diff options
| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 18:48:06 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 18:48:06 -0700 |
| commit | bc09139c4632ed077429c64955e9949040bb49ab (patch) | |
| tree | c4b2aa84e1d574a7fc16c96d0935f15edf9dd390 /44636-h | |
Diffstat (limited to '44636-h')
| -rw-r--r-- | 44636-h/44636-h.htm | 32168 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 44636-h/images/cover-page.jpg | bin | 0 -> 233878 bytes |
2 files changed, 32168 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/44636-h/44636-h.htm b/44636-h/44636-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..07ce329 --- /dev/null +++ b/44636-h/44636-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,32168 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" + xml:lang="en" + lang="en"> +<head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" + content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" + content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Mosaic History of the + Creation of the World, by Thomas Wood</title> + <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover-page.jpg" /> + <style type="text/css"> + + body { text-align: justify; + margin: .5em 5%; + text-indent: 2em; } + + /* Heading Styles */ + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-indent: 0em; + text-align: center; + clear: both; } + + .titlepage { text-align: center; + font-weight: bold; + text-indent: 0em; + line-height: 2; } + + /* Paragraph Styles */ + p { margin: inherit; } + + /* Ruler Styles */ + hr { margin: 3em auto 3em auto; + height: 0px; + border-width: 1px 0 0 0; + border-style: solid; + border-color: #708090; /* slategray */ + text-indent: 0em; + width: 33%; + clear: both; } + hr.tb { width: 35%; } + hr.chap { width: 50%; } + hr.full { width: 95%; } + hr.r10 { margin: 1em auto; + width: 10%; } + hr.blank { visibility: hidden; } + + /* table Styles */ + table { margin: auto; + border-collapse: Separate; + table-layout: auto; + border-spacing: 1.5em .7em; } + caption { text-align: center; + font-size: medium; + font-weight: bold; } + th { text-align: center; } + td { text-align: left; + vertical-align: top; } + td.vt { vertical-align: middle; } + td.foot { text-align: justify; + text-indent: -1.3em; } + table.wide { border-collapse: collapse; + border-spacing: 0em 0em; + margin: 0em 5%; + border-style: solid; + border-width: medium; + border-color: #000000; } + table.mini { border-spacing: 1em 0em; + margin-top: 0em; } + + /* width positioning */ + .w10 { width: 10%; } + .w80 { width: 80%; } + + /* numbering styles */ + .pagenum { /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + right: .5%; + font-size: xx-small; + font-weight: normal; + font-variant: normal; + font-style: normal; + letter-spacing: normal; + text-indent: 0em; + text-align: right; + color: #999999;} /* Grey */ + + /* border styles */ + .bbox { border: #000000 solid 1px; + padding: .25em .5em; } + + /* margin Styles */ + .v2 { margin-top: 1em; } + .v3 { margin-top: 1.5em; } + .v4 { margin-top: 2em; } + .v6 { margin-top: 3em; } + .v12 { margin-top: 6em; } + .mlQ { margin-left: -.33em; } + .ml0 { margin-left: 0em; } + .ml2 { margin-left: 1em; } + .ml3 { margin-left: 1.5em; } + .ml4 { margin-left: 2em; } + .ml5 { margin-left: 2.5em; } + .ml6 { margin-left: 3em; } + .ml8 { margin-left: 4em; } + .ml12 { margin-left: 6em; } + .ml24 { margin-left: 12em; } + + /* Text positioning */ + .hang1 { text-indent: -1em; + padding-left: 1em; } + .iQ { text-indent: -.33em; + padding-left: .33em; } + .i0 { text-indent: 0em; } + + /* block Styles */ + blockquote { margin: .3em 5%; + font-size: small; } + + /* text styling */ + .bold { font-weight: bold; } + sup { line-height: .1em; + vertical-align: super; + font-size: .7em; } + .ctr { text-align: center ; + text-indent: 0em; } + .rt { text-align: right; + text-indent: 0em; } + .xxs { font-size: xx-small; } + .xs { font-size: x-small; } + .small { font-size: small; } + .medium { font-size: medium; } + .large { font-size: large; } + .xl { font-size: x-large; } + .xxl { font-size: xx-large; } + .smcap { font-variant: small-caps; + font-weight: 600; } + .smaller { font-size: .8em; } + + /* Transcriber Note - non-obtrusive */ + .msg { text-decoration: none; + border-bottom: 1px solid #A9A9A9; } /* dark gray */ + .msg:link { color:inherit } + .msg:active { color:inherit } + .msg:visited { color:inherit } + .msg:hover { color:inherit } + + /* Note Classes */ + .tn { /* transcribers notes */ + background-color: #E6E6FA; /* Lavender */ + border: solid 1px; + color: black; + margin: 3% 0%; + font-size: small; + padding: 5%; + text-align: justify; } + .footnote { /* Footnotes */ + background-color: #F0FFFF; /* Azure */ + border: solid 1px; + color: #000; + margin: 3% 0%; + padding: 2%; + font-size: small; + text-align: justify; } + .fnanchor { vertical-align: super; + line-height: 0.5em; + font-size: xx-small; + text-decoration: none; + position: relative; + left: -.1em; + margin-right: -.1em } + + /* Poetry */ + .poem { margin: 0% 15%; + text-align: left; + font-size: small; + text-indent: -3em; + padding-left: 3em; } + + @media print, handheld + { + hr.tb { width: 35%; + margin-left: 32.5%; } + hr.chap { width: 50%; + margin-left: 25%; } + hr.full { width: 95%; + margin-left: 2.5%; } + hr.r10 { width: 10%; + margin-left: 45%; } + .msg { border-bottom: none} + .pagenum { visibility: hidden; } + } + + </style> +</head> + +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44636 ***</div> + +<p class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</p> + + <h1> + <span class="xs">THE</span><br /> + MOSAIC HISTORY<br /> + <span class="xs">OF THE</span><br /> + <span class="xl">CREATION OF THE WORLD</span></h1> + <div class="titlepage"> + <p class="i0 v6 medium" > + ILLUSTRATED BY DISCOVERIES AND EXPERIMENTS DERIVED FROM THE + PRESENT ENLIGHTENED STATE OF SCIENCE; WITH REFLECTIONS, + INTENDED TO PROMOTE VITAL AND PRACTICAL RELIGION.</p> + <p class="i0 v4 xl" > + BY THOMAS WOOD, A. M.</p> + </div> + <hr class="tb" /> + <p class="ctr xs"> + REVISED AND IMPROVED</p> + <p class="ctr v3 large"> + BY THE REV. J. P. DURBIN, A. M.</p> + <p class="smcap ctr small">Professor + of Languages, Augusta College, Kentucky.</p> + <hr class="tb" /> + <p class="medium"> + “Every man has a particular train of thought into which his + mind falls, when at leisure, from the impressions and ideas + which occasionally excite it; and if one train of thinking be + more desirable than another, it is surely that which regards + the phenomena of nature with a constant reference to a + supreme intelligent author.”—<cite>Bacon.</cite></p> + <p class="ctr small v6"> + FIRST AMERICAN, FROM THE SECOND LONDON EDITION.</p> + <hr class="tb" /> + <p class="ctr large v6"> + NEW-YORK. — M<sup>C</sup>ELRATH & BANGS.</p> + <p class="ctr large v3"> + 1831.</p> + +<p class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</p> + + <hr class="chap" /> + <p class="v6"> + [<em>Entered, according to the Act of Congress, July 27, in + the year 1831, by M<sup>c</sup>Elrath & Bangs, in the + Office of the Clerk of the Southern District of + New-York.</em>]</p> + <p class="v12 smcap"> + John T. West & Co., Printers. + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span></p> + + <hr class="chap" /> + <h2 id="preface"> + PREFACE<br /> + <span class="medium"> + TO THE SECOND LONDON EDITION.</span></h2> + <p> + As God made man with a capacity susceptible of knowledge, so + has he furnished him with the means of acquiring it. The + Divine Being is incomprehensible to all but himself: for a + finite capacity can never fully grasp an infinite object. + Neither can he be perceived at all, only so far as he is + pleased to reveal himself. He has given us a revelation of + his nature, perfections, and will; which could never have + been discovered by reasoning and conjecture. He has also + favored us with a revelation of his works, without which the + origin, constitution, and nature of the universe, could never + have been adequately known. The origin, duty, and interest of + man, are matters in which we are greatly concerned. How + valuable then are the Sacred Scriptures!</p> + <p> + The heathen world by wisdom knew not God. On theological + subjects, the greatest Philosophers and Poets of whom + antiquity could boast, were puerile in their opinions, and + absurd and contradictory in their literary productions. Their + progress in many of the sciences, and the polite arts, was + considerable; but in religion they made none: not because + they neglected to investigate the nature of it, as one + observes; for there was not a subject they thought on, nor + discoursed about, more than the nature and existence of the + gods; neither was it for want of natural abilities, nor of + learning; for persons who formed the brightest constellation + of geniuses that ever illuminated the republic of letters, + were devoted to the investigation of the principles and + causes of things. Moses, the sacred historian, had access to + the Fountain of knowledge, and has revealed the mystery that + lay hid for ages, because he was taught it by the inspiration + of the Almighty. By the Hebrew Lawgiver we are instructed + concerning the Creation of the World; an illustration of + whose account is attempted in the following pages.</p> + <p> + The attention of the reader is called to that era when the + elementary principles of matter were first produced, and the + formation of creatures took place; when vitality was given to + a vast variety of animals, and mind was infused into Man as + the peculiar offspring of God: when motion was impressed on + the universe, and the various Planets began their orbicular + revolutions: when Time commenced, and</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml12"> + “History, not wanted yet,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Lean’d on her elbow watching Time, whose course</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Eventful should supply her with a theme.”</p></div> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span> + + What a stupendous fabric is Creation! a marvellous display of + omnipotence! It is infinitely diversified, and magnificently + grand. Ten thousand objects strike the attentive eye, and + afford inexpressible delight to a contemplative mind. The + blue ethereal arch is highly illuminated, and richly adorned + with sparkling globes of light—whose number, distances, + magnitudes, motions, and influences, elude the most diligent + research: these millions of suns, the glory of other worlds, + are equally the works of the Creator, and, with rays of + dazzling splendor, irradiate the peculiar systems to which + they belong: and, while they celebrate his wisdom and power, + form a brilliant canopy over our heads. That golden globe of + light, which is the center of our planetary system, shines + forth in his glory, and spreads abroad the lucid day: he does + not only emit his cheering rays to surrounding orbs, some of + which revolve at immense distances, but, in running his + prescribed course, measures out our time, renders our hours + joyful, and without whose reviving beams we should dwell in + perpetual darkness. The pale silver Moon gilds the shadows of + the evening, and directs the feet of the benighted and lonely + traveller in safety to his abode.</p> + <p> + In the lower walks of Nature, we perceive numerous + assemblages of creatures, which, calling forth the exercise + of our understanding, raise our admiration. The vapors arise, + unite in the aerial regions, and descend in rain, snow, or + hail, according to the different temperature of the climates; + and thus the valleys are watered, the green carpet is spread + under our feet, delightfully adorned with fruitful trees and + variegated flowers. The vast collections of water, called + seas, are stored with innumerable finny inhabitants, both + small and great, which are amply supplied with necessary + food. On earth, there are the wild beasts of the forest, the + roaming cattle of the desert, the domestic animals of the + field, the feathered tribes with their glossy plumage and + delightful notes, beside an incredible number of living + creatures that escape the utmost vigilance of the unassisted + eye: which are all effects of infinite skill, omnipotent + energy, Divine munificence, and conspire to utter his praise. + The sultry regions are fanned with cooling breezes, which + revive the numerous classes of creatures, and without which + they would otherwise faint. But of all the visible effects of + omnific power and uncreated goodness, Man has a claim to the + first rank, for in his composition are mysteriously joined + both matter and spirit.</p> + <p> + How wonderfully has God displayed his wisdom, power, and + goodness, in the creation of the Universe! What are the most + labored and diversified works of Art, when compared with the + majestic grandeur + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span> + + and sublimity of those of Nature! The + things on which the fertile imagination of man has long been + employed, when considered in a detached point of view, + gratify our curiosity, raise our admiration, and gain our + applause; but when compared with the productions of the + Divine Hand, they sink and are deprived of their lustre, like + the sparkling glow-worm in the copse, when the Sun shines + forth with the refulgence of his meridian splendor.</p> + <p> + Religious instruction is here mixed with philosophical + discoveries. The works of Nature conduct an enlightened mind + to the great Creator. The celebrated Dr. Watts, with this + point in view, says,</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “Part of thy name divinely stands,</p> + <p class="ml2"> + On all thy creatures writ,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + They show the labor of thy hands,</p> + <p class="ml2"> + Or impress of thy feet.”</p> + </div> + <p> + Mr. Adams, in his Lectures, says, “The two kingdoms of nature + and grace, as two parallel lines, correspond to each other, + follow a like course, but can never be made to touch. An + adequate understanding of this distinction in all its + branches, would be the consummation of knowledge.” Stephens, + in his Human Nature Delineated, says, “The man who would seek + after knowledge in this world, and happiness in the world of + spirits, I would advise to pursue his studies without any + other guides than the Word and the Works of God.” And Dr. A. + Clarke, on John iv, 3, affirms, that, “properly understood, + earthly <em>substances</em> are the types, representatives, + and shadows of heavenly things.” St. Paul appears to + inculcate this idea where he says, “Now we see as through a + glass, darkly: but then face to face.” The word <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: ainigmati" + class="msg">αινιγματι</span>, + rendered <em>darkly</em>, is peculiarly important, and the + right knowledge of which will assist us to understand his + meaning. Parkhurst gives the following definition of the + <em>term</em> and the <em>thing</em>. “<span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: Ainigma" + class="msg">Αινιγμα</span> + from <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: ênigmai" + class="msg">ηνιγμαι</span>, + the <em>perfect passive</em>, of <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: ainittô" + class="msg">αινιττω</span>, + to <em>hint, + intimate, signify with some degree of obscurity</em>; an + <em>enigma</em>, in which one thing <em>answers</em> or + stands in <em>correspondence to</em>, or as the + <em>representative</em> of another; which is, in <em>some + respects, similar</em> to it, occurs 1 Cor. xiii, 12. + <em>Now</em>, in this life, <em>we see by means of a + mirror</em> reflecting the images of heavenly and spiritual + things, <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: en ainigmati" + class="msg">εν αινιγματι</span>, + <em>in an enigmatical manner</em>, + invisible things being represented by visible; spiritual, by + natural; eternal, by temporal; <em>but then</em>, in the + eternal world, <em>face to face</em>; every thing being seen + in itself, and not by means of a representative or + similitude.”</p> + <p> + The idea thus suggested, induced the author to engage in the + following work: he thought that if the Mosaic account of the + Creation were given in detail, each day apart, using the aid + afforded by the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span> + + present enlightened state of science, + and directing the reader to look</p> + <p class="ctr smaller"> + “Through Nature, up to Nature’s God.”</p> + <p class="i0"> + the work would be instructive, and might tend to cultivate + the mind and amend the heart. And he is happy that he has it + in his power to say, that the plan has obtained not only the + general approbation of orthodox and pious Christians, but the + warm encomiums of many Ministers of the Gospel, both of the + Establishment and among the Dissenters. He has received very + flattering Epistolary Communications from persons of piety, + literature, and science.</p> + <p> + The author has availed himself of various sources of + information: some of the best works published on different + illustrative subjects have been consulted: and those on + Natural History and Chemical Science were found of + considerable service. That part which treats on the + Anatomical structure of Man, the reader will perceive is + written by a gentleman deeply versed in Physiological + science. It is from the pen of the late Benjamin Gibson, Esq. + who filled the important situations of <em>Vice-President of + the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, and + Surgeon to the Infirmary of that town</em>: and who, + unexpectedly, and in the most obliging manner, offered to + prepare a Manuscript for this work, which gives it a peculiar + excellence it otherwise would not have had.</p> + <p> + The favorable reception which the former large edition has + met with from the public, and the consequent demand there was + upon the author to prepare a new one, produced a considerable + excitement in his mind; and, under these circumstances, it + was not less his wish, than it has been his endeavor, to make + the second edition more worthy to meet the public eye, as + well as more extensively useful. The <em>whole</em> of the + work, with the exception of that part by Mr. Gibson, + therefore, has been written anew, and such important + additions and arrangements made, as will, he trusts, meet the + approbation of his readers. He has received assistance from a + writer of eminence, whose name, were he at liberty to mention + it, would do honor to his work, and whose corrections have + increased its value. The Religious Improvements he believes + to be natural and scriptural, and hopes they may be read with + advantage by all Christians who have received the truth as it + is in Christ. He can say, that he has endeavored to make the + whole work both instructive and useful, so far as his leisure + from arduous ministerial duties would allow him: by directing + the attention of the reader to God, through the medium of his + visible works, and by that means to inculcate true religion + and genuine piety. May the Divine blessing render this + additional effort successful! + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span></p> + + <hr class="chap" /> + <h2> + PREFACE<br /> + <span class="medium"> + TO THE AMERICAN EDITION.</span></h2> + <p> + This work, which is now presented to the public, has not been + reprinted in America heretofore, notwithstanding it passed + through <em>two</em> editions in England, with honorable + approbation, in a short space of time. This first American + edition, it is confidently believed, will be received with + approbation; because the work will be found, on perusal, to + answer to its title; and surely no subject can interest the + Christian and intelligent reader more deeply, than the + <em>illustration of the creation of the world, as recorded by + Moses, the servant of God</em>.</p> + <p> + This volume inspires a deeper interest when the reader is + promised that the illustration of this splendid subject shall + be <em>by means of the discoveries drawn from the present + enlightened state of science</em>. Thus the reader will see + clearly confirmed this glorious truth: <em>Religion and + Literature are mutual helpmates to the knowledge, love, and + glory of God.</em></p> + <p> + This important truth has been strangely obscured for several + ages; but is now emerging to light with increased splendor. + Nor is it important to inquire, at this stage of mental + improvement throughout the civilized world, the cause of its + obscuration, but rather to rejoice, that it is now assuming + its place as a fundamental principle in sound philosophy. It + is the duty of every benevolent individual to contribute + according to his ability, to an inseparable union of sound + literature and vital religion. The one will secure the + interests and success of the other, and both combined, the + glory of God.</p> + <p> + Our author, in this respect, has been very happily + successful. He has, generally, illustrated the various parts + of the Mosaic Creation, with perspicuity and precision, and + then applied the whole to the production and support of vital + piety in the heart of the reader. So that while the + astonishing magnificence, glory, and wisdom of creation, + fills the contemplative mind with admiration, the heart also + is fired with an ardent and rational devotion.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span> + + The character of this volume is, therefore, neither + <em>purely</em> scientific, nor <em>purely</em> devotional; + but both wisely and happily combined, under the high and + direct sanction of revelation.</p> + <p> + It will be apparent to every person, by a mere glance at the + size of the volume, that it is not intended to contain all + the <em>minutiæ</em> connected with the Mosaic Creation, but + the principal, and most important facts, so as to make the + work suitable to the great mass of intelligent and thoughtful + readers. This object it will be found to have well + accomplished.</p> + <p> + The <em>improvements</em>, which are mentioned in the + title-page, have been added to the American edition, with + design to adapt the work more nearly to the wants of the + American public. They are found incorporated in the body of + the volume, in smaller type, and enclosed in brackets; which + was judged to be the best method.</p> + <p> + These additional papers are written at some length, + principally on topics which have become more prominent since + our author finished his work, and which are now exciting + intense interest in this country. They are, therefore, + considered to be real and interesting improvements to the + American edition.</p> + <p> + Finally, the author of these additional papers, would + respectfully commend this American edition of the Mosaic + Creation, illustrated by means of the present enlightened + state of science, <em>to the friends of</em> <span + class="smcap">Literature and Religion combined</span> + <em>for the + instruction and salvation of mankind, and for the glory of + God</em>.</p> + <p class="rt"> + J. P. DURBIN. + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span></p> + + <hr class="chap" /> + <h2 + title="Table of Contents" + id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</h2> + <hr class="tb" /> + <p class="ctr large bold"> + CHAPTER I.</p> + <p class="ctr medium bold smcap"> + On the Creator of the World.</p> + <p class="hang1"> + Distinguished by his name <em>Jehovah</em> — His essence and + self-existence expressed by the words <span + class="smcap">I am</span> + — His attribute of goodness the glory of all his + other perfections — Elohim signifying a Trinity of Persons in + a Unity of Essence — The Creation ascribed to one God, the + Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit — The first production + of matter — The creatures made for the manifesting of God’s + attributes, that he might impart happiness to them.</p> + <p class="rt"> + p. <a href="#CHAPTER_I">13-40</a>.</p> + <p class="ctr large bold v2"> + CHAPTER II.<br /> + <span class="small">FIRST DAY.</span></p> + <p class="ctr medium bold"> + <em>Section I.</em>—<span + class="smcap">Chaos.</span></p> + <p class="hang1"> + Inquiry into the origin of things natural to man — Character + of Moses as a sacred historian important — Explanation of the + term Created — Chaotic state of the elementary principles of + matter — Influence of the Spirit of God upon the chaotic + mass — Opinions of the ancients — Similitude between the first + and second creation — Agency of the Holy Spirit in the work + of regeneration asserted and proved.</p> + <p class="rt"> + p. <a href="#CHAPTER_II">41-51</a>.</p> + <p class="ctr medium bold"> + <em>Section II.</em>—<span + class="smcap">Fire.</span></p> + <p class="hang1"> + Omnific word — Moving principles in Nature — Criticism on the + original word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">איר</span> + <i>aur</i> — Creation + of Fire — Its nature — Friction exciting the action of fire — + Fire attracted by bodies — Fire conducted — Fire in a state of + combination — Fire elastic — Expansive force of fire — + Subterraneous fires — Earthquakes and volcanic Eruptions — Air + a storehouse of + fire — General and final dissolution of nature by fire — Fire a + symbol of the Deity, in his gracious presence, vital influence, + transforming energy, and destructive operation.</p> + <p class="rt"> + p. <a href="#CHAPTER_II_2">51-74</a>.</p> + <p class="ctr medium bold"> + <em>Section III.</em>—<span + class="smcap">Light.</span></p> + <p class="hang1"> + Motion of luminous and fiery particles the first cause of + light — Light the most simple body — Velocity of light — Light + diffusive — Light the medium through which objects become + visible — Light beautiful, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span> + + or its rays of different + colors — Light a visible resemblance of its Divine Author, in + his spirituality, simplicity, purity, energy, goodness, + manifestation, glory.</p> + <p class="rt"> + p. <a href="#CHAPTER_II_3">75-89</a>.</p> + <p class="ctr medium bold"> + <em>Section IV.</em>—<span + class="smcap">Day and Night.</span></p> + <p class="hang1"> + Original terms of Day and Night — Motion the effect of a + Divine power — Commencement of Time — Utility of Day and + Night — Religious Improvement of Time — Sin moral Darkness — + The Gospel a Light to dispel it — A Christian the subject of a + transition from the one state to the other.</p> + <p class="rt"> + p. <a href="#CHAPTER_II_4">89-95</a>.</p> + <p class="ctr large bold v2"> + CHAPTER III.<br /> + <span class="small">SECOND DAY.</span></p> + <p class="ctr medium smcap"> + On the Atmosphere.</p> + <p class="hang1"> + Composition of Atmospheric Air — Atmosphere divided into + three regions — Air a fluid — Its compressibility and + elasticity — Weight and + pressure — Equilibrium — Transparency — Wind — Causes of + Wind — Variety of Winds — Velocity of Winds — Destructive + Winds — Wind under the control of God — Wind a similitude of + the Holy Spirit’s operations.</p> + <p class="rt"> + p. <a href="#CHAPTER_III">95-114</a>.</p> + <p class="ctr large bold v2"> + CHAPTER IV.<br /> + <span class="small">THIRD DAY.</span></p> + <p class="ctr medium bold"> + <em>Section I.</em>—<span + class="smcap">The Sea.</span></p> + <p class="hang1"> + Water and Land separated — Formation of the Sea — Its + restrictions — Extent — Depth — Composition — Saltiness — + Motion — Tides — Four + states of water — Circulation — Religious Improvement.</p> + <p class="rt"> + p. <a href="#CHAPTER_IV">114-135</a>.</p> + <p class="ctr medium bold"> + <em>Section II.</em>—<span + class="smcap">The Earth.</span></p> + <p class="hang1"> + Surface of the Earth — Mountains — Fertility of + Plants — Dissemination of seeds — Preservation of + Plants — Adaptation to different Climates — Number of + Vegetables — Succession of Vegetables — Remarkable + Trees — Sensitive Plants — Kitchen Vegetables — Garden + Flowers — Religious Improvement.</p> + <p class="rt"> + p. <a href="#CHAPTER_IV_2">136-165</a>.</p> + <p class="ctr medium bold"> + <em>Section III.</em>—<span + class="smcap">Minerals.</span></p> + <p class="hang1"> + Gold — Silver — Platina — Mercury — Copper — Iron — Tin — Lead + — Nickel — Zinc — Palladium — Bismuth — Antimony — Tellurium — + Arsenic — Cobalt — Manganese — Tungsten — Molybdenum — + Uranium — Titanium — Chromium — Columbium or + Tantalium — Cerium — Oxmium — Rodium — Iridium — Religious + Improvement.</p> + <p class="rt"> + p. <a href="#CHAPTER_IV_3">165-183</a>. + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span></p> + + <p class="ctr large bold v2"> + CHAPTER V.<br /> + <span class="small">FOURTH DAY.</span></p> + <p class="ctr medium bold"> + <em>Section I.</em>—<span + class="smcap">The Sun.</span></p> + <p class="hang1"> + Signs — Names — Nature — Motions — Form — Magnitude — Distance + — Suspension — Idolatrous worship of the Sun — The Sun an + emblem of Christ.</p> + <p class="rt"> + p. <a href="#CHAPTER_V">183-198</a>.</p> + <p class="ctr medium bold"> + <em>Section II.</em>—<span + class="smcap">The Moon.</span></p> + <p class="hang1"> + Names — Dimensions — Motions — Seasons — Phases — Harvest Moon + — Moon’s Surface — Aerial Stones — Eclipses — Moonlight — + Epithets — Religious Improvement.</p> + <p class="rt"> + p. <a href="#CHAPTER_V_2">198-214</a>.</p> + <p class="ctr medium bold"> + <em>Section III.</em>—<span + class="smcap">The Seasons.</span></p> + <p class="hang1"> + Seasons: Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter — Displaying Divine + Power, Wisdom, Goodness, Faithfulness — Religious + Improvement.</p> + <p class="rt"> + p. <a href="#CHAPTER_V_3">214-223</a>.</p> + <p class="ctr medium bold"> + <em>Section IV.</em>—<span + class="smcap">The Planets and Fixed Stars.</span></p> + <p class="hang1"> + Mercury — Venus — The Earth — Mars — Ceres — Pallas — Juno — + Vesta — Jupiter — Saturn — Georgium Sidus — Comets — Fixed + Stars — Religious Improvement.</p> + <p class="rt"> + p. <a href="#CHAPTER_V_4">223-278</a>.</p> + <p class="ctr large bold v2"> + CHAPTER VI.<br /> + <span class="small">FIFTH DAY.</span></p> + <p class="ctr medium bold"> + <em>Section I.</em>—<span + class="smcap">Fishes.</span></p> + <p class="hang1"> + Of Fishes in general — The Cetaceous + kind — Cartilaginous — Spinous — Crustaceous — and + Testaceous — Animalcules — Religious Improvement.</p> + <p class="rt"> + p. <a href="#CHAPTER_VI">279-296</a>.</p> + <p class="ctr medium bold"> + <em>Section II.</em>—<span + class="smcap">On Fowls.</span></p> + <p class="hang1"> + Number of Species — Superiority and peculiar + construction — Skill in building their Nests — Power and Season + of Propagation — Dexterity in providing Food — Instinct — + Migrations — Insects — Religious Improvement.</p> + <p class="rt"> + p. <a href="#CHAPTER_VI_2">296-317</a>.</p> + <p class="ctr large bold v2"> + CHAPTER VII.<br /> + <span class="small">SIXTH DAY.</span></p> + <p class="ctr medium bold"> + <em>Section I.</em>—<span + class="smcap">On Quadrupeds and Reptiles.</span></p> + <p class="hang1"> + Quadrupeds in general — Motion — Habits — Rumination — + Proportion — Tastes — Clothing — Weapons — Proportionate + Number — Faculties — Reptiles — Religious Improvement.</p> + <p class="rt"> + p. <a href="#CHAPTER_VII">318-344</a>. + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span></p> + + <p class="ctr medium bold"> + <em>Section II.</em>—<span + class="smcap">Man.</span></p> + <p class="hang1"> + <em>Body</em>: — Its + Creator — Formation — Vitality — Blood — Heart — Arteries and + Veins — Digestion — Respiration — Glands — Absorbents — Nervous + System — Organs of Sense — Bones — Sinovia — Muscles — Tendons + — Cellular Membrane — Skin. <em>Soul</em>: Its Immateriality + — Freedom — Immortality — Moral Image — Adam’s dominion over + the Creatures — Woman — Paradise.</p> + <p class="rt"> + p. <a href="#CHAPTER_VII_2">344-398</a>.</p> + <p class="ctr large bold v2"> + CHAPTER VIII.<br /> + <span class="small">SEVENTH DAY.</span></p> + <p class="ctr medium smcap"> + On the Sabbath.</p> + <p class="hang1"> + Sabbath instituted — Blessed and sanctified — Given to Adam as + a General Precept for his Posterity — Renewed before and at + the giving of the Law — A sign between God and his + people — Worldly Business prohibited — Works of Necessity and + Mercy excepted — Advantages resulting from observing it — A + Seventh Day regarded by the Heathens — The Sabbath of + universal and perpetual obligation — The Lord’s Day.</p> + <p class="rt"> + p. <a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">399-410</a>. + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span></p> + <hr id="CHAPTER_I" class="full" /> + + + <p class="ctr small"> + THE</p> + <p class="ctr bold xxl"> + MOSAIC HISTORY, &c.</p> + <hr class="chap" /> + + <h2> + CHAPTER I.<br /> + <span class="large">ON THE CREATOR OF THE WORLD.</span></h2> + <p class="hang1 smaller"> + Distinguished by his name <span + class="smcap">Jehovah</span> + — His essence and self-existence + expressed by the words <span + class="smcap">I am</span> + — His + attribute of goodness the glory of all his other perfections — + Elohim signifying a Trinity of Persons in a Unity of Essence — + The Creation ascribed to one God, the Father, the Son, and the + Holy Spirit — The first production of matter — The creatures + made for the manifesting of God’s attributes, and that he might + impart happiness to them.</p> + <p class="v2"> + As it is proposed, in the following pages to give the Mosaic + account of the creation of the world, it is very natural that + the mind should come to the meditation of this interesting + subject, by contemplating the character of the Great Creator, + according to his own revelations.</p> + <p> + It is evident that God made himself gradually known, as the + state and condition of mankind required. In the earlier ages + of the world, while revelation was but dawning on the human + race, he was but little known, in comparison of the + subsequent diffusion of his glory and perfections. When he, + according to his promise, came to deliver the children of + Israel out of Egypt, he revealed himself to them by his name + <span class="smcap">Jehovah</span>. He had before declared + himself by this name to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; but not as + it imports the performance of his promises; in which sense, + their posterity afterwards, in the time of Moses, well + understood it.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_1"> + Of all the names which the Divine Being has been pleased to + designate himself by, that of <span + class="smcap">Jehovah</span> + is the greatest. It comes from a root + which imports his eternity, independency, efficacy, and + truth. In the Hebrew it is written with four letters, <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">י</span> + <em>yod</em>, <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ה</span> + <em>he</em>, <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ו</span> + <em>vau</em>, <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ה</span> + <em>he</em>, thus <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">יהוה</span> + i.e. <span class="smcap">Jhvh</span>:<a + href="#Footnote_1" + class="fnanchor">1</a> + the points used in that language, + make our English word consist of seven letters, + J<em>e</em><span + class="smcap">h</span><em>o</em><span + class="smcap">v</span><em>a</em><span + class="smcap">h</span>. + God himself gives the interpretation of this name. “And the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span> + + Lord passed by before him, and proclaimed <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">יהוה</span> + <span + class="smcap">Yehovah</span>, + the <span + class="smcap">Lord God</span>, + merciful and gracious, long-suffering, and + abundant in goodness and truth, keeping mercy for + thousands, forgiving iniquity, and transgression, and sin, + and that will by no means clear the guilty.” These + different names have been considered as so many attributes + of the Divine Nature. Commentators divide them into + eleven, thus: 1. <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">יהוה</span> + <span class="smcap">Jehovah</span>. + 2. <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">אל</span> + <span class="smcap">El</span>, + the strong or mighty God. 3. <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">רחום</span> + <span class="smcap">Rachum</span>, + the merciful Being, who is full of tenderness and compassion. + 4. <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">חנין</span> + <span class="smcap">Chanun</span>, + the gracious One: He, whose nature is goodness itself—the + loving God. 5. <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ארך פיםא</span> + <span class="smcap">Erec apayim</span>, + long-suffering, the Being who, because of his goodness and + tenderness, is not easily irritated, but suffers long and + is kind. 6. <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">רב</span> + <span class="smcap">Rab</span>, + the great or mighty One. 7. <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">חסד</span> + <span class="smcap">Chesed</span>, + the bountiful Being: He who is exuberant in his + beneficence. 8. <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">אמת</span> + <span class="smcap">Emeth</span>, + the Truth, or true One: He alone who can neither deceive nor + be deceived—who is the Fountain of truth, and from whom + all wisdom and knowledge must be derived. 9. <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">נצר חסד</span> + <span class="smcap">Notser chesed</span> + the preserver of + bountifulness: He whose beneficence never ends, keeping + mercy for thousands of generations—showing compassion and + mercy while the world endures. 10. <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">נשא עון ופשע וחטאה</span> + <span class="smcap">nose</span> + <em>âvon vapeshâ vechataah:</em> + He who bears away iniquity and transgression + and sin; properly the <span + class="smcap">Redeemer</span>, + the Pardoner, the Forgiver, the Being whose prerogative alone + it is to forgive sin, and save the soul. <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">נקה (לו) לא ינקה</span> + <span class="smcap">Nakeh</span> + <em>lo yinnakeh</em>, the + righteous Judge, who distributes justice with an impartial + hand; with whom no innocent person can ever be condemned.<a + id="FNanchor_2"></a> + 11. And <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">פקד עון</span> + <span class="smcap">Paked</span> + <em>âvon</em>, &c. He + who visits iniquity; he who punishes transgressors, and from + whose justice no sinner can escape. The God of retributive + and vindictive justice. These eleven attributes, as they have + been termed, are all included in the name <em>Jehovah</em>; + and are the proper interpretation of it.<a + href="#Footnote_2" + class="fnanchor">2</a></p> + <p> + The Jews had a superstitious respect for this name; and, + after the Babylonian captivity, discontinued the use of it, + which caused them soon to forget its true pronunciation. They + called it the <em>Tetragrammaton</em>, or four-lettered name + of God, which, to the present day, the Jews will neither + write nor pronounce. They deemed it to be ineffable; and + therefore when it occurred in reading the Scriptures; + substituted <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">אדני</span> + <em>Adonai</em>.</p> + <p> + The Jews tell us that the woman’s son, mentioned in Lev. + xxxiv, 11, was accused of blasphemy and stoned to death, + because he pronounced the name <em>Jehovah</em>. But I + conceive, that he had spoken contemptuously of God. We read, + verse 10, that he and a man of Israel strove together, and it + is probable that the Israelite, in the heat of contention, + would deny his being a member of the church of God, because he + was the son of an Egyptian father + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span> + + who was an idolater; whereupon, no + doubt, the son of the Israelitish woman spoke scornfully and + opprobriously of the God of Israel, despising the privilege + of being one of his people. This, I imagine, was the + blasphemy of which he was accused, and for which he was + condemned and stoned to death; and not for pronouncing the + name of <em>Jehovah</em> only.</p> + <p> + The Seventy who translated the Old Testament into Greek, at + the desire of Ptolemy Philadelphus, King of Egypt, about the + 124th Olympiad, were also very sparing in the use of this + name <em>Jehovah</em>; and therefore did not render it + according to the sacred import of the Hebrew, but changed it + into the word <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: Kyrios" + class="msg">Κυριος</span>, + <em>Lord</em>, which is of the same + signification with <em>Adonai</em> in the Hebrew. Origen, + Jerome, and Eusebius, testify, that, in their time, the Jews + left the name <em>Jehovah</em> written in their copies with + Samaritan characters, instead of the common Chaldee or Hebrew + characters. And those divines, who at the command of King + James translated the Scriptures anew into English, have very + rarely used the word <em>Jehovah</em>, but rendered it + <em>Lord</em>. Yet we may observe, that when this word + <em>Lord</em> is substituted for <em>Jehovah</em>, it is + printed in large Roman letters. It is to be wished, that the + name <em>Jehovah</em> had been preserved in the English + translation of the Scriptures, and especially in those + passages whose sense entirely depends on the meaning of the + word.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_3"> + After the appointment of Moses, by Jehovah, to deliver the + children of Israel from the tyranny and oppression under + which they groaned, and to conduct them from Egypt to worship + God at Horeb, he was anxious to obtain a particular + revelation of the Divine nature and attributes, that he might + be able to regulate, direct, and superintend their worship; + and this he deemed necessary on account of the Israelites + having been long conversant among the Egyptians, who were + idolaters and polytheists, and called their gods by a variety + of names. Hereupon he said to God, “Behold, when I come unto + the children of Israel, and shall say unto them, The God of + your fathers hath sent me unto you; and they shall say unto + me, What is his name? what shall I say unto them?” + Intimating, that it was expedient God should call himself by + an appropriate name, to distinguish himself from all the gods + of the heathen. For men did not, at this time, as Dr. + Shuckford observes, know the works of creation well enough to + demonstrate from them the attributes of God; nor could they, + by speculation, form proper and just notions of his nature. + Though he had revealed himself to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, + by the name <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">אני אל שדי</span> + <em>Ani El shaday</em>, “I am God all-sufficient,” and likewise + that of <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">יהוה</span> + <em>Jehovah</em>; yet a further knowledge of him was + sincerely desired and earnestly requested.<a + href="#Footnote_3" + class="fnanchor">3</a></p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span> + + Whereupon, says God to Moses, <span + class="smcap">I am</span> + <em>that</em> <span + class="smcap">I am</span>, + <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">אהיה אשר אהיה</span> + <span class="smcap">Eheyeh</span> + <em>asher</em> <span + class="smcap">Eheyeh</span>. + The Vulgate translates these words—<span + class="smcap">Ego sum qui sum</span>, + <em>I am who am</em>. The Septuagint—<span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: Egô eimi ho Ôn" + class="msg">Εγω ειμι ὁ Ων</span>, + <em>I am he who exists</em>. The Arabic paraphrases + them—<em>The Eternal, who passes not away</em>. Not + <em>I was</em>, but <span + class="smcap">I am</span> + and <span + class="smcap">will be</span>: + a name that expresses his own essence, and + signifies independency, immutability, and necessary + existence. As if he had said, You may inquire who I am, and + by what name I would be distinguished: know then that <span + class="smcap">I am he</span> + who has being from himself, and has no dependence on any + other.<a + href="#Footnote_4" + class="fnanchor">4</a> + This contains in it the whole + plenitude and possibility of being, all that is, or can + be, or, as the Apostle expresses it, <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: pan to plêrôma tês" + class="msg">παν το πληρωμα της + Θεοτητος</span> + “all the fulness of the Godhead.” By this name he + is distinguished not only from all false gods, but from + all other beings whatsoever; implying, that he exists + after some very eminent and peculiar manner, and that + nothing else besides him truly and essentially is.<a + href="#Footnote_5" + class="fnanchor">5</a></p> + <p> + The self-existence of God proves that he always was, and + evidently shows that he cannot cease to be. “He is, and was, + and is to come.” His necessary existence comprehends a + duration which has neither beginning, succession, nor end. He + can have no succession in his duration, because wherever this + is there must be priority, and wherever there is a priority + there must be a beginning. He is in the complete possession + of an endless life, all at once. He exists in one eternal + <em>now</em>. He is unchangeable in his essence or manner of + existence, so that no perfection can be added to him, nor any + excellency taken from him, but he remains invariably the + same.</p> + <p> + All natural perfections are essential to him as an infinite + being, such as eternity, omnipotence, immensity, omniscience, + spirituality, and immutability; and all moral perfections + belong to him as a good Being, such as wisdom, holiness, + justice, goodness, truth, faithfulness. These latter are + communicable, because there are some rays of them in his + creatures, but none of them in that transcendent degree that + are in him, nor ever can be. The former we call his + <em>natural</em> and <em>incommunicable</em> perfections, for + the sake of distinction; though it is certain the latter are + equally as natural to + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span> + + him, and incommunicable, in that infinite + degree possessed by himself.</p> + <p> + God being unchangeable in his essence, must also be so in all + his perfections, because they are no other than his essence, + and are not distinguished in him, either from his essence, or + from one another; but are one and the same Being, revealed + and manifested to us, under various notions, which we call + <em>attributes</em>, to help us the better to conceive of + him, who are not able to apprehend what may be known of him, + under any one name, or by any one act of our understanding.</p> + <p> + The combination of all his perfections renders him a glorious + Being; and that fixed and invariable state of contentment and + satisfaction, complacency and delight, which result from the + secure possession and enjoyment of all that is good and + desirable, or, in other words, of all possible excellencies + and perfections in the highest degree, constitutes him + infinitely blessed.</p> + <p> + Moses was favored with another remarkable and interesting + manifestation of the Divine Being; for perceiving God’s + merciful condescension in answer to his prayers offered up + for his people, he persevered in the holy exercise, and even + asked him for a manifestation of his glory: “Show me,” said + he, “I beseech thee, thy glory,” or, according to the + original, “make me see it.” He could not mean an open view of + the unclouded majesty of God, but only such a display of the + Divine glory as a mortal is capable of beholding. God + answered, “I will make all my <em>goodness</em> to pass + before thee:” intimating, that his <em>goodness</em> is his + glory, and that he could not bear the infinite splendor of + his holiness and justice. <em>Goodness</em> is the true and + genuine character of God, and the glory of all his other + perfections, and by it they are all rendered engaging. + Without this they would be terrible: for wisdom without + goodness degenerates into insidious cunning; and power + without it is the character of a tyrant. Were God destitute + of this amiable perfection, he would have such a defect in + his nature, as infinite perfection itself, in every other + attribute, could not sufficiently compensate.</p> + <p> + All nations have acknowledged this perfection of the Divine + Being. Plato calls him the <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: idea tou agathou" + class="msg">ιδεα του αγαθου</span>, + the idea or essence of goodness. In the three principles of + the Platonic Trinity—<span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: to agathon" + class="msg">το αγαθον</span> + <em>goodness</em>, <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: nous" + class="msg">νους</span> + <em>intelligence</em>, and <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: psychê" + class="msg">ψυχη</span> + <em>vitality</em>.—The + first place is assigned to the <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: to agathon" + class="msg">το αγαθον</span> + <em>goodness</em>, which + the Platonists conceive to be like an immense and most pure + light, continually diffusing and communicating its + invigorating beams. To this the Platonist Boctius alludes, in + that celebrated description of God, where he calls him + <em>Fons Boni Lucidus</em>, the lucid fountain of + goodness.—There is an ancient cabalistical table, supposed to + be borrowed + from the Pythagoreans, which represents, in a visible scheme, + the order of the Divine perfections: wherein it is observable + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span> + + that <em>goodness</em> presides over, and gives laws and + measures to all the other attributes of God.</p> + <p> + Philo says, God is the name of <em>goodness</em>; and our + English word, adds a late author, seems to be a contraction + of the word <em>good</em>; or, however, is the same with the + German <i + lang="deu" + xml:lang="deu">Got</i>, + or <i + lang="deu" + xml:lang="deu">Godt</i>, + which came, as is thought, from the Arabic word <i + lang="ara" + xml:lang="ara">Gada</i>, + of the same signification. So that + the German and the English name of the Supreme Being, in + common use, is taken from the attribute of his + <em>goodness</em>. “The word itself is pure Anglo-saxon,” + says Dr. Adam Clarke, “and, among our ancestors, signified + not only the Divine Being, now commonly designated by the + word, but also <em>good</em>; as in their apprehension it + appears, that <em>God</em> and <em>Good</em> were correlative + terms; and when they thought or spoke of him, they were ever + led from the word itself to consider him as <span + class="smcap">the good Being</span> + a fountain of infinite benevolence and beneficence towards + his creatures.” The word <span + class="smcap">God</span>, + expressed in the old Saxon, + is <em>bona res</em>, a good thing.</p> + <p> + That God is <em>good</em>, is the constant language of Divine + revelation; for this attribute is every where celebrated, + both in the Old and New Testament. It may be distinguished as + <em>natural</em>, <em>moral</em>, and <em>communicative</em>. + The first of these is the absolute perfection of his nature, + which is goodness itself in its very essence. He is + originally good, and that of himself; which is a property + peculiar to no other creature, for all the goodness of the + creature is derived from God. He is infinitely and therefore + incomprehensively good to men and angels; hence his goodness + knows no limits. We read of the “riches of his goodness,” + which are as “unsearchable,” as is his “greatness.” He is + immutably good, for “the goodness of God endureth + continually.” And as his dependence on no one admits not of + his being changed by others, so neither does his immutability + admit of it by himself; for if he alter for the better he was + not God before, and if for the worse, he then would not be + God. Thus he is essentially, originally, infinitely, + incomprehensibly, and unchangeably good.</p> + <p> + The <em>moral</em> goodness of God is his perfect purity or + holiness; therefore his goodness and holiness are + united—“good and upright is the Lord.” According to any + rational opinion we can form of him, he is a Being possessed, + not only of every natural power and perfection, but of every + moral excellence. The holiness of his nature removes him to + the greatest possible distance from all moral evil, and makes + him necessarily approve of moral good. All his designs are + pure and upright, and worthy of himself: he always acts + according to the perfect rectitude of his own nature. Though + he is not under the direction of any superior, yet his own + rectitude always determines him to pursue what is right to be + done towards his creatures. This property of the Divine Being + greatly heightens our idea of his excellence, and + naturally points him out as the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span> + + Governor of mankind. And as + he adheres to it in his own conduct and administration, and + likewise approves and loves it in his rational creatures, + whom he governs; so he disapproves and hates the reverse in + them, and will most certainly animadvert upon the temper and + behavior of those who act contrary to his divine admonitions, + and make them most sensibly feel the effects of their + wickedness.</p> + <p> + The <em>communicative</em>, or relative goodness of God, or + his goodness to his creatures, is his inclination or + self-propension to deal well and bountifully with them. As + the notion of God includes goodness, so the idea of goodness + implies holy diffusiveness. Therefore, says the Psalmist, + “Thou art good, and doest good.” All that we are, have, or + hope for, that is good, proceeds from God as its fountain; + hence he is called, “the fountain of living waters.” This + communicative goodness implies, that, from his + all-sufficiency, he is ready to impart to his creatures + whatever their necessities require. This attribute is + universal: “he is good to all” his creatures from the highest + angel to the meanest reptile; especially, to his people, + “Truly,” says the Psalmist, “God is good to Israel, even to + such as are of a clean heart.” But, though God is good to all + his creatures, yet he is not equally so in the same kind and + degree of blessings. His munificence is regulated by his + wisdom, and the different capacities with which he has formed + his creatures makes this inequality necessary.</p> + <blockquote> + <p> + [There is one vast and awful question which must occur to + every reflecting mind—<em>What is God?</em></p> + <p> + As it regards his <em>Nature</em>, the Scriptures say, He + is a <em>Spirit</em>. We must therefore, conceive the + Creator to be, a <em>Living</em>, <em>Rational</em>, + <em>Benevolent</em>, and <em>Spiritual</em> <span + class="smcap">Essence</span>; + absolutely, necessarily, and + naturally <em>perfect</em>, and, therefore, + <em>immaterial</em>, <em>uncompounded</em>, + <em>indivisible</em>, and <em>eternal</em>.</p> + <p> + It is necessarily understood that this essence is + <em>peculiar</em>: that there is nothing in its nature + which has any resemblance to <em>created</em> substances, + whether material or spiritual; and that it is + <em>underived</em>, and consequently, <em>independent</em>.</p> + <p> + This Divine Essence being immaterial, impalpable, simple + and indivisible, cannot have <em>body</em> or + <em>parts</em>: nor can it be said to be a <em>whole</em>, + for this would imply an <em>aggregation</em> of parts: but + is itself a perfect, absolute, single, and eternal <span + class="smcap">Individuality</span>, + incapable of self-multiplication, or increase; or of + diminishing itself, or endangering its existence.</p> + <p> + This essence is a <em>living</em> essence; and, therefore, + has inherently the power and principles of <em>action</em>: + It is a <em>rational</em> essence, and therefore, must act + according to the eternal principles of <em>reason</em> and + <em>right</em>: It is a <em>benevolent</em> essence, and + therefore, all its actions must be infinitely <em>good</em> + and <em>kind</em>. Absolute <em>perfection</em>, + <em>infinitude</em>, and <em>sovereignty</em> in all these + respects, constitute the Being we call God.</p> + <p> + As God is a single, indivisible, independent, and eternal + <span class="smcap">Unit</span>, we + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span> + + cannot ascribe <em>different</em> perfections, or attributes + to him, so as to suppose one attribute <em>separate from, and + independent of</em> another, capable of acting <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">per se</i>, + or participating + <em>conjunctively</em> with other attributes <em>as an + integer</em>. Nor can we suppose this eternal, and + independent Unit to act by being <em>operated upon</em> + in any degree, by other agents, nor can he operate on + himself. All his actions, therefore, spring from + himself, and are performed <em>without excitement, + effort, means, or previous ratiocination</em>.</p> + <p> + It will follow from the preceding reasoning, that every + action of the Divine Being, in regard to himself, is + precisely the same in <em>nature</em>: so that we cannot + say of one act it is an effort of his <em>power</em> to the + <em>exclusion</em> of his wisdom: nor of his wisdom to the + exclusion of his goodness: nor of his goodness to the + exclusion of his holiness: and so of the rest. Strictly + speaking we cannot say the power <em>of</em> God; the + wisdom <em>of</em> God; the goodness <em>of</em> God, + &c.; because the power of God <em>is</em> God; the + wisdom of God <em>is</em> God; the goodness of God + <em>is</em> God.</p> + <p> + In contemplating this awful subject <em>abstractly</em>, we + should say there are no such things as <em>attributes</em> + in the Divine Being, <em>as they are commonly + understood</em>. What we call his attributes, are only + different modes of the operations of the same eternal, + undivided, and independent Unit. Indeed, God is one entire + perfection which exerts itself in different ways and + actions.</p> + <p> + But as we cannot comprehend this single entire perfection; + nor understand <em>how</em> it exerts the whole of itself, + as a single indivisible agent, <em>in each particular + act</em>, as it really does, mankind have always been in + the habit of assisting their contemplations by regarding + the <em>nature</em> of the acts of this single, + indivisible, and eternal agent, and thus <em>infering</em> + the nature of the Divine Being. And as these acts appear to + differ in <em>quality</em>, we infer a quality in the + agent, corresponding with the quality of the actions which + we see: we call this quality by a <em>name</em>, and + <em>thus derive the doctrine of attributes</em>.</p> + <p> + For example: When we see this single, indivisible agent + manifesting himself in such a manner as to give us the idea + of <em>unlimited power</em>, we ascribe + <em>omnipotence</em> to him, as an attribute. When we see a + manifestation indicating <em>infinite wisdom</em>, we + ascribe <em>omniscience</em> to him as an attribute. In the + same manner in reference to the manifestations which + indicate justice, goodness, mercy, truth, holiness, + faithfulness, righteousness, kindness, &c., all of + which we ascribe to him upon such indications.</p> + <p> + Although <em>this rationale</em>, in contemplating the + Divine Being, is necessary to <em>creatures</em>, yet it is + calculated to lead the mind into error. We am insensibly + inclined to ascribe the divine actions to those attributes + <em>exclusively</em> which we suppose they indicate. This, + probably, has been the most fatal error of mankind, and, + doubtless, laid the foundation of darkness and idolatry. We + must never conceive that any act of the Divine Being + proceeds from <em>one</em> or more attributes to the + <em>exclusion</em> of others; or that one attribute + participates <em>more</em> in one act than another. This is + the fatal mistake. Hence theologians have become blind + and foolish, bewildering the multitude by building + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span> + + up theories on the consideration of a single attribute; thus + making the Divine Being to consist of parts, and these + parts independent too. Instances of this awful mistake + might be given, but it scarcely comes within the design of + this paper. It is sufficient to say; if we conceive + correctly of the divine acts, <em>we will ascribe each + equally to all the Divine Attributes</em>.</p> + <p> + As we conceive this single, indivisible, underived, + independent, and eternal agent, or perfection to be + absolutely infinite, and illimitable in all possible ways, + or manner, of exerting Himself, we, of course, conceive all + the qualities, indicated by the divine acts, which we call + attributes, to be absolutely infinite, perfect, and + eternal: and thus we derive the doctrine of the absolute + perfection, and infinitude of all, and each of the Divine + Attributes.</p> + <p> + From the foregoing reflections, the reader will readily + conceive of the Divine Being, as a Living, Rational, + Benevolent, and Spiritual Essence, existing as a single, + underived, independent, Unit: a Unit, not in reality + consisting of attributes, or perfections, but itself one + single, entire perfection: exerting itself not by + attributes, but as an individual Unit or Agent, in such a + manner that each action is the action of the Divine Being, + and not of one or more of his attributes: that the + existence of this single, underived, independent, and + eternal Agent, was, and is <em>necessary</em>, and, + therefore, he could not but have existed, and cannot cease + to be; that He is absolute, and infinite in all possible + ways and manner of acting, and consequently we conceive Him + possessed of all possible perfections in an infinite + degree.]</p> + </blockquote> + <p> + By the assistance of Divine revelation we are enabled further + to pursue our inquiries concerning this very important + subject; and without which, we should be involved in great + darkness and uncertainty, not only respecting his moral + perfections, but the <em>mode</em> of his existence. And this + must be a matter of superior interest to mankind, or our + adorable Creator would not have communicated it, which he + evidently has done through the medium of the Scriptures, + written by Divine inspiration.</p> + <p> + Moses, having received by Divine revelation instruction + concerning the origin and formation of the world, conducts us + at once to its great and adorable Architect. “In the + beginning <span + class="smcap">God</span> + created the heavens + and the earth.” Here he adopts a phraseology to express the + supreme Being, which is generally used in the Old Testament + for the same purpose, and is very important and necessary to + be understood, as it gives us information after what + <em>manner</em> he exists. ‘The original word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">אלהימ</span> + <em>Elohim</em>, God,’ says a great linguist, ‘is + certainly the plural form of <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">אל</span> + <em>el</em>, or <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">אלה</span> + <em>eloah</em>, and has long been supposed, by + the most eminently learned and pious men, to imply a + <em>plurality</em> of persons in the divine nature.’ As + this plurality appears in so many parts of the sacred + writings to be confined to <em>three</em> Persons, namely, + the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, hence the + doctrine of the <span + class="smcap">Trinity</span>.</p> + <p> + It is very remarkable that we no sooner open the Bible, than + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span> + + this doctrine is presented to our view. The laws and + ordinances established among the Jews were designed to guard + that people from idolatry, which in Abraham’s time had become + very general. On the recollection of this circumstance it + appears extraordinary that Moses, when he is describing the + creation of the world, should, in order to express his + conceptions of the Divine Being, introduce a term which + implies <em>plurality</em>; and, frequently connecting it + with verbs and persons singular, should use that term + <em>thirty</em> times in the short account of the creation, + when the language afforded other words in the singular number + that would have answered his purpose equally well; nay, if he + did not wish to express a <em>plurality</em>, that + grammatical accuracy should have led him to adopt. When he + made use of a plural noun for the name of God, which he has + done, perhaps, <em>five hundred</em> times more in one form + or other in the five books of his writings, this + <em>plurality</em>, I apprehend, was the idea he meant to + convey to mankind. He, or rather the <span class="smcap">Holy + Spirit</span>, by whom he was inspired to write his history, + meant to give some hints and intimations of a doctrine more + clearly to be revealed in future ages.<a + href="#Footnote_6" + class="fnanchor">6</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_7"> + The ancient Jews understood <i lang="he" xml:lang="he">Elohim</i> + as conveying the idea of a plurality in the Godhead. “Come,” + says one of them, “and see the mystery of the word + <em>Elohim</em>: there are <em>three degrees</em>, and + each degree by itself <em>alone</em>, and yet notwithstanding + they are all <em>one</em>, and joined together in one, and are + not <em>divided</em> from each other.”<a + href="#Footnote_7" + class="fnanchor">7</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_8"> + R. Bechai, a celebrated author among the Jews, discoursing of + the word <em>Elohim</em>, and of the + import and signification of it, adds these words:—“According + to the cabalistical way, this name <em>Elohim</em> is two + words, namely, <em>El him</em>, that is, <em>they are God</em>. + But the explanation of the Yod is to be fetched from + Eccles. xii, 1, <em>Remember thy <span + class="smcap">Creators</span></em>. + He that is prudent will + understand it.” These words do sufficiently prove the + Cabala among the Jews, says Bishop Kidder, that though the + Divine Nature was but <em>one</em>, yet there was some + kind of <em>plurality</em> in this Divine Nature; and this + is fairly insinuated in the <em>Bara Elohim</em>, which we + find in the beginning of Genesis.<a + href="#Footnote_8" + class="fnanchor">8</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_9"> + John Xeres, a Jew converted in England some years ago, + published a sensible and affectionate address to his + unbelieving brethren, wherein he says, that “the word + <em>Elohim</em>, which we render <span + class="smcap">God</span> + in Gen. i, 1, is of the plural number, + though annexed to a verb of the singular number; which,” + says he, “demonstrates as evidently as may be, that there + are several persons partaking of the same + Divine nature and essence.”<a + href="#Footnote_9" + class="fnanchor">9</a></p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span> + + It is clear too, how sensible the Jews have been that there + is a notion of <em>plurality</em> plainly imported in the + Hebrew text, since they have forbidden their common people + the reading of the history of the creation, lest, + understanding it literally, they should be led unto + heresy.<a + href="#Footnote_10" + class="fnanchor">10</a> + When the Scriptures are + suppressed, or the common people denied the use of them, + it may with propriety be presumed that their superiors, + who act in an arbitrary and unjust manner, have embraced + anti-scriptural notions, and, in order to prevent + detection, lay aside the only infallible <em>test</em> of + truth; and, to conceal their base motives, and make their + deleterious conduct appear not only plausible, but + necessary and proper, they boldly assert the incompetency + of the people to judge of scripture doctrines for + themselves, and wish to be considered compassionate and + friendly in judging and deciding for them. The fact is, + the common people are denied the use of the Scripture, + lest understanding it in a certain sense, which their + superiors call heresy, it should lead them into the + understanding of plain and unequivocal facts stated + therein, and which are of the utmost importance for them + to know.</p> + <p> + It may be observed here likewise, that the Hebrew doctors + always supposed the first verse of Genesis to contain some + latent mystery. The Rabbi Ibba indeed expressly says it does, + and adds, “This mystery is not to be revealed, till the + coming of the Messiah.”</p> + <p id="FNanchor_11"> + Mr. Parkhurst, who has greatly distinguished himself in + Hebrew literature, and to whose pious and learned labors most + Biblical students are indebted, says, “Let those who have any + doubt whether <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">אלהימ</span> + <em>Elohim</em>, when + meaning the true God, Jehovah, be <em>plural</em> or not, + consult the following passages, where they will find it joined + with adjectives, pronouns, and verbs <em>plural</em>:” he refers + to twenty-five texts in the Old Testament on this + occasion.<a + href="#Footnote_11" + class="fnanchor">11</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_12"> + If Moses and the Jews held the doctrine of the Trinity, and + the word <em>Elohim</em> imports <em>plurality</em>, it is + natural to ask, How comes it to pass that the Septuagint + version renders the plural name Elohim, when used for the + true God, by the singular one <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: Theos" + class="msg">Θεος</span>, + and never by the plural <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: Theoi" + class="msg">Θεοι</span>? + The learned Ridley,<a + href="#Footnote_12" + class="fnanchor">12</a> + after Allix, has answered this question. He says, “The + Talmudists own that the <span + class="smcap">lxxii</span> + Interpreters did purposely change the notion of + <em>plurality</em> implied in the Hebrew <em>Elohim</em> + into the Greek singular, lest + Ptolemy Philadelphus should conclude that the Jews, as + well as himself, had a belief of Polytheism.” And Bishop + Huntingford adds, “Of all the Greek appellations of + Divinity, <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: Theos" + class="msg">Θεος</span> + was the only simple + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span> + + and direct term which they could adopt, to counteract idolatrous + misconceptions.”</p> + <p id="FNanchor_13"> + This phraseology, as to its signification, is not peculiar to + Moses, but is used by the other sacred writers also, and + exactly accords with the whole tenor of Divine revelation. + The creation of the world is ascribed to the Father, the Son, + and the Holy Spirit, as joint, concurring, equal, and + efficient causes thereof, in the Scriptures. It will not + surely be presuming too much, says Bishop Huntingford, if we + suppose Joshua and Solomon to be more deeply instructed in + the Jewish Religion, than to be capable of using improper + language respecting the Deity. Yet the former says, “Ye + cannot serve the Lord: for he is the Holy Gods;” and the + latter says, “The fear of Jehovah is the beginning of wisdom; + and the knowledge of the Holies is understanding.”<a + href="#Footnote_13" + class="fnanchor">13</a> + Such is the phraseology of the + Hebrew text. In these passages, and others that might be + produced, the word in the Hebrew is in the plural number, + because of the <em>plurality</em> of persons in the + Godhead; but in our translation it is in the + <em>singular</em> number, because of the unity of their + essence.</p> + <p> + But more particularly. The creation of the world is ascribed + to <span + class="smcap">Jehovah</span>: + “I have made the + earth, and created man upon it: I, even my hands, have + stretched out the heavens, and all their host have I + commanded. I am the Lord that maketh all things, that + stretcheth forth the heavens alone, that spreadeth abroad the + earth by myself.” He had no <em>moving causes</em> exciting + him to create matter and produce a universe, but his own + will, goodness, wisdom, and power. He created all things + himself, without the assistance of <em>any instruments</em>. + The prophet ascribes to God alone the framing and stretching + out of the heavens and the earth without the counsel, + direction, or ministry of any subordinate agency. “Who hath + measured the waters in the hollow of his hand, and meted out + heaven with a span, and comprehended the dust of the earth in + a measure, and weighed the mountains in scales, and the hills + in a balance? With whom took he counsel, and who instructed + him, and taught him in the path of judgment, and taught him + knowledge, and showed to him the way of understanding?” He + created all things without any <em>toil</em>, <em>labor</em>, + <em>change</em>, or <em>alteration</em> in himself. There was + not in him any transition from rest to labor, from idleness + to business, from strength to weariness. Though “every good + and perfect gift is from above, and cometh down from the + Father of lights,” yet “with him there is no variableness, + neither shadow of turning.” The Prophet says, “Hast thou not + known? hast thou not heard, that the everlasting God, the + Lord, the Creator of the ends of the earth, fainteth not, + neither is weary?” And he proceeded in the work of creation + without <em>any delay</em>: it was not a successive forming of + things by alteration, which required + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span> + + much time to render them + perfect, but was as in a moment, as quickly and readily as a + word is spoken, produced in the rapid succession as recorded + by Moses. This work then God is said to have done + <em>alone</em>, to the exclusion, not of the Son and the + Spirit, but of all that are not God by nature; and by + himself, to the exclusion of all second causes or inferior + agents.</p> + <p> + It is ascribed also to the <span class="smcap">Son</span> of + God. The evangelist John asserts in very express terms the + Divinity of Jesus Christ, of the truth of which he designed + his whole Gospel should be a proof. “In the beginning was the + <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: Logos" + class="msg">Λογος</span> + Word.” By the <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: en archê" + class="msg">εν αρχη</span> + <em>beginning</em>, here, we are + to understand the beginning of the creation, not the + beginning of the gospel state, as the Socinians say. We have + the authority of s, that <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: en archê" + class="msg">εν αρχη</span> + is taken from <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">בראשית</span> + <em>Bereshith</em>, Gen. i, 1, translated + by the Septuagint <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: en archê" + class="msg">εν αρχη</span>, + and consequently must signify, from + <em>the beginning of the creation of God</em>. It is not + said, that <em>he</em> was <em>made</em> in the beginning, + but that he <em>was</em> in the beginning, did exist when + the world began, which is of the same import as if he + said, he was from eternity; for he that did exist in the + beginning, never did himself begin to be. The personal + Wisdom of God says, “The Lord possessed me in the + beginning of his way, before his works of old.”—“And the + Logos,” or “Word, was with God.” He could be with no + creature, because there was no creature in being; and + therefore it is very properly said, that he “was with + God,” the Father; and his being with him shows, that he is + a distinct person or subsistence from the Father.—“And the + Logos,” or “Word was God.” Though he is a person distinct + from that of the Father, yet he is of the very same + essence with him. He that was with God, was God; and if he + was God in the beginning, that is from eternity, he is the + same still, he cannot cease to be what he was. Here then + the evangelist asserts the eternal existence of Christ, + his personal co-existence with the Father, and that he is + of the very same undivided nature and essence with him. + Though he is a person distinct from the Father, yet he is + of the same substance, equal with him in all divine + perfections; not a <em>secondary</em> God, inferior to the + Father, as the Arians assert. “All things were made by + him.” All things, from the highest angel to the meanest + worm, were made by him, not as a subordinate instrument, + but as a co-ordinate agent, as a joint efficient cause, + co-operating with the Father in this work. ‘To say that + Christ made all things by a delegated power from God, is + <em>absurd</em>; because the thing is impossible. Creation + means, causing that to exist that had no previous being: + this is evidently a work which can be effected only by + <em>omnipotence</em>. Now God cannot delegate his + <em>omnipotence</em> to another: were this possible, he + <em>to</em> whom this omnipotence was delegated, would, in + consequence, become God; and he <em>from</em> whom it was + delegated, would <em>cease to be such</em>: for it is + impossible that there should be <em>two</em> + omnipotent beings.’ “And without him was + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span> + + not any thing made that was made.” This is added for the more + certainty, it being usual with the Hebrews, when they would + affirm that a thing is so indeed, to confirm by a particular + negative what they had before affirmed. Our Lord said to + the Jews, “My Father worketh hitherto, and I work.” The + phrase <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: hôs arti" + class="msg">ὡς αρτι</span> + signifies “to this time,” “to the present,” + that is, in all works whatever. Hence he is no creature, + or he must have created himself; and if he created + himself, he must have been in existence and not in + existence at the very same time, which is both + contradictory and absurd. And if every work performed by + the Father was equally performed by the Son, the Son must, + in all respects, be equal to the Father, in nature and + perfections. This our Lord’s words signify and imply, and + in this sense the Jews understood him—as “making himself + equal with God.”<a + href="#Footnote_14" + class="fnanchor">14</a> + “He is the image of God,” the <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: prôtotochos" + class="msg">πρωτοτοχος</span> + “<span + class="smcap">first producer</span> + of every creature: for by him were all things created, that + are in heaven, and that are in earth, visible and + invisible, whether they be thrones, or dominions, or + principalities, or powers:” all the angels, however + diversified in rank or employment in the heavenly world; + and all the rational, animal, vegetable, and inanimate + creatures, belonging to this terrestrial abode: “all + things were made by him,” as the efficient cause, “and for + him,” as the last end.—“God hath in these last days spoken + unto us by his Son, whom he hath appointed heir of all + things, by whom also he made the worlds,” i.e. the heavens + and the earth. The Father does all by the Son, and the Son + does all from the Father. Whatsoever the Father does, that + also does the Son likewise. “Unto the Son he saith, Thy + throne, oh God, is for ever and ever; a sceptre of + righteousness is the sceptre of thy kingdom. Thou, Lord, + in the beginning hast laid the foundation of the earth; + and the heavens are the works of thy hands.” In these + passages the <em>Divinity</em> of Christ is plainly + asserted, and the operations of his power are proofs of + his Godhead. He that is the Creator of all things is God: + but Christ is the Creator of all things; therefore Christ + is God. He calls himself “the Beginning of the creation of + God,” where the word <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: archê" + class="msg">αρχη</span> + means the Creator, the efficient + Cause of all things, he by whose power the creation had + its beginning and perfection. And “he that built all + things is God.”</p> + <p> + The learned Jacob Bryant wrote a very valuable Tract entitled, + <cite>The sentiments of Philo Judæus concerning the <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: LOGOS" + class="msg">ΛΟΓΟΣ</span>, + or Word of God</cite>; from which the + following are quotations. “Philo Judæus speaks at large in + many places of the Word of God, the second person, which he + mentions as <em>the second Divinity</em>, the <em>great + Cause</em> of all things, and styles him as Plato, as well as + the Jews, had done before, the <span + class="smcap">Logos</span>. + Of the Divine Logos or Word he speaks + in many places, and maintains at large the Divinity + of the second Person, and describes his attributes in a very + precise and + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span> + + copious manner, styling him <em>the second Deity, who is + the Word of the supreme God, his first-begotten Son; and the + image of God</em>. In his treatise upon <em>creation</em>, he + speaks of the Word as <em>the Divine operator by whom all + things were disposed</em>: and mentions him as <em>superior + to the angels and all created beings, and the image and + likeness of God</em>, and says, that <em>this image of the + true God was esteemed the same as God</em>. <em>This</em> + <span + class="smcap">Logos</span>, + <em>the</em> <span + class="smcap">Word</span> + <em>of</em> <span + class="smcap">God</span>, + says he, <em>is superior to all the + world, and more ancient; being the productor of all that was + produced. The eternal Word of the everlasting God is the sure + and fixed foundation upon which all things depend</em>.”</p> + <p> + Creation is moreover ascribed to the <span + class="smcap">Holy Spirit</span>. + That the Holy Spirit has a <em>personality</em> + distinct from that of the Father, and + also that of the Son, and a real and proper + <em>Divinity</em>, is a doctrine of Divine revelation. In his + personal capacity, he is not the Father, nor the Son. He + neither is nor can be divided either from the Divine essence, + nor from the other two persons, but yet is personally + distinct from them. His relation to, and mission by, the + Father and the Son, clearly evince his personal distinction. + He is called the Spirit of the <em>Father</em>, and the + Spirit of the <em>Son</em>. He is represented as + <em>sent</em> by the Father, and also as <em>sent</em> by the + Son. These things show that he is a Divine person, and has a + distinct personality. The Holy Spirit is the last in the + order of subsistence: the Father is the first, the Son is the + second, and the Holy Spirit is the third. Yet we should know, + that the Father is not before the Son, nor the Son before the + Holy Spirit, by a priority of time, nor of dignity and + perfections; for the three persons in the Divine essence are + <em>co-eternal</em>.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_15"> + The Holy Spirit was equally concerned with the Father and the + Son in the work of Creation. “By the Word of the Lord were + the heavens made, and all the host of them by the breath + (Heb. Spirit) of his mouth.” The <em>breath</em> or spirit of + the Lord’s <em>mouth</em>, says an excellent author, does + undoubtedly mean the third person of the Trinity; who is + called, “The Spirit of God, and the Breath of the + Almighty.”—“They lift up their voice to God with one accord, + and said, <span + class="smcap">Lord</span>, + thou art <span + class="smcap">God</span>, + which hast made heaven and + earth, and the sea, and all that therein is. <span + class="smcap">Who</span>, + by the mouth of thy servant David, hast + said,” &c. The terms <span + class="smcap">Lord</span> + and <span + class="smcap">God</span> + are here used to express the + Divinity of <em>him</em>, says the same able writer, who + spake <em>by the mouth</em> of his servant David. But it was + the <span + class="smcap">Holy Ghost</span> + who <em>spake by the mouth</em> of his servant David—for, + saith St. Peter, “This Scripture must needs have been + fulfilled, which the <span + class="smcap">Holy Ghost</span>,” + by the mouth of David, “spake,” &c. Therefore the + terms <span + class="smcap">Lord</span> + and <span + class="smcap">God</span> + are certainly used to <em>express the Divinity of the</em> + <span + class="smcap">Holy Ghost</span>.<a + href="#Footnote_15" + class="fnanchor">15</a> + In the work of creation, the “<span + class="smcap">Spirit</span> + of <span + class="smcap">God</span> + moved upon the face of the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span> + + waters,” by + an infinite vitality infusing life, and with a formative + energy giving form. “By his <span + class="smcap">Spirit</span> + he hath garnished the heavens” with + an incalculable number of luminous stars; all those + glittering worlds, which serve for use as well as beauty, + were formed by the Spirit of God.</p> + <p> + As none but the <em>third</em> Person in the Godhead is ever + so much as once in the Scriptures called the <em>Spirit of + God</em>; so the Holy Spirit’s agency in the work of creation + evinces his distinct personality, and is a confirmation of + his proper Divinity. A cause must be equal to the effect it + produces: but no finite spirit could be a joint, concurring, + efficient cause in the work of the creation: therefore the + Holy Spirit is God. Supposing the matter of which the worlds + were made to be called into being out of nothing by the + Almighty power of the Father, or by the fiat of the Son; yet + the animating of the whole lifeless mass, the putting of + every part into motion, the assortment of all the particles, + the assigning of them their proper places, and the completing + of the whole with such astonishing beauty and harmony, which + was the peculiar work of the Holy Spirit, required no less + than an almighty power, which clearly demonstrates that he is + God.</p> + <p> + Thus we see that the creation of the world is ascribed to one + God, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. The Son and + the Holy Spirit were joint Creators, of equal power, and + equal efficiency with the Father. There is no where to be + found in the Scriptures the least hint of different degrees + of creating energy, nor of sole efficiency in one of the + Persons in the Godhead, and a bare instrumental compliance in + the other. The creation was the common effect of their joint + acting: nor is it ever said, nor so much as hinted or + implied, that the distinct Persons in the Godhead had + different provinces, nor that one creature was made by one, + and another creature was the workmanship of another. The + Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, are never represented as acting + separately, but always in conjunction.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_16"> + The sacred historian assures us, that, at the commencement of + time, <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">אלהימ</span> + <em>Elohim</em>, the triune God, caused matter to + exist, which, previous to this astonishing display of his + creating energy, had no being. Moses, as an inspired + author, is the only one who could instruct us in the + formation and unfolding of the world. He is not an + Epicurus, who has recourse to atoms; a Lucretius, who + believes matter to be eternal; a Spinoza, who admits a + material God; a Descartes, who prates about the laws of + motion; but a legislator, who announces to all men without + hesitation, without fear of being mistaken, how the world + was created. Nothing can be more simple, nor more sublime + than his opening: “In the beginning God created the heaven + and the earth.” He could not have spoken more + assuredly, if he had been a spectator; and by these + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span> + + words, mythology, systems, and absurdities, shrink to nought, and + are mere chimeras in the eyes of reason.<a + href="#Footnote_16" + class="fnanchor">16</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_17"> + Had Moses been a fictitious writer, how natural and how easy + would it have been for him to have filled up the first part + of his history with marvellous relations about the creation? + With what pomp of language, with what waste of rhetoric, + could he probably have embellished that surprising scene? + With what a grand <em>apparatus</em> of celestial machinery + might he have made the omnipotent Architect come forth to + build a universe? How many sub-agents and subalterns would a + fabulous poet or historian have employed in this stupendous + and multifarious work? With what solemnity would every part + have been gone about, and with how many episodes, + digressions, and reflections, would the story have been + filled, in order to give it an air of the marvellous? But + read the beginning of Genesis, and observe how differently + Moses writes. No scope is given to fancy or invention. All is + narrated with an ease, plainness, and simplicity, which + evidently shows that he kept close to truth, and laid down + the facts just as they were presented to his mind; a manner + of writing rarely, if at all, to be found in any other + historians, but such as had the honor of being the + <em>amanuensis</em> of the <span + class="smcap">Spirit</span> + of truth.<a + href="#Footnote_17" + class="fnanchor">17</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_18"> + The description which Moses furnishes concerning the + creation, as relating to circumstances previous to the + existence of mankind, could be derived only from immediate + revelation. It was received by the Jews with full conviction + of its truth, on the authority of that <em>inspiration</em> + under which Moses was known to act.<a + href="#Footnote_18" + class="fnanchor">18</a> + And when the creation of the + world began, by the lapse of time, to be removed to a + remote distance, God was pleased thus to provide a + contemporary historian, and appoint a whole nation to be + the guardians of his history; as well that this register + might be the most authentic, as that all mankind might + hence be instructed in the knowledge of a fact, which was + so necessary for them to know, and yet so impossible to be + otherwise ascertained.<a + href="#Footnote_19" + class="fnanchor">19</a></p> + <p> + It may be proper to notice, that some futile objections have + been made to the period which is assigned by Moses to the + creation, as though it were too recent to be reconciled with + reason and philosophical inquiry. How long matter remained in + a quiescent state after its creation, we have no data to + enable us to determine: but, as its resting in an animate + state, so far as we know, could answer no valuable purpose, + we may reasonably conjecture the time would not be long. The + creation of the world began, according to Usher, before the + Christian era 4004 years, if we follow the Hebrew text. The + Septuagint version places it 5872, and the Samaritan 4700 + before the vulgar era.—Sanchoniathon, the first Phenician + historian, according to the most extended accounts of Porphyry, + flourished + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span> + + long after Moses, probably not less than two + hundred years. Manetho, high-priest of Heliopolis, wrote the + Egyptian history only in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, + not more than 300 years before Christ, and professes to have + transcribed his Dynasties from some pillars of Hermes + Trismegistus, written in the Hebrew dialect.—Berosus was the + first noted Chaldean historian, and he was contemporary with + Manetho.—The Chinese have not any work in an intelligible + character above 2200 years old. One of the Chinese emperors, + about 213 years before the Christian era, ordered all their + historical records to be destroyed.—The Greeks could produce + no dates beyond 550 years before Christ, and but little + historical information prior to the Olympiads, which began + 775 years before the Christian era. Orpheus and Museus, + fabulous poets, were not so remote as Moses; for it is + supposed they lived about 200 years after him, in the days of + Gideon. Daries Phrygius and Dystys Cretensis, fabulous poets, + wrote the history of the Trojan war, about 400 years after + Moses. Homer wrote his poems after David’s time, and about <a + id="FNanchor_20"></a> + 550 years after Moses. Herodotus, called the father of + history, who flourished about 450 years before the Christian + era, was the first Grecian historian that deserves the name; + yet he begins with fable. Thucydides rejects, as uncertain, + all that preceded the Peloponnesian war; and Plutarch, not + one of the least historians among the Grecians, ventured not + beyond the time of Theseus, who lived a little before the + ministry of Samuel.<a + href="#Footnote_20" + class="fnanchor">20</a> + So that all these poets and + historians flourished long after the time of Moses, some + of them nearly a thousand years; for he wrote about A. M. + 2460. The works of the Jewish lawgiver are not only the + most ancient, but also the most authentic, of all the + monuments of antiquity.</p> + <p> + If the world were some thousands of years older, it must be + much better peopled than it is at present. Population has + always increased since the deluge, and yet there might be + three times as many more inhabitants on the earth than it at + present contains. It has been computed that at least 5000 + millions of men might live at once on our globe: and yet it + does not appear that there are really more than 1080 + millions. In Asia are reckoned 650 millions; in Africa and + America, 300 millions; and in Europe, 130 millions.</p> + <p> + If we consider the arts invented by men, we shall find that + few or none of them have been discovered more than two or + three thousand years. Man owes not only to his nature and + reason the aptitude he has for acquiring arts and sciences, + but he is also led to this by necessity; by the desire he has + to procure himself conveniences and pleasures; by vanity and + ambition; and by luxury, the child of abundance, which + creates new wants. This propensity is evident among all men, + in all ages. History carries us back to the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span> + + time when men had + scarcely invented the most necessary arts; when those arts + which were known were but very imperfectly understood; and in + which they scarcely knew any thing of the first principles of + the sciences.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_21"> + About four thousand years ago, men were still in a state of + great ignorance concerning most subjects; and if we calculate + according to the progress which they made since that time, + and afterwards go back to the remotest periods, we may with + tolerable exactness fix the era when men knew nothing; which + is, in other words, that of the infancy of the human race. + Were their existence to be carried higher, it is utterly + improbable that the most useful and necessary arts should + have continued unknown to them through such a long series of + ages. On the contrary, all that can be discovered by the + human mind must have been known a long time ago. From this + circumstance therefore we must conclude, that the origin of + the human race can have no other era than that which Moses + has assigned it in his history of the creation.<a + href="#Footnote_21" + class="fnanchor">21</a></p> + <p> + If it be asked, What! was God a <em>solitary</em> Being? Did + he exist alone, before this exertion of his glorious power? + Formed as we are for society, we have no conception of any + satisfaction arising from a state of absolute loneliness; nor + can we conceive that the Deity should rest <em>inactive</em> + from eternity, and not exert those amazing powers of which + the stupendous creation proves he is amply possessed? There + are some particulars naturally deducible from questions like + these, which we cannot solve. We have no adequate + apprehension of eternity; we are lost in the idea. And when + we attempt to contemplate God existing from eternity without + <em>cause</em> or as <em>beginning</em> to exist, we are + utterly lost in the speculation; for among all the objects + that come within the reach of our senses, we see nothing + existing that has not had a cause to produce it. We + frequently smile at children, when they ask their little + simple questions, as we deem them; but we are mere children + ourselves, in this profound ocean of wonder. But something + very observable strikes an attentive reader in the Mosaic + account of the creation, which suggests that the Deity is not + a solitary Being, existing in such an absolute <em>unity</em> + as to exclude all degree of personality or communion. For + <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">אלהימ</span> + <em>Elohim</em>, as we have already + observed, the very first name by which Moses calls God, being + plural, shows that though he exists in an undivided unity of + nature, yet in a Trinity of Persons. And this notion of a + plurality, so far from being contrary to reason, is more + agreeable to it than any opinion of the absolute + <em>unity</em> of the Divine nature. For conceive we only + three Divine persons mutually to partake of the Divine + essence or nature, to be united by the same perfect will, + and to possess the same infinite powers and perfections; + and all our apprehensions of the loneliness + of solitary existence immediately subside; + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span> + + the Father, the + Son, and the Holy Ghost, consummately happy in each other, + have been from eternity reciprocal objects of complacence, + and will remain such for ever. Let this argument be fairly + and impartially considered, and the notion of a Trinity of + Subsistences in a Unity of the Divine Nature, will appear + far more consonant to reason, and liable to less + objections, than that of mere solitary and absolute unity.<a + href="#Footnote_22" + class="fnanchor">22</a></p> + <blockquote> + <p> + [<em>A further consideration of the suggestion in the close + of the last paragraph.</em></p> + <p> + Although nothing can be clearer than that the Divine + Essence is <em>one</em>, simple, and indivisible; + <em>yet</em> this does not prevent it from subsisting in + <em>personality</em>, i.e. <em>in a plurality of + persons</em>.</p> + <p> + It must be carefully observed, that the plurality has + regard to the <em>persons</em>, not to the Essence. We + cannot say there is a plurality of Essences; but we can + say, the Living, Rational, Benevolent, and Spiritual + Essence <em>subsists in three persons</em>. This then is + the <span + class="smcap" + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">modus existendi</span> + of the Divine Being.</p> + <p> + Although we are assured this is his <em>mode of + existence</em>, we do not pretend to comprehend the + <em>nature</em> of it. We may, without any injury to the + proposition, affirm, the <em>nature</em> of the fact is + incomprehensible by <em>created intellect</em>. Yet the + fact itself is sufficiently well attested, and is not + repugnant to reason, though it is above the comprehension + of reason.</p> + <p> + It is believed by many very learned, pious, and eminent + men, that the doctrine of a <em>plurality of persons in the + Godhead</em>, can be established by an argumentation + founded solely on the acknowledged nature of the Divine + Being.</p> + <p> + The Rev. <span + class="smcap">James Kidd</span>, + Prof. of + Oriental Languages, Marischal College and University, + Aberdeen, with the approbation of many learned men in + England, among whom is Dr. Adam Clarke, in whose house he + delivered private lectures on his manuscript, has published + a very able and satisfactory essay on this plan, of which a + brief clue to the mode of argumentation is here attempted.</p> + <p> + A. <em>The Divine Being is a necessarily existent, and an + eternally, immensely, and immutably Living, Intelligent, + Rational, Moral, Benevolent, and Spiritual Essence.</em></p> + <p> + B. <em>The very <span + class="smcap">Law</span> + of the nature of such a being, is eternal, immense, and + immutable <span + class="smcap">activity</span>, + <span + class="smcap">energy</span>, + and <span + class="smcap">efficiency</span>, + exercised eternally, immensely, and immutably, <span + class="smcap">according to his own nature</span>.</em></p> + <p> + C. <em>That such a being <span + class="smcap">was</span> + as necessarily existent, perfect, and happy, <span + class="smcap">before</span> + creation, and providence as since; and would forever + continue as necessarily existent, perfect, and happy, if + creation and providence should cease to be.</em></p> + <p> + These three propositions are so obviously true, every + reader will readily and cordially grant them. It is + proposed, therefore, to show, from the nature of the Divine + Being, <em>that his Essence <span + class="smcap">must</span> + subsist in a plurality of persons</em>.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span> + + The proposition does not contemplate an explanation of the + <em>manner</em> of this subsistence; nor, at present, the + <em>number</em> of persons; but the simple fact, + <em>That</em> <span + class="smcap">from the very nature of the Divine Being, + his Essence must subsist in plural personality</span>.</p> + <p> + The existence of a being, or the possession, or exercise of + any principle, passion or attribute, <em>implies + personality</em>, or individual identity, which is the same + thing. The mind cannot conceive of existence, passion, + principle, or action, without conceiving of them inhering + in actually existing Essence, which <em>must</em> assume in + the mind the idea of personality. Therefore, + <em>personality</em> is strictly, and properly applicable + to the Divine Essence. But the doctrine of a + <em>plural</em> personality is to be established at + present.</p> + <p> + It will be easily conceived, and readily granted, that a + being which exists necessarily, eternally, immensely, and + immutably, as a Living, Intelligent, Rational, Moral, + Benevolent, and Spiritual Essence, <em>must have exercised + Himself, and his perfections, necessarily, eternally, + immensely, and immutably</em>. This then is granted. But + the mind will readily and easily perceive, that the Divine + Being could not have exercised Himself <span + class="smcap">thus</span>, + <em>in the works of Creation and + Providence</em>. Because, it is readily admitted, there + <em>was</em> a time when Creation and Providence + <em>began</em>: during a whole eternity <em>beyond</em> + this period, there was no existence except God Himself. + Consequently, He <em>cannot</em> have been exercised + according to his own nature and perfections, + <em>eternally</em>, in reference to Creation and + Providence.</p> + <p> + Again: He cannot have exercised his perfections + <em>immensely</em>, in reference to Creation and + Providence: because, however extensive we may conceive the + empire of Creation and Providence to be, it is not + <em>immense</em>; it is actually limited, and, therefore, + could not admit of an <em>immense exercise of his nature + and perfections</em>.</p> + <p> + It is readily granted, that the Divine Being was as + necessarily, and perfectly happy <em>before</em> Creation + and Providence as since; and if Creation and Providence + should cease, his happiness would continue the same: hence, + it follows, necessarily, that the happiness of the Divine + Being was, is, and ever will be entirely + <em>independent</em> of Creation and Providence.</p> + <p> + But the happiness of any being consists, essentially, + <em>in the exercise of its powers and perfections according + to the law of its own nature</em>. And as it has been + shown, that the happiness of the Divine Being is eternal, + immense, and immutable, it follows, <em>He must have + exercised Himself eternally, immensely, and immutably.</em></p> + <p> + As it has been <em>granted</em>, That from the very nature + of the Divine Being, He must have been eternally, + immensely, and immutably active and happy, according to the + law of his own nature: and it has been <em>proven</em>, + That He could not have been eternally, immensely, and + immutably active and happy, in reference to Creation and + Providence, it follows, necessarily, that the <em>means</em> + and <em>principles</em> of these eternal, immense, and + immutable activity and happiness, <em>must exist <span + class="smcap">in his own constitution</span>, + and be exercised entirely <span + class="smcap">within</span> + Himself</em>.</p> + <p> + This conclusion cannot be denied, granting the premises in + the propositions A. B. C. in reference to the Divine Being. It + remains + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span> + + to be proven, That such principles, and means of + eternal, immense and immutable activity and happiness + <em>cannot</em> be conceived of in the constitution of the + Divine Being, <em>without conceiving his essence to subsist + in plural personality</em>.</p> + <p> + The consideration simply of the nature and eternal activity + of the Divine Being would establish the idea of <em>plural + personality</em> in his Essence: because the mind cannot + conceive, that the same single being can be both + <em>agent</em> and <em>object, in reference to the same + action</em>. And as it has been proven, that + <em>previous</em> to the existence of Creation and + Providence, God existed eternally <em>alone</em>, + consequently, no possible form of existence but Himself, + and yet he was eternally, immensely, and immutably active + and happy; it will follow irresistibly, that <em>there must + be a plurality in his single Essence</em>; and the mind + naturally assumes, this plurality is <em>personal</em>; as + it cannot conceive of activity, and happiness without + conceiving them to belong to person, or persons. And as + action implies both <em>agent</em>, and an <em>object</em> + distinct from the agent; and there being no such agent, or + object existing <em>without</em> the Divine Being, it must + be infered, that these agent and object, concerned in the + eternal activity and happiness of his nature, must exist + <em>inherently, eternally, immensely, and immutably <span + class="smcap">within</span> + Himself</em>.</p> + <p> + Thus we are <span + class="smcap">compelled</span> + to admit a plurality of persons in the Divine Essence.</p> + <p> + It will be recollected, the Divine Being has not only + exercised Himself eternally, but also <em>immensely</em>, + according to the law of his own nature and perfections: + i.e. He has necessarily, and eternally exercised Himself to + the extent of his nature and perfections. This will be + readily admitted when we reflect, that unless we admit the + exercise of the nature and perfections of God <em>to their + full extent</em>, we must admit a <em>redundancy</em> in + the Divine Nature, and perfections, which would be + manifestly absurd, as it would <em>imply imperfection</em>. + For it would imply (if we may dare say so) that there is an + <em>efficiency</em>, or <em>ability</em> in the Divine + Being, which He has never exercised to its full extent; and + in proportion to the <em>deficiency</em> in the exercise, + we must conclude this <em>efficiency</em> or ability is + <em>useless</em>, which would be repugnant to the true idea + of the Divine Being.</p> + <p> + It is therefore, <em>proven</em>, That the Divine Being + necessarily exercised Himself <em>immensely</em>, because + his nature, and perfections are immense. But it will be + readily perceived, this could not be done in the works of + Creation and Providence: because, however vast they may be, + they are not <em>immense</em>: and, therefore, could not + admit of the immense exercise of his nature and perfections + to their full extent: from which it must follow, + inevitably, <em>That the immense exercise of his own nature + and perfections must be</em> <span + class="smcap">within</span> + <em>Himself</em>.</p> + <p> + As it has already been proven above, that this internal + exercise in the Divine Essence necessarily implies + <em>plurality</em> in the Godhead; so now also, is it + proven, that the admission of such plurality is the only + view competent to show <em>HOW</em> the Divine Being could + have exercised his own nature and perfections + <em>immensely</em>, as the attribute of immensity + appertains to God only.</p> + <p> + As it is granted, that the Divine Being was necessarily as + happy + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span> + + <em>before</em> Creation and Providence as since, and + would continue so, should Creation and Providence cease; of + course his happiness consists in the exercise of his own + nature and perfections according to their own law. But, in + order that the Divine Being should be eternally, immensely, + and immutably happy, the <span + class="smcap">whole</span> + of the Divine Nature and perfections must be exercised + eternally, immensely, and immutably. But if we divest the + Divine Essence of its plural personality, we cannot + conceive that some of the divine perfections can be + exercised at all. For example: the divine goodness, love, + wisdom, intelligence, and all his <em>moral</em> + perfections. We surely cannot say, He manifests his + goodness to Himself; or exercises his love towards Himself; + or employs his wisdom in understanding Himself; all of + which ideas are obviously absurd. But so soon as we admit + the idea of a plural personality, or the subsistence of the + Divine Essence in a plurality of persons, we can conceive + the moral perfections exercised in Himself, between the + persons of the Godhead. This is the only ground on which we + can conceive of his eternal, immense, and immutable + happiness. For we can readily conceive of the distinct + persons in the Divine Essence, <em>communicating + mutually</em> to each other the <em>whole</em> of the + divine moral perfections; and thus conceive of the perfect + and independent happiness of God.