following day.
+He knew he had an old comrade and friend in the owner of the place.
+This man, Arendt Persson, received him in the most hospitable manner,
+but was in his heart desirous of obtaining the price placed upon the
+head of the young squire. Gustavus went to bed in the attic, not
+suspecting treachery. The host himself accompanied him to his resting
+place, according to the mediaeval custom. This done, Arendt travelled
+in great haste to one of his neighbors, the much-respected Mons
+Nilsson of Aspeboda. Arendt asked him to assist in capturing Gustavus
+Vasa; but Mons Nilsson flatly refused, taking no pains to hide his
+indignation. Arendt left and went past his own home to Saetra, which was
+the residence of the Danish bailiff. He started for Ornaes the following
+morning, accompanied by the bailiff and twenty men ready to capture
+the fugitive. But Arendt's wife, Lady Barbro Stigsdotter (Swinhufwud),
+had not been inactive. Her suspicion was aroused when she noticed
+her husband travelling back and forth to disappear in the direction
+where the bailiff resided. She divined that the safety of her guest
+was threatened and decided to take action. Lady Barbro went to the
+attic, roused her sleeping guest and told him of the impending danger.
+Gustavus let himself down to the ground by means of towels fastened to
+the window-sill, assisted by Lady Barbro, who had a horse and sleigh
+in readiness for him, in charge of a faithful servant. He reached the
+residence of John, the priest of Svaerdsjoe. Arendt was enraged when he
+found that Gustavus had made his escape. It is said that he from that
+day refused to ever see Lady Barbro again.
+
+The priest of Svaerdsjoe held Gustavus in concealment for three days,
+but advised him to seek a more secure hiding place. He sent Gustavus
+to Swan Elfsson, a hunter to the king, who dwelt in Isala, a short
+distance from the church of Svaerdsjoe. Gustavus had hardly reached this
+place before the men sent after him by the bailiff arrived. Gustavus
+stood by the oven warming himself after the ride. The wife of Swan
+Elfsson was busy baking bread. The men entered, asking if any stranger
+had been noticed in the neighborhood. The woman of the house saved
+the situation by resolutely dealing a blow with the bread spade to
+Gustavus, who was turning his back to her. In an irritated voice she
+said: "Why dost thou stand here gaping at the strangers? Hast thou
+never seen people before? Get thee at once out to the barn and do some
+threshing." The men did not suspect in the snubbed servant the noble
+fugitive for whom they were looking. But Swan Elfsson was not sure
+of the safety of his guest if he remained in Isala. So he concealed
+Gustavus in a load of hay and left his house with the great unsettled
+districts as his destination. He met some Danish spies on the way.
+These suspected the peasant and pierced the load of hay with their
+lances repeatedly. Gustavus was wounded in the leg, but kept his breath
+and lay perfectly still. The spies were satisfied that everything was
+right and told Swan Elfsson to move on. But the peasant noticed that
+blood was dripping from his load, leaving scarlet tracks on the snow.
+He quickly drew his knife and cut his horse a deep wound in one foot.
+After a while the spies noticed the bloody tracks. They returned and
+commanded Swan Elfsson to halt, inquiring about the blood. Swan Elfsson
+pointed to the injured foot of his horse and succeeded in making them
+believe that the horse had met with an accident.
+
+Swan Elfsson left Gustavus at the village of Marnaes, situated in the
+Finn woods, where he was received by other hunters. These escorted the
+noble outlaw to a place further away in the woods, where he for three
+days remained in concealment under a big fallen fir tree. The peasants
+in the neighborhood brought food to him. The still hunt seemed to be
+at an end, and so Gustavus risked a visit to the church of Rettvik,
+situated on the eastern shore of Lake Siljan. He spoke to the yeomanry
+collected around the church after divine service, reminding them of
+the stanch patriotism and manliness of their ancestors, and imploring
+them to save their country from destruction. The yeomen of Rettvik gave
+a satisfactory answer, telling him that they were ready to resist the
+Danes. But as they had not heard the opinion of the people of the other
+parishes, there was nothing to be done for the moment.
+
+Gustavus continued his way to Mora, one of the most densely populated
+parishes of Dalecarlia and situated on the northern shore of Lake
+Siljan. The priest of the parish was afraid to hide the outlaw, but
+confided him to a peasant, Tomte Mats, in the village of Utmeland.
+Gustavus remained for several days concealed in a vaulted cellar, which
+was reached only through a hole in the floor of the cottage above. One
+day the bailiff's men entered to search for Gustavus. The woman of the
+house was busy brewing the Christmas ale. She saved Gustavus by quickly
+placing a big barrel over the hinged door, which covered the opening
+to the cellar. One of the holidays during Christmas Gustavus addressed
+the peasants of Mora when coming from church. He stood on a small hill
+near the churchyard. The noonday sun was shining brightly over the
+snowy landscape and a fresh northerly wind was blowing. Gustavus spoke
+in a loud voice and with great eloquence. He asked the men to reflect
+on what kind of government foreigners always had given Sweden, and to
+remember what they had themselves suffered and risked for the liberty
+of their country. He thought that the memory had not died either of
+the deeds of violence perpetrated by Joesse Ericsson or of the deeds of
+heroism done by Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson. He then told them of the
+treacherous villany of King Christian and of the Carnage of Stockholm.
+"My own father," he said, with tears in his eyes, "rather wished to
+die with his brethren, the honest lords, in the name of God, than to
+be spared and live in dishonor after them." If the Dalecarlians wanted
+to save Sweden from thraldom, he was ready to offer himself as their
+leader in the name of the Almighty. The speech of Gustavus made a deep
+impression upon the men of Mora, and some of them were anxious to rise
+at once. The majority ruled, deciding that no action should be taken
+before the other parishes of Dalecarlia had been heard from. They
+advised Gustavus to seek a safer hiding-place further up in the woods.
+Gustavus left Mora utterly discouraged, seeking the paths that led
+along the Dal River into desert wilds.
+
+At New Year of 1521 Lars Olsson, a soldier who had done good service
+in the times of the Stures, arrived at Mora, bringing particulars of
+the doings of King Christian. He told the peasants that the king had
+ordered gallows to be erected at every sheriff's residence to mark
+the way of his Eriksgata. The peasants were touched to the quick and
+regretted having sent away the young nobleman. Lars Olsson advised
+them to call him back. Two expert ski runners were sent after Gustavus
+Ericsson, and after a ride of a night and a day through the woods, they
+overtook him close by the Norwegian frontier, which he was ready to
+cross in despair.
+
+Gustavus returned to Mora and was made the leader of the peasants in
+that locality. With these men he started his work of liberation, which
+was the commencement of one of the most remarkable of revolutions
+that the world ever saw. In the beginning of February, 1521, Gustavus
+marched southward with a few hundred men. At Falun he captured the
+bailiff of the mines, confiscating the royal taxes. Returning to the
+starting point, he left it again, with an army of 1,500 men. Entering
+Norrland, where he was joined by the peasants of Gestrikland, and the
+burghers of Gefle, while the people of Helsingland asked for time
+to consider the matter, he learned upon his return how one of his
+commanders, Peder Swensson, had won a glorious victory over a Danish
+army 6,000 strong at the ferry of Brunnbaeck, by the Dal River. Gustavus
+began training his troops, enforcing severe discipline and providing
+them with better arrows and longer lances. He declared war upon
+Christian in a formal way and marched on Westeros, where the Danish
+troops had centred. The town and castle were captured in spite of a
+force of superior Danish cavalry.
+
+Gustavus shifted his army into divisions which marched in various
+directions to capture the castles of surrounding provinces. The people
+of Upland reinforced the Dalecarlians, who were sent home to tend
+to their sowing. The Upland forces captured the archbishop's seat
+during his absence, and were joined by Gustavus at Upsala, who made
+an exceedingly severe speech to the ecclesiastics, asking them to
+decide their nationality, whether they were Swedes or not. They asked
+permission to consult Archbishop Trolle, which was granted. "I will
+bring the reply myself," said Trolle, starting from Stockholm with
+a splendid body of German troops. Gustavus was near being taken by
+surprise, but gathering troops he fought the archbishop, whose force
+met with a crushing defeat, and he escaped with difficulty to Stockholm.
+
+At midsummer, 1521, Gustavus arrived at Brunkeberg, laying siege to
+Stockholm. The capital was strongly fortified, and Norrby with a
+Danish fleet supported and relieved it. Twice the Danes routed the
+Swedish troops with the intermission of one year, but Gustavus provided
+reinforcements. He travelled through the country, visiting the forces
+who laid siege to the various Danish strongholds, these surrendering
+one by one. It was not a chain of glorious exploits, this work which
+Gustavus carried to a successful end, but one of infinite patience and
+sagacity, saddened by the news that the revengeful Christian had ended
+the lives of his captive mother and sister in the miserable Danish
+dungeon. Bishop Brask was scared into submission, turning his castle
+Stegeborg and part of his troops over to Gustavus, who at a Riksdag at
+Vadstena was elected regent in August, 1521.
+
+Gustavus entered into an alliance with Lubeck, and it sent a fleet
+to Stockholm, thus encircling it also from the sea. Norrby left with
+his ships and was nearly caught in the ice in the following spring.
+In Denmark, Christian's reign came to an end. With his usual violence
+he attacked the nobles and the ecclesiastics in order to better the
+conditions of the peasants, for whom he had a tender sympathy. In so
+doing, he brought the nobles to open revolt against his rule. He left
+his throne in April, 1523. Now Gustavus found the opportune moment to
+accept the Swedish crown offered him. He called a Riksdag at Strengnaes,
+in June, 1523, where Gustavus was chosen king of Sweden "by the
+councillors of state with the consent of the common people." At this
+occasion a tax was agreed on to pay the German troops engaged in the
+siege of Stockholm, and to Lubeck for its timely support. In that very
+month Stockholm surrendered, and Gustavus held his proud entry into the
+capital on the eve of Midsummer day.
+
+The position of the king was a most difficult one. The crown was ruined
+through the previous state of anarchy and the expense of war. The
+Church was in undisturbed possession of its wealth, but not willing
+to yield any of its power or income. Christian was preparing a plan
+by which to recapture his lost crowns. Norrby, who had aspirations of
+becoming Christian's regent in Sweden, tried to persuade Christine
+Gyllenstierna, lately set free from her prison, to marry him in order
+to obtain the prestige of the Stures. The common people, whom Gustavus
+so recently used to free the country, grew restive and rebellious when
+he could not at once grant them guarantees of comfort and prosperity
+in return. In a marvellous manner Gustavus understood how to face the
+situation and how to use to the utmost the resources within reach.
+
+When the outlawed youth of twenty-four spoke of revolt to the peasants
+at Mora, Martin Luther was burning the ban placed on him by the pope.
+There were several warm friends of Luther in Sweden, principally Olaus
+Petri, himself a pupil and friend of the German reformer, his brother,
+Laurentius Petri, and Laurentius Andreae. Olaus was a soul of fire and
+enthusiasm. He was lacking in self-control, but possessed a power which
+if not restrained would have led him and his work of reform further
+than the goal set by Luther. The two Laurentii were, like him, men of
+learning and, in addition, of greater sagacity. The king took interest
+in these men. He was contemplating a reduction of the ecclesiastical
+power, and they were to prepare the soil by freeing the people from
+undue respect for the Roman Church and its worldly power. Laurentius
+Andreae was made the king's chancellor, and Olaus Petri secretary to
+the town council of Stockholm, later pastor of the Cathedral Church.
+Olaus preached in the Stockholm Cathedral fiery sermons against Rome
+and the pope, responded to sometimes by irate monks, sometimes by
+various projectiles from the audience. Gustavus took pains to fill the
+vacancies of the Church, which were many, by appointing able men. But
+he made two serious mistakes in making Master Knut, dean of Westeros,
+archbishop, and Peder Sunnanvaeder, formerly secretary to Svante Sture,
+bishop of Westeros. He came in possession of a correspondence, which
+proved that Bishop Peder tried to bring the Dalecarlians to revolt, and
+when accusing him and finding Master Knut on the side of the defence,
+Gustavus deprived them of their new dignities. The king commanded that
+a new bishop should be appointed and himself selected Johannes Magni as
+archbishop. This prelate, a very learned man, was the representative
+of Sten Sture in Rome, returning to his native land as a papal legate.
+Gustavus had a rupture with him when, according to his instructions,
+he demanded that Trolle should be reinstated as archbishop. Archbishop
+Johannes was lacking in moral courage; brushed aside by the tide of
+Reformation, he retired to Rome, where he died after writing the
+history of Sweden in Latin, _Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus_.
+Master Knut and Peder Sunnanvaeder turned their steps to Dalecarlia,
+fanning the brewing malcontent and opening connections with Norrby,
+who styled himself the betrothed of Christine Gyllenstierna and made
+ready to attack Gustavus from the sea. Berndt von Melen, a German
+commander, in whom Gustavus placed much confidence, was to chase
+Norrby away from his stronghold, the island of Gothland, but turned a
+traitor, joining Norrby instead, in 1524. Gustavus called a Riksdag
+at Westeros, in 1525, resolved to use his diplomacy to the utmost.
+Upon receiving a letter from the Dalecarlians, in which they stoutly
+swore off their allegiance to him on account of heavy taxes, foreign
+influence and disregard for the Church, the king offered to abdicate.
+The representatives at the Riksdag persuaded him to remain, whereupon
+the king sent the Dalecarlians a sagacious letter, promising to improve
+the state of things as much as possible, but pointing out the two
+prelates as traitors in conspiracy with the Danes. The Dalecarlians
+were pacified, Knut and Peder finding it safest to leave for Norway.
+In the following year the king met the revolting peasants of Upland
+at Old Upsala, where he in a fiery speech unfolded his policy toward
+the Church. The peasants resented; they wanted to keep their monks
+and their masses. The king commanded one of his followers to make a
+speech in Latin, the peasants shouting that they did not understand.
+"Why do you, then, love so dearly your Latin mass?" the king asked
+them smiling. A few days later Gustavus made a crushing speech against
+lazy and worthless ecclesiastics before the chapter of Upsala. The
+archbishop was sent away on diplomatic errands to Poland and Russia
+never to return. After his departure Bishop Brask became the chief
+representative of papal interests. He was patriotic, but never yielded
+an inch of the worldly power of the Church except to force, opposing
+the Reformation with his whole strength.
+
+The king followed up his policy by demanding for the crown two-thirds
+of the ecclesiastic tithe and by placing the ecclesiastics under the
+duties of _russtienst_, in 1526. The ex-prelates, Knut and Peder, were,
+upon the king's request of an extradition, given up and sentenced to
+death for high treason. The king arranged for their triumphal entry of
+mockery into Stockholm in a most humiliating fashion, for which he has
+been criticised; also for the consummate manner in which the judges
+were appointed and judgment passed. But he set an example of warning
+to obnoxious and intriguing prelates that was appreciated by his
+contemporaries.
+
+Gustavus gained the triumph of his policy by the famous Riksdag of
+Westeros in 1527. It was nothing else than a coup d'etat, a revolution,
+which, with the establishment of the Reformation, gave his throne
+solidity and resources. The Diet was called under the pretext of taking
+measures against a new revolt in Dalecarlia and for the regulation of
+dogmatic questions. There were present sixteen state councillors, four
+bishops, one hundred and twenty-nine knights and nobles, one hundred
+and five peasants, besides various priests, burghers and miners, but no
+representatives from Finland or Dalecarlia. In the great hall of the
+monastery the meeting was held, opening with a written address by the
+king, read by his chancellor, in which the situation of the country
+was set forth. The king refused to continue at the government, asking
+to be remunerated for personal losses and expense, and given a fief
+like any ordinary bailiff responsible to the crown. Only if fundamental
+reforms were made would he remain, not being able otherwise to cover
+the inevitable deficit of the treasury. Bishop Brask responded with the
+statement that he for his part was in duty bound to the king, but that
+Rome and its demands must, in the first place, be obeyed; showing by
+his remarks that he understood that the question was one of reducing
+the ecclesiastical power. The king rose and said in a burst of passion:
+"We have no further desire, then, to be your king. Verily, we had
+counted on quite another treatment at your hands. We now no longer
+wonder at the perversity of the people, since they have such advisers.
+Have they no rain, they blame us for it. Have they no sun, likewise.
+For dearth, hunger and plague we are responsible, as if we were not a
+man, but God. Yea, though we labor for you with our utmost power, both
+in spiritual and in temporal affairs, you would gladly see the axe
+upon our neck, but no one dares to grasp the handle. Monks and priests
+and all the creatures of the pope are to be placed above us, though we
+have little need of them. In a word, you all would lord it over us.
+Who under such circumstances would desire to govern you? Not the worst
+wretch in hell would wish the post, far less any man. Therefore we,
+too, refuse to be your king. We cast the honor from us, and leave you
+free to choose him whom you will. But be so kind as to let us leave the
+land. Pay us for our property in the kingdom, and return to us what
+we have expended in your service. Then we declare to you that we will
+withdraw never to return." With tears of anger and emotion the king
+left the hall, leaving the assembly in consternation.
+
+After four days of pandemonium and deadlock, the representatives
+decided to give in and ask forgiveness of the king, who long
+disregarded the appeals made for his return. When re-entering he was
+greeted by commotion and the humblest demonstrations of respect and
+repentance. The next day, Midsummer day, votes were taken upon his
+propositions, each Estate of representatives sending up their vote
+with a written construction of the propositions. These were then
+revised by the state councillors in their final form, called "Westeros
+Recess," with amendments called "Westeros Ordinantia." The startling
+revolutionary stipulations of the "Recess" were chiefly these:
+Authority for the king (1) to take in possession the castles and forts
+of the bishops, whose retinues he was to fix as to numbers; (2) to
+dispose of the superfluous income of the clergy and to superintend the
+administration of the monasteries; authority for the nobility to resume
+title to all their property which had come in the possession of the
+Church since 1454; authority to have the Gospel preached all over the
+country in undefiled purity. Among the "Ordinantia" the most important
+were: (1) Vacancies in the parish churches were to be filled by the
+bishop under the supervision and right of suspension of the king; (2)
+the king was to fix the amount of revenue due the bishops, chapters
+and clerks, and be entitled to use the surplus for the crown; (3) the
+priests were in secular suits to be responsible to secular courts; (4)
+the Gospel should be read in the schools. The king asked the bishops in
+person to surrender their castles, to which demand they all agreed.
+
+We may feel inclined to smile upon the drastic manner in which Gustavus
+enacted this important drama of Revolution, but must bear in mind his
+solitary position. He had no statesmen of ability at his side, nor men
+of great intellect and power to sustain him. He stood alone, and few
+knew as yet his superior qualities as a statesman and an organizer.
+The tame opposition, soon yielding to the appeals of the burghers and
+peasants, can only be explained through lack of leaders. Ture Joensson
+(Tre Rosor), the aristocratic chief of the opposition, was a vain and
+cowardly man. Bishop Brask, the head of the clergy, was old and more
+of a diplomatist than a man of action. The latest stanch Romanist, he
+gave up his cause, finding a pretext to leave the country and dying in
+his self-imposed exile. The ecclesiastical reforms were definitively
+arranged at a church meeting at OErebro in the following year.
+
+It was one of the evils which beset the reign of Gustavus that revolts
+constantly occurred in various provinces and for various reasons.
+Dalecarlia took the lead. The inhabitants were not able to bear the
+distinction won by their great patriotic services in the times of
+Engelbrekt, the Stures, and Gustavus. Their complaints were mostly
+unreasonable, sometimes ridiculous, as when they tried to prescribe the
+kind of cloth and colors to be used at court, and so forth. There was
+no fable, however stupid, which was not readily believed by them and
+the responsibility placed on the king. Particularly was everything
+eagerly swallowed which spoke of injustice committed against the
+descendants of the Stures. A daring pretender took advantage of this
+fact. He was born of the lowest peasant class, serving on an estate
+in Westmanland, where he had stolen a sum of money from his master.
+Appearing in Dalecarlia, where he claimed that he was a son of Lord
+Sten and Christine Gyllenstierna, he gained a great deal of support
+among the yeomen, who cried with him like children when he spoke
+of his noble father and asked them to pray for his soul. The false
+pretender had his instructions from Peder Sunnanvaeder; he married in
+Norway a woman of noble birth, and, upon his return to Dalecarlia,
+surrounded himself with a regular court. An end was put to his career
+by a letter from Christine Gyllenstierna, written at the request of
+the king, in which she told the Dalecarlians that her son Nils, whom
+the pretender impersonated, had recently died, and that an impostor
+was misleading them. The false Nils Sture answered by claiming that he
+was born before marriage, the would-be-reason why his mother did not
+acknowledge him. This even the Dalecarlians found was a stretching of
+truth. The pretender, who had been stamping coins with his image and
+held the demeanor of a ruling prince, fled to Norway and thence to
+Rostock, where he was captured and beheaded. No blood was shed during
+this period of revolt; but the king, who was crowned at Upsala in 1528,
+proceeded from his coronation to Dalecarlia with an army of 14,000 men.
+He commanded the Dalecarlians to meet him, and forgave them after a
+severe sermon of reproach, making them surrender the chief supporters
+of the "Daljunker," who were executed on the spot.
+
+No better was the outcome of a revolt prepared by some nobles of
+West Gothland in the following year. They tried in vain to make the
+population join with them. The king managed to obtain their secret
+correspondence, and had the guilty ones arraigned before a meeting at
+which he scrutinized and repudiated the false charges made against him.
+The nobles asked forgiveness and were pardoned, with the exception
+of two, who were beheaded. But the originators of the revolt had
+fled. They were Ture Joensson and Bishop Magnus of Skara. The former
+joined the deposed King Christian, who, in 1532, prepared an attack on
+Sweden in his attempts to recapture his crowns. With him were other
+such distinguished traitors as Gustavus Trolle and Berndt von Melen.
+Gustavus I. sent a splendid army to meet Christian near Kongelf.
+Christian withdrew in disappointment, leaving Ture Joensson behind in
+the streets of Kongelf, minus a head. Christian was imprisoned by his
+uncle, Frederic of Denmark, and died in captivity.
+
+In order to pay the debt to Lubeck it was decided at a meeting at
+Upsala, in 1530, that the bells of the churches should be taken to be
+melted down. Concessions to do so were asked and obtained from the
+various communities. But upon the surrender of the bells discontent
+grew up. In Dalecarlia it came to revolt and open violence. The people
+refused to give up their bells or took the surrendered ones back
+with force. Threatening letters were sent to the king, who at first
+pretended to ignore the whole matter. Christian was preparing his last
+attack, and prudence deemed advisable. The inducements made by the
+Swedish traitors to support Christian's claims were scornfully repulsed
+by the Dalecarlians, who still continued with their insulting letters
+to the king. Gustavus answered them in a peaceful way. In 1533, at
+New Year, he suddenly appeared with an army in Dalecarlia, where the
+revolters also this time received a severe reproach and were forced to
+give up their leaders. These were executed, and that ended the last
+revolt of Dalecarlia.
+
+In the following year Sweden was forced into a war which lasted up to
+1536, the so-called "Feud of the Counts," the chief participants being
+the counts of Holstein, Oldenburg and Hoya. Sweden sided with Christian
+of Holstein, who fought for his rights to the throne of Denmark after
+his father Frederic, being opposed by the other counts and by Lubeck.
+Hard and repeated pressure was brought to bear on Svante Sture, a son
+of Lord Sten and Christine Gyllenstierna, to appear as a pretender
+against Gustavus; but the noble youth, who was sojourning in Germany,
+firmly withstood these temptations. His mother had married John
+Turesson, a son of the traitor Ture Joensson, who was as able a man as
+his father was a bad one, being the successful commander of a Swedish
+army which invaded the Danish provinces held by the count of Oldenburg.
+A Swedish fleet, created through sacrifices of nobles and peasants,
+distinguished itself repeatedly. The war ended in the defeat of Lubeck.
+
+Gustavus had, since the end of the work of liberation, crushed the
+power of the Church, punished the revolting peasants, kept the
+aristocracy within bounds, and put an end to the supremacy of Lubeck.
+But he went still further, trying to deprive the Church of its last
+vestige of authority, to introduce a minute administration of the
+provinces and to enforce the absolute power of the crown. To these
+plans he was led by two foreign advisers, Georg Norman and Konrad
+Pentinger. But it must be said to the credit of the king that their
+influence vanished when he saw that their "reforms" were not acceptable
+to the people. From this period of his reign, one noteworthy and
+wholesome measure remains, the reintroduction of the former hereditary
+order of succession to the throne. It was formulated and accepted
+at the Riksdag of OErebro (Jan. 4, 1540), memorable also through
+death sentences pronounced upon two of the apostles of the Swedish
+Reformation. The king had long regarded his chancellor and the two
+brothers, Olaus and Laurentius Petri, the latter archbishop of Upsala,
+with suspicion. The climax was reached when a conspiracy by German
+burghers of Stockholm against the king's life was discovered, and it
+was proved that Olaus Petri and Laurentius Andreae were conscious of
+its purport, without making it known to the king. They were condemned
+to death, Archbishop Laurentius being forced to take a seat as one of
+the judges, but pardoned at the request of the burghers of Stockholm,
+on the grounds that the ministers had received their knowledge on
+the pledge of secrecy through confession. Laurentius Andreae lost his
+position as the king's chancellor. In the following year each church in
+the country was presented with a copy of the complete translation of
+the Bible, the work of the two reformers.
+
+The greatest, most serious and most expensive of peasants' revolts
+was that called the Dacke Feud (1542 and 1543), after its leader Nils
+Dacke, a peasant born in Bleking, emigrated to Smaland, which became
+the scene of his revolt. The peasants were resolved to make war on the
+royal bailiffs, the nobles and the new religion, and found in Dacke
+an excellent leader, ferocious, daring and of some military ability.
+The forces sent by the king to meet him were repeatedly routed. The
+king was seriously alarmed, particularly since the revolt attracted
+attention abroad and was encouraged by Emperor Charles V., in the
+interests of the deposed Christian, his brother-in-law, and by several
+German princes. The emperor wrote to Nils Dacke a letter, preserved to
+this day, although it never reached its destination, in which Charles,
+with pride, recalls his Gothic (that is, according to the views of his
+time, Swedish) origin: "Sumus et nos de gente Gothorum." Nils Dacke's
+plan was to place Svante Sture on the throne. He wrote him a letter to
+this effect, which the noble Sture handed over to the king, together
+with the messenger who brought it. After much effort the king gathered
+an army of considerable strength, which was ordered against Dacke, who
+was defeated at Lake Asund. He fled and was pursued by the troops into
+Bleking, where he was captured and shot. This revolt cost Gustavus
+dearly, but was a good lesson in regard to the more immature of his
+reforms, against which it, to a great extent, was directed.
+
+Now the storms and trials of his reign were at an end, and Gustavus
+allowed to gather the fruit of his wise management, which itself
+grew wiser with his old age. In 1544 the Union of Succession of 1540
+was confirmed at Westeros. In matters of finance Gustavus laid the
+foundations of the modern state. The bailiffs were multiplied and
+made to give close accounts of the revenues. Fiefs granted to nobles
+before were now kept by the crown. The great nobles who held fiefs
+were placed under stricter control. The bloody Christian did useful
+work for the crown by ridding it of many unruly heads. The privileges
+granted by Westeros Recess were enforced, but the king saw to it that
+the nobility received back only what was properly due. But when the
+crown was concerned, property was taken from the Church to the greatest
+tension of these privileges, and likewise for the king's private
+rights, by means of which less scrupulous tactics both the state
+and the king were enriched. The former came in possession of 12,000
+farms, the latter of 4,000, in his case called "inherited estates." As
+Gustavus was a great economizer, he left a treasury replete with money
+and uncoined silver, in spite of elaborate pomp on state occasions,
+expensive royal marriages and wooings, and a feud with Russia. From
+which of the two treasuries in his care expenses were paid, Gustavus
+was not overparticular. He set a good example as a practical farmer
+and agriculturist, the dairy at Gripsholm standing under the personal
+supervision of the queen, with twenty-two less ladylike assistants.
+
+Gustavus created the nucleus to a standing army of hired troops,
+of natives and foreigners, about 15,000 in numbers, and provided
+Sweden with a considerable and well-equipped fleet. He encouraged the
+mining industry by supporting the silver mines of Sala and the copper
+mines of Falun. He introduced the working of iron, according to new
+methods, calling in German experts whose work he superintended in
+person. Putting an end to the supremacy of the Hanseatic commerce,
+he made treaties of commerce with the Netherlands and France, making
+Helsingfors in Finland the centre of the trade with Russia. On the
+western coast he founded the new town of Elfsborg, and ordered the
+inhabitants of New Loedoese to move thither. To the common people
+Gustavus held an attitude which shows evidence of love and confidence.
+Many of his letters and messages to them abound in hints at practical
+methods in farming. The schools were improved and partly reorganized
+through the spirit of Reformation, while the University of Upsala lost
+in importance and prestige, the students again going abroad.
+
+The war with Russia, commencing in 1554, and marked by mutual
+invasions, offered no aspect of importance, and was ended by a treaty
+of peace in 1557.
+
+The founder of the famous royal line of Vasa was, personally, a man
+of prepossessing appearance, tall, and of commanding presence, having
+blond hair and beard, sharp blue eyes, full lips, rosy cheeks and a
+fine frame. He was fond of costly garments, and the styles of his
+day were becoming to him. Gustavus was of an amiable and cheerful
+disposition, although of a quick temper. He had a rare gift of winning
+the goodwill and confidence of all classes by addressing everybody
+according to their compass of intellect and conversation. He was fond
+of music, and played and sang. The lute was his favorite instrument,
+which he liked to play in his evenings of solitude. Gustavus possessed
+a rare intellect and a remarkable memory. Well aware of his own
+weakness to give way to his quick temper, he generally postponed
+all decisive action in matters of importance until sure of his full
+power of discernment. He was not a brilliant genius, but a typical
+prince of the Renaissance epoch, never afraid of taking action in
+instances without a precedence, or of the consequences of his actions.
+His letters and addresses evince an unusual degree of common sense,
+clothed in a language of manly vigor, terseness and humor, and are
+fine specimens of the modern Swedish, such as it meets us in this its
+period of rejuvenation, brought about by the spirit of the Reformation.
+There is something in the oral and literary eloquence of Gustavus Vasa
+which makes it easy to believe that he was a descendant of Birgitta.
+Gustavus did not possess the fine erudition of his sons, who were
+considered to be men of learning in their time, for he early left
+his university studies for the court and the war; but he was able
+to pass such good opinions upon subjects of art and science that he
+astonished many who had made these a special study. He had the power of
+recognizing people whose faces he once had noticed after ten to twenty
+years of absence, and was also skilled in divining what character dwelt
+behind every face. What he once heard he never forgot. Where he had
+travelled once he could never mistake the road, and knew not only the
+names of the villages but also the names of the peasants whom he had
+met. His life was led by the unswaying principles of an earnest piety
+and high morals. His nephew, Peter Brahe the Elder, who in a chronicle
+has given the above picture of Gustavus Vasa, adds: "_In summa_, God
+had bequeathed him, above others, with great ability, high intellect
+and many princely virtues, so that he was well worthy of carrying
+sceptre and crown. For he was not only sagacious and kind above others,
+but also manly and able. He was sharp and just in passing sentences, in
+many cases being charitable and merciful."
+
+The royal court was characterized by a joyous and elevated spirit.
+Every day after dinner all the courtiers collected in the dancing hall.
+The lady of ceremonies then entered with the ladies of the court, and
+the royal musicians dispensed music for dancing. Every other or third
+day the king went out hunting or horseback riding with the gentlemen
+and ladies of his court. The youths of the nobility once a week held
+exhibitions of fencing and other knightly sport, the king taking an
+interested and active part. Those who excelled received prizes in the
+form of rings of gold or chaplets of pearls and led the dance of the
+evening.
+
+Gustavus I. was three times married. His first consort was young
+neurotic Catherine, princess of Saxony-Lauenburg, whom he married while
+the "Revolt of the Bells" was going on in Dalecarlia, and who died four
+years later, leaving him a son, Eric, of her own hysteric temperament.
+Shortly after the death of Catherine, the king married a young lady
+of the highest Swedish nobility, Margaret Leijonhufvud, with whom
+he lived in a long and happy union, ended by her death in 1551, and
+blessed by ten children, among whom the sons John, Magnus and Charles.
+Lady Margaret had been in love with the oldest son of Christine
+Gyllenstierna, Svante Sture, whom she renounced, and who married her
+younger sister Martha. Queen Margaret was a tender and high-minded
+woman, who won the love and absolute confidence of her royal consort,
+on whose quick temper she exerted a quieting influence, comforting him
+in hours of trouble and distress. She preserved as queen the plain and
+severe habits of her youth, having a personal superintendence over
+the dairies of the royal castles, especially those of Gripsholm and
+Svartsjoe. She was interested in brewing, baking and other household
+affairs, often making with her own hands the clothes of her children.
+When the king referred to Queen Margaret, he always called her "our
+dear mistress of the house." The king remained a nobleman of his day
+in the purple. Royal splendor was displayed on great occasions only.
+Simplicity was the principle of every-day life. When entertaining his
+friends, the king took great pains to please and arranged many details
+himself. Upon one occasion of this kind at Gripsholm, Queen Margaret
+carried in the sweetmeats and cookies, while the king served the wine
+and asked his guests to be glad and make merry.
+
+Queen Margaret was suddenly taken ill while partaking in a pleasure
+trip on Lake Maelar, and died in 1551, after a touching farewell to her
+consort. In the following year the king married the young Catherine
+Stenbock, a daughter of Gustavus Stenbock, an intimate friend to the
+king, and Lady Brita Leijonhufvud, a sister of Queen Margaret. In the
+lives and fate of Catherine and Margaret there are several remarkable
+coincidences. Like Queen Margaret, Catherine was secretly in love with
+some one else when the royal proposal was made. Strange enough the
+object of Catherine's secret affection was, like Margaret's, a son of
+Christine Gyllenstierna, Gustavus Johnsson Tre Rosor. This young man
+was the grandson of conceited Ture Joensson and the son of able John
+Turesson, the second consort of Christine Gyllenstierna. The family
+name was Tre Rosor, after the coat-of-arms, which consisted of three
+roses. As her aunt Margaret must renounce the hero of her dreams, so
+also Catherine. Like his half-brother, Svante Sture, Gustavus Tre Rosor
+married the sister of his first love, and this marriage, like that of
+Svante, turned out a happy one. There was a last coincidence in the
+life of the two queens. When Margaret heard that the royal sponsor
+was coming, she knew his errand and concealed herself in an oak chest
+in a distant part of the castle of Ekeberg. Catherine, upon a similar
+occasion, ran down in the gardens of Torpa and hid herself behind a
+bush. The third marriage of the king was a happy one, in spite of the
+great difference in years between the consorts. The clergy tried to
+raise objections, holding that Gustavus and Catherine were too nearly
+related to make the marriage a legal one. After some severe pressure
+these objections were finally dropped.
+
+Queen Catherine thus expressed the state of her feelings after her
+marriage: "Gustavus is dear to me, but I shall never forget the Rose."
+
+The king gave scrupulous attention to the education of his children.
+They were brought up in simplicity and sternness, but received a
+manifold training and a great amount of instruction. While they were
+studying at Upsala, hams and butter were sent them from the royal
+estates to make part of their breakfasts and suppers. In spite of these
+patriarchal endeavors, Eric and John grew up to be typical Renaissance
+princes, fond of extravagance and luxury. The king wrote once to Duke
+Magnus: "Our dear Lady Catherine sends thee five shirts which thou
+must bear in mind to take good care of; _item_, to keep thy head clean
+and not ride or run too much." When his sons grew older, King Gustavus
+used to admonish them orally before the hearth or at the table, or by
+letters. His wise counsel recalls the terse and sharp advice of Havamal
+in the Edda: "Ye shall weigh all matters carefully, perform them
+quickly and stand by it, putting nothing off to the morrow; counsel
+not followed up in due time is like clouds without rain in times of
+dearth." "To speak once and stand by it, is better than to talk one
+hundred times." "Surround ye ever with able men of pure living; one
+shall believe of ye what one knows about them." Duke Eric early caused
+him trouble by stubbornness, defiance and vanity. Duke John, the
+oldest child of Queen Margaret, long remained his favorite, but ended
+by causing him grief through disobedience and secret conspiracy with
+Eric. In his old age, King Gustavus suffered through failing health
+and melancholy. He complained because the fate of his country seemed
+uncertain on account of the unstability of his sons, and because his
+old friends, like John Turesson and Christine Gyllenstierna, passed
+away before him, leaving him alone in the world.
+
+When King Gustavus felt that the end was drawing near, he sent word to
+the four Estates or representative classes of the country, the nobles,
+clergymen, burghers and yeomen, to meet him at Stockholm around the
+Midsummer of 1560. He made known to the Estates his will, which his
+sons pledged themselves by oath to fulfil. Eric should inherit the
+crown, according to the will, but the three other sons were to receive
+duchies which they should govern with a good deal of authority. It
+became evident that the king had taken pains to provide liberally for
+his sons. But it appears as if he intended to make them all responsible
+in the maintenance of the work of their father, by distributing the
+power between them.
+
+When the Estates had collected in the hall of state the old monarch
+entered with his sons. After greeting those present he delivered his
+farewell address:
+
+"I respect the power of God, which with me has reinstalled the ancient
+royal line on the throne of Sweden. Ye have without doubt learned,
+and those of you who are somewhat advanced in years have seen for
+yourselves, how our dear fatherland, already for ages in distress and
+misery through foreign lordship, at last suffered the same through
+the grim despot King Christian, and how it pleased God to liberate us
+from this tyranny through me. For this it behooves us, high and low,
+master and servant, old and young, never to forget that same divine
+help. For what of a man was I to set myself against a mighty king,
+who not only ruled three kingdoms, but who also was related to the
+powerful emperor Charles V. and the noble princes of Germany. But God
+has performed the work, made me the worker of his miracle, and been my
+help and comfort during a reign of forty years, the cares of which have
+hastened me on with gray hairs to the grave. Forsooth, I could liken
+myself to King David," and the tears came to his eyes, "whom God from
+a shepherd made to a reigning king over his people. I could not divine
+that glory, when I in woods and desert fells must needs conceal myself
+from the bloodthirsty swords of my enemies. Grace and blessing have
+in a wide measure been granted both me and you through the knowledge
+of God's true Gospel, also in the shape of material abundance, which
+is evident all through the land, thank the Lord. If during my reign
+anything good has been accomplished, give ye God the glory of it. But
+for what there has been of failure and fault, I beg you, as faithful
+subjects, to forbear and forgive. God is my witness that it has not
+been by meanness, but by human weakness, that I have not been able to
+do better. My ambition has always been the improvement and welfare of
+the people of my country. I know full well that I have been a severe
+king in the eyes of many. Yet that day shall come when the children of
+Sweden willingly would dig me up from under the sod if that they could.
+My time soon is at an end. I need not in the stars or other signs
+search for my last moment; my body is to me the trustworthy messenger
+that I soon shall stand before the severe King of kings, to give
+account for the glorious but earthly crown of Sweden which I have worn."
+
+The Estates listened with great emotion to the words of the old
+monarch. After the king had ceased speaking and his will had been
+sanctioned, Gustavus left the assembly supported by his sons and
+nodding his farewell to those standing near. Three months later he was
+taken ill, and September 29, 1560, the great liberator, revolutionist
+and organizer of his country expired.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+_Reformation and Reaction--The Sons of Gustavus I._
+
+
+Eric XIV. succeeded his father in 1560, commencing his reign under the
+most brilliant of auspices. But the old King Gustavus had foreseen that
+his sons would cause danger to the realm which he with infinite care
+had built up. After his forty years' work of construction followed
+forty years of destruction which his elder sons brought to bear upon
+it. Fortunately, that work was so solid that it withstood this bravely,
+to rise rejuvenated when loving hands anew were laid to it.
+
+King Eric was one of the most gifted monarchs of his time, handsome,
+eloquent, learned, a fine linguist, a musician and artist. But
+his sharp reason carried him to the excess of suspicion, his
+artistic temperament into hysterics, and he was vain, overbearing,
+quick-tempered, licentious and cruel. His leaning toward mysticism made
+him devoted to astrology.
+
+Eric's first ambition was to reduce the power of the dukes, convoking a
+Riksdag at Arboga, in 1561, where the "Arboga Articles" were formulated
+for such purpose, the dukes being forced to acquiesce. In order to
+reduce the distance between the dukes and the nobility, King Eric, at
+his coronation--celebrated with a lavish display of pomp at Upsala
+in June of the same year--instituted hereditary dignities of counts
+and barons. Svante Sture, Peter Brahe the Elder and Gustavus Johnsson
+Tre Rosor were created counts, the first and third one the sons of
+Christine Gyllenstierna, Peter Brahe being a cousin of Gustavus Vasa.
+Among the barons were Sten Leijonhufvud, Gustavus Stenbock, relatives
+of the dukes, and Clas Kristersson Horn (of Aminne). Only small
+fiefs were given with the new dignities, which were nothing but an
+outward sign of the distinction existing between a higher aristocracy
+already extant and the lower nobility. In order to strengthen his
+connection with the nobles, Eric made the estate on which a noble
+fixed his domicile exempt from _russtjenst_. He was jealous of his
+power and dignity, for which reasons he held sharp supervision over
+his officials. He instituted a supreme court, consisting of twelve
+men of low birth, who every three years made a tour of the country to
+hold court in the name of the king. These justices were the creatures
+of Eric, and soon brought on themselves discredit and hatred through
+their servile and cruel acts. Among these justices was Goeran Persson,
+an able and powerful man, revengeful and cruel, who soon rose to be the
+favorite and influential adviser of his master.
+
+Eric was intent upon making a great match, wooing Elizabeth of England,
+Mary Stuart of Scotland, Renata of Lothringia and Christine of Hesse,
+with more or less success, overlooking Margaret of Valois, who was
+anxious to marry him. His mistress, Carin Monsdotter, a child of the
+people, but beautiful and of a noble character, for whom he had formed
+a secret attachment, finally was made his queen.
+
+The German Order which held Esthonia and Livonia suffered during this
+period considerably through Russian invasions. The town of Reval,
+with a large part of Esthonia, was ceded to Sweden in 1562, upon
+the receipt of a loan, Eric immediately giving his attention to the
+depressed and enslaved peasants of that section. Later the grandmaster
+of the Order turned Livonia over to the king of Poland, who, in need
+of money, placed seven castles of this province at the disposal of
+John, duke of Finland. John had tendered a loan to the Polish king
+and married his sister Catherine. Eric considered these negotiations
+as harmful to his royal authority, and he asked his brother to give
+account of them in person. John refused, making the royal emissaries
+his prisoners. The Swedish Riksdag condemned John to death for high
+treason, and an army was despatched to Finland, which carried back Duke
+John and his consort as prisoners. John's sentence was commuted to
+imprisonment at Gripsholm, proud Catherine choosing to share the fate
+of her husband (1563). The prison life of the ducal couple at Gripsholm
+was not an unpleasant one. They enjoyed a great deal of liberty and
+luxury at the splendid castle in Lake Maelar, King Eric sending his
+brother a copy of Boccaccio's "Decamerone" in German, to read for a
+pastime. The duke read the work and translated it into Swedish. The
+room called "king John's prison," which is still preserved with the
+artistic decoration which Duke Charles later bestowed on it, served as
+sleeping apartment for the prisoners, and there Catherine gave life
+to two children, one of whom was to become the founder of the Polish
+line of Vasa kings. It is said that Duke Magnus became a prey to the
+disposition of insanity latent in his family, by being forced to
+sign the death sentence of his brother John, King Eric being anxious
+of having him share the responsibility. Magnus lived until quite an
+advanced age, but was never cured of his mental ailment. Even in his
+best hours he was not of very bright intellect. While sojourning at
+the castle of Vadstena, by the Lake Vetter, he had the vision of a
+mermaid, who coaxed him to follow her. The duke jumped from the window
+of his apartment into the moat below. He did not sustain any serious
+injury, but the incident made the unhappy prince famous in tradition
+and song.
+
+In May, 1560, a war commenced with Denmark which, with several
+intermissions, lasted for seven years. It has been called The Seven
+Years' War of the North. About the same time that Eric became king
+of Sweden, the young ambitious Frederic II. ascended the throne of
+Denmark. In the days of Gustavus I., Christian III. had appropriated
+the Swedish emblem of three crowns for the Danish seal of state, as
+if by this proclaiming that the Union was considered still extant or
+that it could be re-established at the opportune moment. King Gustavus
+had protested, but with no result. When King Frederic kept up the
+irritating fact of preserving the Swedish emblem, King Eric answered by
+placing the emblems of Denmark and Norway in the Swedish seal of state.
+This made things worse and served as a nominal cause for war. The
+principal interest at stake was the supremacy in the Baltic provinces.
+The diocese of OEsel, which had accepted a Danish protectorate, was
+governed by a brother of the Danish king, who had entered into an
+alliance with Poland against Sweden, Denmark also joining it.
+
+In May, 1563, a Swedish fleet, commanded by Jacob Bagge, left Sweden
+to bring Princess Christine of Hesse, the promised bride of King Eric.
+A Danish fleet met them, at the island of Bornholm, and greeted the
+Swedish ships with some shots from their sharply loaded cannon. The
+Swedes returned the fire and a naval battle followed, which ended
+in a defeat for the Danes, who lost their flagship. When Jacob Bagge
+arrived in Rostock, where he was to meet the princess, her father was
+found unwilling to let her sail on account of the insecurity brought
+about by the commencing naval hostilities. This would under ordinary
+circumstances have enraged the vain and sensitive king, but Eric forgot
+his rage in his delight at the naval victory. Jacob Bagge was rewarded
+with a triumphal entry into Stockholm upon his return. He entered
+the city on foot with a golden chain round his neck, followed by his
+sub-commanders and surrounded by the banners taken during the battle.
+The prisoners followed, in chains and with shaved heads. The king's
+fool was dancing in front of them, playing on his fiddle. A Danish
+herald soon afterward reached Stockholm, declaring war with great pomp
+and ceremony on behalf of his royal master. The city of Lubeck sent a
+messenger to Stockholm on a similar errand, but was not received by the
+king. "Since he is sent by the mayor and council of his town and other
+similar lard-mongers, let him be heard and answered by the mayor and
+council of Stockholm," was the royal order.
+
+Jacob Bagge was ordered to sea with the Swedish fleet later in the
+summer of the same year. He met the united fleets of Denmark and Lubeck
+at the island of OEland, in the Baltic. A terrible battle ensued, which
+lasted until the fleets were separated by the darkness of the night,
+without victory being won by either side. Jacob Bagge started out
+with his fleet again in the spring of the following year, commanding
+a new flagship, "The Matchless," which carried two hundred cannon,
+most of them made out of church bells confiscated by Gustavus Vasa. A
+new battle was delivered between the islands of Gothland and OEland.
+The majority of the Swedish ships had by a gale been separated from
+the admiral and his flagship, but Jacob Bagge fought valiantly for
+a whole day, continuing the battle the next morning. A catastrophe
+brought it to a close. "The Matchless" caught fire through some act of
+negligence, a barrel of powder exploding between the decks. Jacob Bagge
+then surrendered, and was taken on board one of the ships of Lubeck.
+The enemies took possession of the "The Matchless" in order to plunder
+it, but the immense ship exploded with a tremendous roar, sinking with
+everybody who was on board. Jacob Bagge did not long remain in Danish
+captivity. He returned, to be greeted with the greatest distinction,
+and died as governor-general of Stockholm.
+
+The war on land was at the beginning carried on only through mutual
+invasions, both sides giving proofs of cruelty and vandalism. Elfsborg
+surrendered to the Danes. A Swedish army, commanded by King Eric in
+person, entered the province of Halland, pillaging and plundering
+and laying siege to the town of Halmstad. King Eric suddenly raised
+the siege, when news came that King Frederic was approaching with an
+army. The Swedish troops scattered in various directions, one division
+being met and defeated by the Danes. The whole of Northern Norway
+was invaded by Swedish troops and temporarily subjugated. The entire
+kingdom of Norway was very near being altogether absorbed by Sweden.
+This would have been a happy solution of the Scandinavian question.
+Norway would have become one in language with Sweden and would have
+shared her glorious epoch of political grandeur which was to follow.
+The best families of Norway would have been entered side by side with
+the Swedish nobility at the knightly chapterhouse of Stockholm, and
+the countries would have had their later democratic and cultural
+development in common. But King Eric was too restless and undecided to
+make any lasting conquest, or union, possible. When Claude Collard, a
+young French nobleman, who was the conqueror of Northern Norway, was
+taken by surprise and captured, King Eric, to avenge this, devastated
+forty church parishes in Norway. The Danes invaded and plundered the
+provinces of West Gothland and Smaland, while the Swedes pillaged
+Bleking and Scania. The king had given orders that the population of a
+whole district should be killed. He wrote later about the fulfilment
+of this cruel command: "God granted luck, so that thousands of men
+were killed on the road and in the woods." The province of Scania
+was devastated to a distance of one hundred miles from the Swedish
+frontier. A new invasion into Halland was made, in 1565, when Duke
+Charles, then fifteen years of age, commanded the artillery. The town
+of Varberg was attacked, but valiantly defended by the Danes. The young
+duke upon this occasion gave the first proof of his indomitable energy.
+He led the attack and persuaded the Swedes, by word and action, not to
+give it up. At last the walls were taken, the town being pillaged and
+burned. All men who could carry arms were killed, except a force of
+one hundred and fifty men of hired troops who entered Swedish service.
+A young French captain, Pontus de la Gardie, of a noble family of
+Languedoc, was among the latter. This man and his descendants were
+destined to play an important part in Swedish history.
+
+Clas Kristersson Horn was made commander of the Swedish navy after
+Jacob Bagge, in which position he covered his name with glory. He won a
+naval battle at OEland (in 1564) which lasted for two days. In the next
+year he added several victorious battles to his record, among which
+the principal ones were fought at Buchow, by the coast of Mecklenburg,
+and at the island of Bornholm. When he went to sea in the spring of
+1566 no enemy dared appear. The united fleets of Denmark and Lubeck at
+last started out, but were defeated by Clas Horn at the island of OEland
+after a vehement battle. The vanquished fleets were caught in a gale in
+which sixteen ships perished with seven thousand men. Clas Horn with
+his Swedish fleet was master of the sea. In the following year no fleet
+appeared to meet his. The efforts of Gustavus I. to set the Swedish
+fleet in good order thus proved to be of the greatest consequence.
+
+The Danes were superior in the hostilities on land during the latter
+part of the war, thanks principally to their eminent commander, Daniel
+Rantzau. He made an unsuccessful attempt to recapture the town of
+Varberg, but gained, at Axtorna, a battle over a superior Swedish army
+(in 1565). When Rantzau saw the Swedes approaching for an attack, he
+held prayer with his troops, whereupon he arranged them for resistance.
+The Swedish infantry captured the Danish stronghold and artillery,
+but the hired German troops of the Swedish wings turned into flight.
+Rantzau made an attack upon the deserted infantry, and was victorious
+when nightfall ended the battle. The Swedes lost thirty cannon, and
+Nils Sture, the son of Count Svante Sture, was able to save the banner
+of state only by severing it from the pole and hiding it on his person.
+In the following year, Rantzau pillaged Smaland and West Gothland, and
+in 1567 he penetrated as far as East Gothland, where he was very near
+being caught in a trap by the Swedish troops. The interior struggle of
+Sweden caused hostilities to cease for some time.
+
+The sad fate of his brother Magnus also befell King Eric. Evidences
+of approaching insanity were frequent and brought on horrible
+consequences. By licentiousness, mysticism and astrological speculations
+his mind became unsettled. It had been predicted that a blond man would
+dethrone him. Eric at first made his brother John the subject of his
+suspicions. After the duke's imprisonment he suspected a rival in Nils
+Sture, who also was a blond. Eric accused him of ill behavior in the
+battle of Axtorna. The king's court sentenced him to death, but Lord
+Nils escaped with a contumelious entry of mockery into Stockholm, on a
+miserable horse, and a crown of straw on his head. But frightened at
+the indignation aroused by his shameful act the king tried to undo it,
+and sent Lord Nils on an embassy to Lothringia, to bring the king's
+proposal to Princess Renata.
+
+In the commencement of 1567, the king had several of the nobles
+arrested, on the suspicion of conspiracy, and carried to the castle
+of Upsala, where a Riksdag was convoked. Nils Sture arrived with the
+consent and betrothal ring of Princess Renata, but was thrown into
+prison. The king asked the Riksdag to pass a sentence of death upon the
+accused nobles. When this was refused, he was seized by fear and rage.
+Rushing into the prison of Nils Sture, he wounded him in the arm. Lord
+Nils drew out the weapon, a dagger, kissing its handle and returning it
+to the king, with a prayer for mercy, but was killed by the soldiers at
+the command of the king. Eric's disposition immediately was changed,
+and he darted into Count Svante's prison, begging forgiveness at his
+feet. The aged Sture's answer was that he would forgive all, granted
+that no harm was done to his son. The king fled in despair from the
+castle and town, followed by some of his soldiers, one of whom he
+sent back with an order to kill all the nobles, "except Lord Sten." As
+there were two by that name, these were spared, but Count Svante and
+his son Eric Sture, Abraham Stenbock and Ivar Ivarsson were killed. The
+Riksdag was forced to pass sentence for high treason upon the murdered
+men, at the instigation of Goeran Persson, whose perfidious advice
+had continually inflamed the sickened brain of his master. King Eric
+was for several days missing, and at last found wandering about in a
+peasant's garb. Cared for by Carin Monsdotter, he slowly regained his
+reason, showing evidence of repentance by declaring the murdered nobles
+innocent and promising to compensate their families. During this spell
+he set free his brother John and dismissed Goeran Persson. But soon his
+evil disposition returned, and the resolution of his brothers to free
+the country from his rule must be acknowledged as a beneficent one. The
+nobles were brought to revolt, when Eric, in July, 1568, proclaimed
+Carin as his consort, and had her solemnly crowned Queen of Sweden. The
+dukes John and Charles were at first unsuccessful in their efforts,
+the king defeating their troops repeatedly. But in 1569 Stockholm was
+captured, Goeran Persson killed and the king forced to abdicate. The
+sentence passed upon Eric, by the Estates of the Riksdag, stipulated
+that he should be "imprisoned, but sustained in a princely manner, for
+the rest of his days."
+
+Eric was at first held imprisoned in his own apartments at the
+royal castle, but was transferred to two of the vaults, called the
+"apartments of Lord Eskil." They had served as a treasury during the
+reign of Gustavus I., but now stood empty. Queen Carin and her children
+were his company. After an unsuccessful attempt at flight, one room
+was taken away from him and the windows in the remaining one reduced
+in size. The table of the royal prisoner was well provided for, but
+he was unmercifully treated by his warders. The cruel Olof Stenbock
+once deprived him of all his clothes. In a struggle which followed,
+he shot Eric in the arm and let him remain senseless in his blood for
+several hours. Some of the members of the former body-guard of Eric
+once attempted, but in vain, to set free the unhappy prisoner. In
+1569 Eric was removed to Abo in Finland, where he was locked up in a
+secure prison. Two years later he was taken to Castellholm, in the
+archipelago of Aland, for fear that the Russian czar would liberate him
+by violence. Shortly afterward he was removed to the lovely castle of
+Gripsholm, where he had spent some of the happiest days of his youth,
+and where he once upon a time held his brother John imprisoned. At
+Gripsholm there is a gloomy dungeon which is said to have served as
+the prison of King Eric, but this is not authentic. Eric was treated
+comparatively well while at Gripsholm, enjoying the company of his
+family, a good table and plenty of servants. The recording books of the
+castle from this period speak of "the court of King Eric." King John
+was, in the meantime, irritated by Russian hostilities and intrigues,
+the old supporters of Eric joining in the latter. The appeals of Duke
+Charles for the improvement of the condition of his poor imprisoned
+brother roused the suspicion of the king, who fostered dark plots
+against the prisoner. Eric was removed from Gripsholm and its pleasant
+associations, separated from his family and put in hard prison at
+Westeros. The warders received instructions to take his life if
+necessary. The state council and the archbishop sanctioned this order
+of the king. The last prison of the unhappy King Eric was OErbyhus,
+where he suddenly died, exactly at a time when King John's fears of a
+revolt had reached a climax. Rumors that Eric had been poisoned were
+current, and Duke Charles also gave utterance of his belief that such
+was the case. In spite of the wars, cruelty and evil deeds of King Eric
+XIV., the Swedish people of his time had a good deal of devotion for
+him and his faithful consort. The country enjoyed good years during his
+reign and profited by the wise measures of his father.
+
+Gustavus, the son of Eric XIV. and Carin Monsdotter, was born, in
+1568, at Nykoeping. When Queen Carin was separated from her imprisoned
+consort, her children, Gustavus and Sigrid, followed her to Finland,
+where she resided at Abo. In 1575 the young prince was harshly taken
+away from his mother, at the command of the state council, and sent
+to Prussia. The jealous and uneasy King John made him the subject of
+cruel persecutions. In spite of these he received a fine education,
+and is known to have embraced the Catholic religion. He was kindly
+received by King Sigismund of Poland, his cousin, at whose coronation
+in Cracow he is said to have been present, in the disguise of a beggar.
+A relation of intimate friendship existed between the outlawed prince
+and Emperor Rudolph of Austria, both of whom were devoted to the study
+of alchemy. King John refused to listen to the appeals for grace and
+support which Gustavus repeatedly made to him. Gustavus was not allowed
+to see his mother until the year of 1596, when the two had a touching
+meeting at Reval. He later made his home in Thorn, but left for Russia,
+in 1600, upon an invitation from Czar Boris. He was received in Moscow
+as a reigning prince; but when he refused to appear as a pretender to
+the Swedish throne, he was imprisoned. At the fall of Boris, Gustavus
+was set free, but again put in prison by Dimitri. At the fall of the
+latter, in 1607, Gustavus once more regained his liberty, but died in
+Casijn, in the same year. This unhappy Gustavus Ericsson Vasa was a man
+of fine erudition and pure morals. He was a dreamer and of a sensitive
+disposition, being an ardent Catholic and fondly devoted to the country
+which had outlawed him.
+
+Sigrid Vasa, the daughter of Eric XIV., was twice married to members
+of the Swedish nobility. Ake Henricsson Tott, her son of the first
+marriage, was a distinguished warrior in the times of Gustavus II.
+Adolphus. Queen Carin died, in 1612, beloved and highly respected, at
+the beautiful estate of Liuksiala in Finland, given her in fief by King
+John.
+
+_John III._ succeeded Eric, without sharing his power with his younger
+brother Charles, as he had promised. John was as learned and highly
+talented as Eric, and as vain, restless and unreliable. But while Eric
+was a mystic and a sceptic by turns, John was a Catholic, or leaning
+toward Catholicism, and a hypocrite who, under the pretence of meekness
+and piety, tried to hide his vanity, bad temper and utter selfishness.
+Like Gustavus I. and all his other sons, John was devoted to the
+fine arts, particularly to architecture, with an ardor that reached
+the vehemence of a passion. He planned a vast number of churches and
+castles, which he completed, utterly regardless of cost. The Swedish
+Castle Renaissance which was established by John and his brothers is
+influenced by contemporary Flemish art, severe and majestic in outline,
+graceful and profuse in interior decoration. Good specimens of it were
+the earlier castles of Stockholm and Svartsjoe, the castle of Vadstena
+remains so and, to a great extent, the beautiful and memorable castle
+of Gripsholm.
+
+At his coronation, John issued hereditary privileges to the nobility.
+_Russtjenst_ became no longer essential. Legal offices were preserved
+for the nobles, the king's supreme court being abandoned. John's
+policy was to win the support of the aristocracy against Charles, who,
+indignant and sulky, kept within his duchy, consisting of the provinces
+of Soedermanland and Vermland, with the town of OErebro in addition.
+
+In 1570, an unsatisfactory peace was made with Denmark, Sweden ceding
+all the Norwegian and Danish territory in her possession, together
+with the island of Gothland, and agreeing to pay something like one
+hundred and fifty thousand dollars for the return of Elfsborg, held
+by the Danes. A friendly relation to hostile Poland commenced with
+John's reign, but a long and bloody war with Russia began in 1570. The
+Russians tried repeatedly, but in vain, to capture Reval, plundering
+and killing the population of Esthonia, who remained faithful to
+Swedish rule. Henric Horn and Clas Tott won laurels for their heroic
+deeds, while the war was changed into more modern methods and to a
+successful issue by the Swedish general Pontus de la Gardie, who
+captured the provinces Keksholm and Ingermanland and the town of Narva.
+
+John III. had set two goals for his ambition: to return the Swedish
+church to Catholicism and to make his son Sigismund king of Poland.
+The latter he reached at the death of King Stephan in 1589, Sigismund
+succeeding him upon the throne. The former ambition John never
+attained, after years of stubborn and unreasonable perseverance giving
+up this pet idea. John made some attempts to bring order in the
+confused conditions of the church, but left it in a worse state of
+confusion than he found it. The crown and the aristocracy had deprived
+the church of nearly all its property and withheld its income from
+it. Archbishop Laurentius Petri complained of the miserable state of
+things, the ministers often being useless wretches and the service in
+some churches impossible to uphold for sheer lack of money. In 1572
+the ecclesiastical matters were arranged at a meeting in Upsala, when
+a new church law was introduced, demanding higher qualifications for
+the ministers, who were to be elected by their congregations, and
+enforcing a school law. Laurentius Petri died in 1573 and was succeeded
+by Laurentius Petri Gothus. The new archbishop willingly subscribed
+to a set of rules, laid before him by the king, which reintroduced
+monasteries, worship of saints and the ceremonies of the Roman church.
+Jesuits were invited to the country, but met with little encouragement
+from the people. The very climax of John's reactionary movements was
+formed by the introduction of his ritual, Liturgia, which was nothing
+else than an adaptation of the Catholic ritual. It was accepted by the
+Riksdag of 1577, but Charles refused to accept it for his duchy. The
+king had many conflicts with his brother, the latter always giving
+in to his wishes, except on this point. Ministers and university
+professors who refused to conform to the new ritual, or attacked it,
+were sheltered by the duke and, in many instances, given high offices.
+The king grew angry, but the duke remained firm and unyielding. When
+Queen Catherine died, in 1583, John's Catholic fervor suffered a
+relapse, and ceased altogether after his marriage to young Protestant
+Gunilla Bielke, in the following year. He stubbornly stuck to his
+Liturgia for some time yet, but exiled the Jesuits, and dismissed with
+contumely ministers who had joined the Roman Church. During the last
+years of his reign, he said it was best to leave everybody a free
+choice in religious matters, regretting his Liturgia--which he once
+considered the gem of his own theological system--because it had caused
+so much trouble and confusion.
+
+Sweden suffered a great deal through the slack and unsteady government
+of King John. He spent unreasonable sums on his court and his craze for
+architectural marvels, while always short of funds for the necessities
+of war and internal improvements. Commerce and industries suffered and
+were brought to a standstill by dearth, hunger and pest. The population
+decreased; the towns were made bankrupt and many farms abandoned. Bad
+and greedy officials and the recommencing war with Russia increased the
+evils. After unsuccessful attempts to have his son leave Poland, where
+he had met with many difficulties, John entered into more intimate
+relations with his brother, who came to wield a beneficial influence on
+the government. John III. died 1592, malcontent and tired of life, his
+death being little regretted by the people.
+
+One of the most famous love episodes of Sweden dates from the reign
+of John III. It has no bearing upon the affairs of state, but is not
+devoid of value as an illustration of the history of civilization,
+giving us a glimpse of the private life of the nobles of that period
+and the standard of morals of their lives. The episode is told by
+Countess Anne Baner in a manuscript by her hand with the title: "In
+the following manner my blessed mother's sister, Lady Sigrid Sture,
+lady of Salestad and Geddeholm, related what took place when Lord Eric
+Gustafson Stenbock carried away our blessed mother's sister, Magdalen
+Sture, from Hoerningsholm."
+
+The dowager-countess, Martha Sture, resided at the castle of
+Hoerningsholm, enlarged to a four-story structure and fortified with
+four corner towers by her consort. She was a sister of Queen Margaret,
+the second queen of Gustavus I., and was married to the renounced lover
+of that sister, Count Svante Sture. The countess was called "King
+Martha," partly because of her stern power and great authority, partly
+because it was known to have been her ambition to see her husband's
+family grace the throne of a country which their forefathers had ruled
+as uncrowned kings. She had lived to see her husband and two sons
+killed by the insane Eric XIV., but she had yet two sons who would
+carry high the glorious name, on which there was not a stain of any
+kind. There were five daughters, Sigrid and Anne, married to members of
+the influential Bielke family, and Magdalen, Margaret and Christine, as
+yet unmarried. There was another young lady at Hoerningsholm, besides
+the daughters, the little Princess Sigrid Vasa, the daughter of King
+Eric XIV. and Carin Monsdotter, who had received a home with the stern
+"King Martha" while her mother was following the tracks of the deposed
+monarch from prison to prison.
+
+Between Magdalen Sture and Lord Eric Stenbock a passionate love sprang
+up. Lord Eric was a very fine young man, of an influential family and
+the brother of the queen-dowager, Catherine, third consort of Gustavus
+I. But, unfortunately, he was the nephew of Countess Martha, and, as
+a cousin of Magdalen, considered to be too closely related to her to
+make a marriage possible. Countess Martha was unwilling to listen
+to any appeals, and she was strengthened in her resolution by the
+old Archbishop Laurentius Petri, who still held the same opinions as
+when he, once upon a time, refused to grant his consent to a marriage
+between King Gustavus I. and young Lord Eric's sister, because she was
+a niece of Queen Margaret. The years passed by, but no change came in
+the stubborn resistance of "King Martha." Christmas eve of 1573, Lord
+Eric visited Hoerningsholm to remain until New Year. He brought with
+him costly presents which he offered as New Year's gifts to Countess
+Martha, her daughters, chaplain and servants. He left to return on Palm
+Sunday with his sister Cecilia, the wife of Count Gustavus Tre Rosor.
+One morning a few days later, Lady Sigrid Bielke, who was visiting
+her mother, entered the so-called rotunda, a large room in one of
+the towers which Countess Martha and her daughters used as sleeping
+apartment. She was surprised to find her sister Magdalen kneeling and
+in tears. Lady Sigrid greeted her: "God bless you, you have a good
+deed in mind!" "God grant it were good," answered Magdalen, rising.
+"Certainly it is good to make one's prayers amid tears," Sigrid said.
+Magdalen caught the hands of her sister and said: "My darling sister,
+if all the rest forsake me, you will not turn away your faithful heart
+from me." Sigrid found the words and emotion of her sister strange,
+but did not suspect anything. "Why do you use such words to me?" she
+answered. "I do not believe that you are going to make an evil-doer
+out of yourself; there are none in the Sture family who have carried
+themselves in a way to make us turn our hearts away from them." Tears
+came again to the eyes of Magdalen, but Sigrid was called into an
+interior room by her mother. Magdalen went to play with one of her
+little nieces, when Lord Eric entered. "Dear lady," he said, "would you
+like to see the horse that I have given you? It is now waiting in the
+court." Magdalen rose and left, escorted by her cousin. They met two
+of the women of the household, whom Eric commanded to follow them. A
+horse and sleigh stood in the vaulted entrance. Magdalen was placed
+between the two servants, while Eric took his position back of them
+on the runners, holding the reins. In the castle court they met the
+chaplain and several of the servants, who thought it a pleasure ride
+and let them pass. When they rode down on the frozen lake, the two
+servants in the sleigh grasped the importance of the situation for the
+first time, and commenced praying Lady Magdalen to return. Lord Eric
+silenced them by displaying his short musket. A few moments later they
+were surrounded by a force of one hundred men on horseback, who formed
+an escort. They were a loan to Lord Eric by Duke Charles.
+
+The excitement at Hoerningsholm was great when the elopement was
+discovered. Margaret Sture happened to look through the window at the
+moment when the sleigh reached the lake. At her outcry Countess Martha
+and Sigrid joined her. The old countess fainted on the stairs when
+making for the court, and Sigrid was ordered to follow up the eloping
+couple. Countess Cecilia found her aunt on the stairs and hastened
+to assure her of the mortification that she felt at the daring and
+unsuspected deed of her brother, also expressing some surprise at the
+bad manner in which it was accepted. But then the old countess became
+wroth, exclaiming: "Go to the devil, and may God punish both you and
+your brother! And if you have any part in his scheme of robbing me of
+my dear child, betake yourself after him, so that no shame or dishonor
+may happen." Countess Cecilia hastened to her sleigh and reached
+Svaerdsbro, where her brother was stopping, ahead of Sigrid.
+
+When Lady Sigrid arrived at Svaerdsbro, she was admitted through the
+lines of soldiers only after some difficulty, finding tailors and
+seamsters busy cutting and sewing precious stuffs for clothing for Lady
+Magdalen and her servants, "for she left with uncovered head such as
+she went and stood in her mother's house." Sigrid tried to persuade her
+sister to return to her mother, who in her great sorrow was willing to
+forgive all if she only came back. Magdalen sat silent for a long time.
+Finally she said: "If you can vouchsafe me, that the lady, my mother,
+will grant that we shall belong to each other, since I have so dearly
+pledged myself to him, I shall return." This Sigrid could not do, and
+Magdalen added, weeping sorely: "The last complication is then as bad
+as the first." Lord Eric entered with his sister Cecilia. When Sigrid
+asked where he intended to bring Magdalen, he answered: "To Visingsoe,
+to the Countess Beatrix, my sister, where she shall remain until we
+obtain the consent to marry of the lady, her mother." It was arranged
+that Cecilia should accompany Magdalen, and Sigrid try her best to win
+her mother's consent. Magdalen sent home to her mother a piece of horn
+of the fabulous unicorn; "the only thing I have carried with me from
+my father's house," she added. This horn, which really was taken from
+the incisor of the narwhal, was in those days generally thought to be
+authentic and of miraculous power.
+
+Countess Martha was, in her grief and dismay, taken ill. She soon
+gathered strength enough to write to King John, her nephew, pleading
+her cause. King John at once took action in the matter, calling Lord
+Eric to account, and issuing a command to all ministers of the kingdom,
+prohibiting them to unite in marriage the two cousins. Eric Stenbock
+was on his way to Stockholm when he received the order of the king.
+Upon his arrival at the capital, he was imprisoned and deprived of all
+his offices. But Lord Eric had powerful friends in Duke Charles and
+the Stenbock family. As the king himself did not wish to be without
+his service, he was soon set free and reinstalled in his offices. He
+succeeded in obtaining the goodwill of the whole Sture family, but
+"King Martha" remained irreconcilable. More than a year had passed
+since the elopement. One day Lord Eric suddenly appeared at the castle
+of Visingsoe. He made, with Magdalen and his aunt, Lady Anne, a journey
+into the province of Halland, where a Danish minister joined the two
+cousins in marriage. The wedding was celebrated at the home of Eric's
+father, Baron Gustavus Stenbock of Torpa. But Lady Magdalen was not
+happy. She grieved because of her mother's hostile attitude, and
+continued to dress in black colors, as she had done ever since she left
+her mother. Duke Charles, the queen-dowager, the royal princesses, and
+all the members of the state council, yea, the king himself, wrote
+letters to the indignant countess, whose ire was rather increased than
+diminished thereby.