</p> + <p> + The only remaining view of this subject would be this: the + activity, energy, and influence of the Divine Being can + only regard Creation and Providence. But as there was a + <em>past eternity before</em> Creation and Providence + began, in which the Divine Being existed, He must be + considered as having been <em>inactive</em>, + <em>solitary</em>, and <em>unconscious</em>; (because there + cannot be consciousness where there is not action,) the + whole and every part of which view is derogatory to the + acknowledged character of God. How much more reasonable is + it to conceive the Divine Essence to subsist in a plurality + of persons, and thus to conceive, <em>consistently</em>, of + the eternal, immense, and immutable activity and happiness + of the Divine Being?</p> + <p> + <em>Thus we see, that what the Scriptures declare + concerning the plurality of persons in the Divine + Essence, <span + class="smcap">cannot be otherwise, as is demonstrated + above, from the necessary nature of the glorious + Divinity</span>.</em></p> + <p> + The demonstration might be extended to each of the divine + perfections, and the same result would be obtained. The + above remarks are a mere clue to the argument which is + possible, and satisfactory; founded on the necessary nature + of Jehovah.</p> + <p> + The key to the whole demonstration is this:</p> + <p> + 1. The Divine Being, from his very and necessary nature, + must be eternally, immensely, and immutably active.</p> + <p> + 2. He must be eternally, immensely, and immutably happy.</p> + <p> + 3. In order to be eternally, immensely, and immutably + active and happy, He must be exercised to the whole extent + of his nature and perfections, eternally, immensely, and + immutably.</p> + <p> + 4. That such an exercise of his nature and perfections, in + an eternal, immense, and immutable manner, cannot be, in + regard to Creation and Providence; because, Creation and + Providence are not eternal, immense, and immutable.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span> + + 5. As there was not any thing <em>before</em> Creation and + Providence, but God Himself, it must follow, necessarily, + that the eternal, immense, and immutable activity and + happiness of the Divine Being were <span + class="smcap">within</span> + <em>Himself entirely</em>.</p> + <p> + 6. As it is impossible for the human intellect to conceive, + that a being can be both <em>agent</em> and <em>object, in + the same action</em>, and the activity of the Divine Being + has been shown to have been within Himself entirely; it + follows, <span + class="smcap">That the Divine Essence must have subsisted + eternally, immensely, and immutably in a + plurality</span>.</p> + <p> + 7. And as the mind is <em>forced</em> to admit a + <em>plurality</em> in the Divine Essence, it naturally, and + necessarily assumes <span + class="smcap">persons</span> + for this plurality; and thus concludes, <em>There must be a + plurality of persons in the Godhead as the Scriptures + declare.</em></p> + <p> + From the foregoing elements of the argument, it will be + very easy to observe, if a <em>plurality</em> must be + admitted, there is no objection in the mind to admit it is + <em>triple</em>; and hence, as the substance of the Divine + Essence has been shown to exist necessarily in a plurality, + the mind conceives a <em>triple plurality</em>, as easy as + any other, and thus conceives the reasonableness of the + doctrine of the <em>Trinity in Unity</em>.</p> + <p> + The most successful argument against this conclusion is + this: <em>It is impossible to conceive how three can be + one.</em> This is admitted, <em>when the objects designated + by</em> “three” <em>are the same as the object designated + by</em> “one.” But this is not the case in the doctrine of + the Trinity in Unity. The term <em>Trinity</em> applies to + the <em>persons</em> in which the Divine Essence subsists, + and <em>not</em> to the essence itself. So the term + <em>Unity</em> applies to the <em>Essence only</em>, and + <em>not</em> to the persons. This simple distinction + removes the whole force of the objection.</p> + <p> + The Unitarians, therefore, do us wrong when they say, + <em>we believe three are one</em>. And Trinitarians do + themselves wrong when they say, <em>to the three one + God</em>: because, it is not true that there is a “three + one God.” But it is a glorious truth, <span + class="smcap">That the Divine Essence subsists in three + persons, eternally, immensely, and immutably.</span></p> + <p> + It is very natural to suppose, that God imparted a + knowledge of Himself to our first parents in Paradise. The + Scriptures clearly support this supposition. This knowledge + would, of course, include the doctrine of the Trinity; and + we cannot admit for a moment, that so important a doctrine + as the plurality of persons in the Godhead, could have been + wholly lost by mankind, though it might become obscured. + Accordingly we find the traditionary remains of this + doctrine throughout the Old World.</p> + <p> + “The Hindoos” says M. Sonerat, “adore <em>three</em> + principal Deities, Brouma, Schiven, and Vichenou, who are + still but <em>one</em>; which kind of Trinity is there + called Trimurti, and signifies the re-union of those + powers. The generality of Indians at present, adore only + one of these three divinities; but some learned men, beside + this worship, also address their prayers to the three + united. The representation of them is to be seen in many + pagodas, under that of human figures with three heads, + which on the coast of Orissa, they call Sariharabrama, on the + Coromandel coast, Trimourti,” &c.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span> + + This account of M. Sonerat is very pertinent, and is + confirmed by Dr. Buchanan who made extensive researches in + that country. See his <em>Star in the East</em>.</p> + <p> + The same tradition is found in China. “Among the ancient + Chinese characters” says Dr. A. Clarke, “which have been + preserved, we find the following <span + lang="zho" + xml:lang="zho">Δ</span> + like the Greek <em>delta</em>. According to the Chinese + dictionary <em>Kang-hi</em>, this character + signifies <em>union</em>. According to <cite>Choueouen</cite>, + a celebrated work, <span + lang="zho" + xml:lang="zho">Δ</span> + is <em>three united in one</em>. The + Lieou-chou-tsing-hoen, which is a rational and learned + explanation of ancient characters, says; “<span + lang="zho" + xml:lang="zho">Δ</span> + signifies + intimate union, harmony, the chief good of man, of the + heaven, and of the earth; it is the union of three.”</p> + <p> + Lao-tse says; “He who is as visible, and yet cannot be + seen, is denominated <em>lieou</em>; he who can be heard, + and yet speaks not to the ears, <em>hi</em>; he who is + tangible, and yet cannot be felt, is named <em>ouei</em>: + in vain do you consult your senses about these + <em>three</em>; your reason alone can discourse of them, + and it will tell you they are but one,” &c.</p> + <p> + One of the missionaries at Peking, who wrote the letters + from which I have made the above extracts, takes it for + granted, “that the mystery of the <em>Trinity</em> was + known among the ancient Chinese, and that the character <span + lang="zho" + xml:lang="zho">Δ</span> + was its symbol.” <cite>Dr. A. Clarke, on the 1st chap. + John’s Gospel.</cite></p> + <p> + The existence of this same tradition in China is conveyed + to us through another channel. “It was the leading feature + in <em>Lao-Kiun’s</em> system of + philosophical theology, and a sentence which he continually + repeated as the foundation of all true wisdom, that <span + class="smcap">Tao</span>, + the eternal reason, produced <span + class="smcap">one</span>; + <em>one</em> produced <span + class="smcap">two</span>; + <em>two</em> produced <span + class="smcap">three</span>; + and <span + class="smcap">three</span> + produced all things.” <cite>Le Compt’s Memoirs of + China</cite>.</p> + <p> + Traditions of this doctrine are found also in Chaldea and + Persia indeed throughout the East; from whence all agree + they were imported, through Phœnicia, into Egypt, and + thence into Greece. The great and original sources of + information being in the neighborhood of the Euphrates, + where the <em>first post-diluvian</em> families resided; + and the mighty intellects which were to influence the + world, by the materials which were drawn from thence, being + in Greece, the consequence was, we find the Grecian + philosophers travelling <em>up</em> the streams of + knowledge to the fountains, and thence returning to + enlighten the world by the results of their researches. For + example: Pythagoras, Plato, and others visited Egypt first, + thence to Phœnicia, and thence to Chaldea, and the East, + from whence they undoubtedly drew their theology. (Nor + should it be forgotten that <em>their</em> philosophy was + <em>theological</em>.) The concurrent testimony of history + establishes this fact. The consequence of all this is, the + doctrine of the Trinity was known to the Greek + philosophers, who preserved it to the world in their + incomparable writings, a collateral testimony of the + authenticity of the Scripture doctrine. For this opinion we + have the highest authority in the republic of letters.</p> + <p> + “It is said that the first Christians borrowed their notion + of a Triune God from the later Platonists; and that we hear + not of a Trinity in the church till converts were + made from the school of Alexandria. + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span> + + But if this be the case we may properly ask, <em>Whence had + those Platonists the doctrine?</em></p> + <p> + “It is not surely so simple, or so obvious as to have + occurred to the reasoning mind of a pagan philosopher; or + if it be, <em>why do Unitarians suppose it to involve a + contradiction?</em>—The Platonic and Pythagorean Trinities + never could have occurred to the mind of him, who, merely + from the works of creation, endeavored to discover the + being and attributes of God; and therefore as those + philosophers travelled into Egypt and the East in quest of + knowledge, it appears to us in the highest degree probable, + that they picked up this mysterious and sublime doctrine in + those regions where it had been handed down as a dogma from + the remotest ages, and where we know science was not taught + systematically, but detailed in collections of sententious + maxims, and traditionary opinions. If this be so we cannot + doubt but that the pagan trinities had their origin in some + primeval revelation. Nothing else indeed can account for a + doctrine so remote from human imagination, and of which we + find vestiges in the sacred books of almost every civilized + people of antiquity. The corrupt state in which it is + viewed in the writings of Plato and others, is the natural + consequence of its descent through a long course of oral + tradition. The Trinity of Platonism therefore, instead of + being an objection, lends, in our opinion, no feeble + support to the Christian doctrine, since it affords almost + a complete proof of that doctrine having made a part of the + first revelation to man.” <cite>Ency. Brit. Art. <span + class="smcap">Theology.</span></cite></p> + <p> + “Some have indeed pretended, that the <em>Trinity</em>, + which is commonly called <em>Platonic</em>, was a fiction + of the later Platonists, unknown to the founder of the + school: but any person who will take the trouble to study + the writings of Plato will find <em>abundant evidence that + he really asserted <span + class="smcap">a Triad Of divine hypostases</span>, + all concerned in the formation, and government of the + world</em>.” <cite>Ency. Brit. Art. <span + class="smcap">Platonism.</span></cite></p> + <p> + “Pythagoras, though inferior to Plato in reputation, and + lived before him, held the same doctrine, and derived it + from the same sources. He visited Egypt, Persia, Chaldea, + &c., and thence returned to Greece.” <cite>Ency. Brit. + Art. <span + class="smcap">Pythagoras.</span></cite></p> + <p> + These quotations are directly from the Encyclopedia + Britannica, than which no authority can be better. I might + increase the quotations to the same effect from Dr. + Oglevie, the learned Cudworth and others, were it + necessary. The above is thought sufficient to establish the + fact, <em>That the doctrine of a Trinity in Unity was once + prevalent in the Pagan world, and that remains and + traditions of it are yet abundant through all the East, + where the revelations of God were made to mankind.</em>]</p> + </blockquote> + <p> + If it be asked, “Why did God conceal himself from eternity + till within six thousand years; for, according to Divine + revelation, it is not yet so long since the world was made?” + I answer, God is at perfect liberty to do what he pleases, to + do it when he pleases, and to give no account of the reasons + of his conduct. If he had pleased to create the world as many + millionsof years sooner, as there have + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span> + + been days since its creation, + the same question might have been asked, Why did he not + create the world sooner, and thereby discover himself? For + the longest time that can be imagined is just as nothing in + comparison with eternity. If God had pleased, he might have + concealed his existence and perfections to all eternity, or, + in other words, never have made any thing. Seeing therefore + it was only of his sovereign pleasure that he made creatures, + to whom he might manifest himself, surely he had a right to + fix on the time for doing it. We are sure he is infinitely + wise, and consequently all his works are done in the fittest + time, and best manner.</p> + <p> + God made the world, not because he needed the praise or + service of creatures to add to his blessedness; for he who is + self-existent must necessarily be infinitely perfect and + absolutely independent; and would always have remained the + same happy Being, enjoying his own excellencies and + perfections, had no creature ever been made. But it was for + the manifesting of his own glorious attributes, and + communicating happiness to creatures capable of it, that he, + in the beginning, created this magnificent fabric of the + heavens and the earth, with all things therein, whether + visible or invisible, animate or inanimate, material + substances or immaterial spirits. For he created beings of + different ranks and powers, to whom he might manifest + himself, or communicate his goodness. Some of these were pure + intellectual spirits, fit for the felicity and employments of + the heavenly state, to stand in his immediate presence, and + execute his righteous commands: but these were created before + the solar system; for the angels, those “sons of God,” called + “morning stars,” were present, and sung together for joy, + when “the foundations” of this world were laid. Others he + formed out of the earth, with life, sense, and instinct, but + destitute of reason, designing them to be subservient to the + necessities or conveniences of a higher order of beings. + Besides these he created other beings of a middle rank, + partaking of an earthly part, fashioned with infinite skill + and art, of exquisite symmetry, and adorned with great + external beauty; and of a spiritual part akin to angels, and + but little inferior to them, being in their constitution a + compound of the animal and angelic natures.</p> + <p> + It is not by reason alone then, or the light of heathen + philosophy, but “through faith,” in the infallible testimony + of Divine revelation, “we understand that the worlds were + framed by the word of God, so that things which are seen were + not made of things which do appear.” The sun, moon, stars, + and earth, which we see, were not made of matter which had + existed from eternity, as some of the heathen philosophers + supposed, but of what God created anterior to the formation + of those wonderful orbs. The word <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: katêrtisthai" + class="msg">κατηρτισθαι</span>, + <em>framed</em>, signifies not only to <em>make</em> or + <em>produce</em> simply, but properly <em>to place</em> or + <em>set in joint</em> the parts of any body or machine in their + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span> + + right order. Accordingly Plato says, that in making the world, + God proceeded with the exactness of a geometrician, arranging + every thing in complete symmetry. All this was done by the + <em>word</em> of God, which is not to be understood of any + articulate sound, but of the simple act of his own will; he + willed the universe, with all its variety of furniture, into + existence. And this is a matter of <em>faith</em>, to be + believed; not to be known by mere reason; for reason, without + faith, can apprehend a formation of things from matter + previously made ready.</p> + <p> + A pious expositor very justly observes, By faith assenting to + Divine revelation, and not by reason we understand the truth + and wonders, the reasons and causes, the manner and end, of + the creation of the world. Reason indeed tells us that there + was a creation, consequently a Creator; but reason without + Divine revelation could never have discovered the + circumstances and manner of the creation, which wholly + depended upon the will of God. Reason could never have known + them, if God had not in his word first revealed them. Reason + may propound the question, How was the world made, and all + things therein? But revelation must resolve it.</p> + <p> + “Oh Lord my God, thou art very great; thou art clothed with + honor and majesty. Who coverest thyself with light as with a + garment: who stretchest out the heavens like a curtain: who + layeth the beams of his chambers in the waters: who maketh + the clouds his chariot: who walketh upon the wings of the + wind: who maketh his angels spirits; his ministers a flaming + fire: who laid the foundations of the earth, that it should + not be moved for ever. Thou coveredst it with a garment: the + waters stood above the mountains. At thy rebuke they fled; at + the voice of thy thunder they hasted away. They go up by the + mountains; they go down by the valleys unto the place which + thou hast founded for them. Thou hast set a bound that they + may not pass over; that they turn not again to cover the + earth.” Such is the sublime language of Divine revelation!</p> + +<p class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</p> + + <hr id="CHAPTER_II" class="chap" /> + <h2> + CHAPTER II.<br /> + <span class="large">FIRST DAY.</span></h2> + <h3> + <em>Section I.</em>—<span + class="smcap">Chaos.</span></h3> + <p class="hang1 smaller"> + Inquiry into the origin of things natural to man — Character + of Moses as a sacred historian important — Explanation of the + term Created — Chaotic state of the elementary principles of + matter — Influence of the Spirit of God upon the chaotic + mass — Opinions of the ancients — Similitude between the first + and second creation — Agency of the Holy Spirit in the work + of regeneration asserted and proved.</p> + <p> + As creatures possessed of conscious existence, and furnished + with both intellectual and moral powers, it is very natural + for us to inquire into the origin and first state of things; + and, when difficulties present themselves, to meet with clear + and satisfactory solutions of them, removing the darkness in + which they were enveloped, affords to reflecting minds a high + gratification. Without the aid of divine revelation, the + creation of the world would have been involved in + uncertainty, and our unassisted reason left to speculate in + fields of wide conjecture. But in following the luminous + torch of sacred communication, we are safely conducted to the + first great Cause, by whose almighty <em>fiat</em> matter was + called into existence, and afterwards disposed and modified + according to the plan devised by the eternal Mind.</p> + <p> + Moses, considered as a man of scientific habits, being well + versed in all the “wisdom of the Egyptians”—mathematical, + physical, moral, and divine; could not but know that his + cosmogony would have to pass the ordeal of critical + investigation, and undergo the best of philosophical inquiry: + that contemporaries, as well as future and remote nations and + generations, would minutely examine his historical record; + and science, in its progressive state of improvement, try the + validity of his system: that it would meet the inquisitive + eye of genius and learning, and fall into the hands of both + sincere friends and insidious enemies to religious truth: + that candor would patiently search into its pretensions, + impartially weigh its evidence, and sober inquiry respect its + claims: while narrow prejudice, blind bigotry, or + superstitious enthusiasm, would dispute its authority, deny + its veracity, and disdainfully reject its aid. But listening + to an all-wise Instructor, following a Guide that could not + deceive him; and disregarding the envenomed tongue of + calumny, the lampooning pen of the satirist, the surly frown + of literary pride, and the imperious authority of exalted + rank; he committed to writing a true account of the creation + of the world, for the information and religious improvement of + mankind to the latest generation.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span> + + Viewed as the ground-work of all future revelations, if any + defect or false position were discovered in his relation of + things, that would deprive his history of credibility, and + decisively prove him to have been led by the sallies of a + vain and heated imagination, and not the Spirit of the living + God. But of this there was no danger; and, as a distinguished + author pertinently observes, “from the book of Genesis, + almost all the ancient philosophers, astronomers, + chronologists, and historians, have taken their respective + <em>data</em>: and all the modern improvements and accurate + discoveries in different arts and sciences have only served + to confirm the facts detailed by Moses, and to show, that all + the ancient writers on these subjects, have approached to, or + receded from truth, and the phenomena of nature, in the exact + proportion as they have followed the Mosaic history.” As a + writer, Moses does not attack other systems, formed on this + or that hypothesis; but in a simple and incontrovertible + narrative, acquaints us with the origin of matter, and the + progressive formation and completion of the solar system.</p> + <p> + The Scriptures inform us, that Moses was privileged to + converse with God “face to face, as a man speaketh unto his + friend,” and from him received clear and manifest + revelations, not by visions, ecstasies, dreams, inward + inspirations, or the mediation of angels, but familiarly and + with confidence, by articulate sounds, in his own language. + The Lord said, “With him will I speak mouth to mouth, even + apparently, and not in dark speeches; and the similitude of + the Lord shall he behold.” God being a Spirit, has neither + shape nor parts, consequently is invisible, and cannot be + seen by eyes of flesh: he is the most simple essence. When he + speaks of himself as having a face, mouth, eyes, hands, + &c., he adapts his language to our capacities, designing + to express by these figures the perfections of his nature; + but he is really one undivided essence. That which Moses saw, + was only the <em>Shekinah</em>, a glorious brightness, the + symbol of the Divine presence, and not the essence, which is + invisible.</p> + <p> + In giving an account of the true origin of things, he attends + particularly to the <em>mode</em>, <em>agent</em>, and + <em>time</em> of their being produced. His history commences + with the creation of matter, “In the beginning.” Before the + creative acts mentioned by him, all was eternity. + <em>Time</em> signifies <em>duration</em> measured by the + revolutions of the heavenly bodies; but prior to the creation + of these bodies, there could be no measurement of duration, + and consequently no <em>time</em>; therefore, “In the + beginning,” must necessarily mean the commencement of time + which followed, or rather was produced by God’s creative + acts, as an effect follows, or is produced by a cause.</p> + <blockquote> + <p> + [From several expressions in this chapter, it is obvious + that Mr. Wood considered the account given by Moses, in the + first chapter of Genesis, to apply to <em>universal + creation</em>, and not to be restricted to + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span> + + our <em>Solar + System</em>. It is also plainly inferable, that he + considered this the <em>first exercise of God’s creative + energy in any way</em>. This view is entirely too + contracted, is not clearly warranted by the text of the + sacred historian, and is unnecessary.</p> + <p> + There are no passages of Scripture which say distinctly, + the Mosaic creation is the first or only acts of creative + energy: but there are several which intimate the + <em>previous existence of creatures</em>, and of course + imply a previous exercise of creative power.</p> + <p> + It is sufficiently clear that there were intelligent beings + existing at the creation of this world. Hence it is said, + “the morning stars sang together, and the sons of God + shouted for joy,” in view of the rising creation.</p> + <p> + Since, therefore, the previous existence of intelligent + beings is established, we must, of course, assign to them + some <em>mode</em> of subsistence; and this will compel us + to assign at least what must be <em>necessary</em> to every + creature, a <em>place of abode</em>, suited to his wants + and conditions, without which he cannot subsist. Thus we + establish even a <em>material</em> creation, + <em>anterior</em> to the creation mentioned by Moses.</p> + <p> + After weighing the account which Moses gives in the first + chapter of Genesis, together with the facts and analogies + in Nature, the conclusion seems irresistible, <em>that he + describes only our Solar System</em>; which includes the + seven primary planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, + Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel: the four asteroides, Vesta, + Juno, Ceres, and Pallas: and the eighteen moons which + attend the primary planets. Because,</p> + <p> + 1. As this account forms the introduction to a revelation + designed for the <em>human family only</em>, it is + reasonable to conclude it would have reference to those + bodies only which operate materially to their benefit or + injury. But there are no such bodies except in the Solar + System.</p> + <p> + 2. Moses in describing the formation of the heavenly + bodies, mentions only the <em>sun</em> and <em>moon</em> in + a conspicuous manner: because, these are the only + luminaries which contribute <em>essentially</em> to our + comfort: and then, lest a beholder might imagine God did + not also make the other suns and stars, says incidentally, + “He made the stars also.”</p> + <p> + 3. The conclusion is clear from the fact, that <em>the + Solar System is complete in itself</em>: forming a perfect + whole, which could exist were all other stars and suns + destroyed, and vice versâ, all other systems could exist + were the Solar System destroyed.</p> + <p> + 4. It does not well comport with the character of the + Divine Being, when we consider his eternal power, infinite + wisdom, and boundless goodness, to suppose He never + exercised his creative energies but <em>once</em>, and that + not until a few thousand years since. Yet we are compelled + to this conclusion, however reluctantly, unless we restrict + the Mosaic account of the creation to our Solar System.</p> + <p> + This argument will derive additional weight, when we + recollect the <em>immensity</em> of God’s works taken + together, and the <em>illimitable space</em> in which he + has, and may, exercise his creative energy. We + may <em>approximate towards</em> a very faint idea of their + immensity, by calling + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span> + + to mind the immense number of + <em>fixed stars</em>. All astronomers admit their number to + be very great indeed, but how many cannot be correctly + known. There may be millions whose light has not reached us + yet. Of those which may be detected, Professor + <em>Vince</em>, says, there are at least <em>seventy-five + millions</em>; and each the centre of a system as large, + possibly much larger than our own. Indeed we can scarcely + approach towards a competent idea of <em>illimitable + space</em>. The nearest <em>fixed star</em> is supposed to + be Sirius, or the dog-star, at the lowest calculation + <em>twenty-two billions of miles distant</em>. If we + compute according to this analogy, and say there are + seventy-five millions of fixed stars, each the + <em>centre</em> of a system, perfect, and independent: what + mind can conceive the illimitable space through which these + worlds must lie? Yet this would scarcely be an + approximation towards the true extent. Beyond this there is + still <em>unoccupied space</em>, “where existence sleeps in + the wide abyss of possibility.”</p> + <p> + It may, therefore, be asked with justice, whether a being + capable of creating, even in this limited view, would have + exercised his creative powers <em>but once</em>, and that + not until a few thousands years since? <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">Credat qui posset, non ego.</i> + Who can tell what may have been the <em>successive</em> + creations, durations, and, possibly, destructions of + those worlds which we see, and of others, of which the + inhabitants of this earth have never heard, whose light + has not yet reached us since their creation, though + coming at the rate of nearly <em>twelve millions of + miles in a minute</em>?</p> + <p> + Finally: A <em>succession</em> of creative acts, whose + commencement runs back <em>almost</em> parallel with + eternity, and will extend forward <em>almost <span + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">ad infinitum</span></em>, + seems to comport + best with the eternal, immense, and immutable activity, + energy, and goodness of the Divine Being.]</p> + </blockquote> + <p> + The word <em>created</em> means, that God caused that to exist + which, previously to this moment, had no being. The Rabbins, who + are legitimate judges in a case of verbal criticism on their own + language, are unanimous in asserting, that the word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ברא</span> + <em>bara</em> expresses the commencement of + the existence of a thing, or its egression from nonentity + to entity. It does not, in its primary meaning, denote the + <em>preserving</em> or <em>new forming</em> things that + had previously existed, as some imagine; but + <em>creation</em>, in the proper sense of the term, though + it has some other acceptations in other places. The + supposition that God formed all things out of a + pre-existing eternal nature, is certainly absurd: for, if + there was an eternal nature besides an eternal God, there + must have been two self-existing, independent, and eternal + Beings, which is a most palpable contradiction. <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">Ex nihilo nihil fit</i>, + “That out of + nothing, nothing is produced” is a maxim that applies + itself in every case where Deity is not concerned; it was + the main argument used by Aristotle and his followers, but + is completely refuted by the authority of Divine + revelation. God created <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">את השמים ואת הארץ</span> + <em>eth hashamayim veet haarets</em>, “the heavens and the + earth.” The word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">את</span> + <em>eth</em>, which is generally considered as a particle, + simply denoting that the word + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span> + + following is in the accusative or oblique case, is often + understood by the Rabbins in a much more extensive sense, “The + particle <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">את</span> + <em>eth</em>,” says Aben Ezra, “signifies the + <em>substance</em> of the thing.” The like definition is + given by Kimchi in his <em>Book of Roots</em>. “This + particle,” says Mr. Ainsworth, “having the <em>first</em> + and <em>last</em> letters of the Hebrew alphabet in it, is + supposed to comprise the <em>sum</em> and <em>substance</em> + of <em>all things</em>.” “The particle <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">את</span> + <em>eth</em>,” says Buxtorf, Talmudic Lexicon sub + voce, “with the Cabalists, is often mystically put for the + <em>beginning</em> and the <em>end</em>, as <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: A" + class="msg">Α</span> + alpha and <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: Ô" + class="msg">Ω</span> + omega are in the Apocalypse.” On this ground, these words + should be translated, “God in the beginning created the + <em>substance</em> of the heavens, and the substance of + the earth: i.e. the <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">prima materia</i>, + or first elements, out of which the heavens and the earth were + successively formed.”<a + href="#Footnote_23" + class="fnanchor">23</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_24"> + During the first state of things, Moses informs us, that “the + earth was without form and void; and darkness was upon the + face of the deep.” The original terms <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">תהו</span> + <em>tohoo</em>, and <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">בהו</span> + <em>bohoo</em>, translated, “without form and + void,” convey the idea of confusion and disorder. The + translation by Paginus, is <em>desert and emptiness</em>; + in the Vulgate, it is <em>empty and void</em>; in the + Septuagint, <em>invisible and incomposed</em>; from the + Syriac, <em>desert and uncultivated</em>; the Samaritan is + the same as the Vulgate; the Arabic, <em>covered with + abysses</em>: these translations are allowed by the + learned Walton. There is but little difference in their + real meaning, and all the Versions express the first state + of things.<a + href="#Footnote_24" + class="fnanchor">24</a> + The whole collection of matter, + created in a fluid state, was a crude, indigested chaos: + all belonging to our system, as the sun, moon, stars, + earth, and seas, lay blended together in one vast, + confused mass, without any arrangement of their + constituent particles, heavy and light, dense and rare, + fluid and solid, being all mixed together; air, water, and + earth, (which have since obtained the name of elements,) + were promiscuously scattered throughout.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_25"> + The chaotic mass remained in this primitive state, till God + was pleased to assimilate, assort, and arrange the + materials,—out of which he built up, in the space of six + days, the whole of creation.<a + href="#Footnote_25" + class="fnanchor">25</a> + <em>The Spirit of God</em>, represented us sitting upon the vast + abyss, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span> + + like a bird, while either in the act of incubation + or fostering its young, <em>moved</em> or brooded <em>upon + the face of the waters</em>, communicating, by his vital + energy, life and motion to the unformed chaos.</p> + <p> + Some writers understand by <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">רוח אלהימ</span> + <em>the Spirit of God</em>, a “mighty sweeping wind,” a + “tremendous tempest,” + separating diversified particles of the elementary principles + of matter, and combining those of the same kind together. But + this is making an effect to be produced by a cause, which, as + yet, had no existence; nor, as a cause, is it sufficient to + produce so great an effect. To make an effect superior to its + cause, is as absurd and contradictory as to say, a long line + and a short one are equal. That the single Hebrew word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">רוח</span> + <em>ruach</em>, the Greek <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: pneuma" + class="msg">πνευμα</span> + <em>pneuma</em>, the Latin <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">spiritus</i>, + and the ancient Saxon <em>ghost</em> or <em>gast</em>, + signifies <em>wind</em>, as well as the vital breath, the + soul of man, a created spirit good or evil, is readily + admitted. But concerning the phrase <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">רוח אלהימ</span>, + <em>the Spirit of God</em>, so + frequently used in the Scriptures of the Old Testament, + there is not one instance that it signifies <em>wind</em>, + and to attempt to force such meaning upon it, is a most + manifest violation done to the text. By <em>the Spirit of + God</em>, is meant the third subsistence in the Divine + essence, distinguished from the person of the Father, and + that of the Son; he is called a <em>Spirit</em>, to + signify his spiritual and immaterial nature, as well as to + express his mighty agency; and the works of which he is + the author can only be effected by an omnipotent power.</p> + <p> + Milton, who was well versed in the Hebrew language, in his + address to the Holy Spirit, says,</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml24"> + “Thou from the first</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Wast present, and with mighty wings outspread,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Dove-like, sat’st brooding on the vast abyss,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And mad’st it pregnant.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + The Holy Spirit, by his vital influence, infused that + efficient power into the great mass of matter, which was + necessary for the assumption of different forms, and the + discharge of the assigned functions of selecting and + arranging the materials out of which the world is formed. By + brooding over the mingled earth and water, says Dr. Owen, “he + communicated a prolific virtue; and inlaid them with the + seeds of animal life; and therefore the earth and the water + brought forth all sorts of creatures in abundance, according + to the seeds and principles communicated to them by the + cherishing motion of the <em>Spirit of God</em>.”</p> + <p> + As several of the ancients have described the elementary + principles of all things to be a gloomy chaos, consisting of + <em>darkness</em> and <em>water</em>, we may easily infer + from what source they derived this notion. Aristotle + observes, the theologists and natural philosophers agreed, + that all things were produced, as the former said, “out of + night;” or, as the latter, “out of a confused mixture.” + Whatever knowledge the inhabitants of Chaldea had of the + creation of the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span> + + world, they ascribe to the teaching of an amphibious + monster denominated Oannes. He taught his auditors, that + there was a time when all things were darkness and water, in + the midst of which various monsters of horrible forms + received life and light. Over this chaotic mass presided the + demon Omoroca, a mythological personification of the ocean. + At length arrived the destined hour of the creation. The + monster Omoroca fell subdued beneath the victorious arm of + Belus; the animals which composed her empire were + annihilated; and the world was formed out of her substance. + Oannes, however, taught, that this physiological description + was to be taken merely in an allegorical sense, and that the + whole fable alluded to the aqueous origin of the universe. + Matter having been thus created, Belus divided the darkness + from the light, separated the earth from the heavens, + disposed the world in order, and called the starry host into + existence.</p> + <p> + According to the Phœnician system, the principle of the + universe was a <em>dark air</em>, and a <em>turbulent evening + chaos</em>; an opinion not very dissimilar to that given by + Moses. Sanchoniathon afterward ascribes to material operation + the origin of that which may be denominated the will or + desire of God, when in his great wisdom he thought fit to + create the world out of nothing. From this personification of + Divine love, a chaotic mixture was produced, and within it + were comprehended the rudiments of all things.</p> + <p> + The cosmogony of the ancient Egyptians, though more obscure, + is given by Diodorus Siculus. “Damascius having inquired + about what was the first principle in the world, gives this + as an ancient Egyptian doctrine. The Egyptians have chosen to + celebrate the first cause as <em>unspeakable</em>. They + accordingly style it <em>darkness unknown</em> and mention it + with a three-fold acclamation. Again. In this manner the + Egyptians styled the first principle <em>an inconceivable + darkness; night and darkness past all imagination</em>.” This + is perfectly consonant to passages from the same author, + quoted by Dr. Cudworth. “There is one origin of all things, + celebrated by the name of <em>unknown</em> (incomprehensible) + <em>darkness</em>.” Again. “They hold, that the first + beginning or cause of things was <em>darkness beyond all + conception; an unknown darkness</em>.”</p> + <p id="FNanchor_26"> + Hesiod mentions, “A chaos as first existing. Next was + produced the spacious earth, the seat of the immortals; + Tartarus hid within the recesses of the ample globe; and + divine love, the most beautiful of the deities. From chaos + sprung Erebus, and black night; and from the union of night + and Erebus were born ether and the day.”<a + href="#Footnote_26" + class="fnanchor">26</a> + Zeno, of Cittium, the founder of + the Stoics, said, Hesiod meant by the chaos, “Water, out + of which all things were formed, which by concretion + became firm earth.”</p> + <p id="FNanchor_27"> + In the work of Aristophanes, we meet with a similar passage. + “Chaos, and night, and black Erebus, and wide Tartarus, first + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span> + + existed; at that time, there was neither earth, air, nor + heaven. But in the bosom of Erebus, black-winged night + produced an aërial egg; from which, in due season, beautiful + Love, decked with golden wings, was born. Out of dark chaos, + in the midst of wide-spreading Tartarus, he begot our race, + and called us forth into the light.”<a + href="#Footnote_27" + class="fnanchor">27</a></p> + <p> + It is unnecessary to multiply quotations to prove, that the + ancients were not only acquainted with the cosmogony of + Moses, but received it as true; to which they added their own + coloring.</p> + <blockquote> + <p> + [It is now generally agreed by cosmogonists, commentators, + biblical critics, and natural philosophers, that the + <em>substance</em> of the earth certainly, and probably the + materials of the Solar System, was first created in a + chaotic state, and subsequently arranged in order. This + opinion is very ancient and almost universal, found in all + nations. Ovid, an ancient heathen poet, has well described + this chaos:</p> + <div class="smaller poem"> + <p class="ml0"> + Ante mare et terras, et, quod teget omnia, Cœlum,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Unus erat toto naturæ vultus in orbe,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Quem dixére Chaos; rudis indigestaque moles,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Nec quicquam nisi pondus iners; congestaque eodem.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Non bene junctarum discordia semina rerum.</p> + <p class="ml0 v2"> + Before the seas, and this terrestrial ball,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And heaven’s high canopy that covers all:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + <em>One</em> was the face of nature if a face:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + <em>Rather a rude and indigested mass:</em></p> + <p class="ml0"> + <em>A lifeless lump, unfashioned and unframed,</em></p> + <p class="ml0"> + <em>Of jarring seeds, and justly <span + class="smcap">Chaos</span> + named.</em>—Dryden.</p> + </div> + <p> + Notwithstanding the general prevalence of this opinion, and + the high authorities which support it, the reader must not + imagine it is absolutely <em>universal</em>. Some eminent + men have suggested, that the earth, and matter generally, + was created in a <em>solid</em> state at first. This is the + view taken by Mr. Ure, of the Andersonian University. He + supposes <em>the earth was created a solid ball, or + spheroid, regular on its surface, without hills and + vallies, and immersed in a crust of ice, which completely + and uniformly surrounded it: that it was a cold lifeless + lump; heat not yet having pervaded it</em>. The first, and + all quickening operation of heat he supposes to be + indicated by these words of Moses: “And the Spirit of God + moved on the face of the waters.” He supposes, all the + matter of our earth is in the same relative position, in + which it was when it first existed at the command of God; + <em>except such cases in which some subsequent force has + disarranged it</em>. These cases he supposes to have been + many, and to have operated to the <em>upheaving</em> the + mountains, and hollowing out the beds of the sea, &c. + He says of the earth: “The central mass composed, most + probably, of the metallic bases of the earths and alkalies, + as volcanic phenomena seem to attest, would fuse, when + first the calorific energy was made to actuate the body of + the earth, and the exterior parts would oxydize into the + crust of mineral strata, and the outermost coat of all, the + fixed ice, would melt into the moveable <em>waters</em>.” + <cite>New Syst. of Geol. B. 1. chap. 1. p. 7.</cite></p> + <p> + Perhaps Mr. Ure’s view might be improved, and made to + approximate + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span> + + much nearer the common opinion, possibly + identified with it, by supposing the mass of matter + composing our earth, was confusedly mixed,—and of course + chaotic—but was in a frozen, hard, inactive state: that + the quickening energy, which softened and fused it, was + simultaneous with its revolution on its axis. The + consequence then would be precisely what we find it to be; + viz: an enlargement of the equatorial diameter, and a + flattening of the poles. This I conceive to be the true + theory in this case.</p> + <p> + Mr. Ure confirms his view by a quotation from Sir Isaac + Newton; Optics, Book 3. towards the conclusion. “It seems + probable to me that God in the beginning formed matter in + solid, massy, hard, impenetrable, movable particles, of + such sizes and figures, and with such other properties, and + in such proportions to space, as most conduced to the end + for which he formed them. All material things seem to have + been composed of the hard and solid particles above + mentioned, variously associated in the <em>first + creation</em> by the counsels of an intelligent agent. For + it became him who created them to set them in order; and if + he did so, it is unphilosophical to seek for any other + origin of this world, or to pretend that it might rise out + of chaos by the mere laws of Nature; though being once + formed, it may continue by those laws for many ages.”</p> + <p> + I have given this quotation precisely as I found it in Mr. + Ure’s New System of <em>Geology</em>, B. 1. chap. 1. p. 10. + Considering the well founded reputation of Newton, it adds + very much to the probability of the above theory: yet it + seems to me to be at variance with the commonly received + impression of Newton’s opinion on this subject. I have not + his work at hand to examine it.</p> + <p> + The Encyclopedia Britannica, Article <em>Earth</em>, seems + to favor this view. It says, “The common notion of the + earth’s being originally a chaos, seems neither to have a + foundation in reason, nor in the Mosaic account of the + creation.”</p> + <p> + The reader will here perceive high authorities on both + sides, and all claiming to agree with Moses. The weight of + evidence seems to be in favor of a chaotic creation, which + does <em>not</em> necessarily imply that the mass was + created in a <em>soft</em> state. But the configuration, + and internal structure of the earth abundantly prove it was + in a soft, or compressible state when it was assuming its + present form and structure. This condition was the effect + of the quickening energy of the Spirit of God. The + difference between the <em>equatorial</em> and + <em>polar</em> diameters of the earth, which is now well + established, and is about twenty-seven miles, can scarcely + be accounted for, without supposing the substance of the + earth, at least to a great depth, to have been partially or + wholly fluid; in which case, by turning round rapidly on + its own axis, it would assume the shape it is known to + possess. It may, indeed, be said, the Almighty could give + it any shape and qualities he pleased, and we cannot well + object to it.</p> + <p> + As it regards the interior, or central parts of our planet, + our author has said nothing, and possibly he would give + this very good reason for his silence—<em>we can know + nothing certainly</em>. Still, however, we may subjoin the + conjectures of some eminent philosophers.</p> + <p> + Some suppose the central parts of our globe to be + <em>cavernous</em> or + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span> + + <em>hollow</em>. The principal + argument for this theory is the transmission of + <em>sound</em> and <em>motion</em> through vast extents of + country, in case of volcanoes and earthquakes. It is + supposed this could not be done so perfectly and + extensively, unless we suppose some <em>aëriform</em>, + or <em>gaseous</em> body within the earth, by means of which + it might be transmitted: which would be to suppose it + <em>cavernous</em> or <em>hollow</em>.</p> + <p> + Dr. Halley supposes the earth is a hollow sphere, in which + there is inclosed a central magnetic globe, and by the + motions of this globe the variations of the magnetic needle + are produced.</p> + <p> + Our own ingenious, but unfortunate countryman, + <em>Symms</em>, supposed the earth to be hollow, and + inhabited within, and its interior accessible to us. He + argues, there is no necessity, for the purposes of + gravitation, or for any other purposes, to suppose the + earth solid to the centre: And it is inconsistent with the + divine beneficence to suppose such an amount of matter as + this globe would be, if solid, should have been created to + afford so small a portion, <em>scarcely one-fourth</em>, + fit for the actual habitation of man, for whom principally + it was created. He, therefore, supported, that the interior + of the earth was an immense cavern blessed with changes of + season, succession of day and night, cold and heat, and + inhabited by human beings, and other animals. He supposed + the poles of the earth were hollow, and this hollow + entrance gradually verged round towards the equator; and + ships have, without knowing it, been within the verge, from + whence they found no difficulty of returning.</p> + <p> + Others have supposed the central parts of our globe are + solid. This is the common supposition, and is principally + supported by these two arguments:—As the attraction of + gravitation depends on the <em>quantity</em> of matter, as + well as the distance; unless we suppose the earth a + <em>solid</em> body it will not be able to exert a + sufficient attractive influence on the moon to keep her in + her orbit. Again: it is ascertained by actual experiment, + that the <em>mean</em> density of the earth is about + <em>five</em> times that of water: from which it is infered + it is solid, and must increase in density from the surface + to the centre, in order to give this high mean proportion + over the bodies at its surface.</p> + <p> + The increasing density of the earth, from the surface to + the centre is owing to <em>compression</em> in part, and + partly to the supposed fact, that the heavier substances + are placed nearer the centre. Thus we find the different + strata of rocks indicate the same. Granite is the heaviest + and lowest rock <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">in situ</i>.</p> + <p> + Some have supposed that <em>iron</em>, probably nearly in a + metallic state, constitutes the nucleus of our earth. This + idea seems to have been suggested to account for the + influence of the earth on a magnetic needle.</p> + <p> + But the most splendid, and very probable conjecture is + founded on the experiments of Berzelius, and Sir H. Davy, + on the earths, which experiments prove them to have + <em>metallic bases</em> universally: hence all our earths + are <em>metallic oxides</em>. From these circumstances it + is conjectured, that the nucleus of our globe is + constituted of the metals in a pure, or nearly pure state, + which are the bases of our earths, alkalis, and alkaline + earths.</p> + <p> + It would almost seem a legitimate conjecture to suppose the + substances + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span> + + of our globe were, at <em>first, metals</em> and + <em>gases</em>: that the oxygen, combining with the metals + formed earths, and alkalis; and the gases combining among + themselves formed air, water, &c. This would be a + chemical process, and necessarily <em>fuse</em> and soften + the earth, and introduce the process of cooling, which + would proceed from the surface towards the centre. Hence + some eminent philosophers have conjectured that there is a + great degree of heat in the interior of the earth yet: + probably the central parts are in a state of igneous + fusion. Some recent researches of Cordier tend to establish + this opinion. The amount of evidence in favor of this + conjecture is increasing annually, and probably will + prevail. See the <em>additional</em> paper on + <em>volcanos</em> in this volume.]</p> + </blockquote> + <hr id="CHAPTER_II_2" class="tb" /> + <h3> + <em>Section II.</em>—<span + class="smcap">Fire.</span></h3> + <p class="hang1 smaller"> + Omnific word — Moving principles in Nature — Criticism on the + original word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">אור</span> + aur — Creation of fire — Its nature — + Friction exciting the action of fire — Fire attracted by + bodies — Fire conducted — Fire in a state of combination — Fire + elastic — Expansive force of fire — Subterraneous + fires — Earthquakes and Volcanic Eruptions — Air a storehouse + of fire — General and final Dissolution of Nature by + fire — Fire a symbol of the Deity, in his gracious presence, + vital influence, transforming energy, and destructive + operation.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_28"> + The sacred historian here informs us of the first regular + production reduced from the chaotic mass. With an astonishing + majesty of expression, God said, <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">יהי אור ויהי אור</span> + <span + class="smcap">yehi aur</span>, + <em>vayehi aur</em>, + <em>Let there be light: and + there was light</em>. Or, more literally, <em>Be light: + and light was</em>. Pagninus translates the words <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">יהי אור</span> + <span + class="smcap">yehi aur</span>, + literally, <em + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">Sit lux</em>, + <em>Be light</em>. In the Greek it is <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: genethêtô phôs" + class="msg">γενεθητω φῶς</span>, + <em>Be light made</em>, or <em>generated</em>. In the + Vulgate, <em>Fiat lux</em>, which is much the same as the + Greek. The celebrated Dionysius Longinus, meeting with + this passage in the Septuagint, considered it as a + specimen of the <em>true sublime</em>. Though a heathen, + he thus expresses himself: “So likewise the Jewish + lawgiver, (who was no ordinary man) having conceived a + just idea of the divine power, he expressed it in a + dignified manner; for at the beginning of his laws he thus + speaks: <span + class="smcap">God said</span>—<em>What?</em> + <span + class="smcap">Let there be light!</span> + <em>and there was light</em>. <span + class="smcap">Let there be earth!</span> + <em>and there was earth</em>.”<a + href="#Footnote_28" + class="fnanchor">28</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_29"> + Here we may inquire, Whether this was a word uttered with a + sound, like that which God spake from mount Sinai in giving + the Law; or only the exercise of the inward faculty of reason + or understanding? It could not be a word spoken with a sound, + for that requires air as its <em>medium</em>, and none as yet + existed; neither was there any ear to hear, nor any use of + such words. Nor could it be any exercise of the Divine Mind, + now beginning to think of the creation and formation of things; + for this purpose was in his + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span> + + thoughts from eternity. The + meaning therefore is, that God did, without any instruments, + toil, labor, alteration, or delay, for the manifestation of + his own infinite goodness, wisdom, power, and will, actually + working like a powerful word or command, instantaneously + produce <em>light</em>.<a + href="#Footnote_29" + class="fnanchor">29</a> Thus</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml0 ctr"> + “Dark Chaos heard his voice.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + The Psalmist, touching on the subject of creation, says, “He + spake, and it was done: he commanded, and it stood fast”—<span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">יעמד</span> + <em>jagnamad, it stood forth</em>, as a servant at his + master’s command, prepared to do his will, and to execute his + pleasure.<a + href="#Footnote_30" + class="fnanchor">30</a></p> + <p> + The divine commandment which produced light, says an + intelligent writer, must be considered as operating on the + properties of matter already created; and as light is found + to proceed from the motion of luminous particles, we must + conceive some central force, or attracting power, to be the + instrument of producing this phenomenon of light, by its + attractive or propelling properties. There seem to be moving + principles in all nature, which, when put in action by the + first Cause, produce natural effects according to established + laws, which cannot be altered unless by the first Mover. As + the Hebrew word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">תהומ</span> + <em>tehom, abyss</em>, translated + <em>deep</em>, signifies also to move with a sort of confused + motion; we may justly conclude that the chaotic mass had some + gravitating powers in it, before the forming of the system; + and that attracting and repelling force was naturally and + originally in the universe; and that the first Mover gave + them in a regular course, the specifical direction, and + systematical attractions. What our distinguished philosopher, + Sir Isaac Newton, has suggested concerning attraction and + gravitation, even in point of philosophy, appears to agree + with the Principia of Moses.</p> + <p> + Another author writes, Whether Moses intended a philosophical + account of light in this place, I will not pretend to say; + but one thing is certain, that he makes use of a word which + points out some of the principal properties of light. The + original word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">אור</span> + <em>aur</em> signifies + that body which renders objects visible, which we call + <em>light</em>; it also signifies <em>fire</em>, and perhaps + Moses intended to point out in one word, what in our language + requires two, <em>light</em> and <em>fire</em>. When we consider + the words of Moses, it appears evident that what is in our + version called <em>light</em>, is in the Hebrew rather + something that sends forth light. The original word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">אור</span> + <em>aur</em> may signify any thing that + makes things visible by emitting particles of light. When the + Almighty said, “Let there be <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">אור</span> + <em>aur, light</em>,” it is not certain that he + meant elementary fire, or original unpropagated light. It + is more probable that he intended by that word, a body + that sent forth light by means of the motion of similar + particles of luminous and igneous matter.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span> + + Whatever may be the philosophic differences between these + two, <em>light</em> and <em>fire</em>, continues the same + author, we are certain that they are seldom separated. The + origin of that light which now renders bodies visible to us, + seems chiefly to be <em>fire</em>, though light and fire are + not inseparably connected; for light may be propagated where + there is no fire, as from putrid bodies, &c., and fire may + be where there is no light, as in iron, sulphur, &c.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_31"> + The Hebrew word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">אור</span> + <em>aur</em>, signifies not only light, but + <em>fire</em>. God created this powerful agent on the + first day, and diffused it through every part of nature; + because without it no operation could be carried on and + perfected. T. Bartholine quotes Aristotle as saying, “That + fire is the efficient cause of all things.” Robison says, + “Heat is susceptible of fixation—of being accumulated in + bodies, and, as it were, laid up till we have occasion for + it; and we are as certain of getting the stored-up heat, + as we are sure of obtaining from our drawers the things we + put in them.”<a + href="#Footnote_31" + class="fnanchor">31</a> + It pervades all bodies: this is + not the case with any other substance we know of—not even + light. It lies hid in every thing around us. It is a + substance which we are ever in want of; it is therefore + deposited on every side, and is ready for every exigency.</p> + <p> + <em>Caloric</em> is the name given by modern chemists, to + that substance by whose influence the phenomena of heat are + produced, and which had before been distinguished by the + terms <em>igneous fluid</em>, <em>matter of heat</em>, and + other analogous denominations. In order to give precision to + chemical language, it was necessary to adopt a word by which + to distinguish between the substance which produces the + sensation we call heat, and the sensation itself; these being + connected as cause and effect; for whenever caloric becomes + fixed in a body, it loses its property of affording heat. + Whatever is the nature of that quality in bodies called heat, + we are assured it does resemble the sensation of heat. A man + whose mind is destitute of the cultivation of science, if + endued with common sense, never imagines the sensation of + heat to be in the fire; he only imagines that there is + something in fire which occasions this sensation.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_32"> + Though we are well acquainted with the effects of fire, we + know but little of its nature. It is so active, as well as + powerful a principle, that it eludes all our researches. We + may, however, define it to be the phlogiston or inflammable + principle, which pervades in a greater or less degree all + substances. Boerhaave thinks it is a fluid of a nature + peculiar to itself; that it was created such as it is, and + cannot be altered in its nature or its properties; that it + naturally exists in equal quantities in all places; and that + it is wholly imperceptible to our senses, being only + discoverable by such effects as in its operation it + produces.<a + href="#Footnote_32" + class="fnanchor">32</a></p> + <p> + That fire is really a substance, and not a quality, appears from + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span> + + its acting upon other substances, the reality of which + has never been doubted. Charcoal, in its natural state, + contains within its pores a large quantity of air; but if + charcoal is heated, this air is expelled by the fire, which + assumes its place, and occupies the pores of the charcoal. + The burning of lime also, which deprives it of a great part + of its weight by expelling the fixable air, demonstrates that + fire, as a substance, enters into the pores of the lime, and + forces out those other substances which are least intimately + combined with it.</p> + <p> + Collision or friction of solid bodies, is the means most + generally used for exciting the action of fire. The vacuities + of all solid bodies are replete with fire, so that it is + impossible to agitate or separate their parts swiftly, + without giving the same rapid motion to the element contained + within them. When a piece of hardened steel is struck with a + flint, some particles of the metal are scraped away from the + mass, and so violent is the fire which follows the stroke, + that it melts and vitrifies them. If the fragments of steel + are catched upon paper, and viewed with a microscope, you + will find most of them perfect spherules, and very highly + polished. Their sphericity demonstrates that they have been + in a fluid state, and the polish upon their surface shows + them to be vitrified; the fire being disengaged with + violence, disposes the particles of the substance to combine + with the vital air, while this air accelerates the + combustion. The whole of the heat produced is not afforded by + the body itself, because in proportion as the interior fire + is disengaged, the external air acts upon the body and gives + out fire.</p> + <p> + If the irons at the axis of a coach-wheel are applied to each + other, without the interposition of some unctuous matter to + keep them from immediate contact, they will become so hot + when the carriage runs swiftly along, as to set the wood on + fire; and the fore wheels being smallest, and making more + revolutions, will be most in danger. The same will happen to + mill-work, or any other machinery, if the necessary + precautions are neglected. It is no uncommon practice with a + blacksmith to use a plate of iron as an extemporaneous + tinder-box; for it may be hammered on an anvil till it + becomes red hot, and will fire a match of brimstone. A strong + man who strikes quick, and keeps turning the iron, so that + both sides may be equally exposed to the force of the hammer, + will perform this in less time than would be expected. If in + the coldest season you lay one dense iron plate upon another, + and press the upper one, by a weight, on the lower one, and + then rub the one over the other; by reciprocal motions, they + will first grow warm, and at length so hot, as in a short + time to emit sparks, and at last grow red hot, as if taken + out of a vehement fire.</p> + <p> + It is not necessary that the substance should be very hard; a + cord rubbed backwards and forwards swiftly against a post or + a tree will take fire; a stick of wood pressed against another + which is + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span> + + turned swiftly about in a lathe, will soon make it turn + black and emit smoke. Even the palms of your hands, if you + rub them briskly together, when they are dry, will smell as + if they were scorched. The method of exciting fire by rubbing + two sticks of wood together, was anciently practised by + country people, and is still retained in some parts of the + world. The manner is exactly described in Captain Cook’s + voyage. The inhabitants of New-Holland are there said to + produce fire with great facility, and spread it in a + wonderful manner. To produce it, they take two pieces of + <em>soft</em> dry wood; one is a stick about eight or nine + inches long, the other piece is flat. The stick they shape + into an obtuse point at one end, and pressing it upon the + other, turn it nimbly by holding it between both their hands, + as we do a chocolate mill, often shifting their hands up and + down, and then moving them down upon it to increase the + pressure as much as possible. By this method they get fire in + less than two minutes, and from the smallest spark they + increase it with speed and dexterity.</p> + <p> + The matter of fire is attracted more or less by all bodies. + When any heated body comes in contact with a cold one, the + former loses a part of its heat, and both of them become + equally warm. If heated iron is laid upon a stone, its heat + will flow into the stone; if thrown into the water, the heat + will be diffused through the water. If a number of different + substances, as metals, wood, wool, &c., are brought + together into a place where there is not a fire, if they are + of different temperatures, that is of different degrees of + heat, the fire will be attracted from the hottest to those + that are colder, till a perfect equilibrium is produced, or + till they have all acquired the same temperature, as may be + proved by applying the thermometer successively to each of + them.</p> + <p> + It does not appear, however, that all bodies have an equal + attraction for the matter of fire. If a rod of iron is put + into the fire for a short time, the end which is at a + moderate distance from the fire will almost burn the hand; + but a rod of wood, of the same length will be consumed to + ashes at the end which is in the fire, before the other end + is sufficiently heated to burn the hand. A ball of lead, and + a ball of wool, may be of exactly the same temperature by the + thermometer, but they will not appear of the same degree of + heat on applying the hand. If they are of a temperature below + that of our bodies, the lead will appear much colder than the + wool, because it attracts the heat more rapidly from the + hand; if they are of a higher temperature, the lead will + appear much hotter, from the facility with which it parts + with its heat. This property in bodies is called their + <em>conducting</em> power; and those bodies through which the + element of fire most rapidly circulates, are called good + conductors.</p> + <p> + The power of conducting the matter of fire seems to depend + upon the texture of bodies, that is, upon the contact of + their parts; + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span> + + hence the excessive slowness with which heat is + communicated to bodies of a rare and spongy texture. Thus + flannel, wool, and feathers, are considered as warm + coverings, not because they possess more heat in + themselves—for they serve to preserve any cold body in a cool + state better than other substances—but because they prevent + the escape of the animal heat from our bodies.</p> + <p> + The matter of fire will exist in a state of combination, in a + <em>latent</em> state, so as not to be perceptible to our + senses. It will be found by observation, that every body + which exists contains a quantity of the matter of fire in a + fixed or neutralized state, disarmed of all its active, + penetrating, and destructive qualities, like an acid and an + alkali in combination.</p> + <p> + Fluids, from their very nature and constitution, contain a + greater quantity of caloric in a latent state than solid + bodies: indeed it is now universally admitted, and may be + easily proved, that the fluidity of all bodies is altogether + owing to the quantity of fire which they retain in this + latent or combined state, the elasticity of which keeps their + particles remote from each other, and prevents their fixing + into a solid mass. All bodies, therefore, in passing from a + fluid to a solid state, emit a quantity of fire or heat. When + water is thrown upon quick lime, it is absorbed by the lime, + and in this state it is capable of retaining a much smaller + quantity of caloric than in its natural state; on the + slacking of lime, therefore, a very intense heat is produced, + the matter of fire which preserved the water fluid being + disengaged and detached. If spirit of vitriol is added to + strong oil of turpentine, they will condense into a solid + mass, and a great quantity of heat will be sensibly emitted. + Upon the same principle it will be found, on the other hand, + that when any body passes from a solid to a fluid state, the + adjacent bodies will be deprived of a quantity of their + natural heat.</p> + <blockquote> + <p> + [This theory of what is called <em>burning lime</em>, is + not sufficiently clear. Fire does not enter into the pores + of the lime by burning. The mineral commonly used for + procuring <em>quick lime</em> is the <em>carbonate</em> of + lime, or common <em>limestone</em>, which is composed of + carbonic acid with a small quantity of water, 43, and lime + 57, in 100 parts. By submiting it to a strong heat, the + carbonic acid is driven off, and the quick or pure lime + remains, which is an <em>oxide of calcium</em>. The loss in + weight is owing to the expulsion of the carbonic acid, with + the small portion of water. By adding water to the quick + lime, it is dissolved, and falls into a powder. This + process is called <em>slacking lime</em>, and the product, + <em>slack-lime</em>. During the process a large quantity of + heat is disengaged; and if the slacking be done in the + dark, <em>light</em> is also observed to be thrown out. + This heat is given out by the <em>water</em>, not the lime. + The lime having a <em>greater affinity</em> for the + <em>hydrogen</em> of the water than exists between the + hydrogen and oxygen in water, seizes upon it, and the + <em>oxygen passes off</em>, together with the <em>latent + caloric</em> of the water, and thus the heat is produced + which is observed in slacking lime. The hydrogen of + the water combines with the lime and + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span> + + becomes solid, forming an <em>hydrate of lime</em>, which is + the common slacked lime used in mortar.]</p> + </blockquote> + <p> + The matter of fire is <em>elastic</em>, as is proved + evidently from all its effects. There is indeed reason to + believe, that caloric is the only fluid in nature which is + permanently elastic, and that it is the cause of the + elasticity of all fluids which are esteemed so. From the + elasticity of this element it results, that all natural + bodies can only retain a certain quantity of it, without + undergoing an alteration in their state and form. Thus a + moderate quantity of fire admitted into a solid body expands + it; a still larger quantity renders it fluid; and if the + quantity is still increased, it will be converted into vapor.</p> + <p> + Caloric expands all bodies which it penetrates, more or less, + in proportion to its quantity, and to the nature of those + bodies. The expansion of water, even previous to its assuming + the form of vapor, may be seen in an easy experiment. If a + quantity of cold water, contained in a clear flask, is + immersed in a vessel of boiling water; as the heat enters, + the water in the flask will be seen to rise in the neck till + it overflows.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_33"> + An iron rod a foot long being heated red hot, became 1-60 + longer than before; and a glass cylinder, a fathom long, + under the same circumstances, gained 1-50 in length. A + metalline ring thus heated was increased 9-100 in its + diameter; and a glass globe became extended 1-100 part by the + heat of the hand only applied to its surface.<a + href="#Footnote_33" + class="fnanchor">33</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_34"> + The <em>general</em> effects of caloric are to increase the + bulk of the substances with which it unites, and to render + them specifically lighter than they were before; but in + whatever quantity it is accumulated in bodies, it never adds + to their absolute weight. Caloric favors the solution of + salts, and promotes the union of many substances. In other + cases it serves to separate bodies already united; so that in + the hands of chemists it is the most useful and powerful + agent with which they are acquainted. It is the cause of + fluidity in all substances which are capable of becoming + fluid, from the heaviest metal to the lightest gas. Let it be + remembered that <em>all</em> fluids are formed from solids by + an addition of caloric; and that, by abstracting this + caloric, solids would be reproduced. It insinuates itself + among their particles, and invariably separates them in some + measure from each other. We have reason to believe that every + solid substance on the face of the earth might be converted + to a fluid, or even a gas, were it submitted to the action of + a very high temperature in peculiar circumstances.<a + href="#Footnote_34" + class="fnanchor">34</a></p> + <blockquote> + <p> + [The general and aggregate bearing of the facts and + experiments which are now known, render the statement here + made by Mr. Wood extremely probable, viz; That caloric is a + very subtle fluid which pervades in large quantities every + particle of matter in the universe<span + +class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span>—that + + it is the agent + which regulates the <em>densities</em> of all bodies, and + by consequence, regulates in some measure their + <em>weight</em> and <em>dimensions</em>. It is considered + as an almost settled question, <em>that a stratum of + caloric surrounds each ultimate particle of every body, so + that the ultimate particles of bodies do not, and cannot be + made to touch each other</em>. Their inherent inclination + to come into actual contact is called their <em>attraction + of cohesion</em>: the power of this attraction is in + proportion to the distance at which they are kept from each + other by the atmosphere of caloric which intervenes between + them. This atmosphere of caloric is + <em>idio-repulsive</em>: of course the particles of caloric + have an inherent <em>repulsion</em> among themselves, and + are ever struggling to get further asunder.</p> + <p> + This idio-repulsive nature of caloric is the great, and + constant antagonist power to the attraction of cohesion. + Caloric has a tendency to drive the particles of matter + further from each other, and these particles have a mutual + tendency to approach. Hence these two principles are ever + in conflict. As a general rule we may say, when the + attraction of cohesion prevails greatly, the body becomes + <em>solid</em>: when the two forces are pretty nearly + balanced, the body becomes <em>liquid</em>: when the + caloric prevails greatly, the body becomes + <em>gaseous</em>.</p> + <p> + There is sufficient reason to believe, that <em>every</em> + body in nature might be raised to a <em>gaseous</em> state + by the addition or action of a sufficient quantity of + caloric: and there is, probably, a sufficient quantity in + nature, to render the whole <em>universe</em> gaseous, were + it sufficiently excited to a state of freedom. It is a well + known fact, that <em>all the metals are fusible by + heat</em>, and many of them have been <em>volatalized</em>, + and it is extremely probable all of them may be.</p> + <p> + As caloric regulates the density of bodies, by resisting + and modifying the influence of the attraction of cohesion: + if it were entirely withdrawn from nature, or the whole of + it rendered perfectly latent, <em>all matter would become + perfectly</em> <span + class="smcap">solid</span> + and <span + class="smcap">fixed</span>: + even <em>water</em> and <em>air</em> would assume the + <em>solidity of the diamond</em>.</p> + <p> + We must, therefore, regard caloric as the great + conservative principle of the Universe, and yet capable, if + called into action, of destroying it instantly.</p> + <p> + These views strongly corroborate <em>our</em> paper on + <em>chaos</em>.]</p> + </blockquote> + <p> + From the experiments of General Roy, in the 75th volume of + the Philosophical Transactions, it appears that the expansion + of a steel pendulum of a clock is such, that every four + degrees of the thermometer will cause a variation of a second + per day; and that the difference between the going of a clock + in summer and winter will be about six seconds per day, or + one minute in ten days, owing to the metallic pendulum + varying in length with every change of temperature. A + knowledge of this circumstance gave rise to Harrison’s + self-regulating time-piece, which, by the different expansion + of <em>different</em> metals, accommodates its movements to + every change of seasons or climate.</p> + <p> + The fire deposited below the surface of the earth is + peculiarly + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span> + + important, having produced earthquakes and + volcanic eruptions. Dr. Watson, late Bishop of Llandaff, in + his Chemical Essays, says, The most remarkable changes which + have taken place in the form and constitution of the earth, + since the deluge, have probably been produced by + subterraneous fires; for it is to their agency that + philosophers ascribe volcanos and earthquakes; those + tremendous instruments of nature, by which she converts + plains into mountains, the ocean into islands, and dry land + into stagnant pools. Mr. Lemery, as far as I have been able + to learn, adds the learned Bishop, was the first person who + illustrated, by actual experiment, the origin of + subterraneous fires. He mixed twenty-five pounds of powdered + sulphur with an equal weight of iron filings; and having + kneaded the mixture together, by means of a little water, + into the consistency of a paste, he put it into an iron pot, + covered it with a cloth, and buried the whole a foot under + ground. In about eight or nine hours time the earth swelled, + grew warm, and cracked: hot sulphureous vapors were + perceived: a flame which dilated the cracks was observed; the + superincumbent earth was covered with a yellow and black + powder: in short, a subterraneous fire, producing a volcano + in miniature, was spontaneously lighted up from the + reciprocal actions of sulphur, iron, and water.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_35"> + Volcanic eruptions are awfully terrific, and sometimes + extensively destructive. The violent eruption of Vesuvius, in + 1767, is reckoned the 27th since that which destroyed the + cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii, in the reign of the + Emperor Titus; and this eruption of 1767, has been succeeded + by several others. Of the eruptions of Ætna, Mr. Oldenburg + has given a historical account in the Philosophical + Transactions, No. xlviii. p. 967. A very great eruption of + this mountain was in the year 1669. The progress of the lava, + or fiery deluge, was at the rate of a furlong a day. It + advanced into the sea 600 yards, and was then a mile in + breadth. It had destroyed, in forty days, the habitations of + 27,000 persons; and of 20,000 inhabitants of the city of + Catanea, only 3,000 escaped. This inundation of liquid fire, + in its progress, met with a lake four miles in compass, and + not only filled it up, although it was four fathoms deep, but + raised it into a mountain. Borelli, an ingenious Neapolitan, + has calculated, that the matter discharged at this eruption + was sufficient to fill a space of 93,838,750 cubic spaces. + The lava which ran from it is fourteen miles in length, and, + in many parts, six in breadth. There have been no such + eruptions since, although there have been signs of many, more + terrible, that preceded it.<a + href="#Footnote_35" + class="fnanchor">35</a></p> + <p> + The principal volcanos in Europe are Mount Vesuvius, near + Naples, in Italy; Mount Ætna, in Sicily; Mount Hecla, in + Iceland; and Stromboli, the most northern of the Lipari + islands, north of Sicily. Of all the volcanos recorded + in history, Stromboli seems + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span> + + to be the only one that burns + incessantly. Ætna and Vesuvius are sometimes many months, and + even years, without the least emission of fire; but this is + ever at work, and, for ages past, has been considered as the + light-house of the Mediterranean Sea. It is very probable, + that Mount Vesuvius and Mount Ætna form but different + portions of <em>one</em> chain of mountains that passes under + the sea, and the isle of Lipari; for whenever one of the + volcanos has a great eruption, it is observed that the other, + and the volcano in the isle of Lipari, throw out more flames + than ordinary. This remark was made by Huet, Bishop of + Avranches, in France, a celebrated philosophical, historical, + and commercial writer. The force of volcanos is supposed to + be the greatest of any thing yet known in nature. In the + great eruption of Vesuvius, in 1779, a stream of lava, of an + immense magnitude, is said to have been projected to the height + of at least 10,000 feet above the top of the mountain.</p> + <blockquote> + <p> + [The present state of chemical science, and the geological + discoveries of the last ten or fifteen years, seem to + discountenance the theory, that volcanic action, and + earthquakes result from <em>sulphur</em>, <em>iron</em>, + and <em>water</em>, as Mr. Lemery’s experiment seems to + indicate.</p> + <p> + The vast extent of volcanic action, as indicated by extinct + and active volcanos, would require a greater amount of + these materials, than can be supposed to exist in the + composition of the earth. Thus, according to the Newtonian + test of a correct theory, the means, if true, would not be + sufficient.</p> + <p> + Again: If sulphur and iron were the principal agents in + producing volcanic action, and earthquakes, <em>volcanic + products would give evidence of it</em>, by being, + principally, <em>sulphate of iron</em>. So far is this from + being the fact, that in 100 parts, volcanic product, Dr. + Kennedy found, in reference to two volcanos, not exceeding + 14.25 oxide of iron, and no sulphur at all.</p> + <p> + Volcanic products are generally, “mixtures of the earth in + an oxidated and fused state, under intense ignition; water + and saline substances, such as might be furnished by the + sea and air, altered as might be expected from the + formation of fixed oxidated matter.” <span + class="smcap">Ure.</span></p> + <p> + These two simple considerations must set aside the theory + mentioned in the text. Other valid objections might be + urged.</p> + <p> + As this theory is inadmissible, because, neither true in + application to volcanic action and product, nor sufficient + in force, it is proper to supply the deficiency.</p> + <p> + By a careful inspection of the phenomena attending volcanic + action, as well as an examination of its products, we are + clearly convinced, the <em>agents are aëriform</em>; + chiefly <em>steam</em> and the <em>gases</em>, and they act + with an <em>expansive force from beneath</em>.</p> + <p> + Mouna Roa, in the island Owhyhee, rises 15,000 feet, and + has on its top a crater <em>eight miles</em> in + circumference, containing a vast lake of molten lava. Mr. + Goodrich visited it in 1824. He says, “exhalations escape + from all the fissures of the lava crust, producing + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span> + + here and there a blast <em>like strong vapor blowing out of + a steam boiler</em>.”</p> + <p> + Subsequently, a party from the Blonde frigate visited it, + and the Rev. Charles Stewart, who accompanied the party, + has given a description of the crater. He says, “its + surface had all the agitation of the ocean. Billow after + billow tossed its monstrous bosom into the air, and + occasionally the waves from apposite directions met with + such violence, as to dash the fiery spray, in the + concussion, forty or fifty feet high.” <cite>Ure’s New + Syst. Geol. pp. 381-2.</cite></p> + <p> + In both these accounts we clearly see aëriform + agents acting from beneath. The <em>hissing</em> noise of steam + escaping from a boiler, convinces of the <em>nature</em> of + the body escaping. The <em>upheaving</em> of the melted + lava proves, not only, that the agent acts from + <em>beneath</em> by expansion, but also, by its resemblance + to the common phenomenon observed in boiling liquids, that + the agent is formed below, and rises through the melted + lava, heaving it up in swells and waves, until it escapes + in a gaseous state, like vapor from boiling liquids.</p> + <p> + We must come to the same conclusion from the experiments, + observations, and reports of the celebrated, and intrepid + Spallanzani, who visited and examined the crater of the + ever-burning Stromboli. His words are nearly these: Fluid + lava, resembling melted brass red-hot, and liquid filled + the crater to a certain height, and this matter appeared to + be influenced by two distinct impelling powers; the one + whirling and agitated; and the other upwards, terminating + in an explosion like a short clap of thunder. Immediately + before the explosion occurred, the lava appeared + <em>inflated</em>, and <em>large bubbles</em>, some several + feet in diameter, rose and burst, the detonation followed + and the lava sunk. During the rising, <em>a sound issued + from the crater like that produced by a liquid boiling + violently in a caldron</em>. In this case we have every + evidence of an <em>aëriform agent acting from + beneath</em>.</p> + <p> + An aëriform agent is detected also by examining the + <em>structure</em> of volcanic products, which have been + ejected in a melted state. They are found to be + <em>vesicular</em>, <em>cellular</em>, and <em>porous</em>. + This structure proves, incontestibly, that these cavities + and cells were filled with an aëriform + body, which escaped upon cooling.</p> + <p> + This position might be sustained by other proofs, but it is + unnecessary. It remains only to ask, <em>whether these + elastic agents are sufficient to produce the astonishing + amount and products of volcanic action and + earthquakes</em>?</p> + <p> + The force which elastic agents are known to possess, when + generated suddenly, and raised to a high temperature, + answers this question promptly in the <em>affirmative</em>. + A very few grains of gunpowder, when converted into gas by + sudden ignition in a gun-barrel, by their expansive force + drive a bullet with astonishing power and velocity. A few + cubic feet of water converted into steam, will burst the + strongest metallic barrier which man can construct, unless + it find vent.</p> + <p> + As we have seen sufficiently clearly that aëriform + bodies, as steam and gases, are the elastic agents in producing + earthquakes and volcanos, it remains to inquire into the + <em>production</em> and <em>action</em> of those agents.</p> + <p> + As it regards their production, the present state of + geological and + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span> + + chemical science suggests <em>three</em> + theories, each of which would be adequate to the object.</p> + <p> + It is necessary to premise that <em>water</em> is a common + agent in each of the three theories.</p> + <p> + 1. The splendid discoveries of Sir H. Davy, in regard to + the <em>bases</em> of the earths, demonstrating them to be + <em>metallic</em>, and the earths merely <em>oxides</em> of + those metals, have led to the conjecture, <em>that these + metals exist in nearly a pure state in the interior of the + earth</em>; of course the <em>crust</em> of the earth is + composed of the various metallic oxides.</p> + <p> + It is well known that many of these metals <em>take fire on + coming into contact with water, as potassium, sodium, + &c</em>; and <em>all of them oxidize rapidly on meeting + with water and air</em>, and thus <em>large quantities of + hydrogen gas would be evolved</em>.</p> + <p> + This theory is so reasonable, in view of the + <em>combustibility</em> of metals, and so conformable to + science, that we almost decide it is true, without further + examination.</p> + <p> + But, in order that its demonstration should be clear, it + must first be shown, <em>that the metals do exist in nearly + a pure state in the interior of the earth</em>: and then, + <em>that they are accessible by water, or air, or + both</em>.</p> + <p> + The first point can only be rendered <em>probable by + analogy</em>. We <em>know</em> that the earths which are + found in the crust of our planet are <em>metallic + oxides</em>. It is very natural to suppose these metals + existed in a pure <em>metallic state at the creation, as + well at the surface as at the centre</em>; as all other + bodies most probably existed in an elementary and + uncombined state when God first produced them. From this + supposition it is easy to see, that when water and air came + into action, which would be at the earth’s surface, these + metals would be rapidly oxidized, thus forming the earths. + But as this process would commence at the <em>surface</em> + of the earth, and <em>tend towards the centre</em>, it is + evident its <em>progress would be arrested by its own + action</em>.</p> + <p> + For the <em>accumulation of the earths</em>, by the + oxidation of the metals, would gradually form the + <em>superincumbent crust</em>, which would act as a + <em>barrier</em> to the water and air, preventing their + contact with the metals in the interior, <em>which</em>, of + course, <em>would not be oxidized</em>.</p> + <p> + In this state they would remain buried deep under the + superincumbent oxidated crust of the earth, until water and + air should find access to them. When this should take place + a rapid, and extensive <em>chemical action</em> would + commence, generating immense quantities of hydrogen gas, + the metals <em>decomposing</em> the air and water, in the + process of oxidation, and setting the <em>hydrogen</em> of + the water, and <em>nitrogen</em> of the air <em>free</em>. + Thus a large amount of the most inflammable of all gases + would be disengaged. The rapid chemical action would + <em>raise the temperature</em> of these gases, and thus + <em>increase their bulk</em> immensely, which would produce + an irresistible <em>expansive force</em>, which would + <em>increase the pressure</em> against the sides of the + cavern in which the gases were generated, <em>and the <span + class="smcap">ignition</span> + of the hydrogen + would be a necessary consequence</em>. Such an immense + volume of gas being ignited, and confined, would produce + such a degree of heat, as rapidly to + <em>decompose</em> or <em>melt</em> the substances in its + neighborhood, and set at + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span> + + liberty a vast quantity of other + gases; all of which being <em>ignited</em>, and of course + <em>expanded</em> immeasurably, would not only shake a + given section of the earth, but, if placed in its centre, + would shake the solid globe throughout, and rend it into + ten thousand pieces, if it did not find means to escape. If + it found means of escape by some opening forced from its + seat to the surface of the earth, <em>that opening + would</em> <span + class="smcap">constitute a volcano</span>; + from which the gases would escape, and throw out before + them the vast amount of volcanic products which are known + to come forth of the craters.</p> + <p> + It now remains to inquire, <em>whether a sufficient + quantity of water can be supposed to have access to these + metals</em>?</p> + <p> + From what we know of the distribution of water generally in + the bowels of the earth, we should have no difficulty in + admitting the <em>affirmative</em>. But this question may + be clearly answered by two circumstances.</p> + <p> + First: Large quantities of boiling water and mud, are + frequently ejected from volcanos. This proves an + <em>excess</em> of water at, or near the seat of action, + which could not be decomposed, before the amount of gases + generated, and acting with incredible force, drove it out + of the crater. This fact is true in some measure of all + volcanos, but eminently so of those in South America. + “Bouguer and Condamine saw these formidable torrents tear + up the surface of a whole country. Six hours after an + explosion of Cotopaxi, a village nearly eighty miles + distant in a straight line, and probably one hundred and + forty by the winding channel, was entirely swept away by + the flood.” <cite>Ure’s New Sys. Geol. p. 386.</cite></p> + <p> + Secondly: The position of volcanos, <em>always near the + sea</em>, together with the <em>agitations of the sea</em>, + previous to, and during an eruption, as well as the + <em>saline</em> matter in the ejected substances, render it + very clear, <em>that the sea, by subterranean + communication, supplies water at the seat of volcanic + action</em>. “The sea seems to sympathise with the + agitations of the adjoining volcanos, rising and falling + with rapid alternation—<em>caused by the sudden deflux of a + great body of water into the vast volcanic caverns</em>.” + <cite>Ure’s New Sys. Geol. p. 388.</cite></p> + <p> + This fact is so well known in the history of volcanos, that + it needs no further proof. It has, however, led to the + remark, that volcanos are generally situated in islands, or + near the sea coast. Indeed many of them are + <em>submarine</em>, and have actually been seen in + operation, throwing up vast columns of water to an immense + height, until the edge of the crater appeared above the + surface of the sea, and increased into islands, which have + become permanent. At such times the water of the sea for a + great distance round became <em>hot</em>, fishes died; and + even the pitch melted from the hulks of the vessels in the + neighborhood.</p> + <p> + 2. Another theory has been proposed which does not differ + from the first, in regard to the <em>materials</em> + employed at the seat of volcanic action, nor in the + <em>manner</em> of the process; but in regard to the + <em>condition</em> of those materials when they + <em>begin</em> to operate in the production of the elastic + agents. These materials may be in a state of <em>igneous + fusion</em> in the interior of the earth. This state is + supposed to have resulted thus:</p> + <p> + When God created the substances of the earth, they were in an + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span> + + <em>elementary</em> and <em>uncombined</em> state, + promiscuously mixed through each other from the surface to + the centre. By his <em>Spirit brooding over the great + deep</em>, caloric and light, which were in a + <em>latent</em> state, were called into action, which gave + impulse and motion to every particle of matter, thus + quickening the whole mass by producing <em>intense + heat</em>. This would cause the <em>aqueous</em> and + <em>gaseous</em> particles to rise through the mass, and + collect at the surface. This would bring them in contact + with the metals in a pure state, which would of course + <em>oxidize</em>, and become <em>earths</em>. This action + would go on until it arrested its own progress, by forming + and consolidating the oxidated crust of the earth inclosing + all the interior substances in a state of igneous fusion, + which have been gradually cooling ever since. The + <em>primitive</em> rocks, which have a crystalline + structure, are supposed to have been deposited during this + process, as it is evident they could not have crystallized + under any other circumstances, and they are well known to + be composed of the earths which are only metals in a state + of oxidation. It is now only necessary to introduce the + water to this mass of melted matter, or any part of it, as + in the first theory to the metals in their pure state, + <em>and we have the same results in all respects</em>.</p> + <p> + This theory has two advantages over the first. It agrees + best with the crystalline structure which primitive rocks + are known to possess, and which must result from chemical + action on the materials in a state of solution. It also + seems to accord best with the Mosaic account of the action + of heat and light, in assimilating, arranging and settling + the materials of the earth.</p> + <p> + Moreover, it is confirmed by experiments made on the + <em>temperature</em> of the earth at different depths. The + following tables are extracted from Mr. Ure’s New System of + Geology, pp. 426-7. They accord, in their tendency, with + the opinions of other eminent philosophers than those whose + names appear in the tables.</p> + <p class="ctr"> + <em>Observations on the temperature of the earth.</em></p> + <p> + In the mines of Giro-Magny, three leagues from Befort, M. + Gensanne found:</p> + <table class="mini" summary=""> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + At 333</td> + <td class="ctr"> + feet,</td> + <td> + 54½ Fahr.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + 680</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + 62</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + 1016</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + 66½</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + 1429</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + 73</td></tr> + </table> + <p class="i0 v2"> + In the mines of Freyberg, M. D’Aubuisson found</p> + <table class="mini" summary=""> + <tr> + <td> + External air</td> + <td> + 41</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + In the galleries</td> + <td> + 50</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 528 feet, water pool</td> + <td> + 52</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 858 water of a spring</td> + <td> + 57</td></tr> + </table> + <p class="i0 v2"> + At Junghohebirke,</p> + <table class="mini" summary=""> + <tr> + <td> + external thermometer</td> + <td> + 32</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1040 feet, water was</td> + <td> + 63</td></tr> + </table> + <p class="i0 v2"> + Observations by Captain Lean in the mines of Cornwall.</p> + <table class="mini" summary=""> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + At surface,</td> + <td class="ctr"> + in June,</td> + <td> + 59</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + 118</td> + <td class="ctr"> + feet deep</td> + <td> + 64½</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + 480</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + 68</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + 840</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + 69½</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + 1144</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + 79</td></tr> + </table> + <p class="v2"> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span></p> + + <table class="mini" summary=""> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + At surface,</td> + <td class="ctr"> + <em>December.</em></td> + <td class="rt"> + air</td> + <td> + 50 </td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + 120</td> + <td class="ctr"> + feet deep</td> + <td class="rt"> + air</td> + <td> + 57</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + 600</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td class="rt"> + air</td> + <td> + 66</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + ——</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td class="rt"> + water</td> + <td> + 64</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + 962</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td class="rt"> + air</td> + <td> + 70</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + ——</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td class="rt"> + water</td> + <td> + 74</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + 1200</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td class="rt"> + air</td> + <td> + 78</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + ——</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td class="rt"> + water</td> + <td> + 78</td></tr> + </table> + <p class="i0"> + M. Humboldt obtained analogous results in many mines in + South America. The evidence in favor of a <em>perpetually + increasing temperature as you descend into the earth</em>, + and a <em>higher temperature formerly at the surface of the + earth</em>, is increasing daily. <em>See the conclusion of + this paper.</em></p> + <p> + 3. There is yet a third theory, founded on <em>voltaic + energy</em>, or <em>galvanism</em> and + <em>electricity</em>.</p> + <p> + The application of these agents to the production of + volcanic action, had occurred to me, before I met with the + “Outline of the course of Geological Lectures, given in + Yale College,” by Professor Silliman, from which the + following extract is made. I had not regarded their + application in the same manner as he has explained it. + Indeed, my thoughts on the subject had not assumed any + definite direction. I shall transcribe from his “Outline,” + pp. 118-19, inserted in “Bakewell’s Introduction to + Geology, first American Edition.”</p> + <p> + “Whatever we may think of the hypothesis now detailed, may + we not suppose, with sufficient probability, that those + voltaic powers which we <em>know</em> to exist—whose action + we can command, and whose effects having been first + observed within the memory of the present generation, now + fill us with astonishment, are constantly active in + producing the phenomena of earthquakes and volcanos?</p> + <p> + “Arrangements of metals and fluids are the common means by + which we evolve this wonderful power, in our laboratories; + and it would seem that nothing more than juxta-position, in + a certain order, is necessary to the effect. Even + substances apparently dry and inert, with respect to each + other, will produce a permanent, and in proportion to the + means employed, a powerful effect, as in the columns of De + Luc and Zamboui. It would seem indeed that metals and + fluids are not <em>necessary</em> to the effect. + Arrangements of almost any substances that are of different + natures, will cause the evolution of this power. Whoever + has witnessed the overwhelming brilliancy and intense + energy of the great galvanic combinations, especially the + deflagrator of Dr. Hare, and considers how very trifling, + in extent, are our largest combinations of apparatus, + compared with those natural arrangements of earths, salts, + metals, and fluids, which we know to exist in the earth, in + circumstances similar to those which, in our laboratories, + are effectual in causing this power to appear, will not be + slow to believe that it may be in the earth perpetually + evolved, and perpetually renewed; and now mitigated, + suppressed, or revived, according to circumstances + influencing the particular state of things at particular + places.</p> + <p> + “In our laboratories we see emanating from this source, + intense light, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span> + + irresistible heat, magnetism in great + energy, and above all, a decomposing power, which commands + equally all the elements, and the proximate principles in + all their combinations.</p> + <p> + “Sir Humphrey Davy, after discovering that the supporters + of combustion and the acids, were all evolved at the + positive pole, and the combustibles and metals, and their + oxidated products, at the negative—proved that even the + firmest rocks and stones could not resist this power; their + immediate principles and elements being separated by its + energy. The decomposition of the alkalies, earths, and + other metallic oxides being a direct and now familiar + effect of voltaic energy—their metals being set at liberty, + and being combustible both in air and water—elastic agents + produced by this power, and rarified by heat, being also + attendant on these decompositions, it would seem that the + first principles are fully established by experiment, and + that nothing is hypothetical, but the application to the + phenomena of earthquakes and volcanos.”</p> + <p> + The reader will perceive that all of the above theories + agree in one respect, viz; in the agency of <em>elastic + bodies</em>, as steam and gases, produced by the + decomposition of substances; and that the same substances + are supposed to be employed, though not precisely in the + same manner, nor in the same condition. Further Geological + and Chemical experiments may, hereafter, settle the + question between these theories. They are all scientific in + their principles, and fully competent to the object, and it + is not impossible but that they may all be true in part or + in whole, acting separately in some instances, and combined + in others.</p> + <p> + Under the agency of either of them the products would be + the same. Dr. Kennedy has made experiments on the + composition of volcanic products, and found, Silex, + 51—Alumina, 19—Lime, 9.5—Oxide of iron, 14.5—Soda, + 4—Muriatic acid, 1—in 100 parts.</p> + <p> + As it regards the extent of volcanic action and + earthquakes, the two first theories agree best with actual + appearances. They would lead us to conclude that volcanic + action was necessarily more extensive in the earlier ages + of the world than now. Because, every action would oxidize + the crust of the earth deeper, and increase the + superincumbent strata, and render the access of water and + air more difficult. <em>This is found to be the fact by + observation in different countries.</em></p> + <p> + In some parts of France, in which kingdom there is not, and + has not been for the last two thousand years, any active + volcano, <em>there are ranges of extinct volcanos, in which + may be counted from seventy to one hundred craters</em>. + They are so close their bases touch in many instances. The + same fact is observed along the Rhine, and in Hungary, and + other countries. <cite>See Ure’s New Syst. Geol. and + Bakewell’s Geology.</cite></p> + <p> + Mr. Ure reckons up two hundred and five <em>active</em> + volcanos at this time. One hundred and seven in islands, + and ninety-eight on continents.</p> + <p> + It is very evident that the <em>seat</em> of volcanic + action is vastly below the surface of the earth. The + <em>extent</em> of country which is shaken by the effort of + the gases to escape, will prove this. The agitations + have been felt over all Europe, and + even <em>across the Atlantic</em>!</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span> + + Again: If the action were not situated far below the + surface of the earth, the mountains, which only serve as + <em>chimnies</em>, and which have been formed by the action + of the volcanos, <em>would sink in</em>. This has been the + case in a few instances. This will appear more clearly if + we consider the <em>amount</em> of matter ejected. Did it + not come from an immeasurable distance beneath, the + accumulated mass at the surface of the earth would break + down the <em>substrata</em> which lie over the immense + caverns formed by the ejection. The <em>dimensions</em> of + those caverns, situated under the volcanic mountains, are + far greater than one would suppose at first consideration. + <em>The internal caverns must be as large as the ejected + masses, which came out of them.</em> Ætna is known to have + thrown out matter sufficient to form twenty such mountains + as it is. It is strongly probable that the whole island of + Sicily is of volcanic origin. Humboldt says the dome-shaped + craters of volcanos rise from six hundred to eighteen + thousand feet in height. He considers the <em>whole + mountainous district of Quito as one immense volcano</em>.</p> + <p> + Indeed, from a close survey of the geological features of + the earth, there is reason to believe, that at very remote + periods almost the whole surface of our globe has been the + theatre of volcanic action. It is a matter of gratitude + that its amount is growing less every year, of course the + destructions by earthquakes are more limited. In process of + time, it may be hoped, the earth may become permanently + tranquil, nor flame, nor shake, until the final + catastrophe, which God has ordained to destroy our planet, + by a general and simultaneous action of all the fires of + the earth.</p> + <p> + P.S. It may be of advantage to recollect, that the + <em>expansive force of steam is to that of gunpowder as 140 + to 5</em>. According to Vauban, 140 pounds of water + converted into vapor would produce an explosion capable of + blowing up 77,000 pounds, while 140 pounds of gunpowder + could only blow up a mass of 30,000. <em>See the text under + the head</em>, “<span + class="smcap">Salutary Effects of Water</span>.”</p> + <p class="ctr smcap v2"> + appendix.</p> + <p class="ctr"> + <em>On the temperature of the earth anciently.</em></p> + <p> + That the temperature of the earth’s surface was much higher + in the first ages of its existence, than since the period + of authentic history, seems now to be nearly established, + in the opinion of the learned, and only requires time to + have the weight of evidence produce its proper effect on + the great mass of community.</p> + <p> + Though this fact would be apprehended from what is said + above, it may be desirable to the reader to see a concise + view of the reasons which induce this opinion.</p> + <p> + 1. <em>It may be inferred from the original constitution of + the globe, and the chemical action consequent upon it.</em> + It has been seen above that the <em>natural</em> condition + of matter is <em>cold</em>, <em>frozen</em>, + <em>inactive</em>, and <em>solid</em>: and that the + elements of this globe were created in a <em>simple, + uncombined state</em>. If this mass of elements received a + quickening impulse, the chemical laws of <em>affinity</em> + and <em>attraction</em>, and also the natural law of + <em>gravitation</em>, would commence exerting their + influence. This we know would create a rise in the + temperature of the whole mass, in proportion to the + <em>amount</em> of matter acted on, and the <em>force</em> + of the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span> + + different principles and agents which were in + operation. Upon consideration of these points in regard to + our earth, no one can doubt but that they would raise the + temperature to an inconceivable height.</p> + <p> + <em>Refrigeration</em> would commence at the surface as + soon as the first violent action was abated, and the water + and air began to assume their relative places, through + which the heat would escape into celestial space. This + refrigeration would be increased by the oxidation of the + metals forming the crust of the earth, which would confine + the interior heat more effectually, because, the earths are + almost complete <em>non-conductors</em> of caloric. Thus + the crust of the earth would continue to cool, and the + oxidation would thicken it, and, of course, contribute to + the reduction of its temperature.</p> + <p> + From this natural process it is very evident that the earth + was much warmer during its first periods; earthquakes, and + volcanos much more common than now, and a general + instability in the condition of our globe. The deluge was + the climax of its alternations, and settled, in some + measure, its constitution by a sudden and great reduction + of temperature.</p> + <p> + 2. <em>It may be inferred from the vast extent of volcanic + action, as indicated by the remains of extinct volcanos, + and their effects on the earth.</em> This argument is + merely <em>called up here</em>, not to be discussed at + length, but to be <em>referred</em> to, as it has been + mentioned in a preceding part of this paper.</p> + <p> + It is almost impossible for the ordinary reader, who has + not closely studied the geological phenomena which present + themselves to the close observer, to conceive of the extent + to which volcanic action operated anciently. It would not + be exaggeration to say, there was a remote period <em>when + our globe was a single volcano</em>: the whole surface of + it being subject to its action.</p> + <p> + Though we may ascribe something of the formation of hills + and vallies to the action of water, yet, doubtless, the + most effectual agent in upheaving the mountains, and even + continents, possibly, was volcanic force.</p> + <p> + “Those ranges of volcanos,” says the celebrated Humboldt, + “those eruptions through vast chasms, those subterranean + thunders, that roll under the transition rocks of porphyry + and slate in the new world, remind us of the present + activity of subterranean fire, of the power, which in + remote ages, <em>has raised up chains of mountains, broke + the surface of the globe, and poured torrents of liquid + earth in the midst of the most ancient strata</em>.”</p> + <p> + From this constant and extensive volcanic action we may + safely infer the high temperature of our earth anciently.</p> + <p> + 3. <em>It may be inferred from the origin of primitive, + trapean, and basaltic rocks.</em> The primitive rocks, as + granite, gneiss, mica slate, &c., give evidence on this + consideration; they must have been deposited when their + substance was in solution, admitting of <em>chemical + mobility</em>, in order that they might assume a + crystalline form which they are known to have.</p> + <p> + It is not easy to conceive <em>how</em> the substances of + the primitive rocks could be solved, except by + <em>heat</em>, as a <em>principal solvent</em>. The + acids, and water also, may have contributed to their + solution, but + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span> + + would not be competent of themselves. This + consideration would give a high temperature for the earth + anciently.</p> + <p> + It is now generally admitted that the trap, and basaltic + rocks are of <em>igneous</em> origin. When we consider the + <em>magnitude</em> of the trap and basalt formations, the + extent of surface which they cover, the hills, and even + elevated and lofty mountains which they form, we shall not + hesitate to assign a higher temperature to our earth at the + period when fires, so immense as to effect the upheaving + and ejection of all these, actually burned in the bowels of + the earth.</p> + <p> + 4. <em>It may be inferred from the well preserved remains + of vegetables and animals of warm equatorial climates, in + high northern latitudes where they have not been found + since the memory of man.</em> This is a conclusive argument + if its <em>data</em> be well established. Because, if + <em>tropical</em> and <em>equatorial</em> animals and + fruits are <em>now</em> found buried and fossilized in + Siberia, and the islands of the <em>arctic sea</em>, in + such a state of preservation as to forbid the supposition + they were transported thither, it will follow inevitably, + that they <em>grew there</em>, and there flourished, died, + and were buried.</p> + <p> + Moreover, if <em>herbivorous</em> animals are found + fossilized in those high northern latitudes, under such + circumstances as forbid the supposition, that they were + transported thither, it will doubtless, follow, that not + only <em>they</em> lived there, but also <em>luxuriant + vegetation</em> must at the same time have covered the + plains where their remains are entombed.</p> + <p> + The inference which we are forced to draw from these + <em>data</em>, is this: <em>As no such tropical and + equatorial animals or plants have been known to exist + there, nor even herbage of any kind, on which such animals + might subsist, since the memory of man, there was a time + anciently when the climate suited their growth, and of + course was very much warmer than it is known to be now, its + temperature then corresponding to the temperature of the + present equatorial regions, as it produced and subsisted + anciently the animals and plants which the tropical regions + produce and subsist at the present time, and which cannot + subsist in any other climates.</em></p> + <p> + In proof of the above position, it is well known that + animals and plants have their peculiar climates, in which + they are <em>indigenous</em>, and out of which they cannot + thrive, or even live, if too far removed. It is also well + known, that the warmer, and more moist the climate is, the + more luxuriant the vegetation, and the more huge the + animals.</p> + <p> + Hence we are in the habit of denominating animals and + plants by the climates in which they are indigenous, as + <em>arctic</em>, or northern; <em>tropical</em>, or + southern. Let us now see if the tropical animals and plants + once lived and flourished in high northern latitudes. The + best authorities follow.</p> + <p> + “We proceed now to examine the remains of quadrupeds: + <em>these are found accumulated in regions where similar + animals do not <span + class="smcap">now</span> + exist</em>. Some are buried deep in gypsum.—Some + present themselves to view, accumulated in vast caverns, + and destitute of any envelope. The islands of Lachof, + situated to the <span + class="smcap">north</span> + <em>of Siberia</em>, are, according to a modern traveller, + <em>only heaps of sand, ice, and bones of elephants and + rhinoceros</em>, mixed with those of great cetaceous + animals, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span> + + and even, agreeably to the latest accounts, with + the remains of gigantic birds.</p> + <p> + “There have been found in <em>Siberia, whole carcases of + the elephant, covered with their</em> <span + class="smcap">flesh</span> + and <span + class="smcap">skin</span>, + preserved by the frosts which prevail in those + regions.—Germany has furnished the greatest number (of + bones:)—In France a great many bones of the elephant have + been met with.</p> + <p> + “These discoveries, though as yet scarcely commenced, have + thrown already <em>a new light upon the revolutions which + our globe must have undergone, and upon the</em> <span + class="smcap">states which must have preceded the present + course and constitution of nature</span>.</p> + <p> + “These bones, presenting no trace of having been rolled up + and down, occurring only fractured as we find those of our + domestic animals, and sometimes joined together in the form + of skeletons, often even as it were heaped up in common + cemeteries, clearly demonstrate, <em>that the catastrophe + which has destroyed the living beings to which they + belonged must have overtaken them in the</em> <span + class="smcap">same climates where we meet with these + records of their former existence</span>.</p> + <p> + “The quantity of nourishment which such huge animated + masses required, and their numbers, proved by the existence + of the carnivorous kinds, <em>render it probable that the + countries where we find their remains <span + class="smcap">once</span> + enjoyed a temperature, if not warmer, at least more favorable + to vegetation</em>.” <span + class="smcap">Malte Brun</span>, + <cite>Physical Geography, Book 12</cite>.</p> + <p> + In the above quotations, the data on which our argument + rests are so clearly sustained there needs no comment. The + authority given is unquestionable, and could be corroborated + by scores of weighty names, and in reference + to all the <em>northern</em> countries of Asia, Europe, and + America.</p> + <p> + It is impossible to read the above extracts without being + convinced that those tropical and equatorial animals lived, + flourished, and died <em>where</em> their remains are + <em>now</em> found. And it is equally impossible to avoid + another conclusion; viz: that there must have been a heavy + vegetation on those plains, where <em>now</em> the + rein-deer can scarcely pick up a blade of grass.</p> + <p> + From these convictions no other inference can be drawn, but + that the temperature of the <em>frigid zones</em>, was + anciently much higher than at present; and of course the + general temperature of the earth also.</p> + <p> + From the perfect preservation of these fossil remains; from + the fact that they are found in their relative position, + bone to bone, and, in some instances, with their + <em>hair</em>, <em>skin</em>, and <em>flesh undecayed</em>, + it is obvious, <em>the animals must have perished by a + catastrophe which overwhelmed them suddenly, and was, + instantaneously followed by a freezing of the overwhelming + waters</em>. Such was the catastrophe of the <em>scripture + deluge</em>, which <em>physically</em> was competent to + perform the phenomena, as shall be shown presently.</p> + <p> + Let us now see if we do not arrive at the same conclusion + by examining the <em>fossil</em> <span class= + "smcap">vegetables</span>.</p> + <p> + At Portland, England, the Rev. Dr. Buckland finds fossil + plants <em>akin to the cycas family of Malabar</em>, from + which he concludes, “it is + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span> + + probable that the climate of these + regions, <em>at the time when the oolites</em> (a series of + rocky strata) <em>were deposited, was of the same warm + temperature with that</em> (the tropical) <em>which produces + a large proportion of the existing cycadeæ</em>.” <span + class="smcap">Ure</span>, + <cite>New Syst. Geol. p. 433.</cite></p> + <p> + “The remarkable development of these vegetables + (equisetums) during the first (or coal measure) period of + vegetation, and their size in the second (or oolitic) + period, <em>smaller</em> than before, but still far greater + than our existing equisetums, accord with many other facts, + furnished by fossil vegetables of many other families, to + lead us to regard the <em>climate of the earth, at these + remote epochs, to have been hotter than the hottest of + modern climates</em>.” <cite>Ibid, p. 443.</cite></p> + <p> + “There is no doubt, however, that <em>palms with fan-shaped + leaves covered Europe with their lofty vegetation at this + remote period, in regions where no species of these plants + could <span + class="smcap">now</span> + grow</em>!” <em>Ibid, p. 452.</em></p> + <p> + The palm is well known to be a <em>tropical</em> plant, and + cannot thrive, except in a warm climate. The climate of + Europe, when it grew in the north, must have been tropical. + Indeed, in all parts of northern Europe <em>tropical + flowers</em>, <em>leaves</em>, and <em>fruits</em> are + found in such a state of preservation as to convince the + most incredulous, <em>that they must have grown on the + spot</em>; which would be to convince him of the high + temperature, anciently, of those regions.</p> + <p> + “Professor Kounizin describes in the Isis for 1821, immense + beds of fossil wood in several localities of the + governments of Novogorod and Twer in the <em>north</em> + of Russia, <em>where no such trees are now found to + grow</em>.</p> + <p> + “Near Constand on the river Necker, M. Autenrieth found an + entire forest of the trunks of <em>palm trees</em>, buried + along with the remains of elephants.” <cite>Ure, + Ibid, p. 455.</cite></p> + <p> + “The fossil shells found in the strata of England, and + France, and the contiguous countries, having for the most + part, no <em>antitypes alive except in equatorial + regions</em>, harmonize with the preceding details.” + <cite>Ibid, p. 456.</cite></p> + <p> + To the above testimony might be added the <em>caves</em> in + Germany, England, and France, in which great quantities of + bones are found in such a state of preservation, and under + such circumstances as to show that the animals whose bones + are found were in the habit of frequenting these caves, and + perished in them suddenly, as their remains are found mixed + with sand and gravel, <em>but not water-worn</em>. Of these + bones, the great majority are those of the hyæna; hence + these dens, specially in England, are called <em>hyæna + dens</em>. In them are also found the bones of other + animals <em>gnawed</em> by the hyænas.</p> + <p> + From these facts there can be no doubt but the hyæna + inhabited England, France, and Germany, and dwelt in these + caves, and here perished when the sudden catastrophe of the + flood overtook him. This argues beyond doubt that these + countries were once <em>warm</em>, <em>when these tropical + animals lived in them</em>.</p> + <p> + 5. <em>The same fact may be inferred from the immense + amount of vegetable matter which was necessary to supply + the materials for the coal measures.</em> This is an + irresistible argument in view of the <em>immense + amount</em> of coal in the bowels of the earth, which must + be of + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span> + + <em>vegetable origin</em>. Because at the ratio of + vegetable product of <em>our age</em>, the earth would not + produce a sufficient amount to form the coalbeds, short of + millions of years.</p> + <p> + The <em>vegetative power</em> of the earth, therefore, must + have been anciently very much greater than at present, + which could only be on the supposition of a <em>warmer</em> + and more moist climate.</p> + <p> + Moreover, the fact that tropical plants are known to have + contributed almost entirely to the formation of coal + measures in the <em>northern latitudes</em>, is proof + direct. This is clear from the fact that their roots, + stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits are found impressed on + the coal, in such a manner that there can be no mistake; + and the <em>perfection</em> of the impression forbids the + supposition that they were <em>transported</em> thither + from tropical climates.</p> + <p> + “Brown coal and black coal, the former sometimes called + wood coal, is found chiefly in diluvial or alluvial ground. + It contains, besides charcoal and bitumen, <em>various + vegetable principles, and the branches or trunks of + trees</em> partially decomposed, <em>which mark the origin + of this kind of coal</em>.” <cite>Bakewell’s + Geology, p. 111.</cite></p> + <p> + “Wood coal, or brown coal, is found in low situations and + appears to have been <em>formed of heaps of trees</em> + buried by inundations under beds of clay, sand, or + gravel.—In some specimens of this coal the <em>vegetable + fibre, or grain</em>, is perceptible in one part, and the + other part is reduced to coal.” <cite>Ibid, p. 121.</cite></p> + <p> + “In wood coal we may almost seize nature in the fact of + making coal, before the process is completed. These + formations of coal are of far more recent date than that of + common coal, though their origin must be referred to a + former condition of our globe, <em>when the vegetable + productions of tropical climates flourished in northern + latitudes</em>. The <em>vegetable origin</em> of common + mineral coal appears to be established by its association + with strata <em>abounding in vegetable impressions</em>, by + its close similarity to wood coal, (which is undoubtedly a + <em>vegetable product</em>) and lastly by the decisive + fact, that some mineral coal in the Dudley coal-field is + <em>entirely composed of the layers of mineralized + plants</em>.” <cite>Ibid, p. 122.</cite></p> + <p> + “When we see the multitude of reeds filled and surrounded + with sandstone, having their thin scaly bark <em>converted + into a true coal</em>, it is <em>impossible to doubt of its + vegetable origin</em>.” <cite>Ure’s New System Geol. + p. 166.</cite></p> + <p> + Quotations from the best authorities might be multiplied to + the same effect, but it is deemed unnecessary. It remains + to repeat the question, <em>Could such an amount of + vegetable matter have been accumulated, short of millions + of years, at the ratio of the present vegetative powers of + the earth?</em> It is impossible. The only remaining + conclusion is, the vegetative power of the earth anciently + was much greater than at present, which could not have been + except its temperature was much higher also.</p> + <p> + In conclusion on this question, it is necessary to say, + that the reduction of the earth’s temperature would be + gradual, in a natural way, by the heat flying off into + celestial spaces, until the crust became so thick and + compact as to prove a perfect non-conductor of caloric. Then + the surface of the earth would depend on the heating + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span> + + power of + the sun altogether. The thickening of the crust of the + earth would be attended with earthquakes, volcanos, and + partial deluges, the natural and necessary results of the + oxidations of the metals. Hence we would have different + strata of rocks, sand, gravel, &c., deposited at + different times, and over different sections of the + country. Hence also forests would be overthrown, and the + vegetation of years be thrown together in the nearest lakes + or seas; which explains the origin of <em>coal-basins</em>. + This state of things also well explains the alternations of + strata of different kinds, as sand, gravel, chalk, fresh + and salt water deposites, &c., as well as the + dislocations, fractures, contortions, and confusions + observable in the structure of the earth’s crust.</p> + <p> + There are however various phenomena which indicate clearly + that there was <em>a general and sudden reduction of + temperature</em>. The state of preservation, in which those + animals in Siberia are found, proves this. The vestigia of + the <em>last</em> great revolution in our globe clearly + indicate the <span + class="smcap">deluge</span> + to have been + the cause of this general and sudden reduction of + temperature. This would be the natural consequence of + <em>submerging</em> the earth in water: and the suddenness + of the event is well attested both by the scriptures, and + the physical history of our earth.</p> + <p> + The action of the deluge does not come within the + contemplation of this volume, and therefore will not be + noticed here.]</p> + </blockquote> + <p> + The air is another storehouse of fire. When lucid igneous + particles are strongly attracted to one another in great + quantities, their heat becomes intolerable, and is capable of + destroying the most solid bodies. It is well known, that when + converged in the focus of one of Hartsocker’s + burning-glasses, they will produce wonderful effects: tin, + lead, or any soft metal, will dissolve at the first touch; + and iron, which requires a very strong fire for liquefaction, + will melt before one of these glasses almost as soon as + applied. They will consume wood, though wet, in a moment; + vitrify bricks and pumice stones, and dissolve earthen + vessels full of water; and plume-allum, which will resist the + fire of the hottest glass-houses, without alteration, is + instantly melted. Even gold, that resists the force of common + fire, is soon liquefied by their powerful agency. This + plainly shows us that, provided there were not a wise and + almighty Providence, superintending all his works, those + materials which are of the greatest utility to the harmony + and order of things, would have a direct tendency to destroy + the whole. If lucid igneous particles were to form solid + bodies, and depart from their state of fluidity, they would, + in an instant, reduce this globe to ashes, or render it + liquid fire. Were they all of one kind, it is probable they + might unite in solid bodies; but the wisdom of Providence has + formed them of various colors, and of different reflections + and refrangibility. This prevents them from associating in + such a manner as to do harm, which can only be produced + by converging them with some instrument which prevents their + flying + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span> + + off. As all these have not the same degree of + reflexibility and refrangibility, but as some are capable of + greater reflections and refractions than others, they cannot, + without force, be united in one solid body, yet they are all + serviceable for important purposes, contributing to the + happiness of man, and the welfare of all living creatures.</p> + <p> + Considering the extent of fire, and that its property is, + when put into motion, to consume all combustible substances + within its reach, it is astonishing that the world has not + long since been destroyed! This terrible element is at + present restrained and directed by its almighty Creator; but + divine revelation informs us, that a period will arrive when + its utmost energies shall be called into action. The apostle + Peter asserts, that “the heavens and earth, which are now, by + the same word are kept in store, reserved unto fire against + the day of judgment and perdition of ungodly men;—in the + which the heavens shall pass away with a great noise, and the + elements shall melt with fervent heat; the earth also, and + the works that are therein shall be burnt up.” Again he says, + “looking for and hasting unto the coming of the day of God, + wherein the heavens being on fire shall be dissolved, and the + elements shall melt with fervent heat.” The <em>passing away + of the heavens</em> means the same as their being + <em>dissolved by fire</em>. The word <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: Rhoizêdon" + class="msg">Ῥοιζηδὸν</span> + signifies with + a <em>very loud</em> and <em>terrible noise</em>: with a + sound resembling that of a great <em>storm</em>. In this + place it more particularly denotes the horrid crackling noise + of a wide-spreading fire.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “The cloud-capp’d towers, the gorgeous palaces,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The solemn temples, the great globe itself</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Yea, all which it inherit, shall <em>dissolve</em>;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And, like the baseless fabric of a vision,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Leave not a wreck behind.”</p> + </div> + <p id="FNanchor_36"> + The word rendered <em>melt</em>, is a metaphor taken from + <em>metals</em>, dissolving in the fire, or <em>wax</em> + before the flame; so will the fierce and spreading fire of + the last day <em>melt down</em> this globe, and its + surrounding atmosphere.<a + href="#Footnote_36" + class="fnanchor">36</a> + That the world was to be + dissolved by fire was the opinion of Anaximander, + Anaxiphanes, Anaxagoras, Archelaus, Diogenes, and + Leucippus.<a + href="#Footnote_37" + class="fnanchor">37</a> + The inference which the apostle + deduces from this view of the general and final + conflagration of the world, is highly impressive. “Seeing + then that all these things shall be dissolved, what manner + of persons ought ye to be in all holy conversation and + godliness.”</p> + +<p class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</p> + + <hr id="CHAPTER_II_3" class="tb" /> + <h3> + <em>Section III.</em>—<span + class="smcap">Light.</span></h3> + <p class="hang1 smaller"> + Motion of luminous and fiery particles the first cause of + light — Light the most simple body — Velocity of light — Light + diffusive — Light the medium through which objects become + visible — Light beautiful, or its rays of different + colors — Light a visible resemblance of its Divine Author, in + his spirituality, simplicity, purity, energy, goodness, + manifestation, glory.</p> + <p> + Moses, in the original word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">אור</span> + <em>aur</em>, seems plainly to hint at the + operation of a principle in the universe which, as a + second cause, produced the phenomenon of <em>light</em>. + This, most probably, was the motion of the luminous and + fiery particles in the chaotic mass which, at the Divine + command, separated themselves from the other gross + materials of the miscellaneous composition, and by an + attractive sympathy associated in one body.</p> + <p> + It is conjectured, that light was at first impressed on some + part of the heavens, or collected in some lucid body. Dr. + Wall says, Though the sun was not yet formed into a compact + body, yet the most subtile and active particles had already + begun to fly together to the centre of the solar system, + which gave some light; though probably not so great as when + afterward they made the compact body of the sun. And the + earth, which was then only a round lump of mud, or muddy + salt-water, being turned, as it has been ever since, upon its + own axis, receiving that light on its several hemispheres + successively, made night and day, or evening and morning. + Milton gives his opinion in the following lines:</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “Let there be light! said <span + class="smcap">God</span>; + and forthwith light</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Ethereal, first of things, quintessence pure,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Sprung from the deep; and from her native east</p> + <p class="ml0"> + To journey through the aery gloom began,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Spher’d in a radiant cloud; (for yet the sun</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Was not;) she in a cloudy tabernacle</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Sojourn’d the while.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0" id="FNanchor_38"> + Light, after a short progression, concentrated in the sun, + the common centre of our system; the various parts of this + system, by his central light or fire, are balanced, and, by + mutual attraction, move in the expanse, according to fixed + laws, or determined distances.<a + href="#Footnote_38" + class="fnanchor">38</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_39"> + Light was once considered to be a property or quality of + matter only; but more recently it has been discovered to be a + <em>body</em>, a very subtile fluid, + consisting of minute particles. We have no certain + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span> + + knowledge of its nature; though a collection of its rays make + other things visible, yet its constituent parts themselves are + most exquisitely small, and quite imperceptible; and therefore it + approaches the nearest to the nature of spirit.<a + href="#Footnote_39" + class="fnanchor">39</a></p> + <p> + Of all material bodies, light is the most <em>simple</em>. + Most others are compounded of several parts, not only of + different, but sometimes of contrary natures: but light is an + unmixed body. It is also a most pure matter; It has no + defilement in itself, neither is it capable of contracting + pollution from other objects. When it shines upon a dunghill + or sepulchre, which sends forth the most offensive effluvia, + it still remains uncontaminated.</p> + <blockquote> + <p> + [The author is undoubtedly mistaken when he considers light + “of all material bodies—the most simple,” and “an unmixed + body.”</p> + <p> + It is well known that a beam, or pencil, of light, as + emitted from the sun, is <em>not</em> a simple body, but is + capable of being divided into seven prismatic colors. The + image which is formed by the refraction of the pencil, by + means of a prism, is called a <em>Spectrum</em>, and + clearly exhibits the compound nature of light. The + refracted rays of the Spectrum may be collected and made to + constitute a pencil of light again, which will be white, or + colorless as before.</p> + <p> + If this prismatic Spectrum be examined closely, it will be + found that the different colored rays differ very much in + their <em>heating</em>, <em>illuminating</em>, and + <em>chemical</em> powers. Dr. Herschell, and other + experimenters, have found that the <em>orange</em> rays + possess a greater illuminating power than the red; and the + <em>yellow</em> more than the orange: but the + <em>maximums</em> of illumination lies in the <em>brightest + yellow</em> or <em>palest green</em>.</p> + <p> + There is also a very sensible difference in the + <em>heating</em> power of these colored rays. By passing + the bulb of a delicate air thermometer through the + different colored rays, it indicates the greatest heat in + the <em>red</em> rays; next in the <em>green</em>, and so + on diminishing to the <em>violet</em>. But the maximum of + heat has been ascertained to be immediately <em>beyond</em> + the red rays, and of course <em>out</em> of the Spectrum, + in an <em>unilluminated</em> spot: thus indicating that + there are <em>invisible</em> rays possessing a greater + heating power than any of the seven colored rays. These are + called <em>calorific rays</em>.</p> + <p> + By the experiments of Ritter and Wallaston it is now + satisfactorily ascertained that there are also <em>chemical + rays which excite neither heat nor light</em>, and lie on + the <em>other side</em> of the Spectrum from the invisible + calorific rays, just without the violet. It is true, the + chemical effect can be distinguished even to the green + rays, but this seems to be by <em>diffusion</em>, or a + species of sympathy. The sensible chemical power is + exerted just without the violet rays.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span> + + This fact is established more clearly by Berard. He + concentrated, by a lens, all the portion of the Spectrum + from the green to the red rays, and made them act on + muriate of silver <em>two hours</em> without effect. He + then concentrated all the portion of the Spectrum from the + green to the violet rays, and made them act on muriate of + silver, and <em>they blackened it in less than six + minutes</em>. Thus, evidently, are detected very different + properties in the different portions of the prismatic + Spectrum.</p> + <p> + Instead, therefore, of light being a “simple substance,” + and “unmixed” it is found to be decidedly + <em>compound</em>. It is capable of being divided into + seven differently colored rays, and these rays, according + to their natural properties, into three classes: the + <em>illuminating</em> rays, <em>calorific</em> rays, and + <em>chemical</em> rays.]</p> + </blockquote> + <p> + The rays of light always proceed in <em>straight lines</em>, + unless diverted by some intervening body. They are subject to + the laws of attraction like other small bodies. If a stream + of light be admitted through a small hole into a dark room, + and the edge of a knife be applied, it will be diverted from + its natural course, and <em>inflected</em> towards it. When + the rays of light are thrown back by any opposing body, they + are said to be <em>reflected</em>. When in passing from one + medium to another, they are inflected or diverted from their + rectilineal course, they are said to be <em>refracted</em>; + and this property of light is called its + <em>refrangibility</em>. Refraction arises from this, that + the rays are more attracted by a dense, than by a rare + medium.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_40"> + The <em>velocity</em> of light is prodigious, and almost + incredible; it moves at the rate of near 200,000 miles in + <em>a second</em> of time! Roemer, a Danish philosopher, was + the first who found the means of determining the velocity of + light, by the difference of time in the eclipses of Jupiter’s + satellites, when the earth was on the same, or on the + contrary side of the sun, with that planet. This point may be + easily proved; for when the earth is between the sun and this + planet, those eclipses will happen about 8¼ minutes sooner, + than according to the tables; but when the earth is in the + contrary position, the eclipses happen about 8¼ minutes later + than they are predicted by the tables. Hence, therefore, + light takes up about 8¼ minutes in passing from the sun to + the earth, a distance of 95,513,794 miles; and it takes about + 16½ minutes of time to go through a space equal to the + diameter of the earth’s orbit, which is at least 190 millions + of miles in length; which is near a million of miles swifter + than the motion of a cannon-ball, which flies with the + velocity of about a mile in eight seconds.<a + href="#Footnote_40" + class="fnanchor">40</a> + In comparing this velocity of + light with that of a cannon-ball, it has been observed, + that light passes through a space in about eight minutes, + which a cannon-ball with its ordinary velocity, could not + traverse in less than thirty-two years! The velocity of + sound bears a very small proportion to that of light. Light + travels, in the space of eight + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span> + + minutes, a distance in + which sound could not be communicated in seventeen years; + and even our senses may convince us, if we attend to the + explosion of gunpowder, &c., of the almost infinite + velocity of the one compared with that of the other.<a + href="#Footnote_41" + class="fnanchor">41</a> + Were the propagation of the rays + of light less rapid, the darkness would be very slowly + dissipated, and great inconveniences would result to the + inhabitants of the earth.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_42"> + The <em>divisibility</em> of the parts of matter is no where + more apparent than in the minuteness of the particles of + light. The unobstructed rays of light which proceed from a + candle, will, almost instantaneously, fill a space of two + miles; and it has been computed, says Dr. O. Gregory, that + there fly out of the end of the flame of a burning candle, in + a second of time, ten thousand millions of times more such + particles than there are visible grains of sand in the whole + earth. Dr. Nieuwentyt has computed, that an inch of candle, + when converted to light, becomes divided into 269,617,040 + parts, with 40 ciphers annexed; at which rate there must + issue out of it, when burning, 418,660, with 39 ciphers more, + particles in the second of a minute; vastly more than a + thousand times a thousand million of times the number of + sands the whole earth can contain; reckoning ten inches to + one foot, and that 100 sands are equal to one inch.<a + href="#Footnote_42" + class="fnanchor">42</a> + As sound is propagated only at + the rate of 1,142 feet in a second, a particle of light + must be 786,000 times more subtile than a particle of air. + If the particles of light were not extremely small, their + velocity would be highly destructive. Indeed, were they + equal in bulk to the two millionth part of a grain of + sand, this impulse would not be less than sand shot from + the mouth of a cannon. If the particles of light had more + density, they would not only dazzle us by their splendor, + but injure us by their heat.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_43"> + There is no creature of God that <em>diffuses</em> itself, + and whose influence reaches so far and wide, and fills so + large a vacuum, as light. All that inconceivable space + between this globe and the fixed stars, a distance which + numbers cannot reach, is replete with light. Nay, the space + in which it is diffused is not less than the universe itself; + the immensity of which exceeds the conception of human + understanding. It is from this almost unlimited diffusion of + light that the very remotest of the heavenly bodies in the + solar system become discernible, either by the naked eye or + by telescopes. And had we instruments that could carry our + sight as far as the light is extended, we should discover + those bodies which are placed at the very extremity of the + universe.<a + href="#Footnote_43" + class="fnanchor">43</a></p> + <p> + Light is the <em>medium</em> through which objects become + <em>visible</em> to us. It is owing to it, that we are + enabled to behold and contemplate the wonderful works of the + great Creator; to discover unexplored systems in the trackless + regions of unbounded space, to + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span> + + imbibe knowledge from things + created, to hold intercourse with each other, to steer the + hollow bark to distant climes, and to investigate the records + of all science. Without its aid, the world would have been an + inhospitable wilderness, involved in sable shades of + perpetual night. “Truly the light is sweet, and a pleasant + thing it is for the eyes to behold it.”</p> + <p> + Light <em>beautifies</em> every delightful object which comes + within the reach of its rays.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml8"> + “Nature’s resplendentrobe!</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Without whose vesting beauty all were wrapt</p> + <p class="ml0"> + In unessential gloom.”</p> + </div> + <p> + All colors are rays of light differently reflected. The cause + of their diversity was first rationally accounted for by Sir + Isaac Newton. He has shown that color is not a specific + property of bodies, but is caused by the different rays of + light being reflected from the surface of the body; the rest + of the rays passing into or through the body. He discovered + that in the rays of light are all the colors in nature; and + the primary colors he considered to be seven in number, + namely, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet; + and that bodies appear of different colors, as they have the + property of reflecting some rays more powerfully than others. + These colors are poetically enumerated by Thomson.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml12"> + “First the flaming <em>red</em></p> + <p class="ml0"> + Sprung vivid forth; the tawny <em>orange</em> next;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And next delicious <em>yellow</em>; by whose side</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Fell the kind beams of all-refreshing <em>green</em>:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Then the pure <em>blue</em>, that swells autumnal skies,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Ethereal play’d; and then, of sadder hue,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Emerg’d the deepen’d <em>indigo</em>, as when</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The heavy-skirted evening droops with frost;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + While the last gleamings of refracted light</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Dy’d in the fainting <em>violet</em> away.”</p> + </div> + <p> + Since the time of this justly celebrated philosopher, it has + been objected, that the seven colors above mentioned are not + primitive. It seems very obvious that there can be only three + primitive colors, namely, red, yellow, and blue; since all + the colors can be made by means of these. It has lately been + advanced by Prieur, that the primitive colors are violet, + green, and red; that the yellow is formed with red and green, + the latter being in excess; and that when the red is in + excess, they form orange; the green and violet form blue. The + colors excited by the different refrangible rays do not + appear to determine what are the primitive colors, since we + find that different rays are capable of producing the same + color, as a mixture of the yellow with the red produces + orange. And it must be admitted, that the violet rays excite, + in some degree, the idea of red along with the blue; as in + the green, the yellow and blue may be discerned, but none of + the red. When the different colored rays are mixed together, + either by recomposition, or by getting each color by a separate + Spectrum, the result will be white + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span> + + light. Hence Sir Isaac + Newton concluded, that when the rays are promiscuously + reflected from any surface it will appear white. He also + found, and the discovery has since been confirmed by the + experiments of Dr. Herschell, that the different colored rays + have not by any means the same illuminating power. The violet + rays appear to have the least luminous effect, the indigo + more, the blue a little more, the green very great, between + the green and the yellow the greatest of all, the yellow the + same as the green, and the red less than the yellow.<a + href="#Footnote_44" + class="fnanchor">44</a> + From experiments it is found, + that those rays of light are of the largest quantity that + paint the brightest colors; and of all these, the red rays + have the least refrangibility. Without light vegetables + would have no color, but would appear white; this has been + remarkably illustrated by Professor Robison. Some bodies + absorb one colored ray, others another, while they reflect + the rest. This is the cause of color in bodies. A red + body, for instance, reflects the red rays and absorbs the + rest. A white body reflects all the rays, and absorbs + none; while a black body, on the contrary, absorbs all the + rays, and reflects none:<a + href="#Footnote_45" + class="fnanchor">45</a> + this shows, that black colored + apparel is very improper during the heat of summer, or in + tropical climates.</p> + <blockquote> + <p> + [There is one difficulty scarcely mentioned, and surely not + accounted for, in the preceding chapter: i.e. <em>How are + we to reconcile the creation of light on the first day, and + the creation of the sun not until the fourth?</em></p> + <p> + This has been a standing proposition since the revival of + learning. There can be no doubt but the account of the + creation, arrangement and nature of the world, as given by + Moses, is correct; and would so appear to the most + philosophically scientific, could we ascertain certainly + the meaning of the sacred historian, and did we understand + perfectly the phenomena of nature.</p> + <p> + It is reasonable to suppose that the discoveries in natural + philosophy would tend to influence the explanations of + Moses’ account. This is the fact. These discoveries have + produced two theories in regard to light: The + <em>vibratory</em>, or Cartesian; and the + <em>corpuscular</em>, or Newtonian.</p> + <p> + The Newtonian theory supposes the sun to be the original + and principal source of light; and that light is emitted + from the sun’s surface in inconceivably small + <em>corpuscles</em>, in such rapid succession, and in + straight lines, as to seem a continuous ray, though, in + reality, the particles are a thousand miles apart in their + approach to the earth.</p> + <p> + This is the most popular of modern theories, and the only + one, as I recollect, employed by commentators in + illustrating the account of Moses; or rather in solving the + difficulty by reconciling this theory with his account.</p> + <p> + Some have supposed the sun was created long before, our + earth, and that his beams took effect on our earth, as now, + on the fourth day from his creation. Others have + supposed that the sun and earth + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span> + + were created + <em>simultaneously</em>, but that the sun’s beams did not + fully penetrate our atmosphere, so as to make himself + distinctly visible as now, until the fourth day. In both + these cases it is supposed that the words of Moses, in + regard to the creation of the sun on the fourth day, are to + be interpreted of his <em>appearance</em>, and + <em>influence</em> on the earth, by dispensing light. But + this does not account for the <em>existence</em> of light + <em>from the first to the fourth day</em>. This is an + insuperable objection here.</p> + <p> + Finding the foregoing theories pressed with this + insurmountable difficulty, other commentators have + supposed, Light was a real substance, created + <em>simultaneously</em>, and in conjunction with the + original chaotic mass of our earth; and when God said “Let + there be light, and there was light,” He, by his divine + power, caused the chaotic light to separate itself from the + earth, and, departing, <em>to condense</em> in the body of + the sun; or, as some would probably say, in view of Dr. + Herschell’s solar discoveries, in the phosphoric clouds + which surround the real body of the sun. In this case, if + the light concentrated in the body of the sun, then that + luminary must be a body of <em>condensed light</em>: if in + the solar phosphoric clouds of Dr. Herschell, then those + clouds would be <em>condensed light</em>. This body of + condensed light is considered the source of our solar + light, which flies off from it in the form of rays or + beams.</p> + <p> + <span + class="smcap">Dr. Ure</span>, + in his Chemical Dictionary, article <span + class="smcap">Light</span>, + takes this view. He says, “We learn from scripture, that + light pre-existed before this luminary (the sun) and that + its <em>subsequent condensation</em> in his orb was a + particular act of Almighty Power. The phosphorescence of + minerals, buried since the origin of things in the bowels + of the earth, coincides strictly with the Mosaic account of + the creation. We shall therefore regard light as the first + born element of chaos, as an independent essence, + universally distributed through the mineral, vegetable, and + animal world, capable of being disengaged from its latent + state by various natural and artificial operations.”</p> + <p> + This theory, as I understand Dr. Ure’s view, has + <em>two</em> advantages, and <em>three</em> disadvantages. + It accounts for the production of light on the + <em>first</em> day, as Moses says. It also accounts for the + <em>artificial production</em> of light by friction between + bodies which have never been exposed to solar light, by + combustion, compression, &c. For though it supposes + light “subsequently condensed” in the sun, I presume it + does not suppose <em>all</em> the light thus transferred + from the earth, and condensed: much of it is latent, and + combined with other substances, from which it is evolved by + friction, combustion, compression, &c.</p> + <p> + But this ingenious theory, which is mentioned by our + author, and attributed to Dr. Wall, is pressed with + <em>three</em> difficulties:</p> + <p> + 1. It does not suppose the existence of the sun until the + <em>fourth</em> day, and of course no common centre of + attraction to the earth and other planets. But it is + impossible to conceive of the <em>safe existence</em> of + the planets <em>previous</em> to the existence of their + common center, which now regulates their order and motion. + This is an insuperable difficulty, unless we resort to a + “particular act of Almighty Power.”</p> + <p> + 2. If the body of the sun be “condensed light,” + <em>abstracted</em> from the earth, the scene of its + creation, then we must suppose that <em>a body + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span> + + more than a + million times greater than the earth was drawn off from + it</em>, which indeed would require an “act of Almighty + Power,” and is utterly irreconcilable to the laws of + attraction.</p> + <p> + 3. This view also destroys the idea of the sun’s being an + opake and habitable globe, unless we could conceive the + inhabitants capable of dwelling in “condensed light;” which + supposition is at variance with all our ideas of rational + existence. Hence it robs the mind of the pleasing and + almost intuitively correct idea of the sun’s being a + habitable globe.</p> + <p> + These difficulties appeared so great that others, and + particularly Dr. Adam Clarke, have offered a new mode of + interpretation, founded on the Newtonian theory as improved + by Dr. Herschell. Dr. Clarke supposes that + <em>caloric</em>, or latent heat, was produced on the first + day, when God said, “let there be light; and there was + light.” In this case he considers that latent heat and + latent light are, probably, the same: or that it is the + same subtile substance diffused throughout creation, which + is capable of producing heat and light, when properly + excited.</p> + <p> + Yet, in his remarks on the sun, he embraces Dr. Herschell’s + ideas of the sun’s real body being opake and habitable, + surrounded by phosphoric clouds which are the source of our + solar light. Of course the Doctor only transfers the source + of light from the real body of the sun to these phosphoric + clouds with which he is invested. Our solar light then + comes by <em>impulsion</em> from these clouds, and not from + the sun’s real body.</p> + <p> + These clouds are supposed to give light to the + <em>Solar</em> inhabitants also, the intensity of which is + regulated by a stratum of clouds placed <em>below</em> the + <em>outer</em> phosphoric clouds, and which defends the + sun’s real body from too great degree of light.</p> + <p> + This is Dr. Herschell’s supposition, and seems to be pretty + well established.</p> + <p> + This ingenious theory solves the difficulty under notice, + by supposing that <em>caloric</em>, and not light, is + intended in the third verse, where God said, “Let there be + light.” And by supposing latent light, as well as latent + heat, it seems to provide for the well known existence of + light in combination with many, if not all, terrestrial + substances; and yet it refers to the sun as the principal + source of light, which according to this interpretation, + was not necessary to the existence of the substance + intended in the third verse—“Let there be light, and there + was light.”</p> + <p> + This theory has another most excellent suggestion, viz: + that the heat excited by the sun at the earth’s surface, is + produced by the luminous rays of the sun combining with the + caloric in the atmosphere, and other substances at the + surface of the earth. This suggestion supposes a very close + affinity, if not identity in the matter of light and heat.</p> + <p> + Although this explanation approaches much nearer a + satisfactory solution of the difficulty in question, yet it + is by no means unembarrassed.</p> + <p> + In the first place it is built upon a singular translation + of a word. The text, according to this + theory, should be, “And God said let + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span> + + there be + <em>caloric</em>, and there was caloric.” This may be the + text; but I cannot help thinking, that a bias to a system + of philosophy, and a strong desire to <em>cut</em> the + difficulty rather than <em>solve</em> it, suggested this + translation. The text seems to have been so generally and + uniformly understood of light, it would be difficult to + alter it. It would be better to suspect a defect in our + knowledge of the source and nature of light.</p> + <p> + Again: this view seems to suppose a <em>consecutive</em> + creation, which is at variance with a seemingly well + settled opinion, in regard to the <em>Solar System</em>, + and even at variance with Dr. Clarke’s own remarks on Gen. + chap. i, v. 2. On this verse he says: “God seems at + <em>first</em> to have created the elementary principles of + <em>all things</em>.”</p> + <p> + Finally: as his view is Newtonian, it is liable to all the + objections to which that theory is liable: such as the + <em>diminution</em> which would take place at the source + from whence the light came; and the <em>destructive + force</em> with which it would fall at the surface of the + earth.</p> + <p> + These considerations, with others, have influenced many of + the most learned and acute philosophers to look for another + theory. Our own countryman, Dr. Franklin, felt them. He + says, in a letter dated April 23, 1752, in reference to the + theory, of light being <em>particles of matter driven off + from the sun’s surface</em>; “Must not the smallest portion + conceivable have, with such a motion, a force exceeding + that of a twenty-four pounder discharged from a cannon? + Must not the sun diminish exceedingly by such a waste of + matter, and the planets, instead of drawing near to him, as + some have feared, recede to greater distances, through the + lessoned attraction? Yet these particles with this amazing + motion, will not drive before them, or remove the least, + and slightest dust they meet with, and the sun appears to + continue of his ancient dimensions, and his attendants move + in their ancient orbits.”</p> + <p> + He then supposes the phenomena of light may be more + satisfactorily solved by supposing a subtle fluid, + universally diffused, which is invisible <em>when at + rest</em>, but <em>becomes visible when put in motion</em>, + by affecting the nerves of the eye, as the vibrations of + the air affect the ear, and produce the sensation of sound; + and that the different degrees of intensity in the + vibrations, will account for the different colors. + <cite>See Nicholson’s Encyclopedia, <span + class= "smcap">Light</span>.</cite></p> + <p> + This is the <em>vibratory</em> or Cartesian system of + light. As already suggested, it supposes the existence of a + subtle, luminiferous ether, diffused throughout the + universe, pervading every particle of matter, and is + capable of being put in motion, so as to become visible, by + the sun, as the grand natural <em>excitant</em>, friction, + combustion, compression, &c. The <em>laws</em> of the + vibrations of this luminiferous fluid, are precisely the + same with those ascertained, and determined, in regard to + light as commonly understood. This luminiferous fluid is to + be considered an elementary substance, and was created when + the different substances composing the chaotic mass were + created. At its first creation, like caloric, it was in a + <em>latent</em> state, as no excitant as yet had put it in + motion.</p> + <p> + It is to be understood, therefore, that the substances of + each planet in the <em>Solar System</em>, as well as the sun + himself, were created <em>simultaneously</em> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span> + + in a chaotic state, at their proper + relative distances from each other: that the requisite + quantity of each elementary substance was present in each + mass: but as caloric, and this luminiferous ether were + <em>latent</em>, these masses were solid, frozen lumps; + inactive and lifeless; and darkness necessarily prevailed. + This then was the original condition of the elements of our + Solar System, according to the scriptures. “And the earth + was without form and void; and darkness was upon the face + of the deep.” Gen. i, 2.</p> + <p> + In order, therefore, to produce a quickening in these + masses, which rendered them <em>soft</em>, it was only + necessary to call the latent caloric, and this luminiferous + ether into action, which would agitate, and bring to light + the whole mass, and thus commence the arrangement and + organization of the Solar System. However, as there was no + exciting cause <em>then</em> in operation, it is evident + the Almighty must have given the <em>first</em> impulse to + these elements. This he did, and the important fact is + recorded by Moses in these words: “<span + class="smcap">And the Spirit of God moved upon the face + of the great deep,</span>” + Jehovah saying at the same time, “<span + class="smcap">Let there be light.</span>”</p> + <p> + Here is the Mosaic account of the production of light, and + possibly heat also, which took place on the <em>first</em> + day. The same process went on <em>simultaneously</em> in + the sun and planets, and the continued action cleared up + their respective atmospheres, and the <em>sun</em> became + visible at the earth’s surface on the <em>fourth</em> day. + Hence, the sun was said to have been <em>made</em> on the + fourth day.</p> + <p> + This solution of the difficulty is consistent with the + account of Moses; and also all the well ascertained + phenomena of light can be satisfactorily explained by it. + It will naturally lead the mind to observe the resemblance + between the phenomena of light and heat, and impel us to + the conclusion, that light, or vision, is the + <em>effect</em> of a material cause, as heat is of caloric: + and it is natural to suppose this cause is in the same + relation to light, that caloric is to heat. Of course we + should conclude that light, or the luminiferous ether in a + latent state, enters into combination with all substances, + as does caloric; and at the same time a large proportion of + it is <em>free</em>, or in motion, and of course sensible + to the eye, as <em>free</em> caloric is to the sense of + feeling. Moreover we must conclude that this latent light + is capable of being set free or evolved by the exciting + influence of the sun, as also by friction, compression, + combustion, chemical action, &c. It will be of + advantage, therefore, to establish the fact of the + existence of <em>latent</em> light, in combination with + terrestrial substances.</p> + <p> + That this is the fact may be proven by a single reflection + on the process of <em>combustion</em>. It is a daily + observation that light is produced by <em>burning</em> + bodies. Let us suppose these bodies burnt at midnight in a + close room; still light will be given out copiously and + constantly. <em>Whence</em> this light? The natural and + obvious answer is, it was in combination in a <em>latent + state</em> with the burning bodies, and by combustion it + was set free, and thrown out, and thus put the surrounding + luminiferous ether in motion.</p> + <p> + It is said by some, the light evolved in this case is not + from the burning bodies, but from the oxygen which is + supplied by the air to support the combustion. This does + not alter the case at all: for then + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span> + + the light was in + combination with the oxygen, and was invisible, being in a + latent state, until it was set free from the oxygen by + combustion.</p> + <p> + The same conclusion is obtained in the process of + <em>compression</em> and <em>expansion</em>. If atmospheric + air, or oxygen be suddenly compressed in a glass syringe; + or if a glass ball, filled with the latter, be suddenly + broke <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">in vacuo</i>, + a <em>flash of + light</em> is instantly perceived. In this case the light + suddenly becomes visible, which was invisible before, being + latent in combination with the air. (<span + class="smcap">Ure.</span>)</p> + <p> + We arrive at the same conclusion in case of + <em>friction</em>. It is well known that pieces of wood can + be made to <em>blaze</em> by rubbing them together. But it + is not so well known, that two pieces of rock crystal, or + quartz, taken from any depth in the earth, and which cannot + be supposed to have ever been in the light of the sun, when + rubbed quickly together, even <em>under water, will give + out volumes of light</em>. <em>Whence</em> this light? from + the quartz doubtless. Of course it must have been in a + latent state, and was set free by friction. Let it be + strictly observed, the crystals <em>never were exposed to + the light of the sun, of course could not have derived this + light from that luminary</em>.</p> + <p> + We must come to the same conclusion, in regard to the light + given out by <em>animal</em> substances. Many + <em>insects</em> are known to have the power of evolving + light, or putting the surrounding luminiferous ether in + motion, which is the same. Putrescent animal matter has + been observed to possess it, in some cases, in a very great + degree; sufficiently to illuminate a room, or pantry, for + hours together. In some instances the fingers of those who + touched the luminous flesh, became luminous.</p> + <p> + This is eminently the case in regard to some fishes. A + species of fish called <span + class="smcap">pholas</span>, + has the power of evolving a large quantity of light. This + power is greater when the fish is sound and fresh. Pliny + mentions this fish, and says it rendered the hands and + clothes of persons luminous. When put in water, under + proper circumstances, it renders the water luminous. But + when put in milk, a single <em>pholas</em> made seven + ounces of it so luminous as to enable one to distinguish + the faces of persons present. <cite>Ency. Brit. Art. <span + class="smcap">Light.</span></cite></p> + <p> + The evolution of light from the sea in the night, is a fact + of common observation, and is sometimes so great as to + enable one to read large print on a ship’s deck. + <cite>Ency. Brit. Art. <span + class="smcap">Light.</span></cite></p> + <p> + In all the above instances, and many more might be added, + the light evolved, or, (which is the same thing in this + investigation,) the luminiferous ether put in motion, must + have been in a state of combination with the substances + from which it was evolved. The only question which remains + is this: <em>Was all this light transmitted from the sun, + and become latent and combined at the earth’s surface by + absorption?</em></p> + <p> + It would certainly be hazardous to answer this question in + the affirmative. For how could we account for the evolution + of light from those bodies which have never been subject to + the sun’s influence?</p> + <p> + Again: If all this light had been transmitted from the sun, + it will inevitably follow, that there was a time when the + quantity of + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span> + + light at the surface of the earth, and in combination + with terrestrial bodies, <em>was very small</em>, and of + course combustion, friction, and compression of bodies + produced anciently a much smaller quantity of light than + now; because there was a smaller quantity in combination.</p> + <p> + It is evident that this supposition would come to this + conclusion: <em>The quantity of light, in combination at + the earth’s surface, has increased in the same ratio as the + increase of the duration of the influence of the sun on the + earth: and, by consequence, the quantity of light produced + by artificial means has increased in the same + proportion.</em> Of course, fires and candles burn more + brightly now than they did five thousand years since.</p> + <p> + Though this conclusion is legitimate from the foregoing + supposition, yet it is at war with common sense, and the + current observations of the world.</p> + <p> + We are therefore compelled to conclude that the <span + class="smcap">matter</span> + <em>of light</em> is + diffused throughout the universe, as is caloric, and that + it is evolved, or put in motion by the influence of the + sun; as also by artificial and chemical means; as combustion, + compression, friction, chemical action, &c.</p> + <p> + This conclusion is much strengthened by the fact, that the + <em>existence of caloric</em> is well ascertained, <em>not + as proceeding from the sun</em>, but in combination with + all terrestrial substances; and also by the fact of the + constant <em>analogy</em> between the phenomena of light + and heat. This analogy is so strong and striking that we + are compelled to conclude, <em>if heat be the effect of a + real substance, light must be also</em>. Indeed the analogy + is so strong that it almost convinces us of the + <em>identity</em> of the matter of heat, light, + electricity, and galvanism.</p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the amount of evidence is against this + supposition at present, yet there is a strong tendency in + recent philosophical experiments to confirm it; and I am + inclined to believe that future discoveries will confirm + this identity. Some of the most obvious evidences in favor + of it may be introduced here.</p> + <p> + 1. Almost all the celebrated authors and experimenters have + occasionally <em>suggested</em> the probability of this + identity. Mr. Turner, Elements of Chemistry, p. 67, says, + in reference to heat and light: “It has been supposed that + <em>they are modifications of the</em> <span + class="smcap">same agent</span>; + and though most persons regard + them as independent principles, yet they are certainly + allied in a way which at present is inexplicable.” Again, + p. 71. “Mr. Leslie conceives that light when absorbed, + <em>is converted into heat</em>.” Dr. Henry (Art. Light,) + says, “A new fact has been lately ascertained by Dr. + Delaroche, which seems to point out <em>a close + connection</em> between heat and light, <em>and a gradual + passage of the one into the other</em>. The rays of + <em>invisible</em> heat pass through glass with difficulty + at a temperature below that of boiling water; but they + traverse it with a facility always increasing with the + temperature, as it approaches the point at which bodies + become luminous.” “The general facts, says Sir H. Davy, of + the refraction and effects of the solar beam, offer an + analogy to the agencies of electricity.” (<cite>Ure, + Chemical Dictionary, Article Light.</cite>) It is well + known that this view pressed itself strongly on the attention + of Sir Isaac + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span> + + Newton, during his philosophical investigation. + <cite>See Ure, Chem. Dic. Art. Light.</cite></p> + <p> + 2. This identity is strongly suggested by the constant and + striking analogy between the laws of heat and light.</p> + <p> + <em>First:</em> The color of surfaces has an influence on + the passage of light and heat.</p> + <p> + <em>Secondly:</em> The power of light, heat, and electricity + diminishes as the squares of their distances.</p> + <p> + <em>Thirdly:</em> The particles of heat, light, and + electricity, are <em>idio-repulsive</em>.</p> + <p> + <em>Fourthly:</em> The passage of the electric spark is + generally attended with the production of light and heat.</p> + <p> + <em>Fifthly:</em> Heat is emitted in all directions from + the surface of an ignited body: so is light from the + surface of a burning body.</p> + <p> + <em>Sixthly:</em> The laws of reflection are the same in + light and heat.</p> + <p> + Other coincidences might be established, and other + celebrated names added.</p> + <p> + If this identity should be established finally, it would + not effect the doctrine of the foregoing pages in the + least. It would only be necessary to say, the luminiferous + fluid of this essay is the well established substance now + called caloric.</p> + <p class="ctr v2"> + <em>Addenda on Light.</em></p> + <p> + 1. It is now generally admitted that the real body of the + sun is surrounded with a peculiar set of clouds, + <em>phosphorescent</em> in their nature. It is also allowed + that these clouds do not emit heat. And as it is well known + that no one of the <em>planets</em> has such clouds, but + receive their light from the sun, <em>it is extremely + probable that these phosphorescent clouds are intended by + the Creator, to be the great dispenser of light to the + solar system, by operating as the exciting cause to put the + luminiferous ether in motion throughout the solar + system</em>.</p> + <p> + By a parity of reasoning, each centre of a system may be + invested with similar clouds, which operate in the same way + in reference to the planets which belong to it.</p> + <p> + 2. If light were a real substance, <em>as commonly + understood</em>, solar light must proceed from the sun by + <em>impulsion</em>, and artificial light from burning + bodies by <em>evolution</em>. Take the case of burning + bodies. A single candle placed two miles above the surface + of the earth in the air, and lighted up in that position, + will <em>instantly illuminate a space of two miles in every + direction from itself, or a spherical space four miles in + diameter</em>. In this case a sufficient quantity of light + is instantly evolved to fill this space, and the evolution + continues as long as the candle burns. The question upon + this fact is this: Can it be supposed that there is a + sufficient quantity of light, in combination with a single + candle, or the oxygen necessary to keep up its combustion, + to fill a spherical space four miles in diameter for + several hours together? This would indeed be almost + incredible in view of the space filled by light evolved + from a single candle.</p> + <p> + But this difficulty would be satisfactorily solved upon the + supposition that light is the + <em>effect</em>, produced by a luminiferous ether, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span> + + universally diffused, and put in motion, by which it + becomes visible, by the sun, burning bodies, &c. + Because, the motion which renders the luminiferous ether + visible, commences instantly upon the commencement of + combustion, and is propagated from the point of combustion + <em>in right lines</em>, under the appearance of rays of + light: but the motion ceases instantly on the cessation of + combustion, and of course darkness instantly ensues.]</p> + </blockquote> + <p> + After having attended to the production of <em>light</em>, + and noticed some of its properties, it is a paramount duty to + contemplate its glorious Author; especially as by this + mysterious production he himself has chosen to be + represented. If creatures be excellent, what must be the + Creator? and to admire the former without adoring the latter, + would be profane and atheistical. “The Deity,” says Sir Isaac + Newton, “in infinite space, as in his own <em>sensorium</em>, + has an intimate perception of all things:” so we, possessing + intellect, should “look through nature up to nature’s <span + class="smcap">God</span>.” + Then matter, however + rarefied or diversified, would serve as his minister to + introduce us into his presence. A pious ancient, on being + asked by a profane philosopher, How he could contemplate high + things, since he had no books? answered, That he had the + whole world for his book, ready open at all times, and in all + places, and that he could therein read things heavenly and + divine. As the visible creation is the outward expression of + the existence of God, and displays several of his infinite + perfections; so we should study him in the works of nature, + and trace him in the operation of his hands.</p> + <p> + The late excellent and pious Bishop Horne very beautifully + observes,—“When the angels beheld the dark and disordered + state of created nature upon its first production, they were, + doubtless, thrown into some perplexity to conceive how it + should ever be made a means of manifesting forth the glory of + the Creator. But when they saw the light spring up, at the + Divine command, from that blackness of darkness, and fix its + residence in its tabernacle the sun, illuminating and + adorning the firmament of heaven with its glorious show, and + the earth with its beautiful furniture, all formed out of + rudeness and confusion, then they confessed that the + difficulty of the work served only to display the skill of + the workmaster, which is proportionally estimated by the + unpromising nature of the materials.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_46"> + In like manner, whoever views the chaos to which the infinite + wisdom of a presiding Providence sometimes permits the moral + world to be reduced by the prevailing power of the prince of + darkness, and the agency of his instruments, will scarce be + able, at first, to discern any traces of the Divine counsels + in a mirror so sullied and clouded over by the enormities of + sinful men. Yet let him wait with patience for a little + season, and those clouds shall pass away; a light shall shine, + and some great end present itself to + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span> + + sight, so worthy of God, so + beneficial to man, that standing amazed at a power able to + bring the greatest good out of the greatest evil, he will be + forced to cry out concerning the economy of the spiritual + system, as David did concerning the operations of the + natural—‘Oh Lord, how manifold are thy works! In wisdom hast + thou made them all.’”<a + href="#Footnote_46" + class="fnanchor">46</a></p> + <hr id="CHAPTER_II_4" class="tb" /> + <h3> + <em>Section IV.</em>—<span + class="smcap">Day and Night.</span></h3> + <p class="hang1 smaller"> + Original terms of Day and Night — Motion the effect of a + Divine power — Commencement of Time — Utility of Day and + Night — Religious improvement of Time — Sin moral darkness — + The Gospel a Light to dispel it — A Christian the subject of + a transition from the one state to the other.</p> + <p> + The separation of <em>light</em> from the <em>darkness</em>, + was the work of the <em>first day</em>. This was an + arrangement made by infinite Wisdom, as well as a display of + almighty power. When this took place, it is highly probable + that God gave to the earth its rotation upon its own axis, to + produce the necessary succession of <em>day</em> and + <em>night</em>. “The word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ערב</span> + <em>éreb</em>, which we translate <em>evening</em>, comes + from the root <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ערב</span> + <em>ârab</em>, to <em>mingle</em>, and properly + signifies that state in which neither absolute darkness, + nor full light, prevails. It has nearly the same + grammatical signification with our <em>twilight</em>, the + time that elapses from the setting of the sun till he is + eighteen degrees below the horizon, and eighteen degrees + before he arises. Thus we have the morning and evening + twilight, or <em>mixture</em> of light and darkness, in + which neither prevails; because, while the sun is within + eighteen degrees of the horizon, either after his setting, + or before his rising, the atmosphere has power to refract + the rays of light, and send them back to the earth. The + Hebrews extended the meaning of this term to the whole + duration of night, because it was ever a <em>mingled</em> + state; the moon, the planets, or the stars, tempering the + darkness with some rays of light. <a + id="FNanchor_47"></a> + From the <em>ereb</em> of Moses came the <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: Erebos" + class="msg">Ερεβος</span> + <em>Erebus</em> of Hesiod, Aristophanes, and other heathens, + which they <em>deified</em>, and made with <em>nox</em>, or + night, the parent of all things. The word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">בקר</span> + <em>boquer</em>, which we translate <em>morning</em>, + from <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">בקר</span> + <em>boquar</em>, he <em>looked out</em>, is a + beautiful figure, which represents the morning as + <em>looking out</em> at the east, and illuminating the + whole of the upper hemisphere.”<a + href="#Footnote_47" + class="fnanchor">47</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_48"> + All bodies continue in a state of rest, till they are put + into motion by some external force impressed on them. Motion + is the removal of a body from one place to another, or a + continual change of place.<a + href="#Footnote_48" + class="fnanchor">48</a> + Any force acting on a body to move it, is called a + <em>power</em>. + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span> + + The <em>momentum</em>, or quantity of motion, is in proportion + to the force impressed. The heavier any body is, the + greater is the power required to move it.</p> + <p> + There are but three possible ways of accounting for + motion:—either by supposing that there has been an infinite + succession of impulses communicated from one body to another + from eternity, without any active principle either in matter + or without it: or, that there is an active principle in + matter that renders it self-active, and motion essential to + it: or, else, that there is a Being distinct from matter, and + is the cause of its motion.</p> + <p> + An infinite succession of impulses, without an active or + moving principle, will never give birth to motion, because + this would be to produce an effect without the assistance of + a cause. This absurdity was asserted by Spinosa; yet when + urged by his friends to explain how matter could ever come + into motion, if motion was neither essential to matter, nor + proceeded from any external cause, he always avoided giving a + direct answer. This conduct makes it reasonable to believe, + that he himself would have given up his account of motion, if + he could have saved his atheistical scheme and his + reputation.</p> + <p> + That motion is essential to all matter, and action as much an + attribute of matter, as extension or solidity; and, + consequently, every atom of matter is necessarily + self-moving, or active from the necessity of its own nature, + is asserted by Toland. Though he thought fit to reject the + hypothesis of Spinosa as indefensible, yet he believed in the + atheistic notion, that motion is essential to matter, and + thinks it will be sufficient without troubling the Supreme + Being. The reason which has always determined mankind to look + out for a cause of motion extrinsical to matter, was this: + though they could easily conceive it capable of being moved + and divided; yet the conceiving of it to be undivided, and + unmoved, was a more simple notion of matter, than the + conceiving it divided and moved. This being first in order of + nature, and an adequate conception of it too, they thought it + necessary to inquire, how it came out of this state, and by + what causes motion, from whence this diversity in matter + arose, could come into the world?</p> + <p id="FNanchor_49"> + Descartes, though he allowed the infinity of matter, as well + as Toland, was yet sensible that even this would not alter + the nature of matter, nor the idea that every person had of + its inactivity, and therefore could see no way of altering + its primitive idea, and reconciling it with the motion of + matter, but by introducing an infinite Being, who had + sufficient power to rouse matter out of that sleepy state in + which its original idea had represented it.<a + href="#Footnote_49" + class="fnanchor">49</a></p> + <p> + That such a circumstance exists, and what it is, a French + author very clearly states. He says, The universe is composed + of matter, and, as a system, is sustained by motion. Motion is + not a + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span> + + property of matter, and without this motion the solar system + could not exist. Were motion a property of matter, that + undiscovered and undiscoverable thing, called perpetual + motion, would establish itself. It is because motion is not a + property of matter, that perpetual motion is an impossibility + in the hand of every being but that of the Creator of motion. + When the pretenders to atheism can produce perpetual motion, + and not till then, they may expect to be credited.</p> + <p> + The natural state of matter, as to place, is a state of rest. + Motion, or change of place, is the effect of an external + cause acting upon matter. As to that faculty of matter called + <em>gravitation</em>, it is the influence which two or more + bodies have reciprocally on each other to unite and be at + rest. Every thing which has hitherto been discovered with + respect to the motion of the planets in the system, relates + only to the laws by which motion acts, and not to the cause + of motion. Gravitation, so far from being the cause of motion + to the planets that compose the solar system, would be the + destruction of the solar system, were revolutionary motion to + cease; for as the action of spinning upholds a top, the + revolutionary motion upholds the planets in their orbits, and + prevents them from gravitating and forming one mass with the + sun.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “By ceaseless action all that is subsists;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Constant rotation of the unwearied wheel</p> + <p class="ml0"> + That nature rides upon, maintains her health,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Her beauty, her fertility. She dreads</p> + <p class="ml0"> + An instant’s pause, and lives but while she moves.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Its own revolvency upholds the world.”</p> + </div> + + <p class="i0"> + In one sense of the word, philosophy knows, and atheism says, + that matter is in perpetual motion. But the motion here meant + refers to the state of matter, and that only on the surface + of the earth. It is either decomposition, which is + continually destroying the form of the bodies of matter, or + recomposition, which renews that matter in the same or + another form, as the decomposition of animal or vegetable + substances enter into the composition of other bodies. But + the motion that upholds the solar system is of an entirely + different kind, and is not a property of matter. It operates + also to an entirely different effect. It operates also to + perpetual preservation, and to prevent any change in the + state of the system.</p> + <p> + Giving then to matter all the properties which philosophy + knows it has, or all that atheism ascribes to it, and can + prove, and even supposing matter to be eternal, it will not + account for the system of the universe, or of the solar + system, because it will not account for motion, and it is + motion that preserves it. When, therefore, we discover a + circumstance of such immense importance, that without it the + universe could not exist, and for which neither matter, nor any, + nor all, the properties of matter can account, we are + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span> + + by necessity forced into the rational and comfortable belief of + the existence of a cause superior to matter, and that cause + is <span + class="smcap">God</span>.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_50"> + The motion of the earth, therefore, is an effect of Divine + power, because there is none other equal to it; and the + constant operation of the same cause is requisite to + perpetuate its progress. How amazing it is that this globe, + so large in circumference, should move at all! Plato + attributes motion to the power of God, “How is it possible,” + he argues, “for so prodigious a mass to be carried round for + so long a time, by any natural cause? For which reason,” he + says, “I assert God to be the cause, and that it is + impossible it should be otherwise.”<a + href="#Footnote_50" + class="fnanchor">50</a> + “Every thing that is moved,” + adds Aristotle, “must of necessity be moved by some other + thing; and that thing must be moved, either by another, or + not by another thing. If it be moved by that which is + moved by another, we must of necessity come to some Prime + Mover that is not moved by another. For it is impossible + that what moves, and is moved by another, shall proceed + <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad infinitum</i>.”<a + href="#Footnote_51" + class="fnanchor">51</a> + Since motion then is not a + property of matter, but an effect produced by the power of + a Divine agent, what a constant display we have of this + efficient energy, in moving this earth, and with such a + surprising, swiftness! Surely all men should fear and + reverence a Being, who possesses and exercises such a + power! He who created all things out of nothing, could, if + he pleased, extinguish the light, and shake the solid + earth into atoms!</p> + <p> + When the ponderous wheel of nature first began to move, + <em>time</em>, consisting of days, months, years, and ages, + and measured by the duration and revolutions of the heavenly + bodies, commenced.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml0"> + <em>Time</em> (in eternity parenthesis)</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Is measur’d by successive days and months,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Seasons and years; which closely like the links</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Of an extended chain progressive join:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Or as a clock, with all its hidden springs</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And constant motions, wound up to the top,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Begins its course, revolving until down.</p> + </div> + <p> + The distinction between <em>day</em> and <em>night</em> is a + wise and gracious provision for man. In the morning, after + the weary limbs have repaired their exhausted vigor by the + indulgence of soft repose, we are pleased with the blessing + of light; and, after a few fleeting hours engaged in our + diversified pursuits of the day, we begin to court the + evening shades, pleased again to enjoy that balmy retreat + which alone refits us for the fatigues of the ensuing day. + When a few fleeting hours are spent, the day is no longer + gratifying; but its light becomes burdensome, and we wish for + the shadows of the evening to be stretched over us. This + sable period is scarcely gone, when we welcome the dawning day, + andleave the place of our rest with gladness.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span> + + <em>Day</em> and <em>night</em>, and their alternate changes, + are adapted to suggest useful thoughts, and calculated to + employ our serious meditation.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml3"> + “From night to day, from day to night,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The <em>dawning</em> and the <em>dying</em> light</p> + <p class="ml4"> + Lectures of heavenly wisdom read;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + With silent eloquence they raise</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Our thoughts to the Creator’s praise.</p> + <p class="ml4"> + And neither sound nor language need.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + A force continually impressed by the supreme Being produces + and preserves these different and useful motions, which + measure out that portion of time assigned us, for the + performance of his work, and the securing of our own + salvation. We are directed in his word how to employ this + important <em>talent</em> lent to us; also warned to guard + against a misapplication of it, and told that a day will come + when we shall have to give an account of our stewardship. As + <em>day</em> is afforded for the management of those + employments which could not be done in the night, how unwise + would it be to postpone such concerns till the approach of + darkness? So the short period of life is given us that we may + “work out our own salvation.” We are favored with the light + of Divine truth to illuminate our understandings; the + operation of the Holy Spirit to influence our wills; and our + pressing necessities should impel us to perform what God + requires.</p> + <p> + The Greeks have two words for <em>time</em>, <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: chronos" + class="msg">χρονος</span> + and <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: kairos" + class="msg">καιρος</span>: + the former signifies time in general; and the latter + that part of it which is proper for doing a thing—the present + season in which any thing to be done may be done fitly and to + advantage. Accordingly Solomon says, “To every thing there is + a season, and a time to every purpose under heaven.”</p> + <p> + What the apostle says to the Christians at Ephesus is equally + applicable and interesting to persons in succeeding ages of + the world; giving a view of the importance of time, and + directing to a right improvement of it. “See that ye walk + circumspectly, not as fools, but as wise, redeeming the time, + because the days are evil.”</p> + <p id="FNanchor_52"> + <em>Walking</em>, in the Scripture style, is a word + frequently used to denote the whole course of a man’s life + and conversation, including all his thoughts, words and + actions. Walking <em>circumspectly</em>, <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: akribôs" + class="msg">ακριβως</span>, + signifies + correctly, accurately, consistently, or perfectly. In another + place the same word is rendered <em>diligently</em>. Herod + said to the wise men come from the east, Go to Bethlehem, and + search <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: akribôs" + class="msg">ακριβως</span>, + <em>diligently</em>, narrowly, for the young + child Jesus. But the word <em>circumspect</em> is from the + Latin <em>circumspicio</em>, and signifies to look round + about, on all hands, to be every way watchful, wary, and + cautious, in order to avoid danger, discern enemies before + they come too nigh, and secure a man’s interest by every + possible and lawful means.<a + href="#Footnote_52" + class="fnanchor">52</a></p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span> + + The necessity of this duty is suggested in the Greek text, + <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: blepete oun" + class="msg">βλεπετε ουν</span> + <em>see then</em> or <em>therefore</em>, take + care of this as a matter of the highest concern and greatest + importance; it is that on which your all depends. He adduces + a cogent reason for this—“Not as fools, but as wise.” As if + he should say, It is your <em>wisdom</em> to walk + circumspectly, and not to walk so would be your + <em>folly</em>: to walk circumspectly is the wisdom that God + recommends to you, and which is adapted to make you truly + wise, both in this world and in that which is to come.</p> + <p> + The word <em>redeeming</em>, <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: exagorazomenoi" + class="msg">εξαγοραζομενοι</span>, + literally + signifies <em>buying time</em>. The term <em>buying</em> is + proper in reference to civil contracts, but it is here + applied morally. Properly speaking, time cannot be bought: it + is a commodity for which all the treasures in the world would + not be an equivalent. Its price is above rubies. But the term + imports the great value of time, and intimates that we should + be willing to suffer any privation or inconveniences, rather + than lose it. <em>Redeeming</em> properly implies the laying + down a price for re-purchasing or recovering that which was + ours, but which has fallen into the possession of another. A + captive sometimes is redeemed out of the hand of an enemy. + Now, in this sense, to redeem time already past is + impossible, for when once gone it is irrecoverable. So that + by <em>redeeming</em> time, nothing else can be understood + but a diligent and prudent improvement of it, which is the + only way in our power to counterbalance the loss we have + sustained by our former neglect. The effects of our past + negligence should be counteracted by double diligence in + future: we should do much work in a little time. This is to + redeem that time, concerning which we have allowed worldly + business, unprofitable visits, sensual indulgence, carnal + recreations, and vain thoughts, to rob us, and, as it were, + to take and keep us captive. To redeem time then is to be + diligent in future, wisely improving it so as may make amends + for our very culpable remissness. Future diligence is, as it + were, the price of redemption paid down for what we had + mortgaged into the hands of those things which we have + suffered to deprive us of it.</p> + <p> + The argument used to enforce the practice of this duty is, + “because the days are evil.” Time, in itself, properly + speaking, is neither good nor evil; but in regard to the + moral state of mankind may be so called. The days here + primarily intended by the apostle, denominated <em>evil</em>, + were those of his own time, in which he himself and his + contemporaries lived, and which abounded with trouble and + danger, by reason of the opposition made by unbelieving Jews + and Gentiles against Christianity. But all our days, as well + as those, may be called evil, because of the prevalence of + sin, Satanic delusion, and hostility of the ungodly against + real religion. Many persons can adopt the language of the + patriarch Jacob, “Few and evil have the days of the + years of my life been.” Job + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span> + + gives a similar testimony, “Man + that is born of a woman, is of few days, and full of evil.”</p> + <p> + The whole argument runs thus: seeing that you cannot enjoy + true quiet and substantial comfort in this terrestrial abode, + and are in danger of being quickly deprived of all + opportunity of getting and doing good, fail not to improve + the present time to the best advantage, in reference to the + future state, that you may secure for yourselves a happy and + glorious eternity.</p> + + <hr id="CHAPTER_III" class="chap" /> + <h2> + CHAPTER III.<br /> + <span class="large">SECOND DAY.</span></h2> + <h3> + ON THE ATMOSPHERE.</h3> + <p class="hang1 smaller"> + Composition of Atmospheric Air — Atmosphere divided into + three regions — Air a fluid — Its compressibility and + elasticity — Weight and + pressure — Equilibrium — Transparency — Wind — Causes of + Wind — Variety of Winds — Velocity of Winds — Destructive + Winds — Wind under the control of God — Wind a similitude of + the Holy Spirit’s operations.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_53"> + On the <em>second day</em> God made a space or + <em>expansion</em>, surrounding the solid earth to a certain + height, called the <em>atmosphere</em>. This word is derived + from <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: atmos" + class="msg">ἀτμός</span> + and <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: sphaira" + class="msg">σφαῖρα</span>, + and signifies a body of vapor in a + spherical form. By this name we understand the “entire mass + of air which encircles all parts of the terrestrial globe, + which moves with it round the sun, which touches it in all + parts, ascending to the tops of its mountains, penetrating + into its cavities, and incessantly floating on its waters. It + is a fluid which we inhale from the first to the last moment + of our existence.” The Hebrew word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">רקיע</span> + <em>rakiâ</em>, from <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">רקע</span> + <em>rakâ</em>, used by Moses, (and which our translators, + by following the <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">firmamentum</i> + of the Vulgate, which is a translation of the <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: stereôma" + class="msg">στερεωμα</span>, + of the Septuagint, have + improperly rendered <em>firmament</em>,) signifies to + <em>spread out as the curtains of a tent or pavilion</em>.<a + href="#Footnote_53" + class="fnanchor">53</a> + It corresponds with those + beautiful words of Isaiah, “It is he that <span + class="smcap">stretcheth out</span> + the heavens as a curtain, and <span + class="smcap">spreadeth them</span> + out as a tent to dwell in.” “Thus,” as a learned and pious + author justly observes, “the second great production of the + Almighty was the element which is next in simplicity, + purity, activity, and power, to the light, (or, rather + <em>fire</em>,) and no doubt was also used by him as an + agent in producing some subsequent effects.”<a + href="#Footnote_54" + class="fnanchor">54</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_55"> + It is particularly deserving notice, that, after the creation + of caloric, the atmosphere was the next regular production. + If heat had not previously existed, could the atmosphere have + been formed? + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span> + + The Creator, having first impressed certain + principles on matter, impregnating it with repelling forces + and systematical attractions, proceeded with his work + according to these radical and fixed laws. One of the general + laws discovered by Dr. Black, and which is laid down as a + chemical axiom, is, that “Whenever a body <em>changes</em> + its state, it either combines with caloric, or separates from + caloric.” “The most probable opinion concerning the nature of + caloric,” says Mr. Dalton, “is that of its being an elastic + fluid of great subtlety, whose particles repel one another, + but are attracted by all other bodies. Every kind of matter + has its peculiar affinity to heat, by which it requires a + certain portion of the fluid, in order to be in equilibrium + with other bodies at a certain temperature.”<a + href="#Footnote_55" + class="fnanchor">55</a><a id="FNanchor_56"></a> + It is now generally supposed, + adds Mr. Parkes, that the air owes its elasticity to the + caloric which it contains; and, that if it could be + deprived entirely of this, it would lose its elastic form. + The expansibility of the air is effected by the operation + of caloric: for being rarefied by heat, it occupies a + larger space than otherwise it would. It is extremely + probable, says Lavoisier, that air is a fluid naturally + existing in a state of vapor; or, as we may better express + it, that our atmosphere is a compound of all the fluids + which are susceptible of the vaporous or permanently + elastic state, in the usual temperature, and under the + common pressure.<a + href="#Footnote_56" + class="fnanchor">56</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_57"> + For the discovery of the composition of atmospheric air, we + are indebted to Scheele, an able chemist, born 1742, at + Stralsund, in Germany, who was a member of the Academy of + Stockholm, and one of the Royal Society of Medicine at Paris, + and whose laborious investigations of nature have perpetuated + his memory. When the nature of atmospheric air began to be + understood, it was imagined that it was a mere + <em>mixture</em> of oxygen gas and nitrogen gas; and Mr. + Dalton is still of this opinion: but, says Mr. Parkes, we + have now abundant reason to believe that it is a mere + chemical compound; that is, that the oxygen and nitrogen form + atmospheric air by a chemical union. Atmospheric air is a + chemical mixture of oxygen and nitrogen rendered aërial by + the expansive power of caloric: it likewise contains a + portion of carbonic acid gas, which was formerly calculated + at one per cent.; but Mr. Dalton has lately demonstrated that + it does not amount to more than one part in a thousand.<a + href="#Footnote_57" + class="fnanchor">57</a> + Carbonic acid gas is nearly + twice as heavy as common air; hence it is evident that it + must combine <em>chemically</em> with the atmosphere, or + it would be found only near the surface of the earth. If + it were merely <em>mixed</em> with atmospheric air, its + gravity would prevent it from ascending to any great + height: but it is found to exist in the atmosphere at the + greatest heights, (though probably not in the same + proportion) as well as near the surface of the earth; which is a + proof that it is not a mere mixture, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span> + + but that it is + chemically combined with the air. There are about 22 parts + of oxygen, and 78 of nitrogen, in every 100 measures of + atmospheric air, or 23 of the former and 77 of the latter, + if the calculation be made by weight.<a + href="#Footnote_58" + class="fnanchor">58</a></p> + <p> + Antony de Marti observes, If a few hundredth parts of oxygen + only were wanting in atmospheric air, fire would lose its + strength, candles would not diffuse such complete light, and + animals would with difficulty separate the necessary quantity + of the vivifying oxygen. On the other hand, if the atmosphere + were more charged with oxygen than nitrogen, animals indeed + would acquire a more free respiration; but, let us consider + the activity which fire would acquire by air of superior + purity. We know that, on some occasions, the least spark + excites the strongest flame in a combustible body, and which + increases so much as to consume it in a few moments: candles + <em>then</em> would be no sooner lighted than they would be + destroyed, without answering any other purpose than that of + dazzling us for a few moments: iron would be calcined, + instead of acquiring from the fire that softness necessary + for transforming it into its various instruments, and which + it cannot receive in a more moderate heat. Nothing would be + capable of checking the progress of this destructive element, + which is nourished by vital air, if this aëriform substance + were not abundantly mixed with mephitic air, which serves to + restrain it.</p> + <p> + Pure atmospheric air is composed of three gaseous substances + only, but is perpetually contaminated by a variety of + exhalations from the earth. “The atmosphere is a vast + laboratory,” says Fourcroy, “in which nature operates immense + analyses, solutions, precipitations, and combinations: it is + a grand reservoir, in which all the attenuated and + volatilized productions of terrestrial bodies are received, + mingled, agitated, combined, and separated. Notwithstanding + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span> + + this mixture, of which it seems impossible for us to + ascertain the nature, atmospheric air is sensibly the same, + with regard to its intimate qualities, wherever we examine + it.” Hence, whatever may be the nature of the aërial fluid, + when absolutely pure, that which we breathe, and which + commonly goes under the name of <em>air</em>, must be + considered as an exceedingly heterogeneous mixture, various + at various times, and which it is by no means possible to + analyze with accuracy. The whole mass of it contains a great + deal of water, together with the vast collection of particles + raised from all bodies of matter on the surface of the earth + by effluvia, exhalations, &c., so that it may be termed a + <em>chaos</em> of the particles of all sorts of matter + confusedly mingled together. And hence it has been considered + as a large chemical vessel, in which the matter of all kinds + of bodies is copiously floating; and thus exposed to the + continual action of that immense surface, the sun, from + whence proceed innumerable operations, sublimations, + separations, compositions, digestions, fermentations, + putrefications, &c.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_59"> + Though, in this view, the atmosphere seems to be a kind of + sink or common sewer, where all the poisonous effluvia + arising from putrid and corrupted matter is deposited; yet it + has a wonderful facility of purifying itself, and one way or + other, of depositing those vapors contained in it; so that it + never becomes noxious, except in particular places, and for a + short time; the general mass remaining, upon all occasions, + pretty much the same.<a + href="#Footnote_59" + class="fnanchor">59</a> + The way in which this + purification is effected, is different according to the + nature of the vapor with which the air is loaded. Aqueous + vapor ascends; and also much of that vapor arising from + decayed and putrid animal and vegetable substances, (and + which, by some modern philosophers, is called + <em>phlogiston</em>, attaching itself to the aqueous + vapor,) ascends along with it; and probably descends again + with the rain; whence the fertilizing qualities of + rain-water above those of any other: while another part is + absorbed by vegetables; for the phlogistic vapor is + probably the food for plants. But sulphureous, acid, and + metalline exhalations, produced principally by volcanos; + vapors, arising from houses where lead and other + metals are smelted; descend, in consequence of their specific + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span> + + gravity, and suffocate and spread destruction around them, + poisoning not only animals, but vegetables + also. From all these, the air seems not capable of + purifying itself, otherwise than by winds, or by letting + them subside by their superior gravity, till they are + absorbed either by the earth or water, according as it is + their nature to unite with one or other of these elements. + Of this kind also seem to be the vapors which are properly + called pestilential. The contagion of the plague itself + seems to be of a heavy, sluggish nature, incapable of + rising in the air, but attaching itself to the walls of + houses, bed-clothes, and wearing apparel. Hence, scarcely + any constitution of the atmosphere can dispel these + noxious effluvia; nor does it seem probable that + pestilential distempers ever cease until the contagion has + operated so long, and been so frequently communicated from + one to another, that, like a ferment much exposed to the + air, it becomes vapid, communicates a milder infection, + and at last loses its strength altogether.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_60"> + The atmosphere, or body of air encompassing the earth on all + sides, is generally divided into <em>three</em> regions. The + lowest region extends from the earth to the place where the + air is no longer heated by the rays which the earth reflects: + this region is the wannest. The <em>middle</em> region begins + where the preceding one ends, and goes to the summit of the + highest mountains, or even the highest clouds; this is the + space where rain, hail, and snow are engendered: this region + is much colder than the preceding one. The <em>third</em> + region extends from the middle one to the utmost height of + the atmosphere; whose limits have not been ascertained.<a + href="#Footnote_60" + class="fnanchor">60</a> + If the air were of an equal + density throughout, the height of the atmosphere might be + determined: but since the density of the air decreases + with the pressure, it will be more rarefied and expanded + the higher we go; and by this means the altitude of the + atmosphere becomes indefinite, and terminates in pure + ether. But though we cannot assign its real height, it is + certain, from observations and experiments, that a + distance of 45 or 50 miles is the utmost limit where the + density is sufficient to refract the rays of light. For + the beginning and ending of twilight show, that the height + at which the atmosphere begins to refract the sun’s light + is about 45 English miles; and therefore that may be + reckoned the altitude of the air to the least degree of + density.</p> + <p> + The air is justly reckoned among the number of + <em>fluids</em>, because it has all the properties by which a + fluid is distinguished. It requires but little attention to + be convinced of this. The air yields to the smallest force + impressed on it; its parts are easily moved among themselves; + it presses according to its perpendicular height, and its + pressure is every where equal. That the air is a fluid + consisting of such particles as have no cohesion among + themselves, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span> + + but easily glide over one another, and yield to + the smallest impression, appears from the ease and freedom + with which animals breathe in it, and move through it without + any difficulty or sensible resistance. The ease with which it + is penetrated, and driven about in every direction, and the + motion of it in pipes and channels, however crooked and + intricate, demonstrate its fluidity. It is also known to be a + fluid, by the easy conveyance which it affords to sound.