+
+Finally, after another year and a half, "King Martha" gave in to
+the tears and prayers of her daughters. Lady Magdalen returned to
+Hoerningsholm after three years of absence. She was not allowed to come
+up to the castle at first, but had to dwell in the building occupied by
+the baths. As the winter was approaching, and Lady Magdalen was soon
+to give life to a child, her brothers and sisters prevailed upon their
+mother to receive Lord Eric and his wife at the castle. The event was
+arranged in a conspicuous way. Countess Martha was seated in the place
+of honor in the great hall of the castle, surrounded by her daughters
+and sons-in-law, when Lord Eric entered with Magdalen. When the mother
+saw her pale and thin features, she was moved to tears, exclaiming:
+"Thou unhappy child!" Magdalen approached her on her knees, and the
+countess embraced her, stammering her forgiveness between tears.
+Magdalen remained at the castle, where she bore her husband a son, who
+was called Gustavus. Lady Martha invited the king, the duke and the
+princesses to be present at the baptism, at the same time granting
+Magdalen an equal share of inheritance with the other daughters. Lady
+Magdalen continued to dress in mourning as a self-imposed punishment
+for her disobedience to her mother. One day she was preparing to leave
+for a wedding, when her mother asked her the reason why she dressed
+thus. When "King Martha" learned why, she took a costly cross of
+diamonds intended for the bride and placed it on her daughter's breast,
+telling her to put aside her black dresses. From that day joy and
+happiness seemed to return to Lady Magdalen, who commenced to put on
+lighter colors and to wear diamonds. Of Magdalen Stenbock--a child of
+these Stures, who so often had protected and preserved Sweden--Count
+Magnus Stenbock was a lineal descendant, he who during the reign of
+Charles XII. saved his country in the hour of its greatest peril and
+distress.
+
+_Sigismund_, the son and successor of John III., was not apt to become
+more popular than his father. Born at the pleasant prison of Gripsholm,
+which yet was a prison, he was of a cold, unsympathetic disposition,
+a king of few words and hard to approach. At John's death, Sigismund
+was twenty-six years of age and had reigned several years in Poland.
+Charles stepped to the front as the head of the government until
+Sigismund's arrival.
+
+The Protestants, fearing the worst from their new Catholic king,
+decided to take firm and early action. The duke ordered a Riksdag at
+Upsala in February, 1593, the deliberations being held by the clergy
+alone. The Liturgia was abolished with the majority of Catholic church
+ceremonies, Luther's catechisms, L. Petri's ritual, church visitations,
+etc., being reintroduced. Abraham Angermannus was elected archbishop,
+and decision made for the re-establishment of the Upsala University.
+The duke had not been present at the deliberations, and appeared
+displeased because not consulted. He, who was secretly accused of being
+a Calvinist, pointed out more Catholic ceremonies to be abolished,
+whereupon the decisions won the sanction of the duke, the state council
+and the bishops. By this act the Lutheran Church was re-established,
+the Augsburgian Confession being laid down by the meeting as its
+corner-stone. When this action had been taken, the chairman, Nicolaus
+Bothniensis, a young Upsala professor, exclaimed: "Now Sweden has
+become _one_ man, and we all have _one_ God."
+
+In August, 1593, King Sigismund arrived in Sweden, surrounded by
+Jesuits and Polish nobles, and with a sum of money wherewith to pay
+the expenses of a Catholic revival. To the demands made to sign the
+decisions of the Upsala meeting he gave a flat refusal. The conditions
+in Stockholm grew perilous, Jesuits and Lutheran ministers preaching
+denouncements upon each other in the churches and conflicts between
+the Polish troops and the populace taking place. In January, 1594,
+Sigismund, accompanied by the state councillors and the members of
+the Riksdag, came to Upsala for his father's funeral and his own
+coronation. Duke Charles arrived with 3,000 men, whom he quartered
+in the neighborhood. He dismissed the papal legate, Malaspina, and
+his Jesuits from the funeral procession, before it entered the
+cathedral, and told the king, in behalf of all, that no coronation
+would take place before the confessional liberty of the Lutheran Church
+was confirmed. The Estates declared themselves ready to sacrifice
+their lives for the pure faith. The king still refused his sanction,
+whereupon the duke replied that the Riksdag would be dismissed within
+twenty-four hours if he insisted. Sigismund gave in, upon the advice of
+the Jesuits, who told him that pledges to Lutherans were not binding.
+Sigismund was crowned and returned suddenly to Poland.
+
+The king had left matters in an unsatisfactory condition, placing six
+governors with great authority in various districts, but leaving the
+government to be conducted by the duke and the state council in common.
+This little pleased the energetic Charles, who soon called a Riksdag
+at Soederkoeping, in 1595, forcing the councillors to sanction this act
+and follow him to the Riksdag. In Finland, the governor, Clas Fleming,
+had tried to have a peace agreement with Russia postponed as an excuse
+to keep the navy and army at his disposal in the interest of the king.
+At Soederkoeping, Charles had himself chosen regent, the last vestige of
+Catholicism abolished, and the punishment of Fleming decided on. In
+consequence, the Catholics were dealt with in a merciless way through
+the instigation of the archbishop, whom the duke called an executioner
+on account of his recklessness. The convent of Vadstena was closed, its
+eleven nuns scattered and its property confiscated. In Finland a bloody
+revolt against the oppression of Fleming cost 11,000 people their
+lives. It was called the "War of Clubs," on account of the rude weapons
+used by the peasants. The state council refused to consent to Fleming's
+punishment, whereupon the duke suddenly resigned. But he convoked a
+Riksdag at Arboga, in 1597, at which the councillors and nobles were
+absent, also the burghers. The peasants and clergy were abundantly
+represented and cheered the propositions of the duke to the echo. It
+was then decided that the king should be asked to return, until which
+event the duke was to remain regent, and that peace should be restored
+in Finland. Fleming died in the meantime and was succeeded by Arvid
+Stolarm, who also was one of the duke's enemies. The Riksdag at Arboga
+was the first in the deliberations of which the state council had not
+taken a part. The councillors were disposed to punish the duke; but,
+not agreeing as to means, they left the country to seek the king.
+
+King Sigismund arrived in the summer of 1598 with an army of 5,000
+Poles, gathering a good deal of strength by reinforcements from
+Gothaland. The duke had his stronghold in Svealand, the Dalecarlians
+rising to join him. The Uplanders warded off an attempt made by Stolarm
+to land with his army; they were led by Nicolaus Bothniensis, the
+Upsala professor, who called his exploit "a crusade." The two princes
+met in East Gothland, near Stegeborg. The duke and his peasant army
+were surrounded by the king's cavalry, and would have been doomed if
+not for the outcry of one of the king's followers that his subjects
+would be killed on either side. The king gave order to stop the attack,
+feeling pity at the sight. The duke was deeply moved by this act and
+offered to leave the land with his family. But the deliberations which
+followed were without result.
+
+On the 25th of September a battle was fought at Stongebro, near
+Linkoeping, ending in the defeat of the royal army. An armistice
+followed. The conditions of peace were that the king should remain
+in Sweden, dismissing his foreign troops, and take charge of the
+government. No one should be punished except five of the nobles,
+to be placed before a jury of ambassadors. The king agreed to the
+conditions, but soon left Sweden never to return. A meeting of nobles
+and clergymen, in 1599, accepted him as reigning king if willing to
+return within four months. In July, a Riksdag was called at Stockholm,
+which declared Sigismund dethroned and his son Vladislav king if sent
+to Sweden to be educated in the Lutheran faith. Sigismund took no heed
+of these stipulations, planning to regain his throne by force.
+
+Charles followed up the punishment with such unprecedented severity
+that it has left a stain upon his memory. Three nobles were beheaded
+after Kalmar was taken, and proceeding to Finland, the duke applied
+capital punishment to a wide extent, in more than twenty cases at Abo
+alone. At a Riksdag in Linkoeping, in 1600, the duke appeared as an
+accuser against the five imprisoned nobles and several others, eight
+state councillors being among them. The accused, thirteen in number,
+were sentenced to death for high treason, but the majority were
+pardoned upon confession of guilt. The councillors Gustavus Baner, Eric
+Sparre, Sten Baner and Ture Bielke were beheaded. They were all men
+of learning and great ability, who had faithfully served their king.
+During John's reign they had already suffered years of imprisonment for
+intrigues against a hereditary kingdom and a strong government.
+
+_Charles IX._ was chosen king at the bloody Riksdag of Linkoeping, and
+his son Gustavus Adolphus heir-apparent. The hereditary rights of
+Duke John, second son of John III., were acknowledged, and a duchy,
+consisting of East Gothland and Leckoe Castle, granted him; but he was
+passed over as too young and too closely related to Sigismund. Measures
+to strengthen the financial administration and the army were passed.
+
+Sigismund prepared, by alliances with Catholic powers, to gather
+support, Charles turning to England and France for the same purpose. A
+conflict was unavoidable, and Charles decided to invade the disputed
+province of Livonia, which he captured, only to be ousted by the
+Polish general, Zamoisky. The castle of Volmar was long and heroically
+defended by the Swedes under Jacob de la Gardie, a son of General
+Pontus, and Charles Gyllenhielm, an illegitimate son of Charles IX.
+After their surrender the former received for five years a tolerable
+treatment, the latter a most severe one for twelve years. After
+attempts to place conditions on a better footing in Finland, where the
+peasants had long suffered through aristocratic oppression, Charles
+increased the army still further and invaded Livonia once more, in
+1604. He met with a crushing defeat at Kerkholm, close by Riga, at the
+hands of the Pole, Chodkiewitz, losing 9,000 men. But the Poles did not
+understand how to use their victory, and the centre of the conflict
+changed to Russia.
+
+On Russian territory, the troops of Sigismund and Charles were to meet.
+The line of Rurik became extinct in 1598, its last descendant, Dimitri,
+being murdered. Great complications ensued with usurpers and two "false
+Dimitris" in succession. Sigismund supported the false Dimitris in
+order to gain ground and place the royal line of Vasa upon the throne
+of Russia after that of Rurik. Charles sided with Vassili Schuisky
+against the second false Dimitri. In 1607 an agreement was made that
+Sweden, upon the receipt of the province of Kexholm, should send an
+army to Russia to support Czar Vassili. In 1609, a small Swedish army,
+consisting of Swedes, Finns and some hired troops, entered Russia,
+under command of Jacob de la Gardie. It was received at Novgorod with
+the blaze of cannon and tolling of church bells. A victory was won at
+Tver over the pretender, but further progress was impeded by mutiny
+among the hired troops, the stubborn Finns returning home. With his
+1,200 faithful Swedes, reinforced by hired troops to 5,000, De la
+Gardie made a daring march eastward to Moscow, scaring away the Polish
+army, attacking it and making a triumphant entry into the Russian
+capital. Sigismund was at Smolensk, and met De la Gardie at Klusina,
+winning the battle on account of renewed mutiny of the hired troops in
+the Swedish army. De la Gardie was given free leave with 400 men, upon
+pledge not to support Czar Vassili, and later captured the promised
+Kexholm, while Sigismund's son Vladislav for a short time became czar
+of Russia.
+
+Although the short reign of Charles IX. was filled with continual
+warfare, the king never for a moment lost interest in the peaceful
+development of the country. He continued his father's work in
+furthering the mining industry, and tried to build up the commerce and
+trade relations. He founded the city of Gothenburg, on the western
+coast, in the island of Hising, opposite Elfsborg, also founding
+the towns of Karlstad, Christinehamn, Mariestad and Philipstad. The
+aristocracy looked upon his administration with coldness. It received
+sanction of the privileges granted by John III., but nothing more,
+except in return for additional _russtjenst_. The peasants were his
+favorites and he was surnamed the "Peasant King." To the Church,
+Charles stood in a good relation, supporting its re-established
+Reformation with his whole authority. Also the University had in him
+a patron, although he severely criticised the too conservative spirit
+in both, exchanging a series of pamphlets with the archbishop on
+theological questions, firm in his Calvinistic tendencies. To make
+the government stronger it was stipulated that four members of the
+state council were always to hold the four principal offices, with the
+titles of drotsete, kansler (chancellor), admiral and treasurer. The
+greatest economy was enforced at court and throughout the whole system
+of government, various minor country offices being established for the
+enforcement of order, justice and economy. The king was liberal only
+with severe orders and harsh words, the artistic tendencies of his
+youth succumbing to the cruel necessities of his reign.
+
+In private he was as severe as in public life. His first consort,
+Maria of the Palatinate-Zweibrucken, had a quieting influence upon
+him, but the second, Christine of Holstein, stern and sharp like the
+king, strengthened the harshness and violence of his disposition.
+During the last years of his reign, Charles gave his attention to
+the critical European situation, desiring to join the Netherlands,
+England, France and the Protestant German princes into an alliance
+against the forming Catholic league. This man, so assured of his power
+to reign and so unscrupulous as to his means, was very careful not to
+do any act of importance without the sanction of his people, and for
+a long time refused to be called king. In 1604 he agreed to accept
+that name, but was in 1606 ready to cede it to Duke John. Still, after
+his coronation he admitted the hereditary right of his nephew, who
+was a good-natured man without the qualifications of a ruler. At the
+Riksdag of Norrkoeping, in 1604, the crown was made hereditary among
+the descendants of Charles, also in the female line, provided that
+the monarch confessed the Lutheran faith and had not accepted the
+government of, or residence in, any other country.
+
+The stress placed upon Charles was greater than his originally strong
+health could carry. In 1609 he suffered a stroke of paralysis, which
+deprived him of his full power of speech. He still stood firm at the
+head of the government, with Prince Gustavus Adolphus, now sixteen
+years of age, at his side, who took part in the affairs of State and
+spoke for the paralytic king. The young and ambitious Christian IV.
+of Denmark thought that the opportune moment was come to turn down
+the rising power of Sweden. He declared war, in April, 1611, in spite
+of the efforts made by King Charles to avoid the conflict, pointing
+to Germany, where their joined forces would be needed. Christian
+captured the town of Kalmar, while its castle withstood his attacks,
+being handed over to him by treason. In his wrath and disgust, Charles
+sent word to Christian to meet him in a duel face to face, which the
+latter refused to do in a letter of abusive contempt. Gustavus Adolphus
+had made a dash into Bleking, capturing the store of provisions at
+Christianopel. In the autumn, the war came to a temporary standstill.
+
+Charles started for Stockholm from Kalmar, but was taken ill during
+the journey and died at Nykoeping, October 11, 1611, surrounded by his
+sons and councillors. To his death-bed came the news that Jacob de
+la Gardie had captured the important city of Novgorod, and that the
+Russians offered the crown to either of his sons, Gustavus Adolphus or
+Charles Philip. With Charles died the only worthy son of Gustavus I.
+Vasa. In strength of intellect and stern power, he stands first among
+Swedish rulers. Devoted to the work of his great father, he educated
+the Swedish people, through hardships and sacrifices, to its political
+grandeur.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+_Period of Political Grandeur--Gustavus II. Adolphus_
+
+
+Gustavus II. Adolphus is the greatest figure of Swedish history,
+revered and beloved as one of the noblest of heroes, a genius in whom
+the qualities of the great statesman and warrior were blended with
+the faith of a man ready to sacrifice his life for the loftiest of
+causes--religious liberty. Gustavus Adolphus was, by his own triumphant
+deeds and through his school of discipline, which turned out men
+worthy to follow up his work, destined to bring his country up to the
+fulfilment of its mission in the history of human progress, and to
+open for it an era of glory and political grandeur which its limited
+resources made it impossible to preserve, but which was fruitful of
+results for its later cultural evolution.
+
+The secret of Sweden's success in solving the stupendous conflict
+between Catholicism and Protestantism, between reaction and progress,
+rested in the fact that this little country was eminently ready
+to wage a war for religious liberty. It had been more perfectly
+rejuvenated by the spirit of Protestantism than had, at the time, any
+other country. The mediaeval state, completed later in Sweden than on
+the continent, also gave way there sooner and more completely than
+elsewhere. The yeomanry, never fully suppressed, had preserved its old
+spirit of independence, fostered and guided by patriotic leaders of
+the nobility, with or without a crown. The population was suffering,
+hungering, bleeding, but free, indomitable, and devoted to its once
+more hereditary kings of Swedish birth and to their new faith, which
+had made strong in them their old individuality of views and life.
+
+When Gustavus Adolphus ascended the throne, the country was in the
+greatest peril and distress, and had many a lesson to learn before
+entering the universal conflict of the Thirty Years' War.
+
+Gustavus Adolphus was born, Dec. 9, 1594, at the castle of Stockholm.
+When six years old, he followed his father to devastated Finland,
+returning through Norrland, for the settlement and future of which
+territory great plans were made. At ten, he was ordered to be present
+at the deliberations of the state council; at thirteen, he received
+petitions and complaints, rectifying wrongs and soothing suffering.
+His father said of him, in speaking of the fulfilment of great works,
+placing his hand on the curly blond head: "_Ille faciet._" The prince
+received a severe and carefully supervised education, led by Johan
+Skytte. He acquired knowledge of a considerable number of languages,
+probably all in a mechanical way, except the Swedish and German, with
+both of which he was made equally and thoroughly familiar, speaking
+and writing the latter language with greater ease and perfection than
+the emperor Ferdinand, or Maximilian of Bavaria. In the sciences of
+economics and war he was well read, himself inaugurating novel theories
+in both. In him the best traits of the Vasa dynasty were admirably
+blended and enlarged. He possessed an acute intellect, far-reaching
+views of almost prophetic discernment, a mastery and patience in
+detail, and an indomitable strength of will. To the ceaseless and
+painstaking care of the welfare of his subjects, characteristic of
+his father and grandfather, were in him added a harmony of endowment
+and a gentleness of disposition which made him their superior. In him
+the turbulent blood of the Vasas was held in noble self-restraint.
+After his rare outbursts of passion, he made good his faults in a most
+royal manner. His youth was not without the temptations which beset
+all richly endowed natures, but they were vanquished as he grew up to
+the importance of his grand mission. He stood in the paternal attitude
+to his people so becoming to his grandfather, but lacked the fiery
+democratic tendencies and the sympathy for the untitled, unpretentious
+and lowly, so strong in his stern father. To his relatives he was as
+gentle as to his subjects, treating his resolute and ambitious mother,
+Christine of Holstein-Gottorp, with love and respect; on her demand
+sacrificing the love of his youth and intended bride, Ebba Brahe,
+who became the consort of victorious Jacob de la Gardie. Also to his
+brother Charles Philip he stood in an exemplary relation; but firmly
+refused to grant him privileges for his duchy of Vermland which could
+be injurious to the country at large.
+
+Gustavus Adolphus was a man of commanding presence, tall and of a heavy
+frame. The color of his face was clear and light, his eyes blue, his
+hair and beard blond. Foreign contemporary authors called him "the
+golden king of the North." He carried his head high, and his open,
+frank eye, and the clear voice of manly resonance, gave added charm to
+his noble appearance. Gustavus Adolphus possessed a majestic dignity of
+bearing coupled with the unfeigned kindness of a noble heart.
+
+Charles IX. had left his son the Danish war as an inheritance. It was
+carried on in the provinces of the frontiers, and consisted chiefly
+in small conflicts, which caused fatigue and detriment without being
+decisive. The Danes entered the interior of Smaland during the first
+days of the year 1612. Gustavus Adolphus, in his turn, moved from the
+fort of Ryssby into the province of Scania, destroying by fire the town
+of Vae and several castles belonging to the wealthy nobility. During
+a smaller conflict which then took place, Gustavus Adolphus was in
+imminent danger of his life.
+
+The Swedes had made a camp for themselves at the cemetery of Vittsjoe,
+when suddenly surprised by a force of Danish cavalry. The Swedes fought
+with determination, but found it necessary to leave their camp. They
+took a firm stand on the frozen waters of the adjoining lake, but were
+forced to leave that position also. A tumult ensued, during which the
+ice gave way on the spot where the king found himself, for the moment,
+alone and without an escort. Per Baner, a son of Gustavus Baner, who
+was executed at Linkoeping at the command of Charles IX., perceived
+the king in the moment of greatest danger, and hastened with Thomas
+Larsson, a trooper from Upland, to rescue him. When in safety, the king
+at once unbuckled his silver belt, and, handing it to the trooper,
+said: "I shall remember thee with a piece of bread, which neither thou
+nor thy children shall ever find lacking." Thomas Larsson received in
+the following year a farm in the province of Westmanland, which has
+remained in the possession of his descendants to this very day. Per
+Baner received in fief the estates which had been in the possession of
+his uncle, Sten Baner, also executed at Linkoeping, and rose to the
+dignity of a state councillor during the minority of Queen Christine.
+
+It was the ambition of Christian IV. of Denmark to cut Sweden off from
+any communication with the North Sea. As Bohuslaen and Halland both
+were parts of the Danish dominion, there was only the small strip of
+territory surrounding the mouth of the Gotha River to conquer. The
+island of Hising constituted the larger part of it, and was the site
+of the new town of Gothenburg, which was defended by the fortress of
+Elfsborg. The town of New Loedoese was situated on the opposite shore,
+some few miles up the river, defended by the fort of Gullberg. The
+Danish king approached Gullberg from Bohus, having with him a smaller
+force, which he considered sufficient in numbers. Gullberg was only a
+poor little nest, but it was valiantly defended by Morten Krakow and
+his wife, the stanch Lady Emerentia Pauli. One day the Danes made a
+violent attack. The ladders which they placed against the walls were
+crushed by heavy beams which the Swedes let fall down on them. In spite
+of this, the Danes succeeded in forcing the gates of the place. The
+position was a critical one for the Swedes. The commander had met with
+an accident and was unable to lead the defence. But Lady Emerentia
+resolved to take the command. She gave orders to the wives of the
+soldiers to fill up the vaulted passage of the gates with barrels,
+washtubs, timber, etc. When the Danes stormed on in a compact body,
+they were received by a downfall of scalding-hot lye, which the women
+kept pouring down on them from behind their barricade. The daughter
+of Lady Emerentia thus graphically describes the effect: "They lay in
+the vault and around the gates like scalded hogs." Lady Emerentia had
+placed two pieces of artillery on the top of a small building fronting
+the gates. They were loaded with broken horseshoes and the like and
+sent out a disastrous fire. The few surviving Danes fled hurriedly for
+their lives, leaving Lady Emerentia in proud possession of the fort. A
+second attack which was made later on proved as futile as the first.
+King Christian then gave command to abandon the plan of taking the
+fort. The Danish army collected in a field in front of Gullberg. But
+Lady Emerentia was vigilant. From the walls of the fort she espied a
+man of prepossessing appearance who rode a white horse. "Shoot that
+man!" was her immediate command to the nearest soldier. The shot took
+effect, killing the white horse, whose brains and blood spattered the
+king. For the man on horseback was King Christian. "That devilish crow
+does never sleep!" exclaimed the king, referring to the commander.
+
+King Christian turned on New Loedoese, killing without mercy all the
+male inhabitants of the town. West Gothland was invaded, the province
+appearing to be an easy prey because the Swedish army, commanded by
+Duke John, had just left it to march into Halland. But the bailiff of
+Hoejentorp called on the peasants to rise, which caused the Danes to
+recede. The Danes next made an attack on the fortress of Elfsborg,
+commanded by Olof Strole. Elfsborg was defended with heroism, but when
+fire threatened to destroy the towers, Olof Strole at last surrendered.
+On account of their valiant conduct the commander and his men, who were
+reduced to 200, were granted free passage with their music and banners.
+The able Morten Krakow of Gullberg had been promoted to the fortress of
+Vaxholm. His successor surrendered Gullberg to the Danes shortly after
+the fall of Elfsborg. King Christian planned a series of invasions in
+the year 1612, but, thanks to the vigilance of Gustavus Adolphus, he
+failed to accomplish the desired effect.
+
+Gustavus Adolphus wanted peace with Denmark, and such was made at
+Kneroed in 1613, after a war of mutual invasions and without any
+decisive battles or conquests of territory. The frontiers were to
+remain the same as before the war; the Danish king was allowed to
+keep the emblem of three crowns, but had to resign his claims upon
+the Swedish crown. The fortress of Elfsborg remained in the hands
+of the Danes for six years, until $1,000,000, an exorbitant sum in
+those days, was paid for it. It cost the people of Sweden very dear
+to pay this sum, sacrifices being made by the king and his friends
+to contribute to it. But Elfsborg, the only approach to the North
+Sea, was indispensable. It was returned in a miserable condition, and
+Gothenburg, on the opposite side of Gotha River, destroyed. Gustavus
+Adolphus ordered Gothenburg to be moved to its present site, on
+the mainland, and endowed it with extensive commercial privileges,
+encouraging Dutch merchants to settle there.
+
+The war with Russia began once more in 1614. Gustavus Adolphus not
+having been found willing to accept the crown for his brother Charles
+Philip, the negotiations were dropped. Count de la Gardie resumed
+control of the movements, although the king was present in person. The
+Swedes won a great victory at Bronitz and captured the fortress of
+Augdof. An attempt to take Pskof was unsuccessful, Evert Horn, the hero
+of a hundred battles, losing his life; but the Russians were willing
+to make peace. Through the honorable peace of Stolbova, in February,
+1617, Russia gave up all claims on Esthonia and Livonia, and ceded to
+Sweden Ingermanland and Kexholm. This cut off the Russians from the
+Baltic, fixed the Swedish frontier on the lakes Ladoga and Peipus, and
+left Sweden in peace with the mightiest of her enemies during almost a
+century. The armistice with Poland ended in 1616, but after two years
+of insignificant movements it was continued up to 1620.
+
+Gustavus II. Adolphus with untiring energy continued the work of
+building up the new state founded by Gustavus I. At the death of
+his father, the royal youth had won everybody by his gentleness and
+generosity. His first act was perhaps the wisest of all, in selecting
+among the councillors the young, highly talented Axel Oxenstierna as
+his chancellor. This couple have no peers in history, being united
+by the firmest of friendships and rising simultaneously to the
+highest ability of statesmanship, the gifts of the one wonderfully
+supplementing those of the other. The chancellor was cooler and slower
+than his royal friend. He placed supreme the duties to his country,
+but was of very aristocratic tendencies, through his influence leading
+the king still further away from the democratic principles of his
+father. To the nobility were granted the old privileges, with others
+in addition, which became menacing to the ancient freedom of the
+peasantry. The management of internal affairs and all branches of
+the administration were placed under various departments. They were
+presided over by the high functionaries and their offices chiefly
+filled by noblemen. A permanent supreme court was established in
+Stockholm, with the Drotsete as president, in 1614. In 1623, a supreme
+court for Finland was established and a governor-general for that
+grandduchy appointed, who was also to be president of the court.
+In 1630, a supreme court for the Baltic provinces was established
+at Dorpat. The Riksdag, governed by the new rules of 1617, was to
+convene yearly, and to consist of the four Estates of the kingdom: the
+nobility, clergy, bourgeoisie and yeomanry, each divided into various
+classes. These latter were as yet not quite distinct or organized,
+except those of the nobility, who, in 1625, formed a knightly chapter,
+the Riddarhus, which kept a register of the legitimate noble families
+of Sweden and Finland and watched over the interests of its members.
+The Estate of the nobility was divided in three classes, lords,
+knights and squires. To the first belonged the holders of counties
+and baronies, to the second those whose ancestors held the rank of
+state councillors, and to the third the rest of the nobility. As each
+class had one vote in the Riksdag, the supremacy of lords and knights,
+called the "higher nobility," was secure, when standing united, over
+the more numerous third class, the "lower nobility." The king appointed
+the speaker of the nobility, the _landtmarskalk_, who also was the
+president of their chapter. The Swedish church had its greatest
+epoch during the period of political grandeur, being characterized
+by a remarkable strength of faith and by a praiseworthy energy and
+earnestness. The clergy, high and low, set beautiful examples of
+piety, learning and patriotism. It was beloved by the people and spoke
+in their behalf with authority and courage. Not able to win Gustavus
+Adolphus over to more democratic views, it won his admiration, and he
+surnamed the ministers "tribunes of the people." The burghers, touched
+by the patriotic spirit, developed great energy during this period,
+trade and commerce having a devoted patron in the king, who, besides
+the new Gothenburg, founded twelve other towns in Sweden and Finland.
+The miners occupied of old an uncertain position between burghers and
+yeomen. They were strengthened and encouraged by the personal interest
+which the king took in the mining industry. He visited the mines
+repeatedly, descending into the bowels of the earth to inspect the ore
+and the new methods introduced from abroad by foreign miners. Among the
+latter the immigrated Dutchman, Louis de Geer, exerted a beneficial
+influence upon that industry. The factories producing clothing and
+weapons for the army were also encouraged. The yeomen occupied a
+difficult, almost desperate position between the increasing privileges
+of the nobility and the increasing taxes of the crown. Their burdens
+were doubled and their rights reduced; yet sustained by the church, and
+believing in the lofty ideals of the king, they persevered, fulfilling
+their duties with a high degree of patriotism.
+
+No Swedish king has done so much for education as Gustavus Adolphus.
+To the University of Upsala he donated 300 of his hereditary estates,
+founding its library, improving its courses, banishing misrule, and
+appointing his old teacher, John Skytte, its chancellor. He created the
+German University of Dorpat in Esthonia, in 1632; later for some time
+moved to Pernau. Colleges were established in the larger towns. The
+king was, through his thorough studies of Swedish laws and conditions,
+in a position to take an active part in the reforms which he
+promulgated, never resting long in one place, but travelling from one
+point to another, where his presence was most necessary; shaping plans
+and reforms by his own judgment, to have them indorsed by the next
+Riksdag, and then enforcing them himself. Especially the army passed
+through an evolution, thanks to new methods, devised by the king, who
+was to win his victories through the introduction of improved tactics
+and divisions, by means of which the troops were easier to move and the
+co-operation between the various weapons increased.
+
+In 1618 the "Thirty Years' War" began. The dethroned Frederic of the
+Palatinate turned, among others, to Gustavus Adolphus for support,
+which the latter was not able to give in a direct way. But he promised
+to attack Poland as soon as the armistice was at an end, thereby making
+it impossible for Sigismund to support Emperor Ferdinand with troops.
+In 1621, Gustavus Adolphus commenced operations against Poland, taking
+the command himself. Riga and Mitau were captured, the former important
+commercial centre regaining its privileges, but sending representatives
+to the Swedish Riksdag and accepting a Swedish governor. After having
+conquered Livonia, Gustavus Adolphus entered Courland the following
+year, when an armistice was agreed to. Gustavus followed the events
+in Germany with increasing interest, forming the plan of an alliance
+between the Protestant powers. Learning that the emperor was willing
+to support Sigismund, Gustavus Adolphus offered to invade Silesia.
+But as Christian IV. of Denmark was anxious to lead the Protestant
+forces, Gustavus Adolphus quietly withdrew, resuming action against
+Poland. After a victory at Wallhof, he entered Polish Prussia, where
+he was dangerously wounded at Dirschau. The Poles were reinforced by
+imperial troops, but suffered a defeat at Gurzo; the Swedish general,
+Herman Wrangel, winning the day. When the considerable reinforcements
+of 10,000 men joined the Poles, the Swedes receded in good order. A
+smaller conflict occurred at Stuhm, famous because Gustavus Adolphus
+was twice in danger of his life during the struggle, which otherwise
+was of no importance. An imperial trooper caught him by the belt and
+tried to drag the king with him. According to the report of Axel
+Oxenstierna, the king loosened the belt and let it go. In so doing, he
+also lost his hat, which was carried to Vienna and preserved as a token
+of the "great victory." Another trooper, shortly afterward, caught the
+king by the arm, aiming at the head with his sword. In the critical
+moment, Eric Soop, the colonel of a Swedish cavalry regiment, appeared,
+killing the trooper with a pistol-shot. Gustavus Adolphus referred to
+this struggle as the "hottest bath" that he was ever in.
+
+In September, 1629, an armistice was agreed to, at Altmark, to
+last for six years, during which period Sweden was to keep Livonia
+and the Russian towns of Elbing, Braunsberg, Pillau and Memel. The
+new acquisition of territory was small, but the revenue from these
+commercial towns, and from Dantzic, Libau and Windau, was considerable,
+and went to pay for the army expenses of the German campaign. The
+new temporary possessions in Prussia were formed into a Swedish
+governmental section, over which Axel Oxenstierna was appointed
+governor-general.
+
+What follows belongs to one of the most noted chapters of universal
+history. The unbroken chain of Swedish victories, the noble character
+of the king and the severe discipline upheld among his men, who
+commenced and ended their battles with prayers and hymns, astounded
+the world. The exalted nobility of Gustavus Adolphus appears to us
+all the more striking, contrasted with the faithlessness, vanity and
+cowardice of the contemporary reigning princes of Germany and Denmark.
+His victories appear all the more remarkable because the greatest
+warriors of the age--Tilly, Wallenstein and Pappenheim--were his
+adversaries. He was received by the people of Germany as a liberator,
+and his memory is blessed by every thinking German, who admits that
+the Swedes, Gustavus Adolphus and Axel Oxenstierna, completed the work
+which the Germans, Luther and Melanchthon, created. The loftiness of
+the ideals which inspired Gustavus Adolphus have been doubted, but
+not with justice. He was brought up in a severely Christian home and
+the sincerity of his piety is unmistakable. His father's clairvoyant
+views upon the coming religious conflict were familiar to him since his
+early youth, while he was, through his mother, related in blood to the
+majority of Protestant princes. Thus apparently predestined, as the
+greatest statesman and warrior of his age, to take up the cause of his
+persecuted brethren, he did not do so before the ambitious Christian
+IV. had utterly failed in his attempts and with contumely been forced
+to retire. It is not probable that Gustavus Adolphus ever thought of
+placing the crown of the Roman empire upon his head, but plausible to
+suppose that he had in view the formation of a strong union of the
+Protestant countries of Northern Europe.
+
+Before leaving Sweden, Gustavus II. convoked the representatives of
+his people, holding on his arm his little daughter Christine, four
+years old, for whom he asked their pledge of allegiance. His farewell
+speech was touching in its simplicity and the premonition of his tragic
+end. Not for worldly glory, but to save his country from peril and his
+brethren from distress, he undertook this risky war. "Generally," he
+said, "it happens thus that the vessel hauls water until it goes to
+pieces. With me likewise, that I, who in so many perils for the weal
+of my country have shed my blood, and yet until this day have been
+spared through the grace of God, now at last must lose my life. For
+that reason I will this time commend you, the collected Estates of the
+realm, to the hand of God, the Supreme One, wishing that we, after this
+our miserable and burdensome life, according to the will of God, may
+meet again, to dwell in the celestial and infinite." These words do not
+resemble the terse, striking speeches of his grandfather, but they bear
+the stamp of sincerity, and by them Gustavus Adolphus, his work and his
+purpose, are judged by the Swedish people.
+
+Midsummer Day, 1630, Gustavus Adolphus landed with his troops at the
+island of Ruden, on the coast of Pomerania. Two days later he proceeded
+to the larger island of Usedom. His troops consisted of 13,000 men.
+Gustavus Adolphus was himself the first to land. He knelt on the shore
+and prayed to God in a loud voice; his prayer moved those surrounding
+him to tears. When the king noticed it he said: "Do not cry, but pray
+to God with fervor. The more of prayer, the more of victory; the best
+Christian is the best soldier." Then he took hold of a spade and
+commenced to assist personally in the work of building a camp. When
+it grew dark, the heavens were illuminated by the fire of burning
+villages, giving evidence of the manner in which the enemy conducted
+his warfare.
+
+The supercilious Wallenstein had been dismissed by the emperor at the
+time when Gustavus Adolphus landed in Germany, but his wild hordes were
+pillaging Pomerania. Yet Gustavus Adolphus had great difficulty in
+persuading the old duke of Pomerania to accept the alliance he offered
+him. But when this was done, it took the Swedes only a short time to
+clear the duchy of its enemies. The young landgrave of Hesse and the
+free city of Magdeburg were glad to accept an alliance with Gustavus
+Adolphus. A treaty was made with France, which country promised to pay
+subsidies to Sweden as long as the German war lasted. Tilly, who was in
+command of the imperial troops, approached Magdeburg. Gustavus Adolphus
+sent proper provisions to Magdeburg with an experienced commander, as
+he could not go himself, because the elector of Saxony refused to let
+him pass with his army through Saxon territory. Magdeburg was captured
+by Tilly, who sacked and destroyed it by fire in a most barbarous way.
+
+The discipline and moderation of the Swedish troops formed a great
+contrast to the reckless behavior of the imperial army. The Swedes
+left the peaceful inhabitants in undisturbed possession of their lives
+and property; the strictest order was maintained within the army; each
+regiment held morning and evening prayers in the open air; gambling,
+carousing and plundering were sternly prohibited. For these reasons the
+Swedish king and his army were received by the poor downtrodden people
+as saviors and liberators. Gustavus Adolphus deeply mourned the fall of
+Magdeburg, whose fate it had not been in his power to prevent. He took
+a fortified position at Werben, where the river Havel is joined by the
+Ube. Tilly entered Saxony with a hostile demeanor, not satisfied with
+the lukewarm friendship of the elector. Burning villages marked the way
+of his army. The poor elector, not knowing what to do, in his despair
+turned to Gustavus Adolphus, whom he had treated so coldly and begged
+him for help. The king at once was ready to forget past differences,
+and, joining forces with the elector, he marched toward Leipsic.
+
+Tilly, with 35,000 men, occupied an advantageous position near the
+village of Breitenfeld, not far from Leipsic, at the summit of a long
+ridge of sandy hills. The infantry and the greater part of the cavalry
+were grouped in heavy divisions, forming one single line of battle with
+artillery behind at the very top of the hills. Tilly himself commanded
+the centre, while his able and fiery sub-commander, Pappenheim, had the
+command of the left wing, being in hopes to encounter the Swedish king
+personally. The Swedish army consisted of 22,000 men, who were joined
+by 11,000 Saxons.
+
+Early in the morning of September 7, 1631, the Swedes started toward
+Breitenfeld. Tilly turned pale, it is said, when he saw the order and
+firmness with which the Swedes marched up to take their positions on
+the narrow slips of ground between the Lober brook and the reach of the
+imperial cannon. The Swedes were arranged in a double line of battle,
+infantry in the centre and cavalry on the wings. Between the squadrons
+of cavalry divisions of musketeers were placed. The regimental
+artillery was distributed over a number of places. The king commanded
+the right wing in person, with John Baner as sub-commander. Teuffel led
+the centre and Gustavus Horn the left wing. The king had no confidence
+in the Saxons, for which reason he had arranged them by themselves at
+some distance to the left of the Swedish army. When everything was
+arranged, the king rode to the front. With his head uncovered, and
+his sword pointing to the ground, he prayed: "Almighty God, thou who
+holdest victory and defeat in the hollow of thy hand, turn thine eyes
+unto us, thy servants, who have come hither from distant dwellings to
+fight for liberty and truth, for thy holy Gospel. Give victory unto
+us for the glory of thy hallowed name! Amen!" The prayer of the king
+could be heard by almost every man of the army, and all were touched
+and strengthened by his pious trust in a righteous cause. The Swedes of
+the right wing were soon attacked by Pappenheim and his cavalry. But
+the horses of the imperialists were frightened by the flashing fire of
+the musketeers, and the attack failed to have an effect. It was ended
+as quickly as it was begun. Pappenheim concluded to make an attempt
+to surprise the Swedes from the left side. But the king divined his
+plan. He ordered John Baner with the second line to make a movement by
+which to turn at an angle with the first and face the attack from the
+side. Pappenheim was surprised to find a new line facing him. A bloody
+struggle ensued. Seven times his men made an inroad on the Swedish
+line and were seven times repulsed, badly damaged by the fire of the
+musketeers. The Swedes, in their turn, made an attack which scattered
+Pappenheim's forces from the field in wild flight.
+
+Tilly had with his light cavalry attacked the left wing of the Swedes.
+His men were mostly made up of Croats and other semi-barbarous people.
+When repulsed by the Swedes they concentrated their forces to crush
+the Saxons. These withstood the first assault, but the second routed
+them completely. The imperialists then made a second attack upon the
+left Swedish wing, made up of only 2,500 men. Gustavus Horn acted
+with coolness and great presence of mind. He let the first line close
+in on the second till it was able to take a firm stand against the
+heavy force of the attacking enemy. The Swedes never for a moment lost
+their position, in spite of the frightful onslaught. The king arrived
+and remained for some time with the left wing. He ordered the Scotch
+brigade of hired troops to support him. The Scotch had cannon hidden
+behind their lines. These had a telling effect upon the attacking
+imperialists, who were thrown back, suffering great losses. Everywhere
+the battle was fought with frenzy, the clouds of dust and smoke
+changing the day into night.
+
+The king made sure that the left wing of the enemy's army was engaged
+in continued flight. Then he commenced an attack with his own right
+wing upon the imperial artillery, which had kept up a steady fire
+against the Swedish centre. Tilly's cannon were captured at the first
+attempt and turned on the imperial troops, causing consternation.
+Horn opened an attack on his side and the king hastened to support
+him with his troops. Tilly tried in vain to lead his troops into the
+battle. Pappenheim had returned and gave brilliant proofs of personal
+courage. The defeat of the imperial army was unavoidable; it scattered
+in helpless confusion. Tilly lost his horse and was near being captured
+himself. Four of his best infantry regiments took a stand and tried
+to resist the conquering foe. These imperial soldiers, who never had
+suffered a defeat, preferred death to surrender. Tilly fled at last,
+followed by only 600 men. After five hours of fighting the Swedes had
+won a glorious victory. They finished the day with prayer and remained
+on the battlefield over night, arranged in order of battle. The
+following morning they entered the deserted camp of the enemy where a
+rich booty awaited them.
+
+The progress of Gustavus Adolphus along the shores of the river Main to
+the towns of Frankfort and Mayence was a march of triumph. In capturing
+Mayence, the Swedes fought the Spanish allies of the emperor. The towns
+surrendered to violence or by their own consent. Gustavus Adolphus made
+their inhabitants pledge their fidelity to him and strengthened his
+power with the rich resources of the Frankish country. Then he turned
+against Maximilian of Bavaria. Tilly, who was to defend Bavaria, was
+again encountered and defeated at Lech. He was carried from the battle
+mortally wounded and died soon afterward. Gustavus Adolphus made his
+triumphal entry into Munich, with Frederic of the Palatinate at his
+side. The danger to the crown lands of the emperor was imminent.
+
+Wallenstein was the most famous of German generals. Reticent and
+secretive, he appeared to be unable to feel mercy. He was devoted to
+the secret doctrines of astrology, which in him had taken the place
+of religion. He cared naught for the cause of religious liberty or
+the fall of the German empire, looking only for occasions to satisfy
+his own ambition and the means of obtaining power and wealth. He had
+served the emperor, who had raised him to the dignity of a duke of
+Mecklenburg, but had been dismissed and deprived of his dignities
+at the time of the arrival of Gustavus Adolphus on German soil. His
+downfall was caused by complaints of his insolence and recklessness,
+made by Maximilian of Bavaria and other German princes. Wallenstein
+retired to Prague, at the castle of which town he surrounded himself
+with princely luxury and comfort, scheming for revenge. His plan was
+to join the enemies of the emperor. He approached Gustavus Adolphus
+for such purpose, before the battle of Breitenfeld, and was delighted
+to hear of the defeat of Tilly. Gustavus Adolphus seemed at first
+inclined to take up relations with Wallenstein, but at the point where
+an agreement was to be made he suddenly changed his attitude. The
+king probably hesitated to accept the services of a man who had no
+other aim than to satisfy his own ambition. The emperor was placed
+in a bad predicament, at the second defeat of Tilly, for want of an
+army to defend his lands and a commander to lead it. There was only
+one way out of the difficulty, and that was to pacify the mortally
+offended Wallenstein, and to persuade him to re-enter the service of
+the emperor. The emperor resigned himself to accept this humiliating
+condition, and Wallenstein agreed to resume command, but only at a
+high price. The name of Wallenstein was enough to bring thousands
+of warriors under the imperial banners, and Wallenstein was soon at
+the head of an army of sufficient proportions. His doctrine was that
+"the war should support itself," according to which his soldiers were
+allowed to sack and plunder at will the countries through which they
+were passing. He cared naught for the recklessness of his subordinates,
+if they only showed blind obedience to him.
+
+Wallenstein expelled the Saxons who had invaded Bohemia. But he showed
+disinclination to assist the elector of Bavaria, who was compelled to
+leave his country. At Eger, Wallenstein was reinforced and marched on
+Nuremberg with an army of 60,000, prepared to meet Gustavus Adolphus.
+He was confident of his superior force. "Within four days," he said,
+"it shall become evident whether I or the Swedish king is the master of
+Germany." Gustavus Adolphus hastened to relieve Nuremberg, taking his
+position in the immediate neighborhood of said town. He had only 18,000
+men with him, but he surrounded this army with solid fortifications,
+and Wallenstein dared not risk an attack, in spite of his superior
+force. Wallenstein took his position at the summit of three steep
+hills, surrounded by trenches and ramparts. His intention was to
+cut off the Swedes from all sources of supplies and force them to
+surrender by starvation. "I shall teach the Swedish king," he said, "a
+new method of warfare."
+
+For nine weeks the two armies were facing each other. The suffering
+became great in both camps. The Swedes suffered most, although the
+inhabitants of Nuremberg tried their utmost to supply them with food.
+When the provisions were diminishing, the bonds of discipline were
+loosened. Especially the Germans of the Swedish army made themselves
+conspicuous by licentiousness and plunder. Gustavus Adolphus decided
+to try an attack on Wallenstein's camp, in order to put an end to the
+critical state of things. He was so much more anxious to risk it, as
+his army had been considerably reinforced and was almost equal to
+Wallenstein's in numbers. At noon, August 24, 1632, the Swedish army
+made ready for battle. The attack was first made on Burgstall, the most
+important one of the three hills occupied by the enemy. The battle was
+a fierce and bloody one, the whole mountain being clothed in fire and
+smoke. Several of the most distinguished of the Swedish officers were
+killed or captured. A bullet passed through the boot of the king; an
+officer was killed at his side. The Swedes were thrown back on one
+hand, while on the other, Duke Bernhard of Weimar, one of the German
+commanders of the king, succeeded in capturing one of the forts built
+on the Burgstall. But as the day was over and the army exhausted,
+the Swedes were not able to profit by their success. A heavy rain
+commenced, continuing through the night. This made it impossible to
+haul any cannon up to the captured fort, which was then abandoned. The
+Swedish army returned to the camp. This unsuccessful attack cost the
+Swedes almost 2,000 men. Gustavus Adolphus wrote in regard to it: "It
+was too much to be considered a page's trick, but too small to be of
+real earnest." Wallenstein wrote of it. "Never in my life have I seen a
+more desperate fire, but I hope that the Swedes have lost their horns
+in this conflict."
+
+The king broke camp a fortnight later, arranging his army into a line
+of battle. For four hours he waited for Wallenstein to come forward,
+but the latter did not risk an attack. Gustavus Adolphus intended
+to enter Swabia, to complete the conquest of Southwestern Germany.
+But Wallenstein, who soon afterward also broke camp, invaded Saxony.
+This caused the king to change his plans. He was obliged to follow
+Wallenstein in order to protect his ally and to avoid the danger of
+being cut off from the connections with his own empire. Wallenstein
+marked his way by cruel devastation, and the appeals of the unhappy
+population persuaded the king to take an early decision.
+
+The people of Saxony received Gustavus Adolphus with great enthusiasm,
+of which they gave evidence in the most exultant manner. People were
+seen kneeling everywhere on his way, imploringly stretching their hands
+toward him. The king was not content with their exaggerated devotion.
+"I fear that God is offended by their vain demonstrations of joy and
+soon shall show them that the one whom they adore as a god is naught
+but a weak and mortal man."
+
+Wallenstein was in the neighborhood of Leipsic, at the little town of
+Lutzen. He had sent away Pappenheim, his best sub-commander, to Halle
+with a considerable force. Gustavus Adolphus found this circumstance
+favorable and decided on an attack.
+
+It was the 6th of November, 1632. A heavy mist covered the spacious
+fields around Leipsic. Wallenstein was, with the right wing of his
+army, close on Lutzen, the little town being set on fire, in order not
+to shield a clandestine attack. The flame of the conflagration appeared
+dull but magnified through the mists of the early morning. In front of
+the imperial army was the highway. Musketeers were stationed in and
+above the ditches, which were made deeper and provided with ramparts.
+The musketeers were so arranged that higher lines could shoot over the
+heads of the lower ones. Behind them was another chain of musketeers.
+The artillery was placed partly behind the musketeers, partly on the
+sides of a hill where some windmills were situated. The cavalry was
+placed on the wings, the infantry in the centre, both arranged in great
+square divisions. A courier had been sent to recall Pappenheim, as the
+army without his force counted only 18,000 men. The Swedish army was
+20,000 strong and was arranged according to a plan similar to the one
+followed at Breitenfeld. It was arranged in two lines. Musketeers were
+interspersed among the cavalry. The regimental artillery was placed
+before the front. The king commanded the right wing, Nils Brahe the
+centre, Kniephausen the second line of the centre, and Duke Bernhard
+the left wing.
+
+The king, who for the time being had none of his best officers around
+him, spent the night in a wagon, together with Duke Bernhard and
+Kniephausen. He rose in the morning, dressed, without armor, in a
+blouse and a gray coat, and mounted his usual white charger, without
+having tasted food. He conducted in person the morning prayers of the
+army, when Luther's psalm, "Eine feste Burg ist unser Gott," was sung.
+After the song had ceased, the king made a short speech in Swedish,
+which he repeated in German. He said: "There you have the enemy. He is
+not now at the top of the hill or behind intrenchments, but in the
+open field. You know well how eagerly he has sought to avoid a conflict
+and that he is forced to fight because he cannot escape us. Fight,
+then, my dear countrymen and friends, for God, your country and your
+king. I will reward you all. But if you flinch, you know well that not
+a man of you will ever see his country again." Then the psalm, "Versage
+nicht du Haeuflein klein," the words of which were written in German by
+Gustavus Adolphus himself, was sung. The king gave the sign of attack
+by waving his sword over his head and cried: "Forward in God's name;
+Jesu, Jesu, Jesu, help us to-day to strive to the honor of thy holy
+name!"
+
+It was eleven o'clock, and the mists had, to a great extent, scattered.
+The Swedish centre, with the battery behind, marched toward the
+highway. The left wing made an attempt to penetrate between the burning
+Lutzen and the batteries below the windmills. A terrible fire from
+muskets and cannon met the attacking Swedes. Whole lines of infantry
+were killed. The left wing suffered in particular. But when the Swedes
+reached their destination, the centre moved on with great force,
+cleaning the ditches of musketeers, capturing seven pieces of artillery
+and making two of the great squares of imperial infantry retire from
+their position. While fighting the third, the Swedes were surprised by
+the reserve and cavalry forces of the enemy, and had to abandon what
+they had taken, retiring into the open field.
+
+The king had, in the meantime, with the cavalry of the right wing,
+forced the ditches. When notified of the danger in which the centre
+was placed, he hurried to assist his infantry. At the head of his
+Smaland cavalry he moved on so quickly that he was separated from the
+rest of his forces. The king was near-sighted and the mist once more
+thickening. For these reasons he happened to ride close up to the
+lines of the imperial cuirassiers. His horse was wounded, and the king
+himself received a pistol shot in the arm. He turned to one of his
+companions, Duke Frantz Albrecht, of Sachsen-Lauenburg, with a request
+to be escorted out of the battle, but was at that instant wounded in
+the back, immediately falling off his horse. Duke Frantz Albrecht, only
+thinking of saving his own life, fled from the spot. But a German page,
+eighteen years of age, who accompanied the king, jumped from his horse
+and tried to assist the king in mounting it. Some imperial cavalrymen
+passed by. They inquired for the name of the wounded lord. The page
+tried to hide his identity, but Gustavus Adolphus answered: "I was once
+the king of Sweden." One of the imperialists attempted to drag the king
+with him, but seeing some Swedish soldiers approaching, he sent in
+leaving a bullet through the wounded hero's brain.
+
+The Swedes had been thrown back from the highway all over the line.
+The white horse of the king, with empty saddle and stained with blood,
+was seen galloping before the front. The message of mourning spread
+with lightning rapidity through the army, causing universal sorrow
+and anger. The ambition to avenge the death of the beloved king was
+kindled in every breast. Duke Bernhard at once assumed supreme command
+when notified of the catastrophe. The sagacious Kniephausen thought
+the battle lost and considered it best to retire in good order. The
+duke answered: "Here is not the question of retreat, but of revenge in
+victory or death." The Swedish line of battle soon moved forward once
+more and with redoubled strength. The right wing, commanded by the
+valiant Stolhandske, threw back the imperial troops who had caused
+the fall of the king. Nils Brahe once more carried the troops of the
+centre across the highway and captured for a second time the seven
+pieces of artillery. The left wing, commanded by Duke Bernhard, also
+moved forward victoriously, capturing the batteries at the windmill
+and pointing the cannon toward the enemy. When simultaneously some
+wagons loaded with powder for the imperial artillery exploded with a
+tremendous roar, the whole army of Wallenstein was thrown into a state
+of confusion. It was thought that the Swedes had made an attack from
+the rear. The cavalry fled in great numbers with the cries: "We know
+the king of Sweden! He is worst toward the end of the day."
+
+But now another cry was heard: "Pappenheim is coming! Pappenheim is
+coming!" And so it was. Pappenheim arrived with his valiant cavalry at
+this important juncture. "Where is the king of Sweden to be found?"
+was his first question. When told that Gustavus Adolphus had been
+seen leading the right wing, he hurried thither, not knowing the fate
+that had befallen his royal enemy, and desirous of fighting him face
+to face. The imperialists recommenced the battle with renewed vigor.
+The scattered forces of cavalry and infantry were collected once more
+and were joined by the fresh troops of Pappenheim. The attacking
+Swedes met a stanch resistance. The latter were almost tired out, but
+preserved their courage. A contemporary writer says that a battle was
+never fought in a better way by troops who had for such a long stretch
+been in the fire. The Swedish losses were exceedingly heavy. The royal
+standard and several other banners were taken. The able Nils Brahe was
+killed, and the division of which he was the head fell to the very last
+man. But Pappenheim, who rushed forward blindly, in his eagerness to
+meet the king of Sweden, was also killed, according to tradition, by a
+bullet from Stolhandske. "Pappenheim has fallen! All is lost!" shouted
+his men, and drew back discouraged. Wallenstein still thought there was
+a chance to hold the field against the exhausted enemy.
+
+Kniephausen had preserved the second line of battle in good order,
+resolved to cover the retreat he thought unavoidable. He had sent
+away smaller divisions to support the first line, but not in numbers
+enough to disturb the order of his own troops. Now he commanded his
+men to the front, to fill all the gaps of the first lines. When this
+was done, the Swedes made a third attack. The evening sun pierced
+through the mists for a moment, and Wallenstein in this light saw the
+Swedish army approach in a mighty solid line as at the opening of the
+battle. He was greatly surprised. This time the Swedes were resolved
+to conquer or die. Soldiers were heard to promise each other to stand
+by that resolution. For a third time the Swedes passed the highway and
+recaptured, after a bloody struggle, the disputed cannon. The wings of
+Wallenstein's army were both in a state of dissolution. But his centre
+preserved two divisions which offered a stubborn resistance until
+sunset, when they were ordered to retreat. The Swedes had won the day,
+but were too tired to pursue the enemy. Following their custom, they
+rested over the night on the battlefield they had bought by their blood.
+
+The loss of troops had been heavy on either side, amounting to about
+6,000 men altogether, or about one-third of the whole number of men
+engaged in the battle. The excitement was so great on both sides that
+no prisoners were made. The corpse of Gustavus Adolphus, bruised and
+mangled, was found during the night under a heap of dead soldiers. A
+large monumental stone, with inscription, now marks the spot where the
+hero king lost his life. The Gustavus Adolphus Society of Germany is a
+living monument to his memory.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+_Period of Political Grandeur--Queen Christine_
+
+
+Christine was six years old when she succeeded her father. Her armies
+stood scattered through foreign lands, surrounded by enemies and
+faithless allies. Her country was covered with glory, but in direst
+distress. The most remarkable aspect of her father's greatness now was
+to become apparent. Gustavus Adolphus had left behind men whom he had
+educated as statesmen, and generals capable of bringing his work to a
+successful end. First among the former was the state chancellor, _Axel
+Oxenstierna_, the friend and adviser of the hero king. He managed to
+keep the Swedish allies together and to establish harmony and unity of
+action between the Swedish commanders, supplying funds to carry on the
+war and strengthening the government at home with his courage and his
+wisdom. Oxenstierna was a statesman of considerable power before the
+death of the king; after it he grows in grandeur to carry the burden
+of unlimited responsibility placed on his shoulders. His coolness and
+dignity were a source of constant irritation to Richelieu, who said
+there was "something Gothic and a good deal of Finnish" about his
+proceedings in diplomatic affairs, while Mazarin said that if all the
+statesmen of his time were to be put aboard of one vessel, Oxenstierna
+should be placed at the helm. The great chancellor always upheld the
+dignity of his country. When French diplomatists forgot themselves thus
+far as to use, in correspondence, their own language, instead of Latin,
+the recognized language of diplomacy in that day, Axel Oxenstierna gave
+instructions that they should be answered in Swedish.
+
+After the death of Gustavus Adolphus, the war in Germany lost more
+and more of its original aspect. The cause of Protestantism was
+dropped out of sight for political interests. The battles of Sweden
+were, to a great extent, and sometimes altogether, fought by foreign
+troops; but Swedish were the generals and statesmen who led the
+operations of the armies and the diplomatic deliberations. The success
+of Sweden, at first, seemed to have passed away with her great hero
+king. The imperialists won a great victory at Noerdlingen in 1634.
+The young archduke, Ferdinand, had succeeded Wallenstein as their
+commander-general, the latter having been murdered at the request of
+the emperor. Ferdinand marched on the town of Noerdlingen with an army
+of German and Spanish troops, the experienced Piccolomini being at
+his side. Duke Bernhard, who with an army had been taking possession
+of Franconia in his own personal interests, hastened to support
+the town and was joined by Gustavus Horn, who, with another army,
+had been stationed in Elsass. Count Horn gave the advice to await
+reinforcements, but the excitable Duke Bernhard opened an attack on
+the enemy, which necessitated an immediate battle. After eight hours
+of hard fighting, the imperialists, who were 30,000 strong, entirely
+routed the Swedish army of 18,000 men, not a single Swedish regiment
+being among them. Horn was made a prisoner. Duke Bernhard, who soon
+afterward with his troops entered French service, acknowledged his
+fault, saying: "I was a fool, but Horn a wise man." Sweden lost through
+this terrible defeat an army and two able generals. The Swedish
+conquests in South Germany were lost, and the German allies were
+scattered, the elector of Saxony joining the cause of the emperor. The
+armistice with Poland came to an end in 1635, and it was renewed for
+twenty-six years, at the cost of the Prussian seaports, with their
+lucrative revenues, which had paid for the expenses of the German war.
+Oxenstierna returned to Sweden to gather means wherewith to continue
+the war. The ordinary resources of Sweden were drained, and great
+sacrifices were needed. The Riksdag declared itself willing to "risk
+life, blood and means, until God grants a peace equal to the dignity of
+Sweden."
+
+John Baner was the man who re-established the success of the Swedish
+arms. He resembled Gustavus Adolphus in greatness of mind and ability
+in war, paying back the execution of his father under Charles IX.,
+by loyalty to the illustrious son of the latter. Baner was a typical
+soldier of the Thirty Years' War, amiable, but licentious, and cruel
+to his enemies. An able tactician and strategist of inexhaustible
+resources, he had distinguished himself in the Polish war and later
+held many important commands. The death of Gustavus Adolphus stirred
+this strong man to the very depths of his soul. He left his army in
+Bavaria and arrived at Wolgast, resolved to leave the army. At the
+sight of the body of his beloved king, he was overcome by a paroxysm of
+grief. Axel Oxenstierna persuaded him to resume his command in order to
+bring the work of their dead master to completion. He marched with his
+army through Silesia to Bohemia, encamping before Prague. After the
+battle of Noerdlingen he retreated to Saxony, whose deceitful elector
+he reproached with harsh words. Intrigues by the latter to bring the
+German troops in Swedish service to mutiny were frustrated by Baner,
+who had only 2,000 Swedes and Livonians with him. The Saxon army
+followed Baner into Mecklenburg, but suffered a defeat at Doemitz. Baner
+marched eastward and joined the Swedish force, which met him, from
+Prussia, commanded by Lennart Torstensson. The elector of Brandenburg
+also declared war on Sweden, Baner answering by invading his country.
+From the vicinity of Berlin, Baner continued his way through Saxony
+back to Mecklenburg, his German troops marauding with such cruelty that
+they were sharply remonstrated with by Baner, who said he found it
+strange that God did not instantly punish them.
+
+Baner was followed by the united armies of Austria and Saxony, but,
+having received reinforcements of Swedish troops, he turned on his
+tracks and met the enemy at Wittstock, in Brandenburg, September 24,
+1636. The Swedish army consisted of 20,000 men, while the opposing
+force was much larger and occupied a favorable position on a hill.
+Baner won a glorious victory, thanks to a skilfully executed manoeuvre.
+It grew dark, and the right wing of the Swedes was leading an almost
+forlorn hope against the overwhelming forces, when their left wing,
+after a difficult roundabout move, attacked the enemy from behind. Of
+the hostile armies every man was killed except a detachment less than
+1,000 strong. The baggage, artillery and banners were taken, even the
+table silver of the elector and the imperial generals falling into the
+hands of the Swedes, who by this victory had regained their supremacy
+on German soil.
+
+Baner had commenced the siege of Leipsic, when, upon news of an
+approaching army of the imperial allies, he was forced to undertake the
+famous "Retreat from Torgau," which made him more celebrated than any
+of his great battles. He with his army was near being surrounded at
+the river Oder, but saved himself through a series of movements of the
+highest strategic skill. Cardinal Richelieu wrote that "this retreat,
+by means of which Baner saved 14,000 men, less a few fugitives and
+wounded, with cannon and baggage, against an army 60,000 strong, is to
+be compared to the most glorious deeds in history." The enemy prided
+itself on having "caught Baner in a bag." "Yes," said Baner later,
+"surely they had me there, but they forgot to tie the string around."
+
+In Pomerania, Baner received the reinforcements from Sweden which
+he had awaited, and once more invaded Saxony, where he won a grand
+victory at Chemnitz, in 1639. The Swedish army invaded Bohemia, cruelly
+devastating the country. Baner made a daring attack upon Regensburg
+in order to make the emperor and the whole German diet his prisoners.
+Sudden thaws frustrated the plans, making it impossible for the Swedes
+to cross the Danube. A superior force was sent to meet Baner, who saved
+his army by another famous retreat back to Saxony. On the way Baner
+was attacked by a fever and died at Halberstadt, in 1641. When the
+imperialists learned of the death of the Swedish Leonidas, they thought
+they could easily defeat his army. The Swedes saw the approaching enemy
+and collected around the coffin of their dead hero, offering solemn
+pledges to fight for the glory of his name. They then made a sudden
+attack upon the imperial army, which suffered a thorough defeat at
+Wolfenbuttel. John Baner, triumphant in death like his great master,
+was buried in the Swedish Pantheon of the Riddarholm.
+
+Baner had expressed the wish that Lennart Torstensson should succeed
+him as commander-general of the Swedish armies. Lennart Torstensson was
+a greater warrior even than John Baner; no Swedish general, Gustavus
+Adolphus not excepted, ever reaching higher skill or perfection in the
+science of war than this crippled hero. Torstensson was of a noble
+although not influential family. He entered the service of Gustavus
+Adolphus as a body page to the king, later distinguishing himself as an
+artillery commander. Torstensson took an honorable part in the battle
+of Breitenfeld, but made a prisoner at Nuremberg, he lost his health,
+during one year's captivity, in a miserable dungeon. During his later
+brilliant career he suffered greatly from rheumatism, and was mostly
+carried around in a litter throughout the battles which covered his
+name with undying fame. He was a pious man of a gentle and cheerful
+disposition, who tried his utmost to reintroduce among his troops the
+excellent moral behavior and severe discipline which had been lost
+after the death of Gustavus Adolphus.
+
+Torstensson with rigor suppressed the intrigues against Sweden which
+were secretly carried on within the army. Brandenburg received a new
+elector in Frederic William, who, ambitious and far-seeing, entered an
+alliance with the victorious power of the North. Torstensson now was
+enabled to invade the imperial crown lands, commencing with Silesia;
+but finding it necessary to force a battle he met the imperialists
+at Breitenfeld. October 23, 1642, the second great victory of
+Breitenfeld was won by Swedish arms. Archduke Leopold and Piccolomini
+led the imperial army, the latter general fighting as a common
+soldier to inspire courage by his example, but with no effect. The
+Swedes captured the baggage, cannon and banners of the enemy, taking
+5,000 prisoners and leaving as many dead imperialists on the field.
+Torstensson conquered Leipsic on the following day.
+
+Torstensson marched through Bohemia and Moravia with the rapidity which
+characterized all his military movements, and penetrated to the very
+gates of Vienna, the emperor with difficulty saving himself from being
+made his prisoner. But suddenly he left and marched through Silesia
+to North Germany. He had received an order from the state council to
+attack Denmark. The great chancellor was out of patience with the
+perfidy and intrigues of Christian IV., who stood in secret connection
+with every one of Sweden's enemies. No previous declaration of war was
+made. Torstensson captured the Danish duchies of Schleswig and Holstein
+before any one could prevent it, his army then taking possession of all
+Jutland. Gustavus Horn invaded Scania, almost completely capturing the
+whole province in spite of bands of freebooters among the peasants,
+called _Snaphaner_.
+
+Denmark was in danger of its very existence, but King Christian IV.
+did not forget his old wish to destroy the town of Gothenburg, whose
+growing prosperity caused him envy. He approached Gothenburg with
+a fleet, and viewed the town from the overlooking mountain of the
+Ramberg. His demands for a surrender were refused. Patriotic Louis de
+Geer had ordered from Holland a fleet at his own expense, which was
+to go to the support of Gothenburg. It did not arrive in time, but
+King Christian left to meet it, and it later proved of great value in
+the Swedish movements at sea, joining the Swedish fleet in the Sound.
+The latter, consisting of twenty-two ships under the command of Clas
+Fleming, sailed to the Danish waters, capturing the island of Femern,
+supported by Torstensson. An invasion of the island of Funen was
+planned, but could not be effected. A great naval battle between the
+Swedish and Danish fleets was fought July 6th. It caused great loss on
+either side, without being decisive. King Christian, who commanded his
+naval forces, lost one eye and received over twenty different wounds.
+The Swedes kept the place of battle, but sought the Bay of Skiel for
+repairs, where they were hedged in by the Danish fleet. Clas Fleming
+encouraged his followers to cut through the line, in which they were
+successful. A month later he was killed by a shot from the coast of
+Holstein, where the Danes had erected a fort. The Swedes avenged the
+death of their valiant commander by destroying the fort and killing
+its defenders. Fleming was succeeded by Charles Gustavus Wrangel, who
+saved the fleet to Sweden, returning to Femern in the autumn, joined
+by the Dutch fleet of Louis de Geer. The Danish fleet was met with
+October 13th, and at once scattered. The swift-sailing Dutch ships went
+in pursuit and destroyed all the seventeen Danish ships but two, which
+brought the news of the disaster to Copenhagen.
+
+King Christian, who had in vain expected support from the emperor,
+found himself defeated on every point, and had no other choice than
+to make peace. The treaty was signed August 13, 1645, at Broemsebro,
+Denmark ceding the provinces of Jemtland and Herjedal and the islands
+of Gothland and OEsel. The province of Halland was to remain for thirty
+years in the possession of Sweden, which country was exempt from duties
+of toll for the traffic in the Sound. Denmark disavowed all claims of
+supremacy over Holstein, the duke of said country two years later
+formally placing himself under Swedish protection.
+
+Lennart Torstensson had fulfilled his task in Denmark and returned
+to Germany. At Jueterbogk, in Brandenburg, he met the imperial army,
+which had been sent to cut off his retreat from Denmark, and entirely
+routed it. After this victory Torstensson hastened to Bohemia, resolved
+to "attack the emperor in his heart and force him to make peace." At
+Jankowitz, in Bohemia, Torstensson administered a new and crushing
+defeat to the imperialists, in 1645. The emperor, who himself had
+ordered his army to battle, had arrived in Prague to witness the defeat
+of the Swedes, which the Holy Virgin had promised him in a dream. He
+soon learned the news, which was quite different from that expected.
+The imperial commander-general, five generals and eight colonels were
+made prisoners by the Swedes, who captured the artillery and baggage of
+the enemy. The health of Torstensson was at that moment so good that he
+was able to lead the movements on horseback. He said that such a bloody
+battle would not be seen for a long time.
+
+Torstensson invaded Moravia, the fortresses surrendering and the
+inhabitants fleeing in terror. For a second time he stood at the walls
+of Vienna. The very fortifications which protected the bridge across
+the Danube were captured by the Swedes. The enemy, whom the elector
+of Saxony had promised to chase out of Germany, was now knocking at
+the gate of the emperor, who heard the report with consternation. But
+Lennart Torstensson was forced to surrender to a perfidious enemy, who
+came to his door without knocking. His rheumatic ailment returned with
+such violence that he was obliged to renounce his command and return
+from the fields where he had led none but victorious armies. He was
+succeeded by Charles Gustavus Wrangel. The latter had to give up the
+siege of Vienna, but maintained, in connection with the French, the
+supremacy in Germany until an honorable peace was won. Upon his return
+to Sweden, Lennart Torstensson was covered with distinctions, being
+made a baron and a count on one and the same day. He was appointed
+governor-general of West Gothland, Vermland, and the lately conquered
+Halland, with his seat at Gothenburg, where he built himself a palace
+(still the official residence of the governor of Gothenburg and
+Bohuslaen). Lennart Torstensson died in 1651, leaving behind the fame of
+one of the greatest warriors known to history, and a spotless memory.
+
+The treaty of peace of Westphalia was signed in October, 1648. The
+representatives of Sweden were John Oxenstierna, a son of the great
+chancellor, and Adler Salvius. Sweden received, as a reward for her
+decisive and glorious part in the Thirty Years' War, the following
+possessions: West Pomerania, with the islands of Rugen and Usedom;
+the western part of East Pomerania, with the island of Wollin; the
+town of Wismar, with surrounding territory, and the bishoprics of
+Bremen and Verden. With these German possessions followed three votes
+at the German Diet. The Swedish government was to receive a sum of
+several millions to defray the army expenses, of which Queen Christine
+recklessly ceded the larger part.
+
+Through these glorious conditions of peace Sweden rose to the rank
+of one of the mightiest of European empires, which held the balance
+of power in Northern Europe. Her possessions made the Baltic almost
+an "inland lake of Sweden," and efforts soon followed to make it
+completely so. Sweden exerted a beneficent influence throughout her
+large possessions, which, from a cultural point of view, hardly can
+be overestimated. Her methods of planting the seeds of culture, by
+establishing Swedish and German universities, and by abolishing serfdom
+in the conquered lands, are worthy of the highest respect. But with
+her new political grandeur Sweden acquired formidable enemies; she had
+not the resources to sustain or defend her great possessions, and the
+development of the mother country was for a time misdirected by dreams
+of vain glory.