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_61"> + <em>Compressibility</em> and <em>elasticity</em> are evident + properties of air. Its elasticity was first ascertained by + some experiments of Lord Bacon. The air nearest the earth is + in a state of compression, occupying a smaller space than it + otherwise would do, were it not compressed by the + superincumbent air. It must therefore be in a state something + resembling that of a quantity of fine carded wool thrown + loosely into a deep pit; the lower strata supporting the + weight of the upper strata, and being compressed by them; and + so much the more compressed as they are further down, while + the upper stratum only is in its unconstrained and most + expanded state. If we should suppose this wool thrown in by a + hundred weight at a time, it will be divided into strata of + equal weights, but of unequal thickness, the lowest being the + thinnest, and the superior strata gradually increasing in + thickness.<a + href="#Footnote_61" + class="fnanchor">61</a></p> + <p> + When the air is in a state of compression, we find that the + same force with which we compressed it is necessary to keep + it in its bulk; and that if we cease to press it together, it + will swell out and regain its natural dimensions, which shows + its elasticity. This distinguishes it essentially from such a + body as a mass of flour, salt, and such like, which remains + in the compressed state to which we reduce it. There is + something therefore which opposes the compression of air, + different from its simple impenetrability, and produces + motion, by repelling the compressing body. As an arrow is + gradually accelerated by the bow-string pressing it forward, + and at the moment of its discharge is brought to a state of + rapid motion; so the ball from a pop-gun or wind-gun is + gradually accelerated along the barrel by the + pressure of the air during its + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span> + + expansion from its compressed + state, and finally quits it with an accumulated velocity. + These two motions are indications perfectly similar to the + elasticity of the bow and of the air.</p> + <p> + Mr. Parkes observes, that atmospheric air in all states, and + in all seasons, is <em>permanently</em> elastic. This + elasticity arises from caloric being chemically combined with + the solid substances of which it is composed. I say + <em>solid</em>, because we have abundant evidence that oxygen + and nitrogen are both capable of taking a solid form, and + actually do, in many instances, exist in a state of solidity. + Nitrogen is a component part of all animal substances, and + exists in a solid state in all the ammoniacal salts. Oxygen + takes the same state when it combines with metals and other + combustibles; and in the composition of the nitrous salts + they both take the same state of solidity. These facts surely + evince that atmospheric air owes its fluidity to caloric.</p> + <p> + Dr. Hales, by means of a press, condensed the air 33 times; + and, afterwards, by forcing water in an iron globe, into + 1,551 times less space than it naturally occupies. The + dilation of the air, by virtue of its elastic force, is found + to be very surprising. In experiments made by Mr. Boyle, it + dilated to 10,000, and even, at last, in 13,679 times its + space; and this altogether by its own expansive force, + without the help of fire. In fact, it appears that the air we + breathe is compressed by its own weight into at least the + 13,679<sup>th</sup> part of the space it would occupy in <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">vacuo</i>. + But if the same air be condensed + by art, the space it would take up when most dilated, will + be, according to the same author’s experiments, as 550,000 + to 1.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_62"> + It is only by means of the experiments made with pumps,<a + href="#Footnote_62" + class="fnanchor">62</a> + and the barometrical tube, by + Galileo and Torricelli, that we came to the proof, not + only that the atmosphere is endued with <em>weight</em> + and <em>pressure</em>, but also of the measure and + quantity of that pressure. The rise of water in a pump was + formerly attributed to the horror that nature had of a + vacuum. This absurd notion was refuted about the middle of + the seventeenth century, by the following occurrence. The + Duke of Florence, having occasion to raise water to the + height of 50 or 60 feet, ordered a common pump to be made + for that purpose; but when it was completed, the workmen + were astonished to find that it would not work. The matter + was referred to Galileo, but he was unable to account for + it in any way. All they were able to determine was, that + water would not rise in a common pump more than 32 or 35 + feet. The fact remained inexplicable till philosophers + caught the idea of atmospheric pressure; since when, the + suspension of mercury in the barometer, and water in a pump, + have been well understood.<a + href="#Footnote_63" + class="fnanchor">63</a></p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span> + + That the air is a heavy body, has been demonstrated by a + variety of experiments. The air next the earth is more dense + than that at a distance, because, as it is of an elastic or + springy nature, it is pressed down by the whole weight of the + superincumbent air. Its general force of gravity appears, + from its surrounding the earth, and always accompanying it in + its orbit round the sun. As the matter of which the air is + composed is always variable, so likewise will its weight or + gravity be, as barometers of various kinds and structure + evince. The weight of the air at the earth’s surface, is + found by the quantity of mercury that the atmosphere balances + in the barometer; in which, at a mean state, the mercury + stands 29½ inches high. And if the tube were a square inch + wide, it would at that height contain 29½ cubic inches of + mercury, which is just 15 pounds weight; and so much weight + of air every square inch of the earth’s surface sustains; and + every square foot, as containing 144 inches, must sustain a + pressure of 2,160. At this rate, a middle-sized man, whose + surface is about 15 square feet, must sustain a weight of + 32,400 pounds, or 16 tons; for the air, like other fluids, + presses equally upwards, downwards, and sideways, in every + direction. But because this enormous weight bears equally on + all sides, and is counterbalanced by the spring of air + diffused through all parts of the body, it is not in the + least felt by us.<a + href="#Footnote_64" + class="fnanchor">64</a></p> + <p> + By this enormous pressure we should undoubtedly be crushed in + a moment were not all parts of our bodies filled either with + air or some other elastic fluid, whose spring is just + sufficient to counterbalance the weight of the atmosphere. + The human body is a bundle of solids, hard or soft, filled or + mixed with fluids, and there are few or no parts of it which + are empty. All communicate either by vessels or pores; and + the whole surface is a sieve through which the insensible + perspiration is performed. The whole extended surface of the + lungs is open to the pressure of the atmosphere; every thing + therefore is in equilibrio: and if free + or speedy access be given to every + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span> + + part, the body will not be + damaged by the pressure, however great, any more than a wet + sponge would be deranged by plunging it any depth in water. + The pressure is instantaneously diffused by means of the + incompressible fluids with which the parts are filled: and if + any parts are filled with air or other compressible fluids, + these are compressed till their elasticity balances the + pressure. Besides, all our fluids are acquired slowly, and + gradually mixed with that proportion of air which they can + dissolve or contain. The whole animal has grown up in this + manner from the first vital atom of the embryo. For such + reasons the pressure can occasion no change of shape by + squeezing together the flexible parts; nor any obstruction by + compressing the vessels or pores.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_65"> + Sometimes the air is so heavy and elastic as to support the + mercury in the tube at the height of 31 inches nearly; at + other times it is so light and unelastic, as to suffer it to + fall as low as 28 inches. The difference between these two + altitudes is three inches, that is, about 1-9th of the whole + weight of the atmosphere. Our bodies, therefore, are + sometimes pressed with a weight one-ninth more than at other + times, that is, with about 3,360 pounds more weight at one + time than another. This has considerable effect on our + feelings, and consequently on our health, but we are apt to + ascribe this effect to a wrong cause. When we feel ourselves + dull and languid, we think it is owing to the air being too + thick and heavy about us. But it is just the reverse: the air + is then too light and thin, as is evident from the mercury’s + sinking in the barometer, and its not bearing up the clouds: it + is seldom dense enough at two miles height to bear them up.<a + href="#Footnote_65" + class="fnanchor">65</a> + The weight of the air is proved + by its supporting the clouds and vapors which we so + frequently see floating in it; in the same manner that the + swimming of a piece of wood indicates the weight of the + water which supports it.</p> + <p> + It may be remarked, says Mr. Parkes, that the Creator has + endowed atmospheric air with the property of preserving its + own <em>equilibrium</em> at all times and in all places. Its + elasticity is such, that, however it may be consumed by + respiration or combustion, its place is immediately supplied + with a new portion; and though by a mistaken policy the doors + and windows of our habitations may be constructed so as to + exclude it as much as possible, it will have admission; it + forces its way through every crevice, and performs the most + important office assigned it, in defiance of all our + exertions. If the properties which are given to the different + substances + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span> + + in nature, and the laws by which they are + governed, be thus examined, we shall find them all tending to + promote the welfare and felicity of every species of animated + beings.</p> + <p> + The <em>transparency</em> of the air is a very beneficial + property it possesses. According to Dr. Keill, and other + writers on astronomy, it is entirely owing to the atmosphere + that the heavens appear bright in the day-time. For, without + an atmosphere, that part of the heavens only would shine in + which the sun is placed: and if we could exist without air, + and should turn our backs toward the sun, the whole heavens + would appear as dark as in the night, and the stars would be + seen as clear as in the nocturnal sky. In this case we should + have no twilight; but a sudden transition from the brightest + sunshine to the blackest darkness immediately after sunset; + and from the blackest darkness to the brightest sunshine at + sun-rising; which would be extremely inconvenient, if not + fatal to the sight of men. But, by means of the atmosphere, + we enjoy the sun’s light, reflected from the aërial + particles, for some time before he rises, and after he sets. + For, when the earth by its rotation has prevented us from + seeing the sun, the atmosphere, being still higher than we, + has the sun’s light imparted to it, which gradually decreases + until he has descended 18 degrees below the horizon; and + then, all that part of the atmosphere which is above us + becomes dark. The atmosphere refracts the sun’s rays so, as + to bring him in sight every clear day, before he rises in the + horizon; and to keep him in view for some minutes after he is + really set below it. For, at some times of the year, we see + the sun ten minutes longer above the horizon, than he would + be if there were no refractions; and about six minutes every + day at a mean rate. We cannot but perceive the wisdom of God + displayed in this contrivance, to prevent the sudden + transition from light to extreme darkness, and his goodness + manifested therein to man.</p> + <p> + Besides these, there are many other advantages we derive from + the atmosphere. Were it not for the atmospheric air, which is + the vehicle of light and sound, our eyes would be useless, + and the pleasures which arise from the variegated prospects + that now surround us, unknown. Sound would never strike our + ears, nor convey the charms of language from one person to + another; all the delights of mutual converse would be lost. + The sense of smell would never be regaled with odoriferous + sweets; nor annoyed with exhalations from putrid and morbid + substances. In short, life would become extinct, and a chaos + of darkness and emptiness ensue. It has been well remarked, + that, if the Deity had intended only to give us existence, + and had been indifferent about our happiness or misery, all + the necessary purposes of hearing might have been answered + without harmony; of smell, without fragrance; of vision + without beauty. The consideration of the various <em>uses</em> + to which the different substances in nature may be applied, + gives + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span> + + so satisfactory an assurance of the goodness of the + Almighty, as is calculated to produce in us gratitude and + obedience. With this view, an elegant French writer has said + on this necessary fluid, “In the use of atmospheric air, + <em>man</em> is the only being who gives to it all the + modulations of which it is susceptible. With his voice alone, + he imitates the hissing, the cries, and the melody of all + animals; while he enjoys the gift of speech denied to every + other. To the air he also communicates sensibility; he makes + it sigh in the pipe, lament in the flute, threaten in the + trumpet, and animates to the tone of his passions even the + solid brass, the box tree, and the reed. Sometimes he makes + it his slave: he forces it to grind, to bruise, and to move + for his advantage an endless variety of machines. In a word, + he harnesses it to his ear, and obliges it to waft him over + the stormy billows of the ocean.”</p> + <p> + <em>Wind</em> is air in motion. As the air is a fluid, its + natural state is that of rest, which it cannot have but by an + universal equilibrium of all its parts. When, therefore, this + natural equipoise of the atmosphere is destroyed in any part, + the circumjacent air necessarily moves towards that part, to + restore it; and this motion of the air is called + <em>wind</em>. Hence, where the equilibrium of the air is + disturbed, the wind may blow from every point of the compass + at the same time: those who live northward of that point have + a north wind; those who live southward have a south wind; and + so on of the rest: but those who live on the spot, where all + those winds meet and rush together, will have turbulent and + boisterous weather, such as whirlwinds and hurricanes, + accompanied with rain, lightning, and thunder. For + sulphureous exhalations from the south, torrents of nitre + from the north, and aqueous vapors from every part, are there + violently blended together, and seldom fail to produce these + phenomena.</p> + <p> + The causes of wind augment or diminish the gravity or + elasticity of the atmosphere; for two portions of air, which + are equal in elasticity or gravity, remain mutually + immoveable. We must look for the causes of wind in the + variation of heat and cold, the position of the sun, the + nature of the soil, the inflammation of meteors, the + condensation of the vapors into rain, and other similar + circumstances: but the most general causes are heat and cold. + Fire, which expands and rarefies the air, diminishes its + elasticity, and, consequently, makes it lighter in some + places than in others; hence the pressure of the ambient air + is greater than that of the rarefied, whence a motion arises; + and thus several winds blow towards the part where the air is + rarefied by the heat; which currents of air, if strong, are + called <em>winds</em>, if gentle, <em>breezes</em> or + <em>gales</em>. Thus the air is constantly carried from the + polar regions towards the torrid zone, where it is also + affected by the diurnal motion of the sun from east to west.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_66"> + “When we reflect attentively upon the nature of winds in + general,” + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span> + + says Dr. O. Gregory, “considering all the causes + which disturb the equilibrium of the atmosphere, the great + mobility due to its fluidity and its elasticity, the + influence of heat and cold upon the latter, the immense + quantity of vapor with which it is charged and discharged + alternately, the mutual effect of contiguous air and water in + motion, the varied attractions of the sun and moon, upon the + aërial fluid, and finally the changes produced by the earth’s + rotation in the velocity of the atmospherical moleculæ at + different parallels of latitude; we shall no longer be + astonished at the inconstancy and variety which infringe upon + the regularity of some of our winds, nor of the extreme + difficulty of reducing the whole to laws wearing the + semblance of certainty.”<a + href="#Footnote_66" + class="fnanchor">66</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_67"> + There is a great variety of winds. The ancients observed only + four, called <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">venti cardinales</i>, + because they blow from the four cardinal points. Homer mentions + no more than <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">eurus</i>, + the east; <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">notus</i>, + the south; <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">zephyrus</i>, + the west; and <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">boreas</i>, + the north wind.<a + href="#Footnote_67" + class="fnanchor">67</a> + In imitation of him, others do the same. Afterwards intermediate + winds were added, first one, then two, between each of these. + Most writers, make only eight winds, and Vitruvius<a + href="#Footnote_68" + class="fnanchor">68</a> + informs us that the Athenians + built a marble tower in the form of an octagon with eight + winds marked, every one on that side which faced it. The + moderns make 32 winds, the four cardinal winds 90 degrees + distant, and 28 collateral or intermediate, 11 degrees and + 15 minutes distant from each other, of which those in the + middle between two cardinals, are 45 degrees distant from + each cardinal.<a + href="#Footnote_69" + class="fnanchor">69</a> + But some make as many points on + the compass, and as many winds, as there are degrees on + the horizon, namely, 360.</p> + <p> + The winds for a considerable space north of the equator, + about 30 degrees in the open sea, blow from the north-east, + and as far south of the equator, from the south-east. These + are called <em>trade-winds</em>, from their facilitating + trading voyages. In the Indian ocean, from its particular + situation, and that of the lands which + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span> + + surround it, from + April or May, to October or November, the wind blows from + south-east to north-west; and during the rest of the year + from the opposite quarters: these winds are called + <em>monsoons</em>. In Jamaica and the Caribbee islands, in + the months of July, August, or September, there are usually + violent storms of wind, called <em>hurricanes</em>; the wind + during the hurricane frequently veering, and blowing in every + direction.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “Winds from all quarters agitate the air</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And fit the limpid element for use,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Else noxious. Oceans, rivers, lakes, and streams,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + All feel the fresh’ning impulse, and are cleansed</p> + <p class="ml0"> + By restless undulation. E’en the oak</p> + <p class="ml0"> + thrives by the rude concussion of the storm.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + He seems indeed indignant, and to feel</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The impression of the blast with proud disdain,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Frowning, as if in his unconscious arm</p> + <p class="ml0"> + He held the thunder. But the monarch owes</p> + <p class="ml0"> + His firm stability to what he scorns,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + More fixed below, the more disturbed above.”</p> + </div> + <p> + Winds have been measured, and their velocity calculated. The + following is Mr. John Smeaton’s table of the rate at which + the wind travels:</p> + <table class="mini" id="WindTable" summary=""> + <tr class="smaller"> + <th> + Wind.</th> + <th> + Miles in<br /> + an Hour.</th> + <th> + Feet in<br /> + a Sec.</th></tr> + <tr> + <td> + Hardly perceptible</td> + <td class="rt"> + 1</td> + <td class="rt"> + 1,47</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + Just perceptible</td> + <td class="rt"> + 2</td> + <td class="rt"> + 2,98</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + </td> + <td class="rt"> + 3</td> + <td class="rt"> + 4,40</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + Gentle, pleasant</td> + <td class="rt"> + 4</td> + <td class="rt"> + 5,87</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + </td> + <td class="rt"> + 5</td> + <td class="rt"> + 7,35</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + Pleasant brisk gale</td> + <td class="rt"> + 10</td> + <td class="rt"> + 14,67</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + </td> + <td class="rt"> + 15</td> + <td class="rt"> + 22,00</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + Very brisk</td> + <td class="rt"> + 20</td> + <td class="rt"> + 29,34</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + </td> + <td class="rt"> + 25</td> + <td class="rt"> + 36,67</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + High winds</td> + <td class="rt"> + 30</td> + <td class="rt"> + 44,01</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + </td> + <td class="rt"> + 35</td> + <td class="rt"> + 51,34</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + Very high</td> + <td class="rt"> + 40</td> + <td class="rt"> + 58,68</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + </td> + <td class="rt"> + 45</td> + <td class="rt"> + 66,01</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + Storm, tempest</td> + <td class="rt"> + 50</td> + <td class="rt"> + 73,35</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + Great storm</td> + <td class="rt"> + 60</td> + <td class="rt"> + 88,02</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + Hurricane</td> + <td class="rt"> + 80</td> + <td class="rt"> + 117,36</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + Hurricane that tears<br /> + up trees, destroys<br /> + buildings &c. &c.<a + href="#Footnote_70" + class="fnanchor">70</a></td> + <td class="rt"> + 100</td> + <td class="rt"> + 146,70</td></tr> + </table> + <p> + There are some winds that are awfully destructive. In the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span> + + Gulf of Persia, particularly at Ormus, during the months of + June and July, a hot suffocating wind sometimes blows from + the west, for a day or two together, which scorches up and + destroys any animal exposed to it. On this account the people + of Ormus then leave their habitations, and retire to the + mountains. Winds similar to this in kind, but not in degree, + are sometimes felt on the coast of Coromandel, where they are + called <em>terrenos</em>; and likewise on the Malabar coast. + On the coast of Africa, north of Cape Verd, during the months + of December, January, and February, an easterly wind + sometimes blows for a day or two, called by sailors + <em>harmattan</em>, so intensely cold, as to be almost as <a + id="FNanchor_71"></a> + destructive as the west winds at Ormus. The <em>simoon</em> + is a hot wind which blows occasionally in the deserts of + Arabia, parched by a vertical sun. If inhaled in any + quantity, it produces instant suffocation, or at least leaves + the unhappy sufferer oppressed with an asthma and lowness of + spirits. Its approach is perceived by a redness in the air, + well understood by those who are accustomed to journey + through the desert; and the only refuge which they have from + it, is to fall down with their faces close to the ground, and + to continue as long as possible without respiration.<a + href="#Footnote_71" + class="fnanchor">71</a> + <em>Sirocco</em> is a periodical + wind which generally blows in Italy and Dalmatia every + year about Easter. It blows from the south-east by south; + it is attended with heat, but not rain; its ordinary + period is twenty days, and it usually ceases at sunset. + When the sirocco does not blow in this manner, the summer + is almost free from easterly winds, whirlwinds, and + storms. This wind is prejudicial to plants, drying and + burning up the buds; though it hurts not man any otherwise + than by causing in him an extraordinary weakness and + lassitude; inconveniences that are fully compensated by a + plentiful fishing, and a good crop + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span> + + on the mountains. In + the summer time, when the westerly wind ceases for a day, + it is a sign that the sirroco will blow the day following, + which usually begins with a sort of whirlwind. When St. + Paul was sailing close to the shore at Crete, there arose + in the north-east, a tempestuous wind, called by the + sacred historian, <em>euroclydon</em>; by Pliny, the + <em>mariner’s plague</em>; and in modern language, a + <em>levanter</em>, which drove the ship from the coast: + this not being a point wind, but rather a kind of + hurricane, often shifting its quarter, tossed them + backward and forward in the Adriatic.</p> + <p> + On Saturday, November 27, 1703, a tremendous storm shook all + Europe, which has been considered the most dreadful tempest + that has ever taken place since the deluge. This storm + commenced three days before it arrived at its height. A + strong west wind set in about the middle of the month, the + force of which was increased every day till the 27th. Great + damage was sustained, and much alarm excited, both by sea and + land. The late Rev. Dr. Stennett, in endeavoring to account + for it, observes, that “having most probably taken its rise + in America, it made its way across the western ocean, and + collecting confederate matter in its passage over the seas, + spent its fury on those parts of the world, whither this army + of terrors was principally commissioned.” The violence of the + wind produced a hoarse, dreadful noise, like one continued + peal of thunder; whilst the excessive darkness of the night + added to the horror of the scene. Some accounts say, that it + lightened; but it is probable, that this apprehension arose + from there being, at times, many meteors and vapors in the + air; the hurry and agitation of nature being too great to + admit of thunder and lightning, in their usual course.</p> + <p> + Great loss of property was sustained; many painful accidents + happened to those who escaped with their lives; and not a few + had all their apprehensions realized, as they met death in + some of its most dreadful forms. In the city of London and + its vicinity, more than 800 dwelling-houses were laid in + ruins, and above 2,000 stacks of chimnies were precipitated + to the ground. As a further proof of its strength and fury, + we are informed, that the lead which covered the roof of 100 + churches, was rolled up, and hurled, in prodigious + quantities, to great distances. But the dreadful devastation + spread throughout the country. In one extensive plain, on the + banks of the Severn, not less than 15,000 sheep, being unable + to resist its violence, were driven into the river and + drowned. Such was the quantity of trees torn up by their + roots, that a person anxious to ascertain the number, had + proceeded through but a part of the county of Kent, when, + arriving at the prodigious amount of 250,000, he relinquished + the undertaking. If such were the dreadful ravages of this + storm by land, it will be anticipated they were still more + disastrous on the water. Accordingly we are informed, that the + best part of our navy being then at sea, if it had been at + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span> + + any other than a full + flood and spring tide, the loss might have proved fatal to + the nation. It was computed that not less than 300 ships were + utterly destroyed by this tempest; among which were 15 of the + royal navy, containing upwards of 2,000 seamen, who “sunk as + lead in the mighty waters.” The whole loss of property was + estimated at four millions of money—of lives, about eight + thousand—and cattle without number.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_72"> + Towards the evening of the 27th, it pleased Him, “who + gathereth the wind in his fists,” gradually to suppress the + storm, till there was a perfect calm. Men were encouraged to + leave the retreats in which they had taken refuge, and view + the “desolations which God had made in the earth.”<a + href="#Footnote_72" + class="fnanchor">72</a></p> + <p> + Though the winds are produced by the operation of natural + causes, and seem to move in natural courses, yet there is a + first Cause, whose efficiency is necessary to their + existence, motions, and continuance. We shall select the + following remarkable instance as an illustration of the truth + of this assertion.</p> + <p> + The disciples of Christ were once in imminent danger from a + storm at the sea of Tiberias, which is also called the Sea of + Galilee, and the Lake of Gennesaret, and, according to Pliny, + is sixteen miles long, and six broad. It is said, “Behold, + there arose a great tempest in the sea,” <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: seismos megas" + class="msg">σεισμὸς μέγας</span>, + a great concussion or shaking. The same expression is + frequently used, both in the Scripture and in other writings, + for an earthquake; but here it is applied to the sea. Luke + calls this tempest “a storm of wind;” Mark, “a great storm of + wind;” and both of them use the word <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: lailaps" + class="msg">λαιλαψ</span>, + which the + philosopher says is a particular kind of wind, or rather a + conflict of many winds. The most probable derivation, says + Mr. Parkhurst, seems to be from <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: la" + class="msg">λα</span> + or <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: lian" + class="msg">λιαν</span>, + <em>very much</em>, and <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: laptô" + class="msg">λαπτω</span>, + <em>to lick</em> or <em>lap up</em>, as + wolves do water in drinking; for a whirlwind <em>violently + licks up</em>, as it were, the dust of all light bodies in + its way. Hence <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: lailaps" + class="msg">λαιλαψ</span> + is a wind that is suddenly whirled and + rolled about downwards and upwards. Aristotle explains the + word by <em>a violent whirlwind, moving from beneath + upwards</em>. Hesychius, a learned Grecian, defines it to be + a storm or tempest of wind, with rain. It seems to have been + a whirlwind and hurricane in which the disciples then were. + Luke says, that this storm of wind <em>came down</em>; it + descended with great force into the sea, and lifted up its + waves, which beat into the ship, and pressed it much, so that + it was in great danger of being swallowed up and sunk by + them. All the views given us of this tempest show the + disciples to have been in imminent danger. It is said, “that + the ship was covered with the waves,” which “beat into it, so + that it was now full of water,” as Mark expresses it. Nay, + Luke says, “they were filled with water, and were in jeopardy,” + or in great danger. The ship was immersed, or just sinking into + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span> + + the deep. So that the + disciples were brought to the utmost extremity. The great + distress they were in is expressed in these words, “We + perish, <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: apollymetha" + class="msg">ἀπολλύμεθα</span>, + <em>we are lost</em>.”<a + href="#Footnote_73" + class="fnanchor">73</a> + This way of speaking is still in + use among sea-faring men, and indeed among others. Nothing + is more common than for men to say, Such a vessel, or such + a ship’s crew, or such a person, was lost at sea, in such + a place, and at such a time. It is also to be observed, + they do not say, We are in danger of being lost, or we are + ready to be lost, or we shall be lost, but, <em>we are + lost</em>. Which shows what apprehension they had of their + condition; they saw no probability of escaping by any + naturally rational method; they looked on themselves as + lost.</p> + <p> + All the Evangelists agree in this, though they do not use the + same word. Mark mentions the place where he was asleep, + <em>in the hinder part of the ship</em>, or stern, where he, + as Lord and Master, should be. But to the great concern of + the disciples, he was there in a deep or sound sleep, as the + word <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: aphypnôse" + class="msg">αφυπνωσε</span>, + which Luke uses, signifies, and is confirmed + by the loud cry, and repeated call of the disciples to him, + saying, “Master, Master, we perish!” This sleep, doubtless, + was brought on him through his great fatigue in preaching all + the preceding day, and from the great concourse of people + resorting to him, to have the sick healed, and devils cast + out. He seems to have signified that he was very weary, just + before he entered into the ship, to a man who said to him, + “Master, I will follow thee whithersoever thou goest:” the + answer he returned was, “The foxes have holes, and the birds + of the air have nests; but the Son of Man hath not where to + lay his head.” Intimating as though he wanted an opportunity + to lie down, and take some rest: and accordingly, when he was + come into the ship, placing himself at the stern, he lay + down, and fell fast asleep.</p> + <p> + Christ was their last resource, but he was asleep in the same + ship. However, they resolved to apply to him, and in so doing + were certainly right. They used this language, “Lord, save + us;” which implies that they believed he was able to save + them; and indeed the considerable miracles which had been so + lately wrought in their presence, were sufficient to convince + them of his ability to deliver them in their greatest + extremity. Our Lord indeed blamed them for their incredulity + and want of faith. The question he put to them, as related by + Luke, is “Where is your faith?” You professed to have faith + in me, and doubtless had a little while ago; where is it now? + Mark expresses himself, “Why are ye so fearful? how is it + that ye have no faith?” that is, none in exercise, none + sufficient to suppress your alarming fears? Matthew says, + “Why are ye fearful, Oh ye of little faith?” It would seem + they had no faith in Christ when sleeping, though not destitute + of it when awake; but for this he justly reprimanded them. + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span> + + For though, as the Son of Man, he + was asleep, yet as the Son of God, by nature, he neither + sleeps nor slumbers. He was equally able to save them when + sleeping as well as when waking.</p> + <p> + It is not only certain that he was able to save them, but it + is matter of fact that he in reality did so. Being awaked by + his disciples, he rises up, and, with a majestic voice, and + in an authoritative manner, showing, as it were, some kind of + resentment at the wind and sea, as if they had exceeded their + commission, and the one had blown and the other raged too + much, and too long, rebukes them, saying, “Peace, be still:” + <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: Siôpa, pephimôso" + class="msg">Σιώπα, πεφίμωσο</span>, + be silent, hold thy peace, stop thy mouth, + put a bridle on it, (as the last Greek word signifies;) go on + no longer to threaten with shipwreck, and loss of lives. On + this the wind ceased, and the sea became calm and smooth. The + ship now moved quietly on, and they all arrived safe at the + land of the Gadarenes, which is opposite to Galilee.</p> + <p> + This had a very considerable effect both on the mariners and + disciples, who rightly concluded from hence that their + deliverer was more than a man. There was such a display of + majesty, such a lustre of Divine power appeared in this + behest, as filled them with astonishment and fear. They + <em>marvelled</em> greatly, and <em>feared exceedingly</em>. + Matthew seems to relate this, as though the mariners were the + only persons who were affected with their deliverance: the + men said one to another, “What manner of man is this, that + even the winds and the sea obey him?” But Mark and Luke + represent it as a question of the disciples to one another, + “What manner of man is this?” of what qualities, powers, and + perfections? He must be more than a mere man, he can be no + other than the mighty God, “whom the winds and the sea obey.” + It is to be observed, that the word <em>man</em>, inserted in + our translation, is not in the question, as expressed by any + of the Evangelists, in the original, but “Who is this?” The + disciples were sufficiently convinced by this miracle, which + so nearly concerned themselves, that their Master must be God + over all, blessed forever.</p> + <p> + This amazing instance of the power of Christ, shows clearly + his Deity. Since he has such authority over the wind and + seas, it must unavoidably follow that he is truly and + properly God. It is said, “he rebuked the wind and the sea,” + a phrase that is used only of the Most High God, who stands + distinguished from all other beings by this, that “he + stilleth the noise of the seas, the noise of their waves, and + the tumult of the people.” The Messiah makes use of this as + an argument to prove, that he is able to redeem, because he + can rebuke the sea, dry it up, and cover the heavens with + clouds. “Is my hand shortened at all, that it cannot redeem? + or have I no power to deliver? behold, at my rebuke I dry up the + sea: I make the rivers a wilderness. I clothe the heavens with + blackness, and I make sackcloth their covering.” That it is the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span> + + Messiah who here speaks, the following words abundantly + declare: “The Lord God hath given me the tongue of the + learned, that I should know how to speak a word in season to + him that is weary: he wakeneth morning by morning; he + wakeneth mine ear to hear as the learned. The Lord God hath + opened mine ear, and I was not rebellious, neither turned + away back. I gave my back to the smiters, and my cheeks to + them that plucked off the hair: I hid not my face from shame + and spitting.” Now on our Lord rebuking the wind and the sea, + the one <em>ceased</em>, and the other became <em>calm</em>; + this was done by speaking a word only, in an authoritative + manner. Moses divided the waters of the Red Sea with a rod; + Joshua, the waters of Jordan with the ark of the covenant; + Elisha, with the Prophet’s mantle: but here Christ calmed the + raging billows with a word. When he rebuked the wind and the + sea, not only the former instantly ceased to rage, but the + sea immediately became calm, which was very unusual and + extraordinary; for after the wind has ceased, and the storm + is over, the waters of the sea commonly continue raging, and + in a violent motion for a considerable time. Must not that + man be an infidel, who can read this account, and deny the + Deity of Jesus Christ? Or, must he not be forced to one or + other of these two conclusions, either to deny the truth of + the fact, or to believe that Jesus Christ is truly and + properly God?</p> + <blockquote> + <p class="ctr"> + [<em>Addenda on Atmosphere.</em></p> + <p> + 1. By more recent and accurate experiments it is + established, that the relative proportions of oxygen and + hydrogen in air, are not precisely as given by Mr. Wood; + but are 21 of oxygen, and 79 of hydrogen in 100 parts.</p> + <p> + 2. Experiments on the <em>compressibility</em> of the + atmosphere have been carried to a much greater extent than + stated in the text, and since our author wrote. It was + generally believed that air might be made to assume a + <em>liquid</em> form by pressure; and it has been recently + accomplished by Mr. Perkins, as he states, by a pressure of + 2,000 atmospheres.</p> + <p> + 3. Our author very justly states, that the <em>gaseous</em> + state of the atmosphere is owing to the quantity of + <em>caloric</em> in combination, the entire + <em>abstraction</em> of which would render our atmosphere a + body as solid as the diamond. This caloric is not imparted + to it by the beams of the sun <em>passing through</em> it; + because, radiant matter does not warm gaseous bodies by + passing through them. This caloric is chiefly supplied from + the <em>earth</em>, by the lowest stratum of air coming in + contact with it, and when heated ascends, and thus gives + place to a colder stratum. Hence the air is much warmer at + the surface of the earth, than in its higher regions.</p> + <p> + 4. Our author inclines to the opinion that the atmosphere + is the product of a <em>chemical</em> combination of the + gases, yet great names, and weighty arguments are in + favor of the opposite theory of a <em>mere mixture</em> of + gases.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span> + + 5. There is one point not presented in the preceding + section. It is well known that oxygen is abstracted from + the air by <em>combustion</em>, and the <em>breathing</em> + of animals. This abstraction is very large. From whence + then comes the supply of oxygen sufficient to keep up the + constitutional quantity of this gas in the atmosphere? The + only answer I have met with to this difficult question is + this: The <em>growing of vegetables</em> is supposed to + supply it, as it is well known that they absorb carbonic + acid during the day, and evolve oxygen. But it is also well + known that this process is <em>reversed</em> during the + night. Hence it would appear that this is not a sufficient + cause. Still it would seem there must be a sufficient + supply from some source, as chemists have not been able to + detect any change in the constitution of the air.</p> + <p> + May not the oxygen be <em>restored</em> back again by + <em>evolution</em> from those bodies which have + <em>absorbed</em> it, <em>upon their decomposition</em>? + Thus there would be a successive absorption and evolution + as the process of nature went on; which would tend to keep + up an equal distribution of oxygen.]</p> + </blockquote> + + <hr id="CHAPTER_IV" class="chap" /> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV.<br /> + <span class="large">THIRD DAY.</span></h2> + <h3> + <em>Section I.</em>—<span + class="smcap">The Sea.</span></h3> + <p class="smaller hang1"> + Water and land separated — Formation of the sea — Its + restrictions — Extent — Depth — Composition — Saltness — Motion + — Tides — Four states of water — Circulation — Religious + improvement.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_74"> + On the <em>third day</em>, the earth was drained, and the + waters, which before covered its surface, were gathered + into copious receptacles, and called seas. God said, “Let + the waters under the heaven be gathered into one place, and + let the dry land appear; and it was so. And God called the + dry land Earth; and the gathering together of the waters + called he Seas.” The almighty Creator proceeds to separate, + put in order, and control the element nearest to + <em>light</em> and <em>air</em> in quality and use, and, + although not elastic, yet of great power. Probably the air + was used by him as the great agent in gathering the waters + into one place. Thus, instead of the confusion, which + existed when the earth and the water were mixed in one + great mass, there is now order; and by their separation + each is rendered useful: the earth affording a habitation + and support for man and the various orders of land animals; + and the water forming an abode for the numerous tribes of + living creatures adapted to subsist in that liquid + element.<a + href="#Footnote_74" + class="fnanchor">74</a></p> + <p> + Previous to this arrangement, the water, being a pure element, + was above the earth. Thus the Psalmist, “Thou coveredst it + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span> + + with the deep as with a + garment: the waters stood above the mountains,” so that + they did not appear. “At thy rebuke they fled; at the voice + of thy thunder they hasted away.” At the omnipotent word + they started back, and shrunk away, says Bishop Patrick; + like an affrighted slave at the thunder of his master’s + threatenings, if his commands are not obeyed. They gathered + themselves in those places where they now are, which by + Moses are called seas; and there God shut them up, + confining them that they might not return to cover the + earth. God “brake up,” for the reception of the waters, his + “decreed place,” that vast concave or hollow in the earth; + “and set bars and doors,” banks and shores, the weak sand + to control this element, which, however it roar and + struggle, it cannot pass.</p> + <p> + It is wonderful that the sea, which has a natural + disposition, from its being a purer and lighter element, to + be above the earth, should not overflow it; but the amazing + power of Omnipotence retains it within its prescribed + limits. For he has pronounced, “Hitherto shalt thou come, + but no further; and here shall thy proud waves be stayed.” + As if he had said, Though thy tides flow with mighty + strength, though the swelling billows of thy pride (so the + original) rise high in a storm, and dash against the shore + with impetuous force and overwhelming rage, yet here shall + they stop: though they roar and foam, as if irritated at + the opposing strand, yet dare not to approach beyond those + limits to thee assigned; but, obedient to thy Lord and + Master, submissively retire. Here we see the power and + dominion of the supreme Being in the kingdom of nature, + whose sway the sea is subject to! Our preservation from its + threatening destruction, by the continual restrictions it + is under, is a perpetual expression of Divine goodness and + mercy, and should induce all men to live always in the + reverential fear of God. “Fear ye not me? saith the Lord: + will ye not tremble at my presence, which have placed the + sand for the bound of the sea, by a perpetual decree, that + it cannot pass; and though the waters thereof toss + themselves, yet they cannot pass over it.”</p> + <p id="FNanchor_75"> + If we look upon the map of the world, we shall find that + the ocean occupies a considerably greater surface of the + globe than the land is found to do. Although the ocean, + properly speaking, is but one extensive sheet of water, + continued over every part of the globe without + interruption; and although no part is divided from the + rest, yet geographers have distinguished it by different + names, as the Atlantic or Western Ocean; the Northern, + Southern, Pacific, Indian, and German Oceans. In this vast + receptacle, almost all the rivers of the earth ultimately + terminate. And yet these vast and inexhaustable supplies do + not seem to increase its stores; for it is neither + apparently swelled by their tribute, nor diminished by + their failure; it continues constantly the same. Indeed, the + quantity of water of all the rivers and lakes in the world + is nothing + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span> + + compared to that contained in this prodigious + reservoir. And some natural philosophers have carried their + ideas on this subject so far as to assert, in consequence + of certain calculations, that, if the bed of the sea were + empty, all the rivers of the world flowing into it with a + continuance of their present stores, would take up at least + 800 years to fill it again to its present height.<a + href="#Footnote_75" + class="fnanchor">75</a></p> + <p> + To ascertain the <em>depth</em> of the sea has been found + impracticable, both on account of the numerous experiments + which it would be found necessary to make, and the want of + proper instruments for that purpose. Beyond a certain depth + the sea has hitherto been found unfathomable; and though + several methods have been contrived to obviate this + difficulty, none of them has completely answered the + purpose. We know in general that the depth of the sea + increases gradually as we leave the shore; but if this + continued beyond a certain distance, the depth in the + middle of the ocean would be prodigious. Indeed, the + numerous islands every where scattered in the sea + demonstrate the contrary, by showing us that the bottom of + the water is unequal like the land, and that so far from + uniformly sinking, it sometimes rises into lofty mountains. + If the depth of the sea be in proportion to the elevation + of the land, as has been generally supposed, its greatest + depth will not exceed five or six miles; for there is no + mountain six miles perpendicular above the level of the + sea. The sea has never been actually sounded to a greater + depth than a mile and 66 feet; every thing beyond that, + therefore, rests entirely upon conjecture and analogical + reasoning, which, in this case, are in no wise conclusive. + Along the coasts, where the depth of the sea is generally + well known, it has always been found proportioned to the + height of the shore; when the coast is high and + mountainous, the sea that washes it is deep; when, on the + contrary, the coast is low, the water is shallow. Whether + this analogy holds at a distance from the shore, + experiments alone can determine.</p> + <p> + Water is an uninflammable fluid, says Dr. O. Gregory, and, + when pure, is transparent, colorless, and void of taste and + smell. Mr. Cavendish made a discovery that it is formed by + the union of <em>hydrogen</em> and <em>oxygen</em>. It may, + therefore, be considered as <em>oxide of hydrogen</em>: + oxygen and hydrogen appearing to unite, only in that + certain proportion of which water is the result. In 1798, + (observes Mr. Parkes) Mr. Sequin made a grand experiment + for the composition of water. He expended no less than + 25,582 cubic inches (or nearly two hogsheads) of + inflammable air, and 12,457 of vital air. The first weighed + 1,039 grains, and the second 6,210, amounting to 7,249 + grains, and the water obtained amounted to 7,245 grains, or + about three-fourths of a wine pint. The loss was only four + grains. Another experiment was afterwards made by Le + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span> + + Fevre, in which nearly two pounds and a quarter of water was + produced.</p> + <p> + The sea water contains a quantity of <em>salt</em>, but not + in the same proportions every where. In the torrid zone, + where otherwise, from the excessive heat, it would be in + danger of putrefaction, the water is found most salt; as we + advance northward its briny quality diminishes, till at the + poles it is nearly gone altogether. Under the line, Lucas + found that the sea comprised a seventh part of solid + contents, consisting chiefly of sea-salt. At Harwich, he + found it yielded 1-25 of the same matter. At Carlscroon, in + Sweden, it contains 1-30 part, and on the coast of + Greenland a great deal less. This gradual diminution of + saltness from the equator to the pole, is not, however, + without particular exceptions. The Mediterranean sea + contain 1-22 of the sea-salt, which is less than the German + sea contains. The saltness of some seas, or of particular + parts of the same seas, may be increased, as Mr. Boyle + intimates, from rocks and other masses of salt, either at + the bottom of the sea, or dispersed near their shores.</p> + <p> + This phenomenon of the sea perplexed the philosophers + before the time of Aristotle, and surpassed even the great + genius of that philosopher. Father Kircher, after having + consulted three and thirty authors upon the subject, could + not help remarking, that the fluctuations of the ocean + itself were scarcely more various than the opinions + concerning the origin of its saline impregnation. Bernadine + Gomesins, (observes Bishop Watson) about 200 years ago, + published an ingenious treatise on salt: in this treatise, + after reciting and refuting the opinions of Empedocles, + Anaxagoras, and Aristotle, on the subject in question, he + proposes his own; wherein he maintains, that the sea was + originally created in the same state in which we at present + find it, and impregnated, from the very first, with the + salt which it contains. Indeed, we cannot account for the + general saltness of the sea from second causes; hence we + must suppose it has had this property from the creation. + Naturalists assure us, that, though some few species of + fishes thrive in fresh water, and some others live + alternately in fresh and salt, yet by far the greatest + number cannot exist out of the sea; which is a proof that + the sea was at the creation impregnated with salt.</p> + <p> + The saltness of the sea has been considered by some as a + peculiar blessing from Providence, in order to keep so + great an element pure and wholesome: but facts prove that + this property is not capable of preserving it from + putrefaction. Sir Robert Hawkins, one of our most + enlightened navigators, gives an account of a calm, in + which the sea continuing for some time without its usual + motion, began to assume a very formidable appearance. “Were + it not (says he) for the moving of the sea, by the force of + winds, tides, and currents, it would corrupt all the world. + The experiment of this I saw in the year 1590, + lying with a fleet about the islands of + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span> + + Azores, almost six + months; the greatest part of the which time we were + becalmed. Upon which all the sea became so replenished with + various sorts of gelies, and forms of serpents, adders, and + snakes, as seemed wonderful; some green, some black, some + yellow, some white, some of divers colors, and many of them + had life; and some there were a yard and a half and two + yards long; which had I not seen, I could hardly have + believed. And hereof are witnesses all the companies of the + ships which were then present; so that hardly a man could + draw a bucket of water clear of some corruption. In which + voyage, towards the end thereof, many of every ship fell + sick, and began to die apace. But the speedy passage into + our country was a remedy to the crazed, and a preservative + for those that were not touched.”<a + href="#Footnote_76" + class="fnanchor">76</a><a id="FNanchor_77"></a> + Mr. Boyle informs us, that he + once kept a quantity of sea water, taken from the + English channel, for some time barrelled up; and, in a + few weeks, it began to acquire a fetid smell. He was + also assured by one of his acquaintance, who had been + becalmed for about fourteen days in the Indian ocean, + that the water, for want of motion, began to stink; and, + that had the calm continued much longer, the stench + would probably have poisoned him. It is the motion, + therefore, and not the saltness of the sea, that + preserves it in its present state of salubrity.<a + href="#Footnote_77" + class="fnanchor">77</a></p> + <p> + The sea has three kinds of motion: the <em>first</em> is + that undulation which is occasioned by the wind. This + motion is evidently confined to the surface; the bottom, + even during the most violent storms, remains perfectly + calm. Mr. Boyle has remarked, from the testimony of several + divers, that the sea is affected by the winds to the depth + only of six feet. It would follow from this, that the + height of the waves above the surface does not exceed six + feet; and that this holds, in the Mediterranean sea at + least, we are informed by the Compte de Marsigli; though he + also sometimes observed them, during a very violent + tempest, rise two feet higher.</p> + <p> + The <em>second</em> kind of motion is that continual + tendency which + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span> + + the whole water in the sea has towards the + west. It is greater near the equator than about the poles; + and, indeed, cannot be said to take place at all in the + northern hemisphere beyond the tropic. It begins on the + west side of America, where it is moderate; hence that part + of the ocean has been called <em>Pacific</em>. As the + waters advance westward, their motion is accelerated; so + that, after having traversed the globe, they strike with + great violence on the eastern shore of America. Being + stopped by that continent, they turn northward, and run + with considerable impetuosity in the Gulf of Mexico; from + thence they proceed along the coast of North America, till + they come to the south side of the great bank of + Newfoundland, when they turn off, and run down to the + Western Isles. This current is called the <em>Gulf + stream</em>. It was first accurately described by Dr. + Franklin, who remarked also, that the water in it having + been originally heated in the torrid zone, cools so + gradually in its passage northward, that even the latitude + might be found in any part of the stream by means of a + thermometer. This motion of the sea westward has never been + explained: it seems to have some connection with the + trade-winds, and the diurnal revolution of the earth upon + its axis.</p> + <p> + The <em>third</em>, and most remarkable motion of the sea, + is the tide; which is a regular swell of the ocean every 12 + hours, accounted for from the principal of gravitation. The + sagacious Kepler long ago conjectured, that the earth and + moon, and every particle of them, mutually gravitate + towards each other, and are the cause of the tides. If, + says he, the earth ceased to attract its waters towards + itself, all the water in the ocean would rise and flow into + the moon: the sphere of the moon’s attraction extends to + our earth, and draws up the water. This, at that time, was + mere conjecture; for Sir Isaac Newton was the first who + clearly pointed out the cause of this phenomenon. On the + shores of the ocean, and in bays, creeks, and harbors, + which communicate freely with it, the waters rise above + their mean height twice a day, and as often sink below it, + forming what is called a <em>flood</em> and an + <em>ebb</em>, a <em>high</em> and <em>low water</em>. It + has been stated, that in the middle of the sea the tide + seldom rises higher than one or two feet; but, on the + coast, it frequently reaches to the height of 45 feet, and, + in some places, even to more. At Plymouth, it is sometimes + 21 feet between the greatest and least depth of the water + in the same day, and sometimes only 12 feet.</p> + <p> + When the sun and moon act conjointly on the tides, which is + at the change and full of the moon, they are stronger and + run higher than at other times, and are called <em>spring + tides</em>; but when the sun and moon are 90 degrees apart, + their attractive powers, being in opposition to each other, + occasion the tides to be weaker and lower than at other + times, and these are called <em>neap tides</em>. The word + <em>neap</em> is derived + from the Saxon; it signifies low, decrescent, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span> + + and is used + only of the tide. These different heights of tide are + observed to succeed each other in a regular series, + diminishing from the greatest to the least, and then + increasing from the least to the greatest, according to the + age and situation of the moon.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “The moon turns ocean in his bed,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + From side to side, in constant ebb and flow,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And purifies from stench his watery realms.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + Sir Isaac Newton calculated the attractive powers of the + sun and moon on the tides, and found the attraction of the + latter to be about three times greater than that of the + former.</p> + <p> + Water is found to exist in four states: namely, solid, or + ice; liquid, or water; vapor, or steam; and in a state of + composition in other bodies. The younger Lemery observes, + that ice is only the re-establishment of the parts of water + in their natural state; that the mere absence of fire is + sufficient to account for this re-establishment; and that + the fluidity of water is a real fusion, like metals exposed + to the fire; differing only in this, that a greater + quantity of fire is necessary to the one than the other.</p> + <p> + Underneath the poles, water is always solid; there it is + similar to the hardest rocks, and may be formed by the + chisel of the statuary like a stone. The following + circumstance, noticed by Bishop Watson, will show the + solidity that water is capable of acquiring when divested + of a large portion of caloric. It is related that at the + whimsical marriage of Prince Gallitzen, in 1739, the + Russians applied ice to the same purposes as stone. A + house, consisting of two apartments, was built with large + blocks of ice; and the icy cannon, which were fired in + honor of the day, performed their office more than once + without bursting.</p> + <p> + During the severe winter of 1740, observes M. de Bomare, a + palace of ice, 52 feet long, 16 wide, and 20 high, was + built at Petersburgh, according to the most elegant rules + of art. The river Neva afforded the ice, which was from two + to three feet thick, blocks of which were cut and + embellished with various ornaments. When built up, the + different parts were colored by sprinkling them over with + water of various tints. Six cannons, made of and mounted + with ice, with wheels of the same matter, were placed + before the palace; and a hempen bullet was driven by one of + these cannons, in the presence of the whole court, through + a board two inches thick, at the distance of sixty paces. + Cowper remarks,——</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml12"> + “No forest fell,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Imperial mistress of the fur-clad Russ,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + When thou wouldst build—no quarry sent its stores</p> + <p class="ml0"> + T’ enrich thy walls; but thou didst hew the floods,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And make thy marble of the glassy wave.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Silently as a dream the fabric rose,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Ice upon ice; the well-adjusted parts</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Were soon conjoin’d; nor other cement ask’d</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Than water interfused to make them one.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Lamps gracefully disposed, and of all hues,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Illumin’d ev’ry side. Long wavy wreaths</p> + <p class="ml0"> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span> + + Of flowers, that feared no enemy but warmth,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Blush’d on the pannels, which were once a stream,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And soon to slide into a stream again.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0" id="FNanchor_78"> + In the most northern part of the Russian territory, the + cold is sometimes sufficient to freeze mercury, or 72 + degrees below the freezing point of water.<a + href="#Footnote_78" + class="fnanchor">78</a> + It is so intense in some + seasons, that the poor inhabitants cannot venture out of + their miserable huts but at the hazard of their lives.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “There, through the prison of unbounded wilds,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Barr’d by the hand of nature from escape,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Wide roams the Russian exile. Nought around</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Strikes his sad eye but deserts lost in snow,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And heavy loaded groves, and solid floods,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + That stretch athwart the solitary vast</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Their icy horrors to the frozen main.”</p> + </div> + <p> + In Iceland and Germany the thermometer frequently falls to + zero, which is 32 degrees below the freezing point. At + Hudson’s Bay it has been known to sink even 50 degrees + lower. When stones or metals, which have been exposed to + such degrees of cold, are touched by the tongue, or the + softer parts of the human body, they absorb the heat from + those parts with such rapidity, that the flesh becomes + instantly frozen and mortified, and the principle of life + in them is extinguished. Some French academicians, who made + a journey to the northern end of the Baltic, and wintered + under the polar circle, found it necessary to use all + possible precautions to secure themselves from the dreadful + cold which prevailed.<a + id="FNanchor_79"></a> + They prevented, as much as possible, + the entrance of the external air into their apartments; and + if at any time they had occasion to open a window or a + door, the humidity of their breath, confined in the air of + the house, was condensed and frozen into a shower of snow; + their lungs, when they ventured to breathe the cold air, + felt as if they were torn asunder; and they often heard the + rending of the timber around them by the expansive power of + the frost on the fluid in its pores. In this terrible cold + the thermometer fell to 33 below zero.<a + href="#Footnote_79" + class="fnanchor">79</a> + The most intense cold ever + known in the neighborhood of London was on December + 25th, 1796, when the thermometer indicated 2 below zero.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_80"> + The ice at each pole of the earth forms an immense cupola, + the arch of which extends some thousand miles over the + continents; the thickness of which, beyond the 60th degree + of latitude, is several hundred feet. Navigators have + assigned to detached masses, which are met with floating at + sea, an elevation of from 1,500 to + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span> + + 1,800 feet.<a + href="#Footnote_80" + class="fnanchor">80</a> + There can be no doubt but that + the thickness of these cupolas of ice is much greater + nearer the poles; for astronomy sometimes presents in + the heavens so vast an image of them, that the rotundity + of the earth seems to be considerably affected thereby. + Captain Cook could never approach nearer the south pole, + where there is no land, than the 70th degree of + latitude; that is, no nearer than 1,500 miles; and it + was only under the favor of a bay, that he was permitted + to advance even so far.<a + href="#Footnote_81" + class="fnanchor">81</a> + All the results of + observations made by navigators, concur in proving that + the temperature of the sea decreases according to the + depth; and that the deepest gulfs are continually + covered with ice, even under the equator. From a late + memoir by M. Perron, some say, there is reason to + believe that these mountains of ice at the poles, which + have hitherto impeded the progress of European + navigators, have been detached from the depths of the + sea to float at the surface.<a + href="#Footnote_82" + class="fnanchor">82</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_83"> + When water is converted into ice, it is lighter<a + href="#Footnote_83" + class="fnanchor">83</a> + than when in a fluid state, + which is a circumstance of great importance. Galileo was + the first who observed this. Ice consequently floats + upon water, its specific gravity being to that of water + as eight to nine. This rarefaction seems to be owing to + the air-bubbles produced in water by freezing; and + which, being considerably larger in proportion to the + water frozen, render the body so much specifically + lighter: these air-bubbles, during their production, + acquire a great expansive power, so as to burst the + containing vessels though ever so strong.</p> + <blockquote> + <p> + [The specific weight of ice is known to be less than that + of water. Our author assigns a reason not entirely + satisfactory. We must admit that the freezing of the + upper stratum of water, although it may <em>include</em> + the air which was in the water frozen, yet, <em>it does + not expel the air from the subjacent volumes of + water</em>. Hence the air in the water below will balance + the effects of the air included in the ice.</p> + <p> + It is a singular fact, and is regarded as a deviation + from the general rule, that water <em>expands</em> in + volume in proportion as its temperature is <em>reduced + below</em> 40° Fahrenheit. It also expands by raising its + temperature above this degree.</p> + <p> + The <em>expansion</em> of the volume then, and not the + enclosed air bubbles, is the cause of water being + specifically lighter when converted into ice. But it + remains to account for its expansion by a + <em>reduction</em> of temperature.</p> + <p> + This is a difficult question. It seems most probable that + this expansion is owing to a peculiar arrangement, of the + particles of water, in the act of + crystallization, i.e. <em>freezing</em>. M. Mairan found + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span> + + that the particles of water, in the act of freezing, + arranged themselves constantly at an angle of 60°, and by + this arrangement <em>increased the bulk</em> of the water + thus crystallized.</p> + <p> + It is obviously a mistake to attribute the “expansive + power” of freezing to the force of the inclosed + air-bubbles: because the reduction of temperature would + reduce this supposed expansion of the inclosed air. The + true cause of the expansion of ice is supposed above, in + the arrangements of the particles of water in the process + of crystallization.</p> + <p> + The <em>power</em> which disposes these particles to + arrange, <em>increases with the reduction of + temperature</em>, until the disposing power becomes + sufficiently great to force every impediment to the + inclination to arrange. Hence the strongest vessels burst + in the process of freezing.</p> + <p> + The impediments may restrain the accomplishment of the + arrangement of the particles for a time, but the + disposing power will overcome them, if the reduction of + temperature go on; and when they are overcome + <em>suddenly</em>, the crystallization will take place + <em>instantly</em>. Hence the sudden rending of vessels, + trees, mountain rocks, &c., upon the sudden + congelation of water.</p> + <p> + Even when there is no cause to impede crystallization, it + is well known that the <em>preparation</em> to + crystallize, or freeze, may be observed in the liquid; + the particles seeming to be <em>preparing</em> to arrange + themselves; and then, at a given stage of the + preparation, they take their places <em>suddenly</em>, + and thus we have ice.</p> + <p> + This consummation may be retarded, or hastened by + <em>artificial</em> means. Water may be reduced to a + lower temperature by being kept <em>still</em>, than when + <em>agitated</em>. And if it be cooled down to the lowest + possible temperature, <em>without congealing</em>, it may + remain fluid at that temperature for a long time. But if + the vessel be <em>suddenly struck</em>; or the surface of + the water <em>touched with a piece of ice</em>; or <em>a + large piece of cold metal be brought in contact with the + outside of the vessel; the water will instantly + crystallize or freeze in beautiful crystals</em>.</p> + <p> + These facts establish the above theory. Because, 1. there + is no increased reduction of temperature effected, by + striking the vessel, touching the surface of the water + with ice, or the outside of the vessel with cold metal. + 2. There is every reason to conclude these things + <em>commence the motion</em> in the water, which is at + rest, balanced between an inclination to be at rest, and + an inclination to move in arranging the particles; the + motion communicated overcomes this balance in favor of + the disposition to crystallize, and hence the water + freezes instantly, with an expansion of volume.]</p> + </blockquote> + <p id="FNanchor_84"> + It is owing to the <em>expansion</em> of water in freezing, + that rocks and trees are often split during intense frosts. + According to the calculations of the Florentine + academicians, a spherule of water, only one inch in + diameter, expands in freezing with a force superior to the + resistance of 13½ tons weight. Major Williams also + attempted to prevent this expansion; but during the + operation the iron plug which stopped the + orifice of the bomb-shell containing + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span> + + the freezing water, + and which was more than two pounds weight, was projected + several hundred feet with great velocity; and in another + experiment the shell burst. This property of water is taken + advantage of in splitting slate. At Colly Western, the + slate is dug from the quarries in large blocks: these are + placed in an opposite direction to what they had in the + quarry, and the rain is allowed to fall on them: it + penetrates their fissures, and the sharp frost freezes the + water, which, expanding with its usual force, splits the + slate into thin layers.<a + href="#Footnote_84" + class="fnanchor">84</a></p> + <p> + M. Mairan, in a dissertation on ice, attributes the + increase of its bulk chiefly to a different arrangement of + the parts of the water from which it is formed; the icy + skin on the water being composed of filaments, which + according to him, are found to be constantly and regularly + joined at an angle of 60°; and which, by this angular + disposition, occupy a greater volume than if they were + parallel. He found the augmentation of the volume of water + by freezing, in different trials, a 14th, an 18th, a 19th, + and when the water was previously purged of air, only a 22d + part: that ice, after its formation, continues to expand by + cold; for, after water had been frozen to some thickness, + the fluid part being let out by a hole in the bottom of the + vessel, a continuance of the cold made the ice convex; and + a piece of ice, which was at first only a 14th part + specifically lighter than water, on being exposed some days + to the frost, became a 12th part lighter. To this cause he + attributes the bursting of ice on ponds.</p> + <p> + Several philosophers have been very desirous to experience + how far the expansive force of freezing water might be + carried. “An iron gun of an inch thickness,” says M. Haüy, + “filled with water and exactly closed, having been exposed + by Buot to a strong frost, was found to be burst in two + places at the end of twelve hours. The Florentine + philosophers were able, by means of the same cause, to + burst a sphere of very thick copper; and Musschenbroek, + having calculated the effort which would occasion the + rupture, found that it would be capable of raising a weight + of 27,720 pounds.”</p> + <p> + “Colonel E. Williams, of the Royal Artillery, when at + Quebec, in the years 1794 and 1795,” says Dr. O. Gregory, + “made many experiments. He filled all sizes of iron + bomb-shells with water, then plugged the fusee-hole close + up, and exposed them to the strong freezing air of the + winter in that climate; sometimes driving in the iron plugs + as hard as possible with a sledge-hammer: and yet, though + they weighed near three pounds, they were always forced out + by a sudden expansion of the water in the act of freezing, + like a ball impelled by gunpowder, sometimes to the + distance of between 400 and 500 feet: and when the plugs + were screwed in, or furnished with hooks and barbs, by + which to lay hold of the inside of the shell, so that they + could not + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span> + + possibly be forced out; in that case the shell + was always split in two, though its thickness of metal was + about an inch and three quarters. It is further remarkable, + that through the circular crack, round about the shells + where they burst, there stood out a thin film or sheet of + ice, like a fin; and in the cases where the plugs were + projected by freezing water, there suddenly issued from the + fusee-hole a bolt of ice of the same diameter, and stood + over it sometimes to the height of eight inches and a half. + Hence we need not be surprised that excessive frost should + cause the ice to split rocks, and other solid + substances.”<a + href="#Footnote_85" + class="fnanchor">85</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_86"> + It was necessary for the preservation of the world, that + water should in this instance be subjected to a law + different from that of other substances which change from + fluid to solid. The wisdom and goodness of the great <span + class="smcap">Artificer</span> + of the world will + manifest itself in this arrangement, if we consider what + would have been the consequences had water been subject to + the general law, and like other fluids, become specifically + heavier by the loss of its caloric. In winter, when the + atmosphere became reduced to 32°, the water on the surface + of our rivers would have sunk as it froze; another sheet of + water would have frozen immediately, and sunk also; the + ultimate consequence of which would have been, that the + beds of our rivers would have become repositories of + immense masses of ice, which no subsequent summer could + unbind; and the world would shortly have been converted + into a frozen chaos. How admirable the wisdom, how skilful + the contrivance, that by subjecting water to a law contrary + to what is observed by other fluids, as it freezes it + becomes specifically lighter, and, swimming upon the + surface, performs an important service by preserving a vast + body of caloric in the <em>subjacent</em> fluid from the + effects of the surrounding cold, ready to receive its own + accustomed quantity on the first change of the + atmosphere?<a + href="#Footnote_86" + class="fnanchor">86</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_87"> + Owing to the distance of this globe from the sun, and to + the vast mountains of ice at the poles, the atmosphere over + a large portion of the earth is at times reduced to so low + a temperature, that, if it were not for a wise provision of + nature, all vegetable life must be destroyed. Caloric has + always a tendency to equilibrium; therefore, if the + temperature of the air be lowered, the earth cools in + proportion: but when the atmosphere is reduced to 32°, + the water which it held in solution becomes frozen, and + precipitates in the form of snow on the earth, covering it + as with a carpet, and thereby preventing the escape of that + caloric which is necessary for the preservation of those + families of vegetables that depend on it for their support + and maturity. Be the air ever so cold, the ground, thus + covered, is seldom reduced below 32°, but is maintained equably + at that temperature for the purpose above mentioned.<a + href="#Footnote_87" + class="fnanchor">87</a> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span> + + Homer has described a shower of snow, and its extensive effects, + in a fine strain of poetry.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “In Winter’s bleak uncomfortable reign,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + A snowy inundation hides the plain:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Jove stills the winds, and bids the skies to sleep;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Then pours the silent tempest thick and deep:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And first the mountain tops are covered o’er,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Then the green fields, and then the sandy shore;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Bent with the weight the nodding woods are seen,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And one bright waste hides all the works of men:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The circling seas alone, absorbing all,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Drink the dissolving fleeces as they fall”—<span + class="smcap">Pope.</span></p> + </div> + <p id="FNanchor_88"> + Snow is furnished with the power of absorbing and combining + with a large portion of oxygen, which gives it its + fertilizing property. The snow melting and penetrating into + the softened earth communicates to it oxygen, and this + oxygen promotes the germination of seeds. The carbon of the + earth combining with the oxygen, is converted into carbonic + acid, and thereby acquires more solubility; while the water + contributes to excite that activity which had been rendered + dormant in the roots by the cold. It is this property of + carbon which deprives water of the superabundant oxygen + that would render it prejudicial to health, and unfit for + the purposes of life. Thus what would otherwise be + injurious to us is improved by the ground, and gives at the + same time power and activity to the mould. How multiplied + are those means which infinite wisdom and goodness employ + for the preservation of the productions of Nature!<a + href="#Footnote_88" + class="fnanchor">88</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_89"> + Ice at 32° must absorb 140° of caloric before it can become + a fluid; or such a quantity as would raise a body of water + of equal bulk with itself from 32° to 172°. For instance: + “Take any quantity by weight of ice or snow at 32°, and mix + it with an equal weight of water heated exactly to 172°. + The snow instantly melts, and the temperature of the + mixture is still only at <em>thirty-two</em> degrees. Here + the water is cooled 140°, while the temperature of the snow + is not increased at all; so that 140° of caloric have + disappeared. They must have combined with the snow; but + they have only melted it, without increasing its + temperature. Hence it follows irresistibly that ice, when + converted into water, absorbs and combines with 140° of + caloric. Water then, after being cooled down to 32°, cannot + freeze till it has parted with 140° of caloric; and ice, + after being heated to 32°, (which is the exact freezing + point), cannot melt till it has absorbed 140° more of + caloric. This is the cause of the extreme slowness of these + operations. There can be no doubt, then, but water owes its + fluidity to its latent caloric, and that its caloric of + fluidity is 140°”.<a + href="#Footnote_89" + class="fnanchor">89</a> + And all this arrangement in nature, connected with the + operation of these + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span> + + + elements, is immediately under the + control and direction of the infinitely wise and + almighty Creator of the universe. “He sendeth forth his + commandment upon earth: his word runneth very swiftly. + He giveth snow like wool: he scattereth the hoar-frost + like ashes. He casteth forth his ice like morsels: who + can stand before his cold? He sendeth out his word, and + melteth them: he causeth his wind to blow, and the + waters flow.”</p> + <p id="FNanchor_90"> + Drops of rain, falling through a cold region of the + atmosphere, are frozen and converted into hail; and thus + the <em>hail</em> is produced by <em>rain</em>. When it + begins to fall, it is <em>rain</em>; when it is falling, it + is converted into <em>hail</em>; so that it is literally + true, that <em>it rains hail</em>. The further a hail-stone + falls, the larger it generally is; because, in its descent, + meeting with innumerable particles of water, they become + attached to it, are also frozen, and thus its bulk is + continually increasing till it reaches the earth.<a + href="#Footnote_90" + class="fnanchor">90</a> + A storm of hail fell near + Liverpool, in Lancashire, in the year 1795, which + greatly damaged the vegetation, broke windows, &c., + &c. Many of the stones measured five inches in + circumference. Dr. Halley mentions a similar storm of + hail in Lancashire, Cheshire, &c., April 29, 1697, + that for sixty miles in length, and two miles in + breadth, did immense damage, by splitting trees, killing + fowls and all small animals, knocking down men and + horses, &c., &c. Mezeray, in his History of + France, says, that in Italy, in 1510, there was for some + time a horrible darkness, thicker than that of night; + after which the clouds broke into thunder and lightning, + and there fell a shower of hail-stones which destroyed + all the beasts, birds, and even fish of the country. It + was attended with a strong smell of sulphur, and the + stones were of a blueish color, some of them weighing + one hundred pounds weight. + <a id="FNanchor_91"></a> + The Almighty says to + Job—“Hast thou seen the treasures of the hail, which I + have reserved against the time of trouble, against the + day of battle and war.” While God has such artillery at + his command, how soon may he desolate a country, or a world!<a + href="#Footnote_91" + class="fnanchor">91</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_92"> + The aqueous fluid is in continual circulation. The constant + <em>round</em> which it travels, says Dr. Paley, and by + which, (without suffering either adulteration or waste,) it + is continually offering itself to the wants of the + habitable globe, is much to be admired. From the sea are + exhaled, by the heat of the sun, into the air, those vapors + which are there condensed into clouds: these clouds are + dissolved into rain and dew, or into snow and hail, which + are but rain congealed, by the coldness of the air, and + descend in showers, which, penetrating into the crevices of + the hills, supply the springs: which springs flow + in little streams into the valleys; + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span> + + and there uniting, + become rivers, which rivers, in return, feed the ocean. So + there is an incessant circulation of the same fluid; and + not one drop probably more or less now than there was at + the creation. A particle of water takes its departure from + the surface of the sea, in order to discharge certain + important offices to the earth: and, having executed the + service which was assigned to it, returns to the bosom + which it left.<a + href="#Footnote_92" + class="fnanchor">92</a> + Thus, as one of the greatest + of naturalists says, “All the rivers run into the sea; + yet the sea is not full: unto the place from whence the + rivers come, thither they return again.”</p> + <p id="FNanchor_93"> + Water, when taken up by the atmosphere, is not in an + aqueous state, but is converted into vapor by the + efficiency of heat, and then combines with more than five + times the quantity of caloric than is required to bring + ice-cold water to a boiling heat, and occupies a space 800 + times greater than it does when in the form of water. A + large portion of the matter of heat combining chemically + with water, renders it specifically <em>lighter</em>; which + is the cause of its rising and mixing with the atmosphere. + The waters on the face of the earth would be dissipated in + vapor by a small degree of heat, if we had no atmosphere. + Under the pressure of the atmosphere water boils at 212°, + but in vacuo it boils when heated only to 67°. On the + contrary, if additional pressure be given to water by a + Papin’s digester, it may be heated to 400°, without + producing ebullition. However long we boil a fluid, in an + open vessel, we cannot make it in the smallest degree + hotter than the boiling point.<a + href="#Footnote_93" + class="fnanchor">93</a> + When arrived at this point, + the vapor absorbs the heat, and carries it off as fast + as it is generated. When water is received into the + atmosphere, if the air be warm, it becomes so far + changed by its union with the matter of heat as to be + perfectly invisible. In this state it occupies a space + 1,400 times greater than its ordinary liquid state.</p> + <p> + After vapor has remained some time in the atmosphere, it + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span> + + becomes in a measure condensed; and the particles of water + of which it is composed unite, and form hollow vesicles, + which accumulate together and produce clouds. How this is + effected, those who have attentively considered the subject + are not agreed. Dr. Thomson, after well investigating the + matter, concludes, from all the facts, that “the formation + of clouds and rain cannot be accounted for by a single + principle with which we are acquainted.” It is, however, + says Mr. Parkes, probable that <em>electricity</em> alone + is the primary cause. Saussure conjectures that it is the + electrical fluid which surrounds these vesicles, and + prevents them from dissolving in the air. And the idea of + the formation of clouds by the agency of electricity was + mentioned by Volta, and also by Dr. Franklin.</p> + <blockquote> + <p> + [It is allowed by all, that clouds are formed by the + aqueous vapors which are held suspended, or in solution, + by the atmosphere. It is not a settled question, whether + the air holds these vapors in solution, or merely + suspended; and thus, keeping the particles asunder, + prevents their condensation.</p> + <p> + This aqueous vapor is <em>invisible</em> when perfectly + in union with the air. When it begins to separate from + the air, it becomes visible by condensation, in the form + of <em>clouds</em>, <em>mists</em>, and <em>fogs</em>. + When it is perfectly separated and sufficiently condensed + it becomes <em>rain</em>, and when the temperature is + sufficiently low to freeze the condensed drops, they + become <em>snow</em>, or <em>hail</em>.</p> + <p> + The above process is quite intelligible, but the + <em>agent</em> of this condensation is, perhaps, + inexplicable. It is impossible to solve all the phenomena + of the formation of clouds, by supposing the vapors + condensed by a reduction of temperature, produced by the + warmer volumes of clouds rising into the regions of + colder ones. For we know the natural tendency of the + warmer strata of air, from the neighborhood of the earth, + is to rise, with its watery particles, to colder regions. + Hence there would be a constant condensation, which would + seem to require a constant deposition of rain, or mist; + or, at least, a constant accumulation of clouds.</p> + <p> + Again: On this theory, the nights would be cloudy and + rainy: as the vapors raised during the day would be + condensed by the superior coldness of the night + succeeding. Moreover, it is well known that great rains + fall in very warm weather, and when a <em>rise</em> of + temperature is observed.</p> + <p> + These, and other considerations, have induced many + persons to have recourse to <em>electricity</em> to solve + this difficult question, and various observations seem to + countenance the idea that it may be the remote agent of + the formation of clouds, by producing a sudden + rarefaction of the air, which would, of course, produce a + sudden reduction of temperature; the consequence of which + would be a rapid condensation of the watery particles in + combination with the air. This condensation would form + clouds, and if sufficiently rapid and extensive, a fall + of rain would ensue.</p> + <p> + This supposition is much strengthened by a fact of common + observation, viz: <em>when + clouds are impending over us, but no rain + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span> + + falling, a sudden shower comes down instantly upon a flash + of lightning.</em> In this case it is so obvious that the + lightning had an immediate agency, that none can doubt, + who ever observed the phenomenon.</p> + <p> + The <em>electrified</em> state of <em>clouds</em>, + <em>fogs</em>, and <em>mists</em>, is considered strong + proof in favor of this theory. Clouds are almost always + highly charged with electricity, and sometimes so highly + charged as to become <em>luminous</em>, and very + destructive.</p> + <p> + On the 11th of August, 1772, about midnight, a bright + cloud was observed covering a mountain in the district of + Cheribon, in the island of Java, at the same time several + reports were heard like those of a gun. The people who + dwelt upon the upper parts of the mountain not being able + to fly fast enough, a great part of the cloud, almost + three leagues in circumference, detached itself under + them, and was seen at a distance rising and falling like + the waves of the sea, and emitting globes of fire so + luminous, that the night became as clear as day. The + effects of it were astonishing; every thing was destroyed + for seven leagues round; the houses were demolished; + plantations were buried in the earth, and 2,140 people + lost their lives. <cite>Ency. Brit. Article, <span + class="smcap">Clouds.</span></cite></p> + <p> + In another case, October 29th, 1757, in the island of + Malta, a little after midnight, there was seen to the + South west of the city Melita, a great black cloud, + which, as it approached, changed its color, till at last + it became like a flame of fire mixed with smoke. A + dreadful noise was heard on its approach, which alarmed + the whole city. It passed over the port, and came first + on an English ship, which in an instant was torn to + pieces, and nothing left but the hulk; part of the masts, + sails, and cordage were carried to a considerable + distance along with the cloud. The small craft were sunk + instantly. It demolished a part of the city, and passed + over to Sicily, but did no injury there as it was + previously exhausted. Several hundred were killed. + <cite>Ency. Brit. Article, <span + class="smcap">Cloud.</span></cite>]</p> + </blockquote> + <p> + The principle of evaporation is the primary cause of all + rain, mist, dew, &c. The ocean loses many millions of + gallons of water hourly by evaporation. The Mediterranean + alone is said to lose more by it, than it receives from the + Nile, the Tiber, the Rhone, the Po, and all the other + rivers that fall into it. When Dr. Halley made his + celestial observations upon the tops of the mountains at + St. Helena, he found that the quantity of vapor which fell + there (even when the sky was clear) was so great, that his + observations were thereby much impeded: his glasses were so + covered with water through the condensation of the vapors, + that he was obliged to wipe them every ten minutes. In + order to determine, with some degree of accuracy, how much + water would be raised in vapor in any space of time, he + took a vessel of water salted to the same degree with that + of sea-water, in which he placed a thermometer, and by + means of a pan of coals brought the water to the same + degree of heat as would be produced by the sun in summer: he + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span> + + then affixed the vessel of water with the thermometer in + it, to one end of a pair of scales, and exactly + counterpoised it with weights on the other. Then, at the + end of two hours, he found by the alteration in the weight + of the vessel, that a sixtieth part of an inch in the depth + of the water was gone off in vapor; and therefore, in + twelve hours, one-tenth of an inch would have gone off. + From this experiment the Doctor calculates (in as accurate + a manner as the subject will admit of) the quantity of + water raised by evaporation from the Mediterranean Sea, to + be at least five thousand two hundred and eighty millions + of tons of water in a day; and from the river Thames twenty + millions three hundred thousand tons per day, on the + average.</p> + <p> + This water is conveyed by the winds to every part of the + continents: these it fertilizes in the form of rain, and + afterwards supplies the rivers, which flow again into the + sea. In our climate, evaporation is found to be about four + times as much from the vernal to the autumnal equinox, as + from the autumnal to the vernal. Heat facilitates all + solutions; and the greater the difference between the + temperature of the air and the evaporating surface, the + greater will be the evaporation. Bishop Watson found that, + even when there had been no rain for a considerable time, + and the earth had been dried by the parching heat of + summer, an acre of ground dispersed into the air above + 1,600 gallons of water in the space of twelve hours of a + summer’s day. A little reflection would convince any one of + the importance of the principle of evaporation. Innumerable + instances of its use might be adduced; suffice to add, that + without it neither grass nor corn could be sufficiently + void of moisture to lay up for use. Our clothes when washed + could not be dried; neither could a variety of the most + common operations, which conduce much to our comfort and + convenience, be performed without it.</p> + <p> + It is evident that water exists in the atmosphere in + abundance, even in the driest seasons, and under the + clearest sky. By the experiments of Saussure, it appears, + that a cubic foot of atmospheric air will hold eleven + grains of water in solution. From this property of the air + we derive many advantages. It has a tendency to preserve + every thing on the face of the earth in a proper degree of + moisture. It appears, from the experiments of some + aëronauts, that the air is much drier in the higher regions + than it is near the surface of the earth.</p> + <p> + When two opposite currents of air meet, of different + temperatures, the vapors are sometimes condensed thereby, + and rain ensues. It may be remarked, that if the + temperature of our atmosphere had been 212, or upwards, + rain could never have fallen on the earth; for the water + taken up by evaporation would have been converted into a + <em>permanently</em> elastic fluid. Such is the necessity + of rain, that it <em>alone</em> not only + affords a proper degree of moisture to the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span> + + vegetable + creation, but is of service in bringing the soils into a + fit state to perform their office. Dry earth of itself is + ineffective; but when <em>moistened</em> it has the + property of decomposing atmospheric air, and of conveying + its oxygen to the roots of those plants which vegetate + within it. We are indebted to Humboldt for the knowledge of + this fact. It is impossible ever to contemplate the various + ways in which the different operations of nature are made + to correct and balance each other, without being struck + with the infinite comprehension of the Divine Mind, which + could thus foresee the tendency of every law which it was + about to establish. How many cases are there in which the + slightest oversight would have produced the destruction of + the world!</p> + <p> + The effects of vapor have furnished a new moving force to + mechanics, says Haüy, which it required no ordinary genius + to have created, and to have measured its energy. This + science, during a long time, had only employed water as a + moving force, by availing itself of its natural course, or + by judiciously managing its fall, so as to subject it to + the operation of machines which is regulated by an + impulsion continually renewed. The experiments made upon + the force of water reduced to vapor, gave birth to the idea + of applying that vapor so much the more advantageously to + the same purpose, because independently of its great + energy, it may be transported wherever it is called for by + the interests of commerce and industry.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_94"> + The execution of steam-engines has had, like that of all + other machines, its different epochs, to which successively + corresponded new degrees of perfection. To diminish, as far + as possible, the quantity of vaporisation requisite for the + effect in contemplation, and to make a moderate use of the + combustible; to combine with this chief economy that of + substance and of workmanship, by contracting the dimensions + of the pieces without diminishing their utility; to prevent + explosions, by the wisest precautions adopted in the + management of an agent whose power becomes destructive when + it is not limited: these are in general the objects which + have fixed the attention of engineers, and have excited + among them a laudable kind of rivalship.<a + href="#Footnote_94" + class="fnanchor">94</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_95"> + In no invention, either for ingenuity or utility, has + modern genius been more conspicuous than in the invention + of the steam-engine. The amazing power wielded by man, by + this means, is just matter of astonishment and wonder. In + no part of the kingdom have these stupendous machines been + brought to greater perfection, either in size or principle, + than in the mining counties of Cornwall and Devon. The + largest ever built has lately been + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span> + + erected at Chacewater + mine, in the county of Cornwall, by Mr. S. Moyle, of that + place, and is for size and efficiency, as well as neatness, + without a parallel. This stupendous machine is equal to + 1,010 horses; it works day and night in pumping dry a mine + of 100 fathoms deep, and of a large extent: and the + quantity of water pumped out in one minute, and the column + consequently lifted, is greater than any other machine of + the kind ever erected. The whole reflects the greatest + credit on the abilities of the engineer, and forms an + interesting object to all those who are curious in + mechanism, or who may visit the mines of Cornwall.<a + href="#Footnote_95" + class="fnanchor">95</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_96"> + A very ingenious naturalist suggests the idea, that + subterraneous fire, and steam generated from it, are the + true and real causes of earthquakes. And he thinks the + elasticity of steam and its expansive force, are every way + capable of producing the stupendous effects attributed to + earthquakes, when it is considered that this expansive + force of steam is to that of gunpowder as 140 to 5. He also + apprehends that subterraneous fire must, at different + times, have existed universally in the bowels of the earth, + and that in union with water, or by the expansive power of + steam, it has produced the immense continents, as well as + the mountains of our globe.<a + href="#Footnote_96" + class="fnanchor">96</a> + There are, in the Memoirs of + the Paris Academy of Sciences for the year 1707, some + observations communicated by Vauban, from which it + results that 140 pounds of water converted into vapor, + would produce an explosion capable of blowing up a mass + of 77,000 pounds, while 140 pounds of powder could only + produce a similar effect upon a mass of 30,000.</p> + <p> + Water would be the purest of all drinks, says Sturm, were + it as absolutely simple body; but on the other hand, its + medicinal virtue would be reduced to nothing. If we + consider the manner in which water nourishes plants, it is + easy to presume that it communicates the nutritious juices + which it contains, to men and animals in the same way. + Water is not very nutritive by itself, but being very + subtile, it dissolves the nutritious parts of aliments, is + a vehicle for them, and carries them along into the + minutest vessels. It is consequently the most wholesome + drink; and is essentially necessary to men and animals; and + its salutary effects are felt, where all other liquids are + found hurtful to health. “The water of Egypt,” says the + Abbé Mascrier, “is so delicious, that one would not wish + the heat to be less, or to be delivered from the sensation + of thirst. The Turks find it so exquisite, that they excite + themselves to drink of it by eating <em>salt</em>. It is a + common saying among them, that if Mahomed had drank of it, + he would have besought God that he might never die, in + order to have had this continual gratification. When the + Egyptians undertake the pilgrimage of Mecca, or go out + of their country on any other account, they speak + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span> + + of nothing but the pleasure they shall have, at their return, + in drinking of the waters of the Nile. There is no + gratification to be compared to this: it surpasses, in + their esteem, that of seeing their relations and families. + All those who have tasted of this water, allow that they + never met with the like in any other place. When a person + drinks of it for the first time, he can scarcely be + persuaded that it is not a water prepared by art: for it + has something in it inexpressibly agreeable and pleasing to + the taste; and it should have the same rank among + <em>waters</em>, that <em>champaigne</em> has among + <em>wines</em>. But its most valuable quality is, that it + is exceedingly salutary. It never incommodes, let it be + drank in what quantity it may: this is so true, that it is + no uncommon thing to see some persons drink three buckets + full of it in a day, without the least inconvenience! When + I pass such encomiums on the water of Egypt, it is right to + observe, that I speak only of that of the <em>Nile</em>, + which indeed is the only water, drinkable, for their + <em>well-water</em> is detestable and unwholesome. + <em>Fountains</em> are so rare, that they are a kind of + prodigy in that country; and as to <em>rain-water</em>, + that is out of the question, as scarcely any falls in + Egypt.”</p> + <hr class="tb" /> + <p> + Having attended to the situation and properties of water in + the world of nature, we shall now show that by this element + is represented the blessings of Divine grace in the moral + or spiritual world. God is the <em>fountain of living + waters</em>, ever-living, all-sufficient, and incessantly + flowing; like waters, arising and issuing from a spring, + which continue during the whole year: not like waters that + proceed only from some excess of rain, such as land-floods, + or those flowing down from hills, which in the winter + season run in torrents, but in the heat of summer are dried + up and fail. Such uncertain waters are well expressed by + Job—“My brethren have dealt deceitfully as a brook, and as + the stream of brooks they pass away; which are blackish by + reason of the ice, and wherein the snow is hid: what time + they wax warm they vanish: when it is hot they are consumed + out of their place. The paths of their way are turned + aside; they go to nothing, and perish. The troops of Tema + looked, the companies of Sheba waited for them. They are + confounded because they had hoped; they came thither, and + were ashamed.” He alludes to those merchants who travelled + in companies or caravans, with beasts of burden, through + the deserts of Arabia; who, having in the winter observed + and marked out in certain places on the road great pools of + water, or copious streams locked up in the valleys by + severe frosts; so that, when travelling the same road in + summer, they expected finding water there still to refresh + themselves and their thirsty camels; but, to their great + grief and consternation, instead of pools or brooks of water, + found heaps of dry sand, occasioned by + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span> + + intense heat. But + God is a fountain which sends forth streams of blessings in + all seasons, and never fails. The <em>living waters</em> + which proceed from him as their fountain, are not stagnant, + or dead, but running, like those that issue from springs + which are never dry, and possess the most refreshing and + invigorating properties.</p> + <p> + The element of water is used for washing and purifying the + body; so the operation of Divine grace on the soul removes + its moral defilement. All the purifications by water under + the law, were outward expressions of this inward cleansing. + Thus those important words by the prophet Ezekiel, “I will + sprinkle clean water upon you, and ye shall be clean; from + all your filthiness, and from all your idols, will I + cleanse you: a new heart also will I give you, and a new + spirit will I put within you.” Accordingly the Psalmist + says, “Thou shalt wash me, and I shall be whiter than + snow.” He also prays, “Create in me a clean heart, oh God; + and renew a right spirit within me.” As purity is necessary + for enjoying communion with God in all his instituted + ordinances, he says, “I will wash mine hands in innocency: + so will I compass thine altar, oh Lord.” Similar language + is used in the New Testament. Our Lord said to Peter, “If I + wash thee not, thou hast no part in me.” The apostle Paul, + after mentioning several immoral characters to the + Christians at Corinth, says, “And such were some of you: + but ye are washed, but ye are sanctified, but ye are + justified in the name of the Lord Jesus, and by the Spirit + of our God.”</p> + <p> + Our Lord gave himself for us, not only that he might redeem + us from all iniquity, but also that he might purify us unto + himself a peculiar people. This cleansing, washing, and + purifying the soul from sin, is, in the Holy Scripture, + attributed to the virtual efficacy of his blood. “The blood + of Jesus Christ his Son cleanseth us from all sin.” “Unto + him that loved us, and washed us from our sins in his own + blood.” The primary effect of his blood is the expiation of + sin; and, as a consequence thereof, the remission of it. + “This is my blood which is shed for the remission of sins.” + “In whom we have redemption through his blood, the + forgiveness of sins.” Now by the blood of Christ in these + places we are to understand his sufferings, which were + completed in the shedding of his blood on the cross.</p> + + <hr id="CHAPTER_IV_2" class="tb" /> + +<p class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</p> + + <h3> + <em>Section II.</em>—<span + class="smcap">The Earth.</span></h3> + <p class="smaller hang1"> + Surface of the Earth — Mountains — Fertility of + Plants — Dissemination of Seeds — Preservation of + Plants — Adaptation to different Climates — Number of + vegetables — Succession of vegetables — Remarkable + Trees — Sensitive Plants — Kitchen vegetables — Garden + flowers — Religious Improvement.