+
+The government of Sweden during Christine's minority, according to the
+directions left by her father, consisted of the five highest officials
+of the realm. Among these the chancellor, through his experience and
+his former intimacy with Gustavus Adolphus, was the leading spirit,
+king in all except the name, and deserving the honorable surname of
+"our greatest civilian," given him by Swedish historians. Unlike the
+majority of other uncrowned or crowned rulers, he did not use his power
+to secure wealth or distinction for himself and his family until upon
+his retirement. Offers to make him a ruling prince of Germany, and the
+young queen his son's consort, were coldly refused. While the war was
+going on he strengthened the foundations of the centralization of the
+state by the government regulations of 1634. At the side of the supreme
+court of Stockholm another was established at Joenkoeping, for Gothaland,
+with a state councillor as president. The system of various government
+departments was enlarged upon.[2] The most important of these was the
+chancery, in which all business to come before the government was
+prepared. Departments for commerce and for mining were established.
+Sweden was divided into eleven administrative districts, _laen_,
+later increased to sixteen, each of these having a governor. Finland
+was divided into five districts. Count Peter Brahe the Younger, as
+governor-general of Finland, did more for this neglected country than
+was ever done before to right wrongs and foster prosperity. Livonia and
+Ingermanland received each their governor-general, the latter province,
+by repeated wars brought into a devastated condition, serving as a
+place of deportation. This system of administration won the admiration
+of the Continent and was in many instances copied as a pattern of
+perfection. The Swedish army was considered the finest in the world,
+and troops better trained or more victorious did not exist. At the end
+of the Thirty Years' War about 100,000 men were under Swedish command.
+The majority of these were foreigners, who afterward were enlisted
+for continual service. Their officers were raised in great numbers to
+the rank of nobles and endowed with dignities and estates. The army
+was divided into twenty regiments, seven of which were Finnish. The
+town and coast population regularly furnished able men for the navy.
+Much was done to improve the interior communications by means of new
+roads and canals. A postal route was established between Stockholm and
+Gothenburg, and others followed. A Swedish postmaster in Hamburg had
+charge of the foreign mails. Newspapers were published, the government
+shaping for itself an organ for official announcement which is yet
+published.
+
+Great improvements were made in the mining industry, thanks principally
+to the efforts of the noble immigrant, Louis de Geer and his Walloons,
+who made the mines of Dannemora a source of riches. Weapons and cannon
+were manufactured not only for the army, but for exportation also. The
+brass foundries were excellent. The towns began to flourish, especially
+Stockholm and Gothenburg, through commerce with Holland and the Baltic
+States. A Swedish colony, planned by Gustavus Adolphus through the
+South Company, created by him in Gothenburg, was founded in North
+America. In 1638 two ships, "Kalmar Nyckel" and "Fogel Grip," arrived
+at the mouth of the Delaware River, where territory was procured
+through honest purchase from the Indians. The Dutch in neighboring
+colonies tried to persuade the Indians to oust the newcomers, but the
+Swedish governor, Peter Menuet, won their goodwill by fair dealing. The
+members of the colony of New Sweden were honest, upright people, who
+dwelt in peace with the natives. They accepted a governor appointed
+by the government, in the person of John Printz, but refused to
+tolerate among themselves criminals who later were despatched to their
+colony, and these had to be taken back. New Sweden after a few decades
+became the prey of the Dutch, but many American families point with
+justifiable pride to their descent from these honest and industrious
+Swedish settlers. A Swedish colony on the coast of African Guinea
+existed between 1650 and 1663, but was through treacherous dealings
+turned over to the Dutch.
+
+Much was done to build up the educational system, several new
+colleges were established, and regulations made to instruct the
+peasants. Peter Brahe founded the University of Abo, in 1640, while
+in Finland, and the German University of Greifswald, in Swedish
+Pomerania, was re-established. Swedish men of learning began to
+attract attention, such as John Skytte, who was considered the most
+brilliant Latin scholar of Europe in his day, Stiernhoek, the jurist,
+Bureus and Messenius, the historians, and Georg Stiernhielm, poet and
+antiquarian. The old Icelandic literature was discovered and began to
+exert a strong influence on literature and science, to a great extent
+strengthening their chauvinistic spirit. The Swedish poets Stiernhielm,
+Runius, Holmstroem, Lucidor and the poetess Brenner, from the Eddic
+songs, which contain some of the oldest humorous poems in existence,
+learned how to write in a humorous vein, something entirely unknown in
+the German and French literatures of that day.
+
+The excellent government, of which Axel Oxenstierna was the leading
+spirit, had its defects. In its perfect system of administration, which
+in the main features stands unshaken to this day, there appeared to be
+no room for the people themselves to be governed. On account of the
+great allowances made to the nobles it was necessary to increase the
+taxes of the peasants. Many had to leave their homes and farms for
+want of resources to pay their taxes; others were forced away from
+their property by the nobles. There was danger of the destruction of
+the free, self-dependent yeomanry. A hatred against the nobility grew
+up. The great lords returned from the wars laden with booty, erected
+fine castles, and continued the high living to which they had become
+accustomed while abroad. The power of the nobility was increased by
+lavish donations from Queen Christine and by the appropriation of
+other crown lands which the government was forced to sell or mortgage
+on account of the wars. The clergy were the spokesmen of the peasant
+class at the Riksdag, every year demanding with greater emphasis a
+restitution to the crown of its property, which was held by the nobles.
+
+Queen Christine herself took the reins of government, in 1644, at the
+age of eighteen. She had inherited from her illustrious father some
+of his genius, and from her mother, Marie Eleonore of Brandenburg, a
+peculiar nervous disposition. Her mother took no interest in her until
+the death of Gustavus Adolphus, when a flood of exalted tenderness
+suddenly was let loose over her. Count Jacob de la Gardie took the
+lead in opposing the undesirable and unstable character of this
+relation, Christine being separated from her mother and educated by
+the Countess-Palatine Catherine, a pious and noble woman, the older
+sister of Gustavus Adolphus. Greatly offended, Marie Eleonore left the
+country never to return. Queen Christine showed a remarkable faculty
+of absorbing knowledge. Well versed in a great number of languages,
+and well read in various sciences, particularly mathematics, she soon
+acquired fame as the most learned woman of her time. She was of frank
+countenance, slept little, cared little for dress, and was passionately
+fond of hunting and riding on horseback. Queen Christine possessed
+a sharp intellect, was daring and resolute, but headstrong, fickle,
+extravagant, and but little particular in her choice of favorites. Her
+vanity and egotism knew no bounds. At the beginning of her reign she
+took pains to give serious attention to the affairs of state. The great
+chancellor had been her instructor in economics and statecraft, but
+she repaid him by open coldness and secret antagonism. Her ambition to
+surround herself with scientists of note, particularly foreigners who
+flattered her vanity by blowing her fame to the four corners of the
+earth, killed her interest for politics. Later she was seized by the
+evil spirit of frivolity, abandoning herself to empty pleasures and to
+excesses of extravagance when her learned admirers were forgotten for
+unworthy favorites. Among the latter, Count Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie
+was for a long time all-powerful. The grandson of General Pontus and
+a daughter of John III., he was the son of Count Jacob de la Gardie
+and Ebba Brahe, and one of the most brilliant noblemen of Europe. In
+his youth he formed an intimate friendship with the dauphin of France,
+later Louis XIV., who throughout his life honored him with the title
+of "Mon Cousin," or "Mon cher Cousin." His ambition to become Queen
+Christine's consort was never satisfied, nor was he allowed to accept
+the rank of a prince from the German emperor, but the queen made him
+the richest man in her realm. Magnus de la Gardie did not possess the
+sterling qualities of his ancestors, but was of great patriotism and
+lavishly liberal toward educational institutions, in this respect
+without a peer in Swedish history. In 1666 he founded the Academy of
+Antiquities, which was the first archaeological institution in Europe,
+the Swedish antiquarians of the day, principal among them Bureus and
+Stiernhielm, doing valuable antiquarian research. In 1664, Count de la
+Gardie donated to the University Library of Upsala a highly valuable
+collection of manuscripts and books, chiefly from Iceland. In the
+collection was also the Gothic Bible translation of Bishop Wulfila
+in the only copy extant. Liberal with his silver, Count de la Gardie
+gave to the precious book a silver binding, as he had in earlier years
+presented to Queen Christine a silver throne (which is still in use).
+This book has an interesting history of its own.
+
+Codex Argenteus, the silver book, thus called on account of its
+silver binding, contains fragments of the four Gospels in the Gothic
+language. The translation was made from the Greek original by Bishop
+Wulfila (b. 318-d. 388), the apostle of the Goths. The writing is done
+in so-called encaustum (printing with heated stamps) of gold and
+silver letters on vellum of scarlet color. This copy is considered to
+have been made toward the end of the fifth or in the beginning of the
+sixth century, when the East Goths still held sway in Italy. Its early
+fortunes are unknown, but it is supposed that the book was found in
+the possession of the Visigoths (or West Goths) when their empire was
+seized by the Franks, and donated to the monastery of Verden by some
+munificent Frankish chief. Here, in the Benedictine abbey of Verden,
+on the river Ruhr, in Westphalia, the book was discovered at least as
+early as 1554, when the scholars Cassander and Gualther of Cologne are
+known to have had copies which can have been made from no other source.
+
+After the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War, the Codex was transmitted
+to Prague for safety. In the year of 1648, Prague, or rather the older
+portion of the town, was captured by the Swedish general, Count Hans
+Christopher Koenigsmark, who, among the vast treasures of the Bohemian
+capital, found also the Codex Argenteus which he presented to Queen
+Christine. All the books and manuscripts of the queen were in the care
+of her librarian, Isaac Vossius, a learned but eccentric scholar of
+Dutch parentage. Vossius was at first Queen Christine's teacher of
+Greek, not a very agreeable position, for the queen called him to the
+castle at three o'clock in the morning for her first hour. In 1650 he
+had to leave court and country on account of a quarrel with that light
+of learning, Claude de Saumaise (Salmasius), another one of the foreign
+scholars in favor with the queen. In 1653 he was called back, and again
+took charge of the books of the queen, but soon returned to Holland.
+Before his departure he gathered several costly books and manuscripts,
+among which Codex Argenteus, with or without the queen's private
+permission, taking them with him. In 1670, Vossius came to England,
+where he died, in 1688, as court chaplain at Windsor. King Charles II.
+of England said of him: "Vossius believes in anything but the Bible."
+
+When in Holland, the Codex Argenteus passed out of the hands of Vossius
+after his uncle Franziskus Junius had made a complete copy of it.
+Junius, called the "grandfather of modern philology," published the
+first edition of Codex Argenteus at Dortrecht, in 1665, providing the
+beautiful fac-simile with parallel Old English texts and a Gothic
+glossary. In Holland the Codex changed hands repeatedly until found
+in Brabant by Samuel Pufendorff, in 1661, who, in the following year,
+bought it for Count de la Gardie, paying a sum of something like $1,200
+for it.
+
+Once more in Sweden the Codex Argenteus was made the subject of close
+attention, a new edition of it being published, in 1671, by Georg
+Stiernhielm, the innovator of Swedish language and literature.[3]
+That Bishop Wulfila's Bible should ultimately harbor in Sweden does
+not seem out of place, for of all languages now spoken the Swedish
+comes closest to the language of the Goths as crystallized during its
+classical epoch. The interest taken by Swedish scholars in the book has
+always been great and fruitful of results, in times when it was thought
+to be written in the mother tongue of all the Teutonic languages, as
+well as later, when Gothic was found to be, not the mother, but the
+oldest sister in the family.
+
+At the Riksdag of 1649 considerable dissatisfaction was directed
+against the nobility and the extravagance of the queen in deeding over
+to favorites all the possessions of the crown, in form of counties and
+baronies. The nobility sided against the queen, desirous of reducing
+her power. But Queen Christine received gracefully the complaints
+made, and promised to institute a reduction of taxes and payments. In
+the following year the commotion increased when the same taxes were
+asked as in time of war. The queen continued her policy of earnestly
+considering the requests of the lower Estates, thus gaining the
+controlling power. The nobility, suffering strife between its various
+classes, was forced to seek a shelter in the royal power it desired
+to crush, and humiliated itself before the queen. Christine received
+a joint appeal from the lower Estates for a restitution to the crown
+of all property illegally turned over to the nobility, but she managed
+to have the reform postponed upon promise of some minor privileges and
+a reduction of taxes. She refused the appeals of the nobility to have
+the clergymen and others punished who had used hard language against
+the aristocrats. But the discontent was spreading and turned against
+the queen personally. The ministers preached against the wrongs and
+violence of the mighty ones; the nobles and the peasants threatened
+each other. Peasants in Finland refused to work for aristocratic
+masters, and a general rebellion seemed imminent. In the meantime
+Queen Christine was crowned at Upsala amid great display and elaborate
+festivities, the count-palatine Charles Gustavus, her cousin, being
+installed as heir-apparent to the throne.
+
+But Queen Christine was not able to still the storm around her. The
+finances of the crown were utterly ruined by her extravagance, and
+she dared not take by violence from the nobility what she had given
+by grace. In 1651 she declared it to be her intention to leave the
+government, but was persuaded to remain. Her cousin was placed in a
+very difficult position, apparently taking no interest in what was
+going on, but following everything with the keenest attention. The
+son of John Casimir, count of Palatinate-Zweibrucken, and Princess
+Catherine, he was born at Nykoeping in Sweden, in 1622, and designated
+as the future consort of Queen Christine. Charles Gustavus was
+educated in simplicity and rigor, and was, as his father before him,
+utterly neglected by Axel Oxenstierna and the government. He slept in
+a room without wallpaper, and when through with his lessons he sawed
+wood with his teacher, Professor Lenaeus. Burning with ambition, and
+perhaps also in love with his brilliant cousin, he proposed to her
+repeatedly, but in vain. After several years of extensive travel he
+joined Lennart Torstensson, refusing a command and working himself up
+through the military degrees. He took an honorable part in the victory
+at Jankowitz, and was appointed supreme commander of the Swedish armies
+shortly before the close of the German war. When the opposition against
+Christine reached its climax a good deal was expected from Charles
+Gustavus, which he, on account of his singular position, could not
+undertake to do. A petition replete with abusive language about the
+queen was sent him, asking him to take hold of the government. Charles
+turned the document over to the queen. Its author, the promising young
+Arnold Messenius, and his father, an able historian, suspected as
+having inspired his son, were accused of high treason, condemned to
+death and executed.
+
+This act of force produced an impression, and the new taxes demanded
+at the next Riksdag were granted without opposition. But the queen
+felt that the discontent was only subdued, not suppressed, and, having
+no further means to keep up a luxurious court, she did the wisest act
+of her reign, that of resigning, at Upsala, in June, 1654, Charles
+Gustavus being crowned the same day. The scene of her abdication was
+very impressive, Queen Christine carrying herself with noble and lofty
+dignity, an inheritance from her father which she made use of when she
+saw fit. Leaving the crown and the royal emblems, one by one, to the
+Riksdrotset, she descended the throne, from the lowest steps of which
+she spoke an eloquent and touching farewell to the four Estates of the
+Riksdag. She suddenly left the country after having secured for herself
+a princely income. At Innsbruck, the daughter of Gustavus Adolphus
+joined the Catholic church, thereby, and by her fame as a learned
+woman, creating a sensation. She died in Rome in 1689, after having
+made two unsuccessful attempts to regain her Swedish throne, and one
+equally unsuccessful to succeed the last king of the Polish line of the
+Vasa dynasty, and was buried in the church of St. Peter.
+
+Among the many learned men who at one time surrounded Christine were
+Vossius, Heinsius, Salmasius, Huet, Freinshemius, Loccenius, Meibom,
+Boeclerus, Ravius, Schefferus, and others. The greatest of them all, the
+philosopher Cartesius (Rene Descartes), died in Stockholm, in 1650.
+
+After the love-story of Gustavus Adolphus had come to an end, he long
+felt a disinclination to marry. His sister Catherine is said to have
+tried to rouse him to the necessity of choosing a consort. His answer
+was always: "Never mind, dear sister, you shall yourself bring up a
+son to inherit the crown and continue my work." This son of Catherine
+became Queen Christine's successor.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+_Period of Political Grandeur--Charles X. and Charles XI._
+
+
+Charles X. was one of the most ambitious men ever placed upon a
+throne, and Europe was soon to realize that a new war-lord was come.
+His ambition, so long unsatisfied and secreted, burst forth with
+uncontrollable strength, in compass only to be equalled by his rare
+gifts of mind and heart. Charles Gustavus had suffered a good deal of
+neglect, coldness and hatred, but when ascending the throne he seemed
+to have forgotten all this. Oxenstierna died a few months after the
+abdication of Queen Christine, deeply impressed by the magnanimity
+and genius of the new sovereign. Charles Gustavus was one of the most
+highly gifted of Swedish monarchs. He had a great deal of interest in
+and rare discernment for the requirements of a peaceful development.
+But reared in the most warlike of times, when a reputation could
+be made only by winning so and so many "victorias" for the firm
+establishment of a hero's "gloire," Charles Gustavus thought that only
+the monarch favored by "Fama" would have the prestige to lead firmly
+the fate of his people. He often expressed the wish to rest from his
+campaigns in order to contemplate his work and make it beneficial to
+his people, but such a rest he never gave himself time to enjoy during
+his short and remarkable reign.
+
+Charles burned with desire to gain fame in war, taking for pretext
+that the king of Poland, by his repeated claims to the Swedish throne,
+made peace treacherous and impossible. But such was the condition of
+affairs that something must be done to quiet the malcontent people,
+restore peace between the quarrelling classes, and reimburse the empty
+state treasury. At a Riksdag in Stockholm, in 1655, a restitution was
+proposed by the king and agreed to, according to which all estates
+which in earlier times had been rendering dues to the direct support
+of the court, army, fleet, or administration, should be confiscated to
+the crown; also one-fourth of the estates given away since the death of
+Gustavus Adolphus, and all estates fraudulently obtained. A committee
+to enforce the restitution was appointed, to be presided over by the
+able Herman Fleming. The restitution, far from radical in itself, was
+not completely carried through, thanks to the opposing nobles. But it
+proved effective for the moment, the king securing the goodwill of the
+people, temporary quiet and means to carry on the proposed war, to
+commence which Charles Gustavus received the somewhat reluctant consent
+of the faithful people whose financial state was a most despairing
+one. Charles X. thought in new conquests to find means to better their
+condition. Shortly after his coronation he married Hedvig Eleonore of
+Holstein-Gottorp.
+
+John II. Casimir of Poland, the younger son of Sigismund, like
+Vladislav, styled himself king of Sweden and had claims to Livonia.
+For this he should be punished. It was not the original intention of
+Charles X. to make himself king of Poland, but he was probably the
+first who ever devised a division of that unhappy country. The success
+of Charles X. was without a parallel. The strong fortresses were
+captured, the armies surrendered and registered in Swedish service.
+After two months Charles X. entered the old capital of Cracow, John
+Casimir fled from his country, and, carried away by the frenzy of
+success, Charles Gustavus had himself crowned king of Poland. West
+Prussia was captured, and the elector of Brandenburg, who held East
+Prussia in fief, and the duke of Courland were forced to become the
+vassals of Sweden, in 1656.
+
+But Charles X. had roused an enemy that few invaders, however great,
+have been able to successfully encounter, the spirit of patriotism.
+The Poles, enticed to revolt by the Catholic clergy, found a leader in
+the noble Czarniecki, who commenced a war of liberation on the Swedish
+usurper. King John Casimir returned, and armies were gathered. Charles
+Gustavus was yet to do wonders of strategy, which aroused the amazement
+and fear of all Europe, but he was glad, when finding a good excuse,
+to extract himself from the affairs of Poland. In 1656 he defeated
+Czarniecki at Golumbo, undertook the adventurous crossing of the river
+of San, and captured, and recaptured, the capital of Warsaw. The "three
+days' battle of Warsaw" (18th-20th of July, 1656) is one of the most
+famous in modern warfare, by which the reputation of Charles X., as one
+of the greatest warriors of his time, was firmly established. Charles
+X. had joined forces with the "great elector" of Brandenburg, who up to
+the last moment was unwilling to risk a battle of 22,000 men against
+an enemy twice as strong. Charles Gustavus was unyielding and turned
+it into a great victory. But his position became precarious, Russia,
+Germany, Holland and Denmark being hostile, joined by Brandenburg,
+the ambitious "great elector" not being satisfied with the Swedish
+supremacy in East Prussia. To save himself from the dilemma with
+untarnished glory, Charles X. decided to fight Denmark, which country
+had declared war without suspecting the possibility of an attack.
+
+Lennart Torstensson, his master of strategy, had shown Charles X. how
+Denmark was to be attacked. With an army of only 8,000, but consisting
+of the choicest and most victorious troops in all Europe, Charles X.
+hastened in rapid marches through Pomerania and Mecklenburg, recaptured
+Bremen, and invaded through friendly Holstein all of Schleswig and
+Jutland, defeating the larger but inexperienced Danish army and
+capturing the strong fortress of Fredericia.
+
+Yet the new position was as precarious as the one in Poland, and
+Charles had to use all the skill of his diplomacy to save his little
+army from an assault by inimical Europe. France and England seemed
+unwilling to render him effective help. But when the elector of
+Brandenburg, who had taken upon himself the leadership of Sweden's
+enemies, turned to the emperor, emphasizing the necessity of crushing
+the Swedish power in one blow, he received the following surprising
+answer: "The king of Hungary has no reason to be the enemy of the king
+of Sweden." Charles had reached a secret understanding with Austria. By
+this move he gained time. Through what seemed almost a miracle, he was
+not only to save his army but lead it on to victory after a strategic
+deed, in originality and daring unique in the history of the world.
+
+The year of 1658 commenced with severe frosts. Charles X. conceived the
+daring plan of attacking the Danish isles by leading his army over the
+frozen sounds. He concluded to cross the sound of Lille Belt, opposite
+the islet of Brandsoe. His quartermaster-general, Eric Dahlberg, an
+engineer of great genius, ascertained that the ice was safe. One frosty
+winter morning, the 30th of January, the Swedish army, reinforced to
+9,000 men, marched down on the ice, safely reaching Brandsoe at sunrise.
+A Danish army, arranged in order of battle in the island of Funen,
+was defeated. While crossing over to Funen, the ice cracked under two
+squadrons of cavalry, those who followed not daring to proceed. The
+king himself hurried past the dangerous place, pointing out a safe
+course, and the troops followed him.
+
+The most dangerous part remained to cross, the much wider sound of
+Store Belt, in order to reach Seeland. Charles first thought of taking
+the direct route of two miles, but commissioned Dahlberg to explore
+the condition of the ice across to the smaller islands to the south.
+Dahlberg did so, and said he would wager his head for its perfectly
+safe condition. In enthusiasm, Charles clapped his hands exclaiming:
+"Now, brother Frederic, we will converse in good Swedish!" In the
+night between the 5th and 6th of February, the Swedish army marched
+from Svendborg in Funen over the ice to Langeland. "It was terrible,"
+wrote an eye-witness, "to march through the night over this frozen sea,
+where the horses' hoofs had thawed down the snow on the ice, which
+was below two feet of water, and where we, in every moment, were in
+fear of striking the open sea." At dawn the army landed in Langeland.
+During the rest for breakfast, frozen beer was chopped and distributed
+in pieces to the soldiers. The march continued over the still wider
+sound to Laaland, Eric Dahlberg in front, directing the march. Reaching
+Grimsted in Laaland at three o'clock in the afternoon, and proceeding
+to Nakskov, Charles Gustavus was met, at midnight, by the burgomaster
+and council of said town, who surrendered its keys. The 9th of
+February, the army stood in Falster, and a few days later was collected
+at the captured castle of Vordingborg in Seeland. Peace was hastily
+offered and agreed to on the 17th, and the treaty of peace signed
+the 28th of February, 1658, at Roeskilde. The conditions were severe,
+Denmark ceding the provinces of Scania, Halland, Bleking and Bohuslaen,
+the whole district or diocese of Drontheim in Norway, and the island
+of Bornholm, and agreeing to hold the Baltic closed to hostile fleets
+with the help of Sweden. The last clause was a piece of a Scandinavian
+policy devised by the Swedish king.
+
+Charles X. now prepared to meet Brandenburg and Austria, once more
+siding against Sweden. It was necessary to keep Holland out from
+the Baltic, and when Charles X. found Denmark unwilling to keep the
+conditions of the recent treaty on that point, the war-lord became
+wrathful, dooming obnoxious Denmark to lose her very existence. But the
+spirit of patriotism, which so often had saved Sweden in instances of
+extreme danger, now sided with Denmark, as it had already sided with
+Poland. King Frederic declared he would die like a bird in its own
+nest, and roused the patriotism of the population of Copenhagen, which,
+badly defended, was hurriedly fortified at the news of an intended
+attack. Contrary to the advice of Eric Dahlberg, Charles X. made no
+instantaneous attack, but commenced a siege, although he did not bring
+with him the necessary means. The castle of Kronborg by Elsinore
+was captured and its cannon used against Copenhagen. The greatest
+enthusiasm prevailed in the Danish capital; the king slept in a tent by
+the fortifications, and especially the students and Norwegian sailors
+distinguished themselves by their valor and patriotism. Charles X.
+found it impossible to take Copenhagen and retired to some distance
+from the capital. What caused Charles to retire was the arrival of a
+Dutch fleet. It had been met by the Swedish fleet, under command of
+Charles Gustavus Wrangel, the hero of Fredericia and Kronborg. After
+six hours of hard fighting the Dutch forced the entrance to the Sound.
+Before leaving, the Swedish king resolved to make a desperate effort
+to capture Copenhagen, defended by 13,000 troops and by a patriotic
+population, with his 8,000 Swedes. The attack was made in the night
+of February 11, 1659, but the city, forewarned by traitors, tendered
+the Swedes a warm reception, consisting of artillery fire, stones, and
+scalding hot water. The Swedes lost 600 men and suffered their first
+and only defeat under the command of Charles X.
+
+The situation was grave. The Swedish army in Jutland was forced to
+retire; the troops of 5,000 men in Funen were defeated and made
+prisoners; a revolt took place in Bornholm, and the Danes recaptured
+the district of Drontheim. The powers united in their efforts to force
+Sweden and Denmark to a treaty of peace on the basis of the Roeskilde
+stipulations. Charles still held his head high, declaring that he
+would crush the fleets of the allies if they tried to interfere in
+the affairs of the North, striking a sharply discordant note in the
+concert of the powers. To Denmark he was willing to cede the district
+of Drontheim, but prepared to occupy that of Akkershus instead, when he
+was taken ill at the convening Riksdag at Gothenburg, dying February
+11, 1660, in the palace erected by his friend Lennart Torstensson.
+
+Charles X. Gustavus was one of the most remarkable men of his day,
+whose wonderful deeds of bravery and genius caused amazement through
+their brilliancy, and anxiety through their recklessness. At the first
+glance his appearance gave no idea of the real man. He was short,
+and of an unusually square and clumsy build, with a head of coarse
+proportions. But there was the fire of genius in his sharp blue eyes;
+under the black hair, and below the thin black mustache, there was a
+mouth of firm and resolute lines. In the versatility of his endowment,
+he stands as one of the first among Swedish kings, the rich gifts of
+the Vasas and the Wittelsbachs being united in him. As a warrior he was
+great, yet more of a tactician than a strategist. As a statesman his
+views were almost as clairvoyant as those of his grandfather, Charles
+IX., but he gave way to the impressions and impulses of the moment. He
+failed to make the Baltic a Swedish inland lake, but gained for his
+country the inestimable gift of a natural frontier to the east and
+south, by the acquisition of Bohuslaen, Halland, Scania and Bleking,
+provinces more valuable to Sweden than a whole empire south of the
+Baltic.
+
+_Charles XI._ was a child of four years at the death of his father;
+his country at war with a world, and in a sorely afflicted condition.
+In the will of Charles X., the queen-dowager, Hedvig Eleonore, was
+named to preside over the government, with two votes, and the brother
+of Charles X., the duke Adolphus John, was to take a seat with her as
+Riksmarsk. This arrangement displeased the nobility, understanding that
+it was directed against their influence, and they had the duke excluded
+from the government. The lower Estates of the Riksdag sided with the
+duke, but soon gave up his cause as they found that he was utterly
+vain, quick-tempered, and without stability or genius. Lars Kagg, a
+good warrior, was appointed Riksmarsk in his place. Herman Fleming,
+the able state treasurer, was removed as disagreeable to the nobility,
+his ill-health being taken as an excuse, and was succeeded by Gustavus
+Bonde. Peter Brahe remained Riksdrotset, Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie
+state chancellor, and Charles Gustavus Wrangel state admiral. Kagg died
+in 1661 and was succeeded by Wrangel, Gustavus Otto Stenbock becoming
+state admiral.
+
+The first duty of the new government was to make peace for the bleeding
+country. This was effected in 1660 through the treaties of Oliva and
+Copenhagen, and in a most satisfactory manner, speaking high for the
+diplomatic ability of the governing ones, but also of the ignorance of
+the powers of the utter helplessness of Sweden, in great contrast to
+her outward political grandeur. Poland ceded Livonia to Sweden, and
+Denmark all the territory gained by Charles X., except the district of
+Drontheim and the island of Bornholm, while Russia was satisfied with
+the boundaries set by Gustavus Adolphus.
+
+The government, with care and consideration, made the necessary
+arrangements to have the new provinces intimately connected with the
+country. Representatives were sent to the Riksdag of 1664, and the
+University of Lund, in Scania, was founded in 1668. If to this is added
+that a good deal was done to encourage art and science, principally
+through Count Magnus de la Gardie, who was the Maecenas of Sweden, the
+meritorious deeds of the government during Charles XI.'s minority are
+enumerated. The less that is said of it in addition, and of its leading
+men, the better for these. They were men of some patriotism, but,
+through their exceedingly aristocratic views and lack of stability,
+unable to further the interests of their country, so badly in need
+of reform. There was not one of them who possessed the abilities of
+a statesman. They lived like princes in their counties, each holding
+court and possessing various considerable castles, all the members
+of the higher aristocracy upholding the same standard of luxury and
+power, appointing clergymen and judges, founding towns, and discussing
+the necessity of having mints and coins of their own. Magnus de la
+Gardie, count of Leckoe, and married to a sister of Charles X., was
+the greatest of these lords. Close to him came Peter Brahe, count of
+Visingsborg, and Charles Gustavus Wrangel, count of Skokloster. The
+barons approached the counts in their display of wealth. The lower
+nobility, whose members often served at the courts of the great lords,
+were not satisfied with this state of affairs. But in the contempt and
+oppression in which they held the lower classes, they agreed with the
+higher nobility, who made no secret of their intention to reduce the
+peasants to slaves. The peasantry, suffering and neglected, became the
+prey of a superstition which was shared by the more educated members of
+society, accusations and legal executions of witches becoming numerous.
+
+The government was not agreed between themselves upon many questions
+and turned to the state council for support. The old privileged class
+of councillors forced their influence upon the government, and the
+position between the two became quite intimate, at the same time
+difficult to define. The state council was as divided in its opinions
+as the government, which fact had a disastrous influence upon state
+politics and administration. Great negligence was shown in the various
+departments, the records of receipts and expenditures being imperfect,
+and a constant lack of funds existing. Forgery and thefts were
+committed by high and low officials. Administrative orders were not
+obeyed. The army and the navy suffered utter neglect.
+
+During such a state of affairs the abominable practice of receiving
+"subsidies" came into use. The government received, now from one
+foreign power, now from another, a large sum of money to back its
+respective interests with the military forces or the diplomatic
+influence of Sweden. This practice, ignoble in itself, injured the
+dignity of the state and had a demoralizing influence. Thanks to it,
+Sweden sided sometimes against, but mostly with, France, her old ally,
+who, in Count de la Gardie, had an enthusiastic friend. In 1662,
+Sweden schemed with France for the election of a French prince as king
+of Poland; in 1667, she formed, with England and Holland, a triple
+alliance against France. Louis XIV. soon won back the friendship of the
+government of Sweden, thus having this country as his only ally when
+reaching the climax of his success. At last the Swedish promises to
+send an army against the elector of Brandenburg were fulfilled. It was
+under the command of the old and invalid Count Wrangel, and suffered
+defeats at Ratenau and Fehrbellin, in 1675. These were of little
+importance, or extension, in themselves, but they injured the prestige
+of Sweden, so long supremely victorious on German soil, and caused
+her enemies to combine their efforts in order to regain their lost
+possessions.
+
+Charles XI. was declared of age at seventeen, in 1672, when he himself
+took charge of the government, yet for a few years standing under
+the influence of Count de la Gardie. King Charles was, as a child,
+physically weak, and the astrologers had prophesied that he would
+die an infant. For this reason the queen-dowager, a very ordinary
+woman, gave all her attention to have her son develop a strong and
+sound constitution. The child was given its own way in everything,
+casting aside books and rules for his individual pleasures. King
+Charles grew up an ignorant self-willed and headstrong youth, who
+delighted in hunting and reckless riding on horseback. His companions,
+manners and language were not of the choicest order, and he remained
+all his life shy and awkward in demeanor. From his thirteenth year he
+was made acquainted with the routine of state affairs, but he lacked
+the qualifications to grasp them in detail. He surrounded himself
+with members of the lower nobility, but was well at ease only among
+ministers, burghers and peasants. Charles XI. was all his life of an
+unrestrained temper and an indomitable will, coming to the throne the
+most ignorant king Sweden had had for centuries. But he was pious,
+sincere and just, and his morals pure and severe. Through the hardest
+of lessons, Charles XI. was to develop his great uncultivated gifts,
+to become the liberator of his people and one of its most remarkable
+rulers.
+
+Sweden had to encounter many enemies after the battle of Fehrbellin,
+and a chain of disasters followed, nearly crushing the young king under
+their weight. Holland, Austria, Brandenburg and Denmark attacked the
+Swedish possessions, which were all captured, one after the other.
+Charles was not able to send reinforcements, the navy being in a
+miserable condition, and when rejuvenated, through strenuous effort,
+defeated by the excellent admirals Juel, of the Danish, and Tromp,
+of the Dutch, navy. The treasury was empty, the administration in
+disorder, and mistrust and strife reigned supreme. But the young king
+showed that he wanted to be obeyed, and managed, by hard work, to
+establish order, the Riksdag sacrificing means to organize the defence.
+
+The Danes were successful in their first expeditions on land also,
+their army having undergone a reorganization. King Christian V. marched
+into Scania, while his general, Gyldenloeve, invaded Bohuslaen and
+West Gothland. The hostile fleets captured the islands of OEland and
+Gothland. Charles XI., in a sinister state of mind verging on despair,
+at last had his army collected, and entered Halland, where Danish
+troops were encountered and defeated at Halmstad. This gave courage to
+the Swedes, who soon thought themselves invincible, when commanded by
+the young king himself. Charles received reinforcements through peasant
+troops, and was desirous to meet Christian in open battle. But the
+Danish army in Scania retreated until forced to meet the enemy near
+Lund. Here a bloody and decisive battle was fought, more than 8,000 men
+being killed, and resulting in a victory for the Swedes, who took 2,000
+prisoners, fifty-one cannon, and the whole hostile camp, December 3,
+1676.
+
+In the following year Sweden suffered two defeats at sea, through the
+hands of Juel, but won another victory on land, at Landskrona, when the
+Danes lost 3,000 men.
+
+While Charles XI. fought with the courage of despair, Louis XIV. was
+supremely victorious over his enemies, soon appearing as the dictator
+of Europe, when peace was made at Nimwegen, in 1679. Finding Charles
+XI. resolved not to cede any of his territory, King Louis took a
+similar standpoint in his behalf, but contemptuously neglected to let
+the Swedish ambassadors take any active part in the deliberations.
+Louis XIV. made peace with the emperor, Brandenburg and Denmark
+on behalf of Sweden, which country only ceded a small part of East
+Pomerania to Brandenburg. Charles XI. deeply felt the insolence of the
+benevolent dictator, and forced Christian V. to sign a treaty of peace
+at Lund, in 1680, as if Louis XIV. had no part in it. An agreement was
+made that Charles XI. should marry the sister of Christian V., the
+beautiful Ulrica Eleonore. Through her gentleness, piety and great
+benevolence, she soon acquired fame as one of the noblest queens of
+Sweden. Ulrica Eleonore led a quiet life, seldom being seen at court,
+where the vain and despotic queen-dowager held the first place. She
+was never able to win the affection of her consort until during her
+last illness. King Charles then, for the first time, understood what a
+treasure he had held unappreciated at his side, and watched over her
+with infinite care, bringing peace and sunshine into her last days.
+After her death, in 1693, the king became a prey to deep sorrow and
+remorse, which threw added gloom over his dark countenance. The queen
+had been active in upholding a good relation between the Scandinavian
+countries, often bitterly opposed by the queen-dowager, in the
+interests of Holstein.
+
+When peace was made, Charles XI. immediately took action in the matter
+of reform. He saw his country at the verge of utter ruin and the crown
+unable to help it. The peasants were losing their rights, one by one,
+and five-sixths of the crown lands were in the possession of the
+nobles. Brought up in ignorance and isolation, finding rottenness and
+incapability everywhere, it was no wonder that the king became strongly
+imbued by the spirit of absolutism, which pervaded all Europe. He
+followed the example of the monarchs of France and Denmark, learning
+from them how, by secret agitation and pressure, to make the lower
+classes fervently appeal to him to take the absolute power in his
+hand. His principal adviser was _John Gyllenstierna_, a man of old,
+celebrated stock, but belonging to the lower nobility. Gyllenstierna
+was one of the greatest and most patriotic statesmen of his day. He
+first attracted attention as a champion of the lower nobility against
+the great lords for the restitution of crown lands. Raised to dignities
+and a high station, he never changed his position to the aristocrats
+in power, who thought they could win him over by favors. Seeing
+the absolute impossibility of reform, with the help of the nobles,
+Gyllenstierna turned to the king, whose whole confidence he won,
+inspiring him with plans of a Scandinavian peace policy, and a reform
+through the destruction of the aristocracy. Gyllenstierna died after
+having brought to the king his bride, a union which was the work of
+this able statesman.
+
+The Riksdag was convoked to meet October 5, 1680. Everything commenced
+quietly. No royal proposition was made; but a strong agitation had been
+set in motion among the four Estates, the three lower ones sending in
+a petition to make the royal power absolute, to have a restitution
+of crown lands made, and the government, during the king's minority,
+brought to answer for their acts. Similar requests were sent up
+from the nobility, after many stormy scenes at the Riddarhus. Thus,
+toward the end of the Riksdag, with the petitions in, came the royal
+propositions which, when accepted, in one blow crushed the aristocracy,
+as a ruling class, and the antiquated state council, as an institution,
+and established the absolute power of the king.
+
+According to the resolutions of this memorable Riksdag, which marks a
+new era in Swedish history, a "grand commission" was selected which
+fulfilled its duties with the greatest severity. The members of the
+former government and state council were made responsible for their
+administration, and themselves, or their heirs, sentenced to pay
+smaller or larger sums. Two-thirds of the whole amount was afterward
+given up, but the fines were nevertheless great. Count Nils Brahe,
+the heir of both Peter Brahe and Charles Gustavus Wrangel, and the
+wealthiest man in Sweden, had to pay something like $600,000 in fines,
+an immense sum in those days, and was reduced almost to poverty. The
+restitution department, assisted by two commissions, did equally
+thorough work under the pressure of the king. Ten counties and seventy
+baronies, with a great number of other crown lands of various classes,
+were confiscated. It cost the higher nobility dearly; Count Magnus
+de la Gardie, the all-powerful favorite of three monarchs, lost his
+immense wealth and died on a little estate left him, with one single
+servant out of his former princely retinue. The work of restitution was
+carried on without cruelty or injustice.
+
+A second restitution was to follow. The propositions were arranged at
+the Riksdag of 1682, in the same way as in 1680. This time the lower
+nobility was to suffer. All crown lands rendering less than $600 a
+year of income had been spared; now these were confiscated, without
+exception. In 1686 followed another blow. The dividends on the state
+loans were reduced, and a stipulation made that holders of bonds must
+refund what they, up to that date, had received above the new schedule.
+The same principle was applied in the redemption of mortgaged state
+lands. These new harsh measures were enforced with a great deal of
+severity, with incidental cases of injustice. The king showed clemency
+only to certain parties in stringent need. The discontent of the nobles
+caused many of them to leave the country, as, for instance, Count Otto
+William von Koenigsmarck, son of the conqueror of Prague, and himself
+the valiant defender of Pomerania against the hostile allies. Their
+example was followed by many nobles of Livonia, the measures of the
+restitution entirely crushing the nobility of that province, while its
+peasants, who were slaves, gained their liberty, and had every reason
+to bless the Swedish government.
+
+The power of absolutism grew steadily stronger. The king decided all
+matters alone, and prepared in advance the measures he proposed to the
+Riksdag, of whose sanction he was as independent as of that of the
+old state council. All officers and institutions were also changed in
+name from "state" to "royal" servants and instruments. The university
+professors were instructed to impress the students with the necessity
+and divine rights of an absolute ruler. The nobles were alone in their
+discontent. The other classes, especially the peasants, looked with
+satisfaction and approval on the work which crushed the enemies of
+their liberty and prosperity, and submitted willingly to the absolute
+power because it was in the hands of a patriotic king.
+
+Charles XI. used the revenues of the restitutions principally for
+the reorganization of army and navy. For the former he reintroduced
+a system which Gustavus Adolphus had applied, the so-called
+_Indelningsverk_ (work of division), which, elaborated upon and firmly
+established by Charles XI., became the foundation of the Swedish army
+system. The whole country was divided into small sections, which were
+each to support an infantry soldier, or a seaman, and larger ones to
+support a cavalry soldier. This soldier received a hamlet with earth
+to till within his section, paying for it by work to the farmers or
+squires, while these paid for his equipment. In times of war the state
+paid his expenses. This changed the troublesome army element into
+useful members of state in times of peace. The officers were given
+small estates by the crown for their support. The army consisted, at
+the death of Charles XI., of 65,000 men, well equipped. On the coast of
+Bleking extensive navy yards were built by Count Hans Wachtmeister and
+Eric Dahlberg, in a new town called Carlscrona. At great expense, the
+best fleet ever under Swedish command was constructed by Wachtmeister,
+who enjoyed the full confidence of the king. His excellent means
+wherewith to conduct a successful war, Charles XI. used to maintain
+a dignified peace, of which his country was badly in need. Bengt
+Oxenstierna held the reins of diplomacy, which had no attraction for
+Charles XI. The old alliance with France was broken off and close
+connections with William of Orange established for the maintenance of
+peace. Sweden regained its prestige, rising to a power whose support
+was sought by all. When William became king of England, Sweden was a
+member of the alliance against Louis XIV., but contributed to the great
+European war only a few thousand soldiers, according to agreement,
+preserving, together with Denmark, an armed neutrality. Charles XI.
+lived to the proud moment when the powers selected Sweden as an arbiter
+in the deliberations for peace in Riswick, a worthy satisfaction gained
+over the earlier insolence of Louis XIV.
+
+Charles XI. improved the administration by filling the offices of
+the excellent institutions with excellent men. This he obtained by
+enforcing the necessity of obeying orders, supplying officials of all
+ranks, from the lowest upward, with new regulations which must be
+obeyed, also regulating their salaries. Sweden never had a greater
+lover of law and order than Charles XI., and he used his absolute
+power in their interests, trying to remold the old laws to suit modern
+requirements, and having a new church law, a masterpiece in its line,
+introduced. The church itself and its men had in Charles XI. an
+interested friend. New catechism, hymn book and ritual were prepared,
+and a new translation of the Bible completed, being published after
+his death. Commerce and mining industries were encouraged, while
+agriculture improved with the improvement of the financial conditions
+of the peasants. Charles XI. was not only a "peace king," but a
+"peasant king," who was ardently devoted to the improvement of the
+education and financial circumstances of the country population. He was
+of broadly democratic inclinations, finding his delight in moving among
+the humble and lowly as one of them. The peasants, who had been brushed
+aside by the great and powerful, were now brought to the front and took
+an active and important part in the affairs of state. Charles ruled
+over them with a stern husbandry, and asked great sacrifices of them
+for the maintenance of an armed defence; but no king has accomplished
+more in their true interest than he, or remains more clearly in their
+memory and traditions. He travelled continually through the country,
+avoiding the places where he would be received with ceremony, stopping
+in the houses of the farmers, and enjoying heartily what comfort these
+offered. In his appearance he was far from prepossessing. His features
+were not devoid of beauty, but gloomy; his figure strong and vigorous,
+but not impressive. Through an accident while hunting he became
+slightly lame. Although dearth and hard times set in during the last
+years of his reign, causing terrible losses of life through hunger
+and prostration, he could plainly tell the beneficent results of his
+administration. Charles XI. took the reins of state when disastrous
+war ravished a country which seemed doomed to destruction. He left it
+reformed, reorganized, rejuvenated and prosperous at his death, in 1697.
+
+The Period of Political Grandeur in Swedish history falls within
+the epoch of the history of art which has been called _Barocco_, an
+unbalanced offspring of the Renaissance, and a style characterized by
+great complicity, pretensions and ambitions, a renaissance in wigs
+of formidable proportions. After the great victories of the Thirty
+Years' War, it seems as if the interchange of influences between art,
+literature, science, politics and religion was increased. The whole era
+becomes a Barocco period of bombast and chauvinism, the climax being
+reached in the form of the absolute monarchy of the age.
+
+In Sweden, as elsewhere, there was no lack of men of ability and
+brilliant genius; but, influenced by the spirit of their time, the
+works of most of them were bombastic and chauvinistic, like the
+artistic and political aspirations of the era. The artists were, as
+were at first the scholars, mostly foreigners. The native and imported
+scholars were characterized by great learning and versatility, but
+abused their genius by Utopian theories and vainglorious dreams, and
+violated the laws of history and sound research.
+
+Olof Rudbeck was not only the most learned and brilliantly gifted
+scholar of his day, but his genius also embodies the eccentricities
+of the period in gigantic outlines. He was born at Westeros, in 1630,
+his father being the learned bishop, Johannes Rudbeckius. As a boy, he
+gave evidence of rare artistic and mechanic talents. He made drawings
+of exquisite designs, constructed clock mechanisms of wood, and was a
+skilled musician. His character was proud and violent. At sixteen he
+was through with his college course and ready to enter the university.
+The youth could not stand the change from his coarse jacket and fur
+coat into a coat of broadcloth with buttons such as the students wore,
+and was for his overbearing manner punished by his severe father with
+an additional year of college work. At the University of Upsala he
+caused from the start great surprise by his knowledge in all subjects.
+He devoted his attention chiefly to natural science, which, in that
+day, was a neglected study, and soon excelled his professors.
+
+At twenty, Rudbeck made a scientific discovery of great importance,
+which caused a stir in the whole learned world. By his discovery and
+theory of the lymphatic ducts, the blood circulation of the human body
+received a satisfactory explanation. Before the circle of scholars
+which surrounded Queen Christine, Rudbeck was allowed to demonstrate
+his anatomical discoveries, in 1652. Queen Christine, who earlier had
+been an admirer of his beautiful voice and musical abilities, loaded
+him with praise and gave him the means for a journey abroad. Rudbeck
+returned, in 1660, to Sweden, and was appointed professor of medicine
+at the University of Upsala. He planned the first botanic garden in
+the country, donating it to the university. He had illustrations made
+of the native plants and commenced a learned work on botany. The first
+hall of anatomy was erected according to his proposition. As rector
+of the university, he established several important reforms, in spite
+of opposition, but supported by the chancellor, Magnus Gabriel de la
+Gardie, who was his friend and protector. To the stupendous mastery of
+all sciences, Rudbeck added a skill and cleverness in various branches
+of practical activity which made him carry, with honor, the nickname of
+"master at all trades." He was an excellent financier, who succeeded
+in restoring the sound economy of the university. He built a fish
+pond, from which the tables of the learned professors were regularly
+supplied with fish. A book store and a book-printing establishment
+were erected by him, and for a time run at his expense. He repaired
+windmills, built houses, provided the university town with water works
+and street pavement, also arranging its postal service. Rudbeck was one
+of the finest composers and singers of his day, conducting the musical
+exercises at the university. He made fireworks and compasses for the
+Swedish navy, built fountains and organs, was a good poet and painter
+and an excellent etcher and drawer.
+
+Rudbeck does not owe his great renown to his mastery of any of these
+trades, arts or sciences, nor to any discovery, reform or invention by
+his versatile genius. It was his monumental work, "Atland or Manheim,"
+generally called "The Atlantica," which made him world-famous. For
+centuries one had believed in the statement made by Jordanes, and
+based upon traditions current among his people, that the Goths who
+conquered Rome had migrated from the North, and that their ancestors,
+from the remotest period, were inhabitants of Sweden. Johannes Magnus
+constructed a line of Swedish kings, beginning with Magog, the son of
+Japhet, on the basis of which the sons of Gustavus Vasa, Eric XIV.,
+and Charles IX., had accepted their high ordinals. In the time of
+Rudbeck it was considered a supremely praiseworthy effort to glorify
+the fatherland by strengthening its claims to a high antiquity.
+Rudbeck, the remarkable savant and able poet, got his head turned by
+the political grandeur of his country. He had in his youth read the
+story of Atlantis, found in Plato. Rudbeck undertook to prove, in
+"The Atlantica," that the lost island, with its ancient ideal state
+from which the gods of antiquity were supposed to hail, was identical
+with Sweden. The work, in four large volumes, was written in Swedish
+and Latin of parallel columns. The first volume was printed in 1675,
+Rudbeck having made the types himself. In Sweden the work was greeted
+with an enthusiasm which had no bounds. The second volume was published
+by funds which Charles XI. with great generosity placed at the author's
+disposal. The third volume was dedicated to the youthful Charles XII.,
+a true child of the chauvinistic epoch, who hailed the book with
+delight. The fourth volume was in press when Upsala was destroyed by
+fire, in 1702. The aged Rudbeck led the battle against the ravaging
+element, by supreme exertions saving the university halls, at the
+expense of his home, his press and manuscripts, and the rest of the
+town. Rudbeck died in the autumn of the same year.
+
+The elaborate construction which Rudbeck had completed by means
+of ingenious deductions and learned guesswork succumbed with the
+political grandeur of Sweden. "The Atlantica," which once had its
+place beside the Bible on the tables of the mighty ones, was ridiculed
+and forgotten. On the continent of Europe, where similar books had
+been written in Germany and Holland, making for these respective
+countries similar claims, "The Atlantica" was at first received with
+surprise and admiration, later with doubt and criticism. The work, in
+spite of its mistakes, proved a foundation for archaeological research,
+which gradually was developed into a science. In order to support the
+boldest and most impossible theories, the almost unparalleled power
+of combination of an eminent genius has brought together material
+which for the first time gave the suggestion of relationship between
+the Teutonic and the classical languages of Greece and Rome. Rudbeck
+was also the first to point out the unmistakable resemblance of the
+Old Norse and classical mythologies, as to the origin of which modern
+scholars have reached no absolute certainty, but radically different
+conclusions. The importance which Rudbeck placed upon popular customs
+and traditions was too great, but it has favorably influenced later
+students of ethnography and folk lore.
+
+If Rudbeck had limited himself to the demonstration that Sweden has
+been not the cradle of all races, but the original home of the Teutonic
+branch of the Aryan race, he might have been able to offer a theory,
+the truth of which modern science lacks, and forever may lack, the
+resources to disprove.
+
+Rudbeck had not been entirely without opponents in Sweden. The most
+noted among them was John Peringskiold, who criticised the opinion
+expressed by Rudbeck that the Runes were the oldest alphabet of the
+world. Peringskiold was a fine Icelandic scholar, and the first editor
+of Snorre Sturleson's "Heimskringla."
+
+A typical and highly valuable illustrated work from this period is
+the "Svecia Antiqua et Hodierna," by Eric Dahlberg, the renowned
+quartermaster of Charles X. The text, written by Dahlberg and
+translated into Latin by several scholars, was never published, the
+magnificent engravings not before 1716. The latter give an impressive
+portrayal of architectural Sweden during the reigns of the three
+Charleses, but are not quite reliable, as some of the castles and
+palaces in this work are provided with additions and embellishments
+which were never more than projected.
+
+There is no family who has wielded a greater influence over the Swedish
+church than that of Benzelius. The founder of the house, Eric Benzelius
+the Elder, and three of his sons were archbishops of Sweden, and two
+of his grandsons bishops of the state church. The first Archbishop
+Benzelius, born in 1632, was the son of a peasant, and took his name
+from the farm of Bentseby, of Lulea parish, in Norrland, where he was
+born; he and the three of his seven sons who were archbishops refused
+to be ennobled, the other members of the family adopting the name of
+Benzelstierna. The earlier generations of the family produced men of
+great talent and power, to whom the third one, although consisting
+of able men, could not be compared. The influence of this family in
+matters of religion, science and culture was strongly felt during the
+period of more than one century. The most remarkable member was Eric
+Benzelius the Younger, one of the most learned, active and patriotic
+men ever born in Sweden. Like the other members of the family, he
+perfected his education at foreign universities and made the personal
+acquaintance of Leibnitz, Thomasius, Malebranche, and other celebrated
+scholars. He was a historian, literary critic and philologist of
+merit, writing a history of Sweden and preparing an edition of Codex
+Argenteus, published in London after his death. He was highly
+appreciated by Charles XII., and was a friend of Polhem and Swedenborg,
+being married to a sister of the latter. Eric Benzelius was appointed
+archbishop, but died, in 1742, before he had entered office.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+_Period of Political Grandeur--Charles XII_
+
+
+Charles XII., the most famous of Swedish kings, was a boy of fifteen at
+the death of his father. He was born June 17, 1682, at the castle of
+Stockholm. The astrologers declared that Sweden was to receive a new
+war-lord, and that time they were not mistaken. Charles XII. was born
+in the same year as the absolute monarchy of Sweden, which power he
+was to abuse in such a great measure. Shortly after his birth, one of
+the speakers of the knightly chapter house, Justice Gyllencreutz, said
+while warning against the consequences of an absolute power: "A king
+may come who follows his own will, being more fond of war than peace,
+or utterly extravagant. History proves that changes of the constitution
+generally are beset by dangerous consequences; yea, that they often
+have brought destruction to the country and its people." These words
+were prophetic.
+
+The early education of Charles was supervised by his mother, sweet
+Ulrica Eleonore, who taught him piety, modesty, gentleness and justice
+by her own example. He participated with earnestness in the morning and
+evening prayers, kneeling before the only Lord he ever acknowledged
+as his superior. His mother died when Charles was seven years of age,
+but the devotion in which he held her he fixed upon his sisters,
+Hedvig Sophie and Ulrica Eleonore, but especially upon the former. His
+religious feeling was deep and sincere, and he evinced early a love
+of truth, justice and pure morals which, like his brotherly devotion,
+followed him through life. The most remarkable trait in a son of
+Charles XI. was his power of self-control; but he was his father's
+superior also in intellectual gifts, such as a ready memory, a good
+apprehension and a sharp discernment. His faults were early developed,
+and met, after the death of his parents, no restraint. He was taciturn,
+unapproachable, proud, self-willed and headstrong. He had from his
+grandfather inherited an ambition for the vain glory of war, which
+was led astray by his unrestrained power of imagination. From the age
+of five he was taught by the learned professor, Andreas Norcopensis,
+ennobled under the name of Nordenhielm, to whom he was very devoted
+and under whose guidance he received a good general education. The
+plain, able scholar influenced the young prince in a wholesome manner.
+When his teacher asked him how an honest man ought to be, the pupil,
+then seven years of age, answered: "He should be gentle but of great
+courage; fierce like a lion to his enemies, gentle like a lamb to those
+at home." To the question if it were not better to avoid dangers in
+order to save one's life, the little Charles answered: "No, it would be
+a shame to live in such a manner."
+
+Charles XI. had drawn an outline of the course which the education of
+his son was to follow. The first place was given to study of the Bible
+and the Christian doctrines and the severe practice of religion. The
+prince was to learn Swedish and German early, to receive instruction in
+the laws and constitution of his country, and in the science of war,
+and to be trained in the arts of military drill, fencing and riding on
+horseback. He soon acquired the faculty of speaking Latin fluently, in
+the ordinary mechanical way, and learned some French. When his first
+governor, Eric Lindskiold, tried to interest him in the latter language
+by pointing out its usefulness in diplomatic intercourse with the
+French ambassador, the prince answered: "If I meet the king of France
+I will converse with him in his own language. When a French ambassador
+comes here, it is more appropriate that he learns Swedish on my
+account than I French on his." His favorite studies were strategy and
+mathematics, which he made under the Swedish general, Charles Magnus
+Stuart. He often said that the one who was ignorant of mathematics
+was only a half human being. Charles was fond of riding the horses of
+his father, and followed the latter on his adventurous journeys and
+hunts. When only twelve years of age he killed his first bear. He early
+developed the reckless courage which made him so famous. Charles was
+exceedingly fond of reading the Eddic poems and the old hero Sagas of
+the North. He said he wanted to resemble the ancient hero kings, and
+wished he had, like many of them, a brother who would remain at home to
+rule the country in peace, while he, with his warriors, made a tour of
+the world. The prescription, made by his father, that the prince should
+be taught to make a moderate use of his absolute power, was, if carried
+out, of little consequence. Charles mourned deeply the losses of his
+mother and of his first teacher, Nordenhielm, which followed close
+upon each other, seeking, after that, more the company of his father.
+Charles XI. had a long private conversation with his son shortly
+before his death, pointing out the men in whom he could confide.
+Among these Charles Piper occupied a conspicuous place. He remained
+ever the adviser of Charles XII., but never had his full confidence.
+The enigmatic king confided in nobody, and passed through life without
+opening his heart to any one.
+
+Charles XI. had appointed a government to reign during the minority
+of his son, to be presided over by Queen-dowager Hedvig Eleonore. But
+the Estates of the Riksdag, at the request of the nobility, declared
+Charles XII. of age when only fifteen. The young king placed the crown
+upon his head with his own hands at the coronation, and took charge
+of the government in November, 1697. Bengt Oxenstierna remained at
+the head of foreign affairs as the president of the chancery, while
+Charles took personal interest in continuing the life work of his
+father, the restitution of crown lands, which still went on. Charles
+Piper, who had been quite active in obtaining an early majority for the
+king, was raised to the dignity of a count, and became one of the most
+influential members of the state council. Charles was not influenced
+by anybody in spite of his youth. He listened to what the councillors
+had to say, then announced his resolutions with terse independence. He
+refused firmly the appeals of the nobility to reduce the demands of the
+work of restitution. He abolished the practice of torture, in spite of
+the unanimous vote of the state council to the contrary. When the aged
+Bengt Oxenstierna was anxious to have annulled a treaty with France,
+already signed, the young king answered tersely: "You have heard my
+opinion; I am the one who signed the treaty." Charles took, in general,
+little interest in foreign affairs, except those concerning Holstein,
+to the duke of which country his elder sister was married.
+
+The exuberant spirits of the youthful Charles found an outlet in daring
+exploits and plays of war. The somewhat older man, Count Arvid Bernhard
+Horn, the commander of the royal body-guard, took an active part in
+these as the most intimate comrade of the king. They went bear-hunting
+together, with wooden forks as their only weapon, fought naval battles
+with hand-spurts, made breakneck rides on horseback, etc. When the
+king was near being drowned in one of these "naval battles," the only
+ones that Charles XII. ever fought, he was saved by Arvid Horn, who
+pulled him up by the hair. When Horn in some other game was badly hurt
+and taken ill, the king kept the night watch at his bedside. Upon the
+visits of Duke Frederic of Holstein, the two young princes indulged
+in escapades of the wildest kind, if one were to believe the reports
+made by the foreign ambassadors at Stockholm to their respective
+governments, and chiefly founded upon hearsay. His application to
+state affairs was almost constant and very arduous, for which reason
+these reports of the escapades and adventures of the youthful king are
+probably wild exaggerations, or mere fables.
+
+The reports of a young inexperienced king who gave up his time to
+sport and pastimes spread abroad, and the enemies of Sweden were led
+to believe that an opportune moment was come for an attack on the
+empire which held the balance of power in Northern Europe. Peter the
+Great, one of the most remarkable men of modern history, was czar of
+Russia. Engaged in his heroic task of reorganizing his barbarous empire
+to a modern European state, he was desirous of obtaining harbors on
+the coast of the Baltic, from which sea he was cut off by the Swedish
+possessions. August, a cousin of Charles XII., who was elector of
+Saxony and king of Poland, was anxious to take possession of Livonia.
+King Frederic IV. of Denmark, also a cousin of Charles, wished to
+suppress the duke of Holstein, who had gained independence, thanks
+to the assistance of Sweden. Czar Peter and King August entered into
+a secret alliance with each other. While negotiations for continued
+peace with Sweden were still pending, the Russians secretly crossed the
+boundary in Ingermanland, Saxon troops entered Livonia, and the king
+of Denmark took possession of Holstein. The Swedish council of state
+was amazed at this triple danger. Charles simply remarked that it was
+strange that both of his cousins wanted war, and expressed the hope
+that God would support him in his righteous cause.
+
+Charles XII. was eighteen years of age when he entered this stupendous
+conflict. He was tall and slender, but broad-shouldered; he had a
+sympathetic face, dark-blue eyes, thin brown hair, and a carriage
+expressing courage and an indomitable spirit. Upon entering actual
+warfare, Charles renounced all pleasures and comforts. Sharing the
+severe discipline of his soldiers, he slept in a tent, ate of their
+rude food, and drank nothing but water. The wig, considered so
+indispensable in those days, was laid aside and he dressed, like the
+men of his body-guard, in a coat of coarse blue cloth with large brass
+buttons and yellow lining. His long sword was hung at a yellow leather
+girdle. He wore high boots and yellow trousers made of skin. In battle
+he was always found where the danger was most imminent.
+
+Charles turned first against Denmark. A Swedish fleet of forty-eight
+ships joined the naval forces of equal strength which the Swedish
+allies, England and Holland, had sent to meet it in the Sound. A
+more powerful combination has never been seen before or after in
+Scandinavian waters. Charles embarked with his troops on one hundred
+Scanian ships and landed at Elsinore, August 4, 1699. He was impatient
+to reach shore, jumped into the water, which reached to his arms,
+and was followed by his troops, who carried their weapons high above
+the water. A sudden attack was made on the Danish troops on shore,
+who turned and fled. The Swedes made a temporary camp and prepared
+themselves for a march on Copenhagen. King Frederic was struck with
+terror and hastened to make peace with the duke of Holstein, who was
+left in undisturbed possession of his country through the treaty of
+peace at Traventhal. Charles withdrew his troops at once, although
+reluctantly, having wished to crush the power of Denmark. He had
+maintained the strictest discipline in his camp, and treated the
+inhabitants of the country with gentleness. The Danish peasants, who
+abundantly brought necessary provisions, said to the king: "You do us
+no harm because you are the son of our pious Ulrica Eleonore." The king
+answered: "What I have done I have been forced to do. But rest assured
+that I shall from this day be the upright friend of your king."
+
+Charles now turned against Russia. With an army of somewhat more than
+8,000 men he sailed for Ingermanland to attack the invaders, at least
+five times as many in numbers, who were laying siege to the town of
+Narva. The majority of the Russian troops consisted of serfs who were
+taken directly from their work and were without any military training.
+This army of undisciplined serfs was to a great extent commanded by
+foreign adventurers. The news of the approach of the Swedish troops
+brought consternation. Several of the Russian officers shed tears,
+while the czar quickly left his army to gather more troops. The
+remarkable battle of Narva was fought November 20, 1700. King Charles
+offered the enemies a battle in the open field, but when they refused
+to accept or to come out, he attacked them in their trenches, which
+formed a semi-circle around the town of Narva, with the wings touching
+the river of the same name. The war-cry of the Swedes was: "With the
+help of God!" Their attack was favored by a snowstorm, which blew in
+the faces of the Russians, blinding them. The enemies could tell that
+the Swedes were few in numbers, but thought that reinforcements must
+be on the way. The trenches were filled with bundles of fagots, the
+ramparts were mounted, and the Russians thrown into confusion. The
+Russian cavalry fled at the opening of the artillery fire. The rest,
+crushed in between the walls of the town and their aggressors, tried to
+escape on every side. The Swedes soon had cut the immense Russian line
+of troops in twain at the centre. The half which consisted of the right
+wing moved down to the bridge over the Narva River. But the bridge gave
+way under the weight of the first 3,000 men, who found their graves in
+the river below. The rest of the right wing was hedged in between the
+Swedes and the river. The regiments of the Russian guards, who were
+the most experienced of the troops, fought bravely for some time, but
+great confusion ensued among the others, the soldiers wanting to kill
+their foreign officers, whom they blamed for the catastrophe. The chief
+commander, Duke de Croi, with several other foreigners, for this reason
+surrendered to the king.
+
+The Russian soldiers of the right wing, abandoned by their superior
+officers, made heroic efforts to defend themselves behind barricades
+which they erected for the moment. King Charles hastened to the spot,
+but was very near losing his life in passing through a swamp. He sank
+so deep that the water rose to his neck, and he could save himself
+only by leaving his horse, his sword, and one of his heavy boots
+behind in the mud. Without in the least improving his condition, the
+king took another horse and sought his way to the heart of the battle.
+The Russians were killed in masses, but did not surrender before King
+Charles had taken a Russian battery, thus depriving them of the last
+hope of being reunited with the left wing. The latter, who kept in the
+vicinity of their trenches, had fought with a good deal of courage. At
+nightfall two officers were sent from the right wing to ask the king
+for an armistice, which was granted. King Charles spent the night in
+his wet clothes, by the bivouac fire, on the ground, his head resting
+in the lap of one of his soldiers. In the morning, before dawn, two
+Russian generals arrived, demanding free leave for the remainder
+of the right wing. This was granted, but the superior officers had
+to remain as prisoners of war. The commander of the left wing also
+opened negotiations. Free leave was granted them upon the surrender
+of their arms. It must have been an impressive sight to see the body
+of 12,000 Russians, with heads uncovered, who passed in line by only
+half as many Swedes, depositing their banners and arms at the feet of
+Charles XII. It was a wise plan to keep as prisoners only the superior
+officers, for the Swedes had not the means at hand to watch and feed so
+many prisoners as those who were allowed a free leave. In the battle
+of Narva 18,000 Russians were killed or captured; the hostile camp,
+baggage and artillery fell into the hands of the victors. Charles
+XII. made his solemn entry into Narva, where Te Deum was sung in the
+cathedral. Charles with his own hand crossed out all expressions of
+vainglory over the success or disdain of the vanquished which occurred
+in the official account of the victory to be sent to Stockholm.
+
+In the following year Charles XII. turned against his third enemy, King
+August. Saxon troops, 10,000 strong, were joined by 19,000 Russians,
+and had taken a strongly fortified position on the southern shore of
+the river Dvina. Charles decided to cross the river from Livonia and
+attack the enemy. The famous crossing of the Dvina was planned in all
+details by Eric Dahlberg, the venerable hero and engineer from the wars
+of Charles X. and Charles XI. Baron Dahlberg died not long after this
+memorable event. It was June 27, 1701. The Swedish infantry was carried
+across in prams, the cavalry on fleet-bridges provided with wooden
+walls on hinges, which, when erect, were a protection against the fire
+of the enemy, and, when let down, formed gangways for the landing.
+In front of all boats loaded with hay and straw were sent out, which
+were ignited, sending a thick, disagreeable smoke in the face of the
+enemy. The artillery in the prams kept up a disastrous fire. Charles
+XII. was one of the first to land, and opened the attack when only half
+of his infantry had reached the shore. The Russians soon scattered in
+wild flight. The Saxons withstood three powerful attacks, but at last
+followed the bad example set by their allies. The battle was fought and
+won before the Swedish cavalry had reached the shore. The bountiful
+provisions of the scattered army were captured. The crossing of the
+Dvina was executed under the direction of Charles Magnus Stuart and
+Count Magnus Stenbock.
+
+The victories of the young hero king and his valiant soldiers aroused
+the admiration of all Europe, and much sympathy was expressed for
+Sweden, who had so successfully warded off a deceitful and unjust
+attack. Charles XII. received offers of peace from his enemies, but he
+did not accept them. He did not believe that his treacherous neighbors
+would keep their promises, and he was no doubt right. He ought to have
+crushed Russia first, but his victory over Czar Peter had been too
+easily acquired to make him realize the genius, power and resources
+of this semi-barbarous enemy. Charles considered King August a more
+formidable opponent, which was a mistake; but his suspicion that the
+latter would attack him from behind if he entered Russia would probably
+have proved to be well founded had circumstances permitted. So Charles
+invaded Poland, resolved to gain by the interior conflict which was
+disturbing the peace of that country. He wanted to dethrone August and
+select a prince who would keep faith with Sweden.
+
+The Polish empire had not taken any active part in the war against
+Sweden, but Charles XII. demanded that the Poles should prove their
+good faith by dethroning August and by choosing a native king. When
+they refused, he let his army enter Poland. For four years King Charles
+remained there, marching from one part of the country to the other.
+He conquered the Polish capitals of Warsaw and Cracow, and several
+other fortified places, winning over a considerable group within the
+nobility. In 1704 the Diet of Warsaw was called, at which the Polish
+nobles, in the presence of Swedish troops under the command of Count
+Arvid Horn, were compelled to deprive August of his crown and elect a
+new king according to the instructions of King Charles. The new king
+chosen was the noble, but incapable Stanislav Leczinski, who belonged
+to an aristocratic family of little influence and few connections. He
+was an upright and highly educated man, but lacked energy. King August
+was not willing to abdicate, for which reason King Charles pursued him
+into his hereditary land. The line of march to Saxony went through
+Silesia, a neutral country belonging to the empire of Austria. As the
+army of August had been allowed to pass this country, Charles argued
+that the same right must be granted him and his troops. At the river
+Oder, Charles was met by a number of persecuted Protestants, who,
+kneeling and weeping, prayed for his assistance in pleading their cause
+before the emperor. Charles promised them to do so, and kept his word.
+
+The Swedish army entered Saxony in the year 1706. The inhabitants, who
+had in a clear memory the acts of recklessness and cruelty committed
+by the troops of John Baner, fled for their lives, taking along all
+the property that could be moved. To their great surprise, they saw
+the Swedes encamp themselves as quietly as in time of serenest peace.
+No violence was committed. Nothing was taken, except in exchange for
+money. But a heavy war tax was imposed, which made both August and his
+people inclined to seek an early end of the war.
+
+Thanks to the means raised in this manner, the Swedish army was
+provided with an entirely new outfit of clothes and furnished with
+necessary provisions. Every regiment established a savings bank of
+its own, in which the soldiers deposited their earnings. The castle
+of Alt-Ranstaedt was the headquarters of Charles XII., situated close
+by the memorable battlefield of Lutzen. The sojourn of Charles XII.