</p> + <p> + The dry land and the seas constitute what is called the + <em>terraqueous globe</em>; what proportion the superficies + of the sea bears to that of the land, cannot be easily + ascertained; but, as one observes, the earth and the water + exist in a most judicious proportion to each other. + According to the most exact calculations, the surface of + the earth is 199,512,595 square miles; and that of the sea + is to the land as three to one. There is no certain + measurement of the proportion of land and water which the + parts within the polar circles contain. The superficies of + the sea appearing so large, may lead some persons to + suppose, that the proportions between the land and water + are not wisely adjusted; and that had there been less sea + and more dry land, this would have been more adapted to the + accommodation and service of mankind. As such a supposition + as this tends to arraign the wisdom of God, so it proceeds + from ignorance of natural philosophy.<a + id="FNanchor_97"></a> + For, as Dr. Keill + asserts, “if there were but half the sea that now is, there + would be also only half the quantity of vapors; and, + consequently, we could have no more than half so many + rivers as there now are, to supply not only all the dry + land we have at present, but half as much more; for the + quantity of vapors which are raised, bears a proportion to + the surface whence they are raised, as well as the heat + which raised them. The wise Creator so prudently ordered + it, that the sea should be large enough to supply vapors + sufficient for all the land, which it would not do if it + were less than it now is.”<a + href="#Footnote_97" + class="fnanchor">97</a> + The Scriptures speak of God as + making all things in number, weight, and measure; as + proceeding in his works with the greatest exactness. “He + hath measured the waters in the hollow of his hand, and + meted out heaven with a span, and comprehended the dust + of the earth in a measure, and weighed the mountains in + scales, and the hills in a balance.” Those who wish to + see this further illustrated, would do well to consult + Ray’s “Wisdom of God manifested in the works of the + Creation,” and his “Physico-theological Discourses.”</p> + <p> + The stately mountains, that lift their lofty heads above + the clouds, serve for very beneficial purposes. Does the + bold atheist call them blemishes, and irregularities in the + formation of the earth? Surely he never considered how + necessary they are, for arresting the clouds in their + flight, and conveying their waters through imperceptible + channels, till they meet in some common receptacle, whence they + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span> + + burst out in springs to + fertilize the lower grounds, and afford refreshing streams + for man and beast. “This,” says Mr. Halley, “seems to be + the design of the hills, that their ridges, being placed + through the midst of the continents, might serve as it were + for alembics, to distil fresh water for the use of man and + beast; and that their heights might give a descent to those + streams to run gently, like so many veins of the microcosm, + to be more beneficial to the creation.” They are, says Mr. + Ray, “for the generation and maintenance of rivers and + fountains, which—on the hypothesis that all proceed from + rain water—could not subsist without them, or but rarely. + So we should have only torrents, which would fail in + summer, or in any dry season, and nothing to trust to, but + stagnating water, reserved in pools and cisterns. The great + inconvenience resulting from this I need not take pains to + show. I say that fountains and rivers would be but rare, + were there no mountains. For the whole dry land being but + one continued mountain, and ascending all along from the + sea to the mid-land, as is undeniably proved by the descent + of rivers even in plain countries; the water sinking into + the earth, may run under ground, and, according as the vein + leads it, break out in the side of this mountain, though + the place, as to outward appearance, be a plain. There are + huge ridges and extended chains of mountains directed for + the most part to run east and west; by which means they + give admittance and passage to the vapors, brought by the + winds from the Atlantic and Pacific oceans; but stop and + inhibit their excursions to the north and south, either + condensing them on their sides into water, by a kind of + external distillation; or by straitening and constipating + them, compelling them to gather into drops, or descend down + in the rain.”</p> + <p> + After the waters had subsided, the land appeared, dry and + fit for vegetation. “And God said, Let the earth bring + forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit-tree + yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself upon + the earth: and it was so. And the earth brought forth + grass, and herb yielding seed after his kind, and the tree + yielding fruit, whose seed was in itself, after his kind.” + Here we rise to organized and vegetative bodies. At the + Divine command, herbs, plants, trees, and all the almost + endless varieties of the vegetable world, bearing their + several seeds and fruits, according to their different + kinds, immediately began to appear. Thus before God formed + any living creature to dwell upon the earth, he provided + abundantly for its sustenance. “Now as God delights to + manifest himself in the little as well as the great,” says + a celebrated commentator, “he has shown his consummate + wisdom in every part of the vegetable creation. Who can + account for, or comprehend, the structure of a single tree + or plant? The roots, the stem, the woody fibres, the bark, + the rind, the air-vessel s, the sap-vessels, the leaves, + the flowers, and the fruits, are so many + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span> + + mysteries. All the skill, wisdom, and power of men and angels, + could not produce a single grain of wheat!”</p> + <p id="FNanchor_98"> + Dr. Hales, in his Statistical Essays, has observed, that + the substances of vegetables appear, by a chemical + analysis, to be composed of sulphur, volatile salt, water, + and earth, which are all endued with mutually attracting + powers; and also of a large portion of air, which has a + wonderful power of strongly attracting in a fixed state, or + of repelling in an elastic state, with a power which is + superior to great compressive forces.<a + href="#Footnote_98" + class="fnanchor">98</a> + By the infinite combinations, + action, and reaction of these principles, all the + operations in animal and vegetable bodies are effected. + These active aërial principles are very serviceable in + carrying on the work of vegetation to its perfection and + maturity; not only in helping, by their elasticity, to + distend each ductile part, but, also, by enlivening and + invigorating their sap, where, mixing with the other + mutually attracting principles, they are, by gentle heat + and motion, set at liberty to assimilate into the + nourishment of the respective parts. The sum of the + attracting powers of these mutually acting and re-acting + principles, is, while in this nutritive state, superior + to their repelling power; by which the work of nutrition + is gradually advanced by the nearer and nearer union of + these principles from a less to a greater degree of + consistency, till they are advanced to that viscid, + ductile state, whence the several parts of vegetables + are formed; and are, at length, firmly compacted into + hard substances, by the flying off of the watery + diluting vehicle: but when they are again disunited by + the watery particles, their repelling power is thereby + become superior to their attracting power, and the union + of the parts of vegetables is so thoroughly dissolved, + that putrefaction commences.</p> + <p> + God has endued the vegetable creation with the astonishing + power of multiplying itself by seeds, slips, roots. &c. + ad infinitum: it contains in itself all the rudiments of + the future plants through their endless generations. The + celebrated Linnæus, in an “oration concerning the + augmentation of the habitable earth,” which proceeds on the + supposition of the existence of a sexual system in the + vegetable world, shows how from one plant of each species + the immense number of individuals now existing might arise. + He gives some instances of the surprising fertility of + certain plants; as, of the elecampane, one plant of which + produced 3,000 seeds; of spelt, 2,000; of the sun-flower, + 4,000; of the poppy, 3,200; of tobacco, 40,320: and one + grain of Turkey-corn produces 2,000 others! But supposing + any annual plant producing yearly only two seeds, even + of these, after 20 years, there would be 1,048,576 + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span> + + individuals. For they would increase yearly in a double + proportion, <em>viz.</em> 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, &c. The seed + of the <em>elm</em>, as a learned author observes, affords + a remarkable instance of the prolific power with which the + vegetable creation is endued, to multiply its different + species. “This tree produces one thousand five hundred and + eighty-four millions of seeds; and each of these seeds has + the power of producing the same number. How astonishing is + this produce! At first one seed is deposited in the earth; + from this one a tree springs, which in the course of its + vegetative life produces one thousand five hundred and + eighty-four millions of seeds. This is the first + generation. The second generation will amount to two + trillions, five hundred and ten thousand and fifty-six + billions. The third generation will amount to fourteen + thousand six hundred and fifty-eight quadrillions, seven + hundred and twenty-seven thousand and forty trillions! And + the fourth generation from these would amount to fifty one + sextillions, four hundred and eighty-one thousand three + hundred and eighty-one quintillions, one hundred and + twenty-three thousand one hundred and thirty-six + quadrillions! Sums too immense for the human mind to + conceive; and when we allow the most confined space in + which a tree can grow, it appears that the seeds of the + third generation from one elm would be many myriads of + times more than sufficient to stock the whole superficies + of all the planets in the solar system!”</p> + <p> + While many plants and trees may be propagated by branches, + buds, suckers, and leaves fixed in the ground; so + concerning the dissemination of seeds after they come to + maturity, the Author of nature has wisely provided in + various ways; this being absolutely necessary, since + without it no crop could follow. The stalks and stems favor + this purpose; for these raise the fruit above the ground, + so that the winds, shaking them to and fro, widely disperse + the ripe seeds. The pericarpium, a pellicle or thin + membrane encompassing the fruit or grain of a plant, is + generally shut at the top, that the seeds may not fall + before they are shaken out by stormy winds. Wings are given + to many seeds, by the help of which they fly far from the + mother plant, and frequently spread over a large tract of + country. These wings consist either of down, as in most of + the composite-flowered plants; or of a membrane, as in + birch, alder, ash, &c. Several kinds of fruits are + endued with a remarkable elasticity, by the force of which + the ripe pericarpies throw the seeds to a great distance; + as wood-sorrel, spurge, phyllanthus, and dittany. Other + seeds or pericarpies are rough, or provided with hooks, as + hounds-tongue, agrimony, &c; so that they are apt to + stick to animals which pass by them, and by this means are + carried to their holes, where they are both sown and manured. + Berries, as well as other pericarpies, are by + nature allotted for aliment to animals; but, with this + condition, that while they eat the pulp, they shall + sow the seeds: for when they feed on + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span> + + it, they either disperse them at the same time; or, if they + swallow them, they are returned unhurt. The mistletoe always + grows on other trees, because the thrush eating its seeds, + casts them forth with its dung. The cross-bill living on + fircones, and the haw-finch feeding on pinecones, sow many + of their seeds.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_99"> + The structure of plants contributes essentially both to + their own preservation, and that of others. But the wisdom + of the Creator appears very remarkable in the manner of the + growth of trees. For as their roots descend deeper than + those of other plants, provision is thereby made that they + shall not rob them too much of nourishment;<a + href="#Footnote_99" + class="fnanchor">99</a> + and what is still more, a + stem, not above a span in diameter, often shoots its + branches very high; these bear perhaps many thousand + buds, each of which is a plant, with its leaves, + flowers, and stipulæ. Now if all these grew on the + plain, they would take up a thousand times as much space + as trees do; and, in this case, there would scarcely be + room in all the earth for so many plants as at present + trees alone afford. Besides, plants that shoot up in + this way are more easily preserved from cattle by a + natural defence: their leaves also, falling in autumn, + cover the plants growing about them against the rigor of + the winter; and, in the summer, they afford a pleasing + shade, not only to animals, but to plants, against the + intense heat of the sun. We may add, that trees, like + all other vegetables, imbibe water from the earth: which + does not circulate again to the root, but being + dispersed like small rain, by the transpiration of the + leaves, moistens the plants that grow around. Many + plants and shrubs are armed with thorns, as the + buckthorn, sloe, carduus, cotton-thistle, &c: these + serve to keep off animals, which otherwise would destroy + their fruit. At the same time, they cover many other + plants, especially of the annual kind, under their + branches. Nay it has frequently been observed on commons + where furze grows, that wherever a bush was left + untouched for some years by the inhabitants a tree has + sprung up, being secured by the prickles of that shrub + from the bite of cattle. So that while adjacent grounds + are robbed of plants by voracious animals, some + may be preserved to ripen flowers and + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span> + + fruit, and stock + the surrounding parts with seeds which otherwise would + be quite extirpated. All herbs cover the ground with + their leaves, and by their shade hinder it from being + totally deprived of that moisture which is necessary to + their nourishment. Mosses, which adorn the most barren + places, do, at the same time, preserve lesser plants + when they begin to shoot, from cold and drought; as is + evident in gardens, where plants are preserved in the + same way. They also hinder the fermenting earth from + forcing the roots of plants upwards in the spring; like + what happens annually to trunks of trees, and other + things put into the ground. Hence very few mosses grow + in warm climates, the same necessity not existing in + those places.</p> + <p> + The great Author of all things intended that the whole + earth should be covered with plants, and that no place + should be void or barren. But since all countries have not + the same changes of seasons, and every soil is not equally + adapted to every plant; therefore, that no place should be + without some, he gave to each of them such a nature as + might be chiefly accommodated to their own climate: so that + some of them can bear intense cold, others an equal degree + of heat; some delight in dry ground, others in moist, + &c. Hence plants grow where the seasons of the year and + the soil are friendly to their constitution. Grasses, the + most common of all plants, can bear almost any temperature + of air: in this the good providence of the Creator + particularly appears; for all over the globe they are + necessary for the nourishment of cattle. The same is + observed in relation to our most common grains. Thus + neither the scorching sun, nor the pinching cold, hinders + any country from having vegetables. Nor is there any soil + which does not bring forth many kinds of plants. Deserts + and sandy places are adorned with trees and plants.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_100"> + If we connect the vast fecundity of vegetables with their + number, how bountiful will the great Author of nature + appear! Solomon had a comprehensive knowledge of the + different species of plants, for he “spake of trees, from + the cedar-tree that is in Lebanon even unto the hyssop that + springeth out of the wall;” but his writings on this + subject, not being quoted by any ancient author, nor the + least fragment remaining, are entirely lost. Theophrastus, + a Greek philosopher, who succeeded Aristotle in his school + at Athens, where his name became so celebrated that he was + attended by two thousand pupils, wrote a work entitled “The + History of Plants,” in which above 500 different plants are + described. Dioscorides, a Grecian by birth, but under the + Roman empire, a physician and botanist in the time of Nero, + being near 300 years posterior to Theophrastus, describes + about 600 plants. Pliny the elder,<a + href="#Footnote_100" + class="fnanchor">100</a> + in his voluminous work entitled “The History of the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span> + + World,” gives descriptions + of above 1,000 different species of plants. Hieronymus + Bock, or Bouc, a German, generally known by the name of + <em>Tragus</em>, in 1532, published a History of Plants, + in which he describes 800 species.</p> + <p> + From later botanical researches, we learn, that the + bountiful Creator has enriched the earth with about 20,000 + different species of vegetables. The following statement of + the progress of botanical knowledge has recently been given + to the public. Messrs. Humboldt and Boupland, the + celebrated travellers, have collected in their five years’ + travels through South America, 3,800 species of plants, of + which upwards of 3,000 were new, and absolutely unknown + before to the botanists of Europe. We are at present + acquainted altogether with 44,000 species of plants; while + the whole number mentioned by the Greeks, Romans, and + Arabians, does not exceed 1,400. It is worth remarking, + that the vegetable productions of the new world seem to + have been in an inverse ratio, both in point of number and + luxuriance, to those of the animal kingdom. In North + America, for instance, the number of lofty trees is far + greater than in Europe. In the former country, there are + found 137 species of trees, whose trunks exceed the height + of 30 feet; while in Europe there are scarcely 45 species. + But it is singular there are no firs to be found on any + part of the mountains of South America, between the + tropics, though they are very abundant in North America. + The reason why Magnolias, and other equinoxial plants, + appear so far north in America, is, that as far as lat. 48 + deg. the summers are 9 degrees (of Fahrenheit) hotter than + in the corresponding European latitudes. The winters, + however, are more than proportionably colder. At + Philadelphia the summer is as hot as at Rome; while the + winter corresponds with that of Vienna. At Quebec, the + summer is warmer than at Paris; the winter colder than at + St. Petersburgh. Beyond Lake Superior, and at Hudson’s Bay, + it is said that the earth is perpetually frozen at the + depth of three feet from the surface, which prevents the + inhabitants from digging wells. The same thing happens in + Siberia, on the banks of the Lena; while in South America + there are cities at a greater height than the highest + summit of the Pyrenees, and houses more elevated than the + Peak of Teneriffe, the region, in Europe, of perpetual + congelation. To this we may add, that Linnæus, the + celebrated botanist, divided all plants into classes, the + classes into orders, the orders into genera, and the genera + into species: and the species, we are told, amount perhaps + to 40,000, or 50,000, or more!</p> + <p> + The fertility of the earth has been continued from the + creation, through every successive period, to the present + time. Plants spring up, grow, flourish, ripen their fruit, + wither, and at last, having finished their course, die, and + return to the dust again, from whence they first took their + rise. Thus black mould, which covers the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span> + + earth, is + generally owing to dead vegetables. For all roots descend + into the sand by their branches, and after a plant has lost + its stem, the root remains; but this too rots at last, and + changes into mould. Thus this kind of earth is mixed with + sand, by the arrangement of nature, nearly in the same way + as dung thrown on fields is wrought into the earth by the + industry of the husbandman. But the earth offers again to + plants from its bosom what it has thus received. For when + seeds are committed to the earth, they draw to themselves, + accommodate to their nature, and turn into plants, the more + subtile parts of this mould by the co-operation of the sun, + air, and rain; so that the tallest tree is, properly + speaking, nothing but mould wonderfully compounded with air + and water, and modified by a virtue communicated to a small + seed by the Creator. From these plants, when they die, just + the same kind of mould is formed as gave birth to them + originally; whence fertility remains continually + uninterrupted. Whereas the earth could not make good its + annual consumption, unless it were constantly recruited by + new supplies.</p> + <p> + That the Author of nature had so constituted the world that + none of the elements should be subject to destruction, + might have been supposed by the ancients; but, till the + present advanced state of the science of chemistry, no + proof of this interesting fact could have been adduced. Of + the indestructibility of matter it may be remarked, that + provision has been made even for the restoration of the + fallen leaves of vegetables, which rot on the ground, and, + to a careless observer, would appear to be lost for ever. + Berthollet has shown by experiment, that, whenever the soil + becomes charged with such matter, the oxygen of the + atmosphere combines with it, and converts it into carbonic + acid gas. The consequence of this is, that this same carbon + in process of time is absorbed by a new race of vegetables, + which it clothes with a new foliage, and which is itself + destined to undergo similar putrefaction and renovation to + the end of time.</p> + <p> + The selection of a few remarkable trees and plants will + serve to impress the reader with a sense of the wisdom and + power of God, as displayed in the vegetable kingdom. As + rivers and brooks are very seldom found in deserts and + sandy places, many of the trees growing there distil water; + and, by that means, afford great comfort both to man and + beast. Thus the <em>Tillandsia</em>, which is a parasitical + plant, growing on the tops of trees in the deserts of + America, has its leaves turned at the base into the shape + of a pitcher, with the extremity expanded; in these the + rain is collected, and preserved for the use of men, + beasts, and birds. The water-tree in Ceylon produces + cylindrical bladders, covered with a lid; into these is + secreted a most pure and refreshing water. There is a kind + of cuckow-pint in New France, of which, if a person break + a branch, it will afford him a pint of excellent water. How + wise, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span> + + how beneficial is the adaptation of plants to the + inhabitants of those countries where they grow!</p> + <p> + On the top of a rock, in one of the Canary Islands, says + Glass, in his History, grows the <em>Fountain Tree</em>, + called, in the language of the ancient inhabitants, + <em>Garse</em>, (sacred or holy tree,) which for many years + has been preserved sound, entire, and fresh. Its leaves + constantly distil such a quantity of water as is sufficient + to furnish drink to every living creature in Hierro; nature + having provided this remedy for the drought of the island. + It is situated about a league and a half from the sea. + Nobody knows of what species it is, only that it is called + <em>Til</em>. It is distinct from other trees, and stands + by itself. The circumference of its trunk is about twelve + spans, the diameter four, and in height from the ground to + the top of the highest branch forty spans: the + circumference of all the branches together, is one hundred + and twenty feet. The branches are thick and extended: the + lowest commence an ell from the ground. Its fruit resembles + the acorn, and tastes something like the kernel of a + pine-apple, but is softer and more aromatic. The leaves of + this tree resemble those of the laurel, but are larger, + wider, and more curved; they come forth in perpetual + succession, so that the tree always remains green. On the + north side of the trunk, are two large tanks, or cisterns, + of rough stone, or rather one cistern divided, each half + being twenty feet square, and sixteen spans in depth. One + of these contains water for the drinking of the + inhabitants; and the other that which they use for their + cattle, washing, and such like purposes. Every morning, + near this part of the island, a cloud or mist arises from + the sea, which the south and easterly winds force against + the fore-mentioned steep cliff, so that the cloud, having + no vent but by the gutter, gradually ascends it, and from + thence advances slowly to the extremity of the valley, + where it is stopped and checked by the front of the rock, + which terminates the valley, and then rests upon the thick + leaves and wide-spreading branches of the tree, from whence + it distils in drops, during the remainder of the day, until + it is at length exhausted, in the same manner that we see + water drip from the leaves of trees after a heavy shower of + rain. This tree yields most water in those years when the + Levant or easterly winds have prevailed for a continuance, + for by these winds only the clouds or mists are drawn + hither from the sea. A person lives on the spot near where + this tree grows, who is appointed by the council to take + care of it, and its water; and is allowed a house to live + in, with a certain salary. He every day distributes to each + family of the district, seven pots or vessels full of + water, besides what he gives to the principal people in the + island.</p> + <p> + In Cockburn’s Voyages we find the following account of the + <em>Dropping Tree</em>, near the mountains of Vera Paz, in + America. “On the morning of the fourth day we came out on + a large plain + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span> + + where were numbers of fine + deer, and in the middle stood a tree of an unusual size, + spreading its branches over a vast compass of ground. + Curiosity led us up to it; we had perceived, at some + distance, the ground about it to be wet, at which we began + to be somewhat surprised, as well knowing there had no rain + fallen for near six months past, according to the certain + course of the season in that latitude; that it was + impossible to be occasioned by the fall of dew on the tree, + we were convinced, by the sun having power to exhale all + moisture of that nature a few minutes after his rising. At + last, to our great amazement, as well as joy, we saw water + dropping, or, as it were, distilling fast from the end of + every leaf of this wonderful (nor had it been amiss, if I + had said miraculous) tree; at least it was so with respect + to us, who had been laboring four days through extreme heat + without receiving the least moisture, and were now almost + expiring for the want of it. We could not help looking on + this as liquor sent from heaven to comfort us under our + great extremity. We catched what we could of it in our + hands, and drank very plentifully of it, liking it so well, + that we could hardly prevail with ourselves to give it + over. A matter of this nature could not but excite us to + make the strictest observations concerning it; and + accordingly we staid under the tree near three hours: we + found that we could not clasp its body by five times. We + observed the soil where it grew to be very stony; and upon + the nicest inquiry we could afterwards make, both of the + natives of the country, and the Spanish inhabitants, we + could not learn that there was any such tree known + throughout New Spain, nor perhaps all America over.”</p> + <p> + The <em>Tallow Tree</em>, mentioned by Du Halde in his + History of China, grows in great plenty in that country, + producing a substance much like our tallow, and serving for + the same purposes. It is about the height of a cherry tree; + its leaves are in form of a heart, of a deep shining red + color, and its bark very smooth. Its fruit is enclosed in a + kind of pod or cover, like a chestnut, and consists of + three round white grains, of the size and form of a small + nut, each having its peculiar capsule, and within that a + little stone. This stone is encompassed with a white pulp, + which has all the properties of true tallow, as to + consistence, color, and even smell; and accordingly the + Chinese make their candles of it, which doubtless would be + as good as those in Europe, if they knew how to purify this + vegetable as we do the animal tallow, and make their wicks + as fine. All the preparation they give it, is to melt it + down, and mix a little oil with it, to make it softer and + more pliant. It is true, their candles made of it yield a + thicker smoke, and give a dimmer light than those of ours; + but these defects are owing in a great measure to the + wicks, which are not of cotton, but only a little rod or + switch of dry light wood, covered with the pith of a rush, + wound round it, which, being very porous, serves to + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span> + + filtrate the minute parts of the tallow, attracted by the + burning stick, and which by this means is kept burning.</p> + <p> + The <em>Tea Tree</em> is a native of China, of very slow + growth; it has a black, woody, irregular, branched root, + and rises to a fathom high, or rather more. Its leaves are + very thick set, without any regularity, and are, in + substance, like those of the morella cherry tree; but, when + young, they resemble, except in color, the spindle tree, + with red berries, called <em>euonymus</em>. The larger + leaves are about two inches long, and one broad. The method + of gathering them is one by one, lest they should be torn. + The first gathering begins at the middle of the first moon, + immediately before the vernal equinox; these leaves are + scarcely full opened, being only of two or three days + growth; but they are accounted the best, fetch the best + price, and are called the flower of the tea; but, by the + Chinese, <i + lang="zho" + xml:lang="zho">veui boui</i>, + or bohea tea. The second gathering begins about a month + after, and the last + gathering is in June; the leaves of the gatherings are + sorted into three several classes, according to their + size and goodness, and sold accordingly. After the + leaves are gathered, they are the same day carried to + the work-house, and roasted over a slow fire in an iron + pan; and, that they may be thoroughly and equally dried, + the roaster keeps them continually stirring with his + hands, then takes them out, with a shovel like a fan, + and commits them to the rollers, who roll them with the + palms of their hands in small parcels, till they are + equally cooled, and the sharp yellow and greenish juice + is quite discharged. They are then poured upon a mat, + and sorted a second time into different classes + according to their goodness, and those that are less + curled or burnt are taken out.—It is said that the Dutch + were the first importers of tea into Europe, about the + year 1606, for which they exchanged dried sage with the + Chinese: and though the English did certainly about the + same time gain a knowledge of this plant, we do not find + that the government took any cognizance of it till the + Restoration, when in 1660, a duty of eight-pence per + gallon was laid on the liquor made, and sold in all + coffee-houses.</p> + <p> + The <em>Coffee Tree</em> is a native of the Indies, grows + surprisingly quick, and its body is naturally of an upright + form; its leaves are something like those of the common + bay, but curl at the end and hang downwards. The blossoms + first appear in July, when they show themselves in bunches + at the joints, near the ends of the branches; they are much + like the flowers of the jessamine, but have the addition of + some yellow <em>apices</em>, which are loose on the top of + the blossom, and a <em>style</em> which shoots out near + half an inch above it. The fruit appears about October, + which hangs on the tree till the next July before it is + ripe: it is then gathered and prepared for the market, or + for propagating other plants. Coffee is, perhaps, one of + the greatest blessings, among those that are not really + necessaries of life, that Providence has granted to mankind; + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span> + + and, considering its beneficial qualities as well + as its agreeable properties, it should be ranked among the + most elegant plants, in foliage, blossom, and fruit. It is + a wholesome, pleasant, and cheap beverage, and of great use + in many disorders. The origin of the use of coffee is + stated to be as follows. A prior of a monastery in the part + of Arabia where this berry grows, having remarked that the + goats which eat of it became extremely brisk and alert, + resolved to try the experiment on his monks, of whom he so + continually complained for their lethargic propensities. + The experiment turned out successful; and, it is said, it + was owing to this circumstance that the use of this Arabian + berry came to be so universal.</p> + <p> + The <em>Banian Tree</em> is a native of several parts of + the East Indies. It has a woody stem, branching to a great + height and vast extent, with heart-shaped entire leaves, + ending in acute points. Of this tree the following lines of + Milton contain a description equally beautiful and just.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml12"> + “There soon they chose</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The fig tree; not that tree for fruit renown’d,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + But such as at this day to Indians known</p> + <p class="ml0"> + In Malabar or Decan, spreads her arms,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Branching so broad and long, that in the ground</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The bended twigs take root and daughters grow</p> + <p class="ml0"> + About the mother tree, a pillar’d shade,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + High over arch’d and echoing walks between;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + There oft the Indian herdsman, shunning heat,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Shelters in cool, and tends his pasturing herds</p> + <p class="ml0"> + At loop-holes cut through thickest shade.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + The banian tree, or Indian fig, is perhaps the most + beautiful of nature’s productions in that genial climate, + where her luxuriance is displayed with the greatest + profusion and variety. Some of these trees, as they are + continually increasing, and, contrary to most other things + in animal and vegetable life, seem to be exempted from + decay, grow to an amazing size. Every branch projecting + from the main body throws out its own roots, at first in + small tender fibres, several yards from the ground; these + continually grow thicker till they reach the surface; and + there striking in, they increase to large trunks, and + become parent trees, shooting out new branches from the + top; these at length suspend their roots, which, swelling + into trunks, produce other branches: thus continuing in a + state of progression as long as the earth, the first parent + of them all, contributes her sustenance. The Hindoos are + peculiarly fond of this tree; they view it as an emblem of + the Deity, from its long duration, outstretching arms, and + overshadowing beneficence; they almost pay it divine + honors, and</p> + <p class="poem ml0"> + “Find a fane in every sacred grove.”</p> + <p class="i0"> + Near these trees the most esteemed pagodas are generally + erected; under their shade the brahmins spend their lives + in religious solitude; and the natives of all + casts and tribes are fond of recreating + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span> + + in the cool + recesses, beautiful walks, and lovely vistas of this + umbrageous canopy, impervious to the hottest beams of a + tropical sun.</p> + <p> + A description of a tree in the island of Java, called the + <em>Upas</em>, or Poison Tree, is given to the public by a + surgeon belonging to the Dutch East India Company, of the + name of Foersch, who was stationed at Batavia, in the year + 1774. Surprising its this account may be, it is accompanied + by so many public facts, and names of persons and places, + that it is somewhat difficult to conceive it fabulous. The + Upas grows about seven leagues from Batavia, in a plain + surrounded by rocky mountains, the whole of which plain, + containing a circle of ten or twelve miles round the tree, + is totally barren. Nothing that breathes or vegetates can + live within its influence. The bird that flies over it + drops down dead. The beast that wanders into it expires. + The whole dreadful area is covered with sand, over which + lie scattered loose flints and whitened bones, Thus,</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “Fierce in dread silence on the blasted heath,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Fell Upas sits!”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + This tree may be called the emperor’s great military + magazine. In a solution of the poisonous gum which exudes + from it, his arrows and offensive weapons are dipped; the + procuring, therefore, of this poisonous gum, is a matter of + as much attention as of difficulty. Criminals are only + employed in this dreadful service. Of these, several every + year are sent with a promise of pardon and reward if they + procure it. Hooded in leather cases, with glass + eyelet-holes, and secured as much as possible from the foul + effluvia of the air they are to breathe, they undertake + this melancholy journey, travelling always with the wind. + About one in ten escapes, and brings away a little box of + this direful commodity!</p> + <p> + Every one skilled in natural history knows, that the + mimosæ, or sensitive plants, close their leaves, and bend + their joints, on the least touch. This is truly + astonishing: but hitherto no end or design of nature has + appeared from these motions; they soon recover themselves, + and the leaves are expanded as before. Dionæ Muscipula, or + Venus’s Fly Trap, is a newly discovered sensitive plant; + and shows that nature may have some view towards its + nourishment, in forming the upper joint of its leaf like a + machine to catch food. Upon the middle of this lies the + bait for the unhappy insect that becomes its prey. Many + minute red glands, that cover its inner surface, and which, + perhaps, discharge some sweet liquor, tempt the poor animal + to taste them; and the instant these tender plants are + irritated by its feet, the two lobes rise up, grasp it + fast, lock the two rows of spines together, and squeeze it + to death. Further, lest the strong efforts for life, in the + creature thus taken, should serve to disengage it, three + small erect spines are fixed near the middle of each lobe + among the glands, that effectually put an end to all its + struggles. Nor do the lobes ever open again, while the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span> + + dead animal continues there. But it is nevertheless certain + that the plant cannot distinguish between an animal and a + mineral substance; for if we introduce a straw, or a pin, + between the lobes, it will grasp it full as fast as if it + were an insect. This plant grows in America, in wet shady + places, and flowers in July and August. The largest leaves + are about three inches long, and an inch and a half across + the lobes: the glands of those exposed to the sun are of a + beautiful red color; but those in the shade are pale, and + inclining to green. The roots are squamous, sending forth + few fibres, and are perennial. The leaves are numerous, + inclining to bend downwards, and are placed in a circular + order; they are jointed and succulent; the lower joint, + which is a kind of stalk, is flat, longish, two-edged, and + inclining to heart-shaped. In some varieties, they are + serrated on the edges near the top. The upper joint + consists of two lobes, each lobe is of a semi-oval form, + with their margins furnished with stiff hairs, like + eye-brows, which embrace or lock in each other when they + are inwardly irritated. The upper surfaces of these lobes + are covered with small red glands, each of which appears, + when highly magnified, like a compressed arbutus berry. + Among the glands, about the middle of each lobe, are three + very small erect spines. When the lobes enclose any + substance, they never open again while it continues there. + If it can be shoved out, so as not to strain the lobes, + they expand again; but if force is used to open them, so + strong has nature formed the spring of their fibres, that + one of the lobes will generally snap off, rather than + yield. The stalk is about six inches high, round, smooth, + and without leaves, ending in a spike of flowers. The + flowers are milk-white, and stand, on foot stalks, at the + bottom of which is a little painted bractea, or + flower-leaf.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_101"> + There is not an article in botany more admirable than a + contrivance, visible in many plants, to take advantage of + good weather, and to protect themselves against bad. They + open and close their flowers and leaves in different + circumstances; some close before sun-set, some after; some + open to receive rain, some close to avoid it. The petals of + many flowers expand in the sun; but contract at night, or + on the approach of rain. After the seeds are fecundated, + the petals no longer contract. All the trefoils may serve + as a barometer to the husbandman; they always contract + their leaves on an impending storm. Some plants follow the + sun, others turn from it. Many plants, on the sun’s recess, + vary the position of their leaves, which is styled, the + <em>sleep of plants</em>. A singular plant was lately + discovered in Bengal. Its leaves are in continual motion + all day long; but when night approaches; they fall down + from an erect posture to rest.<a + href="#Footnote_101" + class="fnanchor">101</a></p> + <p> + A plant has a power of directing its roots for procuring food. + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span> + + The red whortle-berry, a low evergreen plant, grows + naturally on the tops of our highest hills, among stones + and gravel. This shrub was planted in an edging to a rich + border, under a fruit wall. In two or three years it + over-ran the adjoining deep-laid gravel walk, and seemed to + fly from the border, in which not a runner appeared. An + effort to come at food, in a bad situation, is extremely + remarkable, in the following instance. Among the ruins of + New Abbey, formerly a monastery in Galloway, there grows on + the top of a wall, a plane tree, about twenty feet high. + Straitened for nourishment in that barren situation, it + several years ago directed roots down the side of the wall, + till they reached the ground ten feet below; and now the + nourishment it afforded to those roots during the time of + their descending, is amply repaid, having every year, since + that time, made vigorous shoots. From the top of the wall + to the surface of the earth these roots have not thrown out + a single fibre, but are now united in a single root.</p> + <p> + Plants, when forced from their natural position, are + endowed with the power to restore themselves. A hop-plant, + twisting round a stick, directs its course from south to + west, as the sun does. Untwist it, and tie it in the + opposite direction, it dies. Leave it loose in the wrong + direction, it recovers its natural direction in a single + night. Twist the branch of a tree, so as to invert its + leaves, and fix it in that position, if left in any degree + loose, it untwists itself gradually, till the leaves be + restored to their natural position. What better can an + animal do for its welfare? A root of a tree meeting with a + ditch in its progress, is laid open to the air. What + follows? It alters its course, like a rational being, dips + into the ground, surrounds the ditch, rises on the opposite + side to its wonted distance from the surface, and then + proceeds in its original direction. Lay a wet sponge near a + root laid open to the air; the root will direct its course + to the sponge. Change the place of the sponge; the root + varies its direction. Thrust a pole into the ground at a + moderate distance from a climbing plant; the plant directs + its course to the pole, lays hold of it, and rises on it to + its natural height. A honeysuckle proceeds in its course + till it be too long for supporting its weight; and then + strengthens itself by shooting into a spiral. If it meet + with another plant of the same kind, they coalesce for mutual + support, the one screwing to the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span> + + right, the other to the + left. The claspers of briony shoot into a spiral, and lay + hold of whatever comes in their way for support. If, after + completing a spiral of three rounds, they meet with + nothing, they try again, by altering their course.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_102"> + By comparing these and other instances of seeming voluntary + motion in plants, with that share of life wherewith some of + the inferior kind of animals are endowed, we can scarce + hesitate at ascribing the superiority to the former: that + is, putting sensation out of the question. Muscles, for + instance, are fixed to one place as much as plants are; nor + have they any power of motion, besides that of opening and + shutting their shells; and in this respect, they have no + superiority over the motion of the sensitive plant: nor + does their action discover more sagacity, or even so much, + as the roots of the plane tree, mentioned by Lord Kames.<a + href="#Footnote_102" + class="fnanchor">102</a></p> + <p> + Beckmann’s History of Inventions and Discoveries presents + us with an interesting account of Kitchen Vegetables and + Garden Flowers, collected from numerous authorities; some + parts of which I shall now transcribe, and incorporate with + information derived from other sources.</p> + <p> + Our foreign kitchen vegetables have, for the most part, + been procured from the southern countries, but chiefly from + Italy; and the number of them has rapidly increased, in the + course of the last two centuries. Many of them require + laborious attention to make them thrive in our climate. On + the other hand, some grow so readily, and increase so much + without culture, even in the open fields, that they have + become like indigenous weeds, as is the case with hops, + which at present abound in our hedges. Some plants, + however, both indigenous and foreign, which were formerly + raised by art and used at the table, are no longer + cultivated, because we have become acquainted with others + more beneficial.</p> + <p> + Among many which were formerly cultivated, but at present + are no longer esteemed, are the following. Winter-cresses, <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">erysimum barbarea</i>; + common alexander, <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">smyrnium olosatrum</i>, + which in the seventeenth century was used instead of celery; + bulbous chærophyllum, the roots of which are still brought to + market at Vienna, where they are boiled and eaten as + salad. Rampion, <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">phyteuma spicata</i>, + was formerly used in like manner. The earth nut, the tuberous + roots of the <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">lathyrus tuberosus</i>, + which grows wild + in many parts of Germany, is still cultivated in Holland + and in some districts on the Rhine. Rocket, <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">brassica eruca</i>, + in Italian, <em + lang="ita" + xml:lang="ita">ruchette</em>, + the young leaves of which were eaten + by our forefathers as salad, and is still retained in + Italy. And there are several others either but + imperfectly known or little regarded.</p> + <p> + Among the kitchen vegetables of which no certain traces are + to be found in the works of the ancients, is spinage, <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">spinacea oleracea</i>. + Its native country is unknown; but the name is new, and + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span> + + certainly derived + from the nature of its prickly seeds. As far as I know, + it first occurs in the year 1351, among the food used by + the monks on fast-days; and at that time it was written <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">spinagium</i> + or <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">spinachium</i>.</p> + <p> + The ancients were acquainted with curled cabbages, and even + with some of those kinds which we call <em>broccoli</em>. + Under this term is understood all those species, the + numerous young flower heads of which, particularly in + spring and autumn, can be used like cauliflowers. The + broccoli used at present was however first brought from + Italy to France, together with the name, about the end of + the sixteenth century.</p> + <p> + Our cauliflower, about the same time, was first brought + from the Levant to Italy; and in the end of the seventeenth + century was transplanted thence to Germany. For a long time + the seeds were procured annually from Cyprus, Candia, and + Constantinople, by the Venetians and Genoese, who sent them + to every part of Europe, because at that time the art of + raising seed was not understood. The seeds of cauliflowers + were brought from Italy to Antwerp, where no seed was + raised, or such only as produced degenerate plants. Prosper + Alpinus, in the year 1588, found abundance of this + vegetable in Egypt, and from his account there is reason to + conjecture it was then very little known in Europe. Conrad + Gesner seems not to have been acquainted with it; at any + rate it is not mentioned by him in a list of the cabbage + kind of plants. Even in the time of Bauhin, it must have + belonged to those vegetables which were scarce; because he + has been so particular in naming the garden in which he saw + it. Von Hohberg, who wrote about 1682, says that + cauliflower, a few years before, had been brought to + Germany for the first time.—It would be difficult to define + all the species of the cabbage kind, the leaves and flowers + of which were used by the ancients as food; but it would be + a task still more arduous to determine those that have + esculent roots.</p> + <p> + Potatoes were first imported into Europe, in the year 1565, + by Hawkins, from Santa-Fe, New Mexico, Spanish America. They + were planted for the first time in Ireland, by Sir Walter + Raleigh, who had an estate in that kingdom. The + natural history of the potatoe was so little understood, + that a total ignorance which part of the plant was the + proper food, had nearly ruined any further attention + towards its cultivation. For perceiving green apples appear + on the stems, these were first supposed to be the fruit; + but on being boiled, and finding them unpalatable, or + rather nauseous, Raleigh was disgusted with his + acquisition, nor thought any more of cultivating this + plant. Accident, however, discovered the real fruit, owing + to the ground being turned over, through necessity, that + very season; and to his surprise, a plentiful crop was + found under ground, which being boiled, proved nourishing + to the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span> + + stomach, and grateful to the taste. On its utility + being known, its cultivation became general through + Ireland. It found its way to this kingdom, and was first + planted on the western coast, in consequence of a vessel + containing some potatoes, being wrecked at the village of + Formby, in Lancashire; a place still famed for this + excellent vegetable.</p> + <p> + Asparagus was first planted in England in the year 1662, in + the reign of Charles II. Artichokes were first introduced + about the same time. Cos lettuces were originally brought + from the island of Cos, near Rhodes, in the Mediterranean. + Turnips were brought into this country from Hanover. In the + time of Henry VIII, several kinds of fruits and plants were + cultivated in England, as apricots, and a fine gooseberry + from Flanders; also salads, carrots, and other edible + roots. These vegetables were before this period imported + from Holland and Flanders. So that Queen Catherine, to + procure a salad, had to dispatch a messenger to fetch it + from those countries. Fruit seems to have been scarce in + the time of Henry VII. In an original manuscript, signed by + himself, and kept in the Remembrance office, it appears + that apples were not less than one or two shillings each, + and that a red one cost two shillings. The great plenty and + variety of vegetables displayed upon modern tables, through + every month in the year, evidently shows what superior + blessings we enjoy, in this respect, compared with those of + our forefathers.</p> + <p> + Some of the flowers introduced into our gardens, and now + cultivated either on account of their beauty, or the + pleasantness of their smell, have been procured from plants + which grew wild, and which have been changed, or, according + to the opinion of florists, improved by the art of the + gardener. The greater part of them however came originally + from distant countries, where they grow in as great + perfection as ours, without the assistance of man. It is + probable that the modern taste for flowers came from Persia + to Constantinople, and was imported thence to Europe for + the first time, in the sixteenth century. At any rate, many + of the productions of our flower-gardens were conveyed to + us by that channel. Clusius and his friends, in particular, + contributed very much to excite this taste; and the new + plants brought from both the Indies by travellers who + frequently visited these countries, tended to increase it. + That period also produced some skilful gardeners, who + carried on a considerable trade in the roots and seeds of + flowers; and these, likewise assisted to render it more + general. Among these were John and Vespasian Robin, + gardeners to Henry IV, of France, and Emanuel Sweert, + gardener to the emperor Rodolphus II, from whom the + botanists of that time procured many rarities, as appears + from different passages of their works.</p> + <p> + Simon de Tovar, a Spanish physician, brought the tuberose to + Europe before the year 1594 from the East Indies, where it grows + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span> + + wild in Java and Ceylon, and sent some roots of it to + Barnard Paludanus, who first made this flower publicly + known, in his annotations on Linschoten’s voyage. The full + tuberoses were first procured from seed by one Le Cour, at + Leyden, who kept them scarce for some years, by destroying + the roots. The propagation of them in most countries is + attended with difficulties: but in Italy, Sicily, and + Spain, it requires no trouble; and at present the Genoese + send a great many roots to England, Holland, and Germany. + The oldest botanists classed them among the hyacinths, and + their modern name <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">polianthes tuberose</i> + was given them by Linnæus in his Hortus Cliffortianus.</p> + <p> + The auricula, <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">primula auricula</i>, + grows wild among the + long moss covered with snow, on the confines of + Switzerland and Steyermark, whence it was brought to our + gardens, where, by art and accident, it has produced + more varieties than any other species of flower. I do + not know who first transplanted it from its native soil. + Pluche says only that some roots were pulled up by + Walloon merchants, and carried to Brussels. However, + this is certain, that it was first cultivated with care + by the Flemings, who were very successful in propagating + it. In the time of Clusius, most of the varieties of the + auricula were scarce.</p> + <p> + The common fritillary, or chequered lily, <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">fritillaria meleagris</i>, + was first observed in some parts of France, Hungary, Italy, + and other warm countries, and introduced into gardens about + the middle of the sixteenth century. At first it was called <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">lilium variegatum</i>; + but Noel Capperon, an apothecary at Orleans, who collected + a great many scarce plants, gave it the name of <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">fritillaria</i>, + because the red or reddish-brown spots of the flower form + regular squares. It was first called <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">meleagris</i> + by Dodonæus, because the feathers of that fowl are variegated + almost in the same manner.</p> + <p> + The roots of the magnificent crown imperial, <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">fritillaria imperialis</i>, + were about the + middle of the sixteenth century brought from Persia to + Constantinople, and were carried thence to the Emperor’s + garden at Vienna, from which they were dispersed all + over Europe. This flower was first known by the Persian + name <em>tusac</em>, until the Italians gave it that of <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">corona imperialis</i>, + or crown + imperial. It has been imagined that the figure of it is to be + found represented on the coins of Herod, and that, on + this account, it has been considered as the lily so much + celebrated in the Scripture.</p> + <p> + The Persian lily, <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">fritillaria Persica</i>, + which is nearly + related to it, was made known almost about the same + time. The bulbs or roots were brought from Susa to + Constantinople, and for that reason it was formerly + called <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">lilium Susianum</i>.</p> + <p> + African and French marigolds, <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">tagetes erecta</i> + and <em>patula</em>, are indigenous in South America, and + were known to botanists under the name of <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">caryophillus Indicus</i>, + from which is derived the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span> + + French appellation <i + lang="fra" + xml:lang="fra">œillet d’ Inde</i>. + Cordus calls them, from their native country, <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">tanacetum Peruvianum</i>.</p> + <p> + Among the most beautiful ornaments of our gardens, is the + bella-donna lily, <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">amaryllis formosissima</i>, + the flower of + which, composed of six petals, is of a deep red color, + and in a strong light, or when the sun shines upon it, + has an agreeable yellow lustre like gold. The first + roots of it ever seen in Europe were procured in 1593, + on board a ship which had returned from South America, + by Simon de Tovar, a physician at Seville. In the year + following, he sent a description of this flower to + Clusius; and as he had at the same time transmitted some + roots to Bernard Paludanus, and count d’Aremberg, the + former sent a dried flower, and the latter an accurate + drawing of it, to Clusius, who published it in 1601. One + of the Robins gave, in 1608, a larger and more correct + figure, which was afterwards copied by Bry, Parkinson, + and Rudbeck; but a complete description, with a good + engraving, was published in 1742, by Linnæus, who in + 1737 gave to that genus the name by which they are known + at present. Tovar received it from South America, where + it was found by Plumier and Barrere, and at a later + period by Thiery de Menonville. At first it was classed + with the narcissus, and it was afterwards called + <em>lilio-narcissus</em>, because its flower resembled + that of the lily, and its roots those of the narcissus. + It was named <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">flos-Jacobæus</i>, + because some imagined + that they discovered in it a likeness to the badge of + the knights of the order of St. James in Spain, whose + founder, in the fourteenth century, could not indeed + have been acquainted with this beautiful amaryllis.</p> + <p> + Another species of this genus is the Guernsey lily, <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">amaryllis Sarniensis</i>, + which in + the magnificence of its flower is not inferior to the + former. This plant was brought from Japan, where it was + found by Kæmpfer, and also by Thunberg, during his + travels some years ago in that country. It was first + cultivated in the beginning of the seventeenth century, + in the garden of John Morin, at Paris, where it + flowered, for the first time, on the 7th of October, + 1634. It was then made known by Jacob Cornutus, under + the name of <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">narcissus Japonicus flore rutilo</i>. + After this it was again noticed by John Ray, + an Englishman, in 1665, who called it the <em>Guernsey + lily</em>, which name it still very properly bears. A + ship returning from Japan was wrecked on the coast of + Guernsey, and a number of the bulbs of this plant, which + were on board, being cast on shore, took root in that + sandy soil. As they soon increased, and produced + beautiful flowers, they were observed by the + inhabitants, and engaged the attention of Mr. Hatton, + the governor’s son, whose botanical knowledge is highly + spoken of by Ray, and who sent roots of them to several + of his friends who were fond of cultivating curious plants. + Of this elegant flower Dr. Douglass gave a + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span> + + description and figure in a small treatise published + in 1725, which is quoted by Linnæus in his Bibliotheca, + but not by Haller.</p> + <p> + Of the numerous genus of the ranunculus, florists, to speak + in a botanical sense, have obtained a thousand different + kinds; for, according to the manner in which they are + distinguished by gardeners, the varieties increase almost + every summer.</p> + <p> + The principal part of them, however, and those most + esteemed, were brought to us from the Levant. Some were + carried from that part of the world so early as in the time + of the crusades; but most of them have been introduced into + Europe from Constantinople since the end of the sixteenth + century, particularly the Persian ranunculus, the varieties + of which, if I am not mistaken, hold at present the first + rank. Clusius describes both the single and the full + flowers as new rarities. This flower was in the highest + repute during the time of Mahomet IV. His Grand Vizir, Cara + Mustapha, well known by his hatred against the Christians + and the siege of Vienna, in 1683, wishing to turn the + Sultan’s thoughts to some milder amusement than that of the + chase, for which he had a strong passion, diverted his + attention to flowers; and, as he remarked that the Emperor + preferred the ranunculus to all others, he wrote to the + different Pachas throughout the whole kingdom to send him + seeds or roots of the most beautiful kinds. The Pachas of + Candia, Cyprus, Aleppo, and Rhodes, paid most regard to + this request; and the elegant flowers which they + transmitted to court were shut up in the seraglio as + unfortunate offerings to the voluptuousness of the Sultan, + till some of them, by the force of money, were at length + freed from their imprisonment. The ambassadors from the + European courts, in particular, made it their business to + procure roots of as many kinds as they could, which they + sent to their different sovereigns. Marseilles, which at + that period carried on the greatest trade to the Levant, + received on this account these flowers very early; and a + person there, of the name of Malaval is said to have + contributed very much to disperse them all over Europe.</p> + <p> + Some of our most common flowering shrubs have been long + introduced into the gardens: the bay-tree has been + cultivated more than two centuries; it is mentioned by + Tusser, in the list of garden plants inserted in his work + called, “Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry,” printed in + 1573. The laurel was introduced by Cole, a merchant at + Hampstead, some years before 1629, when Parkinson published + his Paradisus Terrestris, and at that time we had in our + gardens oranges, myrtles of three sorts, lauristinus, + cypress, phyllyrea, alaternus, arbuttus; a cactus, brought + from Bermuda, and the passion-flower, which last had + flowered here, and showed a remarkable peculiarity, by + rising from the ground near a month sooner, if a seedling + plant, than if it grew from roots brought from Virginia.</p> + <hr class="r10" /> + <p class="ctr"> + <em>Crust of the Earth.</em> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span></p> + + <blockquote> + <p> + [In the preceding section the Author has noticed the + <em>superficies</em> of the earth principally; as its + inequalities because of seas, lakes, rivers, mountains, + vallies, &c. The <em>rocky</em>, and <em>earthy</em> + masses and strata, which cover the nucleus of our globe, + are scarcely mentioned at all. Whether the + <em>central</em> parts of the earth be solid, soft, or + hollow, and filled with gaseous matter, is not the + subject of enquiry here: but the <em>composition</em> and + <em>arrangement</em> of the <em>solid crust</em> of the + planet come under consideration.</p> + <p> + As it regards the composition of the crust of the earth + considered principally, it consists of <em>metallic + oxides</em>. The bases of the different earths are well + known to be <em>metals</em>. The metal called + <em>Silicon</em>, is the base of silex or + flint—<em>Aluminum</em> is the metallic base of pure + clay—<em>Calcium</em>, of lime—<em>Magnesium</em>, of + magnesia—<em>Potasium</em>, of potash, &c. Iron, + also, enters largely into the composition; and soda, + whose metallic base is <em>sodium</em>, forms a + considerable portion.</p> + <p> + These bases, at their creation, existed in an + <em>uncombined</em> state, as did all the elementary + substances. When they entered into combination with + <em>oxygen</em> they became <em>earths</em>, which are + simple metallic oxides, which readily combine with the + <em>acids</em>, in which combination they are generally + seen, though not always, at the earth’s surface; as + carbonate of lime, or common limestone; the composition + of which is <em>calcium</em>, <em>oxygen</em>, and + <em>carbonic acid</em>.</p> + <p> + Rocks of the <em>silicious</em> family are not considered + <em>earthy salts</em>, though, occasionally, they may + contain a small per cent. of acid. They are called + <em>earthy compounds</em>. <em>Granite</em> is an + instance; composed of <em>feldspar</em>, <em>quartz</em>, + and <em>mica</em>. Gneiss, and mica slate are of similar + composition, though in different proportions, and under + different arrangements.</p> + <p> + It will readily occur to the reader that there are some + other earths, and other substances also, as the acids, + and gases, which enter into the composition of the + earth’s crust, though in small proportions, and, + therefore, are not considered <em>principal</em> + ingredients, and hence not noticed in this general + sketch.</p> + <p> + The rocky, or stony substances, composed of the above + elements, under the influence of chemical affinities, and + other principles, are found in <em>crystalline</em>, + <em>stratified</em>, <em>amorphous</em>, and + <em>aggregate masses</em>. The <em>position</em>, + <em>structure</em>, and <em>contents</em> of these masses + will develope the <em>natural history of the solid crust + of our Earth</em>.</p> + <p> + In order to facilitate this development, the rocks have + been divided, according to their age into,</p> + <p> + 1. <em>Primitive Rocks.</em> These were deposited + <em>first</em>, as is evident from their position, being + the lowest of all the rocks. Their name indicates their + relative age.</p> + <p> + 2. <em>Transition Rocks.</em> These rocks are deposited + immediately above the primitive, of course subsequently + to them. They are called <em>transition</em> rocks, + because they were deposited as the earth was + <em>passing</em> from an uninhabitable to a habitable + state, as is evident from the fact that <em>they + contain the first traces of organized being imbedded in + them</em>.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span> + + 3. <em>Secondary Rocks.</em> These are deposited next in + succession to the transition rocks, and mark a + <em>third</em> grand geological epoch, by being almost + altogether a <em>mechanical</em> deposition, and lie + <em>horizontally</em> when <em + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">in situ</em>, + and contain an increase of organic remains, both in + quantity and variety.</p> + <p> + 4. <em>Tertiary Rocks.</em> These derive their name from + their succession to the secondary, and of course mark the + <em>fourth</em> geological epoch in the history of the + arrangement of the earth’s crust, which completed its + redemption from the abyss of waters, and fitted it for + the habitation of man.</p> + <p> + This division of the rocks designates the <em>order of + time</em> in which they were successively deposited, as + is evident from their position.</p> + <p> + Considering these rocks <em + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">in situ</em>, + they may be + reckoned <em>general formations</em>, extended all around + the globe in concentric circles, as the coats of an onion + around its centre, in the order above stated, beginning + with the primitive rocks.</p> + <p> + It is, however, well known that <em>fractures</em> and + <em>dislocations</em> prevail to a great extent, the + result of violence subsequently to the deposition of + these rocks, removing large portions of them <em>out of + place</em>. But this circumstance need not interrupt the + grand <em>natural</em> order of the construction of the + earth’s crust.</p> + <p> + There is also a class of stony substances which follow no + general laws, either in regard to <em>position</em>, + <em>form</em>, or <em>age</em>. These are volcanic and + igneous productions of every kind; as basalt, lava, + &c. These shall be mentioned subsequently.</p> + <p> + In the above remarks we have an <em>outline</em> of the + structure of the crust of the earth; but in order to have + a more satisfactory development, the principal and + distinctive features of the leading rock formations must + be stated in order.</p> + <hr class="r10" /> + <p class="ctr"> + <em>Primitive Rocks.</em></p> + <p> + 1. <em>This class occupies the lowest position as a + class</em>, yet the individual rocks of this class have a + general order of position among themselves. Granite is + lowest; then Gneiss — Mica Slate — Clay Slate — Primitive + Limestone — Porphyry — Sienite — and Greenstone.</p> + <p> + <em>These rocks are sometimes observed alternating with + each other, and sometimes passing into each other.</em> + But these circumstances do not effect the general order. + When the formations are <em>undisturbed</em>, in + penetrating them we should come to granite last; and it + is universally the lowest of all observed rock + formations.</p> + <p> + 2. <em>This class is generally, indeed we may say, + universally, crystalline in its structure.</em> Each + integrant particle is not a <em>perfect crystal</em>; but + throughout the mass there is a partial crystallization, + such as would be the result of an effort to crystallize + perfectly, under a great pressure; in which case the + particles would mutually interfere with each other.</p> + <p> + The very fact of this crystallization implies + <em>first</em>; a prevailing state of <em>unagitated + solution</em> of the crystallizing materials: + <em>secondly</em>: that their crystallization was the + effect of <em>chemical action</em>.</p> + <p> + 3. <em>The primitive rocks contain + no fragments, either angular, or rounded by attrition, + imbedded in them</em>; simply because no rocks + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span> + + preceded + them, and of course could not be broken up. It is, + however, to be carefully observed, that perfect crystals + of different kinds are found imbedded in primitive rocks. + When they prevail to a great extent they constitute + <em>porphyritic rocks</em>. It is evident that these + crystals must have been formed before the consolidation + of the including rock, and must have been suspended in + the solution which formed the rock upon crystallization.</p> + <p> + 4. <em>The primitive rocks contain no traces of organized + bodies.</em> This is an universal characteristic, and + proves incontestibly that they were formed <em>previous + to the existence of organized beings</em>.</p> + <p> + 5. <em>The primitive rocks are usually inclined at a high + angle to the horizon, and frequently are vertical.</em> + This seems to be the result of crystallization, as + mechanical deposition would place them + <em>horizontally</em>, having the general bearing of the + curve of the earth.</p> + <p> + 6. The principal primitive rocks are granite, gneiss, and + mica slate.</p> + <p> + They are composed of the same materials, in different + proportions; viz; feldspar, quartz, and mica. These three + minerals constitute granite, when feldspar is the + <em>base</em>, and the quartz is embedded in a + crystalline state, and the mica interspersed generally. + They constitute gneiss, when the feldspar + <em>decreases</em>, and the mica <em>increases</em>, and + is arranged in layers. They compose mica slate, when the + feldspar almost <em>disappears</em>, and the mica and + quartz are intimately united.</p> + <p> + 7. Though the primitive rocks occupy the lowest position + <em>in situ</em>, yet they sometimes form, not only the + <em>summits</em> of lofty mountains, but sometimes the + <em>mountain mass</em> itself, and appear at the surface. + In these cases it is evident that they have been + <em>upheaved</em> by a force acting beneath, and forcing + them through the superincumbent rocks, which were rent, + and glided down the sides of the rising mass of primitive + rocks, leaving them bare and visible at the summit. In + this case the rocks which were uppermost before the + mountain mass began to rise, would be found at the + <em>foot</em> of the mountain; and the rocks which were + next to the uppermost, would be found immediately above + them, reclining on the side of the mountain; and thus + <em>ascending through the ages of the rocks to the summit + of the mountain, where we find the primitive rock + formations constituting its apex</em>.</p> + <p> + This phenomena of primitive rocks forming the apices of + mountains may be explained differently. The primitive + rocks, and other classes in succession, <em>may have been + deposited in mountain masses</em>, and the upper rocks + being <em>softer</em> and more <em>exposed</em>, have + yielded to the ravages of the elements, and to the + demolishing force of the deluge, and thus laid the + primitive rocks bare. The <em>first</em> seems to be the + most probable supposition.</p> + <p> + 8. It is beyond a doubt, that in some instances, an + upheaving force has operated, and elevated the granitic + summits of mountains; and so powerful was the upheaving + force that the blocks of granite have broke at the apex + of the elevation, and some of them hang over + perpendicularly in awful grandeur; and others have rolled + down the sides far into the plains below.</p> + <p> + This theory of the formations of some of the principal + mountains would be firmly established in every mind, if + every one could have an opportunity of inspecting + them without prejudice. The primitive + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span> + + rocks would be seen + shooting up from the centre of the mountain, into lofty + pyramidal elevations, resembling, sometimes, lofty + spires, or cupolas; and sometimes the summit is rounded + off as a dome. The rocks are in a <em>verticle</em> + position, which proves they could not have been + <em>deposited there</em> from a state of quiet repose.</p> + <p> + Sometimes two summits project from the same common base, + having an intervening valley or depression between them. + In this case, the rocks which lay uppermost before the + mass was upheaved, upon upheaving, broke and glided down + the sides, on which they depend in magnificent drapery; + but the portion of them which was situated + <em>between</em> the uprising summits, not being able to + escape, is found in the valley which is formed between + the peaks.</p> + <p> + In some instances, as the mass is elevating itself it + bears up upon it a large mass of the over-laying rock, + which forms the apex of the mountain, crowning it as a + stately castle crowns the summit of the hill on which it + is built. In this case the crowning mass is entirely + different, and perfectly distinct from the subjacent + materials. <em>For some further remarks on the structure, + and formation of mountains, and mountain masses, and the + deluge, see Theory of the Earth, end of Sect. 2, chap. + iv.</em></p> + <p> + 9. As there was a rapid and irresistible chemical action, + at a very high temperature, going on during this first + great geological period, and the whole globe in almost + omnipotent fermentation, there is no difficulty in + accounting for the irregularities, contortions, + dislocations and fractures which we observe in the earth. + This whole process was anterior to the existence of + organized being.</p> + <hr class="r10" /> + <p class="ctr"> + <em>Transition Rocks.</em></p> + <p> + 1. <em>This class was deposited subsequently to the + primitive rocks, and after they had consolidated.</em> + This is evident from the fact that, in their natural + order, they <em>overlay</em> the primitive, which could + not be the case, unless they were deposited subsequently, + any more than the roof of the house could be put on + before the foundation was laid.</p> + <p> + 2. <em>Their structure is evidently the result both of + chemical action, and mechanical deposition.</em> These + principles appear to have acted sometimes conjointly; and + at other times to have alternated. Hence the + crystallization is more imperfect than in the primitive, + and occasionally seems to disappear.</p> + <p> + 3. <em>From the complex action under which they were + deposited, they are generally, neither verticle nor + horizontal, but inclined about between these two + positions.</em></p> + <p> + 4. <em>They were deposited as the primitive chaotic ocean + was subsiding, and the elevations of the new-born earth + had recently emerged.</em> Hence they are found next to + the summits of the primitive mountains, <em>on their + flanks</em>.</p> + <p> + 5. <em>The transition rocks contain some fragments of all + the primitive class.</em> This would be the natural + consequence of the summits of primitive rock formations + being exposed to the fury of the elements; which would + rend portions of them, and thus deposit the fragments + mechanically in the floods subsiding + below on the flanks of the mountains.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span> + + 6. <em>In these rocks we meet with the first traces of + organized being.</em> (<span + class="smcap">Silliman.</span>) + This fact is irresistible proof + that these rocks were deposited <em>subsequently</em> to + the existence of the enclosed remains. The probability + is, that the animals and vegetables found in transition + rocks, were created at the <em>commencement</em> of the + transition period, and their remains deposited as the + rocks were successively deposited.</p> + <p> + It is remarkable that these organized beings belonged to + genera now extinct. They were of an inferior class, + having neither the delicacy, complexity, or sensibility + of those which we now see. They were crude, and gross, + corresponding to the condition of the earth at the time + of their existence.</p> + <p> + It is also evident that they lived, and died, and were + inhumed in the same places; as they present, generally, + no marks of violence, and their most delicate parts are + well preserved.</p> + <p> + These organic remains occupy vast districts of country, + and constitute, principally, large masses of marbles, + sometimes many hundreds of feet in the interior of + mountains. They are identified with the rock, and + frequently impart to it its beauty.</p> + <p> + 7. The reader will readily perceive that this class of + rocks marks the <em>commencement</em> of + <em>sensitive</em> existence. And it would seem, from an + examination of fossil remains generally, that the + creation of animals and vegetables was + <em>progressive</em>, produced with structures and + functions adapted to the condition of the globe, at the + time of their creation.</p> + <hr class="r10" /> + <p class="ctr"> + <em>Secondary Rocks.</em></p> + <p> + 1. <em>These rocks are so called, because they are the + second great deposit, after the grand foundation of the + primitive rocks were laid.</em> Of course they point out + the third great geological period.</p> + <p> + 2. <em>Their position is horizontal, corresponding to the + general curve of the earth.</em> This regards their + natural position. They are found, under particular + circumstances, inclined to the horizon. They occupy a + lower position on the sides of mountains, resting on the + transition class, which is immediately subjacent <em>in + natural order</em>.</p> + <p> + 3. <em>This class is much less chemical, indeed very + little so, in its structure.</em> It is the result of + mechanical deposition, after the chemical action had + nearly ceased in the great primitive and retiring abyss.</p> + <p> + 4. <em>These rocks abound more in fragments of other + rocks, and in the remains of organized beings, than the + preceding class.</em> This would be natural, as a greater + extent of the earth’s surface would be exposed to the + elements, and thus the destruction would be greater: and + as the condition of the earth was better for sustaining + sensitive beings, these would of course be more abundant + both in <em>kind</em> and <em>number</em>.</p> + <p> + It is also well ascertained, from the fossil remains + found in this class of rocks, that during their + deposition, there existed many species of animals and + plants which do not now exist: that many of the animals + were <em>monsters</em> of incredible size and voracity; + of such hugeness, grossness, and ferocity as were + suitable to the then prevailing condition of the earth.</p> + <p> + The researches of the last ten or fifteen years, in + England, have brought to light the skeletons + of animals, approaching the <em>lizard + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span> + + genus</em>, from + <em>sixty to seventy feet long</em>!! They are abundant + in England, and occasionally found on the continent. Who + can say, but that the other genera of animals then + existing, were also as much more vast, and misshapen than + their present existing types? A single glance at the + <em>geological reminiscences</em> of this ancient period + must convince any observer, that the vegetable, and + specially the animal genera then existing were really + astonishing both in <em>size</em>, <em>shape</em>, and + <em>nature</em>.</p> + <p> + It becomes a question of some interest, whether these + huge animals ceased to exist, having found their graves + in this secondary class of rocks, before the existence of + man?</p> + <p> + There are many reasons which induce a supposition they + did cease to exist. Man could scarcely have been safe in + the land of these wonderful creatures. Moreover, it is + probable their constitutions were adapted to the + condition of the world at this period, which we suppose + to have been more gross in its air, and water, and more + ardent in its climate; as it had not yet settled, and + dried; and the waters had not yet sufficiently subsided, + to render the earth the abode of the more delicate + land-animals, birds, and specially man. It is probable + the earth was marshy, with numerous inland lakes, to a + considerable extent; the waters still somewhat turbid; + the air gross and moist; and the temperature still very + high. Such a state of the planet would suit the + constitutions of such monsters as the + <em>ichthyosaurus</em>, and <em>plesiosaurus</em>, which + would perish as the condition of the globe became more + pure, and its temperature reduced.</p> + <hr class="r10" /> + <p class="ctr"> + <em>Tertiary Rocks.</em></p> + <p> + 1. <em>These rocks were deposited as the earth was + actually, and finally redeemed from water, and became fit + for the abode of the more delicate and gentle + land-animals and birds.</em> Hence, it is very rare, if + ever, the fossil remains of animals which live wholly on + land, are found below this class of rocks. But man’s + companion animals are found, as elephants, deer, horse, + sheep, &c.</p> + <p> + 2. This class is not so extensively spread as the + preceding classes. It includes the <em>diluvial</em> and + <em>alluvial</em> formations, and indicate an alternation + of fresh and sea waters in its deposition. This class + covers the low countries as they slope from primitive + districts towards the sea. Such grand vallies are called + <em>diluvial</em>, because deposited chiefly by the great + primitive ocean, as it retired through its last stages to + its resting beds. The deposites at the mouths of rivers, + or any other deposites from causes now in operation, are + called <em>alluvial</em>.</p> + <p> + 3. Some of the principal members of this class are: 1. + Argillaceous, and sandy depositions from the sea. 2. + Marl, and gypsum, from fresh water. 3. Sand, and + sandstone, with or without shells, from sea water. 4. + Limestone, and silicious millstone grit, from fresh + water.</p> + <hr class="r10" /> + <p class="ctr"> + <em>Conclusion.</em></p> + <p> + From what has been said above we may clearly deduce the + following particulars.</p> + <p> + 1. The crust of the earth is constructed of four great + general classes of rocks: the <em>primitive</em> at the + foundation; the <em>transition</em>, laying + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span> + + immediately over the + primitive; the <em>secondary</em> immediately above + these; and the <em>tertiary</em> at the surface. In this + arrangement we consider the rocks in their natural + position.</p> + <p> + 2. The <em>position</em>, <em>structure</em>, and + <em>organic remains</em> of these classes, clearly point + out a grand geological epoch, corresponding to the time + of the deposition of each class, and thus indicate their + relative ages. They indicate also the successive + conditions of the globe as it passed from its gross + chaotic state, to a state suitable for the habitation of + man, and his companion animals.</p> + <p> + 3. <em>The natural history of the <span + class="smcap">primitive world</span>, + as deduced from <span + class="smcap">geological facts, corresponds</span> + expressly in the <span + class="smcap">order</span> + and <span + class="smcap">nature of the events, with the account + given by moses</span>.</em></p> + <p> + 4. The gradual retiring of the primitive chaotic ocean, + would give sufficient time for the production of those + immense beds of marine animals which are found in the + most solid and elevated mountains. During the prevalence + of the sea, these beds would form at the bottom, and when + it retired they would consolidate, with the mineral + deposites, into rocks.</p> + <p> + In this case the process is supposed to go on in a + <em>quiet</em> ocean, peaceably retiring, and leaving the + deposition in layers. But we must not suppose the waters + were always still, and peacefully retiring. If so, there + could not have been such distinct and different + deposites, in which different substances sometimes + alternate. Moreover, in this case there would have been + but one deposition, which would have been regular and + continuous, changing its character simply by almost + imperceptible degrees, and extending all round the globe, + as the globe was at first wholly immersed in water. But + this is not the case. There is every reason to believe + there were violent agitations, earthquakes, volcanos, + tempests, deluges, &c., <em>occasionally</em>, during + the subsidence of the primitive waters. Hence the + <em>dislocations</em>, <em>contortions</em>, + <em>protrusions of lower rocks through upper ones</em>, + and the <em>upheaving of the bottom of the seas in + various places into ridges, and mountains</em>, producing + a tremendous <em>deflux of waters</em> frequently, which + would wash out channels and vallies, and carry off + fragments of rocks, &c., into the waters below.</p> + <p> + Hence it is evident that the elevations on the earth’s + surface have been <em>partly</em> caused by subterranean + force upheaving them; and <em>partly</em> by currents of + water wearing away channels, defiles, vallies, &c.</p> + <p> + The natural result of upheaving, <em>in mass</em>, the + bed of the ocean, would be to protrude a body in which + were embedded the marine exuviæ throughout the whole + depth of the marine deposites. Hence mountain masses are + sometimes composed of limestone, in which are found + immense quantities of sea shells, throughout the mass, + and entering intimately into the composition of the rock. + This, without doubt, is the true origin of these marine + mountain remains.</p> + <p> + Some have been disposed to attribute them to the + <em>deluge</em> in the days of Noah; but this is + impossible for two reasons. 1. The deluge did not + continue a sufficient length of time to allow these + animals to be produced in such quantities, or to bury + them so deeply in the earth. 2. The + <em>rising</em> waters could not have carried them to + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span> + + their present places; because, in that case they would be + found at the <em>surface</em> of the earth, or near it + <em>exclusively</em>; whereas they are found buried + thousands of feet in mountains, and embedded in solid + rocks. They could not have been <em>transported</em> by + the waters, because they would have suffered violence, + and been fractured, and compressed; which is not + generally the case. They are found perfectly preserved, + though of such delicate structure as would seem to have + been destroyed by the least violence. Hence it is evident + they are buried where they lived and died in perfect + tranquillity.</p> + <p> + It is true, there are instances in which the + <em>position</em> and <em>nature</em> of the animals + clearly prove that they were inhumed by some + <em>sudden</em> catastrophe. For instance: when we see + the fossil remains of delicate, and very active fish so + placed as to indicate they were <em>caught</em>, we are + convinced they perished <em>suddenly</em>. But this case + is always <em>local</em>, and may have been produced by + an earthquake, or volcanic action.</p> + <p> + That the primitive chaotic ocean occupied the earth a + long time, <em>generally</em> in a state of tranquillity, + though occasionally, strongly agitated, and rising into + overwhelming deluges and gradually retired, is evident + also, from the fact, that the most delicate + <em>plants</em>, <em>leaves</em>, and <em>flowers</em> + are found inhumed, as the marine animals above, <em>in a + state of perfect preservation</em>.</p> + <p> + All the above phenomena took place prior to the creation + of man.</p> + <hr class="r10" /> + <p class="ctr"> + <em>Appendix.</em></p> + <p> + There is another class of rocky substances which obey no + settled laws, and, therefore, are noticed here in an + appendix: <em>They are rocks and substances of evident + igneous origin</em>: as <em>basalt</em>, + <em>obsidium</em>, <em>lavas of all textures</em>, and + <em>trap</em> rocks <em>frequently</em>, perhaps + generally. These have one common origin: they are also of + similar composition generally; and in this approach the + composition of primitive rocks. They have been evidently + <em>ejected from the bowels of the earth in a melted + state</em>. They are found in almost all countries; and + in some cases form mountains, and cover the surfaces of + large districts to an astonishing depth: as in the north + of Ireland, more than 500 feet thick, and over an area of + 800 square miles. (<span + class="smcap">Ure.</span>)</p> + <p> + Being <em>protruded</em> from beneath in a melted state + they are found injected through the superincumbent rocks + in <em>shafts</em> or <em>veins</em> of various sizes, + from several inches to several feet. Sometimes being + unable to rend the solid rocks above they are injected + <em>between their strata</em>. They are generally + somewhat crystalline in structure, because deposited on + the same principles as granite, when undisturbed. From + their <em>position</em>, <em>superficial extent</em>, and + <em>quantity</em>, we infer they are the products of all + ages, and of immense igneous action, seated at an unknown + distance beneath the surface of the earth. Hence we may + have some idea of the vast amount of igneous action which + operated in the early ages of our planet. It must have + been violently shaken from the centre to the surface.]</p> + </blockquote> + <p id="FNanchor_103"> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span> + + We may well ask, in the language of a German philosopher, + Who can enumerate all the blessings which the vegetable + kingdom affords? It is at least manifest that all the + arrangements of Providence, in this respect, have for their + grand object the advantage of the creatures. God has + provided for the wants of each individual. He has assigned + to each that plant, which is most proper for its + nourishment and support. There is not a plant on the earth, + but what has its particular destination and use. What + sentiments of veneration and gratitude should we feel, at + the sight of lawns, gardens, fields, and meadows! Here his + beneficent care has collected all that is necessary for the + comfort and preservation of the inhabitants of the earth. + Here, oh God! thou openest thy hand, and satisfiest the + desire of every living creature! Here every herb, ear of + corn, flower, and tree, proclaims thy goodness! How closely + might our modern geologists walk with God, if, like a + Boyle, and a Ray, every new discovery led them to an + increasing admiration of Divine wisdom and omnipotent power!<a + href="#Footnote_103" + class="fnanchor">103</a> for</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml8"> + “Philosophy, baptiz'd</p> + <p class="ml0"> + In the pure fountain of eternal love,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Has eyes indeed; and viewing all she sees</p> + <p class="ml0"> + As meant to indicate a God to man,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Gives him his praise, and forfeits not her own.”</p> + </div> + <p> + To meet God in the immensity of his works, and trace him in + the operations of his hand, gives expansion to intellect, + opens new sources of enjoyment, and greatly exalts the + character of man. The sacred writers conduct us to the + <em>forest</em>, and, after selecting particular trees, + press on our attention their emblematical uses.</p> + <hr id="CHAPTER_IV_3" class="tb" /> + <h3> + <em>Section III.</em>—<span + class="smcap">Minerals.</span></h3> + <p class="smaller hang1"> + Gold — Silver — Platina — Mercury — Copper — Iron — Tin — Lead — Nickel — Zinc — Palladium — Bismuth — Antimony — Tellurium — Arsenic — Cobalt — Manganese — Tungsten — Molybdenum — Uranium — Titanium — Chromium — Columbium + or Tantalium — Cerium — Oxmium — Rodium — Iridium — Religious + Improvement.</p> + <p> + Some parts of the earth’s surface are barren and + unfruitful, yielding no pleasant herb for cattle, nor + vegetable for the service of man. But the bowels of the + earth in such places are commonly stored with rich mines, + and useful minerals. Without these what could we do in the + field, the house, the market, or crossing the seas? Surely, + the infinitely wise Architect has not made any thing in + vain! It is deserving of notice, says Mr. Parkes, that if + minerals had been placed on the <em>surface</em> of the + globe, they would have occupied the greatest part of the + earth, and prevented its cultivation. Their being deposited + <em>below</em>, is a proof of management and design worthy + of that Being who could furnish so great a + variety of this class of bodies.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span> + + There are twenty-seven distinct metals, which possess + properties very different and distinct from each other. For + a knowledge of most of these, we are indebted to the more + perfect modes of analysis, which modern chemistry has + afforded. The ancients were acquainted with only seven. The + properties of these were tolerably well known to the early + chemists, who acquired their knowledge from the alchemists. + Metals are divided into two classes, by modern chemists. + The one contains the malleable, and the other the brittle + metals. This last class is sometimes subdivided into those + which are easily, and those which are difficultly fused. + The malleable metals are eleven, namely, Gold, Silver, + Platina, Mercury, Copper, Iron, Tin, Lead, Nickel, Zinc, + and Palladium. The brittle metals are Bismuth, Antimony, + Tellurium, Arsenic, Cobalt, Manganese, Tungsten, + Molybdenum, Uranium, Titanium, Chromium, Columbium or + Tantalium, Cerium, Oxmium, Rodium, and Iridium.</p> + <p> + <em>Gold</em> is the heaviest of all metals excepting + platina; it is neither very elastic nor hard; but so + malleable and ductile, that it may be drawn into very fine + wire, or beaten into leaves so thin as to be carried away + by the slightest wind. Dr. Black has calculated, that it + would take fourteen millions of films of gold, such as is + on some fine gilt wire, to make the thickness of one inch: + whereas fourteen million leaves of common printing paper + make near three quarters of a mile. According to Fourcroy, + the ductility of gold is such, that one ounce of it is + sufficient to gild a silver wire more than thirteen hundred + miles long. Such is the tenacity of gold, that a wire + 1-16th of an inch in diameter will support a weight of 500 + pounds without breaking. Gold may be known from all other + metals by its bright yellow color, and its weight. Its + specific gravity is 19.3; when heavier, it must be combined + with platina; when lighter, and of a deep yellow color, it + is alloyed with copper; and if of a pale color, with + silver.</p> + <p> + Arabia had formerly its gold mines. The gold of Ophir, so + often mentioned in Scripture, must be that which was + procured in Arabia, on the coast of the Red Sea. We are + assured by Sanchoniathon, and by Herodotus, quoted by + Eusebius, that the Phœnicians carried on a considerable + traffic in gold, even before the days of Job, who thus + speaks of it, “Then shall thou lay up gold as dust, and the + gold of Ophir as stones of the brooks.” Gold is found in + Peru, as well as in several other parts of the world. It + generally occurs in a metallic state, and most commonly in + the form of grains. It frequently is met with in the ores + of other metals, but is chiefly found in the warmer regions + of the earth. It abounds in the sands of many African + rivers, in South America, and in India. Several rivers in + France contain gold in their sands. It has also been + discovered in Hungary, Sweden, Norway and Ireland. Near + Pamplona, in South America, single laborers have + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span> + + collected + upwards of £200 worth of wash-gold in a day. In the + province of Sonora, the Spaniards discovered a plain, + fourteen leagues in extent, in which they found wash-gold + at the depth of only 16 inches; the grains were of such a + size that some of them weighed 72 ounces, and in such + quantities, that in a short time, with a few laborers, they + collected 1,000 marks, (equal in value to £31,219 + 10<em>s.</em> sterling,) even without taking time to wash + the earth which had been dug. They found one grain which + weighed 132 ounces; this is deposited in the royal cabinet + at Madrid, and is worth £500.<a + href="#Footnote_104" + class="fnanchor">104</a> + The native gold found in + Ireland was in grains, from the smallest size to upwards + of two ounces. Only two grains were found of greater + weight, one of which weighed 5, and the other 22 ounces.<a + href="#Footnote_105" + class="fnanchor">105</a> + Gold mines were formerly + worked in Scotland; and indeed now, grains of this metal + are often found in brooks after a great flood. It has + been said, that at the nuptials of James V, covered + dishes filled with coins of <em>Scotch gold</em> were + presented to the guests by way of dessert. Standard gold + of Great Britain is twenty-two parts pure gold, and two + parts copper; it is therefore called gold of “twenty-two + carots fine.” Some have thought that Moses made use of + sulphuret of potass to render the calf of gold adored by + the Israelites soluble in water. Stahl wrote a long + dissertation to prove that this was the case.</p> + <p> + <em>Silver</em> is a heavy, sonorous, brilliant, white + metal; exceedingly ductile, and of great malleability and + tenacity. It possesses these latter properties in so great + a decree, that it may be beaten into leaves much thinner + than any paper, or drawn into wire as fine as a hair + without breaking. Fifty square inches of silver leaf weigh + not more than a grain. The specific gravity of silver is + 10.500. When perfectly pure, it is a very soft metal. To + know when it is pure, heat it in a common fire, or in the + flame of a candle: if it be alloyed, it will become + tarnished; but if it be pure, it will remain perfectly + white. Our standard silver is formed with fifteen parts + pure silver, and one part copper.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_106"> + Silver is found in various parts of the world in a metallic + state; also in the states of a sulphuret, a salt, and an + oxide. Native silver is found chiefly in the mines of + Potosi. Sulphuret of silver occurs in the silver mines of + Germany, Hungary, Saxony and Siberia. Oxides of silver are + also common in some of the silver mines in Germany. Silver + has lately been found in a copper-mine in Cornwall.<a + href="#Footnote_106" + class="fnanchor">106</a> + Most of our lead mines also + afford it, particularly some in Scotland. In the county + of Antrim, in Ireland, there is a mine so rich, that + every thirty pounds of lead ore is said to produce one + pound of silver. By the silver which was produced from + the lead mines in Cardiganshire, Sir Hugh Middleton is + said to have cleared two thousand pounds a month, and + that this enabled + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span> + + him to undertake the great work of bringing the New River + from Ware to London.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_107"> + Silver was used in commerce eleven hundred years before the + foundation of Rome. Moses, says, “And Abraham weighed to + Ephron the silver, which he had named in the audience of + the sons of Heth, four hundred shekels of silver, current + money with the merchant.” At this period silver was not + coined, but being only in bars, or ingots, in commerce was + always weighed. In the museum of the Academy of Sciences at + St. Petersburgh, is a piece of <em>native</em> silver from + China of such firmness, that coins have been struck from it + without its having passed through the crucible.<a + href="#Footnote_107" + class="fnanchor">107</a></p> + <p> + <em>Platina</em>, the heaviest of all metals, is nearly as + white as silver, and difficultly fusible, though by great + labor may be rendered malleable, so as to be wrought into + utensils like other metals. It will resist the strongest + heat of our fires without melting, and, like iron, is + capable of being welded when properly heated. It is found + in grains, in a metallic state, at St. Domingo: and also at + Santa Fe, in Peru, in the language of whose inhabitants it + means <em>little silver</em>. It has recently been + discovered in an ore of silver found in Estremadura, + existing in its metallic form. This metal was first + introduced into England by Charles Wood, who brought it + from Jamaica in the year 1741. It has been drawn into wire + less than the two thousandth part of an inch in diameter. + The specific gravity of hammered platina is 23.66, which is + more than double that of lead.</p> + <p> + <em>Mercury</em>, in the temperature of our atmosphere, is + a fluid metal, having the appearance of melted silver: in + this state it is neither ductile nor malleable; very + volatile when heated; extremely divisible; and is the + heaviest of all metals except platina and gold. We see it + always in a fluid state, because it is so fusible that a + small portion of caloric will keep it in a state of + fluidity; but when submitted to a sufficient degree of + cold, is similar to other metals, and may be beaten into + plates. It has been determined, that at 39 degrees below + zero of Fahrenheit’s thermometer is the point at which the + congelation of mercury takes place. In the winter of 1799, + Mr. Pepys froze 56 pounds of it into a solid and malleable + mass. At Hudson’s Bay, frozen mercury has lately been + reduced to sheets as thin as paper, by beating it upon an + anvil that had previously been reduced to the same + temperature. It is a substance so volatile that it may be + distilled like water; and is sometimes purified in this way + from mixture with other metals, being often adulterated + with lead and bismuth. It is also so elastic when in a + state of vapor, that it is capable of bursting the + strongest vessels. According to Mr. Biddle, its specific + gravity at 47 degrees above zero is 13.545; but + when frozen into a solid at 40 below zero, 15.612.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span> + + This metal is brought to Europe from the East Indies and + Peru; but is found in greater abundance at Almaden in + Spain, where it is extracted from the ore by distillation. + The quicksilver mine of Guanca Velica, in Peru, is 170 + fathoms in circumference, and 480 deep. In this profound + abyss are streets, squares, and a chapel where religious + mysteries on all festival occasions are celebrated. + Millions of flambeaux are continually burning to enlighten + this subterranean abode. This mine generally affects those + who work in it with convulsions. Notwithstanding this, the + unfortunate victims of an insatiable avarice are crowded + all together, and plunged <em>naked</em> into this abyss. + Tyranny has invented this refinement in cruelty, to render + it impossible for any thing to escape its restless + vigilance.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “Thus in the dark Peruvian mine confin’d,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Lost to the cheerful commerce of mankind,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The groaning captive wastes his life away,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + For ever exil’d from the realms of day;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + While, all forlorn and sad, he pines in vain</p> + <p class="ml0"> + For scenes he never shall possess again.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0" id="FNanchor_108"> + Mercury is raised in such abundance in Spain, that in the + year 1717 there remained above 1,200 tons of it in the + magazines at Almaden, after the necessary quantity had been + exported to Peru for the use of the silver mines there. The + quicksilver mines of Idria, a town in the circle of Lower + Austria, have been wrought constantly for 300 years, and + are thought on the average to yield above 100 tons of + quicksilver annually. Mercury is found also in Hungary and + China; it occurs most commonly in argillaceous schistus, + lime-stones, and sand-stones. It is likewise found in + Sweden, amalgamated with silver, and frequently combined + with sulphur. Running mercury is seen in globules, in some + earths and stones in America, and is collected from the + clefts of rocks. Cinnabar, or sulphuret of mercury, is also + generally found in those countries which produce the fluid + metal.<a + href="#Footnote_108" + class="fnanchor">108</a></p> + <p> + <em>Copper</em> is of a red color, very sonorous and + elastic, and the most ductile of all metals, except gold. A + wire 1-10th of an inch will support near 300 pounds. Its + specific gravity is 8.66. It will not burn so easily as + iron; which is evident from its not striking fire by + collision. Copper-mines have been worked in China, Japan, + Sumatra, and in the north of Africa. Native copper is + generally found in Siberia, Sweden, Hungary, and some parts + of France. Copper is found in several parts of England and + Wales, particularly in Cornwall, and the Isles of Man and + Anglesea. The copper pyrites found in Cornwall are + <em>sulphuret</em> of copper. Anglesea + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span> + + formerly yielded + more than twenty thousand tons of copper annually: the vein + of metal was originally more than seventy feet thick. + Copper mines have not been worked in England above 160 + years. Before that period, whenever the workmen met with + copper ore in the tin mines of Cornwall, they threw it + aside as useless, no English miner at that time knowing how + to reduce it to a metallic state. To chemical science, + therefore, we are indebted for such an ample supply of this + valuable metal. It is asserted, that a large copper mine + has been worked for some time in the state of New-Jersey in + America, and that the ore raised there is brought to this + country to be smelted. Native oxides of copper are found in + Cornwall and in South America. Carbonate of copper occurs + as a natural production in two varieties, called + <em>malachite</em> and <em>mountain green</em>. Sulphate of + copper, of a very rich quality, is also found in the state + of Connecticut. The stream in its course destroys + vegetation; and where it settles in places near the spring, + large lumps of metallic salt are collected. Bishop Watson + relates, that the waters which issue from the copper mines + in the county of Wicklow, in Ireland, are so impregnated + with sulphate of copper, that one of the workmen having + accidentally left a shovel in this water, found it some + weeks after so incrusted with copper, that he imagined it + was changed into copper. The proprietors of the mines, in + pursuance of this hint, made proper receptacles for the + water, and now find these streams of as much interest to + them as the mines. + <a id="FNanchor_109"></a> + When miners wish to know whether an ore + contains copper, they drop a little nitric acid upon it; + after a short time they dip a feather into the acid, and + then wipe it over the polished blade of a knife; and if + there be the smallest quantity of copper in it, the copper + will be precipitated on the knife.<a + href="#Footnote_109" + class="fnanchor">109</a> + A mass of <em>native</em> + copper has been found in a valley in the Brazils, + containing 2,666 pounds weight. The description of it in + the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Lisbon + is said to be very interesting, as the largest specimen + ever found before this weighs only ten pounds. In the + museum of the Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburgh, is + a piece of native malleable copper of extraordinary + magnitude, found on the copper island lying to the east + of Kamschatka.<a + href="#Footnote_110" + class="fnanchor">110</a> + The Romans were acquainted + with this metal; for the only money used by that people, + till the 485th year of their city, was made of it, when + silver began to be coined. In Sweden, houses are covered + with copper.<a + href="#Footnote_111" + class="fnanchor">111</a></p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span> + + <em>Iron</em> is of a livid blueish color, and one of the + hardest and most elastic of all metals. When dissolved, it + has a nauseous styptic taste, and being strongly rubbed + emits a peculiar smell. It is attracted by the magnet, and + has the property of becoming itself magnetic. It is fused + with great difficulty, but gives fire by collision with + flint. An iron wire only one-tenth of an inch in diameter, + will carry a weight of 450 pounds without breaking; and a + wire of tempered steel, of the same size, will carry one of + about 900 pounds. Iron becomes softer by heat, and has + capability of being welded to another piece of the same + metal so as to form one entire mass; and this may be done + without melting either of the pieces. No other metal, + except platina, possesses this singular properly, which + renders it most suitable for every common purpose. Its + specific gravity varies from 7.6 to 7.8.</p> + <p> + This valuable metal is plentifully diffused throughout + nature, pervading almost every thing, so as to be detected + even in plants and animal fluids, and is the chief cause of + color in earths and stones. It is found in large masses, + and in various states, in the bowels of the earth. In the + museum of the Academy of Sciences at Petersburgh is a mass + of native iron twelve hundred pounds weight. In the + northern parts of the world whole mountains are formed of + iron ore, and many of these ores are magnetic. Of the + English ores, the common Lancashire hematite produces the + best iron. This metal is found in solution in many natural + springs, and gives the character to all our chalybeate + waters: besides which, there are some springs which contain + iron in combination with sulphuric acid. These are called + vitriolated waters. There are several in this land; but + those at Chadwell near London, and at Swansea in + Glamorganshire, are probably the most important.</p> + <p> + As this metal possesses so many properties, exists in so + many different states, and is capable of being applied to + such a variety of excellent purposes, it is certainly the + most useful of all the products of the mineral kingdom. It + was used in the time of Moses, in whose writings Canaan is + mentioned as “a land whose stones were iron.” The Greeks + understood the method of tempering it. Homer, in the ninth + book of his Odyssey, describes the fire-brand driven into + the eye of Polyphemus, as hissing like hot iron immersed in + water. The advantages which we derive from the magnetic + property of iron are incalculable. To this we are indebted + for the <em>mariner’s compass</em>, by which man is enabled + to traverse the ocean, open a friendly or commercial + intercourse with every quarter of the globe, and to steer + his course with the utmost accuracy.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “Tall navies hence their doubtful way explore,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And ev’ry product waft from ev’ry shore;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Hence meagre want expell’d, and sanguine strife,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + For the mild charms of cultivated life.”</p> + </div> + <p> + Iron may be moulded by the hammer into any form, and united + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span> + + into as many parts as the workman pleases, without rivets + or solder. Were it not for this peculiar quality, many + works of great importance could never have been executed. A + most stupendous fabric, achieved by means of welded iron is + the Chinese bridge of chains, hung over a dreadful + precipice in the neighborhood of Kingtung, to connect two + high mountains. The chains are twenty-one in number, + stretched over the valley, and bound together by other + cross chains, so as to form a perfect road from the summit + of one immense mountain to that of the other.</p> + <p> + Some idea of the extent and importance of the iron trade + may be conceived from the following account, abridged from + Malkin’s Scenery, &c., of South Wales. “Merthyr Tydvill + was a very inconsiderable village till the year 1755, when + the late Mr. Bacon obtained a lease of the iron and + coal-mines of a district at least eight miles long, and + four wide, for 99 years. Since then these mines have been + leased by him to four distinct companies, and produce to + the heirs of Mr. Bacon a clear annual income of ten + thousand pounds. The part occupied by Mr. Crawshay contains + now the largest set of iron works in the kingdom. He + constantly employs more than two thousand workmen, and pays + weekly for wages, coal, and other expenses of the works, + twenty-five thousand pounds. The number of smelting + furnaces belonging to the different companies at Merthyr is + about sixteen. Around each of these furnaces are erected + forges and rolling-mills, for converting pig into plate and + bar-iron. These works have conferred so much importance on + the neighborhood, that the obscure village of Merthyr + Tydvill has become the largest town in Wales, and contains + more than twelve thousand inhabitants.”</p> + <p> + <em>Tin</em> is white, a little elastic, and so exceedingly + soft and ductile, that it may be beaten out into leaves + thinner than paper. It is much more combustible than many + of the metals; and is soluble in all the mineral acids. Its + specific gravity is 7.291, or about 516 pounds to the cubic + foot. This metal is found in Germany, Saxony, South + America, the East Indies, and in England, chiefly in + Cornwall and Devonshire. It must have been known very + early, as it is mentioned in the books of Moses. Homer in + his Iliad mentions the use of tin.</p> + <p> + Pliny says, that the Romans learned the method of tinning + their culinary vessels from the Gauls. They used tin to + alloy copper, for making those elastic plates which they + employ in shooting darts from their warlike machines. The + addition of tin to copper renders that metal more fluid, + and disposes it to assume all the impressions of the mould. + It was probably with a view to this, that it was used by + the ancient Romans in their coinage. Many of the imperial + <em>large brass</em>, as they are called, are found to + consist of copper and tin alone. Antique coins frequently + occur, made by forgers in the different reigns, in imitation + of the silver + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span> + + currency, which contain a very large proportion + of tin. There are coins of Nero which are of a most debased + and brittle brass.</p> + <p> + According to Aristotle, the tin mines of Cornwall were + known and worked in his time. Diodorus Siculus, who wrote + about forty years before the Christian era, gives an + account of working these mines: he says, that their produce + was conveyed to Gaul, and thence to different parts of + Italy. The miners of Cornwall were so celebrated for their + knowledge of working metals, that, about the middle of the + seventeenth century, the renowned Becher, a physician of + Spire, and tutor of Stahl, came over to this country on + purpose to visit them; and it is reported of him, that, + when he had seen them, he exclaimed, He who was a + <em>teacher</em> at home, was a <em>learner</em> when he + came there. About 3,000 tons of tin are furnished annually + in Cornwall, two-fifths of which are usually exported to + India by the East India Company. There are two kinds of tin + known in commerce, namely, <em>block</em> tin, and + <em>grain</em> tin. Block tin is procured from the common + tin ore, and usually cast in blocks of about 320 pounds + weight. It is taken to the proper offices to be assayed, + where it receives the impression of a lion rampant, being + the arms of the Duke of Cornwall, pays a duty of four + shillings per hundred weight to the Duke, and then becomes + legally salable. Grain tin is found in small particles, in + what is called the <em>stream tin ore</em>. It appears to + have been washed from its original bed in remote ages. This + kind of tin owes its superiority, not only to the purity of + the ore, but to the care with which it is washed and + refined.</p> + <p> + <em>Lead</em> is of a blueish white color, scarcely + sonorous, unelastic, and, being the softest of all metals, + yields readily to the hammer. It generally contains a small + quantity of silver. An alloy of this metal with tin forms + pewter, and in different proportions soft solder. Its + specific gravity is 11.35. Lead ore is very abundant in + Scotland, the western parts of Northumberland and Durham, + Derbyshire, and many other parts of the world. The lead + found in these counties occurs on the estates of Colonel + Beaumont, and of those of the late Lord Derwentwater: the + last of these were forfeited to Government; and are now in + the possession of Greenwich Hospital. Lead was known in the + time of Moses, and was in common use among the ancients. + The Romans sheathed the bottoms of their ships with it, + fastened by nails made with bronze. During the first + century, at Rome, it was twenty-four times the price it is + now in Europe; whereas tin was only eight times its present + price.</p> + <p> + <em>Nickel</em> is white, ductile and malleable, but of + difficult fusion. It is attracted by the magnet, and has + itself the property of attracting iron: but as the nickel + of commerce always contains iron, this may disguise its + properties, and prevent its nature being exactly known, + Richter, in his Annales de Chimie, asserts, that this metal, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span> + + in its pure state, is + nearly as brilliant as silver, and more attractable by the + loadstone than iron; that it is not liable to be altered by + the atmosphere; and that its specific gravity when forged + is 8.666. The ore of nickel is procured from various parts + of Germany, and is often found with cobalt. It is chiefly + used in China; and it is said, that the manufacturers of + Birmingham combine it with iron, and melt it with brass, + with great advantage.</p> + <p> + <em>Zinc</em> possesses but a small degree of malleability + and ductility, except under certain circumstances. When + broken, it appears of a shining blueish white; and when + exposed to the air, becomes covered with a pellicle which + reflects various colors. If beaten out into thin leaves, it + will take fire from the flame of a common taper. Its + filings are mixed with gunpowder, to produce those + brilliant stars and spangles which are seen in the best + artificial fire-works. It is also one of the metals + employed to form Galvanic batteries. It is the most + combustible metal we have. It will decompose water without + the assistance of heat. Next to manganese, it has the + strongest affinity for oxygen of all the metals. Its + specific gravity is 6.861. Its nature is such, that it + seems to form the link between brittle and malleable + metals. Some mineralogists consider zinc to be the most + abundant metal in nature, excepting iron. Calamine, or + lapis calaminaris, which is a native oxide of zinc, + combined with carbonic acid, is found both in masses and in + a crystallized state, and is generally combined with a + large portion of silex. Zinc is also found in an ore called + <em>blend</em>, in which state it is mineralized by + sulphur. The miners call it Black Jack—a mineral employed + till lately in Wales for mending the roads. Zinc is + generally called by our artists <em>spelter</em>; and in + England and elsewhere it is extracted from calamine, and + other ores, by distillation. This metal abounds in China, + where it is used for current coin, and for that purpose is + employed in the utmost purity. These coins have frequently + Tartar characters on one side, and Chinese on the other. + They have generally a square hole in the centre, that they + may be carried on strings, and more readily counted.</p> + <p> + <em>Antimony</em> is of a dusky white color, brilliant, + brittle, and destitute of ductility. Though seemingly hard, + it may be cut with a knife. Its specific gravity, according + to Bergman, is 6.86. It is procured from an ore which is + found chiefly in Hungary and Norway. Native antimony, + alloyed with a small portion of silver and iron, has been + found in Sweden. And it is said, that it has been found in + the state of Connecticut, in America, nearly in a pure + metallic form. There are five distinct ores of antimony, + but the grey is the only one found in sufficient quantity + for the manufacturer; it is a sulphuret of antimony. + Perhaps we have no metal more valuable as a medicine than + this, or one which is applied in such various ways.</p> + <p> + <em>Bismuth</em> is of a yellowish white color, lamellated + texture, and + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span> + + moderately hard, but not malleable. It is so + brittle that it breaks readily under the hammer, and may be + reduced to powder. It has the singular property of + <em>expanding</em> as it cools. Hence, probably, its use in + the metallic composition for printers’ types; as from this + expansive property are obtained the most perfect + impressions of the moulds in which the letters are cast. In + manufactories this metal is known to the workmen by the + name of <em>tin glass</em>. It is one of the metals which + will inflame when suspended in oxymuriatic acid gas. It is + generally found with cobalt in the cobaltic ores of Saxony + and England. Native bismuth, and sulphuret of bismuth, are + found on the continent; and a sulphuret of bismuth has been + discovered in Cornwall; but this is not an abundant metal. + If 8 parts of bismuth, 5 of lead, and 3 of tin, be melted + together, the mixed metal will fuse at a heat no greater + than 212°. Tea-spoons made of this alloy are sold in + London, to surprise those who are unacquainted with their + nature. They have the appearance of common tea-spoons, but + melt as soon as they are put into hot tea.</p> + <p> + <em>Arsenic</em>, when reduced to its pure metallic state, + is a friable brilliant metal, of a blueish white color, + easily tarnishing, or oxidizing, by exposure to the air. In + all its states it is extremely poisonous. It may be known + by the smell of garlic, and by the white fumes which it + exhales when thrown upon a piece of red-hot coal. Its + specific gravity is 8.310. It is found in Bohemia, Hungary, + Saxony, and other places on the continent; and in + combination with acids, sulphur, or oxygen. The arsenic of + commerce is prepared in Saxony, in the operation of + roasting the cobalt ores for the manufacture of zaffre. The + reverberatory furnace in which the ores are roasted + terminates in a long horizontal chimney; and in this + chimney the arsenical vapors are condensed, forming a + crust, which at stated times is cleared off by criminals, + who are condemned to this work.</p> + <p> + <em>Cobalt</em> is a whitish-grey, brittle metal, nearly + resembling fine hardened steel; is difficult of fusion, but + obedient to the magnet. According to Bergman, its specific + gravity is about 7.700; though Tassaret makes it 8.538. + Formerly all our cobalt came from Saxony. The cobalt ores + of Hesse produce a nett profit of £14,000 a year, as stated + in Born’s Travels; though once they were used for no other + purpose than to repair the roads. But now cobalt is found + abundantly in the Mendip hills in Somersetshire, and in a + mine near Penzance in Cornwall. Zaffre is now made from the + cobalt ores found in these hills. Had it not been for the + rapid promulgation of chemical science in these kingdoms, + this important metal might have lain in the bowels of the + earth undiscovered for ages yet to come. Formerly miners + not only threw cobalt aside as useless, but they considered + it so troublesome when they found it among other ores, that, + as stated in Beckmann’s History of + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span> + + Inventions, a prayer was + used in the German church, that God would preserve miners + from <em>cobalt</em> and from <em>spirits</em>. It is now + very valuable to the manufacturers of porcelain.</p> + <p> + <em>Manganese</em> is of a dark grey color, brilliant, very + brittle, of considerable hardness, and difficult + fusibility. Its specific gravity has been estimated by + Bergman at 6.850, and by Hielm 7.00. It is never found + native. It was first procured in its pure metallic form by + Kaim and Gahn between 1770 and 1775. It abounds in America, + and in various parts of the continent. The manganese which + is used in England, is obtained in a state of black oxide + from Somersetshire and Devon. It is found either in the + state of an oxide or a salt. But the discovery of mines of + it in this country is a new acquisition, owing to the + spirit of chemical research. Dr. William Dyce, of Aberdeen, + has lately communicated to the Society for the Promotion of + Arts, &c., the discovery of a mine of great extent, and + very fine quality, in the vicinity of that town: for which + the gold medal of the Society was sent him. Professor + Beattie, of the same place, has also discovered manganese + in his neighborhood, on the river Don, of good quality. + Scheele discovered this metal in the ashes of burnt + vegetables. Proust has lately announced the discovery of a + native sulphuret of manganese. That from the Bristol and + the Mendip hills generally contains lead.</p> + <p> + <em>Tungsten</em> is a heavy metal, but its properties are + not much known. It is procured from a mineral found in + Sweden, and from an ore called <em>wolfram</em>, found in + Cornwall, Germany, &c. It has been used in France for + making vegetable lakes; but is not used here. Though it has + been recommended as a proper basis for colors, it shows in + some instances a strange fugacious disposition. Its + specific gravity is 17.60.</p> + <p> + The same may be said of the other metals, their properties + not being much known. <em>Molybdenum</em> was first + procured in a metallic state by Hielm, in the year 1782; + and, it is believed, has been employed in some processes of + dyeing in Germany. As the ore may be had in great plenty, + it will probably, some time hence, come into general use + here. At present it is not used in any of the arts. Its + specific gravity is 8.61. <em>Uranium</em> was discovered + by Klaproth in 1789, in a mineral called pechblend; and has + since been found combined with carbonic acid, in the common + green mica. <em>Titanium</em> was first noticed in the year + 1781, by Mr. Macgregor, in a greyish black sand, found in + the vale of Menachan in Cornwall; but has since been + discovered by Klaproth in several other minerals. An ore of + it occurs in Transylvania, which very much resembles yellow + sand. This metal has been used in France for painting + porcelain. <em>Tellurium</em> was discovered by Klaproth in + the year 1798, in a particular kind of gold ore. It has + hitherto been found in quantities too small to allow of its + being employed in the arts. Its specific gravity + is only 6.115. <em>Chromium</em> received + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span> + + its name from a + property it has of imparting a lively color to a variety of + other bodies. The emerald is colored by an oxide of this + metal. <em>Columbium</em> was discovered in a mineral sent + from Massachusetts in North America. <em>Tantalium</em> was + found in an ore from Swedish Lapland: but Dr. Woollaston + has lately discovered that this and columbium are + identically the same metal. <em>Cerium</em> had not been + seen in a metallic form till Sir Humphrey Davy procured it + from some oxide discovered by Hissinger and Berzelius in + 1804. Its scarcity will prevent its being applied to any + useful purpose.</p> + <p> + The metals are simple substances, distinguishable from all + other bodies by their lustre, great specific gravity, + perfect opacity, and superior power of conducting + electricity. They are the great agents by which we are + enabled to explore the bowels of the earth, and examine the + recesses of nature. Their uses are so multiplied, that they + are become of prime importance in every occupation of life.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_112"> + The reason why one metal possesses such opposite and + specific differences from those of another, is not to be + attributed to chance, but must certainly be the effect of + consummate wisdom and contrivance. These metals differ so + much from each other in their degrees of hardness, lustre, + color, elasticity, fusibility, weight, malleability, + ductility, and tenacity, that the Author of nature appears + to have had in view all the necessities of man coming + within the range of their operation.<a + href="#Footnote_112" + class="fnanchor">112</a></p> + <blockquote> + <p> + [It is now generally admitted that there are <span + class="smcap">forty</span> + <em>distinct metals</em>.</p> + <p> + Some of these metals are the <em>bases</em> of the + <em>alkalis</em>, <em>alkaline earths</em>, and + <em>earths</em>. And as <em>this</em> class of metals is + but little known to the great mass of readers, some + remarks will be acceptable: they are recommended to his + special attention, as they form the base of the only + satisfactory theory of <em>volcanos</em> and + <em>earthquakes</em>. The number of metals in this class + are <em>twelve</em>.</p> + <p> + 1. The bases of the three alkalis, <em>potash</em>, + <em>soda</em>, and <em>lithia</em>.</p> + <p> + The base of <em>potash</em> is <span class= + "smcap">potasium</span>. This metal was discovered in + 1807 by Sir H. Davy. Its texture is crystalline; color + and lustre similar to mercury. It is solid at the + ordinary temperature of the atmosphere; somewhat fluid at + 70°, melts at 150°. Its affinity for oxygen is so great + that it oxidizes rapidly in the air; and decomposes water + instantly upon contact, emitting heat, flame, and light, + as it swims on the surface of the water, being the + <em>lighter</em> substance. In these cases it oxidizes + and becomes potash, by abstracting oxygen from the air + and water.</p> + <p> + The base of <em>soda</em> is <span + class="smcap">sodium</span>. + This metal was discovered by the + same chemist the same year. It has the strong metallic + lustre of silver. It fuses at 200°, and evaporates at a + full red heat. It decomposes both air and water, but not + so rapidly as potasium. When thrown on water it effervesces + strongly; and inflames with light, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span> + + when thrown on boiling + water. In these cases soda results, which is the + <em>oxide of sodium. This metal is the base of common + salt.</em></p> + <p> + The base of <em>lithia</em> is <span + class="smcap">lithium</span>. + This metal was discovered in + Sweden in 1818, by Arfwedson. It is of a white color, + like sodium; but oxidizes so rapidly as not to be kept in + its pure metallic state. Its peculiar properties are, + therefore, not so certainly known. Its alkaline quality + is well ascertained, when in combination with oxygen, in + which form it commonly appears.</p> + <p> + 2. The bases of the four alkaline earths, + <em>baryta</em>, <em>strontia</em>, <em>lime</em> and + <em>magnesia</em>.</p> + <p> + The base of <em>baryta</em> is <span class= + "smcap">barium</span>. This metal was discovered by Sir + H. Davy, in 1808. It is of a dark gray color, very heavy, + and attracts oxygen very strongly from the air, and from + water, with effervescence, caused by the escape of + hydrogen gas, and thus becomes an oxide which is the pure + earth baryta, of a white color, and very heavy. Its + intimate properties are not yet well known.</p> + <p> + The base of <em>strontia</em>, is <span + class="smcap">strontium</span>. + This metal is very much like + barium, in color, weight, and power of decomposing air + and water, and thus becoming an oxide, which is the earth + strontia. Yet it is satisfactorily distinguished from + barium.</p> + <p> + The base of <em>lime</em> is <span + class="smcap">calcium</span>. + This metal was satisfactorily + obtained first by Sir H. Davy. It is of a whiter color + than the two last mentioned metals; and like them + decomposes the air and water, and thus becomes lime, + which is an <em>oxide of calcium</em>. The <em>base</em> + of common <em>limestone is</em>, of course, <em>a + metal</em>.</p> + <p> + The base of <em>magnesia</em> is <span + class="smcap">magnesium</span>. + This metal was discovered by + Sir H. Davy, but in very small quantities; sufficient, + however, to determine its strong affinity for oxygen, so + as to decompose water, and thus oxidize, and become the + earth magnesia, which is a metallic oxide. The base of + common magnesia is, of course, a metal.</p> + <p> + 3. The bases of the five earths, <em>alumina</em>, + <em>glucina</em>, <em>yttria</em>, <em>zirconia</em>, and + <em>silica</em>.</p> + <p> + The base of <em>alumina</em> is <span + class="smcap">aluminium</span>. + The existence of this metal was + pretty satisfactorily ascertained by Sir H. Davy, and + subsequently <em>established</em> by Wöhler. It is very + difficult to obtain it, as the preparation is attended + with intense heat and light. When obtained it is + generally in small scales of a metallic lustre. It + requires a great heat to fuse it; and when heated to + redness in the open air, it burns with a bright light, + and the product is an <em>oxide of aluminium</em>, which + is <em>pure clay</em>, of a white color, and quite hard.</p> + <p> + This oxide, or pure clay, is very abundant in the + composition of the earth, though generally very much + adulterated. It is found in all countries and used for + making bricks, porcelain ware, pipes, &c. When pure + it sometimes crystallizes. Hence it is capable of forming + some of the most beautiful <em>gems</em>: as the sapphire + and ruby, which are pure crystallized clay. <em>Clay, + then, has a metallic base.</em></p> + <p> + The base of <em>glucina</em>, is <span + class="smcap">glucinium</span>. + Glucina was first discovered by + Vauquelin in 1798, and by analogy its base was + <em>supposed</em> to be metallic, which has since been + confirmed by Dr. Wöhler, who has obtained the base in the + form of a metal. <em>An. de ch. et de ph. Sept. + 1828, as quoted by Dr. Bache, Turner’s Chem. p. 303.</em></p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span> + + The base of <em>yttria</em> is <span + class="smcap">yttrium</span>. + This metal was obtained in a + separate state by Dr. Wöhler, (See last quoted + authority,) though its existence was inferred by Godolin + who discovered the earth which is an oxide of this metal.</p> + <p> + The base of <em>zirconia</em> is <span + class="smcap">zirconium</span>. + The earth was discovered by + Klaproth in 1789, and its metallic base clearly + established by Berzelius 1824.</p> + <p> + The base of <em>silica</em> is <span + class="smcap">silicium</span>. + There exists some doubts among + chemists whether this base is indeed a <em>metal</em>; + but there is no doubt but that it is + <em>combustible</em>, and that the earth silica, (or + silex,) is an <em>oxide</em>. From <em>analogy</em> it + would be inferred this base is metallic, and the + <em>evidence</em> preponderates on this side. This oxide, + or earth, is very abundant. It is more commonly called + <em>silex</em>. It is the base of the whole class of + primitive rocks, and almost altogether constitutes + quartz, flint, &c.</p> + <p> + The reader is now desired to recollect that this class of + metals constitutes the <em>bases of the alkalis, and + earths</em>; which are simply <em>metallic oxides</em> or + a combination of oxygen with the metals. Recollect also + that <em>all these metals are inflammable</em>, and some + of them simply upon exposure to air and water. Now as the + earths at the surface of our globe are the results of + <em>chemical action</em>, in which the oxygen combined + with the metals, it is beyond a doubt that these + substances were created in their elementary and + uncombined state; and that the act of combining would + produce an inconceivable amount of heat, so as to fuse + completely the whole mass of our earth; and in this state + of fusion the oxides would commence forming at the + <em>surface chiefly</em>; and thus by oxidizing the + metals would form the earths, rocks, &c., which + constitute, principally, the <em>crust</em> of our globe. + When this crust became sufficiently thick it would + protect the <em>interior</em> parts of the earth from + oxidation, by preventing the access of air and water; and + they would of course remain in a pure metallic state. + But, (as is most probable,) if the materials, being + promiscuously mixed throughout the mass at the + commencement of the chemical action, should oxidize + throughout, then the indurating of the crust, by cooling, + would inclose the <em>interior</em> parts <em>in a state + of fusion</em>, and in that state they remain to the + present time. Nor is this astonishing when we recollect + the <em>earths</em> are almost perfect <em>non-conductors + of caloric</em>: of course it could not escape at all + through the <em>crust</em> of the earth, formed of many + strata of earths, in the shape of rocks, which, taken + together, may be about eight miles thick.</p> + <p> + If, by any concussion, or by percolation, water, or air + should reach these metals in the interior, or these fused + masses of matter, the consequence would be + <em>decomposition</em>, and the production of a great + amount of gas, and heat, which operating conjointly, + first produce earthquakes by struggling to escape from + the caverns in which they are generated; and when they + find a passage, they would break forth into volcanos. + This is the only true and satisfactory theory of + earthquakes and volcanos.</p> + <p> + It may be added, that this action would naturally + bring to its aid the astonishing + powers of electricity and galvanism.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span> + + The <em>forty</em> metals mentioned above, may be classed + scientifically into <em>two</em> classes.</p> + <p> + 1. <em>The bases of the alkalis, alkaline earths, and + earths.</em> These are twelve: potasium, sodium, and + lithium; bases of the alkalis—barium, strontium, calcium, + and magnesia; bases of the alkaline earths—aluminium, + glucinium, yttrium, zirconium, and silicium; bases of the + earths.</p> + <p> + 2. Metals, the oxides of which are neither alkalis, or + earths. These are <em>twenty-eight</em> in number, and + may be set down in the following order: gold, silver, + iron, copper, mercury, lead, tin, antimony, zinc, + bismuth, arsenic, cobalt, platinum, nickel, manganese, + tungsten, tellurium, molybdenum, uranium, titanium, + chromium, columbium, palladium, rhodium, iridium, osmium, + cereum, and cadmium.</p> + <p> + Not only the <em>first</em> class of metals are + <em>combustible</em>, but the <em>last</em> also. + <em>All</em> the metals are now well known to be + combustible bodies, <em>and may be made to burn as really + as wood</em>.]</p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <em>Gems</em> are of a higher order than metals, of a more + refined nature, and consist of two classes, the pellucid + and semi-pellucid. Those of the first class are bright, + elegant, and beautiful fossils, naturally and essentially + compound, ever found in small detached masses, extremely + hard, and of great lustre. Those composing the second class + are stones naturally and essentially compound, not + inflammable nor soluble in water, found in detached masses, + and composed of crystalline matter debased by earth: + however, they are but slightly debased, are of great beauty + and brightness, of a moderate degree of transparency, and + usually found in small masses.</p> + <p> + The knowledge of the gems depends principally on observing + their hardness and color. Their <em>hardness</em> is + commonly allowed to stand in the following order: the + diamond, ruby, sapphire, jacinth, emerald, amethyst, + garnet, carneol, chalcedony, onyx, jasper, agate, porphyry, + and marble. This difference, however, is not regular and + constant, but frequently varies. In point of + <em>color</em>, the diamond is valued for its transparency, + the ruby for its deep red, the sapphire for its blue, the + emerald for its green, the jacinth for its orange, the + amethyst for its purple, the carneol for its carnation, the + onyx for its tawny, the jasper, agate, and porphyry, for + their vermillion, green, and variegated colors, and the + garnet for its transparent blood-red.</p> + <p> + There is not a unity of opinion concerning the cause of + this difference. “Their colors,” says Cronstedt, “are + commonly supposed to depend upon metallic vapors; but may + they not more justly be supposed to arise from a phlogiston + united with a metallic or some other earth? because we find + that metallic earths which are perfectly well calcined give + no color to any glass; and that the manganese, on the other + hand, gives more color than can be ascribed to the small + quantity of metal which is to be extracted from it.” M. + Magellan is of opinion, that their color is owing chiefly + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span> + + to the mixture of iron which enters their composition; but + approves the sentiment of Cronstedt, that phlogiston has a + share in their production, it being well known that the + calces of iron when dephlogisticated, produce the red and + yellow colors of marble, and when phlogisticated to a + certain degree produce the blue or green colors.</p> + <p> + With regard to the texture of gems, M. Magellan observes, + that all of them are foliated or laminated, and of various + degrees of hardness. Whenever the edges of these laminæ are + sensible to the eye, they have a fibrous appearance, and + reflect various shades of color, which change successively + according to their angular position to the eye. These are + called by the French <em>chatorantes</em>; and what is a + blemish in their transparency, often enhances their value + on account of their scarcity. But when the substance of a + gem is composed of a broken texture, consisting of various + sets of laminæ differently inclined to each other, it emits + at the same time various irradiations of different colors, + which succeed one another according to their angle of + position.<a + id="FNanchor_113"></a> + This kind of gems has obtained the name of + <em>opals</em>, which are valued in proportion to the + brilliancy, beauty, and variety of their colors. Their + crystallization, no doubt, depends on the same cause which + produces that of salts, earths, and metals: but as to the + particular configuration of each species of gems, we can + hardly depend upon any individual form as a criterion to + ascertain each kind; and when we have attended with the + utmost care to all that has been written on the subject, we + are at last obliged to appeal to chemical analysis, because + it very often assumes various forms.<a + href="#Footnote_113" + class="fnanchor">113</a></p> + <hr class="r10" /> + <p> + The rich treasures of the earth are within it, observes a + worthy author, so that they cannot be discovered and + brought to the surface without the labor of man; yet they + are not placed so deep, as to render his exertion + ineffectual. Thus nothing but what is comparatively + worthless is to be found by the indolent on the surface of + life. Every thing valuable must be obtained by diligent + research and sedulous effort. All wisdom, science, art and + experience, are hidden at a proper depth for the exercise + of intellect, and they who bend their attention to any of + these objects shall not be disappointed in their pursuit.</p> + <p> + The treasures of wisdom, which are displayed in the + redemption of mankind by Jesus Christ, and recorded in the + Divine Oracles, do not lie upon the surface of the letter, + for every superficial reader to observe them: therefore our + Lord says, “Search the Scriptures.” The word <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: ereunate" + class="msg">ερευνατε</span>, + compounded of <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: ereô" + class="msg">ερεω</span>, + <em>I seek</em>, and <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: eunê" + class="msg">ευνη</span>, + <em>a bed</em>, is, says St. Chrysostom, “a metaphor taken from + those who dig deep and search for metals in the bowels of + the earth. They look for the bed where the metal lies, and + break every clod, and sift and examine the whole, in order + to discover the ore.” In Leigh’s + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span> + + Critica Sacra, we meet + with these observations, illustrative of the Greek + word—“<em>Search</em>; that is, shake and sift them, as the + word signifies: search narrowly, till the true force and + meaning of every sentence, yea, of every word and syllable, + nay, of every letter and yod therein, be known and + understood. Confer place with place; the scope of one place + with that of another; things going before with things + coming after: compare word with word, letter with letter, + and search it thoroughly.”</p> + <p> + The Holy Scriptures contain the most invaluable treasures, + a complete collection of doctrines, precepts, and promises, + necessary to everlasting happiness. In this respect they + have a peculiar advantage above all the writings of the + most distinguished philosophers in the heathen world. The + Bible presents an exact model of religion, for the + instruction and common benefit of mankind. Here we have, in + a narrow compass, all the things necessary to be known, + believed, and practised, in order to our salvation; for it + is, “a lamp to our feet, and a light to our path.” We are + taught the knowledge of the only living and true God, his + spiritual nature, adorable perfections, and endearing + relations to his rational creatures: so that the meanest + Christian who can read, may arrive at more true and just + notions of him, than the wisest heathen sages could attain, + who as the Apostle intimates, did only grope after him in + the dark.—We are informed how Adam was created, how he + fell, and what is the consequence of his transgression to + all his posterity: the most celebrated heathens were not + able to account for the origin of moral evil, as affecting + the human race. The glorious plan of redemption by Jesus + Christ is set before us, in its commencement, progress, and + completion; which is the highest display of the moral + perfections of God, and attended with the most beneficial + advantages to man.—The rules of duty, all the agenda of + religion, or things to be done, are plainly stated, and + properly enforced. Promises, containing pardon, adoption, + sanctification, and eternal life, are every where + interspersed, and are “yea, and amen, in Christ.”</p> + <p> + Our obligation to search the Scriptures, and by that means + acquaint ourselves with their valuable contents, appears + from the <em>necessity</em> and <em>design</em> of + committing them to writing. St. Paul says, “All scripture + is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for + doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in + righteousness: that the man of God may be perfect, + thoroughly furnished unto all good works.” But how can they + contribute to these important ends without being read? What + effect could the mere writing of them have on mankind, to + inform the judgment and regulate the life? How could + Christian motives have proper influence, if the Sacred + Volume were neglected? Is it not an insult to common sense, + to assert that the Scriptures were written for our + instruction and admonition, but it is not necessary to + peruse them + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span> + + to learn what they teach? To have a Bible, and + not to read it, for direction in the way of truth and + holiness, would not be attended with any peculiar + advantage. Precious metals, deposited in the earth, must be + procured to be rendered beneficial. The Holy Scriptures + contain the revelation of God to mankind, declare his will + with certainty, and are the prescribed means of salvation: + the Apostle says, “they are able to make us wise unto + salvation, through faith that is in Christ Jesus.”</p> + + <hr id="CHAPTER_V" class="chap" /> + <h2> + CHAPTER V.<br /> + <span class="large">FOURTH DAY.</span></h2> + <h3> + <em>Section I.</em>—<span + class="smcap">The Sun.</span></h3> + <p class="smaller hang1"> + Signs — Names — Nature — Motions — Form — Magnitude — Distance + — Suspension — Idolatrous worship of the Sun — The Sun an + Emblem of Christ.</p> + <p> + On the <em>fourth day</em>, “God said, Let there be lights + in the firmament of the heaven to divide the day from the + night, and let them be for signs, and for seasons, and for + days, and years: and let them be for lights in the + firmament of the heaven to give light upon the earth: and + it was so. And God made two great lights; the greater light + to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night: he + made the stars also. And God set them in the firmament of + the heaven, to give light upon the earth, and to rule over + the day and over the night, and to divide the light from + the darkness.” The light which had hitherto been scattered + and confused, was now collected and formed into several + luminaries, and so rendered more glorious and of greater + utility.</p> + <p> + A sensible and pious author observes, that not only the two + great lights, which were made after a special manner to + rule the day and the night, but, in general, all the lights + in the firmament of the heaven, are said to be for signs + and for seasons; or, as some render the words, “for signs + of the seasons.” And indeed this seems to be the meaning of + the inspired writer. As for the manner of expression, “for + signs and for seasons,” it is very common in the Hebrew, as + well as in many other languages, and is a figurative way of + speech, expressing those things disjunctively, which must + by the understanding be joined together. First, these + lights are said to be <em>for signs</em>, and then the + things are mentioned which they are to signify, namely, the + <em>seasons</em>, the <em>days</em>, and the + <em>years</em>: whereas, if we understand the word + <em>signs</em> in an indefinite sense, and not confined to + what follows, we are through the whole text left in great + uncertainty; seeing that there are <em>signs</em> appointed + <em>in + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span> + + the heaven</em> for some purpose or other, but not + knowing for what. Besides, if we must take all the parts of + the text disjunctively, then “the lights in the firmament” + must be taken for <em>seasons</em>, and for <em>days</em>, + and for <em>years</em>, as well as for <em>signs</em>. But + we know, that the celestial bodies are not themselves + <em>seasons</em>, and <em>days</em>, and <em>years</em>, + but only <em>signs</em> of them, by such particular motions + and aspects, as God, according to the laws of nature, has + ordained them. Neither can I see reason to believe, that + every motion or position of the heavenly bodies has a + special signification in it: though serving in general to + display the wisdom and power of God, in their regular + courses. The sun, indeed, which is called the <em>greater + light</em>, is said <em>to rule the day</em>, as it is by + the appearance of his light, increasing and decreasing, + that we measure the length of the day; and the moon + likewise <em>to rule the night</em>, partly on the like + account. Thus likewise the sun’s course (if we may so call + it) is a determining sign of the beginning and ending of + the year, and of its various seasons. And in general, the + sun, the moon, and the other lights, are necessary signs of + the seasons of sowing, reaping, planting, and are useful in + navigation, as well as other arts.</p> + <p> + Costard, in his History of Astronomy, makes some critical + remarks on the name of this greater light. He says, The sun + is, by the Greeks, called <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: Hêlios" + class="msg">Ἡλιος</span>: + which is nothing more than the Hebrew word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">אל</span> + <em>El</em>, modelled after the Greek + manner of pronunciation, and signifies <em>Lord</em>; the + first idolatrous worship being paid to this planet. In the + Hebrew language it is called <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">שמש</span> + <em>Shemesh</em>, and in the Chaldee <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">שמשא</span> + <em>Shimsha</em>, from <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">שמש</span> + <em>Shamesh</em>, to <em>minister</em>, on account of its + administering light and heat to this world. From this + property of communicating heat, it is also called <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">המה</span> + <em>Hammah</em>. By the Phœnician idolaters it seems to + have been called <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">בעל</span> + <em>Baal</em>, or <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">בעל שמים</span> + <em>Baal-Shamim</em>, the <em>Lord of Heaven</em>. And on + account of the supposed swiftness of its diurnal motion + from east to west, it had a chariot dedicated to it at + Sidon, an ancient town of Phœnicia. Such a chariot is still + seen on the coins of that place. This superstition was + likewise imitated by the idolatrous Jews: for we read of + <em>the horses which the kings of</em> Judah <em>had + given</em>, or dedicated, <em>to the sun</em>. By the + Chaldeans it seems to have been called <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">בל</span> + <em>Bel</em>, and by the Assyrians <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">פל</span> + <em>Pul</em>; and, with the addition, sometimes of <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">אב</span> + <em>ab</em>, or <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">אף</span> + <em>ap</em>, i.e. <em>father</em>, <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">אף-פל</span> + <em>Ap-Pul</em>, or <em>Father-Lord</em>; from whence the + Greeks formed their <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: Apollôn" + class="msg">Απολλων</span>, + another name given by them to the sun. The name of + this luminary, among the Romans, was <em>sol</em>; given + more probably, on account of his scorching heat in the + summer, or from his determining the length of the year by + his course, than because he appeared <em>solus, alone</em>, + according to the derivation given by Macrobius.</p> + <p> + The <em>nature</em> of the sun is a subject which has not + only excited the most diligent inquiry + among men of scientific knowledge, but + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span> + + the opinions + concerning it have passed through a variety of + vicissitudes. The sun being evidently the source of light + and heat, was by the ancients considered to be a globe of + fire. But Dr. Herschell’s discoveries, by means of his + immensely large telescopes, tend to prove, that what we + call the <em>sun</em> is only the <em>atmosphere</em> of + that luminary: “that this atmosphere consists of various + <em>elastic fluids</em>, which are more or less + transparent; that as the clouds surrounding our earth are + probably decompositions of some of the elastic fluids + belonging to the atmosphere itself, so we may suppose that + in the vast atmosphere of the sun similar decompositions + may take place, but with this difference, that the + decompositions of the elastic fluids of the sun are of a + <em>phosphoric</em> nature, and are attended by lucid + appearances, by giving out light.” The body of the sun this + celebrated astronomer considers as hidden generally from + us, by means of this luminous atmosphere; that what are + called <em>maculæ</em>, or <em>spots</em> on the sun, are + real openings in this atmosphere, through which the + <em>opaque body</em> of the sun becomes visible; that this + atmosphere itself is not <em>fiery</em> nor <em>hot</em>, + but is the instrument which God designed to act on the + caloric or latent heat; and that heat is only produced by + the solar light acting on and combining with the caloric or + matter of fire contained in the air, and other substances + which are heated by it.</p> + <p> + This indefatigable investigator of the heavenly phenomena + shows, by many substantial proofs, drawn from natural + philosophy, that <em>heat</em> is produced by the sun’s + rays only when they act on a calorific medium; and that + they cause the production of heat by uniting with the + matter of fire which is contained in the substances that + are heated,—as the collision of flint and steel will + inflame a magazine of gunpowder, by uniting with its latent + fire, and bring the whole into action. This point is + capable of a very clear elucidation. “On the tops of + mountains, and at heights to which the clouds seldom reach + to shelter them from the direct rays of the sun, we always + find regions of ice and snow. Now if the sun’s rays + themselves conveyed all the heat we find on the earth, it + would of course be hottest in situations similar to the + tops of mountains, where their course is least interrupted. + But all those who have ascended in balloons confirm the + coldness of the upper regions of the atmosphere; and, + therefore, since even on the earth the heat of the + situation depends on the facility with which the medium + yields to the impression of the sun’s rays, we have only to + admit, that, on the sun itself, the fluids composing its + atmosphere, and the matter on its surface, are of such a + nature as not to be capable of any excessive heat from its + own rays. It is also a well known fact, that the focus of + the largest burning lens thrown into the air, will occasion + no heat in the place where it has been kept for a + considerable time, although its powers of exciting heat, + when proper bodies are exposed to it, should + be sufficient to melt or fuse the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span> + + most refractory metals.” + That the sun is a luminous, and not an igneous body, has + met with the general consent of modern philosophers; an + opinion to which every new discovery in philosophy gives + additional support.</p> + <p> + The telescope, said to have been invented by the children + of a spectacle-maker at Middleburgh, in the year 1590, but + first brought to such a degree of perfection by Galileo as + to make any considerable discoveries in the celestial + regions, has led to the most important results in the + science of astronomy. Among which are the <em>spots</em> in + the sun’s disk, by whose motion from west to east the sun + is perceived to revolve upon his own axis in 25 days, 14 + hours, 8 minutes. This revolution of the sun round his own + axis is probably not the only motion which this luminary + experiences. There is great reason to believe that he has + another motion, either rectilinear, or round some + indefinitely remote centre of attraction. In this last + course, he carries along with him, through space, the + entire system of planets, satellites, and comets; in the + same manner in which each planet draws his satellites along + with him in his motion round the sun. He communicates light + and heat to at least twenty opaque bodies, which revolve + round him, at different distances, in ellipses that differ + but little from circles.</p> + <p> + From the motion of the spots, which is sometimes straight + and sometimes curved, we learn that the sun’s axis is not + perpendicular to the plane of his ecliptic, but inclined to + it, or the plane of the earth’s annual orbit, so as to form + an angle of about 83 degrees. Christopher Scheiner, a most + diligent observer of these spot’s in the sun’s disk, + published a treatise concerning them in A.D. 1626. These + spots are sometimes seen to increase to a very large size, + and to continue for a considerable time. In the year 1779, + there was a spot on the sun’s disk which was large enough + to be seen with the naked eye: it was divided into two + parts, and must have been 50,000 miles in diameter: this, + and other phenomena of the same kind, may be accounted for + from some natural change of the atmosphere. For if some of + the fluids which enter into its composition be of a shining + brilliancy, while others are merely transparent, then any + temporary cause removing the lucid fluid, will permit us to + see the body of the sun through the transparent ones. Dr. + Herschell supposes that the spots in the sun are mountains + on its surface, which, considering the great attraction + exerted by this luminary upon bodies placed at its surface, + and the slow revolution it has about its axis, he thinks + may be more than 300 miles in height, and yet not be + rendered unstable by the centrifugal force.</p> + <blockquote> + <p> + [There appears to be a <em>discrepancy</em> between this + last statement—“Dr. Herschell supposes that the spots in + the sun are <em>mountains</em> on his surface;”—and the + statement made a few paragraphs preceding—“that what are + called <em>maculæ</em>, or <em>spots</em> on the sun, Dr. + Herschell thought to be <em>real openings</em> + in his atmosphere, through which the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span> + + opake body of the sun becomes visible.” These statements must + have been made at different periods of his observations + on the sun, which continued about fifteen years. The last + statement was, doubtless, Dr. Herschell’s mature opinion.</p> + <p> + As this seems to be a settled question among + philosophers; and as it has induced the enlightened world + to regard the sun as a <em>habitable globe</em>, it will + not be out of place to enlarge a little on this point.</p> + <p> + The spots on the sun’s surface has led to the conclusion + above, and also to a determination of the motion of the + sun around his own axis. They appear to have been + observed, for the first time, in A.D. 1610, by Fabricius + and Harriot; the first in Germany, the second in England. + It is uncertain which noticed them first; but it is + certain the discovery was <em>original with both</em>.</p> + <p> + After the observations of these two fortunate persons + were known, the attention of the scientific was directed + to this phenomenon. Scheiner supposed the spots to be + <em>planets</em> which revolved very near the sun. In + process of unwearied observations, it was ascertained + that these spots changed their positions. Sometimes two + would blend together, and thus run into each other. + Sometimes one large one would divide into two or three + smaller ones. They were observed to dilate, and contract; + and to have umbræ, or shades attending them.</p> + <p> + From these phenomena Galileo and others supposed the + solar spots were <em>schoria floating on the burning + liquid matter</em>, of which they supposed the sun + composed. M. de la Hire, and La Lande supposed them to be + eminences which occasionally rose above the rolling tides + of fire, as islands rise above the sea. All these + theories were on the supposition that the sun was an + igneous body, in a high state of combustion, by which + means he dispenses heat and light to the surrounding + planets.</p> + <p> + Dr. <span + class="smcap">Wilson</span>, + Professor of + practical astronomy in the University of Glasgow, was the + first to conjecture that these spots were + <em>depressions</em> rather than elevations. This was + about the year 1769. The Doctor rendered this conjecture + very probable, by his close and lucid observations and + illustrations.</p> + <p> + These spots attracted the attention of the celebrated Dr. + Herschell in 1779, who continued to observe them closely + until 1794, and by means of his immensely large and + powerful telescopes, he clearly established Dr. Wilson’s + conjectures, <em>that these spots are openings in the + luminous surface of the sun, through which his opake body + appears</em>.</p> + <p> + Dr. Herschell regards the real body of the sun to be an + <em>opake nucleus</em>, fit for the habitation of + intellectual creatures: that he has an atmosphere suited + in density and height to his own magnitude: that in the + higher regions of this atmosphere there are <em>two</em> + sets of clouds surrounding the sun, which are permanently + and essentially luminous, being <em>phosphoric</em> in + their nature. The lower set of these clouds, which are + <em>next</em> the sun, are less bright, and more dense + than the upper set. They are designed to serve as a + <em>curtain</em> to the sun’s body, to prevent a too + great intensity of light at his real surface; the higher + set of clouds, which are visible to us, being the + principal source, or rather <em>agent</em>, of light.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span> + + It is plain from the foregoing theory, that <em>we</em> + never see the real body of the sun, except when we see + the spots on his surface: that what we commonly call the + sun, are only those bright, luminous phosphorescent + clouds, which permanently surround his body, and which + give light <em>outwards</em> to the planets, and also + <em>inwards</em> to his own inhabitants.</p> + <p> + It will be obvious also to any one, that the inhabitants + of the sun <em>cannot see</em> any heavenly body, as the + stars, and planets; because they are inclosed by those + clouds, which are impenetrable to vision. They may catch + a glimpse of a passing star through these openings as we + do of the sun’s body.</p> + <p> + It is highly probable (see <em>our</em> paper on light, + attached to our author’s chapter on the same,) that these + luminous phosphoric clouds <em>do not actually emit + light, or heat</em>; but only <em>excite</em> them at the + surfaces of the different planets. That is: it is very + probable there is a <em>matter of light</em> or a + <em>luminiferous ether</em>, diffused through all + existing matter, as caloric is, which is <em>excited by + these clouds</em>, and <em>thus</em> becomes + <em>visible</em>, which is light, as latent caloric is + excited, and becomes sensible, by becoming <em>free</em>. + Indeed it is very probable <em>that the matter of heat + and light is the same</em>, and that heat and light are + only <em>different modifications</em> of the action of + the same substance, excited in a different, or higher + degree.]</p> + </blockquote> + <p> + The sun has two <em>apparent</em> motions, namely, the + diurnal and annual. By the <em>former</em> he appears to + move round the earth in twenty-four hours: and by the + latter he appears to traverse that circle in the heavens, + called the ecliptic, in the course of a year. These + motions, are, however, only apparent: the sun does not + travel round the earth in twenty four hours: he does not + change his place in the heavens at different seasons of the + year. His apparent motions are occasioned by the earth’s + real motions. The sun’s apparent diurnal motion is + occasioned by the earth’s real rotation about its axis: and + the sun’s apparent annual motion is caused by the earth’s + real motion in her orbit, through the whole of which she + travels in a little less than 365 days, and 6 hours.</p> + <p> + The fixed stars appear every twenty-four hours to make an + entire revolution about the earth. The sun makes the same + apparent circuit; but the apparent diurnal motion of the + sun is evidently slower than that of the fixed stars. This + appearance is occasioned by the daily rotation of the earth + on its axis; for while it is turning once on its axis it + advances in its orbit a whole degree; therefore it must + make more than a complete rotation before it can come into + the same position with the sun that it had the preceding + day. In the same way, as when both hands of a watch set off + together at any hour, as twelve o’clock, the minute hand + must travel more than the whole circle before it can + overtake the hour hand: hence the difference between solar + and sidereal days, which it is important to understand in + explaining the equation of time.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span> + + Though the sun appears to us merely as a circular disk, yet + he is a <em>spheroid</em>, higher under his equator than + about his poles. The deception arises from this; that all + the parts of his surface are equally luminous, and + consequently there is nothing which can suggest to us, at + the great distance he is from the earth, that the central + parts are more prominent than the sides, although in + reality, they are nearer by half a million of miles.</p> + <p> + This luminous body is supposed to be 886,473 English miles + in diameter, about 2,700,000 in circumference, in solid + bulk 24,000,000 times as big as the moon, and 1,384,462 + times as big as the earth, and its superficies in square + miles, about 2,236,603,000,000. This <em>magnitude</em> of + the sun may appear exaggerated; for our eyes can discover + nothing so large as the earth which we inhabit; and as to + this alone we compare the sun, so we are tempted to believe + the testimony of sense rather than our reason. But what + confirms this prodigious size, is his visible magnitude, + notwithstanding the vastly remote point which he occupies + in space. And, concerning this subject, no doubt can + remain, if we admit the calculations of astronomers, which + are made on principles indubitably correct.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_114"> + The sun does not appear large; but this is owing to his + <em>distance</em> from the earth, which is 95,513,794 + miles: this is so prodigious, that a cannon-ball, which is + known to move at the rate of eight miles in a minute, would + be something more than twenty-two years in going from the + earth to the sun. If a spectator were placed as near to any + of the fixed stars as we are to our sun, he would see our + sun as small as we see a common star, divested of its + circumvolving planets; and in numbering the stars he would + reckon it one of them. But the earth’s orbit being an + ellipse, the sun is not always at an equal distance from + it. When he is in his apogee, that is, furthest from the + earth, the sun is full two millions of miles further from + us than when he is in his perigee, or nearest the earth: + nevertheless, we feel greater heat than when he is in our + winter. The difference of temperature between summer and + winter does not depend chiefly upon our nearness to the + sun, but upon the following causes. 1. In summer, the solar + rays strike upon the earth more perpendicularly than in + winter, and therefore they act with greater force than when + they strike it obliquely. 2. The rays of the sun coming + more perpendicularly in summer than in winter, have less of + the atmosphere to pass through. 3. In the summer, the sun + continues a longer time above the horizon than below it; + and consequently there is time for the earth to accumulate + a greater portion of heat than in the days of winter. We + know, in the longest days, that the sun to us is above the + horizon 16 hours; whereas, in the shortest days, it is not + more than 8 hours visible.<a + href="#Footnote_114" + class="fnanchor">114</a></p> + <p> + The miraculous suspension of the natural powers of the heavenly + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span> + + bodies, as recorded in the book of Joshua, shows + that they are upheld, controlled, and directed in their + operations, by a Being who is infinitely wise and powerful. + To account for this miracle, and to ascertain the + <em>manner</em> in which it was wrought, has employed the + pens of the ablest <em>divines</em> and + <em>astronomers</em>, especially of the last two centuries. + For the elucidation of this important fact, I shall + transcribe the view which Dr. Adam Clarke has given of it, + which he considers to be strictly philosophical, consonant + to the Pythagorean, Copernican, or Newtonian system, which + is the system of the universe, laid down in the writings of + Moses.</p> + <p> + He assumes, as a thoroughly demonstrated truth, that the + sun is in the <em>centre</em> of the system, moving only + round his own axis, and the common centre of the gravity of + the planetary system, while all the planets revolve round + <em>him</em>; and that his influence is the cause of the + <em>diurnal</em> and <em>annual</em> revolutions of the + earth.</p> + <p> + “Joshua’s address is in a poetic form in the original, and + makes the two following hemistichs:</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml4"> + <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">שמש בגבעין דום</span></p> + <p class="ml4"> + <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">וירח בעמק אילון</span></p> + <p class="ml0"> + Shemesh, be-Gibêon dom:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Vyareach, beèmek Aiyalon.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Sun! upon Gibêon be dumb:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And the moon on the vale of Aiyalon.</p> + </div> + <p> + “The effect of this command is related in the following + words: <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">וידם השמש וירח עמד</span> + <em>vayiddom ha</em>-<span + class="smcap">Shemesh</span> + <em>ve</em>-<span + class="smcap">Yareach</span> + <em>âmad; And the sun was dumb, or + silent, and the moon stood still</em>. And it is added, + <em>And the sun stood still in the midst of heaven, and + hasted not to go down about a whole day.</em></p> + <p id="FNanchor_115"> + “I consider, that the word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">דום</span> + <em>dom</em>, refers to the + <em>withholding</em> or <em>restraining</em> this + influence, so that the cessation of the earth’s motion + might immediately take place. The desire of Joshua was, + that the sun might not sink below the horizon; but as + <em>it</em> appeared now to be over Gibeon, and the + <em>moon</em> to be over the valley of Ajalon, he prayed + that they might continue in these positions till the battle + should be ended; or, in other words, that the day should be + miraculously lengthened out.<a + href="#Footnote_115" + class="fnanchor">115</a></p> + <p> + “Whether Joshua had a correct philosophical notion of the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span> + + true system of the universe, is a subject that need not + come into the present inquiry; but whether <em>he + spoke</em> with strict propriety on this occasion, is a + matter of importance, because he must be considered as + acting <em>under the Divine influence</em>, in requesting + the performance of such a stupendous miracle: and we may + safely assert, that no man in his right mind would have + thought of offering such a petition, had he not felt + himself under some Divine afflatus. Leaving, therefore, his + philosophical knowledge out of the question, he certainly + spoke as if he had known that the solar influence was the + cause of the earth’s <em>rotation</em>, and therefore, with + the strictest philosophic propriety, he requested, that + that influence might be for a time restrained, that the + diurnal motion of the earth might be arrested, through + which alone, the sun could be kept above the horizon, and + the day be prolonged. His mode of expression evidently + considers the sun as the great <em>ruler</em> or + <em>master</em> in the system; and all the planets, (or at + least the <em>earth</em>) moving in their respective orbits + at his <em>command</em>. He therefore desires him, (in the + name and by the authority of his Creator) to suspend his + <em>mandate</em> with respect to the earth’s motion, and + that of his satellite, the moon. Had he said, <em>Earth, + stand thou still</em>—the cessation of whose diurnal motion + was the <em>effect</em> of his command, it could not have + obeyed him; as it is not even the <em>secondary</em> cause + either of its annual motion round the sun, or its diurnal + motion round its own axis. Instead of doing so, he speaks + to the sun, the <em>cause</em> (under God) of all these + motions, as his great archetype did, when, in the storm on + the sea of Tiberias, he rebuked the <em>wind</em> first, + and then said to the <em>waves</em>, Peace, be still! <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: Siôpa, pephimôso" + class="msg">Σιωπα, πεφιμωσο</span>, + be <em>silent</em>! be <em>dumb</em>! And + the effect of this command was, a cessation of the + agitation in the <em>sea</em>, because the <em>wind</em> + ceased to <em>command</em> it, that is, to exert its + influence upon the waters.</p> + <p> + “The terms in this command are worthy of particular note: + Joshua does not say to the sun, <em>Stand still</em>, as if + he had conceived <em>him</em> to be <em>running his race + round the earth</em>; but, be <em>silent</em>, or + <em>inactive</em>; that is, as I understand it, + <em>restrain thy influence</em>; no longer act upon the + earth, to cause it to revolve round its axis; a mode of + speech which is certainly consistent with the strictest + astronomical knowledge: and the writer of the account, + whether Joshua himself, or the author of the Book of + <em>Jasher</em>, in relating the consequence of this + command, is equally accurate, using a word widely + different, when he speaks of the <em>effect</em>, the + retention of the solar influence had on the moon: in the + first case, the sun was <em>silent</em>, or + <em>inactive</em>, <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">דום</span> + <em>dom</em>; in the <em>latter</em>, the moon <em>stood + still</em>, <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">עמד</span> + <em>âmad</em>. The <em>standing still</em> of the moon, or + its continuance above the horizon, would be the natural + effect of the cessation of the solar influence, which + obliged the earth to discontinue her diurnal rotation, + which, of course, would arrest the moon; and thus both + it and the sun were kept above the horizon, probably for + the space + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span> + + of a whole day. As to the address to the + <em>moon</em>, it is not conceived in the same terms as + that to the <em>sun</em>, and for the most obvious + philosophical reason: all that is said is simply, <em>and + the moon on the vale of Ajalon</em>, which may be thus + understood: ‘Let the sun restrain his influence, or be + inactive, as he appears now upon Gibeon, <em>that</em> the + moon may continue as she appears now over the vale of + Ajalon.’ It is worthy of remark, that every word in this + poetic address is apparently selected with the greatest + caution and precision.</p> + <p> + “At the conclusion of the 13th verse, a different + expression is used when it is said, <em>So, the sun stood + still</em>, it is not <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">דום</span> + <em>dom</em>, but <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">עמד</span> + <em>âmad</em>; <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ויעמד השמש</span> + <em>vai-yaâmod ha-shemesh</em>, + which expression, thus varying from <em>that</em> in the + command of Joshua, may be considered as implying, that in + order to <em>restrain his influence</em>, which I have + assumed to be the <em>cause</em> of the earth’s motion, the + sun himself became <em>inactive</em>, that is, ceased to + revolve round his own axis; which revolution is, probably, + one cause, not only of the revolution of the earth, but of + all the other planetary bodies in our system, and might + have effected all the planets at the time in question: but + this neither could, nor did produce any disorder in nature; + and the delay of a few hours in the whole planetary + motions, dwindles away into an imperceptible point in the + thousands of years of their revolutions. I need scarcely + add, that the <em>command of Joshua to the sun</em>, is to + be understood as a <em>prayer to God</em> (from whom the + sun derived his being and continuance) that the effect + might be what is expressed in the command; and therefore it + is said, verse 14, ‘that the <span + class="smcap">Lord hearkened unto the voice of a man</span>, + <em>for the Lord fought for Israel</em>.’”</p> + <p> + How glorious an object is the sun! too dazzling for mortal + eye long to gaze on: the brightest visible emblem of its + adorable Creator. This luminary rejoices to run his + prescribed course, makes our day joyful, and without his + reviving beams we should dwell in perpetual darkness. He, + as the great source of day, distributes light and life + through all nature. Seeds, in the bosom of the earth, feel + his vegetative presence, and unfold themselves. By his + diffusive influence he causes the vital juice to ascend in + the tubes of trees, plants, and vegetables; and clothes + them with their various and beautiful foliage. He nourishes + the young fruits, gives them their fine tints, and brings + them to maturity. At his approach, millions of insects + awake into life, shine, collect themselves, and sport in + his rays. Animals partake of his benefits, and without his + animating beams they would sink into insensibility and + death: even in caves and dens of the earth, his visitation + gives life. His heat has a pleasing effect on all the + juices and fluids in the human body, which, without his + directive or impulsive energy, would soon become stagnant + and useless. He is, by the Divine wisdom and goodness, placed + at such a proper distance from us, that, were he + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span> + + much nearer, the blood would boil in our veins, and our bodies + soon be either dissolved or calcined: or, were he at a much + greater distance, we should become torpid, and presently be + congealed to statues of ice. The very bowels of the earth + partake of his influence, thus producing many valuable and + useful metals. He penetrates the highest mountains, though + composed of stones and rocks. He darts his beams even into + the depths of the ocean, where the watery tribes live and + play at his command.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml24"> + “—— <span class="smcap">O Sun</span>;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Soul of surrounding worlds! in whom best seen</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Shines out thy Maker!——</p> + <p class="ml0"> + ’Tis by thy secret, strong, attractive force,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + As with a chain indissoluble bound,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Thy system rolls entire.——</p> + <p class="ml0"> + <span class="smcap">Informer</span> of the planetary train!</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Without whose quick’ning glance their cumbrous orbs</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Were brute unlovely mass, inert, and dead,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And not, as now, the green abodes of life!</p> + </div> + <hr class="r10" /> + <p> + As the sun is the greatest visible glory in the natural + world, so it is selected by the pen of Divine inspiration + as the brightest emblem of the Supreme Being—“The Lord God + is a sun.” This great luminary has been considered by the + Heathen as the representative of the Deity, and as such + received religious adoration. According to Mr. Bryant’s + system of Ancient Mythology, the worship of fire is nearly + as old as the flood, having been propagated by the + posterity of Ham, in Egypt, who called themselves + Ammonians, and carried this worship with them wherever they + went, erecting their <em>puratheia</em>, or fire-temples, + in all their settlements. It is stated, that fire was the + primitive, or at least the principal object of idolatrous + worship, and common to all idolaters from the first + apostasy at Babel. For the original institution of this + sacred fire among the Chaldeans, we must go back to Nimrod, + concerning whom the Alexandrian Chronicon asserts, that + “the Assyrians called Nimrod, Ninus; this man taught the + Assyrians to worship fire.” From the Greeks we may trace it + backwards to the Ur of the Chaldeans; on which the learned + Classius remarks, that “Ur is the name of a city wherein + the sacred fire was conserved and worshipped by the + Chaldeans, whence it was called <em>Ur</em>, which + otherwise signifies <em>fire</em>.” Plutarch confesses that + the Romans, in the days of Numa, borrowed their worship of + fire from the Greeks at Athens and Delphi. Numa built a + temple of an orbicular form, to represent, as Plutarch + interprets, the system of the heavens; which temple was the + conservatory of a holy and perpetual fire, kindled at first + by the reflections of the sun-beams, and placed in the + centre of the building; the astronomy of that early period + placing the sun in the centre of the world. Fire has such + an affinity to light, that the same word has sometimes + comprehended them both. The <em>Ur</em> of the + Chaldeans was <em>fire</em>; the <em>Horus</em> of + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span> + + the Egyptians was <em>light</em>: and the reason is plain, + because fire and light are united at the body of the sun, + and by him diffused over the world. If, therefore, we + consider fire as called into action by the sun, and bear in + mind that the ancient Pythagoreans used the same term <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: PYR" + class="msg">ΠΥΡ</span> + to denote both fire and the sun,<a + href="#Footnote_116" + class="fnanchor">116</a> + we shall get at the root of most of the heathen mythologic + divinity.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_117"> + So universal was the attachment to this fire, that + Macrobius undertook to reduce the names of all the heathen + deities to the one object of the sun and its attributes. He + says, “The Egyptians consecrated a lion in that part of the + heavens where the heat of the sun is most powerful, because + that animal seems to derive his nature from the sun, + excelling all other creatures in fire and force, as the sun + exceeds the other lights of heaven. His eyes, likewise, are + bright and fiery, as the sun with a bright and fiery aspect + surveys the world. The Lybians represented their Jupiter + Hammon, which was the setting sun, with the horns of a ram, + with which that animal exerts its strength, as the sun acts + by its rays. The worship of Egypt abundantly shows, that + the bull is to be referred to the sun; which is plain from + the worship of a bull at Heliopolis, the city of the sun; + and of the bull Apis at Memphis, where it was an emblem of + the sun; and of the other bull called Pacis, consecrated in + the magnificent temple of Apollo at Hermunthis.”<a + href="#Footnote_117" + class="fnanchor">117</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_118"> + Wheresoever fire was worshipped in the puratheia of + antiquity after the manner of Numa, we may suppose that + there the true solar system prevailed, which places the + solar fire in the centre; and that this was really the + universal opinion of the most ancient Heathens. This + doctrine agrees with the name which they gave to the sun in + his physical capacity, calling him <em + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">cor cœli</em>, + the heart of the heaven;<a + href="#Footnote_118" + class="fnanchor">118</a> + which illustration and + allusion is probably of very great antiquity, because it + cannot with any propriety be applied to the more modern + Ptolemaic hypothesis. The analogy is very striking; for + as the heart is the centre of the animal system, so is + the sun in the centre of our world: as the heart is the + fountain of the blood, so is the sun the source of light + and fire: as the heart is the life of the body, so is + the sun the life and heat of animated nature, and the + first mover of the mundane system: when the heart ceases + to beat, the circuit of life is at an end; and if the + sun should cease to act, a total stagnation would take + place throughout the whole frame of nature. Macrobius, + pursuing this analogy, says, “We have before observed, + that the sun is called the fountain of the ethereal + fire; therefore the sun is in the heavens, what the + heart is in animals.” Since the circulation of the blood + has been known, this analogy has been taken up with + advantage by the celebrated Hervey himself, who, first + of all the moderns, explained to us with sufficient + accuracy this branch of natural philosophy. + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span> + + He observes, + that the heart of animals is the foundation of life, the + chief ruler of all things in the animal system, the sun + of the microcosm, from which flows all its strength and + vigor. The philosophers of antiquity called the sun the + heart of the microcosm; the moderns call the heart the + sun of the microcosm. There must be something very + striking in the analogy which is thus convertible, and + has been taken up at both ends by such different + persons, at such remote periods of time.</p> + <p> + The savage philosophy of America seems to have comprehended + in it the relation, which we have already noticed, between + the animal system and the frame of nature. Acosta, in his + History of the Indies, reports, that in the human + sacrifices of the Mexicans, the high priest pulled out the + heart with his hands, which he showed smoking to the sun, + to whom he offered this heat and fume of the heart, and + presently he turned towards the idol, and cast the heart at + his face. A very highly esteemed correspondent in Ceylon + writes, There is a cast of people inhabiting this island + who live wild in the woods, and worship fire as an emblem + of purity; they are called Vandals, and several English + officers have met a premature death by intruding near the + holy fire, which is under a tamarind tree.</p> + <p> + With the Persians fire was an object of worship from the + earliest times, under the name of <em>Amanus</em>, and + <em>Mithas</em>; and it is retained as such at this day by + the Geberrs, Gaurs, Guebres, or Ghebers, a sect of Indian + philosophers. Pottinger says, “At the city of Yezd, in + Persia, which is distinguished by the appellation of the + Darûb Abadut, or seat of Religion, the Guebres are + permitted to have an Atush Kudu, or Fire Temple (which, + they assert, has had the sacred fire in it since the days + of Zoroaster), in their own compartment of the city; but + for this indulgence they are indebted to the avarice, not + the tolerance of the Persian government, which taxes them + at twenty-five rupees each man.” Hanway informs us, that + the Ghebers suppose the throne of the Almighty is seated in + the sun, and hence their worship of that luminary. “As to + fire,” says Grose, “the Ghebers place the spring-head of it + in that globe of fire, the sun, by them called Mithras, or + Mihir, to which they pay the highest reverence, in + gratitude for the manifold benefits flowing from his + ministerial omniscience. But they are so far from + confounding the subordination of the servant with the + majesty of the Creator, that they not only attribute no + sort of sense or reasoning to the sun or fire, in any of + its operations, but consider it as a purely passive blind + instrument, directed and governed by the immediate + impression on it of the will of God; but they do not even + give that luminary, all glorious as it is, more than the + second rank among his works, reserving the first for the + stupendous production of the Divine power, the mind of + man.” The temples are generally built over + subterraneous fires. Rabbi Benjamin + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span> + + observes, “Early in the + morning, they (the Parsees or Ghebers of Ouham) go in + crowds to pay their devotions to the sun, to whom upon all + the altars are spheres consecrated, made by magic, + resembling the circles of the sun; and, when the sun rises, + these orbs seem to be inflamed, and turn round with a great + noise. Every one has a censer in his hands, and offers + incense to the sun.”</p> + <p id="FNanchor_119"> + It is not a little surprising that the descendants of + faithful Abraham, taken into covenant with God, should fall + under the influence of this idolatrous worship! The + apostasy of the Israelites in the wilderness from the true + God to the golden calf, was occasioned by a previous + attachment to the sacred rites of the Egyptian idolatry. + And the calves which were afterwards set up in Dan and + Bethel, were probably derived from the same source. The + Israelites were not only cautioned against this worship, + but, if the charge of idolatry brought against an Israelite + was proved by unequivocal facts and competent witnesses, it + affected his life. Such was the progress of this idolatrous + worship among this people at one period, that Josiah, king + of Judah, took away out of the temple of the Lord the + horses, and burned the chariots, which the kings, his + predecessors, had consecrated to the sun. Job, in allusion + to this vile worship, says, “If I beheld the sun when it + shined, or the moon walking in brightness; if my heart hath + been secretly enticed, or my mouth hath kissed my hand:<a + href="#Footnote_119" + class="fnanchor">119</a> + this also were an iniquity to + be punished by the judge: for I should have denied the + God that is above.” Ezekiel, in a vision, saw “at the + door of the temple of the Lord, between the porch and + the altar, about five and twenty men, with their backs + toward the temple of the Lord, and their faces toward + the east: and they worshipped the sun toward the east,” + in imitation of the Egyptians, Persians, and other + Eastern nations.</p> + <p> + While the heathen have thus paid idolatrous worship to the + sun, some persons, believing in the truth of revealed + religion, have entertained strange notions concerning this + luminary. It is remarkable, observes a polite writer, that + whilst some of the ancients imagined the <em>sun</em> to be + the seat of future blessedness, from Psal. xix, 14, “He set + his tabernacle in the sun,” a Mr. Swinden, among the + moderns, endeavors to prove that <em>hell</em> is seated in + the sun, chiefly pleading that this is the grand repository + of fire; that its horrible face, viewed by a telescope, + suits the description given of the burning lake; and that + being in the <em>centre</em> of the system, it might be + properly said that wicked men were <em>cast down into + it</em>. But these are mere hypotheses, and unworthy of + serious consideration.</p> + <p> + Notwithstanding this idolatrous worship of the sun, there + is a sober and religious use to be made of this luminary; + for being the greatest visible glory in the natural world + it is selected as the brightest emblem of the Supreme + Being—“The Lord God is a sun.” An object thus illustrious + and useful in the regular and + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span> + + wise economy of nature, is + mentioned in the sacred volume as a metaphor fraught with + truths of infinite moment, imparting wisdom to the simple, + and instruction to the ignorant. He admirably represents + the unity, glory, and bounty of God.</p> + <p> + Viewing our sun in all his paramount qualities to every + material object in nature, how is he eclipsed and surpassed + by the Sun of Righteousness, of whose splendor, grace, and + energy this is but a faint emblem, and from whom issues, in + bright and gentle beams, all the light, life, joy, and hope + received and enjoyed in the Christian world. The one is the + most magnificent creature among the vast variety of objects + which surround us, but the other is the source of all that + is excellent, attractive, and beneficial, in the whole + range of material causes and effects, as well as in the + nature, extent, and perpetuity of the kingdom of grace. The + material sun runs its course from day to day, with + unwearied regularity, activity, and ardor, and thus + completes its circuit according to its original + destination. And did not our adorable Saviour also finish + the great career of our redemption, after he held performed + all those miracles, and published his own everlasting + gospel, which are the sublime and interesting themes of the + sacred writers, by offering himself on the consecrated + altar a sacrifice for the sins of mankind? The former + diffuses light, vitality, vegetation, and felicity through + the whole mass of animated nature in our planetary system. + And does not the other likewise dissipate the ignorance + which darkens the intellectual regions, enlighten our minds + in all saving knowledge, and produce in the human heart + every grace and virtue?</p> + <p> + Were our natural sun to withdraw his beams, or absent + himself from the centre of our system for any given time, + the planets would start out of their orbits; darkness, + black as night, would instantly spread itself over the + whole mass, and “chaos come again.” And if the glorious + Luminary of the moral world were to hide his face behind a + thick cloud of gathering vengeance and judicial desertion, + this would introduce into the soul alarming fears and + tumultuous passions, which would exist in a state of + opposition and conflict. Those who have been brought out of + the darkness of ignorance, wickedness and misery, into the + light of knowledge, holiness and happiness, by Christ, who + is the light of the world, should be careful to walk in the + light of his countenance all the days of their life. Does + not the earth return the fructifying warmth of the sun, and + all his genial effects, in a profusion of verdure, foliage, + and flowers? Do not all the irrational tribes joyfully + greet his rising every morning, and bask in his presence + through the day with great delight? All the orbs which + revolve round him, and are preserved and cherished in their + respective spheres by his ministry, pay him perpetual + homage by maintaining invariable harmony and order. And + being thus taught by natural objects, what is due + for the reception of so many mercies, surely it is an + unquestionable + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span> + + duty that we guard against every thing which + would prevent us doing the will of our best benefactor.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_120"> + Christian believers, rich in the bloom of holiness, and + ripening for the harvest of glory, are said to be “clothed + with the sun.” It is the gracious promise, on which all + their hopes and wishes confidently rely, that the + “righteous shall” ultimately “shine as the sun in the + kingdom of their Father.”<a + href="#Footnote_120" + class="fnanchor">120</a> + Thus it is written, “The path + of the just is as the shining light, that shines more + and more unto the perfect day.” In the path of the just + there is a progress from a less to a greater light: it + does not only grow clearer, but increases in clearness + till it is light in perfection; advancing from the break + of day to the sun rising, and then to the brightness of + noon-day.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “<span + class="smcap">Jesus</span>, + let all thy lovers shine,</p> + <p class="ml3"> + illustrious as the sun,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And bright with borrow’d rays divine,</p> + <p class="ml3"> + Their glorious circuit run.</p> + <p class="v2 ml0"> + Beyond the reach of mortals, spread</p> + <p class="ml3"> + Their light where’er they go;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And heavenly influences shed,</p> + <p class="ml3"> + On all the world below.</p> + <p class="v2 ml0"> + As giants, may they run their race,</p> + <p class="ml3"> + Exulting in their might:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + As burning luminaries, chase</p> + <p class="ml3"> + The gloom of hellish night.</p> + <p class="v2 ml0"> + As the bright Sun of Righteousness,</p> + <p class="ml3"> + Their healing wings display;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And let their lustre still increase</p> + <p class="ml3"> + Unto the perfect day.”</p> + </div> + + <hr id="CHAPTER_V_2" class="tb" /> + <h3> + <em>Section II.</em>—<span + class="smcap">The Moon.</span></h3> + <p class="smaller hang1"> + Names — Dimensions — Motions — Seasons — Phases — Harvest + Moon — Moon’s Surface — Aërial Stones — Eclipses — Moonlight — + Epithets — Religious Improvement.</p> + <p> + The <em>moon</em> is called a <em>great light</em>, but + <em>less</em> than the sun. Moses does not here speak + philosophically, according to her bulk, but to the + proportion of light she affords us, which is more than all + the planets in the solar system and all the fixed stars put + together.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “He smooth’d the rough-cast moon’s imperfect mould,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And comb’d her beamy locks with sacred gold;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Be thou, said he, Queen of the mournful night,—</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And as he spoke, she rose o’erclad wish light,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + With thousand stars attending on her train.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + The moon is not a primary planet, but only a satellite, or + secondary planet, attendant on our earth, round which she + revolves, and along with which she is carried round the + sun.</p> + <p> + “The moon,” says Dr. O. Gregory, “is a dark, or opake body, + shining principally with the light she receives from the + sun. If she shone by a light of her own, we should feel a + sensible warmth from her rays; but it is a light reflected + from the sun with which she shines, and is so exceedingly + weak and languid, that the greatest + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span> + + burning glass will not + collect enough to make any sensible degree of heat. This + has been accounted for, and those who have gone through the + computation assert that the light of the full moon is + ninety thousand times less than day-light.” The ancients + early discovered, that the moon had no light of its own, + but shone with that which it reflected from the sun. This, + after Thales, was the sentiment of Anaxagoras and + Empedocles, who thence accounted not only for the mildness + of its splendor, but the imperceptibility of its heat, + which our experiments confirm.</p> + <p> + In the Hebrew language the moon is called <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ירה</span> + <em>Yarah</em>, or, more strictly speaking, says Parkhurst, + the <em>lunar light</em>, or <em>flux of light, reflected + from the moon’s body</em>, or <em>orb</em>. That this is + the true sense of the word is evident from several passages + of Scripture, one of which is, “For the precious (produce) + <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">נרש ירחים</span> + <em>put forth by</em>—what? Not the <em>orbs</em> + of the moon surely (for the orb is but <em>one</em>), but + <em>by the fluxes</em> or <em>streams of light</em> + reflected from it, which are not only <em>several</em> but + <em>various</em>, according to the moon’s different phases + and aspects in regard to the sun and the earth. And this + may lead us to the radical idea of the word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ירח</span>; + for as <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">יחר</span> + and <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">אחר</span>, + <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">יחד</span> + and <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">אתד</span> + &c., are very nearly related to each other respectively, + so likewise I conjecture that <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ירח</span> + is to <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ארה</span>, + in sense as well as in sound, and + consequently that it signifies <em>to go in a track</em> or + <em>in a constant customary road or way</em>; and this + affords us a good descriptive name of the <em>lunar + light</em>; for, <em>Behold</em>, says <em>Bildad</em> in + Job, chap. xxv, 5, <em>even to the</em> <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ירח</span> + or lunar light <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ולא יאהיל</span> + <em>and he</em> (God) <em>hath not pitched a + tent</em> (for it); as he has for the <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">שמש</span> + or <em>solar + light</em>. No! The <em>lunar</em> stream has <em>fixed + station</em> from whence it issues, but together with the + orb which reflects it, and which like a human + <em>traveller</em> moves now a quicker, now a slower pace, + is continually <em>performing its appointed journey</em>, + and <em>proceeding in a constant</em>, though regularly + irregular <em>track</em>.”</p> + <p> + The Greeks called the moon <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: mênê" + class="msg">μηνη</span>, + which may be considered as a derivative from <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: mên" + class="msg">μην</span>. + Parkhurst says, This word may be derived either from <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: mênê" + class="msg">μηνη</span>, + <em>the moon</em>, by the phases + of which the month is reckoned, or else it may be deduced + from the Hebrew <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">מנה</span> + <em>manah</em>, <em>to number</em>, + <em>compute</em>, as being computed by the lunar phases. + And it is probable that the first <em>computations</em> of + time were made by the <em>revolutions</em> of the moon. It + is obvious to remark, that not only these two Greek words, + but also the Latin <em>mensis</em>, a month, and the + English <em>moon</em>, <em>month</em>, are ultimately + derived from the same Hebrew <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">מנה</span>. + Leigh observes, that “the + Hebrews call the moon and a month by the same name, because + the moon is renewed every month. The Greeks also call <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: selênê" + class="msg">σεληνη</span>, + from <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: selas" + class="msg">σελας</span>, + because it every day renews its light.” Parkhurst on the + word <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: selênê" + class="msg">σεληνη</span> + says, “The Greek etymologists, and particularly Plato, deduce + it from <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: selas neon" + class="msg">σελας νεον</span>, + <em>new light</em>, because its light is continually renewed.” + But the learned Goguet says; “The Greeks gave to the + <em>moon</em> the name <em>selene</em>, which comes from + the Phœnician word + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span> + + (<span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">לן</span> + or <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">לון</span> + namely) which + signifies <em>to pass the night</em>; whence also we may + observe is plainly derived the Latin name of the moon, + <em>luna</em>.” From <em>lun</em> with the termination + <em>a</em>, comes <em>luna</em>, and this name is given to + the planet from her <em>changing</em> or appearing under + different phases.</p> + <p> + As to the <em>dimensions</em> of the moon, according to the + most accurate calculations, her diameter is 2,175 miles, + the circumference 6,831 miles, the surface contains + 14,898,750 square miles, and its solidity 5,408,246,000 + cubical ones. Her bulk is equal to about a fiftieth part of + our earth, and her mean distance from the earth is about + 240,000 miles.</p> +<p> + The <em>motions</em> of the moon are most of them very + irregular. The only equable motion she has, is her + revolution on her own axis. The time in which she moves + round her axis is about 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, 5 + seconds; and her revolution through an elliptical orbit is + performed in the same time as her rotation on her axis, + moving about 2,290 miles every hour. Her revolution round + her axis exactly in the same time that she goes round the + earth, is the reason she always turns the same face towards + us: she has only one day and one night in the course of a + month. From a long series of observations, it has been + ascertained that the moon makes a complete revolution in 27 + days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, 5 seconds; this is called the + periodical month; but, if we refer to the time passed from + new moon to new moon again, the month consists of 29 days, + 12 hours, and 44 minutes, which is called the synodical + month. This difference is occasioned by the earth’s annual + motion in its orbit. Thus, if the earth had no motion, the + moon would make a complete round in 27 days, 7 hours, 43 + minutes, and 5 seconds; but while the moon is describing + her journey the earth has passed through nearly a twelfth + part of its orbit, which the moon must also describe before + the two bodies come again into the same position that they + before held with respect to the sun: this takes up so much + more time as to make her synodical month equal to 29 days, + 12 hours, and 44 minutes. The motions of the hour and + minute hands of a watch may serve to give some idea of the + periodical and synodical revolutions of the moon; for when + the minute hand has performed a complete revolution, it has + yet some distance to go to obtain a coincidence with the + hour hand, similar to that which it had the preceding hour.</p> + <p> + We have observed that the same face is turned towards us + during the whole of the moon’s revolution, and that the + other half of her surface is never visible to us. This + arises from the two motions we have noticed, which, with + regard to our view of the moon, appear to counteract each + other. Her revolution round the earth is performed towards + the <em>east</em>; while the revolution upon her own axis + is performed towards the <em>west</em>: so that, one of + these motions turns as much of her face from us, as the + other turns towards us. And from the moon’s axis being + inclined to the plane of her orbit, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span> + + sometimes one of + her poles is inclined towards the earth, and sometimes the + other: in consequence of which, we see more or less of her + polar regions in different periods of her revolution. When + the moon is in <em>perigee</em>, or nearest distance from + the earth, her motion is quickest; and when in + <em>apogee</em>, or most remote distance, her motion is + slowest.</p> + <p> + The length of the day is equal to our lunar month, for all + that time is included in one revolution round her axis. Her + days and nights, therefore, will constantly be of the same + length, or almost fifteen of our days each. The year will + be exactly the same with our year; because, being an + attendant on the earth, she must go round the sun in the + same time as that does. Her difference of seasons will be + much less than on our earth, having only a small + inclination of her axis of six degrees and a half; so that + the variation between her summer’s heat and her winter’s + cold must be comparatively inconsiderable. Hence there will + be only thirteen degrees of Torrid Zone, on some parts most + opposite the sun, and thirteen degrees of Frigid Zone on + those contiguous to her poles; which consequently must + leave seventy-seven degrees for what we should call her + Temperate Zones, both in the north and south parts from her + Equator. Our earth, unquestionably, performs the office of + a moon to the moon, waxing and waning regularly, but + appearing thirteen times as large, and, of course, + affording her thirteen times as much light as she does to + us. When she changes to us, the earth appears full to her; + when she is in her first quarter to us, the earth is in its + third quarter to her; and <em>vice versâ</em>. To the moon + the earth seems to be the largest body in the universe, and + must indeed be a most magnificent sight.</p> + <p> + On the supposition that the moon is inhabited, it may be + observed, that those who are placed about the middle of the + surface, or face next to us, will constantly see our earth + over their heads, and increasing and decreasing in light, + like as the moon itself appears to us. Those who are + situated near the borders, whether on the right or left, or + upon the top or bottom, will also constantly have the same + appearance in the opposite part of the horizon. But those + who live on the side of the moon which is not presented to + us, will know nothing of our earth, or at least, they will + never have an opportunity of seeing this large and + wonderful moon, without travelling perhaps more than 1,500 + of our miles on the surface of that luminary. To those who + live on this side of the moon, or travel to it on any + account, as we may pass from the northern into the southern + hemisphere of our globe, the earth, indeed, when at full to + them, will appear to be more than three times as broad as + the moon does to us, and to communicate, as has been + already mentioned, about thirteen times as much light to + her, as she does to us when at the full.</p> + <p> + The moon, possessing no native light, shines entirely by + light received from the sun, and which is reflected to us + from her surface. + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span> + + That half of her which is towards + the sun is enlightened, and the other half is dark and + invisible: hence, when she is between us and the sun, she + disappears, because her dark side is then towards us. + Whilst making her revolution round the heavens, she + undergoes a continual change of appearance. She is + sometimes on our meridian at midnight, and therefore in + that part of the heavens which is opposite to the sun; when + she appears with a face completely circular, which is + called a <em>full moon</em>. As she moves eastward, a part + of her dark side comes forward on the western side, and, in + a little more than seven days, reaches to the meridian, at + about six in the morning, having the appearance of a + semi-circle, with the convex side turned towards the sun: + this crescent gradually becomes more slender, till, about + fourteen days after the full moon, being so near the sun, + and in a line between that luminary and our earth, she is + rendered invisible to us, from the superior splendor of + that orb of light. About four days after this + disappearance, she may be seen in the evening, a little to + the eastward of the sun, in the form of a fine crescent,<a + href="#Footnote_121" + class="fnanchor">121</a> + as before, but having her + convex side turned from the sun. Travelling still + towards the east, the crescent becomes wider; and when + advanced to the meridian, about six in the evening, she + again bears the appearance of a bright semi-circle, with + the same difference that we observed of the crescent, + that is, its convex side is now turned <em>from</em> the + sun. Advancing still more eastward, the semi-circular + moon widens into an oval shape, till at last, in about + twenty-nine days and a half from the last opposition to + the sun, she is again in the same situation, and appears + a full moon.</p> + <p> + The following account of the <em>harvest moon</em>, so + called, taken from the Pantalogia, will no doubt be + acceptable to the reader.—It is remarkable that the moon, + during the week in which she is full about the time of + harvest, rises sooner after sun-setting than she does in + any other full moon week in the year. By this means, she + affords an immediate supply of light after sun-set, which + is very beneficial for the harvest and gathering in the + fruits of the earth; and hence this full moon is + distinguished from all the others in the year, by calling + it the harvest-moon.