+in Saxony was an incident of universal importance to the history of
+Europe. He had with his soldiers approached the scene of a conflict
+which was shaking the whole of Western and Southern Europe. The
+situation was such that it for the moment hung at the point of the
+victorious sword of Charles XII. The great question was whether he was
+resolved to take an active part in the universal conflict. Charles
+was besieged at his headquarters by princes, warriors and statesmen,
+who came to pay their respects, desirous of winning his favor and of
+getting an idea of his plans. The Swedish invasion of Saxony was highly
+beneficial to the interests of France, and Louis XIV. was the first
+to admit it, anxious to make the stay of Charles as long as possible,
+because it had caused a standstill in the hostilities against France.
+The Duke of Marlborough was among the visitors of Charles XII. He
+brought a letter of courtesy from Queen Anne, who wrote that the letter
+"came not from her chancery but from her heart, and was written by her
+own hand." She longed to meet the famous king personally. The duke's
+errand was to find out whether Charles was to join the fighting forces
+of Western Europe or to attack Russia. He was glad to learn that the
+latter move was the one which the king had in mind. Although the two
+great warriors expressed mutual admiration, neither was sympathetically
+impressed by the other. Charles XII. thought Marlborough looked "too
+fine" for a soldier, while the latter thought the rude simplicity of
+the king an affectation by which to obtain notoriety. On account of
+the great influx of distinguished visitors, the style of living was
+quite different at the royal headquarters of Alt-Ranstaedt to what
+it was during the Polish and Russian wars. But the king kept up the
+heavy military drills and long individual expeditions on horseback,
+which he thought indispensable. One of the first ones of the latter
+which he undertook was to visit the battlefield of Lutzen. The king
+remembered distinctly all that he had read about the famous battle, and
+made clear to his generals the various positions of the two armies. At
+Schwedenstein, the place where Gustavus Adolphus fell, he lingered for
+a long while in silence. At last he said: "I always have tried to live
+as he did. May God grant me the grace of dying in like manner."
+
+King August was satisfied to conclude a treaty of peace, which was
+signed at Alt-Ranstaedt. He renounced the crown of Poland and recognized
+Stanislav Leczinski as the legitimate king. August turned over John
+Reinhold Patkul, a Livonian traitor, who during the reign of Charles
+XI. had made himself disagreeably conspicuous, and who had been
+intriguing against Sweden ever since. Charles XII. was, in gentleness
+and justice, far in advance of his contemporaries, but he made an
+exception to his ordinary course of clemency in the case of Patkul,
+who was executed according to the cruel practice of the time. When the
+Swedish army left their camp, after peace was made, the regiments were
+for many miles followed by the grateful inhabitants, who, with tears in
+their eyes, gave evidence of their friendship. The reason was that the
+good-natured soldiers of the regular army had followed the habits of
+their country in assisting their temporary hosts in their various rural
+pursuits. The Swedes were greeted by the people of Silesia with great
+enthusiasm, out of gratitude for the improved conditions which the
+emperor had granted them, at the request of the king. Charles XII. thus
+made good, in a measure, the acts of violence committed by the Swedish
+army during the Thirty Years' War, and proved that he had at heart the
+cause of religious liberty.
+
+Czar Peter was now to be punished, when it was too late. The Russians
+had invaded the Baltic provinces and captured the fortress of Noeteborg,
+which Czar Peter gave the new and significant name of Schluesselburg.
+The new Russian capital of St. Petersburg, with formidable fortresses,
+was founded in 1703. The laborers were carried away by force from
+the various parts of the immense empire. They died in great numbers
+of prostration and of fevers, the Swedes also doing their best to
+impede the progress of the work. The vacancies were rapidly filled by
+new multitudes. While the Swedish king was fighting in Poland, the
+provinces of Ingermanland, Esthonia and Livonia were overrun by the
+Russians, who devastated the country with acts of cruelty. Dorpat was
+captured and Narva fell after a bloody conflict, being bravely defended
+by Rudolph Horn. The Russians destroyed the Swedish navy of the Lake
+Peipus and penetrated to the province of Courland where Charles XII.
+had left a considerable detachment of troops. The plan of Czar Peter
+to conquer Courland and cut off Charles from the connections with his
+empire was frustrated by General Adam Louis Lewenhaupt.[4] He met a
+formidable Russian force, several times as numerous as his own, at
+Gemauerthof, near Mitau, which he routed, in 1705.
+
+Sweden stood alone in her struggle with Russia. The old alliance with
+England and Holland was no longer in existence. The continental powers
+were too busily engaged in the West to assist in checking the rising
+power of the Eastern giant. For the limited resources of Sweden he was
+too big already. Charles XII. had with him a stately and well-equipped
+army of 44,000, which, by contemporary authors, was pronounced to
+have consisted of the finest soldiers of the world. Charles was to
+attack Russia from Poland, for the devastated Baltic provinces could
+no longer support an army with the necessary provisions. General
+Lewenhaupt was to join him from Livonia with an army of 12,000 men and
+ample provisions. Another Swedish commander, General Lybecker, was to
+attack and destroy St. Petersburg, with an army of the same size, from
+his headquarters in Finland. The total of Swedish troops distributed
+in various directions amounted to 100,000, the largest regular army
+Sweden ever had put up. Charles had concluded to engage semi-barbarous
+allies in a battle against a semi-barbarous enemy. In 1707 he entered
+into an alliance with Turkey, and, about the same time, another with
+Mazeppa, an old ambitious Cossack leader who wanted to establish his
+supremacy over the steppes of Russia. The plans of Charles XII. for the
+invasion of Russia have often been severely criticised, but competent
+judges of our day have declared that they were not only elaborate but
+highly ingenious. They miscarried on account of arrangements which
+could not be made according to expectations, and on account of Czar
+Peter's practice of laying bare and waste the parts of his own country
+through which the invaders were to pass. Furthermore, Charles had sent
+home to Sweden several of his best generals, such as Arvid Horn and
+Magnus Stenbock. This was done after the successes in Poland, and was
+a good thing in itself, for the men mentioned were exactly those who
+were destined to save the very existence and honor of a country which
+was deprived of its political grandeur through the heedlessness of
+King Charles. But without them he was surrounded by inexperienced men
+only. Charles Gustavus Rehnskiold was the most conspicuous of these, a
+valiant but reckless man, who only understood certain details of the
+elaborate expedition.
+
+When the Swedes were approaching Russian territory, Czar Peter made
+offers of peace which the French ambassador urged Charles to accept.
+Charles answered: "He does not mean it. He wishes the world to believe
+that he wants peace and I war." Czar Peter had organized his army
+through a wonderful exertion of energy, built new fortresses and
+strengthened the old ones, enforced discipline and gathered ammunition.
+Able officers had been trained in the repeated conflicts with the
+Swedes. These took the lead of the army movements.
+
+Charles left Poland with somewhat more than 30,000 men, entering
+Lithuania and chasing the Russians before him. A last great victory
+was won by Charles XII. at Holovzin in Lithuania, in 1708. The Swedish
+army crossed the Dniepr and marched to Mohilev. Charles lingered in
+this place for a month, anxiously awaiting the arrival of General
+Lewenhaupt. The latter remained in Livonia during all this time, the
+letter ordering him to join the central army not reaching him in due
+time. The march was continued toward Smolensk, but King Charles thought
+that he could only reach Moscow over that route with the greatest
+difficulty, and changed his course, marching toward the Ukraine to
+join Mazeppa and the Tartars. Mazeppa had been vexed by the long
+delay, and was, besides, not able to gather the forces which he had
+promised. Czar Peter captured his stronghold, and Mazeppa reached the
+Swedish army more like a fugitive than an ally. The expedition of
+General Lybecker against St. Petersburg proved a failure. Lewenhaupt,
+who had at last received his order, moved into Russia. At Liesna he
+met a hostile army considerably larger than his own. After a fierce
+battle, which involved a great loss of life, Lewenhaupt broke through
+the Russian lines. He had been forced to destroy the great amount of
+provisions which he had gathered, and reached the army of King Charles
+in a very different state than was anticipated. The king found himself
+in a difficult position, being cut off from all connections with his
+country and in want of provisions.
+
+The battle of Pultowa, which was fought June 28, 1709, decided for
+centuries the contest over the political supremacy of Northern Europe.
+Charles XII., with his army, which had been reduced to 18,000 men,
+laid siege to the important town of Pultowa, by the river Vorskla.
+The Russian army, 50,000 strong, under the command of Czar Peter,
+hastened toward the enemy. The fear of the terrible Swedes was as
+yet so strong in them that they did not risk an attack, but built a
+strongly fortified camp. King Charles, with his army in distress,
+further reduced to only 12,000 men, and in want even of ammunition,
+saw no other way than to fight. He was himself wounded in the foot
+and unable to take command in person. General Rehnskiold, who led the
+cavalry, acted as general commander during the battle, which position
+he was not able to fill; Lewenhaupt commanded the right wing with
+decided success. He forced the enemy to abandon three of its seven
+forts, and saw it once inclined to leave in flight. The left wing of
+the Swedish army was brought into disorder and receded. King Charles,
+who suffered greatly from his wounded foot, was carried on a litter
+between the lines, encouraging his soldiers and dealing out new orders.
+The litter was soon shattered, and the horse which the king mounted was
+shot under him. He saved himself by accepting the horse of one of his
+officers. Rehnskiold, who appeared nervous and confused, offered only
+a lame assistance with the cavalry. While riding back and forth in his
+heedless anxiety to be useful, without obtaining his object, he rode
+into the Russian lines and was made a prisoner. The same fate befell
+Count Piper, the aged adviser of King Charles. Lewenhaupt kept up his
+heroic struggle on the right wing, but his forces were greatly reduced
+by the fire of the Russian artillery. The Swedes had lost the battle.
+Their infantry had especially suffered great losses. A great number of
+the ablest officers were killed or made prisoners. As an illustration
+may be quoted the fact that among the killed were twenty-two officers
+of the Wrangel family. The Russians made no fierce pursuit, and the
+remnants of the Swedish army were given time to recede to the shore
+of the Dniepr where this river is joined by the Vorskla. The change
+of route toward the Ukraine had been made contrary to the advice of
+Count Piper; the march to the Dniepr was made contrary to that of Count
+Lewenhaupt. The Swedish troops were in fact shut in between the mighty
+rivers, which they lacked the means to cross, and the surrounding
+mountains, lined with Russian artillery. Charles was unwilling to leave
+his army, but Lewenhaupt persuaded him to save his life. Mazeppa had
+crossed the Dniepr with his troops. Charles followed in the night
+of July 1st with 1,000 of his men. With 500 Swedes Charles reached
+the Turkish town of Bender, where he was at first resolved to remain
+only until his wound was healed. Lewenhaupt, who now was in command,
+surrendered to the Russians the following morning, with all the rest of
+the army. This course was inevitable; another battle would only have
+caused new and useless sacrifices of human lives.
+
+A sad fate awaited the Swedes in Russian captivity. Only a few saw
+their homes again, after years of suffering. Rehnskiold was among
+these. The majority, like Lewenhaupt and Piper, died in captivity.
+Considerable information about the experiences of the Swedish prisoners
+in Russia is found in their memoirs and note-books, preserved to
+this day. It appears that the treatment which they received varied
+greatly, according to circumstances. Czar Peter wished to keep the
+Swedish captives in the country as long as possible, with the object
+of favorably influencing his barbarous subjects by their superior
+abilities and culture. He had commanded clemency in their treatment;
+but his orders must have been disobeyed, for many Swedish soldiers
+are known to have perished in the sulphur mines. In Tobolsk and other
+towns of Siberia, Swedish majors and captains were in great numbers
+occupied in the humble pursuits of teachers, barbers, tailors, painters
+and blacksmiths. Some kept shops and others made articles of the
+Swedish sloyd, in which there was no competition in the market. The
+pastimes were music and theatricals. There were, among these thousands
+of prisoners, 9 generals, 17 colonels, 27 lieutenant-colonels, 38
+majors, 494 captains, 975 lieutenants, 67 ministers of the Gospel,
+etc. A good many of these were Swedish subjects of German descent,
+or foreigners in Swedish service. The prisoners tried their best to
+make it as pleasant for themselves as possible. They formed a little
+community of their own in Moscow, with Piper and Rehnskiold as their
+highest officials. Georg Nordberg, pastor of the body-guards, was made
+the president of a chapter-house, which held church conferences, issued
+texts for special services, examined and consecrated ministers. Czar
+Peter tried to attract some of the ablest officers to him by promises
+of liberty and remunerative positions. Many of the captives, seeing
+no prospect of freedom, decided to remain in the country, entered the
+Greek church and married Russian women. Some who could not endure
+captivity made a revolt at Kasan, killing the armed troops, and making
+an attempt to reach their own beloved country. The plot was frustrated
+and was of sinister consequences, for the Swedish captives commenced
+from that time, 1711, to be transported to Siberia in great numbers.
+This was only to move the important work of civilization eastward. The
+captives, instead of succumbing to the severe climate, unfolded the
+great energy of their race, cheerfully accommodating their lives to
+the new requirements and devoting their time to travels for scientific
+research, or mercantile purposes, in Russian service, or on their
+own responsibility. They made accounts and maps of undiscovered and
+unexplored parts of Siberia, gathering results which have been of great
+importance to later explorers, geologists and ethnographers. Principal
+among these scientists are Philip John von Strahlenberg, whose great
+book on Siberia was published in Leipsic in 1730, and John Anton Matern
+and Peter Schoenstroem, his collaborators; John Gustavus Renat, made a
+prisoner by the Kalmucks, whom he taught the secrets of manufacturing
+cannon and bombs, and of printing books with movable types; Lorenz
+Lange, who was secretary of several Russian embassies to the imperial
+court of China, about which country he has given valuable information;
+John B. Muller, John Schnitscher and Ambjoern Molin. Tobolsk was the
+centre of the Swedish colonies in Siberia, where a peculiar sect
+grew up among those of deep religious sentiment. A sectarian school,
+with more than 100 pupils, was established, and the German pietist,
+Aug. Herrman Francke, for some time supported the movement. Governor
+Gagarin, who wanted to make himself ruling sovereign of Siberia,
+arranged a formidable conspiracy. It was discovered, the governor was
+hanged, and the Swedish captives who were involved in it were sent
+still further away to Nerschinsk.
+
+If Charles XII., up to the date of the terrible battle of Pultowa,
+has deserved our sympathy, in spite of his faults and mistakes, it is
+impossible to look upon him in the same charitable light for the rest
+of his career. The great defeat and the loss of his army he described
+in letters to his sister, Ulrica Eleonore, and the state council, as
+small misfortunes, without consequence, which he was soon to repair.
+Instead of trying his utmost to obtain peace on the best possible
+conditions for his poor country, and instead of saving his unhappy army
+from the miseries of captivity, he made plans for new campaigns and
+demands for a new army. Czar Peter expressed more correct views of the
+situation. A few hours after the battle of Pultowa he wrote to Admiral
+Apraxin: "Now rests at last secure our city on the Neva." And he was
+right. The period of the political grandeur of Sweden was at an end.
+
+Great was the renowned heroism of Charles XII. and his warriors. Still
+greater, although less renowned, the heroism with which his poor and
+neglected country suffered the disasters which these glorious deeds
+brought upon it. The regular troops of the army created by Charles
+XI. had not been sufficient. New regiments were, one after the other,
+created by means of increased taxes and repeated enlistments, until
+it appeared as if the whole male population was to be sent out in the
+endless wars, to be killed or imprisoned, and the distressed country
+doomed to inevitable destruction. Plague, hunger and emigration
+threatened to make away with those spared from military service. Swedes
+of the nineteenth century have difficulty in apprehending how the
+country was able to endure such terrible hardships.
+
+The consequences of the defeat at Pultowa soon became manifest. The
+enemies of Sweden had formed a better idea of the resources of the
+country than had its own ruler, and were resolved to profit by it.
+King August at once declared the treaty of Alt-Ranstaedt to be null
+and void, and entered Poland, where he in a short time recovered
+his lost authority. Stanislav fled and sought a refuge on Swedish
+territory. King Charles later gave him his little hereditary land
+of Palatinate-Zweibrucken. King Frederic of Denmark declared war
+upon untenable grounds and had an army of 16,000 men invade Scania.
+Helsingborg was captured without difficulty. Great consternation was
+caused by this assault upon the unhappy and apparently defenceless
+country. The state council was brought to despair. The situation was
+saved by Count Magnus Stenbock, the able general. After having served
+as quartermaster-general of the Swedish army in Poland, he was sent
+back to Sweden, being governor-general of Scania at the time when this
+province was invaded. He had not with him the necessary troops to meet
+the enemy, but left for Smaland, where he gathered an army of peasants,
+chiefly consisting of inexperienced but sturdy youths in wooden shoes
+and coats of goatskins. From Vexio, where he had met his new mustered
+troops, Stenbock returned to Scania, in February, 1710, obtaining the
+reinforcements of a few additional regiments, which swelled his army
+to the number of 14,000 men. The well-equipped Danish force, which,
+after an expedition into Bleking, returned to Scania, made a good deal
+of fun of the "Stenbuk og hands Gededrenge" (the mountain buck and his
+goatherds). Governor Stenbock understood how to gain the confidence and
+rouse the patriotism of his "goatherds." He was soon sufficiently sure
+of their ability to risk a battle, which was fought at Helsingborg,
+February 28, 1710. The Danes, commanded by George Rantzau, were routed,
+and sought a refuge behind the walls of the town. The Danish losses
+were 4,000 killed and wounded and 3,000 prisoners, with their camp,
+artillery and baggage. A few days later the Danes evacuated Scania,
+returning to Seeland. The victory of Helsingborg was the most glorious
+of the battles fought by Magnus Stenbock. It saved Sweden in the hour
+of direst distress, rekindling the hope which the battle of Pultowa had
+extinguished. It was the last time in Swedish history that the Danes
+entered Scania as enemies.
+
+The victory at Helsingborg was only one bright star in a night of
+darkness. In the Baltic provinces the disasters followed close upon
+each other. Count Nils Stromberg, the governor-general of Livonia,
+was forced to surrender the town of Riga, July 1, 1710, after having
+fought the Russians for months with great bravery. The enemies which
+forced the able Stromberg to give up his cause were hunger and
+plagues. Not less than 40,000 Russians had lost their lives outside the
+walls of Riga. Within a few months Duenamuende, Pernau and Reval also
+surrendered. This made complete the Russian conquest of the Swedish
+empire in the Baltic provinces. The operations against Finland, begun
+earlier, were continued with success. The town and fortress of Viborg,
+which never had been occupied by foreign troops, were captured in June,
+and Kexholm in September. The country was unmercifully devastated, in
+spite of solemn promises to the contrary.
+
+That under such circumstances discontent against the absolute ruler
+was fostered seems only natural. During the first few years of the
+Carolinian campaign the noise of the great victories was stronger than
+the voices of discontent and complaint. When the glorious battles were
+not followed by treaties of peace, the grumbling voices grew louder.
+The king was at first not the object of the growing discontent, but
+the state council, which was considered to make greater demands than
+were necessary. The king was supposed to fight for a righteous cause
+against treacherous enemies, but the truth dawned on a good many that
+a government invested with absolute power was the cause of the misery.
+The battle of Pultowa brought to a mature state the thoughts of a
+change in the constitution, thoughts which for years had occupied the
+ablest men of the country. The double government was to a great extent
+responsible for the bad state of affairs. The king tried to rule with
+absolute power from his headquarters in Saxony, Poland and the Ukraine,
+with Piper as his adviser. At home the state council held the reins of
+government and sometimes acted in direct opposition to the instructions
+or intentions of the king. Charles XII. was very jealous of his power,
+and the state council, foremost in which were a few men of the very
+highest ability, like Count Arvid Horn, was on this account sometimes
+unable to carry out its best endeavors. Charles by his methods brought
+confusion and uncertainty into the deliberations and acts of the
+government, injuring the commonwealth and the principles of an absolute
+monarchy as well. The king was not able to supervise the details of his
+administration, and unrighteous officers profited thereby, by their
+unlawful collections of taxes, causing open revolts of the suffering
+population in various parts of the country.
+
+The state council took no pains to hide the truth from the king, rather
+using strong colors in their descriptions of the critical condition
+in order to obtain the much-sought-for and needed peace, or at least
+the gratification of seeing the armies of the country used exclusively
+for the defence of its own possessions. King Charles considered the
+members of the state council as a body of weaklings, cowards and fools,
+who painted the devil on the wall because they lacked the courage
+and endurance to await the final and infallible triumph of his royal
+arms in a righteous cause. The climax was reached after the arrival
+of Charles at Bender. The state council commenced to negotiate for
+peace on its own responsibility. It also convoked a committee of the
+Estates of the Riksdag to a meeting for deliberations on measures
+which would better the hopeless conditions of the state and people.
+King Charles learned of it and sent from Bender a remarkable order, in
+which he absolutely forbade such meetings, "especially because the last
+convention of the Estates," he wrote, "had no other consequence than to
+let them still plainer discover their impoverished condition."
+
+King Charles lingered in Bender, fascinated by the plans made by
+several Turkish princes of an armed support against his enemies, or
+at least an escort of troops for his return through Poland. The king
+succeeded in his efforts to force the sultan of Turkey to an attack on
+Russia. The Turks, 200,000 strong, made an invasion, according to plans
+drawn up by Charles, and were successful in completely surrounding a
+Russian army, commanded by Czar Peter in person, at the shores of the
+river Pruth. The czar saved himself by a supreme effort, sacrificing
+all his gold and the jewels of the czarina as bribes to the grand
+vizier, who commanded the Turkish army. This dignitary let the Russians
+escape, thus spoiling the plans of the whole campaign. To Charles it
+was a great disappointment. His hope to see the Russian giant crushed,
+and the defeat at Pultowa avenged, was gone forever. His plan of
+reaching Poland with Turkish troops to join Stenbock and a Swedish army
+was shaken with the loss of confidence in his barbarous allies. The
+perfidious grand vizier was punished, but the agreement of peace which
+he had made with the czar was sanctioned by the sultan, in 1711.
+
+The Swedish state council was quite reluctant to obey the repeated
+orders of the king for a new army, hesitating to impose new burdens
+upon the suffering people. The king grew impatient and there was no
+escape possible. Magnus Stenbock, the most popular man in all Sweden,
+set an example of personal sacrifices which was followed by many
+others, and a new army of 9,000 men was at last equipped with a navy to
+carry it across the Baltic to Pomerania. Stenbock landed in the island
+of Rugen, in September, 1712, and increased his army to 14,000. He
+abandoned the idea to march toward Poland because the king remained at
+Bender, and entered Mecklenburg after having skilfully avoided meeting
+a superior force of Russian and Saxon troops, which followed him at a
+distance. Negotiations of peace had been commenced before the arrival
+of Stenbock, between the dethroned Stanislav of Poland, who was then in
+Pomerania, and King August. This caused a standstill in the operations,
+an armistice of a fortnight having been agreed to, with a prospect of
+renewal. The Danes made an end to it, entering Mecklenburg in December.
+When the armistice was at an end, Stenbock hastened with his troops
+to Gadebusch, where the Danish army was encamped, by this rapid move
+preventing the latter from joining the Russian and Saxon forces. Only a
+detachment of Saxon cavalry had succeeded in reaching the Danish camp.
+The battle of Gadebusch was fought December 9, 1712, and was the last
+of the great victories on land that a Swedish army ever won on the
+Continent. The Danes were crushingly defeated, and their allies found
+it safest to return to their former fortified positions. The Swedish
+artillery, commanded by Charles Cronstedt, distinguished itself in
+this battle against an enemy of superior strength. But Stenbock could
+not for any length of time keep up the struggle against the armies of
+three countries, not receiving any support from Sweden, nor sufficient
+provisions in Mecklenburg. When the Danes burned the town of Stade,
+Stenbock in revenge burned Altona, toward the end of the year. His
+army was reduced for lack of provisions, and Stenbock saw no other
+course to take than to shut himself up with his troops in the fortress
+of Toenning, in the possession of the young duke of Holstein-Gottorp.
+Stenbock persevered in his hopes for support from Sweden, or friendly
+powers, in vain. Efforts were made in Sweden to send him troops and
+provisions, but did not prove successful. When death from starvation
+was impending, the valiant general concluded to surrender. May 6, 1713,
+it was agreed that Stenbock and his army of 11,000 men should become
+Danish prisoners, but that they should be exchanged at the earliest
+opportunity. King Frederic IV. of Denmark dishonestly neglected to
+fulfil this agreement, repeatedly and flatly refusing to exchange
+any of the prisoners. The hero of the victories at Helsingborg and
+Gadebusch at first received a tolerably good treatment in Danish
+captivity, which later was changed in a horrible manner. After years
+of cruel suffering, he died in a miserable dungeon, in 1717, one year
+prior to the death of Charles XII. This great descendant of Eric
+Stenbock and Magdalen Sture tried to kill the time of his captivity by
+carving in ivory, some articles of exquisite design by his hand still
+being preserved.
+
+At the surrender of Toenning, Sweden lost her last army and her ablest
+general. Her king dwelt among the Turks in circumstances fraught with
+increasing dangers, and her enemies on every side stood ready for
+attack, the country being a prey to discontent and despair. Still her
+measure of misery and contumely was not filled.
+
+Charles XII. persevered in his strange sojourn at Bender, being
+a guest who caused the sultan continual worry through his great
+political influence. The king was resolved to leave Turkey only in one
+manner, and that was escorted by a Turkish force. He was successful
+in persuading the sultan to declare war on Russia once more, but
+Czar Peter hastened to make so many concessions that peace was made
+before any campaign was begun. King Frederic of Prussia offered
+Charles an alliance on the condition that he should at once return
+to Sweden. Charles seemed at last inclined to do so, but then a
+conspiracy was brought to his notice, disclosing a plan by which the
+perfidious Turkish princes of his intended escort were to deliver
+him into the hands of King August of Poland. King Charles refused to
+leave Poland, and the conspirators effected an order from the sultan
+to attack Charles with an army of 10,000 men, and bring him, dead
+or alive, to Adrianople. The order was executed February 11, 1713,
+Charles defending himself with his few hundred Swedes and some Poles
+of his escort against the overwhelming force of Turks and Tartars. The
+house of the king, near Bender, had been strongly fortified for the
+occasion. When the trenches were taken most of his men surrendered,
+but Charles remained with fifty Swedes in the house, which was built
+of wood, warding off the attack and putting the enemy to flight with
+a heroism vividly recalling the tales of the ancient Sagas. The Turks
+returned toward evening and ignited the building. The Swedes valiantly
+continued their struggle, fighting with their swords against the Turks,
+surrounded by heavy fire and by the smoke of the burning building. The
+king at last was forced to leave the house and tried to make his way
+to the neighboring chancery building, which was of stone and better
+fit to withstand an attack. Charles stumbled and fell, and was at once
+made prisoner, together with his followers. This peculiar incident,
+which has been called the Kalabalik, or Popular Tumult, of Bender,
+aroused universal surprise and dislike. Charles was conducted to a
+Turkish pasha, who treated him with respect. He was under supervision
+first at the town of Demotika, later at the palace of Timurtasz, both
+in the vicinity of Adrianople. Charles considered it incompatible
+with his royal dignity to call on the grand vizier. For this reason
+it was given out that he was ill, and in his miraculous stubbornness
+he persevered in keeping his bed for a whole year! During all this
+time, Charles followed up his policy of governing Sweden from afar
+with absolute despotism. He prepared new rules for the chancery,
+attempting to change the form of administration from one of faculties,
+or colleges, to one of departments, or bureaus. He made negotiations
+of peace in the same spirit as of yore, viz., without being willing
+to make any concessions, and planned new campaigns. For recreation he
+played chess and listened to music.
+
+In Sweden the peculiar Turkish adventures of Charles XII. were not
+understood or appreciated, and the country seemed forsaken by all,
+even by the king, who by many was thought to be insane. The state
+council saw no possibility of maintaining a government without the
+consent and goodwill of the people. Plans for a new constitution,
+a reduction of the royal power and a peace at any cost were in the
+air. Princess Ulrica Eleonore was called as a member of the state
+council and a Riksdag was convoked, to meet toward the end of 1713.
+The Estates declared that they were, in case of necessity, ready to
+seek peace under the auspices of the princess and the state council,
+and were in favor of appointing the princess to the regency. Arvid
+Horn, the leading spirit of the state council, used the utmost of his
+influence in keeping the Riksdag from the revolutionary acts which
+would be involved in making Ulrica Eleonore regent, but he saw to it
+that the declaration of the Riksdag, of intended peace-making through
+the princess and state council, was communicated to the king. Hans
+Henric von Liewen, one of the state councillors, was selected to
+carry this communication to the king, together with letters from the
+queen-dowager and the state council. Count Liewen gave a full and true
+account to the king, telling him in plain words that if he did not
+return home without delay his kingdom would be lost to him.
+
+King Charles at last decided to return to his country. He sent an
+embassy of seventy-two people to officially announce his departure to
+the sultan at Constantinople, made a loan of a considerable sum of
+money, and left Demotika with a large escort. In Wallachia he left the
+Turks behind, and continued on his way through Hungary and Germany,
+followed by two Swedish officers. The emperor of Germany, who was
+desirous of winning over the Swedish king for his plans, prepared a
+hospitable reception, but Charles passed Vienna _incognito_ as Captain
+Peter Frisk. He rode on, through night and day, taking care of his own
+horse and never changing his clothes. Charles arrived at the gate of
+Stralsund, in Swedish Pomerania, in the night of November 11, 1714,
+accompanied by one officer. In a fortnight he had, on horseback,
+traversed a stretch of 1,300 miles.
+
+The situation at the arrival of Charles XII. in Stralsund was beset
+with new dangers and complications. Prussia had ceased to be friendly
+and was planning to seize the Swedish possessions in Germany. Hanover,
+united with England under the same ruler, had the same ambition. The
+dilapidated fortifications of Stralsund were attacked by Saxons and
+Danes, commanded by their respective kings, August and Frederic. For
+more than a year, Charles, with admirable heroism, withstood the siege.
+Once, while the king was dictating a letter to a secretary, the latter
+sprang to his feet in consternation, a bomb having shattered the roof
+of the building. "The bomb, your majesty, the bomb!" exclaimed the
+scribe. Charles answered: "What connection is there between the bomb
+and my letter?" quietly continuing his dictation. The king found it
+at last impossible to keep up the defence of Stralsund, leaving it a
+stormy December night, and arriving safely in the town of Trelleborg,
+on the southernmost point of Sweden, December 15, 1715.
+
+What a different country that Sweden was which Charles XII. left in
+August, 1699, at the very summit of her political grandeur, to the
+impoverished and suffering Sweden in which he had now landed! And
+what a different man he had himself become during these sixteen years
+of absence! Sweden had won a new hero king, of greater fame than any
+of his predecessors or successors, but lost her prosperity for the
+time being and her political grandeur forever. The people received
+the king with demonstrations of joy and with reviving hope for an
+honorable peace. The state council and the intelligent few received
+him with badly concealed hopelessness and indifference. They knew that
+although the young ambitious king had changed to a world-famous hero,
+prematurely aged in victory and defeat, the unyielding stubbornness and
+the never satiated desire for glory had remained unchanged in Charles
+XII. Charles was met by a message from the dying queen-dowager, his
+grandmother, with an ardent prayer for peace. Charles answered to hopes
+and prayers, to silent indifference and despair, with a command of
+more money and more troops! He wanted peace, but as he spoke in the
+same terms as when he was the victorious commander of an apparently
+invincible army, nobody cared to consider his demands in earnest. The
+absolute power reached its last stage of development, a military
+despotism which had no other policy than war, no other administration
+than the one requisite to maintain and provide the requirements of war.
+The state council fell in deepest disgrace, and its functions ceased,
+in 1715.
+
+During the last years of his reign, Charles XII. took no advice of
+Swedish men. Foreign adventurers and schemers were in charge of the
+affairs of state, principal among whom was Baron George Henric Goertz.
+This man was a minister of state of the young duke of Holstein-Gottorp,
+in whose service he remained, and in whose interests, as a successor
+to Charles XII. on the throne of Sweden, he zealously worked, while
+developing into the all-powerful minister of the Swedish king. Charles
+granted him authority to act in his name in almost every branch of
+the government, interior as well as foreign. Goertz was a genius, but
+utterly reckless. For his acts the king was responsible, not he.
+Goertz was a foreigner and working for the cause of a foreign master.
+He tried to obtain loans abroad, made compulsory loans within the
+country, placed a tax on articles of luxury, and put in circulation
+coins of copper which were a kind of "promissory notes," worthless in
+themselves, but each representing a Swedish dollar. At first these
+"coins of need" were issued to the amount of a sensible sum, but were
+soon increased in number at the command of Charles XII. himself, so
+that they represented higher sums than the crown could redeem, and thus
+lost their value. The people refused to take them, while the prices of
+everything in the market rose to an astounding height. The government,
+in order to save itself from this difficulty, took possession of all
+coined money and uncoined silver, and gave the "coins of need" in
+exchange, perpetrating several other scandalous acts of violence
+against the rights of private property.
+
+The situation grew almost insupportable. Commerce and industry, injured
+by the war, ceased entirely because nobody was inclined to sell, only
+to receive in exchange worthless coins. Wars and hard years combined in
+creating misery and distress everywhere. The peasants were recklessly
+treated, and a disregard for moral obligations grew out of the bad
+examples set by the government. The students and scientists had in
+great numbers been carried away by the bloody wars, and the interest
+in the fields of culture was slackened by the power of financial
+depression. The wealthy and well-to-do saw their means daily diminish,
+and, losing their interest in public welfare, they tried to save the
+remnants of their own property. The members of the state council were
+threatened by investigations which Goertz and his friends were scheming
+to institute against them. In the nobility, the plans for a change of
+the constitution matured, the leaders in this movement being Count Per
+Ribbing and the old Gyllencreutz, who had prophesied the outcome of an
+absolute monarchial government.
+
+Charles XII., in spite of his all-absorbing passion for war, did not
+lack interest for the pursuits of peace. He encouraged several men
+of genius, of whom two were eminently worthy of distinction; viz.,
+Nicodemus Tessin, Junior, the architect, and Christopher Polhem, the
+engineer.
+
+Nicodemus Tessin was born in Nykoeping in 1654. His father and namesake
+belonged to an old Pomeranian family, and had come to Sweden during
+the reign of Queen Christine. Nicodemus Tessin, Senior, was an able
+architect, who built the castle of Drottningholm for Queen-dowager
+Hedvig Eleonore, a moderately gifted but art-loving woman. The latter
+gathered around herself artists and architects at her castle of
+Drottningholm, in Lake Maelar, among whom were Ehrenstrahl, a famous
+artist of German birth, who founded the first school of Swedish
+painters. The younger Tessin belonged to this circle and was, in their
+respective times, in the favor of Charles XI. and Charles XII., acting
+as court architect to both. The work which won for him an immortal fame
+is the royal palace of Stockholm, an architectural creation worthy of
+the admiration of all Europe, and, in Sweden, standing unsurpassed
+to this day. It was planned and commenced by Tessin, but completed
+according to his plans a hundred years after his death. Charles XI.
+ordered a reconstruction of the old castle, which enterprise Tessin
+undertook. Shortly after the death of Charles XI., both the old and
+the reconstructed parts of the palace were burned, and the body of
+the king with difficulty saved from the conflagration. Charles XII.
+ordered Tessin to build an entirely new palace. The work was commenced
+in 1698, but was gradually abandoned during the war times, to cease
+shortly before the battle of Pultowa. Charles was highly interested in
+it and wrote from Turkey to Tessin about his views. Tessin intended
+to decorate the exterior according to the taste of his day, but
+Charles raised opposition, finding the severe beauty of the stern yet
+graceful outlines perfect in themselves. The work on the new palace
+was recommenced after the death of Charles XII. King Adolphus Frederic
+was the first who took up his residence within its walls. Tessin rose
+high on the social ladder. From Turkey, the king made him a count and
+chancellor of the University of Lund; after his return to Sweden he
+appointed him marshal-colonel. Tessin stood in strong opposition to
+Baron Goertz, and after the death of King Charles joined the leaders of
+the revolutionary nobles. He was of universal fame.
+
+Christopher Polhem was the first of great Swedish engineers and
+inventors. He was born at the ancient town of Visby, in the island
+of Gothland, in 1661, and was the son of a merchant, who died when
+Christopher was a child. When only twelve years of age he had to make
+his own living. As secretary to a widow of wealth, he early developed
+his genius as a mechanician, building his own shop of carpentry, sloyd,
+etc., making watches and devising smaller inventions. His want of a
+classical education was detrimental to him, and he commenced, when
+twenty-four years of age, to study Latin with various ministers in the
+country, in exchange for works of his genius and handicraft. At last he
+was able to enter the University of Upsala by means of recommendations
+from his last teacher. Soon after his arrival he created considerable
+attention and admiration by a proof of his ingenuity. Behind the
+high altar in the Upsala Cathedral there was a clock of the finest
+workmanship, devised in mediaeval times by a monk of the monastery of
+Vadstena. It was out of order, and not for a hundred years had anybody
+attempted to set it right. Polhem undertook to reconstruct the whole
+work, connecting with the main mechanism all the hands which pointed
+out the hours of the day, the eclipses of the moon and the motions
+of the "ruling" planets, according to the system of the astrologers.
+Polhem succeeded in his task, and was allowed to test his invention of
+automatic haulers of ore in the mines. The college of mining, before
+which the invention was successfully demonstrated, accepted it, and
+Charles XI. appointed Polhem a mining engineer. In 1694, Polhem made
+an extensive journey through England and the Continent. In Paris
+he learned that several mathematicians were in vain endeavoring to
+construct a clock which would simultaneously show the time of the day
+in various countries and strike the hours at the same time. Polhem
+announced through the Swedish ambassador in Paris that he was willing
+to solve the problem. He constructed a model which gave universal
+satisfaction. Louis XIV. had a clock made after this model and gave it
+as a gift of honor to the Turkish sultan. Upon his return he proposed
+the founding of a _laboratorium mechanicum_, which in several respects
+served as a pattern for the later technological institutes of Stockholm
+and Gothenburg. The youthful Charles XII. embraced the idea with
+interest, but the promising institution came to a standstill during the
+wars. Among Polhem's more remarkable inventions was one for the leading
+of water-power, to be used at considerable distances. Charles XII. said
+that a man like Polhem was not to be had for several centuries, and
+that for this reason he ought to be made useful as long as he lived.
+A task of gigantic proportions was intrusted to him--the construction
+of a dock for the navy yards at Carlskrona. The great engineer filled
+it in an admirable way, and was appointed councillor of commerce and
+ennobled under the name of Polhem, his original name having been
+Polhammar, which to modern ears sounds just as fine and a good deal
+more suggestive.
+
+Another gigantic task worthy of the genius of Polhem was the
+construction of a navigable route from the North Sea across the great
+inland seas of Sweden to the Baltic, but he was not allowed to finish
+it. Charles XII. intrusted the work to Polhem, who was to have it
+ready in five years. In 1718, Polhem commenced by forming an immense
+sluice, by means of explosions in the rock at Trollhetta. The great
+waterfalls of said place were to be avoided and the work of completing
+the sluice was begun, when it was all destroyed by unknown enemies,
+who dropped beams and planks in the river above, which carried away
+the dam. The death of King Charles and the impoverished condition of
+the country made it impossible to continue the work on the great canal
+system, which had to wait for more than a century for its ultimate
+completion. With the death of Charles XII. the era of ambitious
+enterprises came to an end; but Polhem was employed in various works
+of mechanic improvements in the interest of agriculture, industry and
+manufactures. Czar Peter of Russia, King George I. of England, and
+several other monarchs made brilliant offers in order to win Polhem
+for their countries. He executed several works and inventions abroad,
+but loved his own country too much to leave it. Polhem exerted a
+great influence in the interest of his science, both by instruction
+and by the publication of technical works. Active to the last, he
+died in 1751. Polhem was a man of a harmonious endowment, amiable
+and dignified, and preserved his plain mode of living throughout his
+brilliant career.
+
+Goertz led with superior skill the negotiations for peace, while the
+impoverished country suffered untold miseries as a consequence of his
+unscrupulous financial schemes. He tried to benefit by the sudden but
+lasting enmity between Czar Peter and George I., desiring to gain the
+support of either against the other. The deliberations were held in the
+archipelago of Aland, with Goertz as the representative of the Swedish
+government. Czar Peter wanted to keep Ingermanland, Esthonia and
+Livonia, but was ready to cede Finland, which country he occupied, and
+to assist King Charles with troops in an attack on Denmark. Norway was
+to be the compensation for the lost Baltic provinces, and the attack on
+Denmark was to be made from Germany. Charles XII. had no confidence in
+the czar as an ally and had commenced the conquest of Norway directly
+and without his aid. No decision was reached in the negotiations with
+England.
+
+In February, 1716, Charles XII., from Bohuslaen and Vermland, made an
+invasion into Norway, penetrating over the Glom River to Christiania.
+He captured the capital, where he held his headquarters for several
+weeks, but was not able to take the fortress of Akershus, which, with
+its artillery, commanded the city. The Swedish army, 10,000 strong,
+suffered a great deal from want of provisions and through a guerilla
+war, skilfully conducted by the Norwegians. Charles was in danger
+of being surrounded by the enemy, and with difficulty retreated to
+Sweden, over the Strait of Svinesund. The dangers were increased by
+the Norwegian naval hero, Peter Tordenskiold, who, with some Danish
+ships under his command, had destroyed a flotilla of Swedish transport
+vessels. An invasion into Scania by Denmark and her allies was planned
+for the summer, but did not materialize. King Charles took up his
+headquarters at Lund.
+
+The war offered no aspect of interest during the year 1717, except some
+unsuccessful attempts made by Tordenskiold to capture the towns of
+Stroemstad and Gothenburg. Charles prepared another attack on Norway,
+and, by draining the last resources of his country, managed to equip
+an army of 60,000 men. In August, 1718, a smaller army, under the
+command of Charles Gustavus Armfelt, was sent through Jemtland over the
+mountains into the diocese of Drontheim. King Charles, with an army of
+30,000 men, invaded Norway from Bohuslaen, Dal and Vermland, and took
+in possession the country east of the Glom River. Within a few days
+the king laid siege to the fortress of Fredericsten, close by the town
+of Fredricshall. November 27th the fort of Gyldenloeve was captured,
+and the Swedes moved their trenches ever closer to the fortress, which
+seemed doomed to surrender. In the evening of November 30th the king
+was seen in one of the trenches watching the work of his soldiers, and
+leaning against the rampart. He remained there a long time, not heeding
+the appeals of his officers, who grew uneasy on account of the apparent
+danger to his person. Suddenly his head sank down on his breast. A
+bullet from the fortress had reached him, penetrating his temples and
+causing instant death. He met death in the manner he most desired it,
+although not while engaged in battle.
+
+Charles XII. was of an enigmatic character, which attracts, through
+its strength and superiority over his contemporaries, but which
+is repulsive through its tenacity, unyielding sternness and
+inaccessibility to reason or persuasion. His moral greatness has won
+admiration. It had its limitations, but was superior to the standards
+of his time. His ideals were pure and lofty, but, through lack of
+contact with the realities and facts of life, only assumed a tragic
+grandeur, without proving beneficent to mankind. His faults were such
+that his education and experience as an absolute monarch aggravated
+them. Charles XII. was the most remarkable man of his age and one of
+the greatest soldiers that ever lived. He was also a great general,
+although the proper balance between the soldier and the field marshal,
+perhaps, was to some extent lacking. The influence of his personality
+and example had a miraculous effect upon his soldiers. He suffered his
+one great defeat in open battle when wounded, suffering, and not able
+to exert his usual influence to its full extent.
+
+Charles XII. has been idolized by his countrymen of all ages, who
+in him have recognized an impersonation of all their chief national
+virtues, with a few of their national faults, enlarged into the image
+of a patriotic hero of almost supernatural grandeur. The Swedish people
+were forced to accept absolute power as a salvation from the impending
+thraldom of oligarchy. In Charles XII. it saw to what a climax of abuse
+this power could attain, even in hands which were deemed righteous
+and free from stains. With Charles XII. the political grandeur and
+the absolute monarchy of Sweden came to an end, although attempts to
+restore both were to be made. A new phase of her development, with
+new improvements and new evils, commenced with the reign of Ulrica
+Eleonore.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+_Period of Liberty--The Aristocratic Republic_
+
+
+Ulrica Eleonore succeeded her brother Charles XII as the sovereign
+of Sweden. She was proclaimed queen by birthright, and called the
+Riksdag, willing to cede the absolute power. When the Riksdag convened
+a disagreeable surprise met her. The Estates refused to acknowledge
+her right to the crown, stating that both she and her older sister had
+deprived themselves of their rights of succession by marrying without
+the consent of the Estates of the Riksdag. Princess Hedvig Sophie was
+dead, but her son, the young Duke Charles Frederic of Holstein was
+in Sweden, ready to claim the throne. Ulrica Eleonore was compelled
+to yield gracefully. She sent a note to the Riksdag disclaiming her
+hereditary right, but declaring herself willing to accept the crown,
+with restriction of the absolute power. She was at once elected
+queen by the Riksdag of 1719, which then proceeded to pass a new
+constitution. Such a constitution had been formulated in advance by a
+new party, chiefly consisting of nobles, who aimed at introducing a
+royal government, restricted in its power by the state council and the
+Riksdag. They were successful in their efforts, but unfortunately lost
+their ablest leaders at the start, Per Ribbing dying soon after the
+first Riksdag, and Arvid Horn retiring from the government and council
+on account of a conflict with the queen. Thus the new government did
+not open up under favorable auspices. Baron von Goertz was captured and
+put to death for high treason without being granted the privilege of
+an appropriate legal defence. The queen overstepped her limit of power
+in being the active force in this illegal execution, anxious to rid
+herself of Goertz because he was the ablest man among the supporters
+of Duke Charles Frederic of Holstein. The duke gave up his chances
+and left for Russia, where he married a daughter of Czar Peter. The
+arrangements made to establish order in financial matters were not
+satisfactory. The management of the war with Denmark was miserable. The
+army was recalled from Norway and little done to protect the coast from
+attacks by the Danish fleet under Admiral Tordenskiold. This valiant
+naval hero, of Norwegian birth, who, during the reign of Charles XII.,
+had made unsuccessful attacks on Stroemstad and Gothenburg, through
+cunning captured the strong fortress of Carlsten, but was unable to
+take New Elfsborg. Danckwardt, the commander who surrendered Carlsten,
+was executed by the Swedish government. The Swedish army of 6,000
+men, which had entered the district of Dronthiem by the command of
+Charles XII., perished from hunger and cold when returning through the
+mountains of Jemtland. Only a few hundred survived to tell the terrible
+tale. The Russians sent a fleet to the Swedish shores with 40,000 men,
+and burned, in two expeditions, twelve Swedish towns in the middle
+and northern parts of the country. They avoided open battle, and when
+landing in great numbers were effectively repulsed.
+
+Under such conditions Sweden was anxious for peace. In compensation
+for various sums of money, Bremen and Verden were ceded to Hanover
+in 1719, Pomerania, south of the river Peene, with Stettin, Usedom
+and Wollin to Prussia, in 1720, and Ingermanland, Esthonia, Livonia,
+with Viborg and Kexholm, and surrounding Finnish territory, to Russia,
+in 1721. Denmark had to give up all territory captured from Sweden,
+but received a sum of money in exchange for Carlsten, in 1720. Thus
+the Baltic empire of Sweden was swept away. It had been of importance
+during the time of the German war and for the shielding of new
+conquests in the Scandinavian Peninsula itself. Now its loss was a gain
+for Sweden, as it allowed her to concentrate her attention upon the
+interior development of the country.
+
+The tendency of Ulrica Eleonore to exert more power than was within
+her authority had created dissatisfaction, and when she commenced
+an agitation to have her consort, Prince Frederic of Hesse, share
+the throne with her, the crown was granted him only upon her own
+resignation from the government.
+
+Frederic I. was crowned in 1720 and Ulrica Eleonore retired from
+the government. Frederic left the Reformed and entered the Lutheran
+Church. The crown was to be inherited by his male issues only, in the
+union with Ulrica Eleonore. He showed a tendency for mixing in the
+affairs of state to further his own interests, but soon gave in to his
+easy-tempered, pleasure-loving nature, occupying himself exclusively
+with his hunts and his mistresses.
+
+The real ruler of Sweden, during the first two decades of Frederic's
+reign, was _Arvid Horn_, one of the greatest of Swedish statesmen.
+His was not the work of building up the government of a strong and
+influential nation, like that of Oxenstierna or Gyllenstierna, nor were
+his their grand, far-reaching views. But his mission was to raise
+from the dust his bleeding, downtrodden country, and to reinstall
+it in the honor and respect, not only of itself but of the world.
+Count Arvid Bernhard Horn was an opportunist, but one of the noblest
+kind, who by means of peace found the only way in which to protect
+and further the financial and cultural development of Sweden. He was
+an able soldier and a skilled diplomatist. The son of an illustrious
+but poor family, of the Finnish nobility, he entered the military
+service after a university course at Abo. He served in foreign armies,
+but was with Charles XII. in Stockholm as the best companion of his
+youth. As the commander of the royal body-guard he took an honorable
+part in the early victories of Charles XII., later being chosen to
+fulfil the delicate task of making the Polish nobles elect Stanislav
+king, in which he was eminently successful. After a short captivity he
+was released and returned to Sweden, where he became a member of the
+state council and president of the state chancery. In this position
+he repeatedly sent letters to Charles XII., in which he described the
+distress of the country, in eloquent words pleading its need of peace.
+Upon his return Charles XII. removed him from office with the other
+councillors, although he was the one who had saved the tottering throne
+for the king. Of this Ulrica Eleonore was aware and was glad to accept
+his resignation; when reinstated in his position he found that he
+could not preserve it with dignity in the face of the irregularities
+committed by the queen. Count Horn was responsible for the exclusion
+of Ulrica Eleonore from the government at King Frederic's ascendency,
+but the latter was forced to accept Horn in his former position as the
+controlling power of the government. With due reason, the peaceful and
+honorable decades of Frederic's reign have been named the "Period of
+Arvid Horn."
+
+The new form of government introduced by Ribbing, Horn and others was
+nothing else than that of an aristocratic republic. The rights of
+the monarch, reduced in 1719, were still further reduced in 1720. He
+had two votes in the state council and a deciding vote in deadlock,
+but besides the authority to appoint councillors from the candidates
+nominated by the Riksdag, and to appoint all higher officials, no
+other rights. The government was in the hands of the state council,
+consisting of sixteen members. The Riksdag decided all questions of
+taxes and legislation, and settled issues of peace and war. Each of the
+four Estates was represented in the committees, except in the "secret
+committee," for international affairs, to which no yeoman could be
+chosen. Each Estate had its speaker. The president of the chancery was
+the minister of foreign affairs and consulted the secret committee
+on important questions, being the only head of a department who was
+allowed as a member of the state council. The nobility held the balance
+of power, much to the opposition of the lower Estates, who tried, by
+repeated agitation, to invest the king with the authority held by him
+before the days of absolute power. The nobility had done away with its
+three classes, and, with these abandoned, it was the majority, viz.,
+the lower nobility, who were the governing class. The aristocracy tried
+its best to regain the privileges enjoyed during the reign of Queen
+Christine and Charles X., but Horn forced it to be satisfied with
+those granted by Gustavus Adolphus. The power of the higher nobility
+was forever crushed by the loss of their immense possessions. The
+friction between the nobility and the lower Estates of the Riksdag was
+constant, Horn siding with the former, but keeping them all in check.
+
+Arvid Horn led with superior skill and gentleness the management of
+foreign affairs. All influences from the powers and from the restless
+nobles to involve Sweden in a conflict of war were unsuccessful. A
+treaty was never entered into with any one power without another one
+formed with a power of the opposite continental party to counterbalance
+it. Thus England, France and Russia were unable to make Sweden an
+obedient ally, Horn upholding her independence, maintaining peace and
+inspiring respect. Utterly refusing to accept the bribes which were
+freely offered and considered the indispensable means of obtaining
+diplomatic influence in that day, Horn himself distributed bribes
+to gain his patriotic purposes. Horn's great mistake was to refer
+the decision of foreign affairs in which he was opposed by members
+of the state council to the Riksdag and its secret committee. The
+latter commenced to act independently in important foreign matters. By
+signing an agreement with France, through which Sweden lost its former
+privilege of an independent policy, the committee ultimately caused his
+downfall, in 1738. Arvid Horn then retired, at the age of seventy-two,
+and died a few years later.
+
+During Horn's peaceful administration the financial conditions
+improved, the state debt was reduced and the peaceful trades and
+industries were furthered. The great deed accomplished was the
+completion of a new state law which was published in 1734 and is in
+force to this very day. Arvid Horn was a perfect type of the great
+Carolin era, of pure and severe morals and modest requirements. In a
+day of increasing scepticism and levity, he ostentatiously preserved
+the rigid religious practices of his youth. He showed unreserved
+indignation at the unworthy and immoral conduct of the king, for
+which reason strained relations existed between them. Count Horn was
+of impressive form and carriage, controlling the quick temper of the
+warrior beneath the smooth and dignified bearing of the statesman.
+
+The decades which followed upon the fall of Arvid Horn were stormy
+ones and full of miseries. The friends of peace were called Caps and
+the warlike party Hats. The latter, now in power, commenced a war
+against Russia, which turned out badly, the Swedes being defeated at
+Vilmanstrand, in 1741, and at Helsingfors, in 1742. The government and
+secret committee felt ashamed of their work and had the poor generals,
+Charles Emil Lewenhaupt and Buddenbrock, executed for their lack of
+martial skill and good fortune. Peace was made with Russia in 1743, the
+towns of Fredericshamn, Vilmanstrand and Nyslott, in Finland, being
+ceded by Sweden, and the river Kymene made the boundary line.
+
+Next the Hats had to face a rebellion. In order to please Elizabeth of
+Russia, Czar Peter's daughter, they had selected Charles Peter Ulric,
+her nephew and the son of the duke of Holstein, as heir-apparent to the
+Swedish throne, to which he was the nearest in right, Ulrica Eleonore
+dying without issue, in 1741. But when chosen as Elizabeth's successor
+in Russia, the Hats selected Adolphus Frederic, prince bishop of
+Lubeck, who on his mother's side was a descendant of Gustavus Adolphus.
+This caused popular discontent, the people, forgetful of past enmities,
+desiring to make Crown Prince Frederic of Denmark heir-apparent. The
+peasants at the Riksdag of 1742 proclaimed loudly their desire of a
+personal union with Denmark-Norway, which would establish Scandinavia
+as one solid power against Russia. The peasants of Helsingland and
+Dalecarlia revolted. They gathered, and marching down to Stockholm,
+placed the government in a dangerous position by demanding the
+election of Crown Prince Frederic of Denmark and the execution of the
+two imprisoned generals. In that very moment peace was obtained with
+Russia, and the government persuaded the leaders of the rebellion, who
+had obtained admission to the Riksdag, that Adolphus Frederic must be
+chosen, since it was a part of the treaty of peace. Later the rebels,
+3,500 in number, were forced to surrender. Their principal leader was
+executed.
+
+The Hats were at first led by Count Gyllenborg, who was succeeded
+by the brilliant Count Charles Gustavus Tessin, a son of the great
+architect, Nicodemus Tessin the Younger. Although not a statesman of
+any higher ability, Charles Gustavus Tessin was able to shake the
+oppressive influence of Russia. He was assisted by Prince Adolphus
+Frederic, who said he would rather resign than be a Russian vassal. A
+war seemed imminent, but was averted, Finland in the meantime being
+effectively fortified. The unconquerable fortress of Sveaborg was
+built near Helsingfors, and was the creation of Augustinus Ehrensverd.
+The Hats were eager in their attempts to encourage industry and
+manufacture, but did so at the expense of agriculture, and placed
+immense taxes on imported goods. A pioneer of industry was John
+Alstroemer, who, in his town of Alingsos, built factories of various
+kinds. King Frederic died in 1751.
+
+_Adolphus Frederic_ was a good-natured and gentle man. He was not
+averse to an increased royal authority, but was not energetic enough
+to exert a controlling influence or to push his claims. His consort
+was the ambitious and brilliantly gifted Louise Ulrica, the sister of
+Frederic the Great of Prussia. She tried to inspire the king to action.
+Continually occupied by ambitious schemes, she spoiled them herself,
+through lack of caution and stability. As crown princess, she stood
+close to Count Tessin, whom she hoped to win over for her plans. They
+devised the institution of the knightly orders of the Seraphim, the
+Sword and the North Star, the credit of their introduction being given
+to King Frederic I. Adolphus Frederic was forced to subscribe to the
+same minimum of royal privileges as those enjoyed by Frederic I. At
+court a party was formed which supported the king, who soon commenced
+to oppose the state council. In 1755 this went so far that he refused
+to sign a document from the council. The case was brought before the
+Riksdag, where, in spite of strong opposition from the peasants, a
+resolution was passed indorsing the action of the state council. Count
+Tessin, in friction with the court, resigned from all his positions.
+The Riksdag tried to reinstall him as governor of the royal princes,
+but gave in upon the request of Tessin. The Riksdag went to the extreme
+of having a stamp made of the king's signature, to use in cases where
+he refused to sign, and also took upon itself to engage and dismiss
+teachers for the royal princes. At court indignation rose high, and a
+conspiracy was formed to take possession of the capital, with the state
+council and the speakers of the four Estates, in order to bring about
+a revolution with increased power for the king. The conspiracy was
+discovered, and Count Eric Brahe, Count Jacob Horn and six others of
+its leaders executed.
+
+A new humiliation to the court was Sweden's alliance with Austria,
+Russia and France against Frederic the Great of Prussia. The plans laid
+out by the Swedes were as elaborate as those for the Russian war. But
+on account of poor equipment and repeated change of commanders nothing
+effective was done. When peace was made at Hamburg, in 1762, Sweden
+neither lost nor gained anything. The Swedes had fought no battles, and
+Frederic the Great said he would call the Swedish invasion of Pomerania
+a private fight at the frontier.
+
+The great expense of the profitless war gave the Caps an occasion
+to gain in influence, and at the Riksdag of 1765 they overthrew the
+power of the Hats, in their turn summarily dismissing the councillors
+of their opponents. They introduced perfect liberty of the press
+in 1766, but went too far in their policy of economy, dangerously
+injuring the new industries by the withdrawal of loans and subsidies.
+The expensive factories came to a standstill and skilled workingmen
+emigrated. Popular opinion turned against these repeated changes and
+the endless strife of the parties, and felt inclined to criticise a
+Riksdag which had attained such power without giving a prosperous and
+secure administration in return. Foreign powers, encouraged by the
+court, tried to gain adherents of their various policies by bribes
+to councillors and members of the Riksdag, thus demoralizing state
+politics.
+
+The king received a valuable supporter in the crown prince Gustavus,
+who in 1767 became of age. He prevailed upon the king to resign when
+the state council refused to call an extraordinary Riksdag for the
+granting of added royal authority. The king did so, and the country
+was without a monarch for six days (December 15-21, 1768). The crown
+prince notified the presidents of the different administrative offices
+in Stockholm that his father had ceased to reign. The state council
+persisted; but had to give in, when the colonels of the regiments
+reported that they could no longer answer for their troops, since also
+the paymaster's office was closed. The Riksdag convened in Norrkoeping
+in 1769. The Caps suffered defeat in spite of strenuous efforts made
+for their preservation by the secret agents of the powers, anxious to
+see the anarchic condition of the government continue. But the court
+party failed in the exertions to have the royal privileges augmented.
+The intrigues of the foreign powers continued, and the crown prince
+left for France to insure her support in case of war. While the Hats
+were once more in power, Adolphus Frederic died suddenly in February,
+1771.
+
+Gustavus was to put an end to the party strife of the "Period of
+Liberty," as it has been called. His own reign belongs properly to it,
+for he reaped the benefit of the seed it had been sowing. The Period of
+Liberty, with all its faults, forms an important chain in the cultural
+and political development of Sweden. Its form of government made
+necessary a varied and active part in public affairs, educating all
+classes of officials to a high degree of efficiency and the people at
+large to self-government. The Riksdag, through parliamentary activity
+and importance, developed an authority which, although too composite
+to govern itself, was enabled to act as a shield of steel against
+all abuse of the executive power. The national life never gathered a
+richer harvest of men of genius who worked for the progress of their
+country and for that of the world. The heroism of the Swedish people
+during the preceding period of suffering and distress bore fruit in
+men like Emanuel Swedenborg, the inventor, naturalist, philosopher
+and founder of a new religion; Charles Linnaeus; the founder of modern
+botany; Andrew Celsius, Junior, the inventor of the centigrade
+thermometer; John Ahlstroemer, the pioneer of industry; John Ihre, the
+able philologist, and Olof von Dalin, the poet, humorist, and, with
+Sven Lagerbring, the first modern historian of Sweden. The Period of
+"Liberty," viz., of an Aristocratic Republic, was the golden era of
+Swedish science, the latter for the first time becoming of universal
+fame and of universal importance. The scientists of this period
+belong to the fathers of modern research, basing their conclusions
+upon personal observation, in strong contrast to _their_ fathers and
+precursors of the chauvinistic barocco period.
+
+Emanuel Swedenborg, the most remarkable man whom Sweden has ever
+brought forth, was born in Stockholm, June 29, 1688. His father was
+Jesper Svedberg, bishop of Skara, in West Gothland, and his mother Sara
+Behm. The tendency toward mysticism, an inheritance from his father,
+was noticed in him at an early age. He has told of himself that between
+the age of four and ten his thoughts were exclusively occupied with
+religious subjects. While in prayer, he sometimes entered a somnambulic
+condition, revealing things which surprised his parents, who said that
+angels spoke through him. As a child, he had the idea of God as one,
+without any conception of a Trinity. Later he received instruction in
+the systematic theology of his day. His father gave him a thorough
+training in the Oriental and classical languages. The early mysticism
+of the boy was supplanted by a thirst for knowledge of the phenomena of
+life and nature, coupled to a burning desire to illustrate his reading
+by practical experiments. Having entered the University of Upsala, he
+at first devoted himself to the study of the classical languages and
+literature, later to that of mathematics and natural science. When the
+university was visited by the plague in 1710, and almost all courses of
+instruction were interrupted, Swedenborg made a journey for scientific
+purposes to England, Holland, France and Germany. He returned in 1714,
+enriched with valuable results. In 1716-18 he published the first
+scientific journal of Sweden, "Daedalus Hyperboreus," treating subjects
+of mathematics and physical science. In 1716 he came in close personal
+contact with Charles XII. at the university town of Lund. The king,
+being deeply impressed by his great learning and practical ability,
+appointed him assistant assessor of the college of mining. Swedenborg
+had, by the scholar Eric Benzelius, been made acquainted with the idea
+of the old Bishop Brask, of the time of Gustavus I., to "cut up the
+land" between the North Sea and the Baltic to make a navigable route
+through Sweden. Swedenborg gave close attention to this scheme, and
+communicated his plans to Charles XII., who became very much interested
+in them. Christopher Polhem was selected to build the great canal, and
+Swedenborg was made his assistant. We know from the sketch of Polhem's
+life why the great work failed of accomplishment. Swedenborg gave a
+proof of his superior genius as a practical engineer during the siege
+of Fredericshall. Tordenskiold made the sea unsafe and had hedged in
+the Swedish fleet at Iddefiord. The Swedish boats and galleys were then
+carried overland to the town of Stroemstad, travelling the main road
+for fifteen miles on rolling machines devised by Swedenborg. After the
+death of Charles XII., whom he highly respected, Swedenborg travelled
+to Saxony and Hungary to study the mining industry of these countries.
+Returning in 1722, he entered for the first time upon his work of the
+college of mining, becoming assessor a few years later. In 1719 he was
+ennobled with his brothers and sisters, when the change of name from
+Svedberg to Swedenborg was made. In 1724 he declined to accept the
+chair of mathematics at the University of Upsala, dividing his time
+between his official work and his studies, until 1747, when he resigned
+from his position with a pension of the same amount as his salary. His
+religious works were commenced in 1745, and after that time he made
+repeated journeys to London or Amsterdam to have these printed, as they
+could not be published in Sweden on account of the strict and highly
+orthodox censure of that period.
+
+In 1744 the event occurred which Swedenborg in various places of
+his works has described as the opening of his spiritual sight, or
+the manifestations of the Lord to him in person. He had not, by
+geometrical, physical and metaphysical principles, succeeded in
+grasping the infinite and the spiritual, or their relation to the
+nature of man, but he had touched on facts and methods which seemed
+to conduct him in the right direction. He thought that God had led
+him into the natural sciences in order to prepare him for his later
+spiritual development. The visions of his boyhood returned, now
+conceived by a nature enriched by the experiences of a life spent in
+ardent and scientific research. The great seer remained a man whom
+everybody loved and respected. People who did not believe in his
+visions feared to ridicule them in the presence of this august savant.
+His manner of life was simple, his diet chiefly consisting of bread,
+milk and large quantities of coffee. He made little distinction between
+night and day, and sometimes lay for days in a trance. His servants
+were often disturbed at night by hearing him engaged in what he called
+conflicts with evil spirits. His intercourse with spirits was often
+perfectly calm, in broad daylight, and with all his faculties awake.
+He held that every man and woman has the same power of spiritual
+intercourse, although not developed in the same degree as it was found
+in him.
+
+The work which established the scientific reputation of Swedenborg was
+published, in 1734, in three massive folios, at the expense of Duke
+Ludvig Rudolph of Brunswick. The second and third volumes describe
+the best methods employed in Europe and America in the manufacture
+of iron, copper and brass. The first volume contains a philosophical
+explanation of the elementary world which has aroused admiration as a
+beautiful, daring and consistent creation of human genius, worthy of
+being placed side by side with the works of Newton, and replete with
+remarkable ideas and anticipations of later discoveries. Swedenborg
+indicated the existence of the seventh planet forty years before Uranus
+was discovered by Herschel. He was the first to form an idea of the
+development of nebulae from chaotic masses to concrete heavenly bodies,
+a hypothesis later perfected by Herschel, and the first to offer the
+theory, later developed by Buffon, Kant and La Place, of the solar
+origin of the planets and their satellites. As in astronomy, so also in
+physics and geology he preconceived great discoveries. His experiments
+and theories in physics have been confirmed by the discoveries
+of the polarity of light and the galvanometer and its magnetic
+properties. Swedenborg discovered before anybody else the great
+importance of magnetism and the fact that magnetism and electricity
+are manifestations of the same power. He made observations concerning
+air and water which have been confirmed as to their correctness by
+Priestley, Cavendish and Lavoisier, who long were supposed to have been
+the first discoverers. In geology, he was the first to demonstrate
+that the Scandinavian peninsula, except the southern part of Scania,
+was a rising continent, proving the earlier level of the sea to have
+been much higher and the inland lakes to have stood in connection with
+the sea. Through his remarks on bowlders, he gave rise to the later
+theories of Berzelius and Saefstrom of a bowlder period. Upon these
+researches followed great and remarkable works of anatomy, which, by
+later anatomists of the first rank, have been declared to be classics
+in the literature of physiology. His immense work, "Arcana Coelestia,"
+and other theosophical writings which he has placed as a foundation
+for the New Church, and on which his present fame rests, were not so
+celebrated in his days as his scientific works. Like the latter, they
+were all written in Latin.
+
+The new religion, founded by Swedenborg, more spiritual than the old,
+has proved equally attractive to the individual and idealistic thinkers
+of all sects, Protestants and Catholics, Unitarians and Theosophists.
+Swedenborg made no attempt to establish a sect, and the New Church as
+an organization is the result of a movement which was started after his
+death.
+
+In his personal appearance Swedenborg was a middle-sized man of strong
+constitution. His head was of a fine shape, the color of his face
+somewhat dark and its expression pensive, but his blue eyes were large
+and radiant. His disposition was amiable. He was a man of the world,
+fond of music and society, especially of that of cultured women, and
+was often seen at court. He had a tendency to stutter when speaking
+fast, for which reason he used a slow diction, characterized by choice
+and mature expressions. In his youth, he frequented the house of
+Christopher Polhem and fell in love with his daughter Emerentia. Both
+Polhem and Charles XII. favored the idea of seeing them united, the
+young girl of fourteen giving her consent. But young Emerentia was
+secretly in love with somebody else, and her health and disposition
+suffered under the strain. When Swedenborg discovered the truth, he
+gave his betrothed freedom from her allegiance. He ceased to visit the
+house of Polhem and never entered any other relation of love.
+
+In 1770, at the age of eighty-two, Swedenborg for the last time
+visited Amsterdam. John C. Cuno, who then saw him, thus described the
+impression which the aged visionary and thinker made upon him: "He
+looked so touchingly pious, and when I gazed into his smiling eyes of a
+heavenly blue, it always seemed to me that truth itself spoke from his
+lips." Swedenborg left Amsterdam for London, where, on Christmas eve,
+1772, he was struck by hemiplegia. After a few weeks he recovered his
+speech, and his faculties were clear to the last. The chaplain of the
+Swedish legation asked him if he had not formulated the doctrines of
+his new religion in order to gain fame, and if he wished to recall it
+all before he died. The yet partly paralyzed man raised himself into
+a sitting position, saying: "As true as it is that you see me here in
+front of you, as true is also all that I have written, and in eternity
+you will find a confirmation of it." The chaplain asked him if he
+wanted to receive the sacrament. Swedenborg answered: "I need it not;
+for I am already a member of the other world; but your intention is
+good, and I will with joy receive the sacrament in token of the bond
+of unity between heaven and earth." Swedenborg died March 29, 1772, and
+was buried in the Lutheran church of London.
+
+Swedenborg was shrewd in worldly affairs and discussed politics and
+finance in the Swedish Riksdag for nearly a score of years after his
+visions and theological writings had begun to occupy most of his time.
+
+If the theological works of Emanuel Swedenborg at first were apt to
+discredit the results of his manifold scientific research in the eyes
+of those who did not share his theosophical views, the renown of the
+great religious thinker in later times has outshone the fame of which,
+as the versatile scholar and philosopher, he was so eminently worthy.
+With his younger contemporary, Charles Linnaeus (or Carl von Linne), the
+case was different. There was in his career no radical change to divert
+or throw an umbrage over the fame he had won as a scientist of the very
+first rank.