</p> + <p> + To conceive the reason of this phenomenon, it may first be + considered, that the moon is always opposite to the sun + when she is full; that she is full in the signs Pisces and + Aries in our harvest months, those being the signs opposite + to Virgo and Libra, the signs occupied by the sun about the + same season; and because those parts of the ecliptic rise + in a shorter space of time than others, as may easily be + shown and illustrated by the celestial globe: consequently, + when the moon is about her full in harvest, she rises with + less difference of time, or more immediately after sun-set, + than when she is full at other seasons of the year.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span> + + In our winter, the moon is in Pisces and Aries about the + time of her first quarter, when she rises about noon; but + her rising is not then noticed, because the sun is above + the horizon. In spring, the moon is in Pisces and Aries + about the time of her change; at which time, as she gives + no light, and rises with the sun, her rising cannot be + perceived. In summer, the moon is in Pisces and Aries about + the time of her last quarter; and then, as she is on the + decrease, and rises not till midnight, her rising usually + passes unobserved. But in autumn, the moon is in Pisces and + Aries at the time of her full, and rises soon after sun-set + for several evenings successively; which makes her regular + rising very conspicuous at that time of the year.</p> + <table class="mini xs" summary=""> + <caption> + HARVEST MOONS.</caption> + <tr> + <th>L</th> + <th>M</th> + <th>L</th> + <th>M</th> + <th>L</th> + <th>M</th> + <th>L</th> + <th>M</th></tr> + <tr> + <td>1790</td> + <td>1798</td> + <td>1807</td> + <td>1816</td> + <td>1826</td> + <td>1835</td> + <td>1844</td> + <td>1853</td></tr> + <tr> + <td>1791</td> + <td>1799</td> + <td>1808</td> + <td>1817</td> + <td>1827</td> + <td>1836</td> + <td>1845</td> + <td>1854</td></tr> + <tr> + <td>1792</td> + <td>1800</td> + <td>1809</td> + <td>1818</td> + <td>1828</td> + <td>1837</td> + <td>1846</td> + <td>1855</td></tr> + <tr> + <td>1793</td> + <td>1801</td> + <td>1810</td> + <td>1819</td> + <td>1829</td> + <td>1838</td> + <td>1847</td> + <td>1856</td></tr> + <tr> + <td>1794</td> + <td>1802</td> + <td>1811</td> + <td>1820</td> + <td>1830</td> + <td>1839</td> + <td>1848</td> + <td>1857</td></tr> + <tr> + <td>1795</td> + <td>1803</td> + <td>1812</td> + <td>1821</td> + <td>1831</td> + <td>1840</td> + <td>1849</td> + <td>1858</td></tr> + <tr> + <td>1796</td> + <td>1804</td> + <td>1813</td> + <td>1822</td> + <td>1832</td> + <td>1841</td> + <td>1850</td> + <td>1859</td></tr> + <tr> + <td>1797</td> + <td>1805</td> + <td>1814</td> + <td>1823</td> + <td>1833</td> + <td>1842</td> + <td>1851</td> + <td>1860</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td>1806</td> + <td>1815</td> + <td>1824</td> + <td>1834</td> + <td>1843</td> + <td>1852</td> + <td>1861</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td>1825</td></tr> + </table> + + <p> + When the moon is viewed through a good telescope, there + appear vast cavities and asperities on various parts of her + face, some of them extremely resembling deep caverns and + vallies, and others mountains.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “Turn’d to the sun direct, her spotted disk</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Shows mountains rise, umbrageous vales descend,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And caverns deep, as optic tube descries.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0" id="FNanchor_122"> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span> + + The cavities, it is conjectured, do not contain water; + hence it is concluded that there can be no extensive seas + and oceans, like those which cover a great part of our + earth. It is, however, imagined that there may be springs + and <span + class="smcap">rivers</span>. + The moon seems, as a + learned author has observed, in almost every respect to be + a body similar to our earth, to have its surface + diversified by hill and dale, mountains and vallies, rivers + and lakes. With regard to a lunar atmosphere, the existence + of which has long been a subject of much dispute, it is now + generally admitted.<a + href="#Footnote_122" + class="fnanchor">122</a> + The irregularity of the + moon’s surface, arising from hills and vallies, renders + her more capable of reflecting the sun’s rays to us. + Though philosophers have differed widely in their ideas + concerning the materials of the moon’s mountains, some + from their brilliancy even supposing them to be rocks of + diamonds, there is no diversity of opinion as to their + use. If smooth and polished, like a mirror, or covered + with water, she would not reflect and distribute the + light received from the sun. In some positions she would + show us his image no larger than a single point, and + with a lustre that would injure our sight: but roughened + by these hills and vallies, her surface returns the + sun’s light to us in an equable and pleasant manner, and + enables us to examine her with ease and precision.</p> + <p> + That the moon is a planet similar to our earth, is a + sentiment very early adopted. Orpheus is the most ancient + author, whose opinion on this subject has come down to us. + Proclus presents us with three verses of that philosopher, + wherein he positively asserts, that the moon was another + earth, having in it mountains, vallies, &c. Pythagoras, + who followed Orpheus in many of his opinions, taught + likewise, that the moon was an earth like ours, replete + with animals, whose nature he presumed not to describe, + though he was persuaded they were of a more noble and + elegant kind than ours, and not liable to the same + infirmities. Stobæus gives us the opinion of Democritus + about the nature of the moon, and the cause of those spots + which we see upon its disk. That great philosopher + imagined, that “those spots were no other than shades, + formed by the excessive height of the lunar mountains,” + which intercepted the light from the lower parts of that + planet, where the valleys formed themselves into what + appeared to us as shades or spots. Plutarch went further, + alleging, that there were embosomed in the moon, vast seas + and profound caverns: he says, those deep and extensive + shades which appear upon the disk of that planet, must be + occasioned by <em>the vast seas</em> it contains, which are + incapable of reflecting so vivid a light, as the more solid + and opake parts; “or by caverns extremely wide and deep, + wherein the rays of the sun are absorbed,” whence those + shades and that obscurity which we call the spots of the + moon. And Zenophanes said, that those immense + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span> + + cavities were + inhabited by another race of men, who lived there just as + we do upon earth.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “And oft I think, fair planet of the night,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + That in thy orb the wretched may have rest.”</p> + </div> + <blockquote> + <p> + [The height of the moon’s atmosphere is supposed to be + 1.622 miles; or a little more than a mile and a half.</p> + <p> + The observations on the moon have been so accurate, and + so often repeated, by means of the best glasses, that the + <em>map of the moon</em> is now considered nearly + perfect. On this map is laid down the position of + <em>spots</em>, <em>cavities</em>, and + <em>mountains</em>, representing their <em>size</em>, + <em>height</em>, <em>depth</em>, and + <em>peculiarities</em>. They are very numerous.</p> + <p> + Some of these mountains are full <em>five miles + high</em>. They descend in height, from the highest to + small elevations.</p> + <p> + Several astronomers, particularly Herschell, has + distinctly observed and described <em>volcanos</em> in + the moon, <em>actually flaming</em>; and others in an + <em>expiring state</em>. <em>Craters</em> of extinct + volcanos are visible, and so numerous as to indicate very + clearly, that volcanic action was once very extensive and + powerful in the moon.</p> + <p> + Some of the <em>cavities</em> are more than <em>three + miles and a half deep</em>, and sixteen broad at the + surface. <em>Ferguson’s Astronomy, additional chapters by + Dr. Brewster.</em>]</p> + </blockquote> + <p> + That stones have fallen from the <em>clouds</em> or from + much <em>higher regions</em>, is a fact which has recently + been very closely investigated, and also fully + demonstrated. A table, constructed by M. Izarn, a foreign + chemist, exhibits a variety of facts of this kind, from + which the following is an extract.</p> + <table class="wide xxs" summary=""> + <tr> + <th class="bbox"> + <em>Substances.</em></th> + <th class="bbox"> + <em>Places where they fell.</em></th> + <th class="bbox"> + <em>Period of their fall.</em></th></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox"> + Shower of stones.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + At Rome.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Under Tullus Hostilius.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox"> + Shower of stones.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + At Rome.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Consuls, C. Martius, and M. Torquatus.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox"> + A very large stone.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Near the river Negos, Thrace.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Second year of the 78th Olympiad.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox"> + Three large stones.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + In Thrace.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Year before J.C. 452.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox"> + Stone of 72 lbs.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Near Larissa, Macedonia.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + January, 1706.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox"> + About 1,200 stones; one 120 lbs. Another of 60 lbs.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Near Padua, in Italy.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + In 1510.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox"> + Another of 59 lbs.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + On Mount Vasier, Provence.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + November 27, 1627.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox"> + Two large stones, weighing 20 lbs.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Liponas, in Bresse.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + September, 1753.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox"> + A stony mass.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Niort, Normandy.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + In 1750.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox"> + A stone of 7½ lbs.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + At Luce, in Le Maine.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + September 13, 1768.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox"> + A stone.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + At Aire, in Artois.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + In 1768.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox"> + A stone.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + In Le Contenin.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + In 1768.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox"> + Extensive shower of stones.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Environs of Agen.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + July 24, 1790.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox"> + About 12 stones.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Sienna, Tuscany.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + July, 1794.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox"> + A large stone of 56 lbs.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Wold Cottage, Yorkshire.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + December 13, 1795.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox"> + A stone of 10 lbs.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + In Portugal.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + February 19, 1796.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox"> + A stone of 120 lbs.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Salé, Department of the Rhone.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + March 17, 1798.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox"> + Shower of stones.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Benares, East Indies.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + December 19, 1798.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox"> + Shower of stones.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + At Plann, near Tabor, Bohemia.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + July 3, 1753.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox"> + Mass of iron, 70 cubic feet.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + America.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + April 5, 1800.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox"> + Mass of do. 14 quintals.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Abakauk, Siberia.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Very old.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox"> + Shower of stones.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Barboutan, near Roquefort.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + July, 1789.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox"> + Large stone, 260 lbs.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Ensisheim, Upper Rhine.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + November 7, 1492.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox"> + Two stones, 200 and 300 lbs.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Near Verona.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + In 1762.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox"> + A stone of 20 lbs.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Sales, near Ville Franche.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + March 12, 1798.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox"> + Several do. from 10 to 17 lbs.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Near L’Aigle, Normandy.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + April 26, 1803.</td></tr> + </table> + + <p> + The stones generally appear luminous in their descent, + moving in oblique directions, with very great velocities, + and commonly with + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span> + + a hissing noise. They are + frequently heard to explode, or burst, and seem to fly in + pieces, the larger parts falling first. They often strike + the earth with such force, as to sink several inches below + the surface. They are always different from the surrounding + bodies, but is every case are similar to one another, being + semi-metallic, coated with a thin black encrustation. They + bear strong marks of recent fusion. Chemists have found, on + examining these stones, that they very nearly agree in + their nature and composition, and in the proportions of + their component parts.</p> + <p> + Their specific gravities are generally about three or four + times that of water, being heavier than common stones. From + the above account, it is reasonable to conclude, that they + have all the same origin. I believe it is generally agreed + among philosophers, that all these aërial stones, + chemically analysed, evince the same properties; and that + no stone, found on our earth, possesses exactly similar + properties, nor in the same proportions: this is an + extraordinary circumstance, and deserves particular notice. + At the sitting of the Society of Natural History at Halle, + July 6, 1816, M. Chladni submitted to the inspection of the + members present, a collection of meteoric stones, or stones + fallen from the atmosphere; and to the exhibition, he added + his own observations on their nature and formation. Dr. + Kæstner, taking up the subject in the same point of view + which M. Chladni had given of it, admitted that these + stones are not natives of this earth, but of other + celestial bodies; to which he added, that the chemical + analysis of them proves, that many of the same substances + as are found in our mountains, and among the solids of our + globe, are also component parts of the solids and mountains + of other globes; certainly of those celestial bodies which + are nearest to us; and probably of the others which form + our planetary system.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_123"> + That these stones are projected from lunar volcanos, very + strong reasons have been assigned to prove. As 1. Volcanos + in the moon have been observed by means of the telescope. + 2. The lunar volcanos are very high, and the surface of + that globe suffers frequent changes, as appears by the late + observations of Schroëter. 3. If a body be projected from + the moon to a distance greater than that of the point of + equilibrium, between the attraction of the earth and the + moon, it will, on the known principles of gravitation, fall + to the earth. 4. That a body may be projected from the + lunar volcanos beyond the moon’s influence, is not only + possible, but very probable; for on calculation it is + found, that four times the force usually given to a twelve + pounder, will be quite sufficient for this purpose: it is + to be observed, that the point of equilibrium is much + nearer; and that a projectile from the moon will not be so + much retarded as one from the earth, both on account of the + moon’s rarer atmosphere, and its less attractive force.<a + href="#Footnote_123" + class="fnanchor">123</a></p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span> + + Of all the phenomena of the heavens, there are none which + engage the attention of mankind more than <em>eclipses</em> + of the sun and moon; and to those who are unacquainted with + the principles, nothing can appear more extraordinary than + the accuracy, even to a second of time, with which they are + predicted. Eclipses of the sun are occasioned by the shadow + of the intervening new moon falling on the earth, and those + of the moon are caused by the shadow of the earth falling + on the full moon, the earth at the full moon being always + in a direction between the sun and moon.</p> + <p> + It is ascertained that, for an eclipse of the sun to be + annular, the most favorable circumstances will be when the + sun is in perigee, and the moon in apogee; and, for an + eclipse to be total, the most favorable case is when the + sun is in apogee, and the moon in perigee. The motion of + the moon being much swifter than that of the earth, and the + motions of both being directed from west to east, an + eclipse of the sun must always begin in the western edge of + the sun; and as the moon is a great deal less than the + earth, her shadow forms a cone, the section of which is + much less than the earth, so that a small portion of the + earth only can, at any time, be involved in the shadow at + one time. Hence it is, that an eclipse of the sun is not + perceived, at the same instant, in every part of the + hemisphere that is turned towards the sun, and that, in + some parts, it will not be seen at all. For instance, a + friend of mine, writing from Ceylon in the month of May, + (1817,) says, “On the 16th of this month, we had a fine + sight of an eclipse of the sun about noon: I think about + 3-4ths of the surface were covered.” But in this country we + had no solar eclipse at the same time. Again, in different + situations, different parts of the sun’s disk will appear + eclipsed; but, on the contrary, an eclipse of the moon is + perceived, at the same moment, in every part of the earth + where this planet is visible, and appears every where to + occupy the same portion of her disk. Hence, eclipses of the + sun are much less frequent in any particular place than + eclipses of the moon.</p> + <p> + If the nodes of the moon constantly corresponded with the + same points in the heavens, the eclipses of the sun or moon + might be expected in the same months, and even on the same + days; but as the nodes shift backwards, or contrary to the + earth’s annual motion, about 19½ degrees in a year, the + same node will come round about nineteen days sooner every + year than in the preceding. From the time, therefore, when + the ascending node passes by the sun, as seen from the + earth, there will be only 173 days before the descending + node passes by him. If, then, at any time of the year, we + have eclipses about either of the nodes, their return may + be expected in about 173 days, in or near the other.</p> + <p> + It may be further observed, that, after the sun, moon, and + nodes, have been once in a line of conjunction, they will + return nearly to the same state again in 228 lunations, or + eighteen years and ten days; so that the same node which + was in conjunction with the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span> + + sun and moon at the beginning of + the first of these lunations, will be within less than half + a degree of the line of conjunction with the sun and moon + again, when the last of these lunations is completed. In + that time, therefore, there will be a regular period of + eclipses for many ages.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_124"> + These things being properly considered, it will not be + difficult to conceive how astronomers are able to foretell + the exact time when any phenomenon of this kind will + happen; for, as an eclipse can only take place at the time + of a new or full moon, the principal requisites are, to + determine the number of mean conjunctions and oppositions + that will happen every year, and the true places of the sun + and moon in their orbits at each of those times. And, if + from this, when proper calculations have been made, it + appears that the two luminaries are within the proper + limits of the node, there will be an eclipse. To facilitate + these operations, we have astronomical tables ready + computed, by which the places of the heavenly bodies, and + every other particular required, may be easily found for + any given instant of time.<a + href="#Footnote_124" + class="fnanchor">124</a></p> + <p> + With delight we reflect on the invaluable benefits which + this <em>lesser light</em> confers on our globe. She + sometimes appears visible in the presence of the sun; but + how faint and pale is her shining! God has appointed her to + <em>rule the night</em>, and give light to men. How + cheerless and uncomfortable would our nights be, were we + destitute of the light which this faithful and inseparable + companion of our earth dispenses! How strange are her + eclipses, occasioned by the earth interposing and shading + her face! but, they are highly useful in astronomical, + geographical, and chronological calculations. How salutary, + too, is her attractive influence, which sways the ocean, + and actuates the world of waters; causing the swelling of + the tides, and perpetuating the regular returns of ebb and + flow; by which the liquid element itself is preserved from + putrefaction, and the surrounding continents from infection + and disease.</p> + <p> + A moonlight night has led the greatest poets in every age + to vie with each other in attempting to describe its beauty + and use. Among all the treasures of modern poetry, I know + not one superior, for pleasing imagery, and variety of + numbers, to that of Milton:</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “Now came still evening on, and twilight grey</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Had in her sober livery all things clad.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + ——————Now glowed the firmament</p> + <p class="ml0"> + With living sapphires: Hesperus, that led</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The starry host, rode brightest, till the Moon,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Rising in clouded majesty, at length,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Apparent queen, unveiled her peerless light.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And o’er the dark her silver mantle threw.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span> + + Homer, in the eighth book of the Iliad, gives us a + description of a fine moonlight night, which is esteemed a + master-piece of nocturnal painting. Milton’s pencil leaves + off where that of Homer begins:</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “As when the Moon, refulgent lamp of night,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + O’er heaven’s clear azure sheds her sacred light;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + When not a breath disturbs the deep serene,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And not a cloud o’ercasts the solemn scene;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Around her throne the vivid planets roll,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And stars unnumbered gild the glowing pole;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + O’er the dark trees a yellower verdure shed,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And tip with silver every mountain’s head;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Then shine the vales; the rocks in prospect rise;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + A flood of glory bursts from all the skies;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The conscious swains rejoicing in the sight,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Eye the blue vault, and bless the useful light.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + The wise Son of Sirach, although his writings are not + admitted into the sacred canon, deserves to be heard on + this subject. He says, “The Lord made the moon also to + serve in her season, for a declaration of times, and a sign + of the world. From the moon is the sign of feasts, a light + decreaseth in her perfection. The month is called after her + name, increasing wonderfully in her changing, being an + instrument of the armies above, shining in the firmament of + heaven; the beauty of heaven, the glory of the stars, an + ornament giving light to the highest places of the Lord. At + the commandment of the Holy One they will stand in their + order, and never faint in their watches.” This is + paraphrased with great elegance and spirit by Mr. Broome:</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “By thy command the moon, as day-light fades,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Lifts her broad circle in the deep’ning shades;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Arrayed in glory, and enthroned in light,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + She breaks the solemn terrors of the night;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Sweetly inconstant in her varying flame,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + She changes still, another, yet the same!</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Now in decrease, by slow degrees she shrouds</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Her fading lustre in a vale of clouds;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Now of increase, her gathering beams display</p> + <p class="ml0"> + A blaze of light, and give a paler day;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Ten thousand stars adorn her glittering train,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Fall when she falls, and rise with her again;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And o’er the deserts of the sky unfold</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Their burning spangles of sidereal gold:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Through the wide heavens she moves serenely bright,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Queen of the gay attendants of the night:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Orb above orb in sweet confusion lies,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And with a bright disorder paints the skies.”</p> + </div> + <p> + Many striking epithets have been given to this refulgent + lamp of the night, some of which are noticed by Nichols in + his Conference with a Theist. Tully asserts, that the moon + was called <em>Diana</em>, because she made a day of the + night, whilst all other stars did not make a twilight. + Æschylus, a tragic poet, born at Athens 397 before the + Christian era, calls her <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: presbyston astrôn" + class="msg">πρεσβυϛον αϛρων</span>, + the ancient, the + governess, or mother of the stars. Apollinaris, bishop of + Hierapolis, in Phrygia, about A.D. 171, denominates her, + <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: nychiôn basileia atarpôn" + class="msg">νυχιων βασιλεια αταρπων</span>, + the queen of the nightly paths. + Tynesius, who flourished + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span> + + A.C. 400, styles her, <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: poimên nychiôn theôn" + class="msg">ποιμην νυχιων θεων</span>, + the princess of the nocturnal gods: which is + consonant to Horace’s lucidum cœli decus—syderum regina. + Virgil likewise calls her, astrorum decus, the ornament of + the stars. Seneca terms her, obscuri dea clara mundi, the + bright goddess of the obscure world; and also clarumque + cœli sydus et noctis decus, the bright star of heaven, and + the grace of the night. Statius, who lived at Rome in the + reign of Domitian, in his Thebais, terms her, arcanæ + moderatrix Cynthia noctis, the moon the governess of silent + night. “Fair as the moon,” was an ancient manner of + describing beauty, and, it is said, still prevails in the + East.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_125"> + Among the ancients, observes Mr. Butler, the moon was an + object of prime respect. By the Hebrews, she was more + regarded than the sun, and they were more inclined to + worship her as a deity. The <em>new</em> moons, or first + days of every month, were observed as festivals among them, + which were celebrated with sound of trumpets, + entertainments, and sacrifice. The moon was the goddess of + the Phœnicians, whom they worshipped under the name + Ashtoreth, or Astarte. The moon is sometimes in Scripture + styled, the “queen of heaven.” She is likewise styled, “the + goddess of the Zidonians,” and “the abomination of the + Zidonians,” as she was worshipped very much in Zidon, or + Sidon, a famous city of the Phœnicians, situated upon the + eastern coast of the Mediterranean. Solomon, who had many + wives that were foreigners, was prevailed upon by them to + introduce the worship of this goddess into Israel, and he + built her a temple on the mount of Olives, which, on + account of this and other idols, is called “the mount of + corruption.”<a + href="#Footnote_125" + class="fnanchor">125</a> Milton says,</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml24"> + “There stood</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Her temple on th’ offensive mountain, built</p> + <p class="ml0"> + By that uxorious king, whose heart, though large,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Beguil’d by fair idolatresses, fell,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + To idols foul.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + The <em>full</em> moon was held favorable for any + undertaking by the Spartans; and no motives could induce + them to enter upon an expedition, march an army, or attack + an enemy, till the <em>full</em> of the moon. It is usual + with the modern Arabians to begin their journeys at the + <em>new</em> moon; a practice which, indeed, appears to be + very ancient. When the Shunammite proposed going to Elisha, + her husband dissuaded her by observing that it was neither + <em>new</em> moon nor sabbath.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span> + + 1. The <em>moon</em> is an emblem of the <em>church</em> of + God, which receives its light from Christ as the moon does + from the sun. Especially, of the Jewish dispensation, which + consisted much in the observation of new moons, its solemn + feasts being governed by them. The Jewish dispensation was + a veiled and shadowy one: Christ and the blessings of the + covenant of grace were revealed in dark promises, obscure + prophecies, types and ceremonies, which were all + significant figures of that grace which should be + displayed, with fulness and evidence, under the Christian + dispensation. The Jewish economy exhibits such marks of + imperfection, as show the necessity of some new revelation + to supply its defects. Its rites and precepts seem to be + particularly suited to the condition, capacity, temper and + genius of that particular people, for whom they were first + formed, but not to be calculated for general use. It + consisted chiefly of external performances, such as + washings, sacrifices, and oblations, which could not purify + the conscience, nor, indeed, satisfy the reason of man. The + provision for sin, by way of atonement, was partial, and + not thoroughly effectual: for some sins no sacrifice was + admitted; and though sacrifice, where it was appointed, + might atone for ceremonial impurity, yet the inward guilt + and defilement still remained, and the justice of God was + not satisfied. Yet the observance of these was enjoined in + a very awful manner. The omission of what was prescribed by + these laws, or even a defect in observing the minute + circumstances of them, was made a capital crime, or + rendered the delinquents liable to be cut off from the + congregation. The Apostle styles the whole code of these + laws, “a yoke of bondage;“ and says, that, previous to the + coming of Christ, the Jews were in bondage under what he + terms “the beggarly elements of the world.”</p> + <p> + There were indeed wise reasons for such a dispensation: to + keep the Jews a distinct people, and preserve them from + idolatry, while they were continually employed in the + service of God; to remind them of their obligations to + purity, inward and outward holiness; and, as a + schoolmaster, to bring them to Christ; the law being a type + and shadow of that “truth and grace which came by Jesus + Christ,” who was “the end of the law for righteousness.” On + which account, the law of Moses was not perpetual, but a + temporary institution: thus the Apostle reasons, “There is + verily a disannulling of the commandment going before for + the weakness and unprofitableness thereof; for,” as he says + in another place, “the law could not in any wise make the + comers thereunto perfect.” He calls the law, “a shadow of + good things to come.” The Levitical ceremonies led the + Jewish church into the knowledge of the promised Messiah, + and what he was to do, suffer, purchase, and apply. Hence + the words of St. Peter, “Of which salvation the prophets + have inquired and searched diligently, who prophesied of + the grace that should come unto you: searching what or what + manner of time the Spirit + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span> + + of Christ which was in them did + signify, when it testified beforehand the sufferings of + Christ, and the glory that should follow. Unto whom it was + revealed, that not to themselves, but unto us they did + minister the things which are now reported unto you by them + that have preached the gospel unto you, with the Holy Ghost + sent down from heaven.” The Christian dispensation is + attended with greater clearness. We have a far more + comprehensive knowledge of the glorious Redeemer, in his + person, natures, offices, and blessings; of the spiritual + nature of his kingdom, and the way of salvation through + faith in him, than what the Jews had. Thus the Apostle + says, “But we all with open face beholding as in a glass + the glory of the Lord, are changed into the same image, + from glory to glory, even as by the Spirit of the Lord.”</p> + <p> + In the Revelation, we have this representation given of the + Christian church: “And there appeared a great wonder in + heaven; a woman clothed with the sun, and the moon under + her feet, and upon her head a crown of twelve stars.” An + author, quoted by Dr. A. Clarke, gives the following + elucidation of this passage.—That the woman here represents + the true church of Christ, most commentators are agreed. In + other parts of the Apocalypse, the pure church of Christ is + evidently pourtrayed by a woman. In chapter xix, verse 7, a + great multitude are represented as saying, “Let us be glad + and rejoice, and give honor to him; for the marriage of the + Lamb is come, and his <em>wife</em> hath made herself + ready.” In chapter xxi, 9, an angel talks with St. John, + saying, “Come hither, I will show thee the <em>bride</em>, + the Lamb’s wife.” That the Christian Church is meant will + appear also from her being “clothed with the sun,” a + striking emblem of Jesus Christ, the Sun of Righteousness, + the light and glory of the Church; for the countenance of + the Son of God is, as “the sun shineth in his strength.” + The woman has the “moon under her feet.” Bishop Newton + understands this of the Jewish typical worship; and, + indeed, the Mosaic system of rites and ceremonies could not + have been better represented. The moon is the less light, + ruling over the night, and deriving all its illumination + from the sun: in like manner, the Jewish dispensation was + the bright moonlight night of the world, and possessed a + portion of the glorious light of the gospel. At the rising + of the sun the night is ended, and the lunar light no + longer necessary as the sun which enlightens her shines + full upon the earth: exactly in the same way has the whole + Jewish system of types and shadows been superseded by the + birth, life, crucifixion, death, resurrection, ascension, + and intercession of Jesus Christ. Upon the head of the + woman is “a crown of twelve stars;” a very significant + representation of the <em>twelve apostles</em>, who were + the first founders of the Christian church; and by whom the + gospel was preached in a great part of the Roman empire + with astonishing success.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span> + + 2. The phenomenon of the moon is <em>mutability</em>. This + beautiful luminary, whose gentle beams render the summer + evenings still more agreeable, and in the winter nights + cheer the abodes of solitude, and aid the midnight + traveller, is perpetually changing. In this, and in nothing + but this, observes Mr. Basely, she is invariable, and a + perfect index to all within her orbit. This should teach + us, says Mr. Browne, that there is not any thing permanent + in the present scene. Mutability is engraved in legible + characters upon every earthly object. Every thing is in + motion, and assuming a different appearance, whilst + vicissitude and change wait on the affairs of mortals. Such + is the fluctuating state of the present world, whether we + view kingdoms in general, or the personal concerns of men + in particular.</p> + <p> + But while these things are fortuitous as to man, we should + reflect that they are under the direction and control of a + Divine providence. The prosperous issue of all our designs + and enterprises depends entirely on the sovereign disposer + of events. “Except the Lord build the house, they labor in + vain that build it; except the Lord keep the city, the + watchman waketh but in vain.” “A man’s heart deviseth his + way; but the Lord directeth his steps;” the result of his + designs and projects being under the dominion and direction + of God. Whether his undertaking shall succeed or fail, + belongs alone to the Most High to determine. Let as arrange + our worldly concerns in the most prudent and politic + manner, so that there shall appear the greatest probability + of success, yet God has the ordering of the event. Solomon + has long since observed, that, amongst the many vanities + under the sun, one is, “the race is not to the swift, nor + the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, + nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favor to + men of skill: but time and chance happeneth to them all.” + Some unforeseen circumstance may interrupt our pursuit, and + disappoint our expectation. So great is the uncertainty + which attends all human affairs, and all future events are + concealed in such thick darkness, that we can never + positively affirm that this or the other scheme, however + wisely laid, cannot be frustrated, or that it is impossible + the success should be otherwise than as we calculate. No + man knows what shall be on the morrow; the only thing we + know previously is, that every event shall be as God is + pleased to settle it.</p> + <p> + This consideration, that it is not by our own choice and + foresight, but the will and wisdom of God, our affairs are + directed and determined, we should apply to ourselves. We + are not competent to mark out our own ways, nor can we + seriously imagine that matters should be arranged exactly + according to our imperfect views and secret inclinations; + but we should refer ourselves to his guidance who cannot + err, and willingly acquiesce in his providential decisions: + saying, “I know, oh Lord, that the way of man is not in + himself: it + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span> + + is not in man that walketh to + direct his own steps.” We are commanded by the Apostle + James to say, “If the Lord will, we shall live, and do + this, or that.” And Solomon’s advice is, “Trust in the Lord + with all thine heart; and lean not unto thine own + understanding. In all thy ways acknowledge him, and he + shall direct thy paths.” Concerning all our lawful designs, + enterprises, and projects, we may pray, “Establish thou the + work of our hands upon us; yea, the work of our hands + establish thou it.”</p> + + <hr id="CHAPTER_V_3" class="tb" /> + <h3> + <em>Section III.</em>—<span + class="smcap">The Seasons.</span></h3> + <p class="smaller hang1"> + Seasons: Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter — Displaying Divine + Power, Wisdom, Goodness, Faithfulness — Religious + Improvement.</p> + <p> + The Divine Architect appointed the sun and moon the places + of their rising, the circuits they were to run, and where + they were to go down: he marked out the line in which they + were to move through all the different climates of the + earth. They instantly obeyed his all-powerful word, and + have ever since acted faithfully to his command. In their + operations, they measure out our days and nights, + distinguish between different periods of time, and produce + the several seasons of the year.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “With what an awful world-revolving power</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Were first th’ unwieldy planets launched along</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Th’ illimitable void! Thus to remain</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Amid the flux of many thousand years,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + That oft has swept the toiling race of men</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And all their labored monuments away,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Firm, unremitting, matchless in their course;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + To the kind tempered change of night and day,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And of the seasons ever stealing round,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Minutely faithful.”</p> + </div> + <p id="FNanchor_126"> + God is the supreme ruler in the kingdom of nature, and the + constant changes of day and night, summer and winter, + seed-time and harvest, are appointed and regulated by his + providential influence. This wonderful and stupendous + system, consisting of matter, is preserved by motion. + Deprive it of motion, and, as a system, it must expire. + Who, then, breathed into this amazing combination of things + acting together, the life of motion? What power impelled + the planets to move, since motion is not a property of the + matter of which they are composed? Did not annual + observation familiarize it to us (to speak + unphilosophically), who that observes the sun going in + appearance further from us during six months in succession, + and all that time decreasing in light and heat, could ever + think that he would again return to us? What hinders his + projection into boundless space, till he should appear no + larger than a star, or get beyond the reach of our powers + of vision? What, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span> + + but the immediate control of God! + for this is a work superior to all created strength, and + only to be effected by almighty energy.<a + href="#Footnote_126" + class="fnanchor">126</a></p> + <p> + When we have seen that glorious lamp of heaven, the great + ruler of the day, gone so far from us that we scarcely knew + how to stand before the cold, how has his return revived + and cheered us, visiting the frozen earth with his friendly + beams, infusing a genial warmth into every creature, and + inspiring us with the pleasing hope of once more enjoying + those various fruits of the earth, which are the liberal + gifts of an indulgent Providence! It is the Divine Being + who commands the sun to rise, who, “coming out of his + chamber” in the east, rejoices as a strong man to run a + race. Again, he bids this glorious orb to withdraw, and + obscure his beauty behind thick clouds, or sink below the + western ocean; when, behold, the day is covered with + darkness, and night succeeds. At his sovereign command, the + glowing summer recedes, and winter approaches with chilling + aspect. “He sends his snow like wool, and scattereth his + hoar frost like ashes. He casteth forth his ice like + morsels: who can stand before his cold?” He then recalls + the solar influence, scatters the inauspicious clouds, + thaws the frozen ridges of the field; the corn springs up + and flourishes, and the heart of man rejoices with the + pleasing hope of a plenteous harvest. Thus does the + almighty Creator, and beneficent Governor of the world, + order and regulate the constant succession of the seasons; + his Providence over-rules and directs the whole movement, + and nothing can come to pass without his superintendence.</p> + <p> + Reason, as well as supernatural revelation, asserts the + reality of a Divine providence. The happiest inquirers into + the phenomena of nature have discovered that every thing is + made with the justest proportion, and that the whole + machine is directed according to the most exact rules: but + they have also perceived a power above and beyond the + energy of natural principles, and which could not possibly + be accounted for any other way than by admitting an + immediate act or influence of the supreme Being. In the + revolving of the celestial orbs, we observe an exact + agreement with the established laws of mechanism: but, yet, + there is a force demonstrable in them which is altogether + immechanical; and, consequently, immediately issuing from + God himself.</p> + <p> + The remarks made by Dr. A. Clarke on this point, will, it + is presumed, gratify the intelligent reader. “The + <em>double motion</em> of a primary planet, namely, its + <em>annual</em> revolution and <em>diurnal</em> rotation, + is one of the greatest wonders the science of astronomy + presents to our view.—The laws which regulate the latter of + these motions are so completely hid from man, + notwithstanding his present great extension of philosophic + research, that the times which the planets employ in their + rotations can only be determined by + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span> + + observation. How + is it that two motions, so essentially different from each + other, should be in the same body, at the same time, + without one interfering at all with the other?—No + astronomer, since the foundation of the world, has been + able to demonstrate that the earth’s motion in the heavens + is at all accelerated or retarded by the diurnal rotation; + or, on the other hand, that the earth’s motion on its axis + experiences the least irregularity from the annual + revolution.”</p> + <p> + The rotation of the earth round its own axis, from west to + east, once in 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4 seconds, is the cause + of the distinction between day and night, by bringing the + different parts of the earth’s surface successively into, + and from under the solar rays. And the revolution of the + earth round the sun, from any equinox or solstice to the + same point again, in 365 days, 48 minutes, 48 seconds, + produces the agreeable vicissitudes of the seasons, and + measures the length of our year. For though the revolution + is that of the earth, yet both the hours of the day and + night, the different lengths of the days and nights, and + the seasons of the year, cannot be determined but by the + heavenly bodies. Thus the earth has a two-fold motion, like + a chariot-wheel; for while it goes forward on its annual + journey, it is still in its diurnal motion turning upon its + own centre. But it differs from the motion of a + chariot-wheel in this: that its hourly motion in its orbit + is 75,222 miles; and that by the motion upon its axis, the + inhabitants on the equator are carried after the rate of + 1,042 miles an hour, and those upon the parallel of London + 580 miles.</p> + <p> + The Dr. proceeds, “How wonderful is this contrivance! and + what incalculable benefits result from it! The + uninterrupted and equable diurnal rotation of the earth + gives us day and night in their succession, and the annual + revolution causes all the varied scenery of the year. If + one motion interfered with the other, the return of the day + and night would be irregular; and the change of seasons + attended with uncertainty to the husbandman. These two + motions are, therefore, harmoniously impressed upon the + earth, that the gracious promise of the great Creator might + be fulfilled, ’While the earth remaineth, seed-time and + harvest, and cold and heat, and summer and winter, and day + and night, shall not cease.’</p> + <p> + “The double motion of a secondary planet is still more + singular than that of its primary; for (taking the moon for + an example) besides its particular revolution round the + earth, which is performed in 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, + 4½ seconds; it is carried round the sun with the earth once + a year. Of all the planetary motions, with which we have a + tolerable acquaintance, that of the moon is the most + intricate: upwards of twenty equations are necessary, in + the great majority of cases, to reduce her mean to her true + place; yet not one of them is derivable from the + circumstance that she accompanies the earth in its + revolution round the sun. They + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span> + + depend on the different distances + of the earth from the sun in its annual revolution, the + position of the lunar nodes, and various other causes, and + not on the annual revolution itself, a motion which, of all + others, might be expected to cause greater irregularities + in her revolution round the earth than could be produced on + that of the latter by the planetary attractions. Who can + form an adequate conception of that influence of the earth + which thus draws the moon with it round the sun, precisely + in the same manner as if it were a part of the earth’s + surface, notwithstanding the intervening distance of about + 240,000 miles; and, at the same time, leaves undisturbed + the moon’s proper motion round the earth? And what + beneficent purposes are subserved by this harmony? In + consequence of it, we have the periodical returns of new + and full moon; and the ebbing and flowing of the sea, which + depend on the various lunar phases, with respect to the sun + and earth, (as if demonstrable from each of these phases + being continually contemporaneous with the particular + phenomenon of the tides,) always succeed each other with a + regularity necessarily equal to that of the causes which + produce them. Thus we see that God is continually present, + supporting all things by his energy, and that, while his + working is manifest, his ways are past finding out.”</p> + <p> + Thomson, in his descriptive, philosophical, moral, and + religious poem, admirably well delineates the revolving + seasons.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “These, as they change, <span + class="smcap">Almighty Father</span>, these</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Are but the <em>varied</em> God. The rolling year</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Is full of thee. Forth in the pleasing spring</p> + <p class="ml0"> + <span + class="smcap">Thy</span> + beauty walks. <span + class="smcap">Thy</span> + tenderness and love</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Wide flush the fields; the softening air is balm;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Echo the mountains round; the forest smiles;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And every sense, and every heart is joy.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Then comes <span + class="smcap">Thy</span> + glory in the summer-months,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + With light and heat refulgent. Then <span + class="smcap">Thy</span> sun</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Shoots full perfection through the swelling year:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And oft <span + class="smcap">Thy</span> + voice in dreadful thunder speaks;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And oft at dawn, deep noon, or falling eve,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + By brooks and groves, in hollow-whispering gales.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + <span + class="smcap">Thy</span> + bounty shines in Autumn unconfin’d,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And spreads a common feast for all that lives.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + In Winter awful <span + class="smcap">Thou</span>! + with clouds and storms</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Around <span + class="smcap">Thee</span> + thrown, tempest o’er tempest roll’d.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Majestic darkness! on the whirlwind’s wing,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Riding sublime, <span + class="smcap">Thou</span> + bidst the world adore,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And humblest nature with <span + class="smcap">Thy</span> + northern blast.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Mysterious round! what skill, what force divine,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Deep felt, in these appear! a simple train,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Yet so delightful mix’d, with such kind art,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Such beauty and beneficence combin’d;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Shade, unperceiv’d, so softening into shade;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And all so forming an harmonious whole;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + That, as they still succeed, they ravish still.”</p> + </div> + <p> + He who governs the whole frame of nature, and directs and + regulates these successive changes, must possess almighty + <em>power</em>, without which, he would be infinitely + inadequate to the task. He who made the celestial orbs of + such a prodigious bulk, and whirls them round with an + almost incredible swiftness, causing the + regular + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span> + + return of day and night, summer + and winter, what can he not do? None among the mighty host + of heaven, or among the inhabitants of the earth, can + resist his power, or stay his arm when lifted up. He who + created all things out of nothing, could, if he pleased, + extinguish the lights of heaven, and shake the solid earth + to atoms. How easily, then, can he stop our breath, break + the slender thread of life, dissolve our feeble frame, or + hurl guilty and impenitent sinners into the pit of + destruction! He who brought darkness for the space of three + days upon the Egyptians, and a dreadful tempest of forty + days and forty nights upon the inhabitants of the old + world, can make the days of the ungodly darkness, and their + nights full of horror. He can strike them with “the arrow + that flieth by day,” his swift pointed lightning; or with + the pestilential vapors of the night, which “walk in + darkness,” and give the deadly stroke unseen.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “Lord, when my thoughtful soul surveys</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Fire, air, and earth, and stars and seas,</p> + <p class="ml2"> + I call them all thy slaves;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Commissioned by my father’s will,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Poison shall cure, or balm shall kill;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Vernal suns or zephyr’s breath,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + May burn or blast the plants to death,</p> + <p class="ml2"> + That sharp <em>December saves</em>.</p> + <p class="v2 ml0"> + What can winds or planets boast</p> + <p class="ml2"> + But a precarious power?</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The sun is all in darkness lost,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Frost shall be fire, and fire be frost,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + When he appoints the hour.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + Shall not, then, such a frail creature as man, think and + speak of this omnipotent Being with the greatest reverence + and profound humility? Oh God, fill the minds of all men + with just and enlarged views of thy majesty and greatness! + for thou killest, and thou makest alive; thou woundest, and + thou healest: neither is there any that can deliver out of + thy hand.</p> + <p> + Divine <em>wisdom</em> also shines forth in the regular and + uninterrupted succession of the seasons. “The Lord by + wisdom hath founded the earth, and by understanding + established the heavens.” Not only the different magnitudes + of the heavenly orbs, but their particular distances, and + the harmonious laws by which they move, do loudly proclaim, + that he who formed, ranges, and actuates them all, must be + infinitely wise. Without looking into boundless space, + where shine many thousand globes of light, or fixed stars, + supposed to be suns like our own, and to have planets + revolving round them, we may discover luminous displays of + Divine wisdom in our own system, in the constant succession + of the seasons, that may justly excite our wonder and + adoration. How wise must he be who has so exactly + proportioned the different magnitudes of the earth and the + sun, and placed them at a proper distance from each other! + Is not equal wisdom discovered in that equable, steady, + swift, and complicate + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span> + + motion of the earth, by which the + delightful and necessary succession of the seasons return? + It is the wisdom of God that at first arranged the motion + of the celestial bodies, and that preserves them in their + rapid and yet regular progressions and rotations, with so + much order and harmony. “How manifold, oh Lord, are thy + works! in wisdom hast thou made them all. Thy understanding + is infinite, for thou tellest the number of the stars, and + callest them all by their names.”</p> + <p> + The <em>goodness</em> of God to the inhabitants of the + earth, is also displayed in the revolving seasons. When the + almighty Creator took a survey of all the works his hands + had made, he saw that they were good; not only conformable + to eternal reason, but proper to answer the end for which + he designed them. And this goodness manifested in the + formation of the world, is not more clearly discovered in + any thing than in the return of day and night, heat and + cold, summer and winter. We are pleased with the light in + the morning, but it is after we have rested well in the + night: when a few hours are spent, we grow weary of the + light, and wish for the return of the silence and darkness + of the nocturnal season. After a long cold winter, we + joyfully welcome the approach of summer; but when scorched + a few months with its heat, and ready to faint, the return + of winter is not so unpleasant to us as it appeared more + early in the spring. But whatever effect these successions + may have upon us, it is certain they are very beneficial. + The light of the day is advantageous for managing the toils + and business of life; and the coolness and stillness of the + night are as suitable for rest and sleep. The summer’s heat + is necessary for ripening the fruits of the earth, and + hastening the harvest: but the winter’s cold and hoary + frost are subservient to prepare the earth for the seed, + and render it fertile. Nay, this dreary season is + serviceable both to man and beast; it tends to remove + distempers contracted in the summer’s unwholesome air, and + gives a new spring and vigor to nature. How great, then, is + the Divine goodness in preserving the constant and regular + revolution of these seasons, so pleasant and beneficial to + mankind! “Oh that men would praise the Lord for his + goodness, and for his wonderful works to the children of + men.”</p> + <p> + We cannot but perceive the <em>faithfulness</em> of God in + continuing these seasons, according to his promise, to this + period. We still see day succeeding day, and year + succeeding year: this covenant made with mankind is + inviolably kept. The husbandman cultivates his land, + ploughs up the furrows, casts in the seeds, in hope of the + ensuing harvest, when he expects that his expense, labor, + and patience, will be recompensed with a rich and large + increase. But should God, in anger, open the bottles of + heaven, pour down the rain in torrents, cause swelling + floods to arise, and, rolling with alarming impetuosity + forward, to sweep away at once the fruit of + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span> + + all his toil, how + great must be his grief and astonishment! Such were the + consternation and confusion that seized mankind at the time + of the flood. The husbandman had tilled his land, thrown + his seed into the ground; he saw it with pleasure springing + up, and promised himself a plentiful harvest: when quickly, + all the flood-gates of heaven were opened, all the + fountains of the great deep were broken up, and a rapid + current overflowed the springing corn, swept away numerous + flocks of cattle, overthrew the habitations of the people, + and drowned man and beast to the very tops of the + mountains! But in this general ruin, Noah found favor with + God, and he and his family were preserved in the Ark. When + the waters had abated, and the earth became dry, this pious + patriarch, being much affected with the awful judgment + inflicted upon mankind, especially with the distinguishing + mercies conferred upon himself and family, offered + sacrifice, in testimony of his gratitude, to his great + Deliverer, who was well-pleased with it. And on this, he + made a covenant with him, and with all his posterity, in + which he promises that he will not again curse the ground + for man’s sake, nor any more smite every living thing, but + that, “while the earth remaineth,” the successive seasons + of the year shall be continued. The awful disobedience of + the inhabitants of the old world rendered it necessary to + inflict so dreadful a judgment; but as soon as it had + subsided, God promised never to punish mankind again so + universally. And, in token of his faithfulness, he set the + rainbow in the cloud, to be a sign of his covenant, which + has not been broken, but faithfully kept even to this day. + However the Almighty may contend in anger with particular + nations or provinces, he will no more do so with mankind in + general.</p> + <p> + How happy is the situation of our native isle! There are + few countries, if any, that exceed it. The climate is + temperate; neither days nor nights are ever of immoderate + length; the summer and winter are neither extremely hot, + nor excessively cold; the seed-time and harvest are + generally favorable, and the produce of the land is + plenteous. The inhabitants of some countries endure a long + and severe winter, seeing not the sun for many weeks: nay, + there are some places where it rises not for several + months; but these parts are not inhabited in the winter + season. In other countries, the inhabitants are scorched + with the rays of a vertical sun, and wish in vain for the + cooling winter’s snow. Some know not what is meant by the + heat of summer, and others are as ignorant of the cold of + winter. Some see the sun, but comparatively feel not his + warming influence; while others are penetrated with his + burning rays all the year. But the people of this country + have moderate summer, heat sufficient for ripening the most + useful fruits, and winter that may be well endured. The + days are not so hot in the summer, but the nights are + sufficiently cool for allaying the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">221</span> + + heat; and they + are long enough in winter for managing the business that is + requisite to be done. Some warmer climates produce more + delicious fruits: but no country under the canopy of the + heavens does more abound with all the substantial supports + of life; not only equal to our own consumption, but + frequently to enable us to assist our neighbors. Happy are + the people that are in such a case: yea, thrice happy are + they whose God is Jehovah. All his works praise him: may we + join the grand chorus, and bless his holy name. Surely, if + the works of creation were attentively viewed, and + seriously considered, they would not only be truly admired, + but their glorious Author would be sincerely regarded, + diligently worshipped, and practically obeyed.</p> + <p> + The following table has been ascribed to the illustrious + astronomer, Dr. Herschell. It is constructed upon a + philosophical consideration of the attraction of the sun + and moon in their several positions respecting the earth, + and confirmed by the experience of many years: actual + observation will, without trouble, suggest to the observer + what kind of weather will most probably follow the moon’s + entrance into any of her quarters; and that so near the + truth, that in very few instances will it be found to fail.</p> + <table class="wide xxs" summary=""> + <tr> + <th class="bbox"> + <em>New or Full Moon.</em></th> + <th class="bbox"> + <em>Summer.</em></th> + <th class="bbox"> + <em>Winter.</em></th></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox rt"> + If it be new or full moon, or the moon enters into the + first or last quarters at the hour of 12</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Very rainy.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Snow and rain.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox rt"> + Between hours of 2 and 4</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Changeable.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Fair and mild.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox rt"> + 4 - 6</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Fair.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Fair.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox rt"> + 6 - 8</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Fair, if wind N.W.<br /> + Rainy, if S. or S.W.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Fair and frosty, if N. or N.E.<br /> + Rainy, if S. or S.W.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox rt"> + 8 - 10</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Ditto.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Ditto.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox rt"> + 10 and Midnight</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Fair.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Fair and frosty.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox rt"> + Midnight and 2</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Ditto.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Hard frost, unless wind S. or S.W.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox rt"> + 2 - 4</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Cold, with frequent showers.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Snow and Stormy.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox rt"> + 4 - 6</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Rain.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Ditto.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox rt"> + 6 - 8</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Wind and rain.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Stormy.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox rt"> + 8 - 10</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Changeable.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Cold, rain if W. snow if E.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="bbox rt"> + 10 and Noon</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Frequent showers.</td> + <td class="bbox"> + Cold with high wind.</td></tr> + </table> + + <p class="i0" id="FNanchor_127"> + Hence, the nearer the time of the moon’s entrance, at full + and change, or quarters, is to midnight (that is, within + two hours before or after midnight), the more fair weather + is in summer, but the nearer to noon the less fair. Also, + the moon’s entrance, at full, change, and quarters, during + six of the afternoon hours, viz. from four to ten, may be + followed by fair weather; but this is mostly dependant on + the wind. The same entrance, during all the hours after + midnight except the two first, is unfavorable to fair + weather; the like, nearly, may be observed in winter.<a + href="#Footnote_127" + class="fnanchor">127</a></p> + <hr class="r10" /> + <p> + It is an easy and excellent method of conveying + instruction, and impressing it upon the heart, to take + occasion from natural objects to raise the mind to things + spiritual and divine. The day and + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span> + + night, and their + alternate changes, may suggest such thoughts as the + following, to a serious mind engaged in meditation.</p> + <p> + What a glorious creature is light! How beneficial to this + world! How useful, nay, how necessary for managing those + employments which could not be done in the night! How + unwise, then, is he who postpones the necessary business of + the day till night overtake him?—So beneficial, so + requisite, is the light of life in the important work of + human salvation. Does God allow men a day, a gracious + season, and the light of his word, for the good of their + souls? Of what extreme folly shall they be guilty, if they + neglect the necessary business till the night of death + come, and they drop into the grave, where there is neither + work, nor wisdom, nor device! Now is the day of grace, and + God is favoring them with the light of reason and + revelation. May he give them wisdom to improve these + advantages, to his glory, and their own happiness! They + know not how soon their sun may set, and the night of death + come upon them. If it should be before their everlasting + interest is secured, they will be lost for ever. Oh Lord, + teach us so to number our days, that we may apply our + hearts to wisdom!</p> + <p> + Night comes on apace; I must soon undress, and lie down to + sleep. And it cannot be long before I must put off this + body, lie down in the grave and sleep in the dust. What + shall I do that my soul may not be found naked, but be + clothed and adorned with the glorious robes of + righteousness? Jesus, to whom shall I go but to thee, for + thou hast the words of eternal life!—How awful, and full of + horror, is this approaching darkness! If the imperfection + of man did not require the rest of sleep, surely it would + be a pleasant thing always to dwell in the light. Will it + not then, be unspeakably delightful to abide in the light + of God’s countenance, to see the Divine Majesty with a + strong and open eye? and to behold his unutterable glories + without any fear of being deprived of the beatific vision, + or of returning night? But oh! how dismal must that place + of darkness be where the light never shines! where the + miserable inhabitants never see one beam of Divine light, + one ray from God’s reconciled face! where the grossest + darkness reigns for ever, without the least hope of + returning day! and where nothing remains for them, but a + black, a horrible, an eternal night!</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “Is light so grateful to the human sense?</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Created light? a faint, refracted ray?</p> + <p class="ml0"> + One, distant sun? the shadow, but, of God!</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Dark adumbration of the <span class="smcap">Deity</span>?</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Oh! what is heav’n! that day of endless light?</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Where saints shall from th’ essential fountain drink</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Of radiance! in God’s full, paternal shine?</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Ah! what is Hell? of ever-absent day,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + A night all hopeless!—and all endless too!”</p> + </div> + <p> + The successive changes of day and night may suggest what is + frequently the condition of good people in this world. + Their day of prosperity is sometimes followed with a night + of adversity; and + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span> + + then, when sorrow and weeping + have endured for a night, light and joy spring up in the + morning.—Is the light of the day pleasing? rejoice in it + with trembling, for the night is advancing. Is the darkness + of the night solemn and awful? rejoice in hope that the day + is approaching. Hence be instructed, oh my soul, in the + concerns of thy eternal welfare. Are prosperity, health, + and relatives, agreeable? rejoice in them as one that + rejoices not: these must have an end; and adversity, + sickness, and death, will come. Are losses, affliction, and + pain, not joyous, but grievous? mourn as one that weeps + not: ease, health, and gladness, are in prospect, and will + continue for ever. And how happy and glorious will that + world be, where light and joy shall never cease! But how + dreadful is that abode where darkness, despair, and anguish + shall never end!</p> + <p> + The succession of cold and heat, winter and summer, will + always suggest pious and useful reflections in retirement. + How pleasing it is to see the sun return, and to feel his + cheering rays, after a long, cold, and tempestuous winter! + So it is delightful to the humble penitent sinner, after a + long season of darkness and sorrow, when the Sun of + Righteousness arises with his reviving influences, and God + lifts upon him the smiles of his reconciled countenance. + All misery, and clouds of doubt and fear, are then + dispersed, and heavenly light breaks into the soul, and + fills it with gladness. And does the want of the light of + God cause the serious Christian to mourn and weep, and + taste no sweetness in any of the comforts of life? How + extremely miserable, then, must a person be, who is driven + to an everlasting distance from the presence of God, and + from the glorious Sun of Righteousness; only to see his + glory very remote, but never to feel the reviving beams of + his love; and to be punished in hell, far “from the + presence of the Lord, and the glory of his power.”</p> + <hr id="CHAPTER_V_4" class="tb" /> + <h3> + <em>Section IV.</em>—<span + class="smcap">The Planets and Fixed Stars.</span></h3> + <p class="hang1 smaller"> + Mercury — Venus — The Earth — Mars — Ceres — Pallas — Juno + — Vesta — Jupiter — Saturn — Georgium Sidus — Comets — + Fixed Stars — Religious Improvement.</p> + <p> + Moses, after stating that God created the sun and the moon, + says, “he made the stars also.” A learned author explains + it, “he made the lesser light, with the stars, to rule the + night.” It is very probable that the whole <em>solar + system</em> was created in six days: but as the design of + the sacred historian was to relate what especially belongs + to our globe and its inhabitants, he therefore passes by + the planetary system, leaving it simply included in the + plural word, <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">שמים</span> + <em>shamayim</em>, <em>heavens</em>. In a + work of this nature, it is proper to take a concise view of + all the planets, their number, distances, magnitudes, + revolutions, &c.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span> + + <em>Wandering Stars</em>, says Baseley, is one of the many + appellations by which our solar system has been sometimes + designated. And the figure it makes in the heavens is not + unaptly expressed by the phraseology. For we distinguish + the planets from the fixed stars by the lustre of the + former, which is only from that side which faces the sun, + and by their motion, which is seldom, and then but + apparently, interrupted. Their brightness seems more + uniform, has the cast of reflected rather than direct + illumination, and is altogether free from scintillation or + twinkling. Their connection with the globe we inhabit is + more perceptible, and their relative situation to one + another less stationary. Their distance from us is not so + remote, and more susceptible of calculation. The latter + occupy a certain region situated in our neighborhood + between us and the former.</p> + <p> + The planets are opake bodies, and nearly spherical. Being + opake in themselves, they become visible only by reflecting + the light, which they receive from the sun. The laws by + which they are governed were discovered by Kepler, who + demonstrated that they must necessarily revolve in + elliptical, and not in circular orbits. Astronomers have + divided them into classes: the <em>primary</em> planets are + Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Ceres, Pallas, Juno, + Vesta, Jupiter, Saturn, and the Georgium Sidus; and the + second class includes the satellites which belong to some + of the primary planets, such as the Moon, the attendant on + the Earth, the four moons or satellites that revolve about + Jupiter, the seven that attend Saturn, and the six that + wait on the Georgium Sidus.</p> + <p> + <em>Mercury</em> is the smallest of the seven primary + planets, and nearest to the sun; he appears as a small + star, and emits a very vivid white light. He was called by + the Greeks <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: Stilbôn" + class="msg">Στιλβων</span>, + plainly alluding to his brightness. Costard observes, “<span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ברק אור</span> + <em>Bark-oor</em>, <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ברק אורי</span> + <em>Bark-oori</em>, or, changing the letter <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ב</span> + into <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">מ</span> + as letters of the same organ frequently are, <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">מרק אורי</span> + <em>Mark-oori</em>, we have in another dialect, with a + Latin termination <em>us</em>, another name of this planet, + Mercurius; and from whence comes <em>Mercury</em>, as he is + called by us.” This planet never goes to a greater distance + from the sun than about 27° 50ʹ; so that he appears only a + little after sunset, and again a little before sunrise; he + is never longer in setting after the sun than an hour and + fifty minutes nor does he ever rise more than an hour and + fifty minutes before that luminary: he is then about as far + as the moon appears to be from the sun on the second day + after the change. His mean distance from the sun says Dr. + O. Gregory, is to that of the earth from the sun as 387 to + 1,000: hence his distance is about thirty-seven millions of + miles. To an inhabitant of Mercury, the sun appears almost + three times broader than we see him from the earth; because + the planet is almost three times nearer to the sun than the + earth. Whence also the solar disk, seen from Mercury, is + seven times greater than the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span> + + disk as it appears to us, and + Mercury has seven times more light than the earth.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml12"> + “——Mercury the first,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Near bordering on the day, with speedy wheel</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Flies swifter on, inflaming where he comes</p> + <p class="ml0"> + With seven-fold splendor.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + The diameter of this planet is more than one-third of the + diameter of the earth, or 3,180 miles. Hence his surface is + about 1/7th; and his magnitude 1/16th of that of the earth. + His period of revolution round the sun is 87 days, 23 + hours, 14 minutes, 33 seconds, which is his year, and falls + short of three of our months: hence he moves in his orbit + round the sun at the rate of more than 95,000 miles in an + hour. According to some astronomers, it has not been + ascertained by observation, whether Mercury turns upon his + own axis, and therefore it cannot be certainly affirmed + that he has the vicissitude of day and night, neither the + return of summer and winter: because they depend upon the + inclination of the axis of his rotation, which is unknown, + to the plane of the orbit which he describes about the sun; + though there is very little doubt entertained on the + subject. But Schroëter affirms that he “has distinguished + spots and mountains, which he has assiduously followed, + till he has arrived at the subsequent conclusions: that the + apparent diameter of the planet is about 6ʺ; that it does + not present any sensible ellipticity; that the mountains it + contains are proportionably larger than those of Venus and + the Earth; that the highest are, as in these two bodies, in + the southern hemisphere; that the angle which the equator + makes with its orbit is very considerable; that the + difference of days and seasons ought to be much greater in + Mercury than it is on the earth; that its atmosphere, like + that of Venus, is very dense; and lastly, that its rotation + about its axis is 24 hours, 5 minutes, 30 seconds.” + When examined by means of a telescope magnifying about 200 or + 300 times, he appears equally luminous throughout his whole + surface, without the least dark spot. He exhibits the same + difference of phases with the moon, being alternately + horned, gibbous, and shining almost with a round face, + though not entirely full because his enlightened side is + never turned directly toward us; but at all times perfectly + well defined without any ragged edge, and completely + bright; and, like the moon, the crescent is always turned + toward the sun. Mercury has no inferior planet known to us, + and if that be actually the case, a spectator on his body + will want the argument taken from the horned phases of the + planets, to establish the true system of the world. But + though we do not see any planets inferior to Mercury, it + does by no means follow that there are none: for we seldom + see Mercury himself, he being buried in the rays of the + sun; and a planet much nearer the sun could never be seen + from the earth. The first observation that was ever made + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span> + + of a transit, was by Gassendi, who saw Mercury on the sun, + A.M. November 7, 1631. Since his time there have occurred + seventeen other transits of this planet, the last of which + was at his ascending node on the 9th of November, 1802. The + ascending and descending nodes are in the 16° of Taurus, + and 16° of Scorpio. Other transits are expected in the + years 1822, 1832, 1835, 1845, and 1848.</p> + <p> + <em>Venus</em>, the second planet from the sun in the order + of the system, is the most beautiful star in the heavens, + being easily distinguished by her brightness and whiteness, + which exceeds that of all the other planets, and is so + considerable, that in a dusky night she projects a sensible + shadow. Concerning her name, Costard remarks, “From the + Chaldee <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">הן</span> + <em>Han</em>, or <em>Hen</em>, which signifies <em + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">gratia</em>, + <em>decor</em>, <em + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">elegantia</em>, + with the Æolic digamma Ϝ, comes <em>Fen</em>, or <em>Ven</em>, + and with the additional termination <em>us, Venus</em>; the + name by which this planet was known among the Romans, and + by which, from them, it has been transmitted to us.” The + mean distance of Venus from the sun is about 69,000,000 + miles; her diameter is 7,630 miles; she performs her + revolution round the sun in 224 days, 16 hours, 41 minutes, + 27 seconds; her diurnal motion on her axis, according to + some observations accurately made by Schroëter, is + performed in 23 hours, 21 minutes; and she moves at the + rate of 81,398 miles an hour.</p> + <p> + This planet constantly attends the sun, and never departs + from him more than forty-seven degrees, and consequently is + never seen at midnight, nor in opposition to that luminary; + being visible only for three or four hours in a morning or + evening, according as she is before or after the sun. Venus + is a <em>morning star</em> when she appears westward of the + sun, for she then rises before him, and is among poets + called Phosphorus or Lucifer——</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml12"> + “——Fair morning star,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + That leads on dawning day to yonder world,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The <em>seat of man</em>.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + but when eastward of the sun, she is an <em>evening + star</em>, shining after he is set, and then the poets give + her the name Hesperus or Vesper.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml8"> + “——Her lovely beams adorn</p> + <p class="ml0"> + As well the dewy eve, as opening morn.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + She is in each situation, alternately, between nine and ten + months, or about 290 days. Pythagoras is said to have first + discovered that Hesperus and Phosphorus were one and the + same star. “From the name Phosphorus,” says Costard, “it + seems as if this is the same star that in Isaiah is called + <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">הילל בן שהר</span> + <em>Helal-ben-shahar</em>, or <em>Helal, son of + the morning</em>; a name given it on account of its + remarkable brightness. If so, that is the oldest record of + a planet that occurs in any author whatever now extant: + this was about the year before Christ 710.”</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span> + + Venus is frequently seen in the day-time, when in the + inferior part of her orbit, at about forty degrees distant + from the sun.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “No stars besides their radiance can display</p> + <p class="ml0"> + In Phœbus’ presence the dread Lord of day;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Ev’n Cynthia’s self, though regent of the night,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Is quite obscur’d by his emergent light;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + But <span + class="smcap">Venus</span> + only, as if more divine,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + With Phœbus dares in partnership to shine.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + To quiet the minds of some superstitious people, greatly + alarmed at the appearance of Venus in the day-time, Dr. + Halley wrote a small piece, published in the Philosophical + Transactions (No. 349) to show that this was nothing + extraordinary, and might be expected every eight years. + Venus, when viewed through a good telescope, is rarely seen + to shine with a full face, but has phases just like those + of the moon, being now gibbous, now horned, &c., and + her illuminated part constantly turned towards the sun, + looking toward the east when a morning star, and toward the + west when an evening star. M. de la Hire, in 1700, through + a telescope of sixteen feet, discovered mountains in Venus, + which he found to be larger than those in the moon. These + observations have recently been confirmed by M. Schroëter, + who, in the year 1780, commenced a course of observations + on this planet, the results of which were published in the + Philosophical Transactions for 1792.</p> + <p> + Venus, as well as Mercury, is sometimes seen to transit the + sun’s disk, in form of a dark round spot; but these + transits seldom happen. The first that was ever observed, + was seen by our countryman Jeremiah Horrox, at Hool, an + obscure village fifteen miles north of Liverpool: his + account of which was published by Hevelius at Dantzic in + 1661, under the title, “Venus in sole visa, anno 1631, + November 24.” Mr. Horrox’s friend, William Crabtree, + according to his direction, saw this transit at the same + time, at Manchester. Two have occurred in the last century, + namely, one June 6th, 1761, seen by many astronomers, which + excited particular attention by a dissertation published by + Dr. Halley in the Philosophical Transactions (No. 348) in + which he proposed finding, from that transit, the sun’s + parallax, and thence the distance of the earth from the + sun: and the other, June 3d, 1769, at 10<sup>h</sup>. 10ʹ, + according to M. de la Lande, and consequently invisible at + Paris and London; but by comparing together two + observations made, one at Mexico, and the other to the + north of Petersburgh, we perceive the sun’s parallax, was + determined with great precision. The transits of Venus, + occurring between the years 1631 and 2110, according to the + calculations of persons most eminent in astronomical + science, are as follow:</p> + <table class="mini" summary=""> + <tr> + <td> + 1631</td> + <td> + December 6</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1639</td> + <td> + December 4</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1761</td> + <td> + June 5</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1769</td> + <td> + June 3</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1874</td> + <td> + December 8</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1882</td> + <td> + December 6</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 2004</td> + <td> + June 7</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 2109</td> + <td> + December 10</td></tr> + </table> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span> + + The <em>Earth</em> is the next planet in order; called by + the Greeks <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: Gê" + class="msg">Γη</span>, + and by the poets <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: Gaia" + class="msg">Γαια</span>, + from <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: gaô" + class="msg">γαω</span> + to <em>generate</em>, <em>produce</em>, which, says Parkhurst, + is from the Hebrew, <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">גאה</span> + <em>to grow</em> as a plant, + because it produces, or is the mother of all terrestrial + things; or in the poetic language of the Orphic hymn to the + earth,</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml4"> + ——“Brings forth her various fruits,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + With throes maternal.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + The word used by Moses is <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">הארץ</span> + <em>haarets</em>, translated <em>earth</em>, whence in the + Anglo-Saxon, <em>eard</em> and <em>eord</em>; Danish <em + lang="dan" + xml:lang="dan">jord</em>, + <em + lang="dan" + xml:lang="dan">jorden</em>; + Dutch <em + lang="dum" + xml:lang="dum">erd</em> + and <em + lang="dum" + xml:lang="dum">aerd</em>; + and Teutonic <em + lang="gem" + xml:lang="gem">erd</em>, + <em + lang="gem" + xml:lang="gem">erde</em>.</p> + <p> + The distance of the earth from the sun is about 95,000,000 + miles: her orbit round the sun is 597,000,000 miles, and + she performs her revolution round the sun, from any equinox + or solstice to the same point again, in 365 days, 5 hours, + 49 minutes, 57 seconds; of course, her hourly motion in her + orbit is 68,000 miles. Her diameter is 7,964 miles, her + circumference is 25,000 miles, and the time of rotation + upon her axis, from west to east, is 23 hours, 56 minutes, + 4 seconds: by which the inhabitants upon the equator are + carried after the rate of 1,042 miles an hour, and those + upon the parallel of London, 580 miles, as we have already + noticed. The annual and diurnal motion of the earth is thus + described by Milton:</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “She from the West her silent course advances</p> + <p class="ml0"> + With inoffensive pace, that spinning sleeps</p> + <p class="ml0"> + On her soft axle, while she paces even,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And bears us soft with the smooth air along.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + From this circumstance arises the <em>apparent</em> diurnal + revolution of all the heavenly bodies from east to west.</p> + <p> + “The motion of the earth,” says an intelligent writer, “has + so long ceased to be a disputed question, that the + arguments on each side are nearly forgotten; and those who + do not scruple to adopt the hypothesis of the earth’s + motions, are often less acquainted with the arguments on + which it is supported, than they would have been in former + times, when their opinions must have been the subjects of + fierce contention.” La Place observes, “that if the earth + be at rest, and the stars move, the velocity of these + latter must be immense; and yet all the purposes thereof + might have been answered by a moderate motion of the earth + alone. The moon’s distance from the earth is 240,000 miles; + of course, the length of the tract which it traverses, if + it moves round the earth in 24 hours, is about 1,500,000; + that is, at the rate of 62,500 miles an hour, instead of + 2,290 miles, which is really the case: consequently, in + each second of time, the moon, known to be the slowest of + all the heavenly bodies, must move more than seventeen + miles. Again, the sun’s mean distance from the earth is + about 95,000,000 miles; consequently, the diurnal path of + that luminary, if it revolve about our globe in twenty-four + hours, must be 580,000,000: and therefore, in a single + second, the beat of a clock, he must move nearly 7,000 + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span> + + miles. Upon the same principle; that is, supposing the + earth to be the centre of the system, and not the sun, the + planet Mars, in a second of time, must travel at the rate + of more than 10,000 miles, Jupiter 36,000, and Saturn + 62,000. And, lastly, the fixed stars being yet indefinitely + more remote from the earth than the sun or Saturn, their + motion in or near the equator must be vastly swifter than + this. If the earth does not move round the sun, the sun + must move with the moon round the earth; now; the distance + of the sun to that of the moon is nearly 400 to 1, and the + period of the moon being about twenty-eight days, the sun’s + period should be, by the law above mentioned, full 600 + years, whereas, it is, in fact, but a single year. This + consideration was, of itself, thought of weight enough to + determine the controversy between the two opinions, and to + establish the motion of the earth in its orbit for ever.”</p> + <p> + That the shape of the earth was an extended plane, and the + visible horizon its utmost bounds, was the opinion of the + ancients. But that it is globular, a little raised at the + equator, and flattened at the poles, being about + thirty-seven miles shorter than at the equator, so as + nearly to resemble an orange, is demonstrable on the most + evident and unquestionable principles. 1. All the + appearances of the heavens, both at land and at sea, are + the same as they would be if the earth were a globe. + Mariners first begin to lose sight of the lower parts of + objects, and then gradually of the higher parts; also, + persons on shore first discover the masts before the hull + of approaching vessels, and on leaving a port the masts are + seen when the hull is out of sight, which must be owing to + the convexity of the water between the eye and the object, + otherwise the largest and most conspicuous parts would have + been visible the longest.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p id="FNanchor_128" class="mlQ"> + “Behold, when the glad ship shoots from the port</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Upon full sail, the hulk first disappears,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And then the lower, then the higher sails;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + At length the summit of the towering mast</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Alone is seen; nor less, when from the ship</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The longing sailor’s eye in hope of shore:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + For then, from the top-mast, though more remote</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Than either deck, the shore is first beheld.”<a + href="#Footnote_128" + class="fnanchor">128</a></p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + 2. Navigators sailing round the globe, as Magellan, Drake, + Lord Anson, Cook, and others, have steered their course + directly south and west till they came to the Magellanic + sea, and from thence to the north and west, till they + returned to their port from the east; and all the phenomena + which should naturally arise from the earth’s rotundity, + happened to them. Beside, their method of sailing was also + founded upon this hypothesis, which could not have + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span> + + succeeded so happily, if the earth + had been of any other figure. 3. In all lunar eclipses, the + shadow of the earth falling upon the moon is always + circular; and a body can be no other than a globe, which in + all situations casts a circular shadow. It is true, the + surface of the earth is not an exact geometrical globe: but + what the earth loses of its sphericity by its inequalities, + as writers on this subject have remarked, is very + inconsiderable: the highest mountains bearing so little + proportion to its bulk, as scarcely to be equivalent to the + minutest protuberance on the surface of an orange, or a + grain of dust to a common globe.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “These inequalities to us seem great;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + But to an eye that comprehends the whole,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The tumor, which to us so monstrous seems,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Is as a grain of sparkling sand that clings</p> + <p class="ml0"> + To the smooth surface of a sphere of glass;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Or as a fly upon the convex dome</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Of a sublime, stupendous edifice.”</p> + </div> + <p> + It is not so easy as some imagine, says a German + philosopher and divine, to determine exactly the size of + the earth. It is true, there is but one longitude; but + there are two latitudes, the north and the south. Both of + these begin at the equator; the one extends northward, the + other southward, as far as the arctic and antarctic poles. + But, no one has yet been able to reach either pole. The + mountains of ice in Greenland and the Northern Sea, have + always obstructed the passage to the north pole: and + immense fields, mountains, and islands of ice, have + rendered the passage to the south pole impossible. Thanks, + however, to the geometricians, we can at present know very + nearly the size of our globe. According to the most exact + calculations, the surface of the earth is 199,512,595 + square miles. The seas and unknown parts of the earth, by a + measurement of the best maps, contain 160,522,026 square + miles. The inhabited parts contain about 38,990,559 square + miles, in the following proportion: Europe—4,456,065; + Asia—10,768,823; Africa—9,654,807; America—14,110,874: + Hence it appears that scarcely one-third of the globe is + habitable. It has been calculated, that there might be at + least <em>three thousand millions</em> of men upon the + earth at once: but in reality there are no more than about + a <em>thousand and eighty millions</em>: of which there + are, in Asia—650 millions; in Africa—150; in America—150; + in Europe—130.</p> + <p> + The path traversed by the earth, which, in astronomical + language, is called its orbit, is the apparent path of the + sun: it is called the <em>ecliptic</em>, because eclipses, + both solar and lunar, always happen in this circle—also + <em>via solis</em>, or the sun’s path, because the sun + never departs from it; and, therefore, at any time to + denote the sun’s place in the heavens, astronomers have + divided the whole circle of the earth’s motion in 360 equal + parts, which they term <em>degrees</em>, and every thirty + of these a <em>sign</em>, of which there are + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span> + + twelve. In this + circle the sun advances nearly one degree every twenty-four + hours, and thirty degrees every month; thus passing through + the whole 360 degrees in a year. The signs are called by + different names, and, with regard to their situations and + corresponding seasons and months, they stand in the + following order:</p> + <table class="mini xs w80" summary=""> + <caption> + <em>Northern Signs; so denominated as being north of the + Equator.</em></caption> + <tr> + <td class="br vt w10"> + Spring.</td> + <td> + Aries ♈, the Ram, part of March and April.<br /> + Taurus ♉, the Bull, April and May.<br /> + Gemini ♊, the Twins, May and June.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> </td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="br vt"> + Summer.</td> + <td> + Cancer ♋, the Crab, June and July.<br /> + Leo ♌, the Lion, July and August.<br /> + Virgo ♍, the Virgin, August and September.</td></tr> + </table> + <hr class="r10" /> + <table class="mini xs w80" summary=""> + <caption> + <em>Southern Signs; so called as being south of the + Equator.</em></caption> + <tr> + <td class="br vt w10"> + Autumn.</td> + <td> + Libra ♎, the Balance, September and October.<br /> + Scorpio ♏, the Scorpion, October and November.<br /> + Sagittarius ♐, the Archer, November and December.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> </td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="br vt"> + Winter.</td> + <td> + Capricornus ♑, the Goat, December and January.<br /> + Aquarius ♒, the Water-bearer, January and February.<br /> + Pisces ♓, the Fishes, February and March.</td></tr> + </table> + + <p> + The order of the signs is thus poetically described by Dr. + Watts.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “The Ram, the Bull, the heavenly Twins,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And next the Crab the Lion shines,</p> + <p class="ml4"> + The Virgin and the Scales:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The Scorpion, Archer, and Sea-goat,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The Man that holds the Water-pot,</p> + <p class="ml4"> + And Fish with glittering tails.”</p> + </div> + <p> + Dr. Long observes, that ♈ represents the horns of the ram; + ♉ the head and horns of the bull; ♊ the figure of gemini, + the twins joining hands and feet; the character cancer ♋ + represents the changes of the sun’s declination from north + to south, by two lines or figures drawn so as to point two + contrary ways; ♌ is the tail of the lion; ♍ was originally + the three ears of corn which Virgo held; ♎ is the beam of + the balance; ♏ was at first the picture of the scorpion; ♐ + the arrow of the Archer; ♑ represents capricorn, the + goat-fish; ♒ is a natural representation of the water’s + undulating surface; ♓ is the picture of two fishes tied + together back to back.</p> + <p> + The figures of the twelve signs are supposed by Dr. + Jennings, and other astronomers, to be Egyptian + hieroglyphics, by which they designed to exhibit some + remarkable natural occurrence in each month, as the sun + passed through these signs. Thus the first three months, + beginning from the vernal equinox, were remarkable for the + production of those animals which they most valued, namely, + sheep, kine, and goats. The lambs came first, which are + represented by their parent, the Ram; next the calves, + represented by the Bull; and the kids, which commonly come + in pairs, and which, therefore, gave the name to Gemini, + the third constellation; + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span> + + which was not at first + represented by Two Boys, but by Two Beasts; as referring to + the fruitfulness of goats, in producing <em>twin kids</em> + about the time when the sun was in that constellation. + When, in the fourth month, the sun is arrived at the summer + solstice, he discontinues his progress towards the north + pole, and begins to go back again to the southward; this + retrograde motion the Egyptians expressed by the Crab, + which is said to go backwards. The excessive heat that + usually follows in the next month, is signified by the + Lion; an animal remarkable for his strength and fierceness; + or, as others observe, when that animal, driven by thirst + from the desert, made his appearance on the banks of the + Nile. Nothing could be more proper than the symbol for the + harvest: namely, the Virgin reaper or gleaner with an ear + of corn in her hand. The seventh constellation, when the + sun arrives at the autumnal equinox, is expressed by the + Balance or Scales, in equilibrio, because the days and + nights, being then of the same length, seemed to indicate + an equilibrium like that instrument. October is often a + sickly season, when the surfeits acquired in the hot months + of the summer produce their fatal effects; the symbol is + therefore the Scorpion, who wounds with a sting in his + tail, as he recedes; or, according to others, when certain + regular winds brought forth a burning vapor like the poison + of the scorpion. The diversion of hunting, which is chiefly + followed after the fall of the leaf, is designated by + Sagittarius, or the archer. The Goat, which is an animal + that delights to browse up hill and to climb the highest + rocks, is the emblem of the winter solstice, when the sun + begins to ascend from the southern tropic, and is + continually mounting higher and higher for the ensuing half + year. Aquarius, or the Water-bearer, fitly represents the + rains, or snows, of the winter. And the Two Fishes in a + band, had, it is imagined, reference to the prime fishing + season, which began in February.</p> + <p> + The names given to our months originated as follows:</p> + <p> + The name given to the month of <em>January</em> by the + Romans was taken from <em>Janus</em>, one of their + divinities, to whom they gave two faces; because on the one + side, the first day of this month looked towards the new + year, and on the other towards the old one. It was called + <em>wolf-monat</em> by our Saxon ancestors, on account of + the danger they then experienced from wolves. Some + etymologists derive <em>February</em> from <em>Februa</em>, + an epithet given to Juno, as the goddess of purification; + while others attribute the origin of the name to + <em>Februa</em>, a feast held by the Romans in this month, + in behalf of the manes of the deceased. The Saxons named + February <em>sprout kele</em>, on account of the sprouts of + the cole-wort which began to appear in this month. Among + the Romans, <em>March</em>, from Mars, was the first month, + and marriages made in this month were accounted unhappy. + The Saxons called March <em>lent-monat</em>, or + <em>length-moneth</em>, “because the days did first begin, + in length, to + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span> + + exceed the + nights.”—<em>April</em> is derived from <em>Aprilis</em>, + of <em>aperio</em>, I open; because the earth, in this + month, begins to open her bosom for the production of + vegetables. The Saxons called this month + <em>oster-monat</em>, from the goddess Eoster, or because + the winds were found to blow generally from the east in + this month.—<em>May</em> is so called from <em>Maia</em>, + the mother of Mercury, to whom sacrifices were offered by + the Romans on the first of this month; or, according to + some, from respect to the senators and nobles of Rome, who + were named <em>Majores</em>, as the following month was + termed Junius, in honor of the youth of Rome. The Saxons + called May, <em>tri-milki</em>, because, in that month, + they began to milk their kine three times in the day.—The + Saxons called June <em>weyd-monat</em>, because their + beasts did then <em>weyd</em> or feed in the meadows.—The + word <em>July</em> is derived from the Latin + <em>Julius</em>, the surname of C. Cæsar, the dictator, who + was born in it. Mark Antony first gave to this month the + name of July, which was before called <em>Quintilis</em>, + as being the fifth month in the year, in the old Roman + calender established by Romulus. July was called by the + Saxons, <em>hew-monat</em>, or <em>hey-monat</em>, because + therein they usually mowed, and made their + hay-harvest.—<em>Sextilis</em> was the ancient Roman name + for <em>September</em>, it being the sixth month from + March. The Emperor Augustus changed this name, and gave it + his own, because in this month Cæsar Augustus took + possession of his first consulship, celebrated three + triumphs, reduced Egypt under the power of the Roman + people, and put an end to all civil wars. “The Saxons + called August <em>arn-monat</em> (more rightly + <em>barn-monat</em>,) intending thereby the then filling of + their barnes with corne.” <em>September</em> is composed of + <em>septem</em>, seven, and the termination <em>ber</em>, + like <em>lis</em> in <em>Aprilis</em>, <em>Quintilis</em>, + <em>Sextilis</em>. This rule will also apply to the three + following months, Octo-ber. Novem-ber, Decem-ber. Our Saxon + ancestors called it <em>Gerst-monat</em>, “for that barley + which that moneth commonly yielded was anciently called + gerst.”—<em>October</em> was called <em>Domitianus</em> in + the time of Domitian: but, after his death, by the decree + of the senate, it took the name of October, every one + hating the name and memory of so detestable a tyrant. It + was called <em>wyn-monat</em>, or wine month, by the + Saxons—The Saxons called <em>November wint-monat</em>, or + wind-month, on account of the prevalence of high winds in + <a id="FNanchor_129"></a> + this month.—<em>December</em> was called + <em>winter-monat</em> by the Saxons; but, after they were + converted to Christianity, it received the name of + <em>heligh-monat</em>, or holy month.<a + href="#Footnote_129" + class="fnanchor">129</a></p> + <p> + The names of our days are of Heathen origin. The seven + planets were anciently looked on as presiding over the + affairs of the world, and to take it by turns each one hour + at a time, according to the following order: Saturn first, + then Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, and last of + all, the Moon. Hence they denominated + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span> + + each day of the + week from the planet whose turn it was to preside the first + hour of the nychthemeron, a term compounded of <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: nyx" + class="msg">νυξ</span>, + <em>night</em>, and <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: hêmera" + class="msg">ἡμερα</span>, + <em>day</em>, which implies both + night and day, and is divided into twenty-four parts, + called <em>hours</em>. Thus, assigning the first hour of + Saturday to Saturn, the second will fall to Jupiter, the + third to Mars, and so the twenty-second of the same + nychthemeron will fall to Saturn again, and therefore the + twenty-third to Jupiter, and the last to Mars: so that on + the first hour of the next day, it will fall to the Sun to + preside; and by the like manner of reckoning, the first + hour of the next will fall to the Moon, of the next to + Mars, of the next to Mercury, of the next to Jupiter, and + the next to Venus: hence the days of the week came to be + distinguished by the Latin names of <em + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">Dies Saturni</em>, + <em + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">Solis</em>, + <em + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">Lunæ</em>, + <em + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">Martis</em>, + <em + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">Mercurii</em>, + <em + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">Jovis</em>, + and <em + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">Veneris</em>. + The ancient Saxons had a great many idols, seven of which + were appropriated to the seven days of the week, because of + some worship that was offered to each idol on its + respective day. The northern nations substituted, for the + Roman Divinities, such of their own as most nearly + resembled them in their peculiar attributes, and hence the + derivation of the names now in use. These were Seater, the + Sun, the Moon, Tuisco, Woden, Thor, Friga: hence among us + the names of Saturday, Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, + Thursday, and Friday. For, as Saturday, Sunday, and Monday, + plainly denote the day of Saturn, the Sun, and the Moon; so + Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday, denote the day of + Tuisco, Woden, Thor, and Friga, which are the Saxon names + respectively answering to Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, and + Venus. Verstegan, in his “Restitution of Decayed + Intelligence,” describes the Saxon deities who presided + over each day of the week, and gives plates of the idols, + pp. 74-85.</p> + <p> + How amazing it is that this ponderous globe should be + suspended in the fluid air, without any visible support, + and upheld only by the sovereign will of its almighty + Creator! His power, who “hangeth the earth upon nothing,” + is inconceivably great; and the revolutions of this globe + produce the most beneficial effects. The daily rotation of + the earth causes the uniform succession of light and + darkness; and its annual motion occasions the difference of + the length of the days and nights, and the beautiful + diversity of the seasons. Many pious Christians, who read + the Scriptures to great personal advantage, but who are + unacquainted with the science of astronomy, are apt to + doubt the truth of the astronomical principles concerning + the shape and motion of the earth, because, as Dr. O. + Gregory judiciously observes, they think them contrary to + divine revelation. Such persons would do well to consider + for what purpose the Holy Scriptures were written, whether + as a measure of faith, or as a rule to regulate our + philosophical notions? Gassendus, though he does not give a + direct answer to the question, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span> + + has made the following very + pertinent observations on the subject. “There are,” says + he, “two sacred volumes, the one written, called the Bible; + the other Nature, or the World; God having manifested + himself by two lights, the one of revelation, and the other + of demonstration; accordingly the interpreters of the + former are divines; of the latter mathematicians. As to + matters of natural knowledge, the mathematicians are to be + consulted; and as to objects of faith, the prophets; the + former being no less interpreters, or apostles, from God to + men than the latter. And as the mathematician would be + judged to wander out of his province, if he should pretend + to controvert, or set aside any article of faith from + principles of geometry; so it must be granted, the divines + are no less out of their limits, when they venture to + pronounce on a point of natural knowledge, beyond the reach + of any not versed in geometry and optics, merely from Holy + Scripture, which does not pretend to teach any thing of the + matter.”</p> + <p> + <em>Mars</em> is the first of the four superior planets in + order from the sun, his orbit being immediately beyond that + of the earth. He was called by the Greeks <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: Arês" + class="msg">Αρης</span>, + the supposed god of war, which, says Parkhurst, comes from + the Hebrew <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">עריץ</span> + <em>violent</em>, <em>destructive</em>. Costard + remarks, “This planet, I suppose, was called <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ערע</span> + <em>Ara</em>, <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ערץ</span> + <em>Aretz</em>, <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: Arês" + class="msg">Αρης</span>, + and, in another + dialect, <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">מערץ</span> + <em>Ma-aretz</em>, or <em>Mars</em>, in a + softer pronunciation, from his <em>strong glowing + brightness</em>.” He is distinguished from the other + planets by the red and fiery appearance, of his disk: + whether his ruddy troubled color arises from a natural + disposition to reflect the red rays of light best, or from + a thick atmosphere attending it, is rather uncertain; but + it is generally attributed to the density of his + atmosphere.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “In larger circuit rolls the orb of Mars,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Guiltless of stern debate, and wasteful wars,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + As some have erring taught: he journies on,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Impell’d and nourish’d by the attractive sun;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Like us, his seasons and his days he owes</p> + <p class="ml0"> + To the vast bounty which from Phœbus flows.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + His figure, like that of the earth, is an oblate spheroid. + His mean distance from the sun is 145,000,000 miles, and he + travels round that common centre of gravity in about 687 of + our days, or 1 year, 321 days, 22 hours, 18 minutes, 27 + seconds, which is nearly equal to two of our years; and + therefore his velocity in his orbit is at the rate of + 55,000 miles an hour. He has likewise a rotation upon his + axis, which is performed in 1 day, 39 minutes, 22 seconds. + This was discovered by means of spots seen on his surface. + Dr. Hook, in 1665, observed several spots, which, having a + motion, he concluded that the planet revolved upon its + axis. In 1666, M. Cassini saw several spots in the two + hemispheres of Mars, which, by continuing his observations + very diligently, he found to move from east to west, and to + return in the space of 24 hours, 40 minutes, to their + former situation. Whence both the motion and period, + or + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span> + + natural day of this planet, were determined. In 1781, Dr. + Herschell observed the spots of Mars very minutely, from + the motion of which he has found his rotation upon his axis + to be performed in 24 hours, 39 minutes, 21-2/3 seconds; + and he says that there cannot be more than two seconds of + uncertainty in this result. The different seasons will take + place on this planet very much like what they are known to + do upon our earth, with this difference, that the seasons + there will be almost as long again as with us, on account + of the time he takes in moving round the sun being nearly + twice as long as our year. The diameter of Mars being 4,135 + miles, he is about 2/11, or less than a fifth, and more + than a sixth part as large as the earth; and if any moon + attend him, she must be very small, for it has not yet been + discovered by the best telescopes of our most eminent + astronomers; if without a moon, walking his round in + perpetual solitude, he must consequently want that division + of time, which, from the moon’s revolution round the earth, + is called a month.</p> + <p> + From the greater distance of Mars in his orbit than our + earth is, the inhabitants there will scarcely see Mercury, + unless it be when he appears on the sun’s face, and passes + over him like a dark spot, in the same manner as he + sometimes does to us. Venus will to them appear somewhat + similar to the appearances of Mercury to our earth, the + apparent distance from the sun being nearly the same to + them as Mercury is to us. Our earth to them, also, will be + an inferior planet, or within his orbit, being nearer to + the sun, in a way similar to what Venus appears to us, and + will alternately be a morning or evening star; and our + moon, which will always be seen to accompany her, when in a + position to have the benefit of the sun’s light, will not + be seen at a greater distance, than about a semi-diameter + of the sun or moon from it.</p> + <p> + This planet being half as far again from the sun as our + earth is, his light and heat are not half so much as our + own. When in opposition to the sun, he is found to be five + times nearer to us than when in conjunction; and, + therefore, he appears so much bigger and brighter at one + time than another. In 1719, his apparent magnitude and + brightness were so much increased, that, by the uninformed, + he was taken for a new star.</p> + <p> + The telescopic appearance of Mars is very variable. This + planet exhibits larger and more remarkable spots than any + of the others. The belts and cloudy appearances are found + to change their shape and arrangement frequently. The + predominant brightness of the polar regions leads to the + supposition that those parts of his surface, like the poles + of the earth, are intensely frozen, or always covered with + snow; and Dr. Herschell imagines that the changes in + brightness are connected with the summer and winter seasons + on that planet. The phases of Mars were first discovered by + Galileo. Having his light from the sun, and revolving round + it, he has an + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span> + + increase and decrease like the + moon. At his quadratures, he appears gibbous, but never + horned, like Venus, Mercury, and the Moon; which shows, + that his orbit includes that of the earth, and that it is + from the sun that he receives his light.</p> + <p> + Between the orbit of Mars and that of Jupiter, the smaller + planetary bodies, lately discovered, revolve. + <em>Ceres</em> was discovered on the 1st of January, 1801, + by M. Piazzi, astronomer at Palermo, in the island of + Sicily. When viewed through a good telescope, it is of a + ruddy color, appears to be of the size of a star of the + eighth magnitude, and surrounded with a dense atmosphere. + Her mean distance from the sun is 260,000,000 miles; and + her revolution is performed in 4 years, 7 months, 10 days. + Dr. Herschell and Schroëter differ very much as to the + magnitude of this planet; the former says the diameter is + only 160 miles, but the latter makes it more than ten times + greater, or 1,624 miles. <em>Pallas</em> was discovered on + the 28th of March, 1802, by Dr. Olbers, of Bremen. Its mean + distance from the sun 270,000,000 miles; its diameter 80 + miles; and it performs its revolution in about 4 years, 280 + days. <em>Juno</em> was discovered on the 1st of September, + 1804, by M. Harding, of Lilienthal. Its mean distance from + the sun is 290,000,000 miles; and its diameter is 119 + miles, and the time of revolution round the sun 5 years, + 181 days. <em>Vesta</em> was discovered by Dr. Olbers, on + the 29th of March, 1807. It is nearer to Mars than either + of the other newly discovered planets; and the revolution + through its orbit is performed in less time. The size of + this planet is not known. Its light is more intense, pure, + and white, than any of the other three.</p> + <p> + A century and half ago it was conjectured, says a very + intelligent author, that there must be a planet between the + orbits of Jupiter and Mars, on account of the distance + subsisting between those two planets. The discovery of + Ceres confirmed this happy conjecture; but the opinion + which it seemed to establish respecting the harmony of the + solar system, appeared to be completely overturned by the + discovery of Pallas and Juno. Dr. Olbers, willing to find a + theory that should account for the facts newly ascertained, + imagined that these small celestial bodies were merely the + fragments of a larger planet, which had burst asunder by + some internal convulsion, and that several more might yet + be discovered between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. He + therefore concluded, that though the orbits of all these + fragments might be differently inclined to the ecliptic, + yet, as they must have all diverged from the same point, + they ought to have two common points of re-union, or two + nodes in opposite regions of the heavens, through which all + the planetary fragments must sooner or later pass. One of + these nodes Dr. Olbers found to be in Virgo, and the other + in the Whale; and it was actually in the latter of these + regions that M. Harding discovered the planet Juno. With + the intention, therefore, of + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span> + + detecting other fragments of the + supposed planet, Dr. Olbers examined, thrice every year, + all the little stars in the opposite constellation of the + Virgin and the Whale, till his labors were crowned with + success, by the discovery of a new planet in the + constellation of Virgo, to which he gave the name of Vesta.</p> + <p> + The existence of four planets between the orbits of Mars + and Jupiter, (continues the same author,) revolving round + the sun at nearly the same distances, and differing from + all the other planets in their diminutive size, and in the + form and position of their orbits, is acknowledged to be + one of the most singular phenomena in the history of + astronomy. The discordance of these phenomena with the + regularity of the planetary distances, and with the general + harmony of the system, naturally suggests the opinion, that + the inequalities in this part of the system were produced + by some great convulsion, and that the four planets, as we + have already hinted, are the fragments of a large celestial + body, which once existed between Mars and Jupiter. To + suppose them independent planets, as they must necessarily + be if they did not originally form one, their diminutive + size, the great eccentricity and inclination of their + orbits, and their numerous intersections, when projected on + the plane of the ecliptic, are phenomena absolutely + inexplicable on every principle of science, and subversive + of that harmony and order which before the discovery of + these bodies, seemed to pervade the planetary system. + Admitting, however, the hypothesis that these planetary + bodies, are the remains of a larger body, which circulated + round the sun, nearly in the orbit of the greatest + fragment, the system resumes its order, and we discover a + regular procession in the distances of the planets, and a + general harmony in the form and position of their orbits. + But, independently of analogical reasoning, the elements of + the new planets furnish several direct arguments, drawn + from the eccentricity and inclination of their orbits, and + from the position of their perihelia and nodes; and all + concurring to show, that the four new planets have diverged + from one point, and have, therefore, been originally + combined in a larger body.</p> + <p> + <em>Jupiter</em> is the largest of all the planetary + bodies, and, next to Venus the brightest. He was called by + the Greeks <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: Zeus" + class="msg">Ζευς</span>, + which is from <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: zeô" + class="msg">ζεω</span>, + <em>to be hot</em>, or, + says Parkhurst, immediately from the Hebrew <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">זי</span> + <em>to shine</em>, compounded, perhaps, with <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">יש</span> + <em>substance</em>, q.d. <em>the shining substance</em>; a + name very justly given to this planet, on account of his + strong and clear light.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml12"> + ——“In distant skies</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Revolves the mighty magnitude of Jove,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + With kingly state, the rival of the sun.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + His mean distance from the sun is 490,000,000 miles, and + his diameter is 89,170 miles, or more than 11 times that of + the earth, and therefore his magnitude is 1,400 times + greater than our earth; + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span> + + of course, as the surface of a + globe increases according to the square of its diameter, + our earth will, to the inhabitants of Jupiter, appear 121 + times less than this noble planet appears to us. His + revolution round the sun, from east to west, is performed + in 11 years, 315 days, 14 hours, 39 minutes, 2 seconds, + which is nearly twelve of our years; and his motion in his + orbit is 29,000 miles an hour. He performs his diurnal + rotation upon his axis in 9 hours, 55 minutes, 33 seconds, + by which motion his equatorial parts are carried round at + the amazing rate of 26,000 miles an hour, which is about + twenty-five times the velocity of the like parts of our + earth. He has, of course, a rapid succession of days, as + the poet observes,</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “In ample compass Jove conducts his sphere,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And later finishes his tedious year;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Yet swiftly on his axle turn’d, regains</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The frequent aid of day to warm his plains.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + The axis of Jupiter is nearly perpendicular to his orbit, + so that he has no sensible change of seasons. This is not + the work of chance, as Dr. O. Gregory observes, but wisely + ordered by the Divine Architect; for if the axis of this + planet were inclined any considerable number of degrees, so + many degrees round each pole would be almost six years + together in darkness. And as each degree of a great circle + on this planet contains more than 700 miles, it is natural + to conceive, that vast tracts of land would be rendered + uninhabitable by any considerable inclination of his axis.</p> + <p> + The appearance of this planet, through a telescope, opens a + vast field for interesting inquiry. His surface is not + equally bright, but variegated with certain bands, or + belts, of a dusky appearance: they run parallel to each + other, and are continued round the body of the planet. They + are not regular or constant in their appearance: sometimes + only one is seen; at other times six or eight. The breadth + of them is likewise variable; one belt is sometimes + becoming narrow, while another, in its neighborhood, grows + broader as if one had flowed into the other: in these + cases, an oblique belt has been observed to be between + them, as if for the purpose of establishing a + communication. Sometimes, one or more spots are formed + between the belts, which increase till the whole is united + in a large dusky belt. There are also bright spots to be + discovered on Jupiter’s surface; these are rather more + permanent than the belts, and re-appear after unequal + intervals of time. The remarkable spot, by whose motion the + rotation of Jupiter upon his own axis was first + ascertained, disappeared in the year 1694, and was not seen + again till 1708, when it re-appeared exactly in the same + place, and has been occasionally seen ever since.</p> + <p> + Jupiter is enlightened by four moons, or satellites, each + of them larger than that with which we are supplied, and + which revolve at different distances from that planet. In + the solar system the moons, or satellites, revolve round + their respective primary planets as + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span> + + centres, in the + same manner as the primary planets revolve round the sun. + By means of Jupiter’s satellites, a method has been + obtained for demonstrating that the motion of light is + progressive, and not instantaneous, as was formerly + supposed; which discovery is important to the interests of + science. M. Huygens, in his Treatise on Light, concludes + from these eclipses, that light transmits itself about + 600,000 times faster than sound.</p> + <table class="mini smaller" summary=""> + <caption> + Distances and Revolutions of Jupiter’s Satellites.</caption> + <tr> + <th> + </th> + <th> + </th> + <th colspan="3"> + Revolution.</th></tr> + <tr> + <th> + Satellite</th> + <th> + Distance.</th> + <th> + <em>d.</em></th> + <th> + <em>h.</em></th> + <th> + <em>m.</em></th></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1st</td> + <td class="rt"> + 250,000</td> + <td class="rt"> + 1</td> + <td class="rt"> + 18</td> + <td class="rt"> + 36</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 2d</td> + <td class="rt"> + 401,000</td> + <td class="rt"> + 3</td> + <td class="rt"> + 13</td> + <td class="rt"> + 15</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 3d</td> + <td class="rt"> + 648,000</td> + <td class="rt"> + 7</td> + <td class="rt"> + 3</td> + <td class="rt"> + 59</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 4th</td> + <td class="rt"> + 1,128,000</td> + <td class="rt"> + 16</td> + <td class="rt"> + 18</td> + <td class="rt"> + 30</td></tr> + </table> + <p class="i0"> + They are thus referred to by Mallet:</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “About him round <em>four</em> planetary moons,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + On earth with wonder all night long beheld,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Moon above moon, his fair attendants dance.”</p> + </div> + <p> + To a spectator placed on the surface of Jupiter, each of + the satellites would put on the phases of the moon; but as + the distance of any of them from Jupiter is but small, when + compared with the distance of that planet from the sun, the + satellites are therefore illuminated by the sun very nearly + in the same manner with the primary itself; hence they + appear to us always round, having constantly the greatest + part of their enlightened half turned towards the earth: + and indeed they are so small, that were they to put on the + phases of the moon, these phases could scarcely be + discerned through the best telescopes. When the satellites + pass through their inferior semicircles, they may cast a + shadow upon their primary, and thus cause an eclipse of the + sun to his inhabitants; and in some situations this shadow + may be observed going before or following the satellite. On + the other hand, in passing through their superior + semicircles, the satellites may be eclipsed in the same + manner as our moon by passing through the shadow of + Jupiter: and this is actually the case with the first, + second, and third; but the fourth, by reason of the extent + of its orbit, passes sometimes above or below the shadow, + as is the case with our moon.</p> + <p> + These satellites were first discovered on the 7th of + January, 1610, by the celebrated Galileo, who called them + <em>Medician Stars</em>, in honor of the family of the + Medici, dukes of Tuscany, his patrons. These satellites, + revolving about Jupiter at different distances, from west + to east, when viewed through a telescope, make a beautiful + appearance. As our moon revolves round the earth, + enlightening the nights, by reflecting the light she + receives from the sun; so these satellites, revolving round + Jupiter, may also be supposed to enlighten the nights of + that planet.</p> + <p> + <em>Saturn</em> is a very conspicuous planet, though he + shines with a pale and feeble light, very unlike that of + Jupiter and the other + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span> + + planets. He was called by the + Greeks <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: phainôn" + class="msg">φαινων</span>. + “From the account given by Diodorus Siculus,” says Costard, + “it seems as if the Chaldeans called this planet by some name + not widely different from this of the Greeks. In the language + of Chaldea, the verb <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">פנא</span> + <em>phana</em>, or <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">פנה</span> + <em>phanah</em>, signifies <em + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">convertere se</em>, + <em + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">divertere se</em>, + <em + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">declinare</em>. + And whatever <em>vanishes</em>, or + <em>disappears</em>, very properly <em>declines</em>, or + <em>turns aside</em>, from our view. This planet, + therefore, was most probably called <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">פן</span> + _phen_, or <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">פין</span> + <em>phain</em>, and, with a Greek termination, <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: phainôn" + class="msg">φαινων</span>, + on account of his <em>withdrawing</em> himself, by reason of + his distance. And this conjecture is yet further confirmed + from his name in another dialect, or among another people. + For from <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">סתר</span> + <em + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">sater, latuit, abscondit se</em>, + with the paragogic <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ן</span> + <em>nun</em> which is not unusual in the + formation of Eastern words, comes the word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">סתרן</span> + <em>Saturn</em>, and with the Latin termination <em>us, + Saturnus</em>.”</p> + <p> + His mean distance from the sun is 900,000,000 miles, + consequently his motion in his orbit is proportionably + slow; and his annual revolution round the sun, from west to + east, being so much longer likewise than that of the other + planets, he takes 29 years, 164 days, 7 hours, 21 minutes, + 50 seconds, which is almost <em>thirty</em> of our years, + to accomplish it, in his orbit travelling with a velocity + of 22,000 miles an hour. His diameter is 79,000 miles; and + his magnitude is about 1,000 times that of the earth. The + time of rotation upon his axis is 10 hours, 17 minutes.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “Still further off, scarce warm’d by Phœbus’ ray,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Through his wide orbit, Saturn wheels away;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + How great the change, could we be wafted there!</p> + <p class="ml0"> + How slow the seasons! and how long the year!”</p> + </div> + <p> + There is a singular and curious appendage to Saturn, + namely, a thin, broad, opake ring, encompassing the body of + the planet, without touching it; like the horizon of an + artificial globe; it appears to be suspended round the + planet, and to keep its place without any immediate + connection with it. The distance of this prodigious circle + from the body of the planet is usually stated to be about + 21,000 miles.</p> + <p> + The dimensions of the ring, or of the two rings with the + space between them, Dr. Herschell has given as follows:</p> + <table class="mini small" summary=""> + <tr class="smaller"> + <th> + </th> + <th> + Miles.</th></tr> + <tr> + <td> + Inner diameter of the smaller ring</td> + <td class="rt"> + 146,345</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + Outside diameter of ditto</td> + <td class="rt"> + 184,393</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + Inner diameter of the larger ring</td> + <td class="rt"> + 190,248</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + Outside diameter of ditto</td> + <td class="rt"> + 204,883</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + Breadth of the inner ring</td> + <td class="rt"> + 20,000</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + Breadth of the outer ring</td> + <td class="rt"> + 7,200</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + Breadth of the vacant space, or dark zone</td> + <td class="rt"> + 2,839</td></tr> + </table> + <p class="i0"> + It puts on different appearances to us, sometimes being + seen quite open, or as a wide oval, and at others, only as + a single line. When our eye is in the plane of the ring, or + looking at it directly on the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span> + + edge, it is invisible to us; and + it is in this situation twice in each revolution of the + planet; that is, once in about fifteen years: at these + times, he appears quite round, for nine or ten months + together. The ring was invisible to us on the 15th of June, + 1803, and, since that time, gradually increased in light + and breadth for about seven years: and, after which, has + again decreased, till, as before, after an interval of + fifteen years, in the present year 1818, the ring is again + edgewise to us, and invisible. With telescopes of great + magnifying power, two belts or stripes have been discovered + on Saturn; they appear parallel to the ring, and are + supposed to be permanent. Of what component materials this + ring is composed, or by what means it is suspended, we as + yet remain ignorant: but of its use, it is supposed to + supply light and heat to the planet, agreeably to the + observation of a poet who has evinced an extensive + acquaintance with philosophy.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “Muse! raise thy voice, mysterious truth to sing,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + How o’er the copious orb a lucid ring,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Opake and broad, is seen its arch to spread,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Round the big globe at stated periods led;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Perhaps (its use unknown) with gather’d heat</p> + <p class="ml0"> + To aid the regions of that gelid seat,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The want of nearer Phœbus to supply,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And warm with reflex beams his summer sky;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Else might the high-plac’d world, expos’d to frost,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Lie waste, in one eternal winter lost.”</p> + </div> + <p> + Besides the ring, Saturn is also furnished with seven + attendant moons, or satellites, which move around him at + different distances, in a way similar to those of Jupiter.</p> + <table class="mini small" summary=""> + <caption> + Distances and Revolutions of Saturn’s Satellites.</caption> + <tr> + <th> + </th> + <th> + </th> + <th colspan="4"> + Revolution.</th></tr> + <tr> + <th> + Satellite</th> + <th> + Distance.</th> + <th> + <em>d.</em></th> + <th> + <em>h.</em></th> + <th> + <em>m.</em></th> + <th> + <em>s.</em></th></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1st</td> + <td class="rt"> + 172,000</td> + <td class="rt"> + 1</td> + <td class="rt"> + 21</td> + <td class="rt"> + 18</td> + <td class="rt"> + 26</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 2d</td> + <td class="rt"> + 217,000</td> + <td class="rt"> + 2</td> + <td class="rt"> + 17</td> + <td class="rt"> + 44</td> + <td class="rt"> + 51</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 3d</td> + <td class="rt"> + 315,000</td> + <td class="rt"> + 4</td> + <td class="rt"> + 12</td> + <td class="rt"> + 25</td> + <td class="rt"> + 11</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 4th</td> + <td class="rt"> + 705,000</td> + <td class="rt"> + 15</td> + <td class="rt"> + 22</td> + <td class="rt"> + 41</td> + <td class="rt"> + 14</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 5th</td> + <td class="rt"> + 2,126,000</td> + <td class="rt"> + 79</td> + <td class="rt"> + 7</td> + <td class="rt"> + 53</td> + <td class="rt"> + 42</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 6th</td> + <td class="rt"> + 137,000</td> + <td class="rt"> + 1</td> + <td class="rt"> + 8</td> + <td class="rt"> + 53</td> + <td class="rt"> + 9</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 7th</td> + <td class="rt"> + 107,000</td> + <td class="rt"> + 0</td> + <td class="rt"> + 22</td> + <td class="rt"> + 37</td> + <td class="rt"> + 30</td></tr> + </table> + <p class="i0"> + The sixth and seventh satellites were discovered by Dr. + Herschell in 1787 and 1788: they are nearer to Saturn than + any of the other five; but, to prevent confusion, they have + been called the 6th and 7th. The 5th satellite has been + observed by Dr. Herschell to turn once round its axis, + exactly in the time in which it revolves round Saturn: in + this respect it resembles our moon. Their distance from us + is so far, as not to be easily visible, even with a good + telescope, unless the air be exceedingly clear.</p> + <p> + It was for ages that astronomical science limited the solar + system to six planets, and Saturn was considered as its + utmost extent. Vitruvius, speaking of the planet Saturn, + says, that star “is near + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span> + + the extremity of the world, and + touches the frozen regions of heaven.” He did not + understand the extent of our planetary system.</p> + <p> + It is to the indefatigable application of Dr. Herschell + that we are indebted for the discovery of a new planet, + which is the fourth of the superior ones then known, and, + being at twice the distance of Saturn from the sun, has + quadrupled the bounds formerly assigned to the solar + system. This planet was discovered on the 13th of March, + 1781, and is called by different names: the discoverer + bestowed upon it that of <em>Georgium Sidus</em>, in honor + of our present venerable and beloved sovereign; by the + French it is called <em>Herschell</em>, and by the + Italians, <em>Uranus</em>. This important discovery is very + deservedly noticed by the Poet Laureat, in his Ode entitled + “Carmen Seculare for the year 1800.”</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml5"> + “Mathesis with upliftedeye,</p> + <p class="ml6"> + Tracing the wonders of the sky,</p> + <p class="ml6"> + Beholds new constellations rise,</p> + <p class="ml6"> + New systems crown the argent skies;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Views with new lustre round the glowing pole,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Wide his stupendous orb the <em>Georgian Planet</em> roll.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + On the 11th January, 1787, Dr. Herschell discovered the + second and fourth satellites which attend his own planet + the Georgium Sidus; and in the following years, previously + to 1791, he observed four others revolving round the same + body. Though this celebrated astronomer was the first who + discovered the Georgium Sidus to be one of the planets of + the solar system, yet no doubt can be entertained of its + having been before observed and considered as a fixed star. + Flamsteed in 1690, Mayer in 1756, and Monnier in 1769, + determined the places of three stars which cannot now be + found. And M. La Place, according to his theory of Jupiter + and Saturn, has found that the Georgium Sidus was + <em>exactly</em> in those three points at those very times. + These truly singular occurrences leave no doubt of the + identity of these three stars with the new planet. The + lines which Mallet applied to Saturn are now, with a little + alteration, more applicable to the Georgium Sidus, or + Herschell planet.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “Last, outmost Herschell walks his frontier round,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The boundary of worlds; with his pale moons,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Faint-glimmering through the darkness night has thrown,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Deep-dy’d and dead, o’er this chill globe forlorn:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + An endless desert, where extreme of cold</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Eternal sits, as in his native seat,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + On wintry hills of never-thawing ice;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Such Herschell’s earth.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + His mean distance from the sun is about 1,800,000,000 + miles, and he performs his revolution from west to east + round the sun in 83 years, 294 days, 8 hours, 39 minutes; + and in his orbit he moves with a velocity of 15,846 miles + an hour. His diameter is 4½ times larger than that of the + earth, being more than 35,000 miles; and his magnitude is + 80½ times larger than that of the earth. The orbit in which + he revolves is nineteen times further from the sun + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span> + + than the earth’s orbit; consequently he has 361 times less + light and heat from the sun than we have. Notwithstanding + this, his proportion of light is considerable; for having + been calculated, it is found to be equal to the effect of + 284 of our full moons. When the sky is very serene and + clear, and the moon absent, this planet may be perceived + with the naked eye, unassisted by a telescope: and it + appears as a star of the fifth magnitude, with a blueish + white light, and a brilliancy between that of Venus and the + Moon.</p> + <p> + The want of light arising from the great distance of this + planet from the sun, is supplied by six satellites, which + revolve at different distances round their primary.</p> + <table class="mini small" summary=""> + <caption> + Distances and Revolutions of the Satellites of the Georgium + Sidus.</caption> + <tr> + <th> + </th> + <th> + </th> + <th colspan="4"> + Revolution.</th></tr> + <tr> + <th> + Satellite</th> + <th> + Distance.</th> + <th class="rt"> + <em>d.</em></th> + <th class="rt"> + <em>h.</em></th> + <th class="rt"> + <em>m.</em></th> + <th class="rt"> + <em>s.</em></th></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1st</td> + <td class="rt"> + 226,450</td> + <td class="rt"> + 5</td> + <td class="rt"> + 21</td> + <td class="rt"> + 25</td> + <td class="rt"> + 0</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 2d</td> + <td class="rt"> + 293,053</td> + <td class="rt"> + 8</td> + <td class="rt"> + 17</td> + <td class="rt"> + 0</td> + <td class="rt"> + 0</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 3d</td> + <td class="rt"> + 342,784</td> + <td class="rt"> + 10</td> + <td class="rt"> + 23</td> + <td class="rt"> + 0</td> + <td class="rt"> + 0</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 4th</td> + <td class="rt"> + 392,514</td> + <td class="rt"> + 13</td> + <td class="rt"> + 11</td> + <td class="rt"> + 0</td> + <td class="rt"> + 0</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 5th</td> + <td class="rt"> + 785,028</td> + <td class="rt"> + 38</td> + <td class="rt"> + 1</td> + <td class="rt"> + 49</td> + <td class="rt"> + 0</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 6th</td> + <td class="rt"> + 1,570,057</td> + <td class="rt"> + 107</td> + <td class="rt"> + 7</td> + <td class="rt"> + 35</td> + <td class="rt"> + 10</td></tr> + </table> + <p class="i0" id="FNanchor_130"> + All these satellites, it has been said, perform their + revolutions in their orbits contrary to the order of the + signs; that is, their real motion is retrograde, but + probably, as suggested by Dr. Hutton, this is an optical + illusion.<a + href="#Footnote_130" + class="fnanchor">130</a> + As the indefatigable Dr. + Herschell has already discovered six satellites + belonging to this planet, does not its immense distance + from the sun leave some ground for conjecture, that + there may remain some undiscovered, and that his + attendants are as numerous, if not more so, than those + of Saturn?</p> + <table class="mini small" summary=""> + <caption> + Characters used for the Sun, Moon, and Planets.</caption> + <tr> + <td> + ☉</td> + <td> + The Sun</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + ☽</td> + <td> + The Moon</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + ☿</td> + <td> + Mercury</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + ♀</td> + <td> + Venus</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + ⊕</td> + <td> + The Earth</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + ♂</td> + <td> + Mars</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + ♃</td> + <td> + Jupiter</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + ♄</td> + <td> + Saturn</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + ♅</td> + <td> + Herschell, or<br /> + Georgium Sidus.</td></tr> + </table> +<p class="i0"> + The mark which characterises the planet Herschell is the + initial of the discoverer’s name, intersected by a cross + bar to represent a cross, by which to denote that the + discovery of the planet took place after the birth of + Christ.</p> + <p> + Astronomy produces calculations concerning the magnitudes, + distances, and revolutions of the planets, and their + respective satellites, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">245</span> + + which, to the uninformed, appear + absurd, chimerical, and presumptuous; while, probably, they + laugh at such notions as were received among men, when even + the wisest of them were weak enough to believe, that the + earth was an immense plain, situated in the centre of the + universe; that the vault of heaven was of crystal; and that + the sun was no other than a plate of red hot iron, about as + large as the Peloponnessus. The following thoughts, + communicated by my much esteemed friend Thomas Exley, A. M. + may assist such persons to entertain more favorable + sentiments of the science of astronomy, and also serve to + enlarge their views of the Supreme Being.</p> + <p> + “Many persons who have not had the advantages of proper + instruction in mathematical science, cannot be persuaded + that it is in the power of man to ascertain the distances + of the sun, moon, and planets, and, of course, pay little + regard to the assertions of astronomers on this subject. + Sometimes, they are bold enough to say the thing is + impossible, because no one has ever been to any of those + bodies. Let such persons consider, that it is not necessary + to go to a remote object in order to measure its distance; + for that purpose, it will be sufficient to know the length + of a line at the place of the spectator, and the + inclination of this line to two others directed from its + extremities to the object; for, on the length of this line, + and the position of the two others, depends the distance of + the object from the ends of that line.</p> + <p> + “Thus, if I wish to know the distance of a neighboring + tower, or other object beyond a river, or in some other way + inaccessible; I measure any convenient line terminating in + my station, and by some instrument proper for measuring + angles, I ascertain the position of my measured line to the + lines connecting its extreme points and the object. On + these data depends the distance, and from this line and + these angles accurately measured, the exact distance may be + with great ease truly found. It is on similar principles + that astronomers investigate the distances of the heavenly + bodies. They take as the given or measured line, which may + be called the base, some line on the earth, the + semi-diameter for instance, as being the most convenient. + The angle formed, or rather contained by two lines drawn + from the sun or planet to the ends of the semi-diameter of + the earth, is called the parallax, because it shows the + difference of the apparent situation of the object as seen + from the extremities of the semi-diameter, that is, it + measures the arc of a great circle in the heavens contained + between its two apparent places. Hence to ascertain its + parallax, or difference of the apparent place when the + object is viewed from the other end of the semi-diameter, + becomes a problem of great importance in astronomy; for + this being truly discovered, the distance of the planet + will be obtained with the utmost exactitude. If any other + line besides the semi-diameter of the earth, whose length + and position are + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">246</span> + + known, be used as a base, and the + parallax in respect of this line be found, the same + conclusions will follow. The chief difficulty in this + affair arises from the smallness of the angle to be + measured, which is a consequence of the greatness of the + distance in respect of the earth’s semi-diameter. Several + ingenious methods have been proposed and employed by + astronomers to discover the distances of the sun and + planets, but nothing serves this purpose so well as the + transits of Venus over the sun’s disk. At certain periods, + which can be foretold by astronomers, this planet passes + exactly between us and the sun, and is seen as a dark round + spot for some hours, moving in a line across the sun’s face + or disk. The observer should be furnished with a good + chronometer, or pendulum clock with seconds, to note the + time of the transit; and good instruments, to take the + apparent diameters of the sun and Venus, and her greatest + distance from the sun’s limb while passing over his disk: + from these observations, and the known phenomena of the + motions of the earth and Venus, the parallax may be found. + But if two observers, at very distant places of the earth + properly chosen, make these observations, the parallax may + be obtained with much greater ease and nicety; because the + distance of the apparent tracks of Venus across the sun as + seen from the two places, and also the difference of the + time of the passage, arises from the parallax of Venus and + that of the sun. The two last transits, which happened in + the years 1761 and 1769, were carefully observed for this + purpose; and it is to the results of these observations + that the present astronomers are indebted for their more + accurate knowledge of the distances of the planets, and the + dimensions of the solar system.</p> + <p> + “It should be observed, that if the parallax, and + consequently the distance of any one of the planets by any + means becomes known, the same is easily obtained for each + of the other planets, from the relation which has been + clearly discovered to subsist between the periodical times + of revolution of the planets round the sun, and their + distances from that central luminary. Astronomers have most + decidedly proved that the square of the time in which any + planet revolves is to the square of the time in which any + other revolves, as the cube of the distance of the first, + is to the cube of the distance of the other; and since all + the times are known from observation, if the distance of + any one be determined, there is no difficulty at all to + find the distances of all the other planets from the sun.</p> + <p> + “It has also been matter of great surprise to the + unlearned, that astronomers should pretend to tell the + magnitudes of the sun and planets. But this is no difficult + problem when the distance is known. The <em>apparent</em> + diameter is readily found from observation, and on this and + the distance depends the <em>true</em> diameter. If the + apparent diameters of two objects be equal, the true diameter + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span> + + of the one will be greater as it + is more remote; and the apparent diameter of any object + will increase as the distance of it from the observer + diminishes. From this every one sees, that a knowledge of + the distance of the object is an indispensible element for + finding its bulk; and, according to the accuracy of the + measure of the distance, will be that of the measure of the + magnitude, provided the apparent distance be truly taken; + and this, in the present improved state of our instruments, + presents no obstacle. There can be no doubt but that + astronomers are very near the truth in the numbers which + they now give us for expressing the distances and + magnitudes of the sun and planets.</p> +<p> + “The telescope has been of singular use to the astronomer; + it has shown him many phenomena of the heavenly bodies, + concerning which he would otherwise have been totally + ignorant. It is by the assistance of this noble instrument + that we have attained to the knowledge of the rotations of + the sun and planets, the phases of Venus and Mercury, + Saturn’s ring, and many other particulars exceedingly + interesting. The telescope has discovered several planets + which otherwise would have revolved in their courses + unknown and unnoticed by the inhabitants of this globe; it + has informed us that several of the planets have moons + moving round them, as our moon revolves round the earth; + besides, it has presented to our view an innumerable + multitude of fixed stars which without this assistance we + should never have seen.</p> + <p> + “It is no wonder that great efforts have been made to + improve this excellent instrument; these efforts have been + attended with great success, and what may be further done + in this respect we cannot tell; however, there is a limit + to the improvements of the telescope, for after it has + attained a certain degree of magnifying power, the motes + and vapors in the atmosphere would be so magnified as to + occupy its whole field of view, and thus render it a + useless incumbrance.”</p> + <p> + Who can contemplate the power which produced the solar + system, at once so magnificent, beautiful, and delightful, + without astonishment and admiration? The planets are kept + in a regular motion, and retained in an invariable course + round the sun, by the power of this luminary’s attraction + or gravity. These bodies have a projectile force, being + propelled forwards in a right line, which is the nature of + all simple motion; but the sun’s attraction combining with + their own projectile force, withdraws them from their + rectilineal courses, and preserves the most perfect harmony + in the system. This wonderful mechanism was originally + impressed on the system by its infinitely wise and + omnipotent Creator; to which primary impulse it has with + undeviating uniformity adhered, having never suffered in + its operations from the greatest distance of space, or + intervals of time!</p> + <p> + Surely no power less than that which at first gave + existence and modification to matter, is equal to the + government of the world. + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span> + + The solar orb and the planetary + bodies could no more subsist in their present form and + order, without a Divine, supporting, and directing hand, + than they could at the beginning make themselves. What is + that general law or force called <em>gravitation</em>, + without which the whole frame of nature would soon be + dissolved? Is it not a power constantly issuing from the + Deity, and which if he should suspend but for one moment, + the whole creation would sink into ruins? How inconceivably + great and operative must that power be, that is present + throughout the universe, with all the heavenly orbs to + preserve them in their courses; and on this earth, with + every creature, and every particle of matter, to preserve + its present form!</p> + <p> + In addition to the planets and their satellites, there are + <em>Comets</em>, which revolve round the sun, and, + consequently, are a part of the solar system. They have + often a long tail, in appearance resembling hair, issuing + from that side which is turned away from the sun. Comets + are popularly divided into three kinds, namely, bearded, + tailed, and hairy: but this arrangement seems to apply + rather to the different circumstances of the same comet, + than to the phenomena of several. Thus, when a comet is + eastward of the sun, and moves with him, it is said to be + bearded, because the light precedes it in the manner of a + beard: but when it is westward of him, it is said to be + tailed, because the train of light follows it in the manner + of a tail: and, lastly, when the sun and comet are + diametrically opposite, the earth being between them, the + train is hid behind the body of the comet, excepting the + extremities, which being broader than the body of the + comet, appear round it like a border of hair + (<em>coma</em>), from which circumstance it is said to be + hairy, and is denominated a comet.</p> + <p> + Without attending to the variety of opinions which + philosophers and astronomers have entertained concerning + the nature and use of comets, we may affirm, that they have + been considered as alarming phenomena, displayed by the + Divine Being to warn mankind of the near approach of some + dreadful calamity, such as wars, pestilence, and famine. + This opinion prevailed during the dark ages between the + decline of the Roman empire, and the dawn of the + Reformation. To this apprehension some of our modern poets + have alluded in strong and descriptive language. Young + says,</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “Hast thou ne’er seen the comet’s flaming light?</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Th’ illustrious stranger passing, terror sheds</p> + <p class="ml0"> + On gazing nations, from his fiery train</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Of length enormous; takes his ample round</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Through depths of ether; coasts unnumber’d worlds</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Of more than solar glory; doubles wide</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Heaven’s mighty cape; and then revisits earth,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + From the long travel of a thousand years.”</p> + </div> + <p> + Milton uses still greater strength of language when he + compares his hero to a comet:</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span> + + “Incensed with indignation, Satan stood</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Unterrified, and like a comet burn’d</p> + <p class="ml0"> + That fines the length of Ophiucus huge</p> + <p class="ml0"> + In the arctic sky, and from his horrid hair</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Shakes pestilence and war.”</p> + </div> + <p> + Similar ideas are finely expressed by Savage:</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “In fancy’s eye encount’ring armies glare,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And sanguine ensigns wave unfurled in air!</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Hence the deep vulgar deem impending fate,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + A monarch ruined, or unpeopled state.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Thus comets, dreadful visitants! arise,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + To <em>them</em> wild omens, science to the <em>wise</em>,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + These mark the comet to the sun incline,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + While deep red flames around its centre shine!</p> + <p class="ml0"> + While its fierce rear a winding trail displays,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And lights all ether with a sweeping blaze!</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Or when, compell’d, it flies the torrid zone,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And shoots by worlds unnumbered and unknown;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + By worlds, whose people, all aghast with fear,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + May view that minister of vengeance near.”</p> + </div> + <p> + Notwithstanding the present improved state of astronomical + science, it is evident that the philosophy of comets is + very imperfect. Kepler, though in other respects a very + great genius, and to whose useful labors astronomy is + deeply indebted, indulged in the most extravagant + conjectures; he imagined that the planets were large + animals, swimming round the sun: and that the comets were + animals still more huge and monstrous, which had been + generated in the celestial spaces. Jean Bodin, a learned + Frenchman of the 16th century, entertained an opinion, if + possible, still more absurd and ridiculous. He maintained + that the comets are spirits, which having lived on the + earth innumerable ages, and being at last arrived on the + confines of death, celebrated their last triumph, or are + recalled to the firmament like shining stars! Mr. Whiston + was of opinion, that comets are so many hells, appointed in + their orbits alternately to carry the damned into the + confines of the sun, there to be scorched by its violent + heat, and then to return with them beyond the orb of + Saturn, there to starve them in those cold and dismal + regions. Thus</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ" id="FNanchor_131"> + “Born in an age more curious than devout;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + More fond to fix the place of heaven or hell,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Than studious this to shun, or that secure.”<a + href="#Footnote_131" + class="fnanchor">131</a></p> + </div> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span> + + James Bernoulli, in his Systema Cometarum, says, that + comets are no other than the satellites of some very + distant planet, which is itself invisible to us on account + of its vast distance, as are also the satellites, unless + when they are in that part of their orbits which is nearest + the earth. Comets, according to Des Cartes, were formerly + fixed stars: but which becoming gradually covered with + maculæ, and at length wholly deprived of their light, + cannot keep their places, but are carried off by the + vortices of the circumjacent stars; and in proportion to + their magnitude and solidity, moved in such a manner as to + be brought nearer the orb of Saturn; and thus, coming + within reach of the sun’s light, are rendered visible.</p> + <p> + Aristotle, Seneca, Plutarch, and others, testify, that the + Pythagoreans, and the whole Italian sect, maintained, that + a comet was a kind of planet or wandering star, which + appeared again after a long interval of time. Hippocrates + Chius was of the same opinion as Aristotle informs us. + Democritus held also the same opinion, as Seneca tells us + in his “Natural Questions;” book vii, chap. 3, “For,” says + he, “Democritus, the most curious and subtle of all the + ancients, suspected that there were many more stars which + moved, meaning by this expression the comets; but he + neither established their number, or their names, the + courses of the five planets not having as yet been + discovered.” Again, Seneca assures us, that Apollonius + Myndius, one of the most skilful philosophers in the search + of natural causes, asserted, that the Chaldeans reckoned + comets among the other wandering stars, and that they knew + their courses. Apollonius himself maintained, that a comet + was a star of its own kind, as the sun and moon are, but + that its course was not yet known; that by its motions it + mounts very high in the heavens, and only appears when it + descends into the lower part of its orbit. And Seneca + himself embraces this opinion in the following truly + philosophical words: “I cannot believe,” says he, “that a + comet is a fire suddenly kindled, but that it ought to be + ranked among the eternal works of nature. A comet has its + proper place, and is not easily moved from thence; it goes + its course, and is not extinguished, but runs off from us. + But you will say, if it were a wandering star it would keep + in the zodiac. But who can set one boundary to all the + stars? Who can restrain the works of the Divinity to a + narrow compass? For each of + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">251</span> + + those bodies, which you imagine + to be the only ones that have motion, have very different + circles; why, therefore, may there not be some that have + peculiar ways of their own, wherein they recede far from + the rest? But that their courses may be known, it is + necessary to have a collection of all the ancient + observations about comets; for their appearances are so + rare, that their orbits are not yet determined; nor can we + as yet find whether they have their periods, or whether + they return again in a certain order.”—“The time will + come,” continues he, “wherein these things which are now + hid from us will be discovered; which observation, and the + diligence of after ages, will find out. For it is not one + age that is sufficient for so great matters: the time will + be when posterity will wonder that we were ignorant of + things so plain; one will arise who will demonstrate in + what regions of space the comets wander, why they recede so + far from the other planets; how great and what sort of + bodies they are.”<a + href="#Footnote_132" + class="fnanchor">132</a> + The period, predicted by + Seneca, in the first century of the Christian era, is + not yet arrived. “After all that has been done and + written on the subject of comets,” says a late writer, + “we must confess, that our knowledge of these wandering + bodies is still very imperfect.” “It appears to me,” + says La Lande, “that almost every thing depends on + comets. The only thing that I recommend to my + correspondents, is to look after and attend to comets: + the knowledge of comets is alone wanting to complete the + science of astronomy.”</p> + <p> + Several ages elapsed before this prediction of Seneca + seemed likely to be fulfilled. Tycho Brahé was the first + who attempted to restore the comets to their proper rank in + creation. Having diligently observed the comet of 1577, and + finding that it had no sensible diurnal parallax, he very + properly determined its true place to be among the other + revolving bodies in the planetary regions, as appears by + his book De Cometa, 1577. And Sir Isaac Newton, from his + amazing discoveries, gives the following theory of comets: + “They are,” says he, “compact, solid, fixed, and durable + bodies; in fact, a kind of planets, which move in very + oblique and eccentric orbits, every way with the greatest + freedom; persevering in their motions even against the + course and direction of the planets: and their tail is a + very thin and slender vapor, emitted by the head or nucleus + of the comet, ignited or heated by the sun.”</p> + <p> + Various conjectures have been formed concerning the nature + of the tails of comets. Dr. Hamilton, of Dublin, in the + second of his Philosophical Essays, urges several + objections against the Newtonian hypothesis: he remarks, + that, since the tail of a comet, though exceedingly rare, + meets with no resistance in its rapid motion round the sun + (except so slight a one as can only cause a very small + condensation on that side of it which moves foremost, and + thereby may make it a little brighter than the other side), + it cannot + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">252</span> + + possibly move in a medium denser + and heavier than itself, and therefore cannot be raised up + from the sun by the superior gravity of such a medium. And + since the stars seen through all parts of a comet’s tail + appear in their proper places, and with their usual colors, + he infers that the rays of light suffer no refraction in + passing through the tail; therefore, since bodies reflect + and refract light by one and the same power, he concludes + that the matter of a comet’s tail has not the power of + refracting or reflecting light, and is, of consequence, a + lucid or self shining substance. Also from what astronomers + say of the splendor of comets’ tails, it is manifest they + do not shine with such a dull light as would be reflected + to us by the clouds or vapors at so great a distance, but + with a brisker though a glimmering light, such as would + arise from a very thin, volatile, burning matter. Dr. + Halley, speaking of the great streams of light in the + remarkable aurora borealis seen in 1716, says, “they so + much resembled the long tails of comets, that at first + sight they might be taken for such:” and afterwards, “this + light seems to have a great affinity to that which the + effluvia of electric bodies emit in the dark.” + <a id="FNanchor_133"></a> + Dr. Hamilton + improves upon these hints: and since, as he shows, the + tails of comets, the aurora borealis, and the electric + fluid, agree remarkably, not only in their appearance, but + also in such properties as we can observe of each of them, + he concludes that they are substances of the same nature. + And, because the electric matter, from its vast subtility + and velocity, seems capable of making great excursions from + the planetary system, he imagines that the several comets, + in their long excursions from the sun in all directions, + may overtake this matter; and by attracting it to + themselves may come back replete with it, and being again + heated by the sun, may disperse it among the planets, and + so keep up a circulation of this matter, which there is + reason to think is necessary in our system.<a + href="#Footnote_133" + class="fnanchor">133</a></p> + <p> + Comets, descending from the remote parts of the system with + great rapidity become visible to us in the lower parts of + their orbits; and after a short stay, go off again to vast + distances, and disappear. They move about the sun in very + eccentric ellipses; and the velocity with which they seem + to move is variable in every part of their path round the + sun; when near to which they appear to move with great + swiftness, and, when very remote, their motion is slow. + They are opake bodies, but of a much greater density than + the earth; for some of them are heated in every period to + such a degree, as would vitrify or dissipate any substance + known to us. Sir Isaac Newton computed the heat of the + comet, which appeared in the year 1680, when nearest the + sun, to be 2,000 times hotter than red hot iron, and that, + being thus heated, it must retain its heat till it comes + round again, although its period should be more than 20,000 + years; and it is computed to be only 575.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span> + + The number of the comets is much greater than that of the + planets belonging to our system. From the beginning of the + Christian era, till now, there have appeared about five + hundred. Before that time, we have accounts of about one + hundred others. But, when it is considered that there may + have been many that have not been seen, from being too near + the sun, from appearing in moon-light, from being in the + other hemisphere, or from being too small, or from not + being recorded, the number is probably much greater. Miss + Herschell, by means of the telescope, has, within the last + twenty years, discovered several comets. The orbits of + about one hundred comets have been calculated with + sufficient accuracy for ascertaining their identity on any + future appearance. + <a id="FNanchor_134"></a> + Many of these orbits are inclined to the + plane of the ecliptic in large angles, and many of them + approach much nearer the sun than the earth does. Their + motions are also different from those of the planets, some + of them being direct and others retrograde, nearly half the + number moving each way. The different motions of the + comets, and the various inclinations of their orbits to the + plane of the ecliptic, must not be regarded as the work of + chance, but as calculated to answer beneficial purposes, or + avoid baneful consequences; for if these orbits had been + nearly coincident with that of the earth, both bodies might + have arrived at the common point of intersection of their + orbits at the same time; in which case a derangement of + both motions must, at least, have been the necessary + result.<a + href="#Footnote_134" + class="fnanchor">134</a> + But, according to all the + observations that have been made respecting their + present distribution and direction, there is not the + least reason to apprehend any such consequence.</p> +<p> + The following table contains a list of the last + twenty-three of the principal comets that have been + observed, with the time of passing their perihelia, and + their nearest approach to the sun.</p> + <table class="mini xs" summary=""> + <tr> + <th> + Years.</th> + <th colspan="2"> + Passage<br />of the<br />Perihelion.</th> + <th colspan="2"> + Nearest distance<br />from the Sun<br />in + English Miles.</th> + <th> + Direction of<br />their Motion.</th></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1790</td> + <td> + January</td> + <td class="rt"> + 15</td> + <td class="rt"> + 71</td> + <td> + millions</td> + <td> + Retrograde.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1790</td> + <td> + January</td> + <td class="rt"> + 28</td> + <td class="rt"> + 101</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + Direct.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1790</td> + <td> + May</td> + <td class="rt"> + 21</td> + <td class="rt"> + 75</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + Retrograde.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1792</td> + <td> + January</td> + <td class="rt"> + 13</td> + <td class="rt"> + 122</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + Retrograde.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1792</td> + <td> + December</td> + <td class="rt"> + 27</td> + <td class="rt"> + 91</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + Retrograde.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1793</td> + <td> + November</td> + <td class="rt"> + 4</td> + <td class="rt"> + 38</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + Retrograde.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1793</td> + <td> + November</td> + <td class="rt"> + 18</td> + <td class="rt"> + 142</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + Direct.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1795</td> + <td> + December</td> + <td class="rt"> + 15</td> + <td class="rt"> + 23</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + Direct.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1796</td> + <td> + April</td> + <td class="rt"> + 2</td> + <td class="rt"> + 149</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + Retrograde. + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span></td></tr> + + <tr> + <td> + 1797</td> + <td> + July</td> + <td class="rt"> + 9</td> + <td class="rt"> + 50</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + Retrograde.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1798</td> + <td> + April</td> + <td class="rt"> + 4</td> + <td class="rt"> + 46</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + Direct.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1798</td> + <td> + December</td> + <td class="rt"> + 31</td> + <td class="rt"> + 73</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + Retrograde.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1799</td> + <td> + September</td> + <td class="rt"> + 7</td> + <td class="rt"> + 79</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + Retrograde.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1799</td> + <td> + December</td> + <td class="rt"> + 25</td> + <td class="rt"> + 25</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + Retrograde.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1801</td> + <td> + August</td> + <td class="rt"> + 8</td> + <td class="rt"> + 22</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + Retrograde.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1802</td> + <td> + September</td> + <td class="rt"> + 9</td> + <td class="rt"> + 103</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + Direct.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1804</td> + <td> + February</td> + <td class="rt"> + 13</td> + <td class="rt"> + 101</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + Direct.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1805</td> + <td> + November</td> + <td class="rt"> + 18</td> + <td class="rt"> + 35</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + Direct.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1805</td> + <td> + December</td> + <td class="rt"> + 31</td> + <td class="rt"> + 84</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + Direct.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1806</td> + <td> + December</td> + <td class="rt"> + 28</td> + <td class="rt"> + 102</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + Retrograde.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1807</td> + <td> + September</td> + <td class="rt"> + 18</td> + <td class="rt"> + 61</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + Direct.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1811</td> + <td> + August</td> + <td class="rt"> + 20</td> + <td class="rt"> + 25</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + Direct.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + 1815</td> + <td> + April</td> + <td class="rt"> + 26</td> + <td class="rt"> + 121</td> + <td class="ctr"> + ”</td> + <td> + Direct.</td></tr> + </table> + <p> + But of all the comets, the periods of three only are known + with any degree of certainty, being found to return at + intervals of 75, 129, and 575 years; and of these, that + which appeared in 1680 is the most remarkable. This comet, + at its greatest distance, is about 11,200 millions of miles + from the sun, while its least distance from the centre of + the sun is about 490,000 miles; being less than one third + part of the sun’s semi-diameter from his surface. In that + part of its orbit which is nearest the sun, it flies with + the amazing velocity of 880,000 miles in an hour; and the + sun, as seen from it, appears 100 degrees in breadth, + consequently 40,000 times as large as he appears to us. The + astonishing distance that this comet runs out into empty + space, naturally suggests to our imagination the vast + distance between our sun and the nearest of the fixed + stars, of whose attractions all the comets must keep clear, + to return periodically and go round the sun. How wonderful + that, though this body travelled almost two thousand times + faster than a cannon ball, yet it drew after it a tail of + fire, or of phosphoric gas, eight millions of miles in + length! How amazing to consider, that this stupendous body, + traversing the immensity of the creation with such + rapidity, and at the same time wheeling about in that line + which its great Creator prescribed to it, should move with + such inconceivable velocity, and at the same time with such + exact regularity! How spacious must the universe be, that, + <a id="FNanchor_135"></a> + gives such bodies as these full play, without suffering the + least disorder or confusion by it! With what a glorious + exhibition must those beings be entertained, who can look + into this great theatre of nature, and see myriads of these + tremendous objects wandering through those immeasurable + depths of æther, and running their appointed courses! Our + eyes may hereafter be strong enough to command this + magnificent prospect, and our understandings able to find + out the several uses of these immense parts of the + universe. In the mean time, they are most suitable objects + for our imagination to contemplate, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">255</span> + + that we may form + more extensive notions of infinite wisdom and power, and + learn to think humbly of ourselves, and of all the little + works of human invention.<a + href="#Footnote_135" + class="fnanchor">135</a></p> + <p> + The <em>Fixed Stars</em> are objects of peculiar interest, + and are so denominated, because they are observed always to + preserve the same distance from each other; and are + distinguished from the planets by their twinkling, which + seems to depend on the atmosphere; for we are assured, that + where the air is exceedingly pure and dry, the stars appear + with a light altogether free from scintillation. All the + heavenly bodies, the sun, moon, and stars, appear to move + round the earth, in circles parallel to the equinoctial, + once in the compass of twenty-four hours; though these + <em>apparent</em> motions are almost entirety to be + accounted for by the <em>real</em> motions of the earth: + but by far the greater number of them never change their + relative situations, each (so long as an observer continues + in the same place) rising and setting at the same interval + of time, and at the same points of the horizon;—these are + called the <em>fixed stars</em>.</p> + <p> + The fixed stars, as appears from several considerations, + are placed at immense distances from us. Mr. Exley, in a + friendly communication, says, “It should be noticed, that + the distances of the fixed stars have never yet been + discovered; not indeed so much for want of a method, as for + want of a base line sufficiently large for this + admeasurement. The diameter of the earth’s orbit is about + one hundred and ninety millions of miles; and the fixed + stars, viewed from the opposite ends of this extensive base + line or diameter, have no sensible parallax, but all appear + in the very same situations, and of the same magnitudes; + and as this is the greatest line to the extremities of + which we can have access, it is very probable we shall ever + remain in ignorance of the true distances of the fixed + stars. One thing, however, is fully ascertained by the + observations which have been made to find the parallax of + the stars, which is, that they are so immensely distant + from our planetary regions, that the whole solar system, + consisting of the sun and planets, with their satellites, + and the comets, would, if viewed from the nearest fixed + star, appear as crowded into one single point of space, + which is also known from other observations. How + astonishingly extensive is the view of the universe which + such observations furnish!”</p> + <p> + Our earth is at so great a distance from the sun, that if + seen from thence, it would appear no bigger than a point, + although its diameter is 7,954 miles. Yet that distance is + so small, compared with the earth’s remote situation from + the fixed stars, that if the orbit in which the earth moves + round the sun were the circumference of a globe, that + globe, seen from the nearest star, would likewise appear no + bigger than a point, although, it is at least 190,000,000 + miles in diameter. For the earth in going round the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">256</span> + + sun is 190,000,000 miles nearer to some of the stars at one + time of the year than at another, and yet their apparent + magnitudes, situations, and distances from one another + still remain the same; and being viewed through a telescope + which magnifies above 200 times, they still appear as mere + points: which proves them to be at least 400,000 times + further from us than we are from the sun.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_136"> + It is not to be imagined, that all the stars are placed in + one concave surface, so as to be equally distant from us; + but that they are scattered at immense distances from one + another through unlimited space. So that there may be as + great a distance between any two neighboring stars, as + between our sun and those which are nearest to him. + Therefore an observer, who is nearest any fixed star, will + look on it alone as a real sun; and consider the rest as so + many shining points, placed apparently at equal distances + from him in the firmament. The star nearest to us, or the + largest in appearance, is Sirius, or the Dog Star, and + astronomers have calculated from indubitable principles, + that its distance from us is considerably more than two + millions of millions of miles! The apparent magnitude of + Sirius has been computed at 27,000 times less than the sun, + and, therefore, supposing their magnitudes equal, is 27,000 + times more distant. If so, as our earth is ninety-five + millions of miles from the sun, that multiplied by + twenty-seven thousand, will give two millions of millions, + and an addition of 565 thousand millions, for the distance + of this star from the sun.<a + href="#Footnote_136" + class="fnanchor">136</a> + Our earth, in moving round + the sun, is 195,000,000 miles nearer to this star in one + part of its orbit, than in the opposite one; and yet the + magnitude of the star appears not to be in the least + altered or affected by it. A cannon-ball flying from + thence at the rate of 400 miles in an hour, would not + reach us in 732,000 years! The distance of the star <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc">γ</span> + Draconis appears, by Dr. Bradley’s + observations, to be at least 400,000 times that of the + sun, and the distance of the nearest fixed star not less + than 80,000 diameters of the earth’s annual orbit; that + is, the distance of the earth from the former is = to + 400,000 × 95,000,000 = 38,000,000,000,000, and the + latter not less than 7,600,000,000,000. As these + distances are much too great to be comprehended by the + human imagination, we shall, perhaps, obtain a better + idea of them by comparing them with the velocity of some + moving body, by which they may, in some way, be + estimated. The swiftest motion we know of is that of + light, which passes from the sun to the earth in about + eight minutes, or, at the rate of 200,000 miles nearly + in a second of time: and yet even light would be more + than six years in traversing the first space, and a year + and a quarter nearly, in passing from the nearest fixed + star to the earth. Again, a cannon ball, moving with its + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span> + + initial or greatest velocity of about ten miles in a + minute, would be more than seven millions of years in + passing from the star <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc">γ</span> + Draconis to the + earth. The celebrated M. Huygens carried his thoughts so + far upon this subject, as to believe that there might be + stars at such inconceivable distances from our earth, + that their light, though it is known to travel at the + rate of 12,000,000 miles in a minute, has not yet + reached us, since the creation of the world!</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “How distant some of the nocturnal suns!</p> + <p class="ml0"> + So distant, says the sage, ‘twere not absurd</p> + <p class="ml0"> + To doubt, if beams, set out at nature’s birth,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Are yet arrived at this so foreign world;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Though nothing half so rapid as their flight.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + And Mr. Addison observes, that this thought of Mr. Huygens + is far from being extravagant, when we consider that the + universe is the work of infinite power, prompted by + infinite goodness, having an infinite space wherein to + exert itself, so that our imaginations can set no bounds to + it.</p> + <p> + The magnitudes of the stars appear to be very different + from one another; which difference may probably arise, + partly from a diversity in their real magnitude, but + chiefly, no doubt, from their different distances. Hence it + is, that the fixed stars have been divided, for the sake of + distinction, into six orders or classes. Those which appear + largest, are considered as stars of the first magnitude; + the next to them in lustre, stars of the second magnitude; + and so on, through the different gradations, to the + smallest that are visible to the naked eye, which are said + to be of the sixth magnitude. This distribution having been + made long before the invention of telescopes, the stars + which cannot be seen without the assistance of these + instruments, are distinguished by the name of telescopic + stars. Bayer, besides accurately distinguishing the + relative size and situation of each star, marked the stars + in each constellation with the letters of the Greek and + Roman alphabets, setting the first Greek letter to the + first or principal star in each constellation, to the + second in order; then, when the Greek alphabet was gone + over, he passed to <em>a</em>, <em>b</em>, <em>c</em>, of + the Roman, and so on. This useful method of noting and + describing the stars has been adopted by all astronomers + since the time of Bayer; and they have further enlarged it, + by adding the ordinal numbers 1, 2, 3, &c., when any + constellation contains more stars than can be marked by the + two alphabets.</p> + <p> + As it would be impossible to furnish names for all the + fixed stars, and retain those names in the memory; it + became necessary not only to ascertain their exact relative + situations, but to invent some method by which the + principal part of the stars which can be seen may be known, + without having recourse to a separate name for each. + Ancient astronomers formed a commodious plan of arranging + the fixed stars in constellations under names and figures + of various + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">258</span> + + personages, celebrated in + antiquity, and even of birds, beasts, fishes, &c. This + division of the heavens into constellations is obviously + very ancient; for some of them are mentioned by Hesiod and + Homer, both of whom probably flourished nearly 1000 years + before the Christian era. Arcturus, Orion, and the + Pleiades, are twice mentioned in the book of Job: and in + the prophecy of Amos, composed about 400 years before + Christ, the <em>seven stars</em> and <em>Orion</em> are + mentioned. As the knowledge of the stars became more + extensive, the number of the constellations was increased; + and at the same time more stars were introduced into each + constellation. Such of the stars as were not comprehended + under any constellations, were by the ancient astronomers, + called unformed stars. The modern astronomers have reduced + not these unformed stars only, but many other stars, into + new figures; and it is probable that other constellations + will still continue to be invented.<a + href="#Footnote_137" + class="fnanchor">137</a></p> + <p> + With respect to the number of fixed stars, there have been + several accounts, given by different persons, at various + times. The celebrated Hipparchus, of Rhodes, 120 years + before Christ, formed a catalogue of 1,022 stars; to which + Ptolemy added four more. Ulug Beigh, the grandson of + Tamerlane, formed a catalogue of 1,017 stars. Tycho Brahé’s + catalogue only extended to 777; but he took care to + ascertain all their places. Kepler’s catalogue amounted to + 1,163, which Ricciolus enlarged to 1,468. Bayerus extended + his catalogue further than any of his predecessors, having + described the places of 1,725. Hevelius increased the + catalogue to 1,888. Flamsteed enlarged these catalogues to + the number of about 3,000. But by means of the telescope, + which affords us a glimpse of infinite space, and presents + to our view myriads of worlds, and systems of worlds, by + which it is filled, the number of the stars is + astonishingly increased. Galileo found eighty stars in the + space of the belt of Orion’s sword, and F. de Rheita + observed more than 2,000 in the whole constellation of + Orion, of which not more than seventy or eighty can ever be + seen without glasses. Dr. Hook reckoned seventy-eight stars + in the single constellation of the Pleiades; and F. de + Rheita, with a better telescope, discovered 188: whereas we + cannot reckon above seven or eight seen by the naked eye. + At the present period, the positions of 60,000 fixed stars + have been exactly recorded, and they are generally arranged + according to the size they appear; 20 of the largest are + called stars of the first + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">259</span> + + magnitude; 65 are of the second + magnitude; 205 of the third; 485 of the fourth; 648 of the + fifth; and about 1,500 of the sixth magnitude; the + remainder, being invisible to the naked eye, are called + telescopic stars.</p> + <p> + Where the stars are in great abundance, Dr. Herschell + supposes they form primaries and secondaries, that is, suns + revolving about suns, as planets revolve about the sun in + our system. He considers that this must be the case in what + is called the <em>milky way</em>, the stars being there in + prodigious quantity. Of this he gives the following proof: + on August 22, 1792, he found that in forty-one minutes of + time, not less than 258,000 stars had passed through the + field of view in his telescope! Dr. Chalmers observes, If + we ask the number of suns and of systems—the unassisted eye + of man can take in a thousand, and the best telescope which + the genius of man has constructed can take in eighty + millions. Thus, by the help of telescopes, we discover a + vast multitude of stars which are invisible to the naked + eye; and the better the glasses are, still the more become + visible; so that we can set no limits either to their + number, or to their distances.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “Myriads beyond with blended rays inflame</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The <em>milky way</em>, whose stream of vivid light,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Poured from innumerable fountains round,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Flows trembling, wave on wave, from sun to sun,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And whitens the long path to heaven’s extreme:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Distinguished tract!“</p> + </div> + <p> + From an attentive examination of the stars with good + telescopes, many that appear only single to the naked eye, + are found to consist of two, three, or more stars. The late + Dr. Maskelyne observed the <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc">α</span> + Herculis to be a + double star, and other astronomers have discovered many + more to be double. Dr. Herschell has found 700; of these + about forty had been observed before. The following will + serve as a specimen, and afford the observer a few objects + for his attention. <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc">α</span> + Herculis is a beautiful + double star: the two bodies are apparently unequal: the + largest is red, and the smallest of a blueish color + inclining to green. <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc">γ</span> + Andromedæ, double, very + unequal: the larger of a reddish white color; the smaller a + fine bright sky blue, inclining to green. <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc">β</span> + Lyræ, quadruple, unequal white, but three out of the four + inclined to red. <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc">ε</span> + Bootis, double, very + unequal, larger, of a reddish color; the smaller is blue, + or of a faint lilac color. <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc">α</span> + Lyræ, double, + very unequal; the larger is a fine brilliant white, the + smaller dusky.</p> + <p> + New stars sometimes appear, while others disappear. Several + stars mentioned by ancient astronomers are not now to be + found: several are now visible to the naked eye, which are + not mentioned in ancient catalogues; and some stars have + suddenly appeared, and again after a considerable interval + vanished. Fortunio Liceti, a celebrated physician, who died + in 1656, in Padua, published a treatise, entitled, “De + novis Astris et Cometis.” In it he gives us + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">260</span> + + an ample account + of the several new stars spoken of by the ancients, among + which he mentions that remarkable one which appeared A.D. + 389, near the Eagle. It was as bright as the planet Venus, + for the space of three weeks, but afterwards entirely + disappeared. In the ninth century, the Arabian astronomers, + Massahala, Haly, and Albumazar, observed a new star in the + 15th degree of Scorpio, whose light equalled that of the + moon in her first octant: it was visible for four months. + Cyprianus Leovitius relates, that in the reign of the + emperor Otho, A.D. 946, a new star was seen between the + constellations of Cepheus and Cassiopeia; and also that + another was seen A.D. 1264, very near the same part of the + heavens, which had no proper motion. One of the most + celebrated of the new stars is that discovered by Cornelius + Jansen, November 8, 1572, in the chair of Cassiopeia: it + exceeded Sirius in brilliancy, and Jupiter in apparent + magnitude; it gradually decayed; and, after sixteen months, + disappeared. On the 13th of August, 1596, David Fabricius + observed a new star in the neck of the Whale, and it + disappeared after October in the same year, but was + supposed to be again discovered in the year 1637. In the + year 1600, William Jansen discovered a changeable star in + the neck of the Swan. It was seen by Kepler, who wrote a + treatise upon it, and determined its place to be 16° 18ʹ + ♒, and 55° 30ʹ or 32ʹ north latitude. + Ricciolus saw it in 1616, 1621, and 1624. Cassini saw it + again in 1655; it increased till 1660; then decreased, and + at the end of 1661 it disappeared. In November, 1665, it + appeared again, and disappeared in 1681. In 1715 it + appeared, as it does at present, and is of the sixth + magnitude. In 1686, Kircher observed <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc">χ</span> + in the Swan, to be a changeable star in the neck of that + constellation; and, from twenty years’ observations, the + period of the return of the same phases was found to be 405 + days. In 1604, Kepler discovered a new star near the heel + of Serpentarius, so very brilliant that it exceeded every + fixed star, and even Jupiter, in apparent magnitude. For + more recent discoveries, see Dr. Herschell’s paper, “On the + proper Motion of the Sun and the Solar System, with an + account of the several changes that have happened among the + fixed stars since the time of Mr. Flamsteed,” vol. lxxiii, + of the Philosophical Transactions, or the fifteenth of the + Abridgment.</p> + <p> + All the stars seem to have a common and general motion + about the pole of the ecliptic, at the rate of a degree in + seventy-two years; this is occasioned by the precession of + the equinoctial points. In consequence of this apparent + motion, the constellations change their positions in regard + to the equinoctial points. Hence it is, that the + constellation Aries now is in the sign Taurus, and Taurus + occupies the sign Gemini. It has been the common opinion + that the fixed stars have no real motion, but the accurate + observations of modern astronomers show, that some of them + have a + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">261</span> + + motion peculiar to themselves, by which they slowly change + their places. Thus Arcturus is found to approach the + ecliptic about four minutes in 100 years; and its distance + from a small star near it has been sensibly changed during + the last century. Sirius seems to recede from the ecliptic + about two minutes per century. Similar motions have been + observed in Aldebaran, Rigel, the eastern shoulder of + Orion, the Goat, the Eagle, &c. Other stars have been + observed to have a motion in different directions. Perhaps + all the stars have similar motions, which are performed by + certain fixed laws in spaces, which, though very large in + reality, yet, because of their immense distance, subtend at + the earth angles so very small, as in some cases to be + quite imperceptible, while in other cases they may be + observed, as in the stars above-mentioned; and on this + rational supposition the appearance and disappearance, and + variations in magnitude, of some stars may be accounted + for.</p> + <p> + The fixed stars do not appear to be all regularly + disseminated through the heavens, but the greater part of + them are collected into clusters; and it requires a large + magnifying power, with a great quantity of light, to + distinguish separately the stars which compose these + clusters. With a small magnifying power, and small quantity + of light, they only appear as minute whitish spots, much + like small light clouds, and thence they are called nebulæ. + The number of nebulæ was formerly imagined to be about 103; + but Dr. Herschell, early in the year 1784, had discovered + 469 more, and since then has given a catalogue of 2,000 + nebulæ which he has discovered. The most careful and + accurate observations give great reason to conclude, that + they all consist of large masses or clusters of stars at + prodigious distances from our system. Dr. Herschell is of + opinion the starry heaven is replete with these nebulæ, and + that each of them is a distinct and separate system + independent of the rest. The milky way he supposes to be + that particular nebulæ in which our sun is placed; and, in + order to account for the appearance it exhibits, he + supposes its figure to be much more extended towards the + apparent zone of illumination, than in any other direction; + which is a supposition that he thinks allowable, from the + observations he has made on the figures of other nebulæ.</p> + <p> + That there are other worlds, beside our earth, inhabited by + rational beings, endued with bodily constitutions adapted + to the nature and economy of the respective planets for + which they are destined, is a conjecture that approaches + the nearest to certainty. There is scarcely any doubt now + remaining amongst philosophers, that our moon is a + habitable globe. The most accurate observations that have + been made with the most powerful telescopes, have confirmed + the opinion. The surface of the moon seems to be + diversified by high mountains, large valleys, and small and + larger collections of water; consequently she resembles our + earth; and there can be + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">262</span> + + no doubt that our earth serves as + a moon to the moon, whose inhabitants, comparing it with + the sun, may well say,</p> + <div class="poem smaller"> + <p class="ml4"> + ——“gives us his blaze again</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Void of its flame, and sheds a softer day;“</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + which similarity existing between them, is a presumptive + proof that the moon, like our earth, is a commodious + habitation for creatures endowed with capacity for knowing + and adoring their beneficent Creator. By a very correct + analogy we are led to infer, says a learned author, that + all the <em>planets</em> and their <em>satellites</em> or + attendant moons, are <em>inhabited</em>; for matter seems + only to exist for the sake of intelligent beings. And Dr. + Herschell’s discoveries have, by the general consent of + philosophers, added, besides the Georgian planet, a <em>new + habitable world</em> to our system, which is the + <span class="smcap">Sun</span>.</p> + <p> + To an attentive mind it will appear highly probable, that + the planets of our system, and their moons, are much of the + same nature with our earth, and destined for the like + purposes; for they are solid opaque globes, capable of + supporting animals and vegetables. Some of them are bigger, + some less, and others about the size of our earth. They + move round the sun, as the earth does, in a shorter or + longer time, according to their respective distances from + him: and have, where it would not be inconvenient, regular + returns of summer and winter, spring and autumn. They have + warmer and colder climates, as the various productions of + our earth require: and, in such as afford a possibility of + discovering it, we observe a regular motion round their + axis like that of our earth, causing an alternate return of + day and night; which is necessary for labor, rest, and + vegetation, and that all their surfaces may be exposed to + the rays of the sun.</p> + <p> + Can a person who attends to the vast magnitude of the three + planets, Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschell or the Georgium + Sidus, and compares the systems of moons together which + belong to them, bring himself to think, that an infinitely + wise Creator should dispose of all his animals and + vegetables here, leaving the other planets destitute of + living and rational creatures? To suppose that he had any + view to our benefit in creating these moons, and giving + them their motions round their respective primaries; to + imagine, that he intended these vast bodies for any + advantage to us, when he well knew, that they could not be + seen but by a few astronomers looking through telescopes; + and that he gave to the planets regular returns of day and + night, and different seasons to all where they would be + convenient, but of no manner of service to us, except only + what immediately concerns our own planet, the earth; to + imagine, I say, that, he did all this on our account, + would, I presume, be charging him with having done much in + vain: and be as absurd, as to fancy that he has created a + little sun, and a planetary system within the shell of our + earth, and intended them for our use.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span> + + “As well might the minutest emmet say,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + That Caucasus was raised to pave his way</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The snail, that Lebanon’s extended wood</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Was destin’d only for his walk and food.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The vilest cockle, gaping on the coast,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + That rounds the ample seas, as well may boast,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The craggy rock projects above the sky,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + That he in safety at its foot may lie;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And the whole ocean’s confluent waters swell,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Only to quench his thirst, and move and blanch his shell.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + These considerations amount to little less than a positive + proof, that all the planets are inhabited: for if they are + not, why all this care in furnishing them with so many + moons, to supply those with light which are at the greater + distances from the sun? Do we not see, that the further a + planet is from the sun, the greater apparatus it has for + that purpose? Such of the planets as are most remote from + the sun, and therefore enjoy least of his light, have that + deficiency made up by several moons, which constantly + accompany, and revolve about them, as our moon revolves + round our earth. So that if the more distant planets have + the sun’s light in less proportion by day than we, they + have an addition made to it morning and evening by one or + more of their moons, and a greater proportion of light + during the night. We know that the earth goes round the + sun, and turns round upon its own axis, to produce the + vicissitudes of summer and winter by the former, and of day + and night by the latter motion, for the benefit of its + inhabitants: may we not then fairly conclude, by parity of + reason, that the end or design of all the other planets is + the same? And is not this agreeable to the beautiful + harmony which exists throughout the works of nature? Surely + it is! and it raises in us the most magnificent ideas of + the supreme Being, who is every where, and at all times + present; displaying his power, wisdom, and goodness, among + all his creatures; and distributing happiness to + innumerable beings of various ranks!</p> + <p> + When we consider the infinite power and goodness of God; + the latter inclining, the former enabling him to make + creatures suited to all states and circumstances; that + matter exists only for the sake of intelligent beings; and + that wherever we see it, we always find it pregnant with + life, or necessarily subservient thereto; the numberless + species, the astonishing diversity of animals in earth, + air, water, and even on other animals; every blade of + grass, every tender leaf, every natural fluid, swarming + with life; and every one of these enjoying such + gratifications as the nature and state of each requires: + when we reflect also, that some centuries ago, till + experience undeceived us, a great part of the earth was + judged uninhabitable; the Torrid Zone, by reason of + excessive heat, and the two Frigid Zones because of their + intolerable cold; it seems highly probable, that these + numerous and large masses of the planets are not destitute + of beings capable of contemplating with wonder, and + acknowledging with gratitude, the wisdom, symmetry, and + beauty + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span> + + of the creation. It is an undoubted truth, that wherever + God exerts his power, there also he manifests his wisdom + and goodness.</p> + <p> + From what we know of our own system, it may be reasonably + concluded, that all the rest are with equal wisdom + contrived, situated, and provided with accommodations for + rational inhabitants. Taking a survey of the system to + which we belong; the only one accessible to us; from thence + we are the better enabled to judge of the nature and end of + the other systems of the universe. For although there is + almost an infinite variety in the parts of the creation + which we have opportunities of examining, yet there is a + general analogy running through and connecting all the + parts into one scheme, one design, one whole!</p> + <p> + The stars, being at such immense distances from the sun, + cannot possibly receive from him so strong a light as they + seem to have; nor any brightness sufficient to make them + visible to us. For the sun’s rays must be scattered and + dissipated before they reach such remote objects, that they + can never be transmitted back to our eyes, so as to render + these objects visible by reflection.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “I launch into the trackless deeps of space,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Where, burning round, ten thousand suns appear</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Of elder beam, which ask no leave to shine</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Of our terrestrial star, nor borrow light</p> + <p class="ml0"> + From the proud regent of our scanty day.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + The stars, therefore, shine with their own native and + unborrowed lustre, as the sun does; and since each + particular star, as well as the sun, is confined to a + particular portion of space, it is plain, that the stars + are of the same nature with the sun.</p> + <p> + It is not probable that the Almighty, who always acts with + infinite wisdom, and does nothing in vain, should create so + many suns, fit for so many important purposes, and place + them at such distances from one another, without proper + objects near enough to be benefited by their influences. + Whoever imagines they were created only to give a faint + glimmering light to the inhabitants of this globe, must + have a very superficial knowledge of astronomy, and a mean + opinion of the Divine wisdom: since, by a much less + exertion of creating power, God could have given to our + earth considerably more light by one single additional + moon. Since the fixed stars are prodigious globes of light + and heat, like our sun, and at inconceivable distances from + one another, as well as from us, it is reasonable to + conclude they are made for the same purposes that the sun + is; each to bestow light, heat, and produce vegetation, on + a certain number of inhabited planets, kept by gravitation + within the sphere of its activity.</p> + <p> + Instead then of one sun, and one world only, in the + universe, as the unskilful in astronomy imagine, that + science discovers to us such an inconceivable number of + suns, systems, and worlds, dispersed through boundless + space, that if our sun, with all the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">265</span> + + planets, moons, + and comets belonging to it, were annihilated, they would + with difficulty be missed