+
+Charles Linnaeus, the most celebrated of Swedish scientists, was born
+at Rashult, in Smaland, in 1707. His father was a minister of a very
+subordinate charge of the state church. The neighborhood in which the
+young Linnaeus grew up was not fertile, but rich in flowers, which were
+the toys and comrades of his childhood. He made but little progress at
+his work in the college of Vexio, being more fond of collecting and
+examining plants than of studying Greek and Latin. It was the wish of
+his parents that he should become a minister and the assistant of his
+father; but the youth had so little inclination to pursue the life or
+studies of a clergyman that he at last found it necessary to tell his
+parents so. He had found a friend and protector in Doctor Rothman,
+a district physician, who encouraged him to follow his ambition of
+becoming a naturalist and physician. Doctor Rothman supervised his
+studies in botany and succeeded in teaching him Latin by giving him
+the natural history of Pliny to study. In this manner Linnaeus, who at
+college showed utter dislike for the classical languages, learned to
+write and speak Latin with ease. His teachers, who at first had advised
+his parents to let him quit the book, in order to take up some trade,
+were made aware of his gifted nature, but as he was found deficient in
+the regular courses, their recommendation, necessary for his admittance
+to the University of Lund, was very carefully worded. "The youths
+in our colleges may be likened unto little trees in a plant school,
+where it happens, although but rarely, that young trees upon which the
+greatest care have been lavished do not turn out well, but resemble
+wild stems, yet, when removed and transplanted, change their wild
+nature and develop into beautiful trees of agreeable fruit. Likewise,
+and for no other purpose, this youth is sent to the university, where
+he may venture into a climate favorable to his growth." There was
+an accurate but unconscious prophecy concealed in this beautiful
+"recommendation," which, curiously enough, has chosen the similes which
+were considered indispensable in the artificial language of the period
+from the world of plants, when speaking of the future flower king of
+the North.
+
+The young Linnaeus made his way to the university town of Southern
+Sweden, walking the whole distance from Vexio to Lund, with a heavy
+knapsack and a light pocket-book. He was in hopes to win the protection
+of his uncle, the influential dean of the cathedral. Upon entering
+Lund, he heard all church bells tolling, and, upon inquiry, learned
+that they rang for the funeral of his uncle, the dean! A former
+teacher of his managed to have him enrolled at the university without
+having to turn in the diplomatic recommendation from his college. He
+took his bachelor's degree and was kindly encouraged by Professor
+Chilian Stobaeus, at whose house he was stopping. The mother of Stobaeus
+told him to look after the young man from Smaland, who was in the habit
+of going to sleep with his candle left burning, thus liable to "lead
+the whole house into adventure." When the learned professor looked into
+the matter he found his own works in the hands of the youth, who spent
+his nights reading them. After that all the books and the heartfelt
+sympathy of the scholar were at the command of Linnaeus.
+
+In 1728 Linnaeus, so advised by his earliest protector, changed his
+place of study to the University of Upsala, which at the time was
+better equipped and provided with a fine botanical garden. The young
+scholar endured a great deal of suffering for lack of funds, his
+father no longer being able to provide for his support. His diet was
+very light, and he wrapped his benumbed feet in paper to keep them
+from peeping out of his ragged shoes. His father called him home to
+reconsider his resolution as to a ministerial calling. Linnaeus was
+ready to leave and paid a farewell visit to the botanic gardens. He
+lingered in melancholy thoughts before a rare flower which he intended
+to pluck. A harsh voice behind commanded him to leave the flower alone.
+Linnaeus turned and stood face to face with the dean, Olof Celsius the
+Elder. In the interview which followed the young man surprised the
+dean, who was an able and enthusiastic botanist, by his exceptional
+knowledge of plants. Celsius inquired about his circumstances and ended
+by taking him into his house and providing for his future. Shortly
+afterward Linnaeus published a short but important treatise on the
+sexual life of plants, which he handed in to Professor Olof Rudbeck
+the Younger. This able scholar was forcibly struck by the ingenuity
+of the thoughts in the work, which contained the nucleus to the grand
+scientific system which Linnaeus later developed. When, in 1730, Rudbeck
+obtained a vacation he had Linnaeus installed as a lecturer of the
+botanic gardens. Shortly afterward Linnaeus received the commission to
+pay a visit of botanic research to Lapland, on the plants of which he
+published a remarkable work. The journey was made on horseback, the
+young scholar returning deeply impressed by the grandeur of natural
+sceneries in the extreme North.
+
+Linnaeus had to fight poverty and adversity for some time still. His
+mother, who always had regretted that he should "turn out a surgeon
+instead of a minister," was elated over his first triumph when opening
+the field of a new science by his sexual system of plants. He suffered
+all the more at her death, which he was forced to conceal because he
+could not afford a mourning garb. Envious comrades put an end to his
+lectures at Upsala by having enforced, through petitions, an order
+against the filling of temporary vacancies by men who had not taken
+the doctor's degree. It was found necessary for Linnaeus to go abroad,
+and some money was subscribed by his friends for that purpose. In
+Holland he met the learned Professor Boerhave, who, on being made
+acquainted with his system of botany, which Linnaeus then for the first
+time published, received him with tokens of unlimited admiration and
+friendship. It was by Boerhave that the continental fame of Linnaeus
+was founded. The latter found, in the arranging of the great gardens
+of Hartekamp intrusted to him, a work both agreeable and instructive.
+In London, Linnaeus broadened his experience with study of the rich
+collections of plants and naturalia which were made accessible to
+him by the celebrated scholar Hans Sloane, later the founder of the
+British Museum. The letter of recommendation from Boerhave was somewhat
+different to the one Linnaeus had received at Vexio: "Linnaeus, who
+hands you this letter, is the only one worthy to see you, and to be
+seen by you. Those who see you together look upon two men the peers of
+which the world does hardly possess." After a stay in Paris, where the
+greatest scientists of France treated him with distinction, he returned
+to Holland, to find his friend Boerhave dying in Leyden. Linnaeus kissed
+the hand of the dying man, who insisted on kissing the hand of Linnaeus
+in return, pronouncing him the greater genius, of whom the world should
+expect and receive more.
+
+Linnaeus, the celebrated founder of a new science, returned home as an
+unknown man. His ability as a physician, acquired at the University of
+Leyden, and his growing continental fame soon made him distinguished.
+In 1741 he was appointed professor of medicine at Upsala, but changed
+chairs with the professor of botany. The study of the latter science
+was highly developed through the continued research of Linnaeus, and
+became very popular, while giving a great impetus to the study of
+medicine. The grace and animation of Linnaeus as a lecturer caused
+students and scholars to flock around him in hundreds. The botanic
+excursions led by Linnaeus resembled daily marches of triumphs, the
+multitude of students escorting their beloved teacher back to the
+botanic gardens with flowers in their hats and with music of drums
+and French horns. Sweden, with Upsala as a centre, was for the first
+time in history considered a home of scientific culture, to which
+naturalists gathered from all parts of the world, America included.
+Pupils of ability and distinction were sent by Linnaeus to strange and
+unknown quarters, from which they returned with new and unfamiliar
+plants, which were examined and classified by the flower king of the
+North. Linnaeus was honored by his contemporaries in such a superlative
+manner as no one of his countrymen, before or after, and few other
+scientists of any age or country. Count Charles Gustavus Tessin has the
+credit of having encouraged him in his work and improved his career
+upon his return from the Continent. When ennobled, Linnaeus changed his
+name to Von Linne, the earlier form being the more familiar to English
+readers. King Gustavus III. presented him with the estate Hammarby,
+where he liked to dwell, surrounded by his flowers and his family,
+resting from the fatigue caused by the endless stream of distinguished
+pilgrims who came to visit his flower court at Upsala. The offers of
+foreign monarchs to have him come and dwell with them were many and
+liberal. In 1739 he married the love of his youth, Maria Elizabeth
+Moraeus, "and never since felt an inclination to leave Sweden."
+
+Linnaeus in many respects resembled Swedenborg, being convinced that
+his acceptance of truth was the correct one and disliking disputes.
+Like Swedenborg, he was pious, modest, benevolent and sincere. Of his
+own exterior and disposition Linnaeus has himself given the following
+characteristic account: "Linnaeus was not tall, not small, lean,
+brown-eyed, light, quick, walked briskly, did everything promptly,
+disliked slow people, was sensitive, easily moved, worked continuously
+and could not spare himself. He was fond of good food and drank good
+drinks, but never to excess. He cared little for exteriors, considering
+that man should adorn his dress and not vice versa. Faculty meetings
+were not his delight, or business, for he was made for quite other
+things, and had other things in mind than those which there were
+discussed and decided upon." In the preface to the late edition of his
+principal work, "Systema Naturae," the following noteworthy paragraph
+is found: "I saw the shadow of the Supreme Being go past me, and I was
+seized with respect and admiration. I searched for His footsteps in
+the sand--what power, what wisdom! I saw how the animals existed only
+by means of the plants, the plants by means of the lifeless particles,
+and these in their turn constitute the earth. I saw the sun and stars
+without number hanging suspended in the air, held by the hand of the
+Being of beings, the artist of this grand masterpiece."
+
+Linnaeus died January 10, 1778, and was buried in the cathedral of
+Upsala. His botanic system has been superseded by others, but the
+influence that his researches and discoveries have exerted on the
+natural sciences and medicine, has not ceased to be benignantly felt,
+nor have the utmost results of his researches been as yet attained.
+
+Andrew Celsius, professor of astronomy at Upsala, acquired fame as
+a writer on astronomy and was successful in his efforts to have
+an observatory built at the university. In 1742 he introduced his
+invention, the Celsius or centigrade thermometer, which is of almost
+indispensable practical value in all physical and chemical experiments.
+Olof Celsius, Senior, the able botanist, Orientalist and patron of
+Linnaeus, was his uncle, he thus being a cousin of Olof Celsius, Junior,
+whose brightly written histories of Gustavus Vasa and Eric XIV. were
+translated into contemporaneous French and German.
+
+John Ahlstroemer accomplished more for the resurrection of the
+downtrodden industry of his country than any one else, and therefore
+justly deserves the name of the Father of Swedish Industry. This man,
+who occupies an honored place in Swedish history, was born in 1685, of
+poor parents, at the town of Alingsos, in West Gothland, his original
+name being John Toresson. He worked himself up in various mercantile
+positions in Stockholm and other towns, later coming to London, where
+he engaged in business of his own and became an English citizen. He
+saw with regret that his countrymen sent their money abroad to obtain
+articles which they could manufacture at home, and was seized with the
+ambition to introduce into Sweden the industries which constitute the
+foundation of England's mercantile wealth.
+
+When Charles XII. returned to Sweden, Ahlstroemer went there also,
+trying to win the king to his industrial plans. He did not succeed,
+but found in Christopher Polhem a man who listened to and appreciated
+them. Ahlstroemer intended to return to England, but was captured by the
+Danes during the journey. On account of his English citizenship he soon
+regained his liberty, visiting England and the Continent, and carefully
+selecting everything which he had in view of sending to Sweden as the
+requisite instruments for his plans. This work sometimes involved great
+danger, as the buying of looms for hose and ribbon, fulling vats, dyes,
+etc.; for the great manufacturing countries were keeping jealous watch
+that the secrets of their industries should not become known abroad. In
+a town in Holland, Ahlstroemer barely missed being pelted with stones
+by the mob. Pursued by the revenue authorities, he managed to escape
+with his ship, arriving safely in Gothenburg with the valuable cargo
+and skilled laborers in his employ. Shortly afterward he arrived in
+his native town of Alingsos, where the industrial enterprises were
+established. The Riksdag at first was unwilling to grant him the
+necessary concessions, the clergy especially being averse to allow so
+many foreign workingmen free confession of their Catholic religion. In
+1724 the concessions were at last obtained, and Ahlstroemer began his
+course, which he was resolved should result in the fostering of the
+same industrial activity in his impoverished country, which he, with
+surprise, had noticed in England and on the Continent.
+
+In establishing his enterprises, Ahlstroemer exhausted his resources,
+and when he tried to form a company to keep them going he was met with
+stubborn resistance, caused by ignorance and jealousy. He succeeded at
+last in obtaining the financial backing of some wealthy mine owners
+of Vermland, who took shares in his enterprises. The Riksdag of 1726
+encouraged him by placing high protective or prohibitive tariffs
+on foreign articles which could be produced in the country. In the
+following year King Frederic paid a visit to Alingsos, spending a
+whole day in looking over the mills and factories. The king said that
+he would rather own the stock of goods of Ahlstroemer than the largest
+arsenal in his kingdom, and saw to it that his servants were dressed in
+broadcloth manufactured at Alingsos.
+
+Alingsos saw its population suddenly increase from 300 to 1,800 and
+entered upon an era of prosperity. Ahlstroemer's factories formed almost
+a little town of their own beside the older one. There were twelve
+looms for the manufacturing of broadcloth, forty-five looms for
+wool, and, besides, cotton mills, dye works for wool and silk, hose
+factories, an English tannery and various other industrial works. Also
+a foundry, with eight communicating shops, where all kinds of household
+articles of simple and composite metals were manufactured. Alingsos
+was made a kind of normal school of industry for the whole country.
+The foreign master workmen, who at the beginning had charge of the
+factories, instructed in time a great number of native apprentices, who
+later found employment elsewhere, thus distributing to various parts
+the experience obtained at Alingsos. Wool was the principal material
+in the factories, and in order to obtain a refined quality, Ahlstroemer
+imported stocks of foreign breeds. He commenced with English sheep, the
+Riksdag of 1727 granting him the use of the royal estate Hoejentorp for
+the purpose. Angora goats were later imported and seemed to thrive.
+
+Ahlstroemer did his country a great service by introducing the
+cultivation of potatoes. The first shipment of this useful plant
+arrived in 1723, with workingmen imported from France. As soon as
+the plant was seen to stand the climate, larger quantities were sent
+for. Potatoes were cultivated in the vast fields around Alingsos
+at a period when they were exhibited in the botanic gardens of the
+Continent as rare plants from Peru. Prejudice at first interfered,
+but when the soldiers returned home from Pomerania with the habit of
+eating potatoes, and planted such around their cottages, the popularity
+of the Peruvian plant was assured. Ahlstroemer also introduced the
+cultivation of tobacco and several dye plants. The coal mines, near
+Helsingborg, in Scania, commenced to be operated at his instigation.
+When the Academy of Science was instituted, in 1739, Ahlstroemer was
+made one of its members. The Academy of Science served originally and
+in that era of utilitarianism a more practical purpose than later. The
+Cap administration of Arvid Horn gave comparatively little attention
+to the enterprises of Ahlstroemer, having more in view to develop
+agriculture than industry. When the Hats got into power the conditions
+were reversed. Count Charles Gyllenborg, the successor of Arvid Horn
+as president of the chancery, in order to set a good example, always
+dressed in broadcloth of Swedish manufacture. Ahlstroemer was made a
+councillor of commerce, and ennobled, while his bust was placed in the
+Exchange of Stockholm and medals issued in his honor by the Academy of
+Science.
+
+Ahlstroemer was a middle-sized man of a strong constitution. He was
+amiable, courteous and hospitable, ever ready to conduct visitors
+through his factories and warehouses. His energy was as great as his
+kindness, and he refused to recognize an enemy in anybody. The large
+profits of his plants he mostly spent on other patriotic enterprises,
+leaving hardly any other inheritance to his sons than an excellent
+education. During the last few years of his life he suffered the
+consequences of a stroke of paralysis. He died in 1761, and thus was
+saved from witnessing the destruction which was caused to the new
+factory industry and his own works at Alingsos by the reckless policy
+of the new Caps.
+
+Olof Dalin is the principal poet and writer of the Period of Liberty,
+strongly influencing not only the creative minds of his own day, but
+also those who with more or less right have been counted as belonging
+to the Gustavian Period. Dalin was the son of a minister in the
+province of Halland and a relative of Professor Andrew Rydelius of
+Lund, a historian of the older generation, who conducted the course of
+his studies. He came to Stockholm in 1726, where several positions in
+various state departments afforded opportunity for study in libraries
+and archives. Dalin, from the year 1732 to 1734, published a magazine
+called "The Swedish Argus," which, with the English "Spectator" as
+a pattern, contained articles on public and individual morals, with
+allusions to the facts of contemporary life. This publication caused a
+great stir and became very popular on account of the acute logic and
+excellent language of its editor. Dalin was appointed royal librarian
+by the Riksdag, and, on the recommendation of Count Tessin, teacher to
+the young crown prince Gustavus.
+
+Dalin was an enthusiastic admirer of the glorious epoch of Swedish
+history and of the character of Charles XII., which caused him to join
+the party of the Hats. When the latter utterly failed in their attempts
+to restore the political grandeur of the past, and Dalin witnessed the
+excesses of the rivalling parties, he joined the secret agitators for
+an increased royal power. In the literary and artistic circle of the
+brilliant Queen Louise Ulrica, Dalin was the leading spirit. He was
+not unaware of the conspiracies and intrigues of the queen, and is
+supposed to have been the author of several of the sharp notes which
+the king added to the records of the state council. The Hats, who
+took offence at his sharp satires, made him resign from his position
+as the teacher of the crown prince. After the conspiracy of the court
+party was detected, Dalin was called before a committee of the Estates
+and by order dismissed from the court. Dalin used the time of his
+compulsory isolation for the writing of a history of Sweden. This
+work, which never was carried further than to the end of the Period
+of Reformation, is characterized by an attractive style, but is not
+reliable as to facts.
+
+Dalin was allowed to return to the court in 1761. He stood in great
+favor and was covered with testimonials of appreciation. He died in
+1763, at the moment when King Adolphus Frederic was resolved to make
+him a state councillor. Dalin was the first writer who made Swedish
+history popular, and exerted, by his poems and his magazine, and by his
+education of Gustavus III., a considerable influence upon the history
+of his own time.
+
+In point of scientific research the historical works of Sven Lagerbring
+have a much higher value than Dalin's history, although they lacked the
+literary excellence of the latter. Lagerbring, who, born in Scania, was
+professor of history at the University of Lund, carried his work to the
+times of Charles VIII. A shorter history of his was translated into
+French and long formed the chief source of continental knowledge of
+Swedish history.
+
+As a poet Dalin had a rival in the somewhat younger Hedvig Charlotta
+Nordenflycht, one of the most interesting characters in Swedish history
+of literature. Her works, chiefly consisting of lyrics and idyls,
+show a long chain of development from the taste of the Carolinian
+period to that of the Gustavian epoch. In her deep emotional nature
+and enthusiasm for all cultural movements she stands without a
+rival. Receiving an annuity from the government, she was after many
+adversities able to maintain a literary salon. The men who met there,
+like Gustavus Philip Creutz and Gustavus Frederic Gyllenborg, were the
+founders of an academic style in poetry, as was Charles Gustavus Tessin
+in eloquence.
+
+John Ihre is perhaps the most highly gifted of Swedish philologists
+and the first whose research had a lasting scientific value. He stood
+at the summit of contemporary European study of language, and rose a
+head or more higher than the philologists of his own country in that
+day. The period was characterized by a movement for the purification
+and analyzation of the language, Dalin expressing his wish to speak the
+truth to the Swedes in pure Swedish, and the Academy of Science taking
+pride in publishing their important papers in the mother tongue. Eric
+Benzelius, an able critic of the Gothic, and interested in Swedish
+dialect research, was one of the precursors of Ihre; and so was Olof
+Celsius, Senior, professor of Greek, later of Oriental languages, who
+was the first to fix the age of the majority of Runic inscriptions as
+dating from the Christian era.
+
+John Ihre was born, in 1707, in Lund, where his father was a professor
+of theology, a talented, witty and learned man. The young Ihre lost his
+father in 1720, after which time his uncle, Archbishop Steuchius of
+Upsala, had charge of his education. He later studied modern languages
+at the University of Jena, made the acquaintance of the contemporary
+philologists of Holland, and also studied at the universities of
+London, Oxford and Paris. After an absence of three years he returned,
+soon to be connected with the University of Upsala, where he remained
+for forty-two years as professor of rhetoric and politics. Ihre was
+a liberal, outspoken man, who was severely censured for his opinions
+upon political and religious subjects, once by the Riksdag being
+sentenced to pay fines and receiving a warning from the chancellor
+of the university. When the clergy upon another occasion warned the
+philosophers not to mix in theological subjects, Ihre defended himself
+in the following terms in a letter to the chancellor, Count Charles
+Gustavus Tessin. "Gracious lord! I teach _eloquentiam_, _politicam_
+and the states, with all things pertaining to them. To become a heretic
+I possess neither genius nor stupidity enough, less an evil purpose.
+Therefore I am willing to forego all theology, if only an allowance
+of it be made large enough for my private practice and edification in
+Christianity. I never intended to go any further."
+
+Ihre left religion and politics alone, and received many high
+distinctions in return for his great scientific merits. When ennobled,
+he kept his old family name, stating that he was "somewhat known abroad
+under the name of Ihre," while if he changed it to Gyllenbiorn or
+Vargstierna, it would take "some time to announce this new disguise."
+He was renowned for his ready wit, and wielded a considerable influence
+in academic circles. Ihre was satisfied with his position and his
+science, and was not willing to exchange them for a political career.
+
+Ihre was led to the study of the Teutonic languages in their oldest
+forms by his desire to find a consistent spelling and correct
+understanding of the words in his own language. He was desirous of
+freeing it from foreign words, but only when those substituted were as
+expressive and comprehensible as the old. Ihre was a pioneer in the
+field of dialect lexicographers, publishing the outline of a Swedish
+dialect dictionary in 1766, and wrote a number of works pertaining to
+the historic forms of Gothic, Lappish, Finnish and Old Norse. Special
+importance is due to his epoch-making research concerning the language
+of the Codex Argenteus. He once for all settled the controversy,
+proving the Codex to contain the Gothic Bible translation of Bishop
+Wulfila against the assertions of M. Lacroze of Berlin, who claimed
+that it was written in Frankish. In regard to the Edda of Snorre
+Sturleson, he declared it to be intended as an introductory study
+of poesy, a handbook of poetics for young scalds, an opinion which
+has been fully established in a much later time. By these and other
+theories Ihre attained a much higher standpoint as a scientific critic
+than his contemporaries. He spoke of the resemblance between the
+Teutonic and the classical languages, without being able to find the
+reasons. He even to some extent anticipated the great discovery which
+after its formulator has been called Grimm's Law, by pointing out "a
+certain regularity of consonant shift" in the Teutonic languages.
+
+The monumental work of Ihre and the crowning effort of his life was
+prepared between the years 1750-1759. This Glossarium suiogothicum,
+published at the expense of the government, is the best Swedish
+dictionary of the eighteenth century. Ihre by his severe critical
+method kills the wild etymologies of the "Rudbeckian philology,"
+turning to Old Swedish for the derivations, and, where this gave no
+satisfaction, to the Old Icelandic, "because this language nine hundred
+years ago was separated from our own and has remained undisturbed
+by foreign influence." From the Old Northern dialects he turned to
+Old High German, Old English and Gothic, the last mentioned of which
+he considered the mother of the Teutonic languages. Many of Ihre's
+etymologies have not been able to withstand the scrutiny of later
+criticism, but his great etymological dictionary is the product of
+versatile knowledge and unusual insight, and has not only exerted a
+profound influence upon his own period but also served as a model for
+later epochs of philological research.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+_Gustavian Period--Gustavus III. and Gustavus IV. Adolphus_
+
+
+Gustavus III., with his brilliant endowment, one of the most
+illustrious, and, in spite of his glaring faults, one of the most
+beloved, of Swedish monarchs, was the first king since Charles XII.
+who was born in Sweden. For this very reason, and on account of his
+amiable and charming disposition, he had won for himself the sympathy
+of the people even before his succession to the throne. This nephew
+of Frederic the Great of Prussia had inherited the genius, ambition
+and pride of his gifted mother, all enlarged and intensified, and the
+gentleness and good nature of his father. He was in every particular
+a child of his time, and every inch a king. Gustavus was decidedly
+French in education, taste and superficiality, but had by his first
+teacher Dalin been inspired with a deep love of his country, its
+history, language and traditions. He handled the Swedish and French
+languages with equal skill, and a more eloquent monarch has never
+graced a throne. He was passionately fond of theatricals and impressive
+ceremony, and, like his mother and illustrious uncle, he surrounded
+himself with men of genius. Gustavus was betrothed to Princess Sophie
+Magdalene of Denmark when only four years of age, and married her when
+twenty. This union was arranged by the Riksdag, contrary to the wish
+of Gustavus's parents. Gustavus appeared at first to be deeply in
+love with the gentle and unpretentious princess, but she soon found
+herself as neglected by her consort as she was detested by his mother.
+The crown prince early began to hate the form of government which had
+brought so much humiliation to his parents. This absolutism of the
+Riksdag, which could be bought and sold through bribery by foreign
+powers, he considered dangerous to the independence and welfare of the
+country, and was resolved to change the balance of power to the hands
+of the king, of whose dignity and importance he held an exalted opinion.
+
+At the death of his father, Gustavus was in France, returning with
+the agreement of a secret alliance. At the Riksdag of 1771, where the
+Caps once more came into power, Gustavus III. signed a pledge with new
+restrictions of the royal authority. But while the king officially
+seemed to desire a pacification of both parties, and his time was
+principally occupied with theatricals, embroideries and costumes, he
+was secretly arranging a conspiracy. He was crowned in May, 1772,
+and in August the news of a revolt in Scania, led by John Christian
+Toll, reached the capital. The king feigned surprise, but waited for
+similar news from Finland, whence Jacob Magnus Sprengtporten was to
+bring troops to Stockholm. As Sprengtporten's movements were somewhat
+delayed, the king had to take action himself. In the morning of
+August 19th he entered the officers' hall of the body-guards, where
+he delivered a patriotic address, asking the officers to follow him
+as their ancestors had followed Gustavus Vasa and Gustavus Adolphus.
+He was greeted with an enthusiasm which soon spread throughout the
+capital, assuring the king of perfect loyalty. The state councillors
+were quickly arrested and order given that no one should be allowed to
+leave the capital. The Riksdag was called together August 21st, and
+addressed by the king in an eloquent speech which gave a striking view
+of the situation and its perils. He declared that he was not going
+to touch liberty, only to abolish misrule by the establishment of a
+firm administration. Then was read the proposition for a constitution
+which the king had prepared. The king alone was to be the executive,
+appointing higher officials and councillors, making alliances with
+foreign powers, but not commencing any war of attack without the
+consent of the Riksdag. The state council was to consist of seventeen
+members with deliberative, but no executive, power. The Riksdag was
+to convene at the order of the king, taxation and legislation to be
+decided on by the king and Riksdag in common. The judicial power of
+all committees was to be abolished. The Riksdag accepted the royal
+propositions, and one of the most smoothly and skilfully managed _coups
+d'etat_ ever attempted was accomplished, much to the dismay of Russia,
+Prussia and Denmark. During half a score of years the country enjoyed a
+happy peace, the king winning the love of his people and being active
+in administrative improvements.
+
+Gustavus III. was intensely interested in literature and art, and a
+writer of considerable ability, composing dramatic works of French
+pattern but with patriotic subjects. In his best creations he is
+influenced by Shakespeare. Among the poets whom he encouraged were
+Kellgren, Leopold, Creutz, Gyllenborg, Oxenstierna, Adlerbeth, the
+creators of a classical school of Swedish poetry and drama, influenced
+by the contemporary French writers. Above these towers Charles
+Michael Bellman, who, with his composite and rich endowment, became
+the first great national poet, and of an originality as remarkable
+as that of any genius in the literature of the world. The humor
+introduced into Swedish literature through the contact with the songs
+of the Edda, in Bellman reaches its perfection, while his poetry
+in exquisite and triumphant grace of form outrivals that of his
+classical contemporaries. His poems were almost all produced under
+the inspiration of the moment, even if later remodelled, and sung
+to the lute to melodies of the day, or of his own composition. His
+impressionistic power of description leads the thought to the modern
+artists, while his ambition to unite the arts of poetry, music and
+plastics makes him a precursor of Neo-Romanticism. There is not one
+accent of chauvinism, not even a note of patriotism, in his songs, yet
+he is the most beloved of Swedish poets, recognized as the highest
+exponent of the lyrico-rhetorical temperament of his people, a mixture
+of melancholy humor and exuberant joy in a graceful yet stately form.
+Anne Marie Lenngren was a highly talented poetess, who preserves the
+classic form for her verse, in which she ridicules the faults and
+vices of her period. Thorild and Lidner were men of great genius,
+but of somewhat bizarre and neglected literary form, influenced
+by contemporary Romanticism in Germany. Sweden continues to add a
+number of names to the galaxy of men distinguished in the service of
+natural science, those of Bergman and Scheele, the founders of modern
+chemistry, being the most renowned. To the Academy of Science and
+Academy of Art, established during the Period of Liberty, Gustavus
+added a Swedish Academy and a National Theatre for the encouragement
+of poetry, eloquence, music and drama. It is during this period that
+the Swedish language developed the beauty and plasticity for which it
+holds the first rank among Teutonic dialects, and is considered one
+of the most musical languages of the world. Of artists, the painters
+Hoerberg, Hillestroem and Roslin rose to great continental fame, while
+Sergel, through the genius and tendencies of his works one of the most
+remarkable sculptors of modern times, won renown for his name, but
+hardly the very highest perfection within his possibilities. His statue
+of Gustavus III. is the finest monument of Stockholm.
+
+Sweden, so rich in great poets, artists and scientists, is poor in
+philosophers, content with the systems of thinkers in more favored
+countries. Swedenborg is an important exception to this rule. Not
+satisfied with an original system, with pure reason as the fundamental
+principle, he divined a system in which philosophy and religion are
+inseparably united. Kant, when made acquainted with Swedenborg's
+earlier system, was utterly astonished, expressing fear that he
+himself had been an object of thought-transference, when writing his
+celebrated work, "Kritik der reinen Vernunft." The system of Descartes
+was followed by Swedish philosophers of the Carolinian epoch. During
+the Period of Liberty and the reign of Gustavus III., Locke, Voltaire
+and Diderot were supreme. At the close of the eighteenth century, Kant
+began to exert great influence, Benjamin Hoeijer being his talented and
+individualistic disciple, and enjoying the reputation of having been
+Sweden's greatest original thinker. Charles August Ehrensverd, an able
+warrior and statesman of the Gustavian epoch, devised an attractive and
+novel, although slightly dilettantic, system of his own, the Philosophy
+of Fine Arts.
+
+The suspicions that Gustavus III. was not satisfied with the share of
+power which he obtained in 1772, and that he was anxious to gain fame
+by the means of war, were found to be justified. In 1786 he called a
+Riksdag, at which most of his propositions, to his great surprise,
+were stubbornly opposed. Catherine II. of Russia was intriguing with
+the Finnish nobles for the purpose of establishing the independence of
+Finland under Russian protection. But she was careful not to commence
+hostilities. Attempts made by Gustavus III. to bring the Norwegian
+people in revolt against Denmark failed. And so Gustavus, who had no
+authority to begin a war of attack, arranged for a simulated Russian
+assault on the Finnish boundary, executed by Finnish peasants in
+disguise. He declared war on Russia, in June, 1788, although nobody
+was found willing to believe in the feigned cause of it. The actual
+hostilities were opened by a brilliant naval battle at Hogland, fought
+with success by the Swedish fleet under command of Prince Charles, the
+brother of the king, against the Russians. The king had arrived in
+Finland resolved to attack St. Petersburg, which plan he was obliged
+to change. All further operations came to a sudden standstill through
+mutiny among the Finnish officers in the royal camp at Anjala, 113
+of them signing a document in which they pledged themselves to force
+the king to make peace and to convoke the Riksdag. Another document
+offering peace and a union of Finland to Russia was despatched to St.
+Petersburg with Jaegerhorn, one of the leaders. The officers received
+a favorable answer from Russia, which was handed to the king, and the
+whole army was made acquainted with the proceedings. The king found
+himself in a most perilous position, out of which he was saved as by
+a miracle. Denmark declared war, and the king hastened to embrace the
+opportunity to leave with honor the trap in which his life and liberty
+were in danger.
+
+Gustavus III. sent word to several provinces, asking the inhabitants to
+rise in defence of their country. He went himself to Dalecarlia, where
+he addressed the peasants when coming from church, as had Gustavus
+Vasa. Everywhere the population rose in arms. The king hastened to
+Gothenburg, which was threatened by the Danes, and had the city
+strongly fortified. England and Prussia sided with Sweden, and the
+Danes found it best to retire from Swedish territory.
+
+Gustavus had won the game. Now for the stakes! He called a Riksdag in
+1789. Through his personal courage and patriotism, Gustavus III. had
+recaptured the love of his people. The nobility was hated and despised
+on account of its responsibility for the mutiny at Anjala and for its
+intrigues with Russia. Gustavus III. consequently stood exceedingly
+well with the three lower Estates of the Riksdag, but lost their
+respect through the many violations of the law which he committed in
+forcing upon the Riksdag a new constitution which made him a ruler
+with almost absolute power. The nobility stubbornly refused to accept
+any change in the constitution. There were many stormy scenes, both
+among the nobles and in the presence of the king, who also paid a
+visit to the Riddarhus, which he left with the statement that the
+nobles were willing to subscribe, the latter loudly protesting. Axel
+von Fersen the Elder and several other aristocratic leaders were held
+in a prolonged arrest. Archbishop Troil told the king that he did not
+wish to be the first archbishop after Gustavus Trolle to sell the
+liberty of his country, and begged to be excused from being present at
+the deliberations. The poet and royal favorite Adlerbeth, himself a
+nobleman, pleaded in the Riksdag the right of his Estate to take action
+on the royal propositions. These were in private signed by the speakers
+of the four Estates and pronounced by the government as accepted, and
+were called an "Act of Union and Security." This new constitution gave
+almost absolute power to the king. The state council was once more,
+and forever, swept away and not even mentioned in the constitution. It
+was divided into a supreme court and a department for "the preparation
+of public affairs." By taking half of their members only from the
+nobility, the greatest privilege of that class was annulled. To the
+peasants was extended the privilege of buying land originally belonging
+to the nobility. By hard pressure, and in opposition to the nobles, the
+king forced the Riksdag to take the responsibility for the state debt,
+which had increased considerably.
+
+Gustavus III. opened the Riksdag as the most popular man of the
+country. He closed it as an absolute sovereign who had lost the love
+of his people and aroused the revengeful hatred of the nobility.
+Gustavus III. was now enabled to continue the Russian war at will. His
+sub-commander Stedingk won a victory over the Russians at Porosalmi,
+the latter being led by Sprengtporten, the former supporter of Gustavus
+III., now a soldier of Empress Catherine. He was killed in the battle.
+Prince Charles won a victory at OEland, but was by negligence of his
+sub-commander detained from reaping its benefits, Charles August
+Ehrensverd defeated a superior Russian naval force at Svensksund with
+the "Skerry Fleet," the creation of his father, Augustinus Ehrensverd.
+At the order of the king, he then met a still larger fleet and was
+defeated. Dissatisfied with the king and the result, the valiant hero
+and philosopher made his report in the following laconic phrase:
+"Your majesty has no longer any Skerry Fleet," and resigned from his
+position as admiral-general. In the following year, 1780, the combined
+naval forces of Sweden were shut up by the Russian fleet in the bay
+of Viborg, and seemed doomed to destruction. But the king gave orders
+that all the ships should force a passage, and this heroic effort was
+successfully made, through the lines of colossal Russian warships
+chained together. The Russian losses were great, and also those of
+the Swedes, on account of an explosion on board one of the ships. The
+Russians were anxious to gain the victory that escaped them at Viborg,
+and decided on July 9th, the day of Empress Catherine's coronation, as
+an appropriate date. The battle was fought at Svensksund, and turned
+into a humiliating defeat, the Russians losing 53 ships, 643 cannon
+and 14,000 men, and the imperial flag of state; twenty-six of these
+ships were entered in the Swedish navy. Peace was made at Vaeraelae a
+month later. No change of territory was involved, but an end was put to
+Russian intrigues, and Sweden had once more and forever demonstrated
+her power of taking care of her independence.
+
+The revolution in France made a deep impression upon the factions which
+in Sweden were secretly continuing their struggle. The nobility, in
+their aristocratic republicanism, sided with the revolutionists, while
+the king, an intimate friend of Louis XVI., tried to save the monarchy.
+Gustavus III. left Sweden in the summer of 1791, in order to receive
+Louis XVI. and his family at the frontier, while Count Axel von Fersen
+the Younger, a son of the old aristocratic party leader who had taken
+part with distinction in the American revolutionary war, was very near
+to saving the royal family through a flight from Paris. King Gustavus
+III. waited in vain for the royal fugitives, but commenced active
+operations for the forming of an alliance between Sweden, Russia,
+Prussia, Austria and Spain against republican France. Sweden and Russia
+made a treaty of mutual defence, but the negotiations for a general
+alliance were not at a favorable point when Gustavus III. himself fell
+by the aristocratic republicans of his own country.
+
+A conspiracy between the nobles had been formed, the majority being men
+of the highest station. Jacob John Anckarstrom, a retired officer, was
+found willing to commit the deed of killing the hated despot. After
+several unsuccessful attempts, the act was accomplished at a mask ball
+in the Royal Opera, the king being shot through the hip. All of the
+accomplices present were arrested, and, much to their disappointment,
+the king not dying instantly, their plan for a revolution was thus
+frustrated. Gustavus III. was shot March 16, 1792, and died March 26,
+1792, suffering his fate with fortitude and great presence of mind.
+He appointed his brother Charles and his favorite, Charles Gustavus
+Armfelt, members of the government during the minority of his son,
+Gustavus Adolphus.
+
+The devotion of his country returned to Gustavus III. at his deathbed,
+never to leave him. In spite of his superficiality, violation of the
+law, disregard for a constitutional government, and adventurous and
+expensive wars, solid reasons remain to love and respect his memory.
+His noble patriotism, frank heroism, brilliant genius and great
+generosity are worthy of high praise. His revolution of 1789 brought
+disastrous consequences, but he furthered the progress of democracy by
+annihilation of the aristocratic republic and saved his country from
+the tragic fate of Poland. Even if the Period of Liberty is to be
+credited for a great deal of the cultural development during his reign,
+Gustavus has a large share therein, and Esaias Tegner is right in his
+eulogy when he says:
+
+    "There rests o'er Gustav's days a golden shimmer,
+    Fantastic, foreign, frivolous, if you please;
+    But why complain when _sunshine_ caused the glamour?
+    Where stood we now if it were not for these?
+    All culture on an unfree ground is builded,
+    And barbarous once the base of patriotism true;
+    But wit was planted, iron-hard language welded,
+    The song was raised, life more enjoyed and shielded,
+    And what Gustavian was, is, therefore, Swedish too."
+
+In the mixture of patriotism and unreserved cosmopolitanism, true
+genius and superficiality, earnestness and recklessness in the
+character of Gustavus III., the Swedes have recognized peculiarities
+of their own national temperament, for which they are tempted to love
+him as dearly, although not considering him to be as great, as his two
+predecessors and namesakes on the Swedish throne. By his eloquence, wit
+and amiability, his personality charmed even his enemies. In contrast
+to the sombre autocrats of the Barocco period, Gustavus III. was a
+typical Rococo monarch, and he tried to give the charms and grace of
+the Rococo epoch to his surroundings. In appearance, he was of middle
+size, slender and graceful, with a face which bespoke genius, and eyes
+of unusual size and brilliancy.
+
+_Gustavus IV. Adolphus_ was a boy of thirteen at the death of his
+father. His uncle, Prince Charles, was regent in name, but Baron
+Reuterholm, the latter's favorite, was the real head of the government.
+Compared to the eccentric but energetic, generous and liberal
+despotism of Gustavus III., Reuterholm's was a rule of pettiness,
+incapability, revenge and hypocrisy. Prince Charles was a good
+soldier, but early lost all energy through dissipation and a natural
+tendency to mysticism, secrecy and simulation. Reuterholm was a good
+worker, but of no ability as a statesman, sharing and increasing the
+love of mysticism and superstition characteristic of his master. The
+new policy was to estrange the friends and favorites of Gustavus III.
+as much as possible, they all being sent away under various pretexts.
+Prince Charles had from the start declared invalid the postscript of
+the king's will, according to which Count Armfelt was to take part in
+the government. Later a conspiracy, with Armfelt as the leader, was
+detected, when he, who was abroad and later entered Russian service,
+was declared to have forfeited his property, rank and life. A young
+woman, Lady Madelaine Rudenschiold, who was one of the conspirators,
+was punished by being exhibited to the mob on the place of execution
+and afterward imprisoned.
+
+Prince Charles was criticised for the leniency shown toward his
+brother's murderers, perhaps without justice, for the dying king had
+pleaded clemency in their behalf. Only Anckarstrom was executed, the
+other conspirators all receiving surprisingly mild sentences. This was
+contrasted to the petty and revengeful hatred shown the opponents of
+the new government, and one now recalled the fact that Gustavus III.
+in his last moments had refused to see the prince. That Charles also
+had aspirations of his own seems evident from the fact that he had the
+young king examined by physicians, raising doubt as to his physical and
+mental fitness to ever take a hand in the government.
+
+Reuterholm made himself hated and ridiculous by his pettiness. Thus
+restrictions were placed on extravagance in food and clothing, the use
+of coffee for some time being entirely prohibited. The Swedish Academy
+was disbanded because it did not make Reuterholm a member. The liberty
+of the press was extended and then suddenly restricted. Thorild, the
+writer and poet, was exiled for agitation against the old division
+of the Riksdag into four houses, "because its four Estates always
+have been bringing about one unsettled state." Characteristic of the
+opinion of Reuterholm's administration are the words which the warrior
+and philosopher, Charles August Ehrensverd, gave him in the course
+of a quarrel between the two: "Monsieur is ambitious to govern, but
+monsieur does not know how." The best things accomplished during this
+period were the establishment of a military academy at Carlberg, and
+improvements of the Bible translation and the ritual and hymn-book of
+the church.
+
+The attitude toward France was changed with the change of government,
+Sweden being the first power to recognize the French republic. With
+that country and Denmark close intimacy was formed, which enraged
+Russia and England. In order to pacify the empress, old negotiations
+for a marriage between King Gustavus Adolphus and Alexandra, a niece of
+Empress Catherine II., were reopened and a decision reached. The king
+left for St. Petersburg. When the great ceremony was to take place, the
+empress sat there waiting with her brilliant court for several hours.
+No Gustavus Adolphus appeared. In the last moment he had been asked by
+a priest to grant his future consort, Alexandra, liberty to practice
+her Greek Catholic faith in public, which he refused to do, thus
+dropping the whole matter. The indignant empress was suddenly taken
+ill and died a few weeks later. Soon afterward the king married the
+beautiful princess Frederica of Bade.
+
+Gustavus IV. Adolphus was declared of age and took charge of the
+government when eighteen (in 1796). Reuterholm was dismissed, and
+Prince Charles retired. The king surrounded himself with the friends
+of his father, Armfelt and Toll being recalled, the latter taking
+excellent care of foreign affairs, as far as his authority went. But
+Gustavus IV. ruled alone, without favorites or influential advisers.
+This was most unfortunate, for he was entirely without the gifts of a
+regent. He was a lover of order, economy, justice and pure morals, but
+through lack of mental and physical strength his good qualities were
+misdirected. His father's tragic fate had a sinister influence upon
+his mind, the equilibrium of which was shaken also by the outrages of
+the revolutionists in France. Of a morbid sensibility, and without
+inclination to confide in any one, his religious mysticism led him into
+a state close to insanity. He imagined himself to be a reincarnation
+of Charles XII., while in Napoleon he recognized the monster of the
+Apocalypse, which he himself was sent to fight and conquer.
+
+Gustavus IV. went to an extreme in his fear of liberal movements,
+placing severe censorship on the periodical press, book market and
+universities. Benjamin Hoeijer, the great philosopher, for some time
+left his chair at Upsala and the country. A man who was resolved to
+"go even to the doors of hell in search of truth" could not be in
+sympathy with the bigot despot. Hard times, produced by failure of
+crops and fisheries, and by maritime losses during the war between
+England and France, threw added umbrage over the reign of Gustavus IV.
+He convoked a Riksdag, in 1800, in order to raise money to cover the
+debts involved by his predecessor. He never repeated the experiment.
+The nobles sanctioned the absolute rule, but stormy sessions ensued
+over the royal propositions, six nobles resigning from titles and
+privileges, six others their seats in the Riksdag. The peasants, almost
+as unyielding, were pacified by Toll. By his own authority, the king
+mortgaged the Swedish city of Wismar, in Mecklenburg, to the ruler of
+said duchy for a period of one hundred years, in receipt for a sum of
+some two million dollars.
+
+There was no question in which the insanity of the king became more
+apparent or disastrous than in his foreign policy. An alliance of armed
+neutrality between Sweden, Russia and Denmark came to naught through
+the inactivity of Gustavus IV., and he stubbornly refused to accept
+the repeated offers of Napoleon of an alliance with France in the
+combat with the powers. Things took a sinister aspect when an intimate
+alliance was effected between Napoleon and Alexander of Russia, in
+1807. Napoleon had lost patience with the lunatic king, and tried to
+call forth a catastrophe by urging Alexander to capture Finland, which
+he at first was unwilling to do. The French invaded Swedish Pomerania,
+and Toll was able to save the little Swedish army of 10,000 only by
+means of a most skilful diplomacy. Denmark, attacked by England,
+declared war against Sweden. Gustavus IV. made great preparations,
+sending Armfelt with one army to the Norwegian frontier and Toll with
+another to Scania. The regular army counted 100,000 men, and a great
+force of militia was organized. But through gross incapability of
+the government the majority of troops were never used, the militia
+suffering immensely through neglect and hunger.
+
+Czar Alexander at last decided to capture Finland. He called it
+himself an act of bad faith and treason against a relative and
+ally, and in a treacherous way he carried on his preparations. The
+Swedish ambassador was misled as to the object of the latter, and
+when informed received exaggerated accounts as to the force which
+was to invade Finland. Gustavus IV. was alarmed and gave the old and
+incapable field-marshal, Klingspor, appointed to command the army in
+Finland, directions to save his troops in the best way possible. And
+so commenced, in February, 1808, the war which after a heroic struggle
+was to separate the Finns from their Swedish brethren. Not only were
+the Finnish troops possessed of the noblest patriotic spirit, but
+they had also courageous and distinguished commanders, who, if duly
+supported and intrusted with more authority, would probably have been
+able to ward off the attack. Conspicuous among the latter were C. J.
+Adlercreutz, born in Finland, the hero of Siikajoki, Lappo and Oravais;
+G. C. von Doebeln, the victor of Juutas, and J. A. Sandels, the hero of
+Pulkkila, Indensalmi and Virta, all three of them veterans from the war
+of Gustavus III.
+
+The aged General Klercker commanded a Finnish army at Tavastehus, where
+Klingspor arrived with his royal orders, which were for retreat and
+evacuation of the country. The troops were deprived of their hopes of
+a battle and forced to make a retreat of nearly 600 miles, suffering
+from cold and hunger. The retreat continued without interruption for
+two months, until the army, in April, found itself between Brahestad
+and Uleoborg. A battle was fought at Siikajoki, April 18th, the
+sub-commander, General Adlercreutz, receiving instructions to make a
+stand against the enemy until the safety of the army supplies could
+be insured. After five hours of fighting, the Finns won a glorious
+victory over the Russians. But royal orders for a continued retreat
+arrived, and the Russians took possession of Siikajoki.
+
+As long as Sveaborg, the Gibraltar of the North, was safe, the final
+outcome of the struggle must remain undecided. Sveaborg, the creation
+of Augustinus Ehrensverd, is situated on seven islets and consists of
+several strong works partly cut out of the rock and in an admirable
+way protecting and supplementing each other. The fortress was defended
+by 6,000 men, with 1,000 cannon and ample provisions of all kinds;
+in the harbor a division of the Swedish navy was at anchor. Olof
+Cronstedt, the commander, was dissatisfied with the king and a secret
+supporter of Prince Charles. His sub-commander, Jaegerhorn, a brother
+of the leader of the Conspiracy of Anjala, was a traitor, probably in
+understanding with the Russians even before the war. A little army of
+4,000 Russians under the command of Van Suchtelen was sent against
+Sveaborg. This force was too small to make a serious attack; it was
+not able to capture any of the fortifications; the naked rocks made it
+impossible to build any earthworks. What the Russians could not effect
+by force they accomplished by treachery, winning over the commanding
+officers of Sveaborg through threats and promises. When the Swedish
+and Finnish soldiers saw the queer behavior of their officers they
+planned a mutiny; but this was not carried out on account of lack of
+leadership. The officers tried by the most shameful lies to pacify
+the soldiers, Jaegerhorn taking the leading part in these proceedings.
+Sveaborg surrendered May 3d, all Swedes being made prisoners of war,
+but the Finns given free leave. When the troops saw the small force of
+Russians and their miserable equipment they were enraged, breaking
+their weapons and tearing their banners to pieces. Cronstedt, Jaegerhorn
+and the other commanding officers became Russian citizens, and received
+high outward distinctions; but by both Russians and Finns they were
+ever treated with cold contempt on account of their shameless treason.
+
+With the fall of Sveaborg, all hope of saving Finland was lost. In
+the summer of 1808, her army fought several glorious battles under
+the command of Adlercreutz, Doebeln and Sandels, but in the autumn it
+was attacked by a superior Russian force and was nearly closed in
+between Old Carleby and Vasa. Gripenberg stood with one division at
+Old Carleby, furthest to the north, Doebeln lay prostrated by illness
+at New Carleby, and Adlercreutz stood with the central body of troops
+at Oravais, about twenty miles south from the latter town. The Russian
+army attacked the force which was with Doebeln, resolved to cut off
+Adlercreutz from a retreat. One attack was already made at Juutas,
+near New Carleby, when Doebeln, alarmed by the news and heedless of
+his serious illness, was seen approaching. His men received him with
+enthusiasm, collected their scattering forces and proved victorious
+over the attacking enemy. The Russians retreated and Adlercreutz was
+saved.
+
+The famous battle of Oravais was fought the following day, September
+14th. The Swedish army was arranged on a promontory in the sea, with
+artillery on a hill to the north, close to which a detachment of the
+regiment of Helsingland was arranged in an excellent position. Another
+detachment of the same regiment was by a little brook at the south
+base of the promontory, with two cannon, under the command of Count
+William von Schwerin, a boy of sixteen years. At this latter point the
+battle was begun at five o'clock in the morning. The Russians, 8,000
+strong, with twenty cannon and commanded by Kamenski, approached
+a bridge leading over the brook. The 400 Swedes offered a plucky
+resistance to the overwhelming force. Every time the bridge was filled
+by Russians, Schwerin swept it clear with the fire from his two cannon.
+This heroic struggle was kept up for four hours, when the Helsings had
+no more cartridges for their guns wherewith to support the artillery
+fire. The aide-de-camp Biornstierna, who was despatched thither by
+Adlercreutz, saw a pitiable sight. Most of the officers of the 400
+Swedes were killed and the Russians were storming across the bridge
+in heavy masses. "Now, count," cried Biornstierna, "let us see what
+your artillery amounts to!" Schwerin let the Russians approach until
+only fifty feet from the cannon, when he ordered: "Fire!" The whole
+first fine of the Russian column fell. Schwerin gave command to have
+the cannon dragged a hundred yards back and then fired, with the same
+disastrous effect. Thus the retreat was made from hill to hill. At last
+the young hero received a mortal wound and his men were surrounded on
+every side. With a final effort he rose to his feet, broke through the
+lines with his valiant Helsings, and died in the midst of the Swedish
+troops.
+
+Adlercreutz closely watched the movements of the Russians, and saw an
+opportunity to break through their centre, which was successfully done,
+the enemy turning into flight. It looked like an overwhelming defeat
+for the Russians, when reinforcements arrived in the last moment, and
+the exhausted Swedes had to stop fighting on account of the darkness of
+the night. After a battle of fifteen hours the Swedes had lost 2,600
+men, or nearly one-third of their forces, but not one single cannon
+or banner. The remnants of the army followed the "royal orders of
+retreat," crossing the Swedish frontier. Finland was lost and Sweden
+proper in danger.
+
+Only a revolution could save the country. The republican aristocrats
+were the ones to bring it about. A conspiracy among them was formed,
+George Adlersparre and Ch. H. Anckarsverd being the leaders. When it
+was rumored that the former, with the western army division, of which
+he was the commander, had left the Norwegian frontier and was marching
+on Stockholm, Gustavus IV. sent order to Toll in Scania to meet him
+with his troops, while the king seemed to make preparations to leave.
+Great excitement reigned in Stockholm, and General Adlercreutz, who
+recently had been received in the capital with enthusiasm, resolved
+to take action in preventing the king's departure. Accompanied by
+half a dozen officers, he entered the king's bedchamber the morning
+of March 13th, and took possession of the king in person, who made a
+struggle and later a frustrated attempt to escape. The body-guards were
+persuaded to remain inactive. Prince Charles was proclaimed regent.
+Neither this fact nor the arrest of the king seemed to impress the
+population, who received the news with ice-cold reserve. The king was
+conducted to Drottningholm, and later to Gripsholm, where he signed the
+document of abdication, finally to be escorted out of the country with
+his family, never to return. He died in St. Gallen in 1837.
+
+The regent's first duty was to ward off the Russian invasion of
+Norrland and to obtain peace. Napoleon congratulated Sweden on having
+got rid of the "supremacy of a fool," and sanctioned an armistice,
+granted by his general Marshal Bernadotte, who commanded an army in
+Seeland, ready to attack Sweden. Peace was made in Paris, Sweden
+receiving back Pomerania in return for a promise to close its own
+harbors against English ships. Peace with Denmark was made, with no
+change of territory on either side. Attempts to rout the Russian
+army of invasion at Ratan, in West Bothnia, were unsuccessful, but
+it withdrew by its own choice. In the treaty of peace signed at
+Fredericshamn, September 17, 1809, Finland, the archipelago of Aland
+and a part of Swedish Bothnia were ceded to Russia, the rivers of Torne
+and Muonio to form the boundary line.
+
+Finland, since time immemorial in intimate relations with Sweden, from
+whom she had received a portion of her population, had for 600 years
+with her mother country formed integral parts of the same realm. Sweden
+had given to Finland her religion, constitution, laws, privileges and
+culture, and in return received her fidelity and a host of patriotic
+men eminent in affairs of war and peace. Together the Swedes and Finns
+had fought on the battlefields of Europe for the political grandeur
+of their country and the religious liberty of the world. United to
+Russia, Finland preserved her institutions and privileges unmolested,
+and has, up to date, enjoyed a peaceful development greater than would
+perhaps have been her share under Swedish rule. The mother country
+was after this great loss forced to concentrate her energy on a more
+solid material progress, and has, according to the prophecy of Esaias
+Tegner, "within the boundary of Sweden reconquered Finland." The Finns
+have proved themselves to be one of the most talented and energetic
+of nations. Out of the two million inhabitants of Finland, two-fifths
+are Swedish, forming the nobility and the majority of the cultured
+classes. Already at the time of the separation from Sweden was born the
+national singer of Finland, John Ludvig Runeberg, who was to become
+the greatest poet that ever wrote in the Swedish language and one of
+the greatest that ever lived. In his immortal songs of "Finland's
+latest war," the two countries have a great common inheritance. Sweden
+dreamed of reconquering Finland as soon as a good warrior ascended the
+throne. This hope was given up forever. But the most intimate sympathy
+still reigns between the two countries. In case that harm to Finland
+or her home-rule should be done, and her independence be lost, the
+Swedish people would not be in a position to avenge such a crime, but
+it would cause profound grief and indignation, and would be considered
+a shameful act of violence which the glory of no peace emperor would
+suffice to cover.
+
+By the revolution of 1789, Sweden for a second time in her history
+surrendered her liberty into the hands of an energetic and patriotic
+ruler only to see the absolute power utterly abused by an incompetent
+successor. The loss and suffering were almost as great as at the death
+of Charles XII., but the era of democracy, peace and prosperity so much
+closer at hand. It was the spirit of the aristocratic republicanism
+which caused the timely downfall of absolute monarchy, but it was
+in its turn destined to fall for the spirit of democracy and a
+constitutional government.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+_The Constitutional Monarchy--Charles XIII. and the early Bernadottes_
+
+
+Charles XIII. succeeded his nephew. He was chosen king after a new
+constitution had been formulated and accepted by the Riksdag of 1809.
+Charles XIII. was one of the most unsympathetic of Swedish kings, but
+his reign marks a new period in Swedish history, commencing the era
+of constitutional government. The new constitution to which the king
+subscribed was not a radical document; it only reduced the power of the
+king. Hans Jaerta, one of the nobles who had renounced their privileges
+and been active in the conspiracy against Gustavus IV., was the leading
+spirit of the constitutional committee and was appointed secretary
+of state in the new cabinet. Urgent appeals of the peasant Estate to
+reduce or abolish the privileges of the upper classes were of no avail,
+no reform of state or society yet being made. A proposition by Count
+von Platen to introduce a compulsory militia defence was voted down.
+This Riksdag, which lasted for a year, gave fuller liberties to the
+press, which at once used it to voice the popular dissatisfaction with
+the state of affairs. It was necessary to select an heir to the throne,
+as the old king was childless, Prince Christian August of Augustenborg
+being chosen, much in opposition to the nobles, who wanted the son of
+Gustavus IV.
+
+The prince of Augustenborg, who was Danish governor-general of Norway,
+accepted, and was adopted by the king, changing his name to Charles
+August. He was a plain, resolute and active man, unattractive in
+appearance, but of a kind and noble character. Beloved by the lower
+classes, who had effected his selection, he was treated coldly by the
+Gustavian aristocrats and by Queen Hedvig Elisabeth Charlotte (Princess
+of Oldenburg), who all favored the selection of young Gustavus,
+the son of exiled Gustavus IV. Reports of attempts to poison the
+heir-apparent were in circulation even before he arrived in Sweden.
+Prince Charles August himself often said that he thought he would die
+young by some stroke of paralysis, but he paid no attention to the
+warnings given him. During a parade of troops at Qvidinge, in Scania,
+he was suddenly seen to lose consciousness and dropped dead from his
+horse. Peculiarities in the investigation of the corpse, led by his
+physician, caused a second post-mortem examination, in which the
+celebrated chemist Berzelius took part. The report seemed in favor of
+the supposition that the death was caused by poison. The indignation
+of the populace knew no bounds. The friends of the government tried to
+coin political money by insinuating that the Gustavians, particularly
+Count Axel von Fersen the Younger and his sister, Countess Piper, were
+the responsible parties. At the burial of the dead prince the mob of
+Stockholm perpetrated one of the most hideous murders of a man who was
+without doubt innocent. When Count Fersen, in the capacity of marshal
+of the realm, was to open the procession, he was warned not to do so,
+but in pride and sense of duty resolved to meet his fate. Approaching
+the church of Riddarholm, his carriage was pelted with stones, Fersen
+himself seeking shelter in various places, but being pursued by the mob
+and killed. Fersen had sought protection in a body of troops, whose
+officers commanded them to turn him over to the mob. Thus perished a
+man who, with Curt von Stedingk, had received the order of Cincinnatus
+from the hands of George Washington, and who once was so near saving
+Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette from their cruel fate. Fersen's brother
+was saved only by mere chance and his sister by a flight in disguise.
+The mob now was resolved to attack Countess Piper, who was thought to
+be at the castle, and the queen herself. But the authorities, who had
+brought shame on themselves by their unwillingness to save Fersen,
+interfered, directing a few shots of cannon against the mob, dispersing
+it and killing many (June 10, 1810).
+
+Sweden was once more without an heir-apparent to the throne. Frederic,
+the brother of Charles August, was favored by the king. Frederic
+VI. of Denmark was a candidate, but the old national hatred against
+the Danes was still too strong to make his selection possible. A
+count of Oldenburg was also mentioned by some. The Gustavians, to
+whom Adlercreutz belonged, dared not openly push their candidate of
+the old royal line. The patriotic noblemen in power were anxious to
+see some great general chosen, regardless of a royal pedigree, who
+could recapture Finland. King Charles sent two emissaries to Napoleon
+to notify him of the death of Charles August and the selection of
+his brother. Then one of the most original and daring schemes ever
+attempted on such a line was carried through by Count Otto Moerner, one
+of the emissaries. On his own responsibility, he inquired of Marshal
+Bernadotte, one of Napoleon's ablest generals, if he would consent to
+become heir-apparent to the Swedish throne. Bernadotte consented, and
+the consent of Napoleon was obtained through the Swedish ambassador
+in Paris. Upon his return, Moerner was ordered to leave the capital by
+the minister of state, who blamed him for his unauthorized action. But
+from Upsala Moerner led an eager agitation, with the result that the
+Riksdag of OErebro selected Bernadotte, who was represented by a secret
+emissary. Thus the two generals who, at the abdication of Gustavus IV.,
+were, one in Norway, the other in Denmark, with troops ready to attack
+Sweden, both within one year were chosen to succeed Charles XIII.
+
+Jean Baptiste Jules Bernadotte was born at Pau, in South France, in
+1764. The son of a lawyer, he worked himself up in the army and was by
+the Revolution enabled to reach the high military stations for which
+his eminent genius had destined him. Next to Napoleon the ablest of
+French generals, he opposed the imperial tendencies of the latter,
+but was later repeatedly used by the emperor to fulfil important
+duties as a warrior, diplomatist and statesman, receiving the rank of
+a marshal of France and the title of Prince of Ponte Corvo. Related
+by marriage, the two were never on terms of intimacy, and the Swedish
+politicians who thought to please the emperor, and gain a strong point
+with him by the selection of Bernadotte, were mistaken. Bernadotte
+joined the Lutheran church at Elsinore and landed in Sweden October
+20, 1810. By his impressive appearance, his amiability and his genius,
+he soon won all hearts. As he never acquired the Swedish language,
+and as his superior ability as a statesman and warrior was not always
+comprehended, he suffered often through misunderstandings by his new
+countrymen, who never ceased to admire his eminent genius. Prince
+Charles, or Charles Johann, as he called himself henceforward, was
+of a commanding presence and had an interesting face, surrounded by
+black curly hair. His fascinating ways and winning disposition held
+captive the admiration even of his political opponents. Prince Charles
+refused to submit to the undue influence with which Napoleon tried to
+fetter him, and always carried high and with patriotic independence the
+interests of his adopted country.
+
+Napoleon soon found reason to be offended with Sweden. Through the
+peace of Paris, Sweden had agreed to close its harbors to England, but
+in Gothenburg, which town had suffered destruction by fire and was
+recently rebuilt, a lively traffic was secretly carried on, connecting
+England with Northern Europe and enriching Gothenburg. Napoleon was
+enraged and forced Sweden to declare war on England, which power,
+realizing the circumstances, did not open any hostilities, and allowed
+the commercial traffic to continue, although more secretly. Prince
+Charles, who from the start exerted a strong influence upon the
+government, effected an approach to Russia and England to save the
+dignity of Sweden, much to Napoleon's dismay. He also put the army in a
+satisfactory condition by recruiting. This caused a revolt in Scania,
+which was subdued with severity. The Riksdag of 1812 passed a law for
+the establishment of a compulsory militia, all men between twenty-one
+and twenty-five years old being registered in classes according to age
+and instructed in military tactics and discipline.
+
+Napoleon tried by various methods to subdue and humiliate the
+independence of his Swedish ally, which, when fruitless, led him
+to acts of hostility. Prince Charles made peace with England and an
+alliance with Russia, who promised 20,000 men to assist in the conquest
+of Norway. When Napoleon and Alexander of Russia commenced war against
+each other, popular opinion in Sweden sided with the former, but
+Prince Charles, who knew in detail the nature of Napoleon's power and
+its lack of a solid foundation, tried to make his views clear. He met
+Alexander personally, agreeing with him on plans of mutual action,
+at Abo in 1812. After Napoleon's unsuccessful march against Russia,
+Swedish opinions changed and Bernadotte had free hands to follow up his
+policy. England formed an alliance with Sweden, agreeing to support the
+conquest of Norway and ceding the island of Guadeloupe (later sold to
+France by Sweden). In 1813, 25,000 Swedish troops were sent to Germany,
+joining the continental allies, who, divided in three armies, were to
+attack Napoleon, according to plans mostly mapped out by Prince Charles
+of Sweden. The latter was to command the Northern army of 100,000
+men, Swedes, Prussians, Russians and English, but his position was
+a difficult one, for his superior tactics were misunderstood by his
+subordinates and by Blucher, the valiant but headstrong commander of
+50,000 Prussians, who formed the Silesian army. But through the battles
+of Grossbeeren (August 23d), Dennewitz (September 6th), and Leipsic
+(October 16-19), the eminence of Bernadotte's genius was fully brought
+out, his leadership and the Swedish troops taking honorable part in
+each. Napoleon and his armies were defeated and pursued by the allies.
+The monarchs voted a resolution of thanks to Prince Charles, who, with
+his army, marched northward to carry out the ultimate object of his
+policy, the conquest of Norway, the plans of which had been made by
+Count Platen and handed him before he ever left Paris.
+
+Denmark had declared war on Sweden and sided with Napoleon. By turning
+against Denmark the former Marshal Bernadotte saved himself from the
+necessity of making an attack on the country of his birth. Lubeck
+surrendered, the Danes were defeated at Bornhoeved, Kiel and Glucksburg
+were captured, and the whole of Holstein occupied. An armistice was
+agreed to. Denmark offered the diocese of Drontheim, but Prince Charles
+was resolved to expel Denmark from the Scandinavian Peninsula. January
+14, 1814, peace was made at Kiel, Denmark ceding to Sweden the whole
+of Norway, except Iceland and Fero Islands, and receiving Swedish
+Pomerania and the island of Rugen in compensation.
+
+Norway, united with Denmark ever since the days of Queen Margaret,
+in a relation of more or less neglected conditions, during which her
+original independence was lost, had of late not been satisfied to
+remain under Danish supremacy. The governing class of officeholders was
+to a great extent of Danish origin and tendencies, and the patriotism
+of the population at large dates from a later period. Among the more
+cultured classes the revolution in France and close relations with
+England had fostered a desire for political independence. The Danes
+made use of this fact in order to try to maintain the relation with
+Denmark in some way. The Danish crown prince, Christian Frederic, was
+in 1813 made governor-general of Norway. He was a man of some brilliant
+gifts, but without any great ability. By journeys in the country he
+acquired popularity and adherents. In February, 1814, a meeting was
+held at Eidsvold by men of prominence, who declared the prince regent.
+May 17th a constitution was adopted and Christian Frederic elected
+king of Norway. His courteous offer of extending his rule to Sweden
+was there met by derision. After a triumphal return to Stockholm,
+Prince Bernadotte gathered his forces and attacked Norway both by land
+and sea, the aged King Charles XIII. having command of the navy. An
+army of 20,000 Swedes entered Norway under command of Von Essen, who
+captured the fortifications at Svinesund. The navy took possession of
+the islands in the archipelago outside of Fredericstad, which town
+was captured, with the fortress Kongsten, 100 cannon and considerable
+stores of weapons and provisions. The Norwegian army of 30,000 men was
+located in various places with the central body of troops at Moss. The
+plan of Prince Charles was to enclose it from all sides. A smaller
+Swedish force of 3,000 men was repulsed by the Norwegians in two
+conflicts at Lier and Medskog, celebrated by the latter as important
+victories. In the meantime the Swedish army proceeded northward and the
+fleet penetrated to the bay of Christiania. The plan to enclose the
+Norwegian army at Moss was being carried into effect in order to finish
+the war by one single battle, when negotiations for peace were begun.
+
+Prince Charles was anxious to have the conflict brought to a rapid
+close because he feared that the powers, envious of Sweden's good
+fortune and dissatisfied with the refusal of Prince Charles to join
+in an attack on France, might take unfavorable decisions at the
+approaching congress of Vienna. Prompted by these reasons, and perhaps
+influenced by his experience of revolutionary movements, Prince Charles
+offered to sanction Norway's constitution only with such changes
+as were necessary for a union with Sweden, besides demanding the
+abdication and speedy departure of Christian Frederic. On these terms
+peace was made at the convention of Moss, August 14, 1814. At the first
+meeting of the Norwegian Storthing, or Diet, the terms of peace were
+sanctioned and Charles XIII. chosen king of Norway. At the Congress of
+Vienna, in 1815, treaties were signed between Sweden and Prussia and
+between Denmark and Prussia, according to which Swedish Pomerania and
+Rugen were ceded to Prussia on the payment of about $2,000,000, and the
+duchy of Lauenburg ceded to Denmark. In the relation between Sweden and
+Norway no change was made, and Denmark lost all hope of the restitution
+of the latter country.
+
+The great moderation shown by Prince Charles in the acquisition of
+Norway has been criticised in various ways, but none of the arguments
+used against it have themselves been able to bear a critical test.
+The idea of uniting the two countries as independent states was
+older in Sweden than the very constitution of Norway which Prince
+Charles accepted. It was the idea of the leading men in Sweden who
+had dethroned Gustavus IV. in 1809. The Scandinavian Union is not the
+best imaginable, has brought Sweden no added power or security, and
+has placed her king in a difficult position. The only bond of union
+is the king, the two countries each having their constitution, diet
+and cabinet. There is only one department in common, the one of which
+the Swedish minister of foreign affairs is the head and which settles
+all relations with other countries for both Sweden and Norway. Three
+members of the Norwegian cabinet are residents of Stockholm, to prepare
+affairs pertaining to the Norwegian administration and to partake in
+affairs involving both countries. These stipulations are made by
+the Act of Union, accepted in 1815 by the Diets of both countries.
+According to the Norwegian constitution, the king can use no greater
+force than 3,000 men outside the Norwegian boundary, except with the
+special consent of the Diet. Thus Sweden cannot in case of war expect
+any solid support from her sister country. The loose connections of the
+Union did not become apparent during the reigns of Charles XIII. and
+his successor, and the powers of Europe were not aware of them. Thus
+the Union served its purpose as offering a solid front of unity and
+strength to the powers who were dividing and redividing almost every
+territory on the map of Europe.
+
+Charles XIII. died in February, 1818, at the age of seventy, and his
+talented queen followed him a few months later.
+
+_Charles XIV. Johann_ was fifty-four years of age when ascending
+the throne, but a man in his prime. To the dignity of the crown he
+brought a great personal influence, and his fame as a warrior, which
+spread throughout Europe. The firm diplomatic relations with Russia
+were continued, but approaches to England were also made. Charles
+XIV. gave close personal attention to the administration, being
+especially interested in the defence, finances, canals and roads.
+With his brilliant genius, quick temper and sense of superiority, the
+king sometimes reigned more alone and by his own decision than was
+considered advisable; but in the majority of cases he was influenced
+by the able men of his cabinet--Wetterstedt, Rosenblad, Skjoeldebrand,
+Cederstrom and Wirsen. An intimate friend of the king was Count
+Magnus Brahe, who, though not a member of the cabinet, influenced the
+government more than was thought compatible with its dignity. Count
+Brahe, the head of one of the most distinguished of aristocratic
+families, used his great influence over the king mostly in a noble
+way, himself being raised to the highest dignities of the state. He
+was blindly devoted to the king, followed him like a shadow, taking
+infinite care of him during his last illness, and dying only a few
+months after his royal friend.
+
+One of the most remarkable works carried on during the reign of Charles
+XIV. was the Gotha Canal system, which was brought to completion.
+The old bishop Brask had spoken of a connection between the lakes
+of Venar and Vetter, and the great Oxenstierna thought of a canal
+between the North Sea and the Baltic across Sweden. Charles XII. had
+ordered Polhem to make a trafficable passage around the waterfalls
+of Trollhetta, which was done after new plans during the reign of
+Gustavus IV. During the Period of Liberty, Daniel Thunberg had made
+plans for the whole canal system. But Count Balzar von Platen was the
+man to make the great work a realized fact, devoting his whole life
+to it, conquering distrust, opposition and lack of funds. He spent
+six years in preliminary surveys before taking up the agitation for
+the realization of his plans. During the whole progress of the work,
+his efficient activity in looking after every detail could only be
+compared to his constant agitation in the Riksdag for the support of
+the immense enterprise and his scrupulous attention to the financial
+part of it. When the great canal was opposed as an unpatriotic scheme,
+endangering the defence of the country, Platen answered by completing
+plans for a colossal fortress in the heart of the canal system, which,
+when erected, became the strategic stronghold of Sweden, and was named
+Carlsborg. Platen died as governor-general of Norway, seeing his great
+life-work nearing completion. The Gotha Canal is the most remarkable
+of its kind in Europe, being 259 miles long, with 74 locks, many of
+which have been cut out of solid granite hills. It is of great value to
+commerce and affords a most picturesque scenic tour.
+
+Charles XIV. met with a power in politics which, from the start not
+strong enough to carry away victory, ended by attaining its goal. It
+was the liberal opposition in the Riksdag, supported by a liberal
+press. Charles XIV., in his native country, had seen to what an infamy
+the abuse of liberal forms of government could lead, and he was
+sternly resolved to antagonize any movement which aimed to introduce
+more democratic principles in the handling of state affairs and in
+the remodelling of the system of representation. Charles XIV. was in
+a delicate personal position. He was the only one of the Napoleonic
+marshals who preserved his throne after the fall of the emperor, and
+the strong continental reaction looked askance at this new man who
+wore one of the oldest crowns of Europe. But his great reputation as a
+warrior and statesman, and his persistent peace policy, ought to have
+been to him sufficient guarantees of the fidelity of his subjects.
+Charles XIV., in the agitation against the self-willed cabinet, saw
+an enmity against himself. By a network of secret detectives, the
+king tried to uncover conspiracies and plots which existed in his
+imagination only, or in that of those who were aware of his weakness
+and sought to gain personal favors by making use of it. The severity
+with which the press was censured and its members punished created
+a bitterness against the king personally, which ceased only during
+the few last years of his reign. With the new constitution a law
+establishing full liberty of public utterance in print was enacted, but
+a temporary restraint had been placed on this liberty, in 1812, on
+account of violent newspaper attacks upon Russia. The government still
+made use of this restraint, which caused many severe legal sentences
+and subsequent bitterness.
+
+Among the press organs of that period the "Argus" and "Aftonbladet"
+were the most conspicuous in their attacks upon the conservative
+government; Lars Hierta, one of the ablest of Swedish editorial
+writers, was the publisher of the latter. His paper was repeatedly
+confiscated. Anders Lindeberg was the publisher of "Stockholmsposten."
+In an agitation against the royal monopoly in theatrical affairs,
+Lindeberg threw out the accusation that the king, for purely economical
+reasons, opposed a reform in those matters. He was arraigned and a
+sentence of death passed upon him, which was commuted to three years'
+imprisonment. But Lindeberg refused to accept any clemency, declaring
+himself ready and resolved to die. The government, who dared not take
+his life, was in a delicate predicament, but saved itself and Lindeberg
+by announcing pardon of "political criminals," at the anniversary of
+the king's first arrival in Sweden. Jacob Crusenstolpe, a novelist
+and writer of note, was one of the intimate friends and supporters of
+the government, but turned liberal, attacking the king in a pamphlet.
+He was sentenced to three years' imprisonment, which created great
+commotion and a revolt in Stockholm, not subdued except after a bloody
+conflict with the troops (July, 1838). Crusenstolpe continued writing
+from his prison.
+
+The principal leaders of the opposition in the Riksdag were L. Boye,
+F. B. von Schwerin and C. H. Anckarsverd among the nobles, and
+Anders Danielsson among the peasants. This opposition criticised the
+government for negligence, extravagance and incompetency. Its policy
+was an entire reconstruction of the state, politically, socially
+and financially, on the basis of a constitutional government. The
+opposition commenced by establishing the right of free deliberations
+in the Riksdag. At the Riksdags of 1827 and 1828 the government was
+severely taken to task on account of the sale of ships to the Spanish
+insurgents in South America. The king was inclined to join England
+against Spain, but had to recede on account of pressure from Russia and
+the continental powers. The sales were partly annulled and the Swedish
+government experienced a considerable financial loss. Cederstrom was
+the responsible party, but upon his resignation his able successor
+Wirsen was able to cover up his tracks.
+
+If Sweden was forced to change her policy in the South American affair
+she was found unyielding in the settlement of the boundary questions
+with Russia. This power was anxious to obtain a slice of the Norwegian
+Finnmark, with excellent ice-free harbors at the bay of Varanger. In
+the ultimate settlement with Russia, in 1826, a great territory was
+ceded, but not any of the important harbors.
+
+In 1840 the opposition had waxed strong enough to effect one of its
+most desired reforms, the constitutional reconstruction of the cabinet.
+This body was made to consist of ten members, of whom seven were to be
+the heads of the various state departments, those of justice, foreign
+affairs, army, navy, civil service, finance and ecclesiastics.[5] As a
+consequence of this change in the constitution, several cabinet members
+resigned and were succeeded by men more in touch with the opposition.
+
+The greatest of contemplated reforms was a new system of representation,
+but the opposition was not able to carry it through. At the first
+revolution of Gustavus III., Stedingk favored a reconstruction of the
+Riksdag after the model of the English parliament. Gustavus III, was
+afraid to cause complications by the introduction of such a novelty,
+but considered it gravely at the time of his second revolution. In
+1830, the idea was taken up by the opposition, and Anckarsverd and the
+eminent lawyer Richert made up a plan for a new Diet, according to
+the plan of the Norwegian Storthing. This plan, with the idea of one
+chamber, instead of two, was repeatedly discussed at the Riksdag of
+1840, but not adopted. This remarkable Riksdag, which lasted seventeen
+months, did considerable for the improvement of education and was
+ultimately dismissed by Charles XIV., in a speech of a conciliatory
+spirit, which went far toward restoring the old popularity of the king.
+
+Charles XIV. died March 8, 1844, at the age of eighty-one. During the
+last years of his reign he received strong and repeated evidence of the
+love of his people, especially upon the occasion of his twenty-fifth
+anniversary as king of Sweden. "No one has made a career like mine,"
+he said shortly before his death. He was a child of the revolutionary
+epoch, favored by its opportunities to receive a high station, without
+being sullied by any of its vices. If it be true that his position
+often was made difficult through lack of appreciation by his new
+subjects, it is not less true that he, through lack of intimacy with
+the Swedish language, national character and traditions, was unable to
+further the development of his new country, in the same degree as would
+a native provided with such rich endowment. The sun of Charles XIV.,
+which rose in brilliancy, set in the glory of full appreciation.
+
+The reign of Charles XIV. produced a new line of eminent scientists and
+was the golden age of Swedish literature. The remarkable genius of J.
+J. Berzelius remolded the science of chemistry, placing it on a basis
+where there are hardly any limits to its scope. Elias Fries devised a
+new system of botany. Sven Nilsson, a distinguished zooelogist, also
+became the founder of a new science, comparative archaeology. K. J.
+Schlyter edited a complete collection of the old provincial laws, a
+work of equal importance to philology and jurisprudence. P. H. Ling
+invented the Swedish system of gymnastics and founded the Central
+Institute of Gymnastics in Stockholm, where the Swedish massage or
+movement cure has won a scientific development worthy of its world-wide
+fame. E. G. Geijer, as a philosopher, was a noble follower of Hoeijer,
+while as a historian he is the greatest genius of his country. As a
+poet and composer Geijer is also noteworthy. Professor of history at
+Upsala, he was once accused of heterodoxy, but acquitted. His political
+career was remarkable. Geijer was a firm supporter of the government
+and conservative principles, until fifty-seven years of age, when he
+joined the opposition.
+
+The world of letters was divided in parties as bitterly opposed to
+each other as those of the political world. The old Gustavian school,
+of which Leopold remained the last representative, was attacked by
+the "New School," which, inspired by German Romanticism, was brimful
+of inspiration, imagination and feelings, but very little that was
+original, clear or national. Of this so-called "phosphoristic" school
+Atterbom was the distinguished leader. Stagnelius, a poet of rare
+attainments, but who died early, belongs in this group. The New School
+was in turn attacked by the "Gothic Society," a school of national
+Swedish Romanticism, which introduced a cult of the Old Northern
+spirit of individuality, terseness and power. Ling and Geijer were
+among the leading men of this school, whose enthusiasm for everything
+national had a lasting influence upon the research for, and gathering
+of, folk lore, songs, traditions, customs, and every trait of the
+popular culture of bygone days. In Franzen and Wallin, Sweden had
+two religious poets of the very first rank. More famous than any of
+these was Esaias Tegner, the second great national poet of Sweden,
+whose "Frithiof's Saga" was destined to become the most celebrated
+literary work of all Europe in its day, appearing in a vast number of
+translations in a great number of languages. Tegner was in sympathy
+with the old Gustavian school, but a member of the Gothic Society, and
+by his choice of subjects in harmony with the national school. There is
+a wonderful richness of sparkling life and wit in Tegner's poems, but
+they are sometimes overladen by the vivid ornamental images in which
+they abound. Tegner was a man of extremely broad and liberal views on
+every phase of human life and effort. He hated with the whole power of
+his fiery soul the mysticism, obscurantism and morbid sensualism of his
+age. He was the sworn enemy of the "Holy Alliance" and the reactionary
+powers in state, church and literature. In his chivalrous spirit and
+love of the great individuals, he became the admirer of Charles XIV.,
+whose policy he therefore supported. Tegner is not the one who in the
+grandeur and faultlessness of his creations has attained the very
+highest rank among Swedish poets, but is the greatest and most unbiased
+thinker among them, and has as such exerted a beneficial influence
+upon the national consciousness and cultural development. Tegner's
+judgment upon one of his Gustavian precursors may be repeated in his
+own case: "Perchance the greatest not as poet, but as genius."
+
+_Oscar I._ was forty-five years of age at the death of his father. He
+was the only son of Charles XIV. and Queen Desideria, the latter a
+daughter of a French merchant by the name of Clary. Oscar was, in 1823,
+married to Princess Josephine of Leuchtenberg, a granddaughter of the
+French empress of the same name. It was a difficult position, the one
+held by the heir-apparent. Charles XIV. was jealous of his own power
+and popularity and suspected his son of being in sympathy with the
+opposition. The prince, distanced as far as possible from the affairs
+of state, devoted himself to the study of social and economic subjects.
+He gave a great deal of attention to the study of prisons and the care
+of prisoners, seeking by pamphlets to spread his sympathies for the
+latter and to improve their conditions. Oscar I. was fondly devoted
+to the fine arts, himself a talented painter and composer. He did not
+possess his father's brilliant genius or power of personal influence,
+although an upright man of great talent and exceedingly prepossessing
+in appearance. Oscar was of a mild, sagacious disposition, who liked to
+go into detail and take time for investigation and decision. He was not
+a man of action, and lacked somewhat consistency in carrying out plans
+of a wider scope. Oscar I. had a little of the autocrat of the father
+in him and often acted on his own judgment, without taking the advice
+of his cabinet. Being the loyal, highly cultured and patriotic man that
+he was, he in various ways furthered the development of his country.
+
+Few kings have ascended a throne under such enthusiasm and joyful
+aspirations on the part of the people as King Oscar I. Several
+important reforms were enacted at the Riksdag which met in 1844, and
+the king gave his sanction to them all. It was decided that the Riksdag
+should meet every third instead of every fifth year, the liberty of
+the press was augmented, and to women were given equal rights in the
+stipulations of inheritance and marriage. The last-mentioned reform was
+bitterly opposed by the nobles, who feared it would, to a great extent,
+annul their privileges. The law was passed by the three lower Estates,
+in spite of the nobles, and was sanctioned by the king. Oscar I. took
+great pains to have the industries freed from the restraint under which
+they had been suffering during the reign of his predecessor.
+
+King Oscar surrounded himself with men of a more modern type than
+his father's advisers. They were in touch with the principles of the
+opposition, although far from radical, and more respected for their
+character than for their ability. The opposition, which had been
+so harsh during the administration of Charles XIV., was toned down
+considerably; but complaints were soon heard that the new government
+was neither consistent nor resolute in its liberal policy and that
+courtiers and young officers won an unduly rapid promotion. Soon an
+opposition of a new order was organized against the administration.
+The conservatives, finding that it leaned too much on the liberal
+principles, attacked it for this reason. A powerful conservative
+party at the Riksdag was organized, with Hartmansdorff as the leader
+among the nobles and Archbishop Wingard among the clergy. Attacked by
+liberals and conservatives alike, and not supported by either, the
+government was of an undecided and vacillating tenor.
+
+The French revolution of 1848 influenced Swedish politics in several
+ways. The "friends of reform," viz., the party desiring a parliamentary
+reorganization, were incited by the republican tendencies. The
+masses of Stockholm on one occasion gave vent to their feelings by
+demonstrations which were of a menacing character. Great crowds
+collected outside the place where a "reform banquet" was held. There it
+was resolved to attack the houses of Hartmansdorff and several other
+leading conservatives. The owners placed themselves in safety, but the
+windows of the houses were broken by the mob, who also threw stones at
+the troops. The tumult was quenched, but not without bloodshed. The
+press was greatly agitated for a long time afterward, using language
+against the government that was by no means choice. The liberals in the
+Riksdag commenced to take an attitude as decided as the one held by the
+conservatives. From this time on King Oscar showed great coldness to
+the liberals, and surrounded himself with advisers more in harmony with
+the conservatives.
+
+The proposition for a reorganization of the Riksdag, made in 1840,
+was not accepted, but a committee was appointed in 1848 to make a new
+proposition, which failed to please either government or Riksdag. The
+king then had a new proposition prepared, based upon general elections.
+The liberals did not think the royal proposition democratic enough and
+offered one of their own. Both of these were defeated at the Riksdag
+of 1850, thanks to the opposition of nobility and clergy. A third
+one was made by Hartmansdorff, but also failed to please, not being
+conservative enough for the nobles. Hartmansdorff aroused so much
+hatred among his fellow nobles that they refused to be seated on the
+same bench with him during the sessions. After a period of perfect
+isolation the old conservative leader was judged with greater leniency
+by his former followers. Shortly before his death, in 1856, he sent
+them the following greeting: "Ask the nobles not to stand up so long
+for their privileges, they will lose nothing by surrendering them." It
+seemed as if the interest for parliamentary reform had died out during
+the latter part of King Oscar's reign, but such was not the case; it
+only gathered force in the quiet, and the king was right when defining
+it as a "question which could never fall."
+
+The influence of the revolution of 1848 also was felt in the foreign
+relations of Sweden. The German population of Holstein and Schleswig
+tried to sever their connections with Denmark in order to effect a
+union with Germany, Prussia taking upon herself to liberate said
+provinces. Denmark made various efforts to gain the active support of
+Sweden. The so-called "Scandinavism" was a good means to obtain this
+end. This movement, which aimed at the establishment of a closer union
+between the three Scandinavian countries, based upon the fact of the
+common origin of their inhabitants, had originated at the University
+of Copenhagen. The meetings of scientists and students, in 1842 and
+1843, at Stockholm, had given growth to this movement, which was of
+a very high-strung nature, but, as far as the Danes were concerned,
+also of an egotistical motive. Charles XIV. had been averse to this
+"students' policy," but Oscar I. was sympathetically impressed by it.
+"Scandinavism" rose high in 1848, especially at the universities, and
+King Oscar sent a communication to the Prussian government to the
+effect that he was resolved to oppose any attack on the Danish isles.
+An army of 20,000 men was ordered to Scania to give weight to this
+statement. A smaller division of it was even for a time quartered in
+the island of Funen. The German troops which had invaded Jutland soon
+retired and hostilities ceased for some time. King Oscar effected an
+armistice of seven months in August, 1848. As a result of the war
+between Denmark and Germany during the next few years an agreement
+followed, according to which Holstein and Schleswig would for some time
+remain under Danish supremacy.
+
+King Oscar had, from the commencement of his reign, tried to meet all
+demands for reform made by his Norwegian subjects, who were anxious to
+demonstrate to the world the perfect independence of their country.
+The king himself took the initiative steps to give Norway a national
+flag of its own, the two countries up to the reign of Oscar having had
+one common official flag. He also instituted the Norwegian knightly
+order of St. Olaf in resemblance to the older Swedish orders of
+Seraphim, Vasa, etc., and gave permission to place the name of Norway
+before that of Sweden in the Norwegian royal title. For these reasons
+public opinion in Sweden expected Norwegian concessions in regard to
+the Act of Union, which seemed in need of revision. A committee of
+men from both countries was appointed to make the revision, but the
+Norwegian members opposed all measures involving any change, expressing
+themselves in such emphatic terms that it was found best to leave the
+deliberations of the committee unpublished. In 1854 the Norwegian
+Storthing decided to abolish the office of a governor-general. King
+Oscar refused to sanction this law, but allowed the office to remain
+vacant during the rest of his reign.
+
+Intemperance had grown to be an evil from which the Swedish people
+greatly suffered since the reign of Gustavus III., when alcohol began
+to be produced in great quantities by the common people. The king
+encouraged the temperance movement, which was very fruitful in results.
+In 1853 the Riksdag abolished the free and unrestrained production
+of alcohol, which was changed into a regular industry and placed
+under heavy taxation. From 1855 onward, the principles of free trade
+were adopted for commerce and trade through the influence of J. A.
+Gripenstedt, the minister of finance, and seemed to have beneficial
+results in every branch of industrial and commercial activity. The
+state revenues were greatly increased and the surplus spent in
+improvements of the widest scope. The means of interior communications
+were vastly improved. In 1853 the network of the state electric
+telegraph began to spread and now embraces every part of the country.
+The agitation for the construction of railways had long been an active
+one. The first one constructed was a private railway between OErebro
+and Arboga. In 1854 the Riksdag decided on the construction of trunk
+lines in Southern Sweden, to be built and controlled by the state. The
+Riksdag of 1856 appropriated a sum of $5,000,000 for that purpose.
+The railways were rapidly and solidly built under the supervision of
+Baron Nils Ericsson, the highly talented brother of John Ericsson, the
+world-famous inventor of the propeller, the caloric engine, the steam
+hose and the "Monitor."
+
+The relations with Russia were not the best during the latter part of
+King Oscar's reign. The Russian claims on the harbors at the bay of
+Varanger were repeated in 1847, and when deliberations for a settlement
+were opened, in 1851, Russia showed a tendency to take possession of
+the desired places. In the conflict between Russia, on one hand, and
+Turkey, supported by England and France, on the other, Sweden sided
+with the latter, especially after Russia had failed to recognize an
+alliance of neutrality under arms formed by Sweden-Norway and Denmark.
+In 1855 Sweden entered an agreement with France, promising not to cede
+any territory to Russia in case of a conflict. In 1856 peace was made
+at Paris; the only favor won by Sweden was a pledge made by Russia not
+to fortify the archipelago of Aland.
+
+King Oscar was a very hard worker and also fond of the pleasures of
+life. His health was injured through illness, in 1857, and he never
+recovered. The premature death of his second son, Prince Gustavus, a
+talented composer and highly popular, had a disastrous influence on
+him. King Oscar I. died July 8, 1859, after a long illness, beloved by
+the two nations who, during his reign, had enjoyed the happiest epoch
+of their history.
+
+Romanticism in literature had an important second blossom during
+the reign of King Oscar I. and his successor. With the exception of
+Runeberg and Almquist, it offers no name of the very first rank. But
+Runeberg, the Homer of the North, does not belong to Sweden alone, and
+Almquist, the only great Romanticist, had made his appearance during
+the preceding epoch. Charles John Ludvig Almquist was a genius of great
+versatility and exceptional endowment. He wrote with equal force in all
+branches of literature; besides the poet, dramatist and prosaist, being
+a good philologist and well versed in a number of practical pursuits.
+He anticipated the ideas of which George Sand became a champion, and
+wrote charming peasant idyls long before Auerbach and Bjoernson. His
+most important work is an ambiguous creation, conceived somewhat in
+the form of Boccaccio's "Decamerone," but much larger, and containing
+productions in every imaginable artistic form. It is called _Toernrosens
+bok_ (The Book of the Wild Rose). Almquist has not, like Bellman and
+Tegner, crystallized the Swedish national character in a lyrical form,
+but he remains, in spite of glaring defects, the most versatile and
+supremely gifted genius of Swedish literature.
+
+Nybom, Boettiger, Malmstroem, Saetherberg and Strandberg were talented
+lyric poets of this epoch, Von Braun, Sturzen-Becker and Sehlstedt
+good humorists, while Boerjesson, Blanche, Jolin, Dahlgren and Frans
+Hedberg wrote successfully for the stage. Swedish women were destined
+to win fame for themselves by bringing the novelistic form to a
+richer development; principal among whom were Frederica Bremer,
+Sophie von Knorring, Emilie Carlen and Sophie Schwartz, while the men
+Crusenstolpe, Sparre, Mellin, Ridderstad and Starbaeck cultivated the
+field of historical fiction, for which Swedish history offers such a
+wealth of appropriate subjects.
+
+Swedish composers of note were becoming numerous, although the field in
+which they chiefly excel is the rather limited one of lyric song, the
+most spontaneous medium of expression for the lyrico-rhetoric Swedish
+temperament. As the composer of "lieder" or _visor_, Adolphus Lindblad,
+an intimate friend of Mendelssohn, occupies a revered place in the
+history of music. Close to him stand Crusell, Nordblom and Josephsson,
+while Haeffner, Otto Lindblad, one of the noblest composers in this
+line, Prince Gustavus and Vennerberg are famous principally for their
+part songs.
+
+The cultivators of dramatic and orchestral composition have as yet
+been comparatively few. Chief among them is Bervald; further, Norman
+and Hallstroem. In a later contemporary epoch, Hallen, Aulin, Sjoegren,
+Stenhammar have considerably brightened this aspect of cultural
+development. Gunnar Vennerberg occupies an honored place as a poet,
+humorist and composer in one. There seems to be a deeply rooted
+tendency in the Swedish national temperament to unite the various
+branches of artistic creation, which would stamp it as romantic in
+its very essence if there did not run a vein of stunningly realistic
+portrayals through the works of such composite nature. In the art of
+Bellman this tendency has found its highest exponent. Bellman selected
+for his subjects the life of the lower middle classes in the Swedish
+capital of his day. His Fredman sings of the experiences of himself
+and his friends. Vennerberg has chosen the student's life at the
+University of Upsala as the subject of his duets between two students,
+"Gluntarne," in which are mirrored as faithfully, and sometimes as
+artistically, as by Bellman the humorous and pathetic scenes which have
+fascinated the poet and composer.
+
+Swedish song for the first time acquired universal fame through Jenny
+Lind, who has had many successors, but no peer as a dramatic singer.
+Contemporaneous with Jenny Lind were a number of highly talented
+histrionic artists, principal among whom were Lars Hjortsberg,
+Nils William Almloef, Olof Ulric Torsslov, Emilie Hoegquist and Carl
+Georg Dahlquist. The Swedish stage has set a good example for the
+preservation of the highest standards of the language, and in this line
+exerted a great cultural influence.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+_Parliamentary Reform--Charles XV_
+
+
+Charles XV., the eldest son of Oscar I., succeeded his father, having
+for two years presided over the government during king Oscar's last
+illness. King Charles was of gigantic stature, exceedingly handsome
+and of a manly and noble bearing. There dwelt a fiery soul within him,
+conscious of its power, longing for heroic deeds and in sympathy with
+all that was noble in life and art. The king possessed an abundance
+of youthful energy and vivacity. He was a passionate hunter and a gay
+companion, who surrounded himself with men equally boisterous and gay.
+He was fond of jokes and merry pastimes, and took no pains to hide his
+weaknesses, which were of a convivial nature. In his social intercourse
+the king was exceptionally open and frank, treating everybody alike
+in a good-natured, hearty manner, winning the whole heart of his
+people. He understood better than any king since Charles XI. how to put
+himself in cordial relation with the masses of the people. But fond of
+playing practical jokes on high and low, he did not like to receive
+in the same measure. Charles XV. was devoted to the pursuits of art.
+Especially in his youth, he wrote poetry and distinguished himself as
+a landscape painter through his love for typical Swedish sceneries.
+Sweden did not at first know what to expect of her new ruler, and no
+one was able to predict the course of his policy. There were fears that
+his youthfulness and his fiery southern temperament might lead him to
+feel satisfied with the exterior of things or that he might give way
+to the impulses of the moment. These fears soon proved to be without
+foundation. The king had chosen as his maxim "Land shall with law be
+built," from the old provincial law of Upland, and he remained, with
+very rare exceptions, true to the constitutional spirit of these words.
+He had the good fortune to find highly capable advisers, in whose hands
+he placed the details of the administration, and, in contrast to his
+father, was satisfied to give his attention exclusively to matters of a
+more general importance. He gave his unreserved support to his cabinet,
+occupying a position above all party interests. Charles XV. often
+sacrificed, sometimes only after considerable internal struggle, his
+own personal sympathies and inclinations at the request of the advisers
+when he saw that the welfare of his country and his own royal dignity
+demanded such a sacrifice. On account of this, his true constitutional
+spirit, he deserved as a ruler the blind adoration of his people. His
+summer residence, the castle of Ulricsdal, in the neighborhood of
+Stockholm, he changed into an artistic abode, with choice collections
+in various lines. Charles XV. had, in 1850, married Princess Louise of
+the Netherlands, of the royal house of Orange. Their daughter, Louise,
+was married to the crown prince of Denmark, and is still in life, while
+King Charles had to suffer the premature losses of his only son and of
+his consort.
+
+The cabinet which surrounded Charles XV. was one of the strongest
+bodies of its kind that ever controlled the government of Sweden.
+During his regency, Crown Prince Charles appointed Baron Louis de Geer
+minister of justice and Ludvig Manderstroem minister of foreign affairs.
+These men continued their duties during the reign of Charles XV.,
+while Gripenstedt, as minister of finance, followed up his beneficent
+activity for the emancipation and development of the national
+industries. The historian, Frederic Ferdinand Carlson, had been the
+teacher of King Charles and had successfully continued the monumental
+work of Swedish history, left unfinished by Geijer. Carlson occupied,
+during the greater part of the reign of Charles XV., the position of
+minister of ecclesiastics (church and education), in which capacity
+he did great work for the improvement of educational affairs. The
+high schools and colleges were reorganized through new regulations of
+1859, being the work of Carlson before his appointment to the cabinet.
+Carlson also improved the public, or common, schools. King Charles was
+a warm friend of public instruction. In one of his speeches from the
+throne he said: "This is my ambition that a true and living culture
+shall penetrate our people and with its blessings reach the humblest of
+its cottages."
+
+The relations between Sweden and Norway, during the first few years
+of the reign of Charles XV., were strained. The Norwegian Storthing
+once more voted the abolition of the office of a governor-general.
+It was thought that the king, who earlier, as viceroy of Norway, had
+spoken in a spirit of acquiescence upon this question, would sanction
+the vote of the Storthing. But in Sweden great indignation was felt.
+It was known and understood that the Act of Union contained nothing
+in regard to the office in question, but was created by a stipulation
+in the constitution of Norway which admitted the possibility of its
+being filled by a Swede. The Norwegian view was that the Storthing
+had exclusive right to decide the question, while the Swedish view
+was that it was a question concerning the Union and to be decided on
+by the diets of the two countries. Practically the Swedes were right;
+theoretically, and from a purely patriotic standpoint, which considered
+necessary the development of a perfect national independence even at
+the expense of the Union, the Norwegians were right. Ankarsverd, well
+known since the days of Charles XIV., made a motion, at the Swedish
+Riksdag of 1859, for the revision of the Act of Union on the basis of
+the treaty of Kiel, which motion in Norway was accepted as an insult.
+V. F. Dalman made a motion that the Estates should ask the king not
+to render a decision in the question of a Norwegian governor-general
+before the Riksdag had had an opportunity to look into the international
+aspect of the question. Great was the commotion caused by this issue,
+both in the diets and the press of the two countries. Swedish pamphlets
+were circulated which accepted the possibility of a dissolution of
+the Union. But in Norway, where the security of a union with Sweden
+had become apparent, especially during the conflict with Russia, such
+utterances were repudiated. Both of the motions in question were passed
+by the four Estates of the Riksdag, but put in such a shape that a
+request to have a revision of the Act of Union made was sent up to the
+king, with the demand for a royal proposition on that issue. The king
+was then asked to consider the question of a Norwegian governor-general
+in connection with that revision. As there was a difference of opinion
+also in the cabinets of the two countries, the final decision rested
+with the king alone. The sagacity and discernment of which King Charles
+gave evidence saved the situation and is worthy of praise. He declared
+in the Norwegian cabinet that he could not sanction the abolition of
+the office of a governor-general. Shortly afterward, he gave in the
+Swedish cabinet as his opinion the advisability of postponing, for the
+time being, all deliberations of a revision of the Act of Union. By
+doing so, the king quieted the high feelings in both countries, and
+peace returned. It had become apparent to both Swedes and Norwegians
+that the Union was the result of great political foresight because
+it was preserved through the increasing feeling of faith and of the
+necessity of mutual protection. That great obscurity existed in regard
+to the affairs regulating the Union had also become evident.
+
+The reforms and improvements which were effected during the reign of
+Charles XV. were highly important. New criminal and maritime codes
+were made at the Riksdag of 1862, and sanctioned by the government.
+Through the new regulations passed in the same year the foundations
+for increased municipal home rule were laid. Such home rule was as
+old as the country itself, but, in the same degree as the state
+organization, had attained a higher development, and the centralization
+of the administration was realized; it had weakened and was in peril
+of being entirely lost. Now the time was come for the powers of state
+to give municipal home rule new strength, adapting its old forms
+and creating new ones, in accordance with modern requirements. Laws
+were made which gave the towns the right to elect members to local
+assemblies (_stadsfullmoegtige_), with authority to act in behalf of
+their communities. Similar institutions (_kommunalstaemmor_) were
+arranged for the country communities. _Landsting_ were instituted
+in every governmental district, or _laen_, at which representatives,
+elected by the people, were to take action on the public affairs of
+the district, especially on such that pertained to sanitary conditions,
+communications, etc. The conditions for suffrage and elective franchise
+in municipal affairs were based on personal income. The old class
+distinctions were thus disregarded and a return made to the still older
+democratic institutions of the ancient Teutonic communities, in which
+every free man is entitled to his word and vote in public affairs.
+But those only are considered "free" who by their work can gain
+enough to pay their taxes in return for the privileges of a citizen.
+The church got a representation of its own in the clerical assembly
+(_kyrkomoetet_), which meets every fifth year and consists of equal
+numbers of ministers and laymen.
+
+The government in the municipal reforms found a basis for the
+reorganization of the Riksdag. The royal proposition for a new
+parliamentary representation, placed before the Estates in 1862, was
+built upon the municipal suffrage and the Landstings or district
+assemblies, the latter being authorized to elect the members of
+the senate, or First Chamber. The old system of representation
+corresponded as little with the new municipal home rule as with the
+general tendencies in politics and social life. The nobility had
+lost its old importance. It was no longer advisable for the clergy
+to take a leading part in political affairs. A new industrial class
+of wealth and prominence had formed and demanded a representation in
+the burgher class. The peasants had ever since 1809 been carrying on
+their agitation for a reduction of taxes and abolition of the class
+privileges. They had met with an overwhelming opposition, which would
+fall with the old system of representation. A parliamentary reform
+had been fervently discussed ever since 1840. The municipal home rule
+reforms of 1862 had brought the question closer to a solution. The
+burghers and peasants at the Riksdag of 1860 petitioned the government
+to present a royal proposition for the reorganization of the Diet.
+Baron Louis de Geer, the minister of justice, was the author of this
+proposition, which was presented in 1862 and placed on the table
+until the next Riksdag. The great question was acted upon at the
+Riksdag of 1865. There was a great deal of commotion on account of
+the opposition which was expected from the nobility and clergy. The
+discussions in the periodical press and in pamphlet form were lively.
+The country population preserved its peaceful and sensible demeanor,
+but the excitement in the towns was considerable and increased as
+the decision drew nearer. The majority of towns and several rural
+communities in their close proximity sent deputations to Stockholm,
+who tendered their best wishes to the able minister of justice for the
+success of his proposition. The commotion in Stockholm was so great
+that troops were ordered ready in case of an emergency. The 4th of
+December the proposition was voted on by the burghers and peasants.
+At the question of the speaker, whether they were willing to accept
+the royal proposition, the peasants rose to their feet in a body and
+gave their answer with one laconic yea. A few of the burghers spoke
+against the proposition, but it was carried also in their Estate, and
+by an overwhelming majority. Long and heated discussions took place
+among the nobility and clergy. The clergymen were generally opposed
+to the parliamentary reform, but feared to be found remaining as the
+only opponents in the storm of disapproval which would follow. For
+this reason they postponed their decision until the nobility had taken
+action upon the proposition.
+
+There rested a spirit of real grandeur over the deliberations at
+the Riddarhus upon this occasion, when the question of a voluntary
+surrender of the aristocratic privileges was to be decided. The
+Swedish nobility had its class instincts and prejudices, but very
+rarely it had been found lacking in men of the loftiest patriotism and
+highest attainments, ever ready to take the lead in the defence of the
+independence of their country or to follow up faithfully the ambitions
+of their great rulers. Arrangements had been made to allow noblemen
+from distant parts and of very limited means to be present, if not
+during the time of the discussions, which lasted four days, at least at
+the casting of the vote. Never in the memorable history of the knightly
+chapterhouse had more eloquent language or loftier thoughts been heard
+than upon this occasion. Both supporters and opponents of the royal
+proposition spoke with great sagacity and discernment. The former
+spoke of the inadvisability of a representation by Estates and by
+hereditary privileges, and of the dangers of a further postponement of
+the needed reform. The latter nicely scrutinized the royal proposition,
+which was considered to give too great influence to the peasants, to
+weaken the executive power and to depend upon municipal reforms as yet
+untried. They further considered the upper house, or First Chamber, too
+homogeneous with the Second to be able to exert the conservative or
+retaining power expected from it. The members of the cabinet all spoke
+with fervor and persuasive power in favor of the royal proposition,
+especially De Geer, Gripenstedt and Carlson. The outcome was that the
+royal proposition was accepted by a vote of 361 yeas against 294 nays.
+The nobility as a class thus left the political arena voluntarily
+and with honor. Now the turn was come to the clergy, who unanimously
+accepted the royal proposition without further discussion. The
+result was accepted with outbursts of enthusiasm from all over the
+country, but especially from the towns. The four Estates adjourned
+June 22, 1866, forever, and the law of the new system of parliamentary
+representation was sanctioned the same date.
+
+The royal proposition, which became the law of a new Diet, is based
+upon the principle of general elections. The Riksdag meets at the
+commencement of every year. It is divided into two houses or Chambers.
+The members of the First Chamber, or upper house, are elected for a
+term of nine years, partly by the Landstings, or district assemblies,
+partly by the assemblies of towns which do not take part in a
+Landsting. Elective to the First Chamber are those who have a yearly
+income of at least $1,000 from some business or enterprise, or as the
+interest on a capital of their own. These members, or senators, must be
+at least thirty-five years of age; they do not enjoy any compensation.
+The members of the Second Chamber, or lower house, are elected by
+every judicial district in the country which has no more than 40,000
+inhabitants and by every 10,000 inhabitants of a town. Towns which have
+a population of less than 10,000 inhabitants are joined into election
+districts of from 6,000 to 12,000 inhabitants. Elective to the Second
+Chamber are those who pay taxes on an income of at least $200 a year
+and who are twenty-five years of age. These members are compensated for
+the time spent at the Riksdag. The ordinary Riksdag, which meets every
+year, lasts for a period of at least four months. The extraordinary
+Riksdag is called by the king whenever he finds it necessary. The
+members of the cabinet are elective as members of the Riksdag, and
+should, during all sessions, be present at the deliberations of the
+Chambers. The standing committees remain the same as during the time
+of the old system. Special and temporary committees are appointed when
+considered necessary. When the two Chambers end in a conflicting vote
+upon one and the same subject, the committee which prepared it for
+discussion should try to obtain a satisfactory solution. If such fails,
+the question is dropped for that year. The expenses of state, the state
+appropriations and the management of the national bank, when involved,
+form exceptions to this rule and are voted upon by both Chambers
+together, the majority of votes from both making the decision.
+
+A new era in Swedish history opens up with the acceptance of the
+parliamentary reform. The constitution itself had suffered no change,
+except in points of contact with the new rules of the Riksdag. But
+the powers of state no longer held to each other the same position as
+of yore. The government hitherto had, in the very division into four
+Estates, a support against powerful class and party interests. An
+equally solid support was not to be expected from a Riksdag of only two
+Chambers, which in questions of state appropriations is practically
+one. For this reason many would have preferred the establishment of a
+system which, instead of abolishing the mediaeval arrangement of four
+Estates, would have added as many classes as there are really extant in
+the modern state, to gain the desired equilibrium through a manifold
+and dynamically operating representation. As things shaped themselves
+after the two Chamber system, the government ought more than ever to
+have a conservative, retaining power in order to preserve the proper
+balance. But such was not the case, for the Riksdag had been placed in
+a position to watch and control the executive power much closer than
+before, thanks to its authority to fix for each year the appropriations
+and expenditures of the state. The stipulation that the members of the
+cabinet are to take part in the deliberations of the Chambers gives
+another pillar of strength to the Riksdag. If the ministers of state
+are to exert any influence upon the decisions of the Riksdag, it is
+requisite to have its full confidence. The king is forced to select for
+his cabinet such members as are supposed to have an influence with the
+representatives of the people. The influence of the Riksdag has been
+steadily increasing ever since 1867.
+
+While the issue of a parliamentary reform occupied the attention of all
+public-spirited men, the interest in the political situation of Europe
+was hardly less intense. The sympathy with the unhappy Poles was almost
+feverish. In 1863 two motions were made at the Riksdag to petition the
+government to take an active part in the restoration of the kingdom
+of Poland, by means of diplomatic intervention. The position of the
+government was a difficult one. The complications between Denmark
+and Germany had recommenced, and it was important to stand in good
+relations to Russia. The Swedish public did everything to make these
+relations precarious, by demonstrations of various kinds in favor of
+Poland, warlike newspaper articles and subscriptions of money to the
+leaders of the revolt. Thanks to the sagacity and tactful demeanor
+of Manderstroem and the common sense of the Riksdag the motions in
+question were defeated and a dangerous conflict avoided. Complications
+of a more serious nature arose on account of the reopened conflict
+between Denmark and Germany. The Danish government had failed in its
+efforts to make a satisfactory arrangement in the relations between
+the crown and the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. The Germans
+repeatedly mixed themselves up in the interior affairs of Denmark,
+and the Danes themselves were divided into several parties. King
+Frederic VII. at last concluded to give up the idea of gathering in
+the duchies as integral parts of the kingdom, satisfied to sacrifice
+the ultimate connection of Holstein and Lauenburg with the crown, but
+resolved to connect the originally Danish Schleswig with Denmark.
+The purely German parts were, through the so-called "March Patent"
+of 1863, separated from the rest of the monarchy, while Schleswig
+was reunited with it, according to the constitution. This policy was
+approved by the Scandinavian party in Sweden and Norway, supported by
+Swedish diplomacy, and, in the first place, by Charles XV. himself.
+King Charles was inspired by general sympathy with the Scandinavian
+movement and by personal friendship for Frederic VII. to follow up the
+Scandinavian policy of his father. The two Scandinavian monarchs met
+twice during the summer of 1863 and influenced the Swedish-Norwegian
+and Danish cabinets to draw the outline of a treaty of defence on the
+basis of the river Eider as the Danish boundary to the south. The
+Danish government made the proposition for a new constitution according
+to which Schleswig was to be united to Denmark. This was contrary
+to the promise made by King Frederic to the German powers in 1852.
+The proposition for a new constitution was placed before the Danish
+Diet and accepted. Two days later, November 15, 1863, King Frederic
+suddenly died, before he had sanctioned the new law. This was a severe
+blow. The popular king left his beloved people in a most inopportune
+moment, fraught with peril and disastrous mistakes. The people of
+Schleswig and Holstein renewed an old contention in regard to the right
+of succession. The new Danish king, Christian IX., gave in to the
+pressure brought to bear on him by his cabinet and the inhabitants of
+Copenhagen. He signed the new constitution, which gave to the German
+powers a valid excuse to interfere. The Prussian and Austrian troops
+crossed the river Eider to make good the agreements of 1852.
+
+The Swedish-Norwegian government was placed in an embarrassing
+position. The alliance of defence that was planned was to a great
+extent based upon the relations of personal friendship between Charles
+XV. and Frederic VII. Sweden was not legally pledged to shield Denmark
+as a consequence of the acceptance of the new constitution. But Sweden
+had taken a conspicuous part in the deliberations, for which reason a
+change of policy could not be made without considerable difficulty. The
+liberal organs of the Swedish press, headed by "Aftonbladet," whose
+editor was August Sohlman, did everything in their power to make such
+a change an impossibility. But Sweden was not prepared to make war on
+two of the great powers of Europe, especially as no other power was
+willing to join in an alliance in behalf of Denmark. The change must be
+made; and was effected, principally because of the persuasive arguments
+and resolute demeanor of Gripenstedt. King Charles resolved to take
+the painful measures of a retreat. The standpoint of his government
+he gave to the Riksdag in the following words: "It cannot be expected
+from us that we should place our sword on the scale of justice without
+considering if the object can be attained with the resources at our
+command." It was a supreme sacrifice that Charles XV. made when, for
+the safety of his countries, he was forced to draw back the hand of
+support and comradeship which he had offered a brother in distress.
+The noble-hearted king, in one of his poems, has given a touching
+expression of the sorrow he felt in being unable to assist Denmark
+in her hour of peril. King Charles might, with proper resources at
+his command, have proved a formidable enemy. He had given evidence
+of possessing all the qualities requisite for the make-up of a great
+general, without doubt an inheritance from his two grandfathers,
+Prince Bernadotte and Eugene Beauharnais. A few hundred Swedish and
+Norwegian volunteers took an honorable part in the Danish war, which
+was the only practical result of the Scandinavian policy. The Swedish
+press was violent in its attacks upon the government for its change of
+policy. In March, 1864, the mob of Stockholm assailed the residences
+of Manderstroem, Gripenstedt and other cabinet members, breaking the
+windows with stones.
+
+Poor Denmark was left alone. Napoleon III. made the mistake of not
+attempting to defeat Prussia before she had reached her climax of
+strength. He was tied up with his Mexican adventure and unwilling
+to help Denmark. Charles XV. could not endure to see Denmark thus
+deserted. Privately he offered Christian IX. an alliance which
+stipulated that the three Scandinavian kingdoms should be joined into
+a union with one common foreign policy and common defence. Charles was
+also willing to make the succession one, if necessary. This alliance
+was to embrace only such parts of Denmark which were not to enter
+the German union. Sweden-Norway would do their utmost to prohibit a
+separation between Denmark and Schleswig. Denmark refused to accept
+this offer. Her leading statesman, Monrad, held stubbornly to the idea
+of an undivided Danish monarchy. For this reason, Denmark was for a
+second time abandoned to fight out alone her uneven battle. It ended
+in the loss of Holstein, Lauenburg and the greater part of Schleswig,
+through the treaty of Vienna, October 30, 1864. In Denmark a hard
+feeling against the Swedes and Norwegians sprang up as a consequence
+of the disastrous war fought without allies; and the Scandinavian
+policy and enthusiasm had received a blow from which they have never
+fully recovered. Charles XV. did all in his power to revive them. He
+had the pleasure of uniting the efforts of Sweden, Norway and Denmark
+in a peaceful work of great significance, the first Scandinavian
+Exposition of Industry and Art, which was opened at Stockholm in June,
+1866. The consequence was a perfect Norwegian conquest of Sweden, in
+a cultured sense. The painters Tidemand and Gude captured the prizes.
+The composers Kierulf and Nordraak took the lead in song and music.
+Ibsen and Bjornson became the craze in literature. The literary contact
+with Norway was begun in 1861, when Lorenz Dietriechson was appointed
+a docent at the University of Upsala, and for the first time made the
+contemporary Norwegian and Danish poets acquainted in Sweden. What
+Sweden received from Norway was a quaint, late-born Romanticism of a
+strong national flavor. When this Romanticism was changed into stern
+Realism its influence upon Swedish culture, especially her literature,
+was only increased, Swedish literature receiving strong realistic
+impulses from the neighboring Scandinavian countries. The Norwegian
+influence ceased, when the Swedes at last became aware that there was
+in it a deeply pessimistic trait, akin to the stern Norwegian and
+Scotch Christianity, which is incompatible with the Swedish national
+temperament, slightly inclined to melancholy, but of a robust and
+irrepressible desire to live and enjoy.
+
+Charles XV. followed up his practical Scandinavian policy by marrying
+his only daughter Louise to Crown Prince Frederic of Denmark. King
+Charles was as unsuccessful in his noble efforts to unite more closely
+his two kingdoms as in his foreign policy. The king allowed some time
+to pass in order to let the ill-feeling, caused by the conflict of 1859
+and 1860, die out. In February, 1865, he considered that the moment
+had arrived to institute the review of the Act of Union. He appointed
+a committee of Swedes and Norwegians to prepare the proposition of a
+new Act of Union, on the basis of perfect equality and right to decide
+separately all matters, except such pertaining to the Union. The
+committee performed the work, but their proposition was defeated at
+the Norwegian Storthing of 1871, at the instigation of John Sverdrup
+and K. Motzfeldt. The Swedish Riksdag for this reason also failed to
+accept it. At the close of the Riksdag, King Charles made the following
+utterance in regard to the defeated proposition: "What has now failed
+to attain success shall perhaps win out without difficulty when the two
+nations once have learned to place confidence in each other, as the
+result of a more intimate intercourse." He saw with great satisfaction
+the completion of a railway which forever unites the Swedish and the
+Norwegian capitals with ties of steel.
+
+The administration of Charles XV. persevered in its liberal policy
+concerning questions of economy and jurisprudence. This was particularly
+noticeable in commercial matters. The idea of free trade had won
+ascendency in Europe. Napoleon III. had entered a treaty of commerce
+with England, in strict opposition to the protective system. Other
+nations were one by one admitted into the free-trade system by means
+of new treaties. Sweden made a treaty of commerce and navigation in
+1865. This step was severely criticised by the Riksdag of 1865-1866,
+both from a constitutional and financial point of view. Gripenstedt was
+accused of leading the way over demolished industries, but he defended
+his position with great eloquence. The treaty was ratified in spite of
+the powerful opposition in the Riksdag. The press condemned both the
+treaty and the government in the most violent language.
+
+The first Riksdag of the new parliamentary system met January 19, 1867.
+The "Landstings" had sent to the First Chamber the most prominent
+men of the country. It was a truly representative gathering, a house
+of peers elected by the people. Lagerbielke, the landtmarshal of the
+preceding Riksdag, was appointed speaker. The Second Chamber counted a
+larger number of peasants as representatives than of any other class.
+Anton Nicolaus Sundberg, then bishop of Carlstad, now archbishop of
+Sweden, was made speaker of the Second Chamber. The power of the
+peasants made itself felt at once. There was formed a strong and
+influential party, the _landtmanna_, or countrymen's party, consisting
+of small landowners. The peasants constituted the majority, but the
+party also counted many titled and untitled country gentlemen in
+interests united with them. The founder of the party was Count Arvid
+Rutger Posse, later minister of state. Emil Key and the peasants
+Charles Ifvarsson and Liss Olof Larsson were among the leaders of the
+party. The policy of the Landtmanna party demanded simplification
+of the administration, economy in the matter of appropriations and
+a solution of the questions of the defence and taxation in harmony
+with the interests of the owners of the soil. The party followed up
+its policy with stern consistency from Riksdag to Riksdag, until in
+perfect control of the whole government. The opposition consisted
+of "the Intelligence" or intellectual party, which, without a solid
+constitution or a fixed policy, has in vain fought the spreading
+influence and power of the Landtmanna party. The latter has gone
+almost too far in its endeavors for economical reform, but has also
+given evidence of appreciation of the material needs of a cultural
+development, appropriating large sums for the benefit of science and
+education.
+
+The army question was the most important issue of Swedish politics. The
+events of 1866 had made it evident that a strengthening of the defences
+was necessary. King Charles was anxious to have the question solved in
+a satisfactory manner, finding therein the only reliable safeguard for
+the future independence of Sweden. It was apparent that any attempts to
+settle the question in accordance with the system adopted by Charles
+XI. would be devoid of result. It was based upon direct taxation of the
+soil and must be opposed by the strong majority of small landowners of
+the Landtmanna party. A compromise policy was for this reason begun in
+1867, the question of an abolition of the land tax being connected with
+the army question, although the two ought to have had no connection.
+The question was started with promises of a reduction or exemption of
+the duties of the old army system as compensation for the acceptance
+of a new arrangement for the country's defence. The government made an
+army proposition to the Riksdag of 1869, promising several reductions
+to the landowners who furnished soldiers according to the old system
+(_indelningsverket_). The proposition was prepared by a committee,
+of which the new minister of war, Gustavus Rudolph Abelin, was the
+chairman. It was based upon the preservation of the old system for the
+furnishing of the body force of officers and men. The larger force was
+to be provided for through militia. The militia was to be drilled in
+the neighborhood of their various homes during sixty days of the year.
+The proposition was not accepted. The militia compulsory service, as
+the duty of every citizen for the defence of his country, had nothing
+to do with the regular army as provided by the stipulations of the old
+system. But the majority of the Second Chamber confused the two and
+refused to allow the establishment of the former on a wider basis,
+because the offers made to reduce the burdens of the old system did
+not appear to them liberal enough. In 1871 another proposition was
+made by Abelin to the Riksdag. It was similar to the first one, and
+its cause was eloquently pleaded by Abelin, Axel Gustavus Adlercreutz,
+minister of justice, Peter Axel Bergstroem, minister of civil service,
+and Gunnar Vennerberg, minister of ecclesiastics. They warned against
+the mistake of attaching impossible conditions to the acceptance of
+the proposition. The proposition for an extended militia service was
+accepted by both Chambers. But when the Second Chamber raised, as a
+condition for its acceptance, the suspension, for fifteen years, of the
+old system which provided for the regular army, the government found it
+impossible to grant this, and the proposition was dropped.
+
+King Charles was grieved and vexed with the fate of the army bills.
+The Franco Prussian war made it, in his opinion, of added importance
+to Sweden to have her defences remodelled. He called an extraordinary
+session of the Riksdag, in the autumn of 1871, when Abelin brought
+out a third proposition. It was chiefly of the same contents as the
+preceding ones. But a remarkable change in the public opinion had now
+taken place, as to the advisability of retaining the old system. Men
+who looked upon the question more from a military than an economic
+point of view entertained doubts as to the practical value of the
+old regular army as the body force of a compulsory militia. Military
+officers commenced to attack the old system as the basis of a new army.
+The Landtmanna party persevered in the request for an abolition of the
+old system, and this killed the army bill at the extraordinary Riksdag.
+
+Together with the request for an abolition of the old army system,
+demands for redemption from other burdens placed upon the owners of
+the soil made themselves heard. The land-tax was the principal one of
+these burdens and caused as much difference of opinion as the army
+system. The Landtmanna party considered the land-tax to be of the
+same nature originally as other taxes, which ought to be more evenly
+distributed and shared by all classes in the same proportion. The
+Intelligence party was of the opinion that the land-tax in the course
+of time had come to be rents or mortgages which always were taken into
+consideration at the exchange of property, as reducing the stock value
+of the property in question. To free a present generation from the
+payment of land-tax, was in the eyes of the opposition, an injustice
+to the other classes whose taxes thereby were to be increased. The
+Landtmanna party had, in 1869, commenced an agitation for the reduction
+of the land-tax for shorter periods and on a small scale at first, but
+with increasing demands at every new Riksdag.
+
+The government, whose members had been the champions of parliamentary
+reform, was soon disregarded by the triumphant party, while its old
+opponents never forgot it. The earlier advisers of the king retired
+one by one when they saw their influence in the Riksdag vanish. King
+Charles himself took the defeat of the army bills deep at heart. His
+health commenced to fail in 1871, and when his faithful consort died,
+in the same year, having exposed her own health in her attempts to
+improve the condition of the king, the latter grew worse. After a trip
+abroad for his health, King Charles XV. died at Malmoe, September 18,
+1872, deeply mourned by the two nations. In the following year his
+youngest brother Nicolaus August, duke of Dalecarlia, died, leaving
+only two of the children of Oscar I., Oscar Frederic, duke of East
+Gothland, and Princess Eugenie. The history of Charles XV. carries the
+principal traits of his character. His sweeping reforms in social,
+political and economical matters, and his great plans for the future,
+even if sometimes immature, or high-strung, were always characterized
+by loftiness of purpose. A typical Swede both in his merits and his
+faults, this was the secret of the immense popularity of King Charles,
+which always followed him, although he never sought it.
+
+The philosopher Christian Jacob Bostroem is the most popular of Swedish
+thinkers and the first who founded a national system and school of
+philosophy, idealistic and rational, and in strict opposition to the
+system of Hegel. Bostroem was born in Pitea, in 1797, was the teacher of
+the sons of Oscar I., and succeeded the able philosopher Samuel Grubbe,
+a talented follower of Hoeijer, as professor of philosophy at the
+University of Upsala. Bostroem was a highly fascinating and suggestive
+teacher, while he neglected his literary production, which is neither
+exhaustive nor quite representative of his philosophy. He exerted a
+considerable influence by his outline of a philosophical state, which
+pleased the conservatives, while a much more widespread and lasting
+impression was produced by his criticism of the doctrines of a hell and
+a devil. A whole literature sprang into life, discussing vehemently
+the existence or non-existence of the fiend. To this literature and
+the works and writings of Bostroem is to be credited the spirit of
+religious tolerance which characterized life and literature during the
+reign of Charles XV. It fostered in the cultured few a leaning toward
+Unitarianism or Theosophy, while it gave rise to a shallow materialism
+and religious indifference in the less cultured classes and individuals.
+
+The artistic, literary and musical life bore a decided resemblance
+to the intellectually interested but dilettantic king. Charles XV.
+was surrounded by a great number of painters who, although possessing
+a good deal of talent, succeeded only in the smaller field of genre
+painting. Remarkable exceptions are J. F. Hoeckert, Marcus Larsson and
+C. H. L. D'Uncker, who possessed sterling genius and acquired great
+fame. Several promising painters, like George von Rosen, developed
+later the full scope of their power. The sculptor J. P. Molin was
+highly talented, a worthy follower of B. E. Fogelberg, who had enriched
+Swedish art with a number of highly important sculptures.
+
+In the world of letters, the spirit of dilettantism was more strongly
+felt than in art, Swedish literature, after its several glorious
+epochs, experiencing one of its most stagnant periods. A veritable
+giant among pygmies was Victor Rydberg, whose remarkable novel, "The
+Last Athenian," appeared in 1859, but whose principal productivity as a
+poet and scientist belongs to a later period. So do, to a great extent,
+the best works of the poets Eduard Beckstroem, also an able dramatist,
+and Count Carl Snoilsky. Zacharias Topelius, the Walter Scott and
+Hans Christian Andersen of Finland, must be mentioned here. Writing
+in the Swedish language, and for his principal work using subjects of
+Swedish history, he was as highly beloved in Sweden as in Finland. His
+excellent series of historical novels, called "The Surgeon's Stories,"
+have been translated into several languages. His juvenile stories are
+not characterized by the same degree of inventive power as are the
+tales by Andersen, but Topelius had the latter's ability of placing
+himself in intimate contact with the pure minds of all ages.
+
+In the most national of Swedish cultural elements, the song, the epoch
+of dilettantism found its most beautiful and lasting expressions. The
+quartet and chorus singing at the universities of Upsala and Lund was
+cultivated to the highest standards of excellence and had a splendid
+repertory in the songs of Otto Lindblad, Vennerberg, Prince Gustavus,
+Josephsson, Crusell, Cronhamn, etc. The Upsala students caused a
+great sensation by their singing at the Paris Exposition of 1867,
+and have repeated their successes at the Paris Exposition of 1878,
+and in Berlin in 1898. Swedish quartets of men's and women's voices
+have travelled all over the world and made a lasting fame for this
+minor but bewitching branch of musical art. As dramatic singers of
+the first rank, Louise Michaeli and Christine Nilsson have been the
+worthy successors of Jenny Lind. To this period, as well as to the
+next, belongs Elisa Hvasser, the greatest and most versatile actress
+Sweden has ever had. This artist was equally at home in the farce
+and melodrama, but excelled in the tragic parts of the Shakespeare,
+Schiller, and Ibsen repertory. Indispensable in their positions at the
+Royal Theatre of Stockholm, Michaeli, the songstress, and Hvasser, the
+tragedienne, did not travel, thereby losing the fame a world would have
+been only too glad to give them.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+_Progress and Prosperity--Oscar II_
+
+
+Oscar II. ascended the throne at a moment when universal peace was
+restored after the great conflict between France and Germany, and when
+an age of commercial prosperity for Sweden seemed to have begun. King
+Oscar had received the same superior education as his older brothers,
+is as brilliantly gifted as they were and of a more scholarly mind.
+As a writer on scientific subjects, a poet and an orator, Oscar II.
+had distinguished himself before his succession to the throne. The new
+king offered the best of securities for a sound administration in his
+thorough and versatile knowledge, wide experience in public affairs,
+and rich and harmonious endowment. Oscar II. still did not find it easy
+to gain the love and admiration of the Swedish people, of which he is
+so eminently worthy. He was the successor of one of the most popular
+of rulers that the country ever saw, but King Oscar has lived to see
+his own popularity almost outrival that of his predecessor. King Oscar
+is, at seventy, a handsome, spirited gentleman, with that dignity which
+age, rare attainments, high intelligence and a noble soul grant their
+common possessor. This the most learned and popular monarch of Europe
+is of a tall, commanding figure, six feet three inches in height, of a
+handsome, expressive face, with cheeks of a ruddy color and mild blue
+eyes.
+
+Oscar II. has shown great discernment in his arrangement of dynastic
+matters. Himself married to the fervently religious Princess Sophie
+of Nassau, the king has married his oldest son, Crown Prince Gustavus
+Adolphus, to Princess Victoria of Bade, a granddaughter of Emperor
+William I. of Germany, and a great-granddaughter of Gustavus IV. of
+Sweden. His third son, Prince Charles, duke of West Gothland, is
+married to Princess Ingeborg of Denmark, a granddaughter of Charles
+XV. of Sweden. These unions are well calculated to accentuate the
+increasing political, commercial and cultural intimacy with Germany,
+the Scandinavian policy of his predecessor and the desire of King Oscar
+to see the descendants of the old royal line of Sweden as heirs to the
+crown. In giving his consent to the marriage of his second son, Prince
+Oscar (Bernadotte), to Lady Ebba Munck, of the Swedish nobility, King
+Oscar has given evidence of the fact that he is not a match-maker
+regardless of the feelings of the parties involved. Prince Oscar,
+formerly Duke of Gothland, upon renouncing his share of inheritance to
+the two thrones, was allowed to marry the choice of his heart. King
+Oscar has tried to heal the wounds of the past by opening the vaults of
+the church of Riddarholm to the sarcophagi of Gustavus IV. and his son,
+and by giving Queen Carola of Saxony, the only living granddaughter of
+the former, repeated proofs of esteem and considerate distinction.
+
+King Oscar with his crowns had received as an inheritance two important
+problems to be solved--the reorganization of the Swedish army and the
+settlement of the difficulties in the relations between the two states
+of the Union. The latter has not yet found a satisfactory solution,
+although the king has devoted to it his most strenuous attention and
+the best of his efforts, in honest application to his royal motto: "The
+Weal of the Brother Nations."
+
+The reorganization of the Swedish army was not effected until after
+twenty years of parliamentary struggle. The road of a compromise policy
+which was opened in 1867 was followed up at the Riksdag of 1873, in all
+the long chain of years royal army bills being repeatedly rejected.
+In 1885 the government and Riksdag agreed on a remission of thirty
+per cent of the military taxes of landowners in exchange for new
+regulations for the militia compulsory service. In 1887 the Riksdag
+sanctioned the total abolition of the "indelta," or cantoned troops,
+as far as the navy was concerned, which was the first step toward the
+reorganization of the navy, and the same year the militia law of 1885
+went into effect.
+
+The old Landtmanna, or agrarian party, in 1888 gave place to a new
+protectionistic party. A contested election of twenty-two members
+from Stockholm gave a sudden majority to the protectionists, O. R.
+Themptander, the able minister of state, resigning. The army bill did
+not fare well at first. In spite of the fact that the Landtmanna party
+was brushed aside, the old enemies of an army reform, the landowners,
+nobles and peasants alike, still being strong enough to successfully
+oppose it. The Riksdag of 1888 passed a grain tariff, which went into
+effect February 14th of the same year, enforcing several other points
+of a protective tariff system.
+
+King Oscar called an extraordinary, or special, session of the Riksdag,
+October 18, 1892, when royal propositions were offered and accepted.
+The land-tax was abolished and a new army bill passed. According
+to the stipulations of the latter, the _bevaeringstid_, or period of
+liability for every citizen to bear arms, was extended to embrace
+twenty years instead of twelve, viz., eight years in the first ban of
+the _landtvaern_, or militia, four years in the second ban, and eight
+years in the _landstorm_, or final levy. The first ban of militia is in
+time of war to form an integral part of the first fighting line, the
+second ban forming a reserve for the first fighting line. The final
+levy is to be called out for garrison duty exclusively, and for the
+defence of the country against foreign invasion. Six military districts
+have been established, five distributed along the entire coast of
+Sweden, the sixth inland in the western provinces to be a reserve
+ready to be used at the point and moment most needed. The reorganized
+army in active service is composed of _vaerfvade_, or enlisted troops,
+and _indelta_, or cantoned troops, the expenses also of the latter
+being paid by the government. The royal guards, chasseurs, hussars,
+artillery, and engineers are enlisted for two years up to eight. The
+militia troops are distributed among both the enlisted and the cantoned
+troops, the length of service with the colors being ninety days in time
+of peace. The infantry in which all the cantoned troops serve consist
+of twenty-six regiments and two battalions. The line is armed with
+Remingtons of 8.8 millimetres calibre. There are eight regiments of
+cavalry and six regiments and six batteries of field artillery, forty
+batteries in all, with 240 cannon. The effective of the active army,
+in 1896, was 1,953 officers, 571 employees, 1,779 non-commissioned
+officers, 1,641 musicians and 38,802 men, with 6,852 horses. The war
+effective is 272,994 men, besides 180,000 in the _landstorm_. The chief
+fortifications of Sweden are Carlscrona, on the south coast; two
+fortresses outside of Stockholm, viz., Vaxholm and Oscar Fredericsborg;
+and, in the interior, Carlsborg, near Lake Vetter. The navy comprises
+4 turret ships, with 10-inch armor, armed each with 2 10-inch and
+4 5.9-inch guns, and having a total displacement of 12,450 tons; 4
+armor clad monitors, 9 armored gunboats, 3 corvettes, 9 first-class
+and 5 second-class gunboats, 2 torpedo cruisers, 7 first-class and 9
+second-class torpedo boats, 5 torpedo launches, and 12 school ships.
+The navy is manned by 267 officers and about 4,500 sailors, not
+including conscripts to the number of 8,500 men. The entire cost of the
+defence of Sweden exceeds ten million dollars a year.
+
+The movement for a reorganization of the defences has not been caused
+by any change in the policy of peace, which has faithfully been carried
+out by all the rulers of the Bernadotte dynasty. The ruler of Sweden
+and her people desire peace, but not as a gift of mercy from the great
+powers, but as a self-chosen right which can be effectively defended
+if necessary. The ever-increasing armament of the European powers
+has made a strengthening of the Swedish arms unavoidable, but the
+Swedish government was the first to announce its readiness to accept
+the invitation of Czar Nicholas II. of Russia to a conference for the
+discussion of a general reduction of the regular armies. Germany was
+made the pattern for the reorganization of the army and navy, the
+Swedish government having followed the German also in the treatment of
+the labor question, with schemes of accident and old-age insurance,
+accepted by the Riksdag.
+
+King Oscar, at his succession to the throne, gave evidence of his
+desire to meet the reasonable demands of his Norwegian subjects. He
+sanctioned, in 1873, the abolition of the office of a governor-general
+of Norway, the government at Christiania to be presided over by a
+Norwegian minister of state. To the later Norwegian demands for a
+separate flag, consular service and ministry of foreign affairs,
+King Oscar has been unyielding. The flag question is of subordinate
+importance. King Oscar, in 1899, has refused to sanction the resolution
+of the Storthing, three times passed, for a flag without the mark
+of Union, for the reason that the flag with that mark was offered
+to Norway by his father, Oscar I., and gratefully accepted when the
+country had no colors at all, except the Swedish. The Swedish people
+will carry their old flag with the mark of Union, irrespective of any
+changes made in the Norwegian colors. More serious are the questions
+of consular and diplomatic service. In 1893, the Swedish government
+offered to compromise by establishing a common ministry of foreign
+affairs whose head might be indifferently a Swede or a Norwegian. This
+was rejected by the Norwegian Storthing. The same offer was made in
+1837, when the dispute first arose, provided that the Norwegian troops
+should share the duty of the common defence of both kingdoms. The
+Swedish Riksdag of 1893 passed a resolution, in compliance with which
+King Oscar for a second time refused to sanction the bill of Norwegian
+consulates.
+
+The diametrically opposite views which are held in regard to the
+relations of Sweden and Norway are, to a great extent, caused by
+a misconception of the nature of the Union. In lack of a Union
+parliament, it has by many been considered to be only a personal union
+of two countries under the same king. Such is not the case. It is
+true that the two countries are both free and independent states and
+that the king is the only visible bond between them, according to
+the Act of Union, but the Union is nevertheless an _actual_ and not a
+_personal_ one. If it was only personal, the king could at will, or
+when forced to do so, resign his power in one of the countries and
+continue his reign in the other. The Act of Union cannot be changed
+except upon a resolution, enacted in both of the respective diets,
+and with the sanction of the king in behalf of the Union. A change
+can be made at the same Swedish Riksdag at which it is proposed, at
+the Norwegian Storthing not until the next regular session. As a
+consequence the Union cannot be dissolved by the representatives of
+either country alone, and the king cannot dissolve it by exercising
+any power of his own. The king cannot abdicate one throne without
+abdicating the other, for the first paragraph of the Act of Union
+stipulates that the two countries shall be indissolubly and irrevocably
+united under the rule of the same king. No abdication can be granted,
+except by common consent of the two diets in joint session. When the
+two thrones are empty, without an heir-apparent, a new king shall be
+elected by the two diets in common. What underlies the Norwegian claims
+of a separate foreign ministry is, besides to own an outward sign
+of the country's independence, a desire for a closer constitutional
+control of diplomatic affairs. From the Swedish side the desirability
+of a Union parliament and a greater authority for the Union government
+has been expressed. The Swedes have been found unwilling to grant any
+change of the constitution of the Union, except the right be added
+for the Union government to dispose of the military forces of both
+countries, in equal proportion, for the common defence. King Oscar's
+standpoint in the Unionist conflict has contributed much to increase
+his popularity in Sweden, where his firm refusal to sanction any
+measure which would cause a weakening to the Union has been received
+with the highest approval.
+
+A committee to review the relations of the Union and propose a revision
+of its charter was appointed in 1897, but failed to accomplish
+anything, the views of the Swedish and Norwegian members differing
+too radically in their opinions. It is to be hoped that the ultimate
+solution of the unionist conflict, whensoever it come or whatsoever it
+be, will bring the two countries of the Scandinavian peninsula closer
+together, without any great sacrifice on either side, least of all of
+their independence.
+
+During the more than eighty years of peace which Sweden has enjoyed
+under the rule of the Bernadotte dynasty, she has developed her
+constitutional liberty and her material prosperity in a high degree.
+The dreams of glory by conquest belong to days gone by, but in the
+fields of peaceable industries she has attained a greatness which the
+world begins to realize. At the expositions of Paris in 1867, 1878
+and 1889, of Vienna in 1873, of Philadelphia in 1876 and of Chicago
+in 1893, Swedish industry and art have taken part with honor in the
+international competition. The railways of Sweden have incessantly spun
+a more and more extended network of steel over the country, opening
+connections for enterprises in new districts and furthering commerce
+and industrial art in a wide measure. Oscar II. is an enthusiastic
+friend of railway improvements, the state having built and acquired
+a quite considerable length of road at his initiative. The length
+of Swedish railways, in 1896, was 6,145 miles, of which 2,283 miles
+belonged to the state, compared to a total of 1,089 miles of Norwegian
+railways.
+
+The post-office, which was made a government department by Axel
+Oxenstierna, in 1636, annually transmits 130 million letters and
+parcels. The telegraph lines have not reached a very high state of
+development; still there are 14,600 miles of telegraph. The telephone
+has made much more progress, far surpassing that of any other country
+in Europe. The total length of the connections exceeds 40,000 miles,
+and the number of apparatus is more than 25,000. Stockholm makes the
+widest use of the telephone of any city in the world, with her 300,000
+inhabitants having a telephone for every thirty. Sweden has developed
+into a commercial country of no inconsiderable rank, notwithstanding
+her isolated position. Exports and imports each exceed yearly in
+value $100,000,000, the imports being 344,290,000 kronor and the
+exports 311,434,000 kronor in value, in 1895, a Swedish krona being
+about twenty-eight cents. The commercial value of the foreign trade
+amounts to thirty-nine dollars in yearly average for each inhabitant
+of Sweden, which is about as much as in France. The imports chiefly
+consist of coal, coffee, salt, cotton and wool, while the exports are
+timber products, about forty per cent of the whole, iron and steel,
+the best in the world, machinery, butter, cattle, matches, etc. The
+inland navigation and commerce are very lively. The state finances are
+in a prosperous condition. The budget of 1898 showed total receipts of
+120,086,000 kronor, of which 14,229,000 was surplus from proceeding
+budgets.
+
+Thanks to the well equipped and regulated system of instruction, the
+general education has been so highly advanced that Sweden, in this
+respect, holds the very front rank among the nations. Besides the
+national universities of Upsala and Lund and the state medical college
+of Stockholm, city universities at Stockholm and Gothenburg have been
+recently founded which are quickly developing. All study at the
+universities consists of post-graduate work, there being about thirty
+colleges in various parts of the country which lead their pupils as far
+as the demands requisite for entering the universities. The Swedish
+university courses are of unexcelled thoroughness and completeness.
+The so-called Peasant High Schools are peculiar to Scandinavia, having
+originated in Denmark. There are twenty-five such high schools in
+Sweden, which give to young men and women of the peasant class a higher
+education than is available in the common schools, of which latter
+there are 10,702, with 692,360 pupils and 13,797 teachers.
+
+Scientific research progresses with energy and success, and Sweden
+possesses to-day a great number of eminent scholars, even if the epoch
+of men of universal genius appears to be a thing of the past there
+as elsewhere. Swedish scientists have opened closer relations with
+their co-workers in all parts of the world. The energy of King Oscar
+has brought about several congresses of science at Stockholm. In the
+natural sciences, Sweden still holds an honored place, in physics
+offering two great names, Eric Edlund and A. J. Angstroem, the latter
+celebrated for his work on the solar spectrum, which forms the basis
+for the spectral analysis. Death has claimed these men and also J. A.
+H. Gylden, an eminent astronomer; J. G. Agardh, C. W. Blomstrand, H.
+O. Nathorst, J. E. Rydquist, able botanist, chemist, agriculturist,
+and philologist, respectively; Pontus Wikner, the most remarkable of
+the disciples of the philosopher Bostroem, and Victor Rydberg, the
+philosophical poet, novelist and polyhistor.
+
+Among the most noteworthy of living Swedish scholars are Adolph Noren,
+Axel Koch and Esaias Tegner, Junior, philologists; Hans Hildebrand and
+Oscar Montelius, archaeologists; P. Fahlbeck, Nils and Magnus Hoejer,
+Martin Weibull, Ernest Carlson, historians; A. M. Mittag-Leffler,
+mathematician; Hugo Hildebrandsson, meteorologist; E. A. H. Key, E. O.
+T. Westerlund, Anton Wetterstrand, F. J. Biornstroem, T. F. Hartelius,
+Curt Wallis, prominent in various branches of medical science.
+
+King Oscar with fervent interest and unfailing liberality has
+encouraged various scientific explorations, and has had the satisfaction
+to see the greatest geographical discoveries of the century successfully
+made by Swedes, the circumnavigation of Asia and Europe, and the
+discovery of the Northeast Passage by Baron N. A. E. Nordenskiold,
+and the exploration of Central Asia by Sven Hedin, which has forever
+settled the learned disputes of ages. A third expedition, the most
+daring of scientific exploits ever attempted, still keeps the world
+in suspense as to its final outcome. July 11, 1897, S. A. Andree,
+a scientifically experienced aeronaut, with two companions, Nils
+Strindberg and Knut Fraenkel, started in a balloon constructed for
+the purpose, and with provisions for three years, from an island
+of Spitzbergen, with the purpose of reaching the North Pole. The
+daring aeronauts have not been heard from since their departure, but
+authorities like Baron Nordenskiold have expressed the best of hopes
+that they may have reached Franz Joseph's Land in safety, whence they
+might regain settled regions.[6] S. A. Andree belongs to a class of
+men, the Swedish engineers, who have won distinction for their ability,
+and on whom the examples set by Christopher Polhem and John Ericsson
+have had a stimulating influence. There are among them two inventors
+of the very first rank, who belong to the reign of Oscar II., Alfred
+Nobel (d. 1896), the inventor of dynamite, and Gustavus de Laval,
+the Swedish Edison. The latter is world-famous for his separator and
+other inventions, which have revolutionized the dairy industry. Alfred
+Nobel, the disciple of John Ericsson, has not only the glory of having
+invented one of the most useful helpers of mechanic and industrial
+progress, but also that of having set aside his vast fortune, amounting
+to something like $12,500,000, for public purposes. The money is so
+invested as to constitute a fund the interest of which shall be applied
+to five equal annual prizes, to be awarded for the most important
+discovery or improvement in chemistry, physics or medicine, for the
+work in literature highest in the ideal sense, and to the one who shall
+have acted most and best for the fraternity of nations, the suppression
+or reduction of standing armies, and the constitution and propagation
+of peace congresses. The first prize, physics and chemistry, shall be
+awarded by the Academy of Science of Sweden; that for physiology and
+medicine by the Carolin Institute of Stockholm; the literary prize
+by the Swedish Academy; and that for the propagation of peace by a
+commission of five members elected by the Norwegian Storthing. He
+especially directed that in distributing these prizes no consideration
+of nationality shall prevail, so that he who is most worthy of it shall
+receive the reward, whether he be Scandinavian or not. It seems that
+the sum of each of the five annual prizes thus instituted will amount
+to $75,000. The inventor of dynamite was deeply interested in all
+that was done to promote peace by congresses and societies. He always
+considered that by improving war material, and thus increasing the
+dangers of war, he was contributing his share toward the pacification
+of the world. Alfred Nobel has, by the manner in which the Norwegian
+Storthing is made an active party in the disposition of his will,
+indicated _his_ view upon the Union of Sweden and Norway and his hopes
+for a peaceful solution of their conflicts.
+
+Swedish literature, after the period of dilettantism and epigones, has,
+during the reign of Oscar II., twice been rejuvenated and continues its
+development on broadened paths and with a wider scope. The eighties
+were characterized by a strong realistic movement, which went far in
+daring truth of description and brought problems of a social, religious
+and political nature under discussion in works of a novelistic or
+dramatic form. In naturalism, it never went to the extremes of the
+other Scandinavian literature. The movement was to a great extent
+brought on by Norwegian and Danish influence, and soon subsided for
+want of solid and fascinating art to maintain it. The Swedish champion
+of this movement, although without the restrictions of any school,
+was August Strindberg, a genius of extraordinary endowment. Through
+the versatility and power of his talent, he created new forms for the
+Swedish drama, novel, short story and essay. In his battle against
+reactionary conservatism he went too far; an excitable nature, led
+into extremes, but he has had the manly courage to confess and regret
+his mistakes. Strindberg, who is an able historian, ethnographer,
+naturalist and sinologue, is the most versatile and prolific of
+contemporary writers. In the wide scope of his genius and originality
+of his methods, Strindberg is one of the most remarkable dramatists
+that ever lived. His autobiographical works are of supreme importance,
+both to the students of literature and psychology. Among his
+masterpieces are "Master Olof," the great historic drama of his youth,
+"Swedish Fates and Adventures," and "Utopia Realized," two series of
+short stories, and "The Father," a modern drama of unsurpassed tragic
+grandeur.
+
+Several women took an active part in the literary discussion of social
+problems, with more or less justice considered as the champions of
+women's rights. Among these Anne Charlotte Leffler, duchessa di
+Cajanello, in spite of her premature death, developed into a novelist
+of merit who will be placed side by side with Bremer, Knorring and
+Carlen.
+
+The golden lyres of Romanticism were silenced and the epigones were
+hushed by the sarcasms of Realism. Count Snoilsky and Victor Rydberg
+were the only poets of the earlier period who sang with inspiration and
+were listened to. After the realistic movement of the eighties came
+a romantic reaction with new lyrics and new novelists, who avoided
+the ruthlessness of the realists, but had profited by their merits.
+This new movement cannot be called a school, for it is marked by its
+great versatility of subjects and great elasticity of treatment. If
+the definition of realistic art be "a piece of nature seen through a
+temperament," that of the new movement may be "an artistic temperament
+attuned to pieces of nature," a sensitive and supple talent which has
+an almost unlimited capacity to tell every story just in the vein its
+particular subject demands. Pre-eminent in this movement stand Ola
+Hansson, Selma Lagerloef, Verner von Heidenstam, Gustaf af Geijerstam,
+Peter Hallstroem, Thor Hedberg, Oscar Levertin, all fine novelists,
+almost all good poets, and Geijerstam, an able dramatist. One of the
+most interesting and supremely gifted poets Sweden has ever had is
+Gustaf Froeding, who generally excels, sometimes abuses, his remarkable
+versatility in finding a true lyric expression for the very widest
+range of subjects. Sigurd Hedenstierna is the most popular humorist,
+witty in his sketches, but impossible as a novelist. The greatest
+humorists are August Strindberg and Gustaf Froeding. Contemporary Sweden
+has very few and no great literary critics, but some good literary
+historians in Henric Schueck, Karl Warburg and Oscar Levertin. She has
+a number of able journalists, most distinguished among whom is their
+Nestor, S. A. Hedlund, of Gothenburg, a fiery but dignified champion
+of a liberal government, religious tolerance, social evolution and
+cultural progress.
+
+Swedish literature has a long pedigree compared to Swedish art, which
+is hardly more than two centuries old. All the more remarkable, then,
+is its rapid growth and high degree of excellence. The first school
+of Swedish painters was founded by the German Ehrenstrahl, giving to
+Swedish art the cosmopolitan character it has preserved to this day,
+influenced by continental but chiefly French art. Swedish painters
+early attracted attention abroad. Gustavus Lundberg, with a picture of
+Boucher and his wife, won the greatest success of the Salon of Paris,
+in 1743. Peter Adolphus Hall, "painter to the king and the children
+of France," has been called the Van Dyck of the miniature painters.
+He resided in Paris up to the time of the revolution and took part
+in the storming of the Bastile. Alexander Roslin was, from the year
+1760, installed in the Louvre as painter to the king and councillor
+of the French Academy. In 1771 he carried home a prize which the
+immortal Greuze could not capture, much to the dismay of Diderot, and
+died as the most famous and wealthy artist of the period. In a later
+period, Italy attracted many Swedish artists, and later still, in the
+sixties of the present century, the influence of Germany, especially
+of the Dusseldorf school, was strongly felt. John Frederic Hoeckert
+won the first prize of the Paris Exposition of 1855 with his large
+picture "Divine Service in the Lapmark." When the glories of Hoeckert
+were almost forgotten at home, Edward Wahlberg, in the seventies, was
+ushered into celebrity as one of the greatest landscape painters of
+modern times, equally appreciated in Germany, as later in France, and
+new French laurels were won by Hugo Salmson, William von Gegerfelt
+and August Hagborg. Since then French influences have become solidly
+established, with a few important artists of the Munich school, like
+C. G. Hellquist and Julius Kronberg. The climax of artistic honors
+was reached by Nils Forsberg, whose picture, "The Death of a Hero,"
+carried home the first prize of the French Salon in 1888 (not an
+exposition medal), a distinction which no Swede and exceedingly few
+non-French artists ever won. The repeated successes which Swedish
+painters have won at expositions of Europe were more than duplicated by
+the enthusiastic approval granted it at the World's Fair in Chicago in
+1893. The truth is that Sweden possesses a number of eminent painters
+in every branch of painting, except the marine, which has been but
+sparingly represented since the days of Marcus Larsson. The most
+famous among them are, besides those already mentioned, Richard Bergh,
+Oscar Biorck, Eva Bonnier, Gustavus Cederstroem, Prince Eugene, Eugene
+Jansson, Ernst Josephson, Nils Kreuger, Carl Larsson, Bruno Liljefors,
+Charles Nordstroem, Allan OEsterlind, Georg and Hanna Pauli, George von
+Rosen, Robert Thegerstrom, and A. L. Zorn. It has been said of the
+Swedish painters, by way of complaint, that they are not, as their
+brethren in Denmark and Norway, in any marked degree national. Swedish
+art has, for its characteristic boldness and superiority in modern
+technique, loftiness of purpose, great individuality of expression and
+depth of feeling. Be these characteristics national or cosmopolitan,
+the Swedish painters are certainly a great credit to their country. To
+King Oscar it must be in a high degree satisfactory to see the artistic
+tendencies of his family culminate in the works of his youngest son,
+Prince Eugene, who, being in the front line of the advance corps of
+art, paints, from dreamy, inner life, pictures which are the delight of
+artists and true connoisseurs.
+
+The sculptors are less numerous, but the art of Sergel, Fogelberg and
+Molin have found worthy perpetuators and innovators in Per Hasselberg,
+John Boerjesson, Frithiof Kjellberg, Alfred Nystroem, Christian Ericsson,
+Th. Lundberg and Ingel Fallstedt. To the art of metal engraving on
+coins and medals Sweden has offered some works of the very highest
+value by J. E. Ericson, P. H. Lundgren, Lea Ahlborn and Adolphus
+Lindberg.
+
+Architecture cannot boast of any continuous chain of brilliant
+development. Since the days of Nicodemus Tessin there have been few
+great architects until in very recent times, when architecture has
+received a sudden impetus which has made its progress and results as
+remarkable, or almost more so, than that of the other arts. To Helgo
+Zettervall a number of elaborate national works of construction and
+restoration have been intrusted and, as a rule, carried through in a
+meritorious manner, although sometimes giving occasion for serious
+criticism. An important influence was exerted by Frederic William
+Scholander, more by his teaching than by his works. It is principally
+his pupils who in the last few decades have almost revolutionized
+the building methods and architectural aspect of the capital, and
+endowed Gothenburg and other towns with works of architectural
+distinction. Pre-eminent among modern architects are I. G. Clason,
+Gustavus Wickman, K. F. von Gegerfelt, Adrian Peterson, Hans Hedlund,
+Valfried Karlson, A. F. Anderberg, E. Lallerstedt. The Vasa, or Swedish
+Castle Renaissance, which with good effect has been reintroduced for
+monumental buildings, seems to lead architecture on to a wholesome
+national development, combining impressive outlines and solidity with
+elaboration and grace of interior decoration.
+
+The foremost composers of orchestral music have been mentioned
+above. Sweden maintains her reputation as being the country of song
+through the compositions by Hedenblad, Koerling, Svedbom, Sjoegren and
+Arlberg, while Soederman has brought the form of the ballad, based on
+national folk music, to the highest development. The royal opera of
+Stockholm recently moved into new and elegant quarters erected on the
+site of the old opera house built by Gustavus III. It possesses, in
+Caroline OEstberg, Mathilde Linden, Arvid OEdman, C. F. Lundquist and J.
+Elmblad, dramatic singers of high rank, while Sweden, in Louise Pyk,
+Mathilde Grabow Taube and Solomon Smith, owns concert singers of great
+eminence. The international firmament of song has two Swedish stars of
+considerable magnitude in Sigrid Arnoldsson-Fischhoff, a colorature
+songstress, and Ellen Nordgren-Gullbrandson, a Wagner singer. The
+greatest actor is Emil Hillberg, a noble creator of Ibsen and
+Strindberg roles, while the country recently lost its ablest comedian
+in the death of Knut Almloef.
+
+Sweden of to-day offers an attractive picture of a country in a high
+degree cultured and prosperous, but no country or period is entitled
+to reap only benefits or enjoy undisturbed happiness. No progress
+is obtained without struggle and relapses, and a good must give way
+for something better. Beneath a surface generally smiling and serene
+formidable religious and social forces are in motion. The Swedish
+state church is divided into two camps, which resemble a high and
+a low church, out of which the whole may come forward strengthened
+and rejunevated. The various sects are not all satisfied with the
+degree of liberty they enjoy. A shallow materialistic movement of
+anti-religious tendencies, which styled itself Utilitarian, caused
+some sensation in the latter eighties and early nineties, more through
+the somewhat too severe manner in which it was suppressed than
+through any of its own merits. There are agitators for a separation
+of state and church who are opposed by some of the stanchest friends
+of a constitutional monarchy. A separation of educational and church
+affairs seems desirable. The yeomen have regained the predominant
+position in political life which was theirs in the time of the ancient
+Teutonic communities, using their power in a way which is not always
+beneficial to the other classes or the state at large. The great class
+of country population, which has been in vain striving to rise to the
+privileged class of landowners, if even on the smallest scale, have
+emigrated in vast numbers. The emigration, which has given America
+at least 1,200,000 inhabitants of Swedish birth or parentage, is one
+of the most astounding phenomena of the century. It has, to a large
+extent, subsided, but may be revived if the pressure for social
+improvement is found of no avail. The workingmen are resolved to
+gain a representation and are striving to attain the introduction
+of general suffrage. The weapons they use are principally strikes,
+but may also turn to wholesale emigration. In 1893 the advocates
+of universal suffrage arranged for the election of a convention by
+popular vote, the first Folksriksdag, which addressed an appeal to
+the legal Riksdag, to consider an amendment for the extension of the
+suffrage. The liberals and radicals are interested in this agitation,
+and brought out their full vote to the Folksriksdag. The conservative
+party ignores the whole movement, probably not wisely. The towns are
+seeking an extended representation and bitterly oppose the curtailment
+of the rights already enjoyed, fearing the reactionary tendencies
+of the conservatives, who have their strength in the large agrarian
+population. Anarchism is something unknown in Sweden. The socialistic
+agitation, which is spreading among the classes without a political
+representation, is carried on without any great bitterness and entirely
+without lawless means.
+
+Any practical or theoretical agitation for a republic there is none
+in Sweden, the population as a whole not finding salvation from the
+defects of government or society in any outward change of rule. Civil
+service is enforced to the letter, and the social pressure from above
+downward is of a nature caused by financial or educational supremacy
+only and would remain the same under republican rule. The Swedes
+are proud of their history and the long and unbroken chain of their
+political and social development. Their neighbors accuse them of
+having traces of the chauvinism of bygone days, but not altogether
+with justice. The national anthem of Sweden can be quoted in their
+justification. It speaks, in one instance, of the country as enthroned
+on memories of a glorious past when its name filled the world; but
+that name is the North, to whose grandeur and loveliness of nature the
+whole song is a panegyric. The name of Sweden is not even mentioned, a
+fact which does not point to a narrow or antiquated form of patriotism.
+There is in the nature of the Swedes a tendency to delight in the
+display of dignified luxury, which was known to Tacitus. The Swedes
+love to see the crown of one of the oldest states of Europe carried
+with dignity as an emblem of their ancient independence. The Swedish
+king has in reality less power than the President of the United States,
+but the Swedes have an inherited faculty of confidence and loyalty of
+which their king receives his full share. The Swedes become excellent
+citizens of a republic for that very reason: reverence for, and loyalty
+to, the institutions and historial development of the country in
+which they dwell. Among the Scandinavian nationalities, the Swede has
+been characterized as the nobleman or aristocrat, on account of his
+love of luxury and the joys of life, his dignity, diplomatic talent
+and lyrico-rhetoric temperament. It is true that his dignity seldom
+forsakes the Swede; when it does, something of the soldier of the
+Thirty Years' War comes to the surface. To her diplomatic talent, more
+than to her glorious victories, Sweden owes her superiority in size,
+prosperity and political importance, as compared to her Scandinavian
+neighbors.
+
+The fundamental laws of the kingdom of Sweden are: 1. The constitution
+of June 6, 1809; 2. The amended regulations for the formation of
+the Riksdag of June 22, 1866; 3. The law of royal succession of
+September 26, 1810; and on the liberty of the press of July 16, 1812.
+According to these statutes, the king must be a member of the Lutheran
+church, and have sworn fealty to the laws of the land. His person
+is inviolable. He has the right to declare war and make peace after
+consulting the state council. He nominates to all higher appointments,
+both military and civil; concludes foreign treaties, and has a right to
+preside in the supreme court of justice. The princes of the blood royal
+are excluded from all civil employments. The king possesses legislative
+power in matters of political administration, but in all other respects
+that power is exercised by the Riksdag, in concert with the sovereign,
+and every new law must have the assent of the crown. The right of
+imposing taxes is vested in the Riksdag. The executive power is in the
+hands of the king, who acts under the advice of a cabinet or state
+council, the head of which is the minister of state. It consists of ten
+members, seven of whom are ministerial heads of departments and three
+without departments. All the members of the cabinet are responsible for
+the acts of the government.
+
+Eric Gustavus Bostroem is minister of state, holding office since 1891,
+after the protectionists had got into power and the compromise cabinets
+which followed were a thing of the past. The other ministers without
+departments, Baron A. L. E. Akerhielm and S. H. Wikblad, have remained
+in office since the days of compromise cabinets. The other members who
+have been in office from five to eight years are as follows: Count
+L. V. A. Douglas, minister of foreign affairs; P. S. L. Annerstedt,
+minister of justice; Baron A. E. Rappe, minister of war; J. C. E.
+Christerson, minister of marine; J. E. von Krusenstierna, minister of
+interior; Count H. Hansson Wachtmeister, minister of finance; G. F.
+Gilljam, minister of education and ecclesiastical affairs.
+
+King Oscar II., in the jubilee year of 1897, which marked the
+completion of a quarter of a century of his reign, received innumerable
+proofs of the love of the two nations under his rule and of the
+high esteem in which he is held by the governments and citizens of
+foreign countries. The occasion was celebrated by a large and highly
+successful Scandinavian exposition at Stockholm in the summer, Russia,
+with Finland, also taking part, and by a series of festivities about
+September 21st, the date of his succession to the throne. King Oscar
+has always given sympathetic attention to the United States, especially
+to their citizens of Swedish birth. Several deputations from America
+called upon the king in the jubilee year. Among these was a male chorus
+of fifty-four members, belonging to the American Union of Swedish
+singers. The singers were invited to the royal castle and received
+and feasted by the aged monarch with cordial simplicity, in all royal
+splendor, without any of its pomp or ceremony. To the hearty songs of
+his unpretentious guests, King Oscar responded with one of the eloquent
+speeches for which he is so justly famous, assuring them that, although
+citizens of another land, they were still followed by the loving
+interest of their mother country and her monarch. When the singers
+intoned one of the songs by Prince Gustavus, the king joined them with
+his sonorous tenor voice, smilingly calling their attention to the
+fact that he had not forgotten his students' songs. The anniversary of
+the seventieth birthday of Oscar II. was celebrated January 21, 1899,
+a slight gloom being cast over it on account of the temporary illness
+of the king. Oscar II. fully recovered after a few months of rest and
+recreation and bears every indication of attaining the same advanced
+age, with the same unimpaired activity, as his grandfather, which
+would mean another decade added to the era of undisturbed peace. Crown
+Prince Gustavus Adolphus, who is yet little known in Norway, enjoys
+great popularity in Sweden, where his harmonious, sagacious nature and
+resolute energy are highly respected.
+
+The reign of Oscar II. in Sweden has been marked by reactionary
+movements in Church and State, but the king has been in such close
+contact with his people that they have recognized in him a sovereign
+who stands above the parties. The king has used the conservative
+elements of his country to strengthen her defences and to maintain the
+Union with Norway, which have been the great goals of his policy of
+peace. To sum up King Oscar's standpoint in the Norwegian question,
+he is willing to grant Norway home rule in its fullest extent, but
+refuses to grant her separate control of foreign affairs, which he
+considers incompatible with the idea of the Union. In this standpoint
+King Oscar is backed by the convictions of the overwhelming majority
+of Swedes, who see in the dissolution of the Union a danger to Sweden,
+Norway, or both countries, of sharing the fate of unhappy Finland,
+which the civilized world is now deeply deploring. The danger which
+menaces the sons of Suomi has touched all Scandinavians to the quick,
+and it would seem that the new century shall witness a restoration of
+the Scandinavian policy. If the movement to bring this about meets with
+success, it is to be hoped that, from the start, it shall have rather
+the actual wants than the ideal rights of the independent Scandinavian
+states in view. From the point of view of citizens of the United States
+we cannot but sympathize with a movement which may establish a union
+of independent states into a realm of imperial government, less an
+emperor. Let there rather be two or three kings in the North, with one
+solid union government and a common and equal defence in case of war,
+than two or three foreign ministers with as many different policies and
+a divided and unequal defence.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+[1] The ancient name of this province, Viken, probably is the key to
+the disputed etymology of the word _Viking_.
+
+[2] These were not departments in the sense of bureaus, but _collegia_.
+
+[3] Through the efforts of the Swedish scholar, Eric Benzelius, Junior,
+a third edition was published at Windsor in 1750. J. K. Kohn's edition
+dates from 1805, founded on the works of the Swedish scholars Sotberg
+and Ihre. Of later editions, the one by Professor A. Uppstroem, of
+Upsala, of 1854 to 1857, is considered to be the standard one. A fine
+American edition has, in recent years, been published by Dr. G. H.
+Balg, of Mayville, Wis. The history of Codex Argenteus, after once for
+all being placed in the University Library of Upsala, has not been
+altogether uneventful. In 1834 ten of the 187 leaves were stolen and
+remained missing for twenty-three years. One of the trusted janitorial
+attendants of the library had taken them in the hope of obtaining a
+great sum of money for them, but later dared not dispose of them. On
+his death-bed he surrendered the stolen leaves.
+
+[4] Lewenhaupt is a German translation of the old Swedish family name
+of Leijonhufvud, and carried by a branch whose members held the dignity
+of counts. Almost similar is the derivation of Von Rosen from Tre
+Rosor, etc. During the Period of Political Grandeur, and later, it was
+a habit of certain branches of the old Swedish nobility to translate or
+Germanize their names in this way. The burghers and clergymen followed
+the custom when being ennobled, Archaic spelling was preserved, or
+adopted, in most cases.
+
+[5] The ecclesiastic department is also the department of education.
+
+[6] A. C. Nathorst, an able scientist and explorer, started in the
+summer of 1899 with an expedition to Greenland in search of Andree and
+his companions.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+ A
+
+ Abelin, G. R., 408-410.
+
+ Abo, 89, 122, 171, 172, 186, 232, 313, 370;
+   peace treaty (in 1743), 316, 317.
+   University of Abo (see Universities).
+
+ Absolutism, Absolute Monarchy, 255-258, 260, 268, 293, 298, 300-301,
+     302, 308, 309, 310, 314, 344, 349, 350, 357.
+
+ Academic style, 339.
+
+ Academy, of Antiquities, 235;
+   of Art, 346;
+   of Science, 336-337, 340, 346;
+   Swedish, 346, 355;
+   French, 428;
+   Military, 355.
+
+ Adalvard, 68;
+   the Younger, 68.
+
+ Adam of Bremen, 63.
+
+ Adlerbeth, G. G., 345, 350.
+
+ Adlercreutz, C. J., 358, 360-361, 362, 367;
+   A. G., 409.
+
+ Adlersparre, George, 362.
+
+ Admiral, 189;
+   State, 250.
+
+ Adolphus Frederic of Sweden, 303, 316, 317-320, 339.
+
+ Adolphus John, Duke, 249.
+
+ Adrianople, 297-298.
+
+ Africa, 232.
+
+ Aftonbladet, 377, 403.
+
+ Agardh, J. G., 423.
+
+ Agne, 36.
+
+ Agnefit, 36.
+
+ Agriculture. See Sweden.
+
+ Ahlborn, Lea, 430.
+
+ Ahlstroemer, John, 317, 321, 334-337.
+
+ Akerhielm, A. L. N., 435.
+
+ Akkershus, district of, 248, 307;
+   fortress of, 307.
+
+ Aland archipelago, 171, 388;
+   peace deliberations at, 306.
+
+ Albrecht the Elder, duke of Mecklenburg, 95;
+   the Younger, king of Sweden, 95, 96-97, 100, 102, 103.
+
+ Alemannians, 29.
+
+ Alexander I. of Russia, 357-358, 370.
+
+ Alexandra, princess of Russia, 355-356.
+
+ Alexandria, 27.
+
+ Alf, 36.
+
+ Alfred the Great, 43.
+
+ Alingsos, 217, 334-337.
+
+ Alliance, 187, 189, 202, 206, 225, 259, 273, 283, 296, 315, 319, 344,
+     352, 357, 370, 388, 404;
+   Triple, 252.
+
+ Alliterative prose, 66;
+   verse, 61, 66.
+
+ Almloef, N. V., 390;
+   Knut, 432.
+
+ Almquist, C. J. L., 388-389.
+
+ Alnsnoe, meeting at, 86.
+
+ Alof, 38.
+
+ Alps, 21.
+
+ Alrek, 36.
+
+ Altmark, armistice of, 203.
+
+ Altona, 295.
+
+ Alt-Ranstaedt, 279-281;
+   peace treaty signed at, 281, 290.
+
+ Alvastra, 74, 77.
+
+ Ambassadors, 254, 269, 272, 305, 358, 368.
+
+ Amber, 17, 24.
+
+ America, 232, 324, 332, 351, 432, 436;
+   South America, 378.
+
+ American Union of Swedish Singers, 436.
+
+ Amsterdam, 323, 326.
+
+ Anastasius, 28.
+
+ Anatomy, 262, 325;
+   hall of, 262-263.
+
+ Anckarstroem, J. J., 352.
+
+ Anckarsverd, C. H., 362, 377, 379.
+
+ Anderberg, A. F., 431.
+
+ Andreae, Laurentius, 141, 150.
+
+ Andree, S. A., 424.
+
+ Ane, or Aune, King, 37.
+
+ Angermanland, 5.
+
+ Angermannus, Abraham, 183, 184.
+
+ Anglii, 47.
+
+ Anglo-Saxon, 58, 62.
+   See also Old English.
+
+ Angstroem, A. J., 423.
+
+ Anjala Conspiracy, 348-349, 359.
+
+ Anne of England, 280.
+
+ Annerstedt, P. S. L., 435.
+
+ Ansgar, 41, 53-55.
+
+ Antiquarian, 233, 235.
+   See also Archaeology.
+
+ Anund, Swedish kings: Broet-Anund, 39;
+   Anund, 42;
+   Anund, or Jacob, 62-63.
+
+ Apocalypse, 356.
+
+ Apostles, Swedish, 41, 53-55, 58.
+
+ Apraxin, Admiral, 289.
+
+ Arabs, 49, 50.
+
+ Arboga, 108, 115, 124, 127, 161, 185, 387.
+
+ Arboga articles, 161.
+
+ Arcana Coelestia, 325.
+
+ Archaean rocks, 6.
+
+ Archaeology, 20, 235, 265, 423-424.
+
+ Archbishop, 54-55, 70, 72, 74, 78, 82, 87, 103, 111, 117, 124, 127,
+     139, 143, 150, 175, 183, 189, 266-267.
+
+ Architecture, 173, 176, 265-266, 302-303, 430-431.
+
+ Arctic explorations, 424;
+   Sea, 24;
+   Stone Age, 15, 16.
+
+ Ardan. See Jordanes.
+
+ Ardgard, 54.
+
+ Argus, 377;
+   the Swedish, 338.
+
+ Aristocracy, 65, 66, 101, 104, 115, 119, 174, 175, 188, 199, 238-239,
+     250-251, 256, 257, 314, 375.
+
+ Aristocratic republic, republicans, 314, 321, 352.
+   See also Nobility, higher.
+
+ Arlberg, Fritz, 430.
+
+ Armfelt: Charles Gustavus, 308;
+   Gustavus Maurice, 352, 354, 356, 357.
+
+ Army. See Sweden.
+
+ Arnoldsson, Sigrid, 431.
+
+ Aros, East (see Upsala).
+   Aros, West (see Westeros).
+
+ Aryan race, 265.
+   See also Indo-European.
+
+ Asa, Princess, 40.
+
+ Asa creed, 31-34.
+
+ Asia, 16, 34, 424.
+
+ Askold, 49.
+
+ Aspeboda, 134.
+
+ Astrology, 161, 169, 252, 268, 304.
+
+ Astronomy, 324, 333.
+
+ Asund, Lake, 126;
+   battle of, 151.
+
+ Atland, Atlantica, 263-265.
+
+ Atlantis, 264.
+
+ Atterbom, P. D. A., 380.
+
+ Atterdag. See Valdemar.
+
+ Attundaland, 39.
+
+ Aude, 35.
+
+ Audils, 37-38.
+
+ Auerbach, B., 388.
+
+ Augdof, fortress of, 198.
+
+ Augsburgian Confession, 183.
+
+ August II., elector of Saxony and king of Poland, 272, 277-279, 281,
+     290, 295, 297, 299.
+
+ August, Prince Nicolaus, 411.
+
+ Aulin, Tor, 390.
+
+ Aune. See Ane.
+
+ Austria: Swedish empire in the Baltic provinces, 40, 51-52.
+
+ Austria-Hungary, 172, 223, 245, 247, 253, 279, 319, 352, 403.
+
+ Avignon, 97.
+
+ Axelsson. See Tott.
+
+ Axtorna, battle of, 168, 169.
+
+ Aztec, 18.
+
+
+ B
+
+ Bade, 356, 415.
+
+ Bagge, Jacob, 164-166, 167.
+
+ Bailiffs, 88, 103, 104, 106, 107, 109, 114, 137, 138, 150, 151, 197.
+
+ Baltic dominion, 40, 51-52, 55, 57, 164, 199, 229, 249, 292, 312.
+
+ Baltic Provinces, 52, 78, 198-199, 200, 232, 282, 283, 291-292, 307.
+
+ Baltic Sea, 5, 21, 24, 25, 26, 49, 51, 75, 101, 130, 199, 229, 249,
+     272, 294, 305, 322, 375.
+
+ Ban, Militia, 417;
+   Papal, 77, 94, 121, 126.
+
+ Baner, Sten, 170, 185, 195;
+   Anne, 176;
+   Eric, 131;
+   Gustavus, 185, 195;
+   Per, 195;
+   John, 207-208, 222-225, 279.
+
+ Banner of State, 116, 118, 125, 168.
+
+ Barangoi, 52.
+
+ Barbro, Stigsdotter, 134-135.
+
+ Bark-king, 112.
+
+ Barn-lock, 86.
+
+ Barocco, 261, 321, 353.
+
+ Barons, Baronies, 162, 200, 238, 251, 257.
+
+ Bastile, 428.
+
+ Bavaria, 193, 210, 211, 222.
+
+ Beauharnais, Eugene, 404.
+
+ Beckstrom, Edward, 412.
+
+ Behm, Sara, 321.
+
+ Bellman, C. M., 345-346, 389, 390.
+
+ Bells, revolt of. See Revolts.
+
+ Belt, Lille, 245-246.
+
+ Belt, Store, 246-247.
+
+ Bender, 287, 293, 294, 295;
+   Kalabalik of, 297.
+
+ Benedictine monastery, 235.
+
+ Bengt, Duke, 86.
+
+ Bengtsson, Joens. See Oxenstierna.
+
+ Bentseby, 266.
+
+ Benzelius: Eric the Elder, 266;
+   Eric the Younger, 237 note, 266-267, 322, 340.
+
+ Benzelstierna. See Benzelius.
+
+ Beowulf, 30, 31, 37.
+
+ Bergh, Richard, 429.
+
+ Bergman, T. O., 346.
+
+ Bergstroem, P. A., 429.
+
+ Berlin, 223, 341.
+
+ Bernadotte, 365, 367, 418, 421;
+   Prince Oscar, 415.
+   See also Charles XIV.
+
+ Bernard of Clairvaux, 71.
+
+ Bernhard, duke of Weimar, 211, 214, 216, 217, 221.
+
+ Bervald, F. N., 390.
+
+ Berzelius, J. J., 325, 366, 380.
+
+ Bevaeringstid, 417.
+
+ Bible, 237;
+   Gothic (see Gothic);
+   translations of, 98, 150, 260, 355.
+
+ Bielke, Anna, 127, 132;
+   Gunilla, queen, 175;
+   Sten, 170;
+   Ture, 185.
+
+ Bielo-Jesero, 47.
+
+ Bioerkoe, 55.
+
+ Bioern, Swedish kings, 42, 54, 55.
+
+ Biorck, O., 429.
+
+ Biornstierna, M. F. F., 361.
+
+ Biornstroem, F. J., 424.
+
+ Birger, Brosa, 76, 77, 79;
+   Jarl, 77, 78-83, 86, 88;
+   King, 84, 87, 88-91, 92;
+   Persson, 89, 97.
+
+ Birgitta, St., 97-99, 100, 130, 154.
+
+ Birka, 42, 55, 71, 75.
+
+ Bishops, 71, 78, 86, 87, 112-113, 127, 128, 145-146, 183.
+
+ Bjoernson, B., 388, 405.
+
+ Black Death, 94.
+
+ Blanche, queen of Sweden and Norway, 93, 97.
+
+ Blanche, August, 389.
+
+ Bleking, 5, 29, 63, 67, 93, 95, 150, 151, 190, 247, 249, 259, 291.
+
+ Blenda, 72.
+
+ Blomstrand, C. W., 423.
+
+ Blot-Sven, 69, 73.
+
+ Blucher, General, 370.
+
+ Bo Jonsson. See Grip.
+
+ Boccaccio, 163, 413.
+
+ Boeclerus, 240.
+
+ Boerhave, 330-331.
+
+ Boerjesson, John, dramatist, 389;
+   John, sculptor, 430.
+
+ Boettiger, C. V., 389.
+
+ Bogesund, battle of, 126-127.
+
+ Bohemia, 210, 222, 224, 226, 228.
+
+ Bohus, fortress of, 196.
+
+ Bohuslaen, 5, 13, 17, 46, 58, 62, 196, 229, 247, 249, 254, 307, 308.
+
+ Bologna, 117.
+
+ Bonaparte. See Napoleon.
+
+ Bonde, Charles Knutsson (see Charles VIII.);
+   Tord, 111;
+   Gustavus, 250.
+
+ Bonnier, Eva, 429.
+
+ Borgannaes, 107.
+
+ Boris of Russia, 172.
+
+ Bornhoeved, battle of, 371.
+
+ Bornholm, 21, 164, 247, 248, 250;
+   naval battle of, 168.
+
+ Bosphorus, 49.
+
+ Bosson, Nils. See Sture.
+
+ Bostroem, C. J., philosopher, 411-412, 423.
+
+ Botany, 262, 321, 330, 331-333, 380, 423.
+
+ Bothnia, Gulf of, 5.
+
+ Bothnia, West, 363.
+
+ Bothniensis, N. O., 183, 185.
+
+ "Bottomless Purse," 112.
+
+ Botvid, St., 58.
+
+ Boucher, 428.
+
+ Bourgeoisie. See Burghers.
+
+ Boye, L., 377.
+
+ Brabant, 237.
+
+ Brage-bowl, 39.
+
+ Brahe, Joachim, 133;
+   Peter, the Elder, 154, 162;
+   Ebba, 194, 235;
+   Nils, the Elder, 214, 217;
+   Peter, the Younger, 231, 232, 240, 250, 251, 257;
+   Nils, the Younger, 257;
+   Eric, 318;
+   Magnus, 374-375.
+
+ Brahestad, 258.
+
+ Brandenburg, 223, 228, 234, 244, 247, 253, 255;
+   Elector of, 223;
+   Great Elector of, 225, 244, 245, 252.
+
+ Brandsoe, 245-246.
+
+ Brask, Bishop Hans, 125, 128, 139, 143, 144, 146, 322, 375.
+
+ Braun, V. A. D. von, 389.
+
+ Braunsberg, 203.
+
+ Bravols, battle of, 41, 56.
+
+ Breitenfeld, battles of. See Leipsic.
+
+ Bremen, 54, 63, 70, 229, 245, 311.
+
+ Bremer, Frederica, 389, 427.
+
+ Brenner, S. E., 233.
+
+ Brennkyrka, battle of, 125, 131.
+
+ Bridget, St. See Birgitta.
+
+ Bring. See Lagerbring.
+
+ Britain, 24, 25, 45, 60.
+
+ British Isles, 60;
+   Museum, 331.
+
+ Broemsebro, peace treaty at, 227.
+
+ Broet-Anund. See Anund.
+
+ Bronitz, battle of, 198.
+
+ Bronze Age, 11, 13, 16-20.
+
+ Brunbeck, battle of, 138.
+
+ Brunkeberg, 139;
+   battles of, 116, 119.
+
+ Buchow, naval battle of, 168.
+
+ Buddenbrock, M. H., 316, 317.
+
+ Budget. See Sweden.
+
+ Buffon, 324.
+
+ Bulgaria, 50.
+
+ Bureus, John, 232-235.
+
+ Burghers, 108, 128, 144, 146, 158, 185, 200, 201, 253.
+
+ Burislev, 75.
+
+ Byzantium, Byzantine, 22-23, 27, 28, 49, 50, 51.
+
+
+ C
+
+ Cabinet, 373, 403;
+   Swedish (see Sweden).
+
+ Cadet School. See Carlberg.
+
+ Calmar. See Kalmar.
+
+ Caloric engine, 387.
+
+ Calvinism, 183, 189.
+
+ Canute the Great, 57, 58, 62.
+
+ "Caps," 316, 319, 320, 337, 344.
+
+ Carelia, 88, 94.
+
+ Carin Monsdotter, queen, 162, 170-173, 177.
+
+ Carl. See Charles.
+
+ Carlberg, 355.
+
+ Carleby, Old, 360;
+   New, 360.
+
+ Carlen, Emelie, 389, 427.
+
+ Carlsborg, fortress of, 375, 418.
+
+ Carlscrona, navy yards at, 259, 305.
+
+ Carlson, F. F., 393, 398;
+   Ernest, 424.
+
+ Carlstad, 188, 407.
+
+ Carlsten, fortress of, 311, 312.
+
+ Carnage of Stockholm, 128, 129, 133, 137.
+
+ Carolin Institute, 425.
+
+ Cartesius. See Descartes.
+
+ Casijn, 173.
+
+ Caspian Sea, 50.
+
+ Cassander, 236.
+
+ Castellholm, 171.
+
+ Castles, 96, 102, 146, 173, 233, 251, 266.
+
+ Catechismus, 183, 260.
+
+ Catherine, Countess Palatine, 234, 239.
+
+ Catherine (queens of Sweden), of Saxony-Lauenburg, 155, 156, 157;
+   Stenbock, 156, 157, 177, 181;
+   Monsdotter (see Carin Monsdotter);
+   Jagello, 163, 175.
+
+ Catherine II. of Russia, 348, 350, 351, 355-356.
+
+ Catholicism, Catholic, 98, 172, 173, 174, 182-184, 187, 189, 192, 240,
+     244, 325, 335.
+
+ Cavendish, 325.
+
+ Cederstrom, O. R., 374, 378;
+   Gustavus, 429.
+
+ Celibacy, 79.
+
+ Celsius, Andrew, 321, 333;
+   Olof, Senior, 329, 333, 340;
+   Olof, Junior, 333-334.
+
+ Celtic swords, 21;
+   tribes, 21.
+
+ Chambers (of the Riksdag), 396, 398, 399-401, 407.
+
+ Chancellor, of State, 87, 189, 199, 220, 250
+     (see also President of the Chancery);
+   king's, 14, 144, 150;
+   of the University, 263, 340;
+   the Great (see Axel Oxenstierna).
+
+ Chancery, 297, 298;
+   president of the, 271, 313, 314, 317, 337.
+
+ Charles (kings of Sweden): VII. Sverkersson, 73, 74, 75;
+   VIII. Knutsson, 108-114, 121, 339;
+   IX. 155, 157, 158, 163, 167, 170-174, 176, 179, 181-191, 204, 222,
+     249, 264;
+   X. Gustavus, 239-241, 242-249, 251, 277, 314;
+   XI. 249-268, 269, 270-271, 277, 391, 408;
+   XII. 182, 264, 267, 268-309, 310, 313, 322, 326, 334, 338, 343, 356,
+     364;
+   XIII. 348, 350, 352, 353, 356, 362, 365-374;
+   XIV. 367-373, 374-380, 382, 383, 404;
+   XV. 391-413, 415.
+
+ Charles, Bishop, 77.
+
+ Charles, Jarl, 77.
+
+ Charles Philip, son of Charles IX., 190, 194, 198.
+
+ Charles, son of Oscar II., 415.
+
+ Charles V., emperor, 151, 158.
+
+ Charles II. of England, 237.
+
+ Charles's Chronicle, 114.
+
+ Charles Frederic of Holstein-Gottorp, 295, 301, 310, 311.
+
+ Charles Peter Ulric of Holstein-Gottorp, 316.
+
+ Chauvinism, 261, 264, 321, 346, 433.
+
+ Chemistry, 333, 346, 380, 423, 425.
+
+ Chemnitz, battle of, 224.
+
+ Chicago, 421, 429.
+
+ China, 289.
+
+ Chodkiewitz, 187.
+
+ Christerson, J. C. E., 435.
+
+ Christian (kings of Denmark): I. 111-113, 116;
+   II. 122, 124-129, 131, 132, 133, 137, 138, 140, 148, 151, 158;
+   III. 149, 164;
+   IV. 190, 196-198, 204, 226-227;
+   V. 254, 255;
+   VIII. 371-373;
+   IX. 403-404.
+
+ Christian August (Charles A.), Prince, 365-367.
+
+ Christian Frederic, Prince. See Christian VIII.
+
+ Christiania, 307, 372, 419.
+
+ Christianity, 31, 42;
+   influence of, 52;
+   introduction of, 53-55, 58;
+   opposition to, 58-61.
+
+ Christianopel, 190.
+
+ Christine (queens of Sweden), 189, 194, 204;
+   196, 204, 220-241, 242, 262, 302, 314.
+
+ Christine of Denmark, 120.
+
+ Christine of Hesse, 162, 164-165.
+
+ Christinehamn, 188.
+
+ Christopher, kings of Denmark, 81, and of Sweden, 110, 111, 112.
+
+ Christopher's, King, Land Law. See Sweden, State Law.
+
+ Chronica regni gothorum, 117.
+
+ Chronicles, prose, 114, 131;
+   rhymed, 80, 114.
+
+ Church, 76, 77, 78, 85, 87, 88, 89, 111, 115, 117, 125, 140, 141, 142,
+     144, 146, 149, 152, 174-176, 183, 188, 200, 201, 260, 266, 396,
+     432, 437;
+   law, 93, 146, 175.
+   See also Clergy, Bishops.
+
+ Cimbrian Peninsula, 26, 27.
+   See also Jutland.
+
+ Cincinnatus, Order of, 367.
+
+ Cistercians, 71.
+
+ Civil service, 433.
+
+ Clary. See Queen Desideria.
+
+ Clason, I. G., 431.
+
+ Clergy, 93, 104, 108, 117, 139, 143, 145-146, 156, 158, 183, 185, 186,
+     200, 239, 251, 334, 340, 341, 396, 397, 398-399.
+
+ Codania, Codanian Bay, 25.
+
+ Codex Argenteus, 235-238, 266;
+   Bildstenianus, 9;
+   Bureanus, 9.
+
+ Coffee prohibited, 355.
+
+ Coins, 60, 62;
+   of need, 301-302.
+
+ Collard, Claude, 167.
+
+ Colleges, 201, 232.
+
+ Collegia, 118, 230 note.
+
+ Cologne, 117, 236.
+
+ Colonies, Commerce, Communities, Constitution. See Sweden.
+
+ Constantine Porphyrogenitus, 48.
+
+ Constantinople, 295.
+
+ Continent. See Europe.
+
+ Copenhagen, 129, 131, 227, 274, 385, 403;
+   siege of, 247-248;
+   peace treaty of, 250.
+
+ Corvey, 53, 54.
+
+ Cossacks, 283, 285.
+
+ Council, Councillors, State (or royal), 87, 92, 106, 107, 108, 115,
+     116, 120, 122, 128, 183, 184, 185, 189, 190, 196, 199, 200, 230,
+     251, 257, 258, 271, 272, 289, 290, 292-293, 298, 300, 301, 310,
+     313, 314, 318, 320, 338, 339, 344-345, 350, 435.
+
+ Council, Town, 116, 126, 128, 165.
+
+ Councillor of Commerce, 337.
+
+ Counties, counts, 162, 200, 238, 251, 257.
+
+ Courland, 52, 202, 244, 282.
+
+ Cracow, 244, 278.
+
+ Creutz, G. P., 339, 345.
+
+ Croats, 208.
+
+ Croi, Duke de, 275.
+
+ Cronhamn, J. P., 413.
+
+ Cronstedt, Charles, 295;
+   Olof, 359-360.
+
+ Crown prince, 316, 317, 319, 320, 371, 392, 406, 415, 437.
+
+ Crown lands, 238, 255, 257;
+   restitution of, 96, 102, 111, 233, 238, 243, 256-258, 271.
+
+ Crusades, 70, 73, 77, 78, 94, 185.
+
+ Crusell, B. F., 89, 413.
+
+ Crusenstolpe, M. J., 377, 389.
+
+ Cuno, John C., 326.
+
+ Czar (see Russia), Czarina, 289.
+
+ Czarniecki, Stefan, 244.
+
+
+ D
+
+ Dacke "Feud," 150-151.
+
+ Dacke, Nils, 150-151.
+
+ Dag, 36.
+
+ Dahlberg, Eric, 245-246, 247, 259, 265-266, 277.
+
+ Dahlgren, Frederic Aug., 389.
+
+ Dahlquist, C. G., 390.
+
+ Dal, province of, 5, 107, 308;
+   River, 5, 138.
+
+ Dalecarlia, Dalecarlians, 5, 16, 105, 106, 107, 108, 116, 119, 121,
+     131, 133-139, 146, 147, 148, 149, 155, 185, 317, 349.
+
+ Dalin, O. von, 321, 337-339, 343.
+
+ Daedalus Hyperboreus, 322.
+
+ "Daljunker," 147.
+
+ Dalman, V. F., 394.
+
+ Danckwardt, Henric, 311.
+
+ Danes, Danish. See Denmark.
+
+ Danielsson, A., 377.
+
+ Dannebrog, 116.
+
+ Dantzic, 112, 203.
+
+ Danube, 22, 28, 224, 228.
+
+ David, St., 58.
+
+ Dearth, 118, 176, 261.
+
+ Decamerone, 163, 413.
+
+ De Geer. See Geer.
+
+ De la Gardie. See Gardie.
+
+ Delaware River, 232.
+
+ Democracy, Democratic, 64, 65, 66, 114, 115, 117, 120, 121, 199, 200,
+     260, 352, 364.
+
+ Demotika, 297, 299.
+
+ Denmark, 6, 10, 12, 13, 21, 29, 30, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 52, 53,
+     54, 56-57, 58, 60, 62, 63, 70, 72, 76, 77, 81, 83, 89, 90, 91, 95,
+     100, 103, 105, 106, 108, 111, 116, 117, 120, 121, 122, 124, 125,
+     126-127, 128, 131, 133, 135, 136, 148, 149, 164, 166, 167, 168,
+     174, 195-198, 203, 226-228, 244, 245-248, 250, 253-255, 259,
+     273-274, 290, 295-296, 299, 307, 311, 312, 316, 343, 345, 348-349,
+     355, 357, 363, 366, 367, 368, 371-373, 385-386, 388, 392, 401, 405,
+     406, 415, 426, 430.
+
+ Dennewitz, battle of, 370.
+
+ Descartes, Rene, 240-241, 347.
+
+ Desideria, Queen, 382.
+
+ Diderot, 347, 429.
+
+ Diet, 374, 379, 392, 402.
+   See also Riksdag and Norwegian Storthing.
+
+ Dietriechson, Lorenz, 405.
+
+ Dilettantism, 412, 426.
+
+ Dimitri, 173, 187;
+   false Dimitris, 187-188.
+
+ Diplomacy, 252, 259, 313, 315, 367, 402, 434.
+
+ Dir, 49.
+
+ Dirschau, 202.
+
+ Ditmarschen, 120.
+
+ Dniepr River, 284, 286, 287;
+   cataracts of the, 48.
+
+ Doebeln, G. C. von, 358, 360.
+
+ Doemitz, battle of, 233.
+
+ Dolmens, 13.
+
+ Domalde, 35.
+
+ Domar, 36.
+
+ Dorpat, 200, 281, 282;
+   University of (see Universities).
+
+ Dortrecht, 237.
+
+ Douglas, L. V. A., 435.
+
+ Drama, 345, 346, 388, 389, 390, 412, 413, 426-427, 431-432.
+
+ Dramatic singers, 390, 413, 431.
+
+ Drontheim, diocese or district of, 58, 112, 247, 248, 250, 308, 311,
+     371.
+
+ Drotsete, Drotset (Riks-), 87, 91, 96, 102, 108, 189, 199, 240, 250.
+
+ Drottningholm, castle of, 303, 362.
+
+ Duchies, 82, 158, 161, 185-186.
+
+ Duenamuende, 292.
+
+ Dufnaes, battle of, 131.
+
+ D'Uncker, C. H. L., 412.
+
+ Dusseldorf School, 429.
+
+ Dutch, Dutchman. See Holland.
+
+ Dvina, crossing of the, 277.
+
+ Dygve, 36.
+
+
+ E
+
+ Eadgils. See Audils.
+
+ East Gothland. See Gothland.
+
+ Ebo, 54.
+
+ Ecclesiastics. See Clergy.
+
+ Edda, Eddic songs, 61, 66, 157, 233, 270, 346;
+   Snorre's, 34, 342.
+
+ Edlund, Eric, 423.
+
+ Edsoere laws, 82, 86.
+
+ Education, 117, 201, 232, 260, 379.
+
+ Eger, 211.
+
+ Egil, 37.
+
+ Egino, 68.
+
+ Ehrenstrahl, D. K., 303;
+   School of Painters, 303, 428.
+
+ Ehrensverd, Augustinus, 317, 350, 359;
+   Ch. A., 347, 350-351, 355.
+
+ Eider, River, 402.
+
+ Eidsvold, meeting held at, 371.
+
+ Eka, Cecilia of, 129, 130.
+
+ Ekeberg, 156.
+
+ Elbing, 203.
+
+ Elective kingdom. See Kingdom.
+
+ Electricity, 324.
+
+ Elfsborg, 152, 166, 174, 188, 196, 197, 198;
+   New, 311.
+
+ Elfsson, Swan, 135-136.
+
+ Elgaros, battle of, 76.
+
+ Elisabeth of Russia, 316.
+
+ Elizabeth of England, 98, 162.
+
+ Elmblad, Johannes, 431.
+
+ Elsass, 221.
+
+ Elsinore, 93, 247, 368.
+
+ Emigration, 290, 319, 432-433.
+
+ Emund, 63, 67, 68.
+
+ Engelbrekt, Engelbrektsson, 105-109, 110, 115, 121, 137, 146;
+   song about, 114.
+
+ England, English, 22, 40, 52, 58, 82, 98, 187, 189, 237, 245, 252, 259,
+     283, 299, 305, 306-307, 315, 322, 334, 349, 355, 356, 357, 363,
+     369, 370, 371, 374, 379, 388.
+
+ Eric (Danish kings): Ejegod, 69;
+   Glipping, 83, 84;
+   Menved, 89, 91;
+   of Pomerania (see Swedish King Eric XIII.).
+
+ Eric, Norwegian Jarl, 57.
+
+ Eric (Swedish kings): 36; 36-37; 54;
+   Edmundsson, 52, 55;
+   Bioernson Segersael, 55-57; 68;
+   Arsael, 69, 71;
+   IX. (St. Eric), 73-74, 75, 78, 80, 127, 130;
+   X. 67, 77;
+   XI. 77-79, 80;
+   XII. 94-95, 96;
+   XIII. 101-110;
+   XIV. 155, 157, 158, 161-173, 177, 264, 334.
+
+ Eric (Swedish princes): Birgersson, 83;
+   Magnusson, 87, 89-92;
+   Valdemarsson, 83, 84.
+
+ Eric's Chronicle, 80, 85, 89, 114.
+
+ Ericson, J. E., 430.
+
+ Ericsson, Joesse, 106, 137;
+   John, 387, 424, 425;
+   Nils, 387;
+   Christian, 430.
+
+ Eriksgata, 71, 93, 138.
+
+ Erimbert, 55.
+
+ Eskil, St., 58.
+
+ Eskil's apartments, 170.
+
+ Essen, H. H. von, 372.
+
+ Estates, 108, 158, 159, 184, 200, 204-205, 238, 240, 249, 256, 271,
+     278, 293, 310, 314, 318, 338, 349, 350, 355, 383, 394, 398-399,
+     400.
+
+ Esthonia, Esthonians, 39, 52, 75, 77, 98, 162, 174, 198, 201, 282,
+     307-312.
+
+ Ethnography, 265.
+
+ Ettak, battle of, 84.
+
+ Eugene, Prince of Sweden, 429, 430.
+
+ Eugenie, Princess, 411.
+
+ Euphemia, Princess, 95.
+
+ Europe, 6, 12, 16, 17, 28, 44, 82, 93, 189, 204, 229, 235, 242, 245,
+     254, 255, 259, 264, 272, 278, 285, 303, 324, 334, 335, 336, 363,
+     369, 374, 376, 381, 401, 414, 424, 429.
+
+ Expositions, Scandinavian, 405, 436;
+   World's, 413, 421, 429.
+
+ Eyforr, 48.
+
+ Eystein, 38.
+
+
+ F
+
+ Fahlbeck, P., 424.
+
+ Falkoeping, battle of, 97.
+
+ Fallstedt, I., 430.
+
+ Falster, 247.
+
+ Falun, 138, 152.
+
+ "Father, The," 427.
+
+ Father of Swedish Industry, 334.
+
+ Fehrbellin, battle of, 252, 253.
+
+ Femern, naval battles of, 227.
+
+ Ferdinand (emperors): II. 193, 202;
+   III. 221, 228.
+
+ Fero Islands, 371.
+
+ Fersen, Axel von, the Elder, 324;
+   the Younger, 351, 366-367.
+
+ Feudalism, 82.
+
+ Feud of the Counts, 149.
+
+ Fiedrundaland, 39.
+
+ Fiefs, 96, 103, 151, 162, 244.
+
+ Finance. See Sweden.
+
+ Fine Arts, Philosophy of, 347.
+
+ Finland, Finns, Finnish, 10, 15, 26, 35, 36, 48, 55, 71, 73, 75, 78,
+     81, 88, 89, 93, 111, 113, 118, 119, 122, 152, 163, 171, 172, 184,
+     185, 186, 187, 188, 193, 199, 200, 220, 231, 232, 238, 283, 292,
+     307, 312, 313, 316, 317, 348, 357-364, 367, 412-413, 436, 437;
+   language, 8, 341.
+
+ Finnmark, 378.
+
+ Finn woods, 136.
+
+ Fiolner, 35.
+
+ Fleming, Clas Ericsson, 184;
+   Clas Larsson, 227;
+   Herman, 243, 250.
+
+ Flemish art, 173.
+
+ Flensburg, 104.
+
+ Flower king of the North, 332.
+
+ Fogelberg, B. E., 412, 430.
+
+ Fogel Grip, 232.
+
+ Fogelwick, 113.
+
+ Folk lore, 265, 381.
+
+ Folksriksdag, 433.
+
+ Folkungs, 76, 78, 79, 81, 97, 130.
+
+ Folkung dynasty, 80-99.
+
+ Forsberg, Nils, 429.
+
+ France, French, 22, 45, 52, 68, 72, 152, 187, 189, 206, 221, 222, 229,
+     233, 245, 252, 255, 270, 271, 315, 318, 322, 331, 339, 343, 344,
+     345, 351, 352, 355, 356, 357, 368, 371, 372, 382, 388, 414, 422,
+     428, 429.
+
+ Franciscan, convent, 87;
+   Church (see Riddarholm's Church).
+
+ Francke, A. H., 289.
+
+ Franconia, 221.
+
+ Franco-Prussian War, 409.
+
+ Frankfurt, 209.
+
+ Franks, Frankish, 29, 210, 236, 341.
+
+ Frantz, Albrecht, 216.
+
+ Franz Joseph's Land, 424.
+
+ Franzen, F. M., 381.
+
+ Frederic I. of Sweden, 312-317, 318, 335.
+
+ Frederic (kings of Denmark): I. 148;
+   II. 164, 166;
+   III. 246, 247;
+   IV. 273-274, 290, 295, 299;
+   V. 316, 317;
+   VI. 367;
+   VII. 402, 403.
+
+ Frederic of Augustenborg, 367.
+
+ Frederic, crown prince of Denmark, 406.
+
+ Frederic of Holstein, 272-274.
+
+ Frederic of the Palatinate, 202, 210.
+
+ Frederic (kings of Prussia): I. 296;
+   II. (the Great), 318, 319, 343.
+
+ Frederic William, the Grand Elector. See Brandenburg.
+
+ Frederica, Queen, 356.
+
+ Fredericia, fortress of, 245, 248.
+
+ Fredericshall, 308, 322.
+
+ Fredericshamn, 316;
+   peace treaty at, 363.
+
+ Fredericstad, 372.
+
+ Fredericsten, 308.
+
+ Fredkulla. See Margaret.
+
+ Fredman, 390.
+
+ Free trade, 387, 407-408.
+
+ Freinshemius, John, 240.
+
+ Frey, 32, 34.
+
+ Friedland. See Wallenstein.
+
+ Fries, Elias, 380.
+
+ Frithiof's Saga, 381.
+
+ Frode (Danish kings): 35, 37.
+
+ Froeding, Gustaf, 428.
+
+ Funen, island of, 227, 246, 248, 386.
+
+ Fuxerna, battles of, 69.
+
+ Fyris, River, 36.
+
+ Fyrisvols, battles of, 36, 37, 56.
+
+
+ G
+
+ Gad, Dr. Heming, 121, 122, 126, 127, 129.
+
+ Gadebush, battle of, 295, 296.
+
+ Gagarin, governor, 289.
+
+ Gallia, Gallic, 20.
+
+ Gardarike, 52.
+
+ Gardie, Pontus de la, 167, 174, 187, 235;
+   Jacob, 187-188, 190, 194, 198-199, 234, 235;
+   Magnus Gabriel, 234-235, 237, 250, 251, 252, 257, 263.
+
+ Gautland. See Gothaland.
+
+ Gauts, 28, 29, 30, 31, 47, 105.
+
+ Gauzbert, 54.
+
+ Geatas, 30-31.
+
+ Geer, Louis de, 201, 226-227, 231;
+   Louis, 393, 397, 398.
+
+ Gefle, 138.
+
+ Gegerfelt, K. F. von, 431;
+   William, 429.
+
+ Geijer, Eric Gustavus, 380, 393.
+
+ Geijerstam, Gustaf of, 427.
+
+ Geirthiof, 38.
+
+ Gellandri, 48.
+
+ Gellivara, 7.
+
+ Gemauerthoff, battle of, 282.
+
+ Geology, 324, 325.
+
+ George I. of England, 306.
+
+ George Sand, 388.
+
+ Gepidae, 29.
+
+ Gerhard, Count of Holstein, 84.
+
+ Germania, 26.
+
+ Germans, Germany, 12, 21, 22, 54, 58, 75, 80, 81, 83, 85, 90, 93, 96,
+     97, 98, 100, 101, 104, 105, 106, 116, 122, 127, 132, 150, 151, 152,
+     158, 168, 189, 190, 193, 202, 203, 204, 205, 210, 213, 214, 221,
+     222, 223, 224, 226, 228, 229, 230, 233, 239, 244, 252, 264, 287,
+     299, 303, 307, 321, 346, 370, 380, 385-386, 401-405, 414-418, 428,
+     429;
+   emperor, 122, 151, 158, 193, 202, 209, 210, 211, 212, 224, 228, 235,
+     245, 281, 299, 415;
+   Order, 162-163.
+
+ Gestilren, battle of, 77.
+
+ Gestrikland, 5, 16, 138.
+
+ Gibraltar of the North, 359.
+
+ Giljam, G. F., 436.
+
+ Gisslan. See Hostages.
+
+ Glaciers, 6.
+
+ Glipping. See Eric (Danish kings).
+
+ Glom River, 307, 308.
+
+ Glossarium sviogothicum, 342.
+
+ Glucksburg, 371.
+
+ Gluntarne, 389.
+
+ Goertz, G. H., 301-302, 304, 306-307, 311.
+
+ Goetar. See Gauts.
+
+ Gold finds, 22-23.
+
+ Golumbo, battle of, 244.
+
+ Gospel, 53-55, 104, 146, 207.
+
+ Gotha Canal, 305-306, 322, 375-376.
+
+ Gotha River, 10, 46, 116, 196, 198.
+
+ Gothahamn, 116.
+
+ Gothaland, 5, 14, 19, 24, 25, 28, 42, 43, 68, 83, 84, 185, 230.
+
+ Gothenburg, 10, 188, 196, 198, 200, 226, 229, 231, 232, 249, 254, 335,
+     349, 369, 422, 428.
+
+ Gothenburg University. See Universities.
+
+ Gothland, East, 5, 7, 17, 31, 39, 41, 71, 98, 111, 168, 185, 186;
+   West, 5, 7, 13, 17, 31, 37, 41, 46, 58, 59, 61, 67, 68, 70, 76, 77,
+     83, 84, 96, 111, 126, 148, 167, 168, 197, 229, 321, 334, 415;
+   Island of, 6, 21, 22, 25, 66, 82, 85, 95, 103, 105, 111, 113, 117,
+     120, 142, 165, 227, 254, 304, 415.
+
+ Goths, of Continental Europe, 22, 28, 30, 235-236, 263;
+   of Sweden (see Gauts);
+   Teutons, 43;
+   East, 29, 71;
+   West, 29, 70, 71.
+
+ Gothic, 151, 220, 238, 341, 342;
+   Bible, 67 (see further Codex Argenteus);
+   invasions, 28;
+   language, 235, 237-238;
+   society, 381;
+   glossary, 237.
+
+ Gothic law, West, 66, 67, 70.
+
+ Gotland, 43.
+
+ Gottorp. See Holstein-Gottorp.
+
+ Government. See Sweden.
+
+ Governor, 184, 202, 231, 232.
+
+ Governor-general, 199, 203, 229, 231, 290, 291, 371;
+   of Norway, 366, 375, 386, 394-395, 418-419.
+
+ Grabow, Mathilde, 431.
+
+ Grammar, 40.
+
+ Greece, Greek, 49, 50, 52, 235, 237, 265;
+   myths, 53;
+   church, 288, 355.
+
+ Gregory, VII. 69;
+   IX. 78.
+
+ Grimm's law, 342.
+
+ Grimsted, 246.
+
+ Grip, Bo Jonsson, 96, 102.
+
+ Gripenstedt, J. A., 387, 393, 398, 403, 404, 407.
+
+ Gripsholm, 96, 107, 152, 155, 163, 171, 173, 182, 362.
+
+ Grossbeeren, battle of, 370.
+
+ Grubbe, Sam, 411.
+
+ Guadeloupe, island of, 370.
+
+ Gualther, 236.
+
+ Gude, 405.
+
+ Gudlaug, 36-37.
+
+ Guinea, African, 232.
+
+ Gullberg, fort of, 196-197.
+
+ Gullbrandson, Ellen, 431.
+
+ Gunilla, Queen. See Bielke.
+
+ Gurzo, battle of, 202.
+
+ Gustavian period, 337, 339, 343-364.
+
+ Gustavus, Adolphus Society, 219.
+
+ Gustavus (kings of Sweden): I. Vasa, 125, 126, 128, 129, 130-160, 161,
+     165, 168, 170, 173, 177, 178, 199, 263, 322, 334, 344, 349;
+   II. Adolphus, 173, 190, 192-219, 220, 222, 225, 230, 232, 234, 240,
+     243, 250, 258, 314, 344;
+   III. 319-320, 332, 334, 339, 343-353, 354, 379, 387, 431;
+   IV. Adolphus, 352, 353-362, 366, 373, 375, 415.
+
+ Gustavus (princes of Sweden): Ericsson (see Vasa);
+   Prince of Vasa, 366;
+   Frans G. Oscar, 388, 389, 413, 436;
+   Oscar G. Adolphus, crown prince, 414, 437.
+
+ Guta, Saga, 67.
+
+ Gutai, 28.
+
+ Gutnic, Guts, 67, 87, 105.
+
+ Gutorm, Jarl, 74, 76.
+
+ Guttones, 24, 25.
+
+ Gylden, J. A. H., 423.
+
+ Gyldenloeve, general, 254;
+   fort of, 308.
+
+ Gyllenborg, Charles, 317, 337;
+   G. F., 339, 345.
+
+ Gyllencreutz, Charles G., 268, 302.
+
+ Gyllenhielm, C. C., 187.
+
+ Gyllenstierna, Christine, 127-129, 130, 131, 140, 142, 147, 149, 155,
+     158;
+   John, 256, 312.
+
+ Gymnastics, 380;
+   Central Institute of, 380.
+
+
+ H
+
+ Hadrian IV. See Nicolaus of Alba.
+
+ Haeffner, 389.
+
+ Hagbard, 36.
+
+ Hagborg, A., 429.
+
+ Hake, 36-37.
+
+ Hakon (Norwegian kings): 79, 81, 91, 92;
+   Magnusson, 94-95, 100.
+
+ Hakon, Swedish regent, 68.
+
+ Halberstadt, 224.
+
+ Haleygians, 36.
+
+ Hall, P. A., 428.
+
+ Halland, 5, 13, 43, 84, 93, 95, 167, 196, 197, 227, 229, 247, 249, 254,
+     337.
+
+ Hallen, Andreas, 390.
+
+ Hallstroem, Ivar, 390;
+   Peter, 427.
+
+ Halmstad, 108, 166, 254.
+
+ Halsten, 68, 70.
+
+ Hamburg, 54, 63, 70, 81, 82, 83;
+   peace treaty of, 319.
+
+ Hammarby, 332.
+
+ Handbook. See Ritual.
+
+ Hanover, 299, 311.
+
+ Hans. See John II.
+
+ Hansa, Hanseatic, 81-82, 101, 103, 104, 116, 132.
+
+ Hansson, Ola, 427.
+
+ Haraker, battle of, 112.
+
+ Harald, king of Denmark, 56.
+
+ Harald (kings of Norway): Fairhair, 55;
+   Hardrade, 68.
+
+ Harald, Hildetand, king of Sweden and Denmark, 41, 51.
+
+ Hare's Leap, 6.
+
+ Hartekamp, 331.
+
+ Hartelius, T. J., 424.
+
+ Hartmansdorff, J. A. von, 383, 384-385.
+
+ Hasselberg, Peter, 430.
+
+ "Hats," political party, 316, 317, 319, 320, 337, 338.
+
+ Havamal, 157.
+
+ Havel River, 206.
+
+ Heathen Revival, 59-61.
+
+ Hedberg, Frans, 389;
+   Thor, 427.
+
+ Hedenblad, Ivar, 431.
+
+ Hedenstierna, A., 428.
+
+ Hedin, Sven, 424.
+
+ Hedlund, S. A., 428;
+   Hans, 431.
+
+ Hedvig, queen of Denmark, 100.
+
+ Hedvig, Eleonore, of Sweden, 243, 249, 253, 255, 271, 299, 300;
+   Elisabeth Charlotte, 366.
+
+ Hedvig, Sophie, Princess, 269, 310.
+
+ Heidenstam, V. von, 427.
+
+ Heimskringla, 31, 33-41, 265.
+
+ Heinrich (the Lion), 75.
+
+ Heinsius, 240.
+
+ Heir-apparent, 316-317, 365-366, 367, 368, 420.
+
+ Helga. See Olga.
+
+ Helge. See Oleg.
+
+ Helge, Danish king, 38.
+
+ Hellquist, C. G., 429.
+
+ Helsingborg, 290, 336;
+   battle of, 291, 296.
+
+ Helsingfors, 152, 317;
+   battle of, 316;
+   University of (see Universities).
+
+ Helsingland, Helsings, 5, 138, 317, 361;
+   regiment of, 360-361.
+
+ Helsingoer. See Elsinore.
+
+ Helvig, Queen, 84.
+
+ Henric, St., 73, 75.
+
+ Herger, 54.
+
+ Herjedal, 5, 227.
+
+ Herredag (-ar), 88.
+
+ Herschel, 324.
+
+ Herulians, 28, 29, 48, 66.
+
+ Hervadsbro, battle of, 81.
+
+ Hesse, 205.
+
+ Hessleholm, battle of, 91.
+
+ Heterodoxy, 380.
+
+ Hielmar Lake, 109.
+
+ Hierta: Hans (see Jaerta);
+   Lars, 377.
+
+ Hildebrand, Hans, 423.
+
+ Hildebrandsson, H. H., 424.
+
+ Hillberg, Emil, 431.
+
+ Hillestroem, Peter, 347.
+
+ Hiortsberg, L., 390.
+
+ Hising, island of, 188, 196.
+
+ Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus, 142.
+
+ History, Historians, 11, 24-32, 33-34, 44, 46-47, 48, 50, 64, 80, 114,
+     142, 232, 321, 333-334, 337-339, 380, 389, 393, 412-413, 423, 424,
+     426.
+
+ Hoeckert, J. F., 412, 429.
+
+ Hoegquist, Emelie, 390.
+
+ Hoeijer, B. C. H., 347, 356, 380, 411.
+
+ Hoejentorp, 197, 336.
+
+ Hoejer, Nils, 424;
+   Magnus, 424.
+
+ Hoerberg, Peter, 347.
+
+ Hoerningsholm, 176, 177, 178, 179, 181.
+
+ Hofva, battle at, 83.
+
+ Hogland, naval battle at, 348.
+
+ Holaveden (Holavid), battle at, 111.
+
+ Holland, 12, 198, 201, 226, 227, 232, 236-237, 245, 247, 248, 252, 253,
+     264, 283, 322, 330, 331, 334, 340.
+
+ Holmfrid, 58.
+
+ Holmgard, 52.
+
+ Holmger, 78.
+
+ Holmstroem, 233.
+
+ Holovzin, battle of, 284.
+
+ Holstein, 103, 104, 112, 226, 227, 244, 255, 271, 273, 274, 385, 402,
+     405;
+   counts of, 84, 93, 149, 228, 271, 272.
+
+ Holstein-Gottorp, 243, 295, 301.
+
+ Holy Alliance, 381.
+
+ Holy Virgin, 228.
+
+ Horn: Clas Kristersson, Baron, 162, 167-168;
+   Henric, 174;
+   Evert, 198;
+   Gustavus, 207-208, 221-222, 226;
+   Arvid Bernhard, 272, 278, 284, 293, 298, 310-311, 312-316, 337;
+   Rudolph, 282;
+   Jacob, 318.
+
+ Hotuna, play at, 90-91.
+
+ Hoya, counts of, 149.
+
+ Huet, 240.
+
+ Hugleik (O. E. Hygelac): Swedish king, 36;
+   Danish king, 38.
+
+ Humor, 233, 346, 389, 390, 428.
+
+ Hungary, 68, 245, 299, 322.
+
+ Husaby, 58, 62.
+
+ Hvasser, Elisa, 413.
+
+ Hvin. See Tiodolf.
+
+ Hygelac. See Hugleik.
+
+
+ I
+
+ Iaroslaf, 48, 51, 62.
+
+ Ibn, Fosslan, 50.
+
+ Ibsen, H., 405, 431.
+
+ Iceland, Icelanders, Icelandic, 33, 52, 56, 60-61, 93, 235;
+   language, 9;
+   sagas, 40, 52, 67, 297;
+   scalds, saga men, 60-61.
+
+ Iddefjord, 322.
+
+ Ifvarsson, Charles, 407.
+
+ Igor, 48, 51.
+
+ Ihre, John, 321, 339-342.
+
+ Illrade. See Ingiald.
+
+ Imperial army: Imperialists, 202, 203, 209, 216, 217, 221, 224, 225,
+     228;
+   crown lands, 210, 225.
+
+ Imports. See Sweden.
+
+ Indelningsverk, Indelta, 258, 408, 417.
+
+ Indensalmi, battle of, 358.
+
+ Indians, 232.
+
+ Indo-European language, 8.
+
+ Industry, 176.
+
+ Inge (Swedish kings): the Elder, 68-70, 72;
+   the Younger, 70.
+
+ Ingeborg, duchesses, 91, 92;
+   princesses, 58, 78, 80, 89, 415.
+
+ Ingegerd, Princess, 61-62;
+   Queen, 76.
+
+ Ingemar, 84.
+
+ Ingermanland (Ingria), 174, 199, 231, 273, 274, 282, 307, 312.
+
+ Ingiald, Illrade, 39-40, 42, 64.
+
+ Ingria. See Ingermanland.
+
+ Ingvar. See Igor.
+
+ Innocent III., 77.
+
+ Intelligence party, 408, 410.
+
+ Interchanging dynasties, 74-79.
+
+ Interdict. See Ban.
+
+ Iron Age, 11, 19, 20-24.
+
+ Isala, 135.
+
+ Isborsk, 47.
+
+ Isiaslaf, 68.
+
+ Italy, Italians, 22, 98, 106, 121, 236.
+
+ Ivar, Master, 131.
+
+ Ivar, Vidfamne, 40, 51.
+
+ Ivarsson, Ivar, of Stroemstad, 170.
+
+
+ J
+
+ Jacob. See Anund Jacob.
+
+ Jacobi, Petrus. See Sunnanvaeder.
+
+ Jaegerhorn, G. H., 359-360;
+   J. A., 348.
+
+ Jaerta, Hans, 365.
+
+ Jagello. See Catherine.
+
+ Jankowitz, battle of, 228, 239.
+
+ Jansson, Eugene, 429.
+
+ Japhet, 263.
+
+ Jarl, jarls, 42, 57-58, 74, 87;
+   of the realm, 74.
+
+ Jaroslaf. See Iaroslaf.
+
+ Jedvard, 73.
+
+ Jemtland, 5, 63, 70, 227, 308, 311.
+
+ Jerusalem, 97.
+
+ Jesuits, 175, 183, 184.
+
+ Joenkoeping, 120, 230.
+
+ Joens, Bengtsson. See Oxenstierna.
+
+ Joesse, Ericsson. See Ericsson.
+
+ Johannes, Magni (Johannes Magnus), 114, 142-143, 263.
+
+ John, archbishop, 75;
+   duke, 186, 189, 197;
+   prince, 72.
+
+ John (kings): I. 77;
+   II. Hans, 119-120, 122, 130-131;
+   III. 155, 157, 158, 163, 169, 170-172, 173-176, 180, 182, 186, 188,
+     235.
+
+ John, Casimir, count of Palatinate-Zweibrucken, 239.
+
+ John, Casimir, king of Poland. See Vasa.
+
+ Jolin, J. C., 389.
+
+ Jomsborg, 56.
+
+ Jordanes, 29, 34, 44, 263.
+
+ Jornandes. See Jordanes.
+
+ Jorsalafare. See Sigurd.
+
+ Jorund, 36-37.
+
+ Josephine, Queen, 382.
+
+ Josephsson, J. A., 389, 413;
+   Ernst, 429.
+
+ Juel, Niels, 253, 254.
+
+ Jueterbogk, battle of, 228.
+
+ Junius, Franziskus, 237.
+
+ Justinian, 28.
+
+ Jutland, Jutes, 26, 30, 31, 37, 43, 131, 132, 226, 245, 248, 386.
+
+ Juutas, battle of, 359, 360.
+
+
+ K
+
+ Kaepplingeholm, Massacre of, 101.
+
+ Kagg, Lars, 250.
+
+ Kalabalik of Bender. See Bender.
+
+ Kalloe, 132.
+
+ Kalmar, 93, 101, 116, 122, 132, 133, 190;
+   Nyckel, 232;
+   Recess of, 119;
+   Union of (see Union).
+
+ Kalmucks, 288.
+
+ Kamenski, M. K., 361.
+
+ Kansler. See Chancellor.
+
+ Kant, 324, 347.
+
+ Karelen. See Carelia.
+
+ Karin. See Carin.
+
+ Karl. See Charles.
+
+ Karlberg. See Carlberg.
+
+ Karleby, 71;
+   see also Carleby.
+
+ Karlskrona. See Carlskrona.
+
+ Karlson, Valfried, 431.
+
+ Karlsson. See Carlsson.
+
+ Karlstad. See Carlstad.
+
+ Kasan, 288.
+
+ Katarina. See Catherine.
+
+ Keksholm. See Kexholm.
+
+ Kellgren, J. H., 345.
+
+ Kerkholm, battle at, 187.
+
+ Kettilmundsson, Mattias, 91, 92.
+
+ Kettilsson, Eric, 97.
+
+ Kexholm, 174, 188, 199, 292, 302.
+
+ Key, Emil, 407;
+   E. A. H., 424.
+
+ Kief, 46, 49, 59.
+
+ Kiel, 371;
+   Bay of (see Skiel).
+
+ Kierulf, Halfdan, 405.
+
+ Kingdom, elective, 64, 65, 310;
+   hereditary, 65, 150, 151, 186, 189, 190, 310.
+
+ "King Martha." See Leijonhufvud.
+
+ Kjellberg, F., 430.
+
+ Klercker, Charles N., 358.
+
+ Klingspoe, W. M., 358.
+
+ Klusina, 188.
+
+ Knaphoefde. See Ragnvald.
+
+ Kneroed, peace treaty of, 198.
+
+ Kniephausen, Dodo von, 214, 216, 218.
+
+ Knights, 200.
+
+ Knightly Chapter (see Riddarhus);
+   orders, 318.
+
+ Knorring, Sophie von, 389, 427.
+
+ Knud. See Canute.
+
+ Knut (Swedish kings), Ericsson, 74-76;
+   the Tall, 78, 81.
+
+ Knut, Folkung, 81;
+   Bishop, 108;
+   Master, 141-143.
+
+ Koch, Axel, 423.
+
+ Koenigsmarck, von, H. C., 236, 258;
+   O. W., 258.
+
+ Koeping, 107.
+
+ Koerling, Aug., 431.
+
+ Kol, king (Eric Arsael), 69, 73;
+   pretender, 75.
+
+ Kolbraenna. See Anund Jacob.
+
+ Kollandsoe, 69.
+
+ Kommunalstaemmor, 395.
+
+ Konghaell, Kungkaell, 62, 69.
+
+ Konungafrid, 86.
+
+ Kopparberg, 105, 133.
+
+ Krakow, Morton, 196-197.
+
+ Kreuger, Nils, 349.
+
+ Kristian, Kristiern. See Christian.
+
+ Kristina. See Christine.
+
+ Kristofer. See Christopher.
+
+ Krivitchi, 47.
+
+ Kronberg, Julius, 429.
+
+ Kronborg, fortress of, 247, 248.
+
+ Krusenstierna, J. E. von, 435.
+
+ Kyrkomoetet, 396.
+
+
+ L
+
+ Laaland, 246.
+
+ Labor question, 418, 433.
+
+ Lacroze, M., 341.
+
+ Ladoga, Lake, 199.
+
+ Ladugardsland, battle of, 124.
+
+ Ladulas (Barn-lock). See Magnus.
+
+ Laen, 7, 231, 395.
+
+ Lagerbielke, Gustavus, 407.
+
+ Lagerloef, Selma, 427.
+
+ Laholm, 84.
+
+ Lallerstedt, E., 431.
+
+ Landskrona (in Sweden), battle of, 254;
+   (in Finland), 88.
+
+ Landsting, 395-396, 399, 407.
+
+ Landstorm, 417.
+
+ Landtmanna party, 407-408, 410, 416.
+
+ Landtmarskalk, 200, 407.
+
+ Landtvaern, 417.
+
+ Lange, Lorenz, 289.
+
+ Langeland, 246.
+
+ Languedoc, 167.
+
+ La Place, 324.
+
+ Lapland, Lapmark, Laps, 5, 10, 15, 16, 104, 330;
+   language, 8, 341;
+   "Divine service in the Lapmark," 429.
+
+ Lappo, battle of, 358.
+
+ Lars. See Laurentius.
+
+ Larsson, Thomas, 195;
+   Liss Olof, 407;
+   Marcus, 412, 429;
+   Carl, 429.
+
+ Latin, 98, 117, 142, 220, 265, 328.
+
+ Lauenburg, 402, 405.
+
+ Laurentius. See Andreae and Petri.
+
+ Laval, Gustavus de, 425.
+
+ Lavoisier, 325.
+
+ Laws. See Sweden.
+
+ League, Catholic, 189.
+
+ Lech, battle of, 210.
+
+ Leckoe, 187, 251.
+
+ Leczinski (see Stanislav), 427.
+
+ Leffler, A. M. (Mittag-), 424;
+   Anne Charlotte, 427.
+
+ Leibnitz, 266.
+
+ Leijonhufvud, 282 note;
+   Margaret (see Margaret, queens of Sweden);
+   Martha (King Martha), 155;
+   Sten, baron, 162, 170.
+
+ Leipsic, 117, 213, 224, 288;
+   first battle of, 206-209;
+   second battle of, 225-226.
+
+ Leire, 38.
+
+ Lena, battle of, 76.
+
+ Lenaeus, J., 239.
+
+ Lenngren, Anne Marie, 346.
+
+ Leonidas, the Swedish, 224.
+
+ Leopold, C. G., 345.
+
+ Leopold I., emperor (1640-1705), 225.
+
+ Leuchtenberg, 382.
+
+ Levertin, Oscar, 427, 428.
+
+ Lewenhaupt, 282 note;
+   A. L., 282, 283, 284, 285-287;
+   C. E., 316, 317.
+
+ Leyden, 331.
+
+ Libau, 203.
+
+ Liberty, song of, 114;
+   period of, 310-342, 320-321.
+
+ Libraries, 99.
+
+ Lidner, Bengt, 346.
+
+ Liesna, battle of, 285.
+
+ Liewen, H. H. von, 298-299.
+
+ Liljefors, Bruno, 429.
+
+ Lind, Jenny, 390, 413.
+
+ Lindberg, A., 430.
+
+ Lindblad, A. F., 389;
+   Otto, 389, 413.
+
+ Lindeberg, A., 377.
+
+ Linden, Mathilde, 431.
+
+ Lindholm (-en) in Scania, 97;
+   in Upland, 130.
+
+ Lindskiold, E., 270.
+
+ Ling, P. H., 380, 381.
+
+ Linkoeping, 71, 77, 80, 85, 108, 112, 121, 185, 186, 195;
+   conference at, 72.
+
+ Linnaeus (von Linne), Charles, 327-333.
+
+ Literature. See Sweden.
+
+ Lithuania, 284.
+
+ Liturgia, 175-176, 183.
+
+ Liuksiala, 173.
+
+ Livonia, Livonians, 162, 163, 187, 198, 202, 203, 223, 231, 250, 258,
+     273, 277, 281, 282, 283, 290-291, 307, 312.
+
+ Lober Brook, 207.
+
+ Loccenius, John, 240.
+
+ Locke, 347.
+
+ Lodbrok. See Ragnar.
+
+ Loedoese, 83, 84, 111;
+   New, 116, 152, 196, 197.
+
+ London, 267, 323, 326, 327, 331, 334, 340.
+
+ Longobardians, 28, 29.
+
+ Lord, 200.
+
+ Lothringia, 162, 169.
+
+ Louis le Debonnaire (the Pious), 48, 53;
+   XIV. 235, 252, 254-255, 259, 280, 305;
+   XVI. 351-352, 367.
+
+ Louise, Princess, 406;
+   Queen, 392, 411.
+
+ Louise Ulrica, Queen, 217, 338.
+
+ Lovisa. See Louise.
+
+ Lubeck, 75, 81, 82, 85, 122, 132, 140, 148, 165, 166, 168, 316, 371.
+
+ Lubetch, 49.
+
+ Lucidor, Lasse (Johansson), 233.
+
+ Ludvig Rudolph of Brunswick, 324.
+
+ Luitprand, 48.
+
+ Lulea, 266.
+
+ Lund, 10, 70, 111, 250, 304, 307, 322, 328, 329, 337, 340;
+   battle of, 254;
+   peace treaty at, 255;
+   University of (see Universities).
+
+ Lundberg, Gustavus, 428;
+   Theodor, 430.
+
+ Lundquist, C. F., 431.
+
+ Luther, Lutheran, 98, 140, 183, 184, 186, 190, 204, 214, 312, 327, 368,
+     435.
+
+ Lutzen, battle of, 213-219;
+   battlefield of, 279, 281.
+
+ Lybecker, George, 283, 285.
+
+ Lymphatic ducts, 262.
+
+
+ M
+
+ Machiavelli, 121.
+
+ Maecenas of Sweden, 250.
+
+ Maelar, Lake, 5, 10, 55, 71, 96, 107, 112, 127, 156, 163.
+
+ Magdeburg, 205-206.
+
+ Magnetism, 324.
+
+ Magnus (Danish princes): M. Nilsson, 71;
+   M. Henricsson, 72-74.
+
+ Magnus, Bishop, 148.
+
+ Magnus (kings of Norway): M. Barfod, 69;
+   M. Lagaboete, 83.
+
+ Magnus (kings of Sweden): M. Ladulas, 82-88, 89, 90;
+   M. Ericsson, 84, 92-95, 97.
+
+ Magnus (princes of Sweden): Magnus Birgersson, 92;
+   M. Vasa, 155, 157, 158, 163-164, 169.
+
+ Magog, 263.
+
+ Main, River, 209.
+
+ Malaspina, 183.
+
+ Malebranche, 266.
+
+ Malmstroem, B. E., 389.
+
+ Malmoe, 10, 411.
+
+ Manderstroem, Count, 393, 401, 404.
+
+ Manheim. See Atland.
+
+ Margaret, missionary to the Laps, 104.
+
+ Margaret Fredkulla, Princess, 69, 71.
+
+ Margaret (queens of Sweden), 89;
+   Valdemarsdotter, 95, 96, 98, 100-105, 120, 371;
+   Leijonhufvud, 155, 156, 177, 178.
+
+ Margaret of Valois, 162.
+
+ Maria, queen of Sweden, 189.
+
+ Marie Antoinette, Queen, 367.
+
+ Marie Eleonore, Queen, 234.
+
+ Mariefred, 118, 133.
+
+ Mariestad, 188.
+
+ Marlborough, 280.
+
+ Marnaes, 136.
+
+ Mars, 31.
+
+ Marsk, 87, 102, 108, 249.
+
+ Martha, Dame, 100.
+
+ Massilia, 24.
+
+ "Master Olf," 427.
+
+ Masudi, 50.
+
+ Matchless, The, 165-166.
+
+ Materialism, 412, 432.
+
+ Matern, J. A., 288.
+
+ Mathematics, 270, 322.
+
+ Mattias, Bishop, 128.
+
+ Maximilian of Bavaria, 193, 210, 211.
+
+ Mayence, 209.
+
+ Mazarin, 220.
+
+ Mazeppa, 283, 285, 286.
+
+ Mechtild, Danish queen, 81.
+
+ Mecklenburg, 95, 97, 168, 210, 223, 244, 295, 357.
+
+ Medelpad, 5, 24, 303.
+
+ Mediaeval. See Middle Ages.
+
+ Medical science, 262, 331, 333, 424, 425.
+
+ Meibom, 240.
+
+ Melanchthon, 204.
+
+ Melen, Berndt von, 142, 148.
+
+ Memel, 203.
+
+ Mendelssohn, 389.
+
+ Menuet, Peter, 232.
+
+ Meri, 47.
+
+ Messenius, John, 232;
+   Arnold J., 240;
+   Arnold, the Younger, 240.
+
+ Metals, 15, 16, 116.
+
+ Mexico, 18, 404.
+
+ Michaeli, Louise, 413.
+
+ Middle Ages, 45, 64-129, 134, 192, 400.
+
+ Midsummer, Midnight, sun, 7.
+
+ Miklagard, 52.
+
+ Mines, miners, mine owners, 123, 144, 152, 200-201, 305, 323, 335;
+   Mining, College of, 304-305, 322, 323.
+
+ Ministers, church, 175, 183, 253, 287, 304, 327, 337, 396;
+   state (secretary), 365, 401, 407, 416;
+   of foreign affairs, 373, 393, 435;
+   of justice, 393, 397, 409, 435;
+   of finance, 393, 435, 436;
+   of ecclesiastics, 393, 409, 436;
+   of war, 408, 435;
+   of civil service, 409;
+   of marine, 435;
+   of interior, 435.
+
+ Missionaries, 53-55, 58, 104.
+
+ Mitan, 202, 282.
+
+ Moerner, Otto, 367-368.
+
+ Mohilev, 284.
+
+ Molin, Ambjoern, 289;
+   J. P., 412, 430.
+
+ Monitor, 387.
+
+ Monrad, D. G., 404.
+
+ Mons Bengtsson. See Natt och Dag.
+
+ Montelius, Oscar, 423.
+
+ Mora, in Dalecarlia, 136-138, 140;
+   Stone of, in Upland, 92, 95.
+
+ Moravia, 226, 228.
+
+ Moraeus, Maria Elis, 332.
+
+ Moscow, 172, 188, 284, 288.
+
+ Moss, Convention of, 372-373.
+
+ Motzfeldt, K., 406.
+
+ Muller, J. B., 289.
+
+ Munck, Lady Ebba, 415.
+
+ Munich School of Painters, 429.
+
+ Muonio, River, 363.
+
+ Music, 263, 346, 380, 382, 388, 389-390, 412, 413, 431;
+   national folk, 431.
+
+ Mutiny, 188.
+
+ Mysticism, 98, 99, 161, 169, 321, 354, 356.
+
+ Mythology, classical, 31, 265.
+   Swedish (see Sweden).
+
+
+ N
+
+ Nakskov, 246.
+
+ Namur, 93.
+
+ Napoleon I., 356, 357, 362, 367, 368, 369-371.
+
+ Napoleon III., 404, 406.
+
+ Narva, 174, 282;
+   battle of, 274-277;
+   river, 275.
+
+ Nassau, 415.
+
+ Nathorst, H. O., 423;
+   A. C., 424 note.
+
+ Natt och Dag, Mons Bengtsson, 109;
+   Nils Bosson (see Sture);
+   Ake Hansson, 122 (see also Sture).
+
+ Nerigon, 25.
+
+ Nerike, 5, 13, 39, 97, 116.
+
+ Nerschinsk, 289.
+
+ Nestor, 46-47, 49, 52.
+
+ Netherlands, 98, 152, 189.
+
+ Neva, 78, 93, 289.
+
+ New Church, 325.
+
+ New Rhymed Chronicle. See Charles Chronicle.
+
+ New School, 380-381.
+
+ Newton, 324.
+
+ Nicholaus II. of Russia, 418.
+
+ Nicolaus of Alba, 72.
+
+ Nils Bosson (Natt och Dag). See Sture.
+
+ Nils, king of Denmark, 71.
+
+ Nilsson, Mons, 134;
+   Sven, 380;
+   Christine, 413.
+
+ Nimwegen, peace treaty of, 254-255.
+
+ Niord, 34.
+
+ Nithard, 54.
+
+ Nobel, Alfred, 425-426.
+
+ Nobility, Nobles, 76, 86, 87, 88, 92, 95, 96, 102, 105, 108, 110, 113,
+     115, 117, 119, 120, 126, 127, 128, 144, 148, 150, 151, 158, 166,
+     169, 173, 174, 185, 186, 193, 199, 200, 231, 233, 238, 239, 243,
+     250, 255, 256, 258, 271, 302, 304, 310, 314, 349, 350, 352, 357,
+     365, 367, 383, 384, 385, 396, 397, 398, 416;
+   higher, 200, 251, 256-257, 314;
+   lower, 200, 251, 253, 256, 257, 314,
+   speaker of (see Landtmarskalk).
+
+ Noerdlingen, battle of, 221, 223.
+
+ Noeteborg, 282.
+
+ Norcopensis. See Nordenhielm.
+
+ Nordanskogs, 5.
+
+ Nordberg, G., 288.
+
+ Nordblom, J. E., 389.
+
+ Nordenflycht, Hedvig Charlotta, 339.
+
+ Nordenhielm, Andreas, 269, 270.
+
+ Nordenskiold, Baron, 424.
+
+ Nordgren, Ellen, 404, 406, 431.
+
+ Nordraak, 405.
+
+ Nordstroem, Charles, 429.
+
+ Norman, Normandie, 48, 52.
+
+ Norman, Georg, 149;
+   F. V. L., 390.
+
+ Noren, Adolph, 423.
+
+ Norrby, Soeren, 122, 139, 140, 142.
+
+ Norrkoeping, 190, 320.
+
+ Norrland, 5, 6, 7, 14, 24, 43, 107, 138, 193, 266, 362.
+
+ North, the Scandinavian, 16, 21, 29, 35, 42, 43, 44, 52, 53, 54, 56,
+     59, 60, 61, 94, 96, 101, 104, 114, 225, 248, 263, 305, 330, 434,
+     438.
+
+ North Pole, 424.
+
+ North Sea, 5, 10, 196, 198, 322, 375.
+
+ North Star, Order of the, 318.
+
+ Northeast Passage, 424.
+
+ Northern language, common, 99;
+   oldest form, 8, 22;
+   tribes, 23;
+   industrial arts, 23;
+   literature, 36, 38, 41.
+
+ Northmen, 45, 52, 53, 59.
+
+ Norway, Norwegians, 5, 6, 10, 13, 21, 25, 33, 36, 38, 41, 43, 45, 52,
+     55, 57, 58, 60, 61, 62, 63, 67, 68, 69, 70, 75, 76, 79, 83, 89, 90,
+     91, 92, 94, 95, 96, 100, 111, 142, 147, 164, 166-167, 174, 247,
+     307, 308, 311, 348, 357, 362, 366, 370, 371-374, 375, 386, 393-395,
+     402, 404, 405, 418-421, 430;
+   governor-general question, 386, 393-395, 418-419;
+   constitution, 373-374, 393;
+   cabinet, 373, 394-395, 402;
+   consular and diplomatic service, 419, 420, 437;
+   defence, 419;
+   flag, 386, 419;
+   culture, 405;
+   government, 373;
+   king, 373-374;
+   Minister of State, 419;
+   railways, 421;
+   royal title, 386;
+   Storthing, 373, 379, 386, 393-394, 406, 419, 420, 425-426;
+   viceroy, 393.
+
+ Novgorod, 47, 52, 62, 188, 190.
+
+ Nuremberg, 211-212, 225.
+
+ Nurmanni, 47.
+
+ Nykoeping, 82, 84, 172, 190, 239, 302;
+   Feast of, 90;
+   Restitution of, 102.
+
+ Nyslott, 316.
+
+ Nystroem, Alfred, 430.
+
+
+ O
+
+ Oder, River, 21, 27, 224, 279.
+
+ Odin, 31-32, 34, 35, 37.
+
+ OEdman, A., 431.
+
+ OEland, island of, 5, 21, 22, 111, 254;
+   naval battles of, 165-166, 167-168, 350.
+
+ OErbyhus, 171.
+
+ OErebro, 109, 146, 150, 174, 368, 387.
+
+ OEsel, island of, 164, 227.
+
+ OEstberg, Caroline, 431.
+
+ OEsterlind, A., 429.
+
+ Ohio, 7.
+
+ Ohthere. See Ottar.
+
+ Olaf (Norwegian kings) Tryggvasson, 57-58;
+   Haraldsson, 61-62, 67;
+   Hakonsson, 100.
+
+ Olai, Ericus, 114, 117.
+
+ Olaus, Petri (Master Olof). See Petri.
+
+ Oldenburg, 366;
+   counts of, 149, 367.
+
+ Old Chronicle. See Eric's Chronicle.
+
+ Old Danish, 8, 22, 99.
+
+ Old English, 237, 342.
+
+ Old High German, 342.
+
+ Old Icelandic. See Old Norse.
+
+ Old Norse language, 8, 22, 99, 341, 342;
+   literature, 32, 232, 270;
+   mythology, 265.
+
+ Old Swedish language, 8, 9, 22, 24, 48, 49, 99, 342;
+   literature, 8, 9, 66-67, 80, 98, 114, 121;
+   laws, 48, 66-67, 380, 391.
+
+ Oleg, 48, 49, 51.
+
+ Olga, 48, 51.
+
+ Oligarchy, 309.
+
+ Oliva, peace treaty of, 250.
+
+ Olof (Swedish kings), 40-41, 42, 54, 55;
+   Skoetkonung, 52, 57-62;
+   Naeskonung, 69, 70.
+
+ Olsson, Lars, 138.
+
+ Olustra, battle of, 78.
+
+ Opposition, Conservative, 383, 384;
+   Liberal, 376-378, 379, 380, 382, 383, 384.
+   See also Intelligence Party.
+
+ Orange, 259, 392.
+
+ Oravais, battle of, 358, 360-362.
+
+ Ordeals, 82.
+
+ Orientalists, 333, 340.
+
+ Ornaes, 134.
+
+ Orosius, 43.
+
+ Oscar Fredericsborg, 418.
+
+ Oscar (kings of Sweden): I. 382-390, 391, 411;
+   II. 411, 414-438.
+
+ Oscar, Prince. See Bernadotte.
+
+ Oslo, 92.
+
+ Ottar, 37-38.
+
+ Otto, Bishop, 128.
+
+ Oxenstierna, Joens Bengtsson, 112-113;
+   Axel, 199, 203, 204, 220-221, 222, 226, 229, 230, 233, 234, 239, 242,
+     312, 375, 421;
+   John, 229;
+   Bengt, 259, 271;
+   John Gabriel, 345;
+   Oxford, 340.
+
+
+ P
+
+ Palaeolithic Civilization, 12.
+
+ Palatinate-Zweibrucken, 189, 239, 290.
+
+ Pappenheim, 203, 207-209, 213, 214, 217-218.
+
+ Paris, 118, 305, 331, 340, 368, 371;
+   expositions, 413, 421, 429;
+   peace treaties, 362-363, 369, 388;
+   University, 118, 340.
+
+ Parliament, Parliamentary Reform, 108, 111, 376, 379, 384-385, 396-401.
+
+ Passage-graves, 13.
+
+ Patkul, J. R., 312.
+
+ Patriotism, 104, 114, 120, 130, 131, 200, 201, 235, 244, 247, 248, 250,
+     258, 309, 352, 358, 367, 398, 434.
+
+ Pau, 368.
+
+ Pauli, Emerentia, 196-197;
+   George, 429;
+   Hanna (Hirsch-P.), 429.
+
+ Peasant. See Yeoman.
+
+ Peasant High Schools, 423.
+
+ Peasant-king, 188.
+
+ Peene, River, 312.
+
+ Peipus, Lake, 199, 282.
+
+ Pentinger, Konrad, 149.
+
+ Peringskiold, John, 265.
+
+ Pernau, 201, 292.
+
+ Person, Andrew, 133-134;
+   Arendt, 134-135;
+   Goeran, 162, 170.
+
+ Peru, 336.
+
+ Peter Frisk, 299.
+
+ Peter's Pence, 72.
+
+ Peter the Great, 272-273, 277, 282, 283, 284, 285, 287, 288, 289, 296,
+     306, 307, 311, 316.
+
+ Peterson, Adrian, 431.
+
+ Petri, Olaus (Master Olof), 86, 114, 128, 141, 150;
+   Laurentius, 141, 150, 175, 177, 183;
+   Laurentius P. Gothus, 175.
+
+ Philadelphia Exposition, 421.
+
+ Philip, king, 70;
+   Folkung, 81;
+   Duke (see Charles, Princes of Sweden).
+
+ Philipstad, 188.
+
+ Philology, 67, 237, 265, 266, 320, 339-342, 380, 388, 423.
+
+ Philosophy, 240-241, 321, 327, 340, 411-412, 423.
+
+ Phosphoristic School, 380-381.
+
+ Physical science, 322, 324-325, 333, 423, 425.
+
+ Physiology, 325.
+
+ Piccolomini, General, 221, 225.
+
+ Pillau, 203.
+
+ Piper, Charles, 271, 286, 287, 288, 292;
+   Louise Sophie, 366-367.
+
+ Pitea, 411.
+
+ Plague, 94, 124, 176, 290, 323.
+
+ Platen, Baltzar B. von, 365, 371, 375.
+
+ Plato, 264.
+
+ Pliny, the Elder, 25.
+
+ Poland, Polish, 98, 143, 163, 164, 174, 175, 182, 183, 184, 185, 187,
+     199, 202, 222, 243-245, 247, 250, 252, 273, 278-279, 281, 282, 283,
+     284, 290, 292, 294, 295, 297, 313, 401.
+
+ Polar Circle, 7, 8;
+   Sea, 93.
+
+ Polhammar. See Polhem.
+
+ Polhem, Christopher, 267, 302, 304-306, 322, 326, 334, 375, 424;
+   Emerentia, 326.
+
+ Poliane, 49.
+
+ Polotsk, 47.
+
+ Pomerania, 5, 7, 205, 224, 229, 232, 245, 255, 258, 294-295, 299, 302,
+     313, 319, 336, 357, 363, 371.
+
+ Pomponius Mela, 25.
+
+ Ponte Corvo, 368.
+
+ Pope, 69, 77, 78, 94, 97-98, 117, 121, 124, 126, 144.
+
+ Porosalmie, battle of, 350.
+
+ Porphyrogenitus. See Constantine P.
+
+ Portugal, 45.
+
+ Posse, Knut, 116, 118;
+   Arvid, 407.
+
+ Potatoes, 336.
+
+ Powers, Continental, 187, 248, 250, 252, 319, 320, 344, 345, 372, 374,
+     378, 403, 418.
+
+ Prague, 117, 210, 222, 228, 236, 258.
+
+ Press, 231, 365, 376-377, 383, 384, 396, 397, 403, 404, 407, 428;
+   law, 434-435.
+
+ Pretenders, 55-56, 74, 75, 78, 147, 187-188.
+
+ Priestley, 325.
+
+ Priests, 98, 144.
+
+ Primas of Sweden, 70.
+
+ Printz, John, 232.
+
+ Prisons, 382.
+
+ Prokopios, 28, 31.
+
+ Propeller, 387.
+
+ Prose Chronicle. See Chronicle.
+
+ Protective system, 406, 416;
+   protectionistic party, 416.
+
+ Protestantism, 175, 182-184, 189, 192, 202, 204, 221, 279, 281-282,
+     325.
+
+ Province, Provincial, 5-6, 64-65, 66, 86, 89, 93, 105, 149, 249;
+   laws (see Sweden).
+
+ Prussia, 172, 202, 203, 222, 223, 244, 296, 299, 311, 345, 349, 352,
+     370, 385-386, 403.
+
+ Pruth, River, 294.
+
+ Pskof, 198.
+
+ Ptolemy, 27.
+
+ Pufendorff, S., 237.
+
+ Puke, Eric Kettilsson (see Kettilsson);
+   Eric (Nilsson), 107, 110.
+
+ Pulkkila, battle of, 358.
+
+ Pultowa, battle of, 285-286, 289, 290, 291, 292, 294, 303.
+
+ Pyk, Louise, 431.
+
+ Pyteas, 24.
+
+
+ Q
+
+ Quaternary period, 12.
+
+ Qvidinge, 366.
+
+
+ R
+
+ Raefsnaes, 133.
+
+ Ragnar, Swedish king, 41-42;
+   R. Lodbrok, sea-king, 41-42.
+
+ Ragnvald, jarl, 58, 61-62, 67;
+   king, 70-71;
+   prince, 70.
+
+ Railways. See Sweden.
+
+ Ramberg, 226.
+
+ Rankhytta, 133.
+
+ Rantzau, Daniel, 168;
+   George, 291.
+
+ Rappe, A. E., 435.
+
+ Raseborg, 113, 129.
+
+ Rashutt, 327.
+
+ Ratan, 363.
+
+ Ratenau, battle of, 252.
+
+ Ravius, 240.
+
+ Realism, 405, 426-427.
+
+ Reform Banquet, 384.
+
+ Reform, Parliamentary. See Parliament.
+
+ Reformation, Reformers, 98, 140-146, 150, 153, 339;
+   language, 9.
+
+ Reformed Church, 312.
+
+ Regensburg, 224.
+
+ Rehnskiold, C. G., 284, 285-286, 287, 288.
+
+ Renaissance, 153, 157, 261;
+   Swedish Castle, 173, 431.
+
+ Renat, J. G., 288.
+
+ Renata of Lothringia, 162, 169.
+
+ Restitution. See Crown Lands.
+
+ Rettvik, 136.
+
+ Reuterholm, G. A., 353-356.
+
+ Reval, 162, 172, 174, 292.
+
+ Revolts, 76, 78, 81, 84, 107-108, 121, 141-143, 146-151, 288, 293,
+     316-317, 344, 369;
+   of Bells, 148-149, 155.
+
+ Revolution, French, 351, 368, 384, 428;
+   Swedish, 138, 143, 146, 344, 345, 349-352, 362, 379.
+
+ Rheims, 54.
+
+ Ribbing, P., 302, 310, 314.
+
+ Richelieu, 220, 224.
+
+ Riddarholm's Church, 87, 90, 96, 225, 367, 415.
+
+ Riddarhus, The, 166, 200, 256, 268, 398.
+
+ Ridderstad, C. F., 389.
+
+ Riga, 82, 187, 202, 291-292.
+
+ Rikissa, princess, 87;
+   queen, 71;
+   Birgersdotter, 79.
+
+ Riksdag, 88, 108, 115, 117, 124, 140, 142, 143, 150, 151, 161, 169,
+     170, 175, 183-184, 200, 201, 202, 222, 238, 240, 243, 248, 249,
+     250, 254, 256, 257, 258, 271, 293, 298, 310, 314, 315, 316, 317,
+     318, 319, 335, 336, 338, 340, 344, 345, 348, 349-350, 355, 356-857,
+     365, 368, 369, 376, 378, 383, 384, 387, 394-395, 396-401, 403, 406,
+     407-411, 416-418, 420, 433, 435;
+   regulations of the, 434.
+
+ Riksdrotset. See Drotsete.
+
+ Riksmarsk. See Marsk.
+
+ Rimbert, Archbishop, 52, 55.
+
+ Ring ("Sigurd Ring"), 41, 51.
+
+ Riswick, peace treaty of, 259.
+
+ Ritual and hymn-book, 175, 183, 260, 355.
+
+ Rock-carvings, 17, 18.
+
+ Rococo, 353.
+
+ Roeskilde, peace treaties of, 91, 247.
+
+ Rolf Krake, 38.
+
+ Romanticism (Neo-), 346, 380-381, 388-389, 405, 427.
+
+ Rome, Roman, 20, 21, 26, 27, 28, 72, 74, 97, 125, 141, 144, 175, 204,
+     263, 265.
+
+ Rosen, von, 282 note;
+   George von, 412, 429.
+
+ Rosenblad, M., 374.
+
+ Roslagen, 48-49.
+
+ Roslin, Alex., 347, 428.
+
+ Rosstjenst. See Russtienst.
+
+ Rostock, 121, 147, 165.
+
+ Rostof, 47.
+
+ Rothman, Dr., 327-328.
+
+ Royal offices, 87;
+   sanctity, 77, 85;
+   title, 84.
+
+ Rud, Otto, 122.
+
+ Rudbeck, Olof, the Elder, 261-265;
+   Olof, the Younger, 330.
+
+ Rudbeckius, J., 262.
+
+ Ruden, Island of, 205.
+
+ Rudenschiold, Madelaine, 354.
+
+ Rudolph, emperor, 172.
+
+ Rugen, Island, 229, 294, 371.
+
+ Ruhr, River, 236.
+
+ Runeberg, J. L., 364, 388.
+
+ Runes, 8, 21-22, 340.
+
+ Runius, 233.
+
+ Runn, Lake, 134.
+
+ Ruotsi, 48.
+
+ Rurik, 47-49, 51, 52, 187.
+
+ Rus, Rus, 47, 50, 105.
+
+ Russia, Russians, 6, 12, 22, 26, 43, 46-52, 62, 63, 67, 68, 69, 78, 81,
+     88, 94, 105, 112, 118, 119, 122, 143, 152, 153, 162, 171, 172, 174,
+     176, 184, 187, 188, 190, 198, 199, 203, 244, 250, 272, 273,
+     274-277, 278, 280, 282-287, 291-292, 294, 295, 306, 311, 315, 316,
+     317, 345, 348-349, 350-351, 352, 357-362, 369, 370, 374, 377, 378,
+     387-388, 394, 401, 418, 436;
+   captivity, 287-289;
+   language, 8;
+   names, 48.
+
+ Russtienst, Rusttjenst, 86, 143, 162, 174, 188.
+
+ Rydberg, Victor, 412, 423.
+
+ Rydboholm, 130.
+
+ Rydelius, Andrew, 337-338.
+
+ Ryssby, 193.
+
+
+ S
+
+ Sachsen (Saxony)-Lauenburg, 155, 216.
+
+ Saefstrom, 325.
+
+ Saetherbey, H., 389.
+
+ Saetra, 134.
+
+ St. Gallen, 362.
+
+ St. Olaf, Order of, 386.
+
+ St. Peter of Rome, 240.
+
+ St. Petersburg, 88, 282, 283, 285, 289, 348, 355.
+
+ St. Salvator, Order of, 98.
+
+ Sala, 152.
+
+ Salestad, 176.
+
+ Salmasius, 236, 240.
+
+ Salmson, H., 429.
+
+ Salon, French, 428, 429.
+
+ Salvius, A., 229.
+
+ San, River, 244.
+
+ Sandels, J. A., 358, 360.
+
+ Saxo, 51, 57.
+
+ Saxons, Saxonland, Saxony, 29, 38, 40, 206-208, 211, 213, 222, 223,
+     224, 228, 272, 273, 277, 279-282, 292, 295, 299, 322, 415.
+
+ Scandia, 25.
+
+ Scandinavia, Scandinavian, 14, 16, 24, 25, 28, 100, 101, 124, 166, 255,
+     317, 423, 437;
+   languages, 9, 99, 166;
+   peninsula, 5, 12, 25, 27, 93, 312, 325, 371, 421;
+   policy, 247, 402-406, 415, 437-438;
+   religion, 31.
+
+ Scandinavism, 385-386.
+
+ Scandza, 30, 44.
+
+ Scania, 5, 6, 10, 12, 13, 14, 18, 21, 25, 40, 43, 46, 84, 91, 93, 95,
+     97, 105, 111, 167, 195, 226, 247, 249, 254, 290-291, 307, 325, 336,
+     344, 357, 362, 366, 369, 386.
+
+ Scheele, C. W., 346.
+
+ Schefferns, 240.
+
+ Schleswig, 104, 112, 126, 245, 385, 386, 402, 404, 405.
+
+ Schluesselburg, 282.
+
+ Schlyter, K. J., 380.
+
+ Schoenstroem, P., 288.
+
+ Scholander, E. W., 431.
+
+ Schools, school laws, 117, 146, 175, 393, 423.
+
+ Schueck, H., 428.
+
+ Schuisky, Vassili, 187-188.
+
+ Schwartz, Sophie, 389.
+
+ Schwedenstein, 281.
+
+ Schwerin, von W., 360-361;
+   F. B., 377.
+
+ Scotland, 208, 405.
+
+ Scylfingas. See Skilfings.
+
+ Secret Committee, 314, 315, 316.
+
+ Seeland, 246-247, 291, 362.
+
+ Sehlstedt, Elias, 389.
+
+ Semiramis of the North, 104.
+
+ Separator, 425.
+
+ Seraphim, Order of the, 318.
+
+ Seven Years' War, of the North, 164-168;
+   Continental, 319.
+
+ Siberia, 287-289.
+
+ Sigfrid, St., 58.
+
+ Sigismund of Sweden and Poland, 174, 182-186, 187, 188, 202.
+
+ Signe, 36.
+
+ Signjotr. See Sineus.
+
+ Sigrid Storrada, 57.
+
+ Sigtuna, 35, 62, 68, 71, 75.
+
+ Sigurd, King, 41.
+
+ Sigurd Jorsalafare, 70.
+
+ Siikajoki, battle of, 358-359.
+
+ Silesia, 202, 222, 225, 226, 279, 281-282.
+
+ Siljan, Lake, 136.
+
+ Simon. See Gauzbert and Stenfi.
+
+ Sineus, 47, 48.
+
+ Sjoegren, Otto, 390, 431.
+
+ Skara, 59, 68, 84, 128, 148, 321.
+
+ Skee Finns, 28.
+
+ Skenninge Conference, 78;
+   meeting, 86.
+
+ Skerry fleet, 350, 351.
+
+ Skialf, 36.
+
+ Skiel (Kiel), Bay of, 226.
+
+ Skilfings, 33, 35, 37, 39, 40.
+
+ Skjoeldebrand, A. F., 374.
+
+ Skokloster, 251.
+
+ Skytte, Johan, 193, 232.
+
+ Slavs, 28, 47-50, 54.
+
+ Sloane, Hans, 331.
+
+ Smaland, 5, 14, 29, 70, 72, 84, 111, 126, 133, 150, 166, 195, 215, 291,
+     327, 329.
+
+ Smith, S., 431.
+
+ Smolensk, 49, 188, 284.
+
+ Snaphaner, 226.
+
+ Snoilsky, 412, 427.
+
+ Snorre Sturleson, 33, 34, 35, 40, 41, 52, 265, 349.
+
+ Socialism, 433.
+
+ Soederkoeping, 116, 183.
+
+ Soederman, August, 431.
+
+ Soedermanland, 5, 9, 13, 23, 39, 58, 107, 133, 174.
+
+ Sohlman, Aug., 403.
+
+ Soop, Eric, 303.
+
+ Sophia (queens of Sweden), 81; 415.
+
+ Sophie Magdalene, queen of Sweden, 343.
+
+ Sound, the, 10, 93, 227;
+   naval battle of, 248.
+
+ South Company, 232.
+
+ Spain, Spanish, 45, 97, 209, 221, 352, 378.
+
+ Sparre, P. G., 389.
+
+ Sparrsaetra, battle of, 78.
+
+ Spectator, 338.
+
+ Spitzbergen, 424.
+
+ Sprengtporten, J. M., 344, 350.
+
+ Squire, 106, 131, 200.
+
+ Stade, 295.
+
+ Stadsfullmaegtige, 395.
+
+ Staeket, 124, 125, 131.
+
+ Stagnelius, E. J., 380-381.
+
+ Stanislav of Poland, 279, 281, 290, 295, 313.
+
+ Starbaeck, George, 389.
+
+ Steam hose, 387.
+
+ Stedingk, C. von, 350, 367.
+
+ Stefan, 74.
+
+ Stegeborg, 139, 185.
+
+ Stellin, 312.
+
+ Stenbock (see Catherine, queens of Sweden), Brita, 156;
+   Gustavus, Baron, 156, 162, 181;
+   Olof,171;
+   Eric, 176-182, 296;
+   Magdalen (see Sture);
+   Cecilia, 178-180;
+   Beatrix, 180;
+   Anne, 181;
+   Gustavus, 182;
+   Gustavus Otto, 250;
+   Magnus, Count, 182, 277, 284, 290, 291, 294-296.
+
+ Stenfi (Stephan), 58.
+
+ Stenhammar, W., 390.
+
+ Stenkil, 67-68, 70.
+
+ Stensoe, 132.
+
+ Stephan of Poland, 174.
+
+ Steuchius, Archbishop, 340.
+
+ Stiernhielm, Georg, 233, 235, 237.
+
+ Stiernhoek, 232.
+
+ Stiklastad, battle of, 62.
+
+ Stobeus, Chilian. 329.
+
+ Stockholm, 10, 36, 74, 75, 82, 84, 87, 90, 92, 95, 96, 100, 101, 107,
+     108, 109, 112, 116, 119, 121, 124, 125, 126, 127, 130, 133, 139,
+     140, 141, 143, 150, 158, 165, 169, 173, 180, 186, 190, 193, 199,
+     231-232, 272, 313, 317, 320, 321, 334, 338, 344, 362, 366, 373,
+     377, 384, 391, 397, 405, 418, 422;
+   Royal Palace, 303;
+   City University (see Universities);
+   Exchange, 337;
+   Posten, 377;
+   Royal Theatre, 346, 352, 413, 431.
+
+ Stolarm, Arvid, 185.
+
+ Stolbova, peace treaty of, 198.
+
+ Stolhandske, Torsten, 216-217, 218.
+
+ Stone Age, 11-16;
+   cists, 13.
+
+ Stongebro, battle of, 185.
+
+ Strahlenberg, J. von, 288.
+
+ Stralsund, siege of, 299-300.
+
+ Strandberg, C. W. A., 389.
+
+ Strengnaes, 71, 114, 128, 140.
+
+ Strindberg, August, 426-427, 428, 431;
+   Nils, 424.
+
+ Stroemstad, 307, 322.
+
+ Strole, Olof, 197.
+
+ Stromberg, Nils, 291-292.
+
+ Stuart, Mary, 162;
+   Charles Magnus, 270, 277.
+
+ Stuhm, battle of, 202-203.
+
+ Sture, 130, 140, 146, 181, 182;
+   original line: Sten Sture, the Elder, 113, 114-120, 121, 123,
+     130-131;
+   Natt och Dag branch: Nils Bosson, 108-109, 116, 118, 120, 123;
+   Svante Nilsson, 118-123, 141;
+   Sten Sture, the Younger, 123-129, 131, 142;
+   Nils Stensson, 147;
+   Svante Stensson, Count, 149, 151, 155, 156, 162, 168, 169-170, 177;
+   Nils Svantesson, 168, 169;
+   Eric, 170;
+   Martha (see Leijonhufvud);
+   Sigrid, 176-182;
+   Magdalen, 176-182, 296;
+   Anne, 177;
+   Margaret, 177, 179;
+   Christine, 177.
+
+ Sture Chronicles, 114.
+
+ Sturzen-Becker, O. P., 389.
+
+ Styrbioern Starke, 55-56.
+
+ Subsidies, 252, 316, 319.
+
+ Succession, Royal, 150, 151, 190, 310;
+   law of, 434.
+
+ Suchtelen, von, 359.
+
+ Sud, 49.
+
+ Suevian Sea, 26.
+
+ Suiones, 26.
+
+ Sundberg, Archbishop, 407.
+
+ Sunnanskogs, 5.
+
+ Sunnanvaeder, Peder, 141-143, 147.
+
+ Suomi, 437.
+
+ Supreme Court. See Sweden.
+
+ "Surgeon's Stories," 413.
+
+ Svaerdsbro, 179.
+
+ Svaerdsjoe, 135.
+
+ Svartsjoe, 155, 173.
+
+ Sveaborg, fortress of, 317, 359-360.
+
+ Svealand, 5, 14, 19, 24, 27, 58, 68, 69, 83, 185.
+
+ "Svecia," 265-266.
+
+ Svedberg, Jesper, 321.
+
+ Svedbom, 431.
+
+ Sveijder, 35.
+
+ Svein, Norwegian jarl, 57-58.
+
+ Sven. See Blot-Sven.
+
+ Svend (Danish kings): Tjufvuskaegg, 57;
+   Estridsen, 63;
+   Grade, 72.
+
+ Svendborg, 246.
+
+ Svensksund, naval battles of, 350-351.
+
+ Sverdrup, J., 406.
+
+ Sverker, the Old, 71-73, 75;
+   the Younger, 74, 75-77.
+
+ Sviar, 27, 35, 47, 64.
+
+ Sviatoslaf, 51.
+
+ Svinesund, 307, 372.
+
+ Svithiod, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41.
+
+ Svolder, battle of, 57-58.
+
+ Swabia, 29, 213.
+
+ Sweden, 5, 11, 21, 26, 27, 31, 34, 42, 58, 64, 75, 90, 105, 126, 188,
+     192, 214, 221, 222, 223, 229-230, 250, 265, 272, 289, 291, 296,
+     298, 300, 309, 320-321, 363-364, 374, 403, 418, 432-434;
+   administration (see Government);
+   agriculture, 15, 117, 152, 260, 306, 317, 423;
+   alcohol industry, 387;
+   architects (see Architecture);
+   army, 152, 186, 201-202, 203, 231, 258-259, 283, 290, 296, 307,
+     408-410, 415-418;
+   art, 261, 303, 347, 382, 391, 412, 421, 428-431;
+   botanists (see Botany);
+   broadcloth, 335, 336, 337;
+   budget, 422;
+   cabinet, 365, 374, 376, 378, 382, 383, 391-392, 394-395, 399-400,
+     402, 404, 435, 436;
+   canals (see Gotha Canal);
+   civilization (see Cultural Development);
+   climate, 7;
+   colonies, 232;
+   commerce, 81-82, 85, 105, 116, 152, 176, 188, 198, 200, 260, 288,
+     302, 376, 387, 406, 407, 414, 421, 422;
+   communications, 374, 387, 406, 421;
+   communities, 39, 42, 64, 105, 396, 432;
+   composers (see Music);
+   constitution, 64, 65, 105, 255-258, 268, 292-293, 302, 310, 314,
+     318, 344, 349-350, 366, 378, 400, 434;
+   court, 87, 146, 154, 189, 240, 255, 318, 319, 338, 339;
+   court party, 318-320, 338;
+   criminal code, 395;
+   crown, 144, 149, 174-175, 201, 239, 255
+     (see also Crown lands, restitution of);
+   cultural development, 14, 18, 23, 30-31, 59-61, 68, 71-72, 98-99,
+     105, 114, 117-118, 141-142, 173, 188, 201, 232-233, 261-267,
+     302-306, 313, 320, 321-341, 345-347, 353, 380-381, 382, 388-390,
+     393, 405, 408, 411-413, 422-433;
+   dairy industry, 152, 425;
+   defence, 254, 260, 293, 374, 375, 408, 417-418;
+   departments, state, 199, 230, 298, 314, 378, 421, 435
+     (see also Cabinet and Ministers);
+   dialect research, 340, 341;
+   electric telegraph, 387, 422;
+   emblem, 164, 197;
+   engineers, 424-426;
+   estates (see Estates);
+   exports and imports, 422;
+   finance, 94, 187, 239, 243, 301-302, 306, 311, 313, 315, 319, 374,
+     407, 408, 422;
+   forests, 7, 18;
+   fundamental laws, 434-435;
+   geographical discoveries, 288, 424;
+   geology, 8, 12, 325;
+   government, 64, 65, 74, 85, 87, 88, 91, 92, 93, 96, 101-104, 108,
+     114, 115, 123, 149-150, 152-153, 161-162, 174, 176, 188, 189, 190,
+     203, 230, 233, 249-252, 253, 256-257, 258, 259-260, 271, 292-293,
+     300-302, 310-311, 312, 313, 315, 816, 317, 319, 320, 345, 354-355,
+     374, 378, 383-384, 390, 391, 395-401, 403, 404, 407, 409, 410-411,
+     416,418, 419, 435;
+   graves, 18, 14, 16, 17, 19, 23, 27;
+   historians (see History);
+   industries, 302, 306, 317, 319, 334-337, 383, 387, 393, 407, 421;
+   inland seas, 305, 325;
+   inventors, 304, 321, 322, 425-426;
+   kings, 26, 31, 40, 41, 42, 64-65, 67, 84, 85, 87, 92, 96, 99, 115,
+     125, 145, 150, 158, 189, 190, 191, 201, 242, 249, 253, 263, 268,
+     300, 308, 343, 382-383, 391, 401, 411, 414, 415, 434-435;
+   land-tax, 408, 410, 416;
+   language, 8, 9, 15, 47-48, 99, 153, 237, 238, 330, 340, 346-347, 390;
+   legislation, 82, 85-86, 89, 93, 105, 110, 314, 315, 383, 395-401,
+     416-418;
+   literature, 66-67, 80, 89, 98, 99, 121, 155, 233, 237, 261, 263,
+     337-339, 345-347, 380-382, 388-389, 405, 412-413, 414, 426-428;
+   loanwords, 8, 47;
+   manufactures, 306, 317, 335-336;
+   maritime code, 395;
+   metal engraving (see Art);
+   migrations, 34;
+   military districts and divisions, 417-418;
+   militia, 357, 365, 369, 409, 410, 416, 417;
+   mining industry, 82, 116, 152, 188, 201, 230-232, 260, 336;
+   municipal government, 395-396;
+   mythology, 31-32, 53;
+   national anthem, 434;
+   national character and temperament, 9, 10, 98, 354, 389-390, 405,
+     433-434;
+   naturalists (see Science);
+   navigation, 407, 422;
+   navy, 94, 149, 168, 226-227, 231, 253, 258-259, 416, 418;
+   one realm, 39, 42, 43, 64-65, 105;
+   painters (see Art);
+   philologists (see Philology);
+   philosophers (see Philosophy);
+   political grandeur, 191, 192-309;
+   population, 5, 8, 16, 94, 176, 193;
+   possessions, 253, 272, 292, 293, 299, 312
+     (see also Territory, Finland, and Baltic Dominion and Provinces);
+   postal service, 231, 421;
+   proper names, 32, 47, 48;
+   provincial laws, 8, 66-67, 70, 89, 98, 380, 392;
+   railways, 387, 406, 421;
+   regent, 68, 79, 88, 91, 108, 109, 113, 115, 120, 122, 124, 126, 140,
+     184, 353-356, 362-364, 391, 392-393;
+   Riksdag (see Riksdag);
+   scenery, 6, 98, 330, 391;
+   science, 9, 232, 240, 261, 265, 288, 302, 304-306, 321, 324-325, 332,
+     339, 340, 346, 380, 408, 414, 421, 426;
+   sculptors (see Art);
+   seal of state, 164;
+   sects, 432;
+   singers, song (see Music);
+   sloyd, 287;
+   state, 8, 64-65, 151, 192, 199, 230;
+   state law, 67, 98, 105, 110, 315;
+   state treasurer, 189, 250;
+   statesmen, 82, 87, 89, 146, 192, 199, 204, 220, 251, 312, 315-316,
+     317, 368, 392-393, 437;
+   suffrage, 396, 399, 433;
+   supreme court, 162, 174, 199, 200, 230, 350;
+   taxes, taxation, 76, 88, 103, 107, 201, 288, 238, 240, 279, 290, 293,
+     314, 317, 387, 396, 408, 410;
+   telephone system, 422;
+   territory, 6, 93, 104, 434;
+   towns, 10, 75, 82, 85, 116, 152, 176, 188, 311, 395, 397, 399;
+   town laws, 116;
+   tribes, 66, 105.
+
+ Swedenborg, E., 321-327, 332, 347.
+
+ "Swedish Fates and Adventures," 427.
+
+ Swinhufvud. See Barbro Stigsdotter.
+
+ Sword, Order of the, 318.
+
+ Systema Naturae, 330, 333.
+
+
+ T
+
+ Tacitus, 26, 27, 30, 434.
+
+ Tartars, 285.
+
+ Taube, Mathilde. See Grabow.
+
+ Tavastehus, 77, 358.
+
+ Tavasti, Tavastland, 77, 78, 88.
+
+ Tchudi, 47.
+
+ Te Deum, 277.
+
+ Tegner, Esaias, 353, 363, 381-382, 389;
+   Esaias, Junior, 423.
+
+ Telegraph. See Sweden.
+
+ Temperance movement, 387.
+
+ Terna, 133.
+
+ Tessin, Nicodemus, Senior, 302-303;
+   Nicodemus, Junior, 302-304, 317, 430;
+   Charles Gustavus, 317, 318, 332, 336, 339, 340.
+
+ Teuffel, General, 207.
+
+ Teutons, Teutonic, 8, 21, 22, 25, 26, 28, 44;
+   ancestors, 15;
+   languages, 8, 238, 342;
+   communities, 396, 432;
+   migrations, 20, 23, 44;
+   mythology, 30;
+   origin, 30, 265;
+   sea,25;
+   state, 64-65;
+   traditions, 29-30;
+   tribes, 30, 43.
+
+ Thegerstrom, Robert, 430.
+
+ Themptander, O. R., 416.
+
+ Theology, 340-341.
+
+ Theophilus, Emperor, 48.
+
+ Theosophy, 325, 412.
+
+ Thermometer, Centigrade, 321, 333.
+   See Celsius.
+
+ Thing (Assembly), 55, 56, 58, 61, 65, 72, 82, 86.
+
+ Thiodulf of Hvin, 33, 35, 41.
+
+ Thirty Years' War, 193, 202-229, 231, 236, 261, 281, 312, 434.
+
+ Thomas, Bishop, 114, 121.
+
+ Thomasius, 266.
+
+ Thor, 30-31.
+
+ Thorild, T., 346, 355.
+
+ Thorn, 172.
+
+ Thorvald, Hialte, 56.
+
+ Thraldom, 82, 93, 137, 309.
+
+ Thule, 24, 25, 28, 29.
+
+ Thunberg, D., 375.
+
+ Tidemand, 405.
+
+ Tilly, 203, 206-209, 210-211.
+
+ Timutarsz, 297, 298.
+
+ Tiundaland, 39, 62.
+
+ Tiveden, 83, 127.
+
+ Tobacco, 336.
+
+ Tobolsk, 287.
+
+ Toennig, fortress of, 295-296.
+
+ "Toernroseus bok," 389.
+
+ Toll, J. C., 344, 356, 357.
+
+ Tomte Mats, 137.
+
+ Topelius, Z., 412-413.
+
+ Tordenskiold, Peter, 307, 311, 322.
+
+ Toresson. See Ahlstroemer.
+
+ Torgau, retreat from, 224.
+
+ Torgny, 62.
+
+ Tormentor of Denmark, 122.
+
+ Torne, River, 363.
+
+ Torpa, 156, 181.
+
+ Torsslov, O. U., 390.
+
+ Torstensson, Lennart, 223, 225-229, 239, 245, 248.
+
+ Tott, Eric Axelson, 113, 117;
+   Ivar Axelson, 113, 117;
+   Ingeborg, 118;
+   Ake, 173;
+   Clas, 175.
+
+ Traventhal, peace treaty of, 274.
+
+ Tre Rosor, 282 note;
+   Ture Joensson, 146, 148, 149, 156;
+   John Turesson, 149, 156, 158;
+   Gustavus Johnsson, Count, 156, 162.
+
+ Trolle, Eric, 123, 124;
+   Gustavus, Archbishop, 124-125, 127-128, 129, 139, 142, 148.
+
+ Trollhetta, waterfalls of, 306, 375.
+
+ Tromp, Admiral, 253.
+
+ Truso, 43.
+
+ Truvor, 47, 48.
+
+ Tryggve. See Truvor.
+
+ Turgot, 59.
+
+ Turkey, Turks, 283, 287, 293, 294, 296-298, 299, 303, 305, 388.
+
+ Tver, battle of, 188.
+
+ Tyr, 30.
+
+ Tyrol, 6.
+
+
+ U
+
+ Ube, River, 206.
+
+ Ukraine, 285, 286, 292.
+
+ Uleoborg, 358.
+
+ Ulf, jarls, 74; 78, 79.
+
+ Ulf Gudmundsson, 97.
+
+ Ulfhild, 71.
+
+ Ulfsson, Jacob, 117, 124, 133.
+
+ Ulrica Eleonore, queens of Sweden, 255, 268, 274; 269, 289, 298, 309,
+     310, 311, 312, 313, 316.
+
+ Ulricsdal, 391.
+
+ Union, Act of, 4, 92, 93, 94, 101-102, 104, 114, 120, 129, 151,
+     166-167, 317, 372-374, 393, 395, 420;
+   nature of the, 419-421, 437;
+   revision of the, 386, 394-395, 406, 421.
+
+ Union government, 420, 438;
+   defence, 420, 438;
+   parliament, 420, 438.
+
+ Unionism, Unionist party, 110, 111, 114, 120, 121, 122, 123, 130,
+     393-395, 415-416.
+
+ Unitarianism, 325, 412.
+
+ United States, 436, 437-438 (see also America);
+   President of, 434.
+
+ Universities, 117, 131, 153, 183, 189, 230, 235, 250, 304, 322, 327,
+     329, 339, 340-341, 356, 380, 385, 390, 405, 411, 413, 422-423.
+
+ Unne, 55.
+
+ Upland, 5, 10, 23, 35, 39, 48, 73, 78, 89, 90, 97, 105, 107, 110, 124,
+     139, 185, 391.
+
+ Uppstroem, A., 137 note.
+
+ Upsala, 10, 33, 35, 37, 38, 39, 42, 51, 68, 71, 74, 107, 120, 131, 134,
+     139, 142, 143, 147, 153, 157, 161, 175, 183, 201, 235, 240, 262,
+     264, 304, 322, 323, 329, 330, 331-332, 340, 356, 380, 413;
+   cathedral, 82, 112;
+   meeting, 183;
+   University (see Universities);
+   University Botanical Garden, 329, 362;
+   Library, 201, 235;
+   Observatory, 333;
+   temple, 59, 60, 68, 71.
+
+ Uranus, 324.
+
+ Usedom, island of, 205, 229, 312.
+
+ Utilitarianism, 337, 432.
+
+ Utmeland, 137.
+
+ "Utopia Realized," 427.
+
+
+ V
+
+ Vadstena, 98-99, 104, 107, 120, 140, 164, 173, 184, 304.
+
+ Vaeraelae, peace treaty of, 351.
+
+ Vaerend, 29, 58, 66, 72.
+
+ Vaerfvade, 417.
+
+ Vaeringar, 49.
+
+ Valdemar of Sweden, 80-84, 89.
+
+ Valdemar (kings of Denmark): Seier, 76, 77;
+   Atterdag, 95, 100.
+
+ Valdemar, Prince, 87, 89-91.
+
+ Vandals, 47.
+
+ Vanlande, 35.
+
+ Varanger Bay, 378, 387-388.
+
+ Varberg, 167, 168.
+
+ Variagi, Varangians, 46-53.
+
+ Varinians, 29.
+
+ Vasa dynasty, family, 130, 163, 187, 193, 194, 249;
+   Original line: Krister Nilsson, 108, 110, 130;
+   Kettil Karlsson, 112-113;
+   Eric Johansson, 128, 130;
+   Gustavus Ericsson (see Gustavus I.);
+   Eric (see Eric XIV.);
+   John (see John III.);
+   Magnus (see Magnus, Princes of Sweden);
+   Charles (see Charles IX.);
+   Gustavus Ericsson, 172-173;
+   Sigrid, 172-173, 177;
+   Sigismund (see Sigismund);
+   John, Duke (see John);
+   Charles Philip (see Charles);
+   Catherine (see Catherine, Countess-Palatine);
+   Gustavus Adolphus (see Gustavus II. Adolphus);
+   Christine (see Christine, queens of Sweden);
+   Polish line, 163, 240;
+   Sigismund (see Sigismund);
+   Vladislav, 186, 188, 243;
+   John II. Casimir, 243-244.
+
+ Vasa Renaissance. See Renaissance.
+
+ Vasa, town, 360.
+
+ Vassili, Czar. See Schuisky.
+
+ Vaxholm, fortress of, 197, 418.
+
+ Venar, Lake, 5, 69.
+
+ Vends, Vendish, 57, 63, 75.
+
+ Vennerberg, Gunnar, 389-390, 409, 413.
+
+ Verden, 229, 235, 312.
+
+ Vermland, 5, 40, 41, 43, 55, 68, 83, 107, 111, 116, 174, 194, 229, 307,
+     308, 335.
+
+ Vessi, 47.
+
+ "Verzage nicht," 215.
+
+ Vettar, Lake, 5, 77, 164, 418.
+
+ Vexio, 71, 84, 291, 327, 328, 331.
+
+ Viborg, fortress of, 88, 118, 292, 312, 351.
+
+ Victoria, crown princess of Sweden-Norway, 415.
+
+ Vienna, 203, 226, 299;
+   Congress of, 372-373;
+   Exposition, 421;
+   peace treaty of, 405;
+   siege of, 228-229.
+
+ Viken 46.
+
+ Viking Age, Vikings, 8, 24, 41, 44-63, 66, 70.
+
+ Vilmanstrand, battle of, 316.
+
+ Vincentius, Bishop, 128.
+
+ Virdar, 29.
+
+ Virta, battle of, 358.
+
+ Visbur. 35.
+
+ Visby, 85, 95, 304.
+
+ Visigoths, 236.
+
+ Visingsborg, 251.
+
+ Visingsoe, 77, 87, 180.
+
+ Vistula, 21, 27, 31.
+
+ Vitalen, or Victualen Brotherhood, 101.
+
+ Vitesjoe, battle of, 195.
+
+ Vladimir, St., 51, 52.
+
+ Vladislav. See Vasa, Polish line.
+
+ Voldgaestning, 86.
+
+ Volga, 50.
+
+ Volmar, 187.
+
+ Voltaire, 347.
+
+ Vordingborg, 247.
+
+ Vorskla, River, 285, 286.
+
+ Vossius, 236-237.
+
+
+ W
+
+ Wachtmeister, Hans, 259;
+   Hans Hansson, 435.
+
+ Wahlberg, Edward, 429.
+
+ Wallachia, 22, 299.
+
+ Wallenstein, 203, 204, 210-218, 221.
+
+ Wallhof, battle of, 202.
+
+ Wallin, J. O., Archbishop, 381.
+
+ Wallis, Curt, 424.
+
+ Walloons, 231.
+
+ War of Clubs, 184.
+
+ Warburg, K., 248.
+
+ Warsaw, battle of, 244;
+   conquest of, 244, 278;
+   diet of, 278.
+
+ Washington, George, 367.
+
+ Weibule, M., 424.
+
+ Weimar. See Bernhard, Duke of Weimar.
+
+ Wendland, 43.
+
+ Werben, 206.
+
+ Westerbotten, West Bothnia, 5, 16.
+
+ Westerlund, Dr., 424.
+
+ Westeros, 71, 107, 108, 128, 124, 128, 139, 141, 143, 151, 171, 262;
+   Ordinantia and Recess, 145-146; 151.
+
+ West Gothland. See Gothland.
+
+ Westmanland, 5, 58, 106, 107, 112, 116, 147, 195.
+
+ Westphalia, 236;
+   Peace of, 229.
+
+ Wetterstedt, G. af, 374.
+
+ Wetterstrand, Dr., 424.
+
+ Wickman, G., 431.
+
+ Wikblad, S. H., 435.
+
+ Wikner, Pontus, 423.
+
+ William, Bishop of Salima, 78.
+
+ William I. of Germany, 415.
+
+ William of Orange, 259.
+
+ Windau, 203.
+
+ Windsor, 237.
+
+ Wingard, C. F. af, 383.
+
+ Wirsen, G. F. af, 374, 378.
+
+ Wismar, 229, 857.
+
+ Witches, 251.
+
+ Witmar, 54.
+
+ Wittelsbachs, The, 249.
+
+ Wittstock, battle of, 223.
+
+ Wolfenbuttel, battle of, 224.
+
+ Wolgast, 222.
+
+ Wollin, island of, 56, 229, 312.
+
+ Women's rights, 383.
+
+ Wrangel, 286;
+   Herman, 202;
+   Charles Gustavus, 227, 229, 248, 250, 251, 252, 257.
+
+ Wulfila, 67, 235, 287, 341.
+
+ Wulfstan, 43.
+
+
+ Y
+
+ Yeoman, Yeomanry, 72, 73, 78, 106, 108, 111, 114, 186, 144, 146, 149,
+     158, 192, 199, 201, 233, 238, 251, 253, 255, 258, 260, 314, 316,
+     318, 350, 357, 397, 407, 416, 432.
+
+ Ynglinga Saga, 31, 33-41, 51.
+
+ Ynglingatal, 33-41.
+
+ Ynglings, Yngling kings, 33-41.
+
+ Yngvar, 38-39.
+
+ Yngve, Swedish kings, 35; 36.
+
+ York, 58.
+
+ Yrsa, 38.
+
+
+ Z
+
+ Zamoisky, 187.
+
+ Zettervall, H., 430.
+
+ Zooelogy, 380.
+
+ Zorn, A. L., 430.
+
+
+
+
+    Transcriber's notes:
+
+    Some entries in the index appeared out of alphabetical order. They
+    have been moved.
+
+    The following is a list of changes made to the original.
+    The first line is the original line, the second the corrected one.
+
+    Page 252:
+
+    in 1672, whon he himself took charge of the government,
+    in 1672, when he himself took charge of the government,
+
+    Page 429:
+
+    Prince Eugene, Eugene Jansson, Ernest Josephson, Nils Kreuger,
+    Prince Eugene, Eugene Jansson, Ernst Josephson, Nils Kreuger,
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Sweden, by Victor Nilsson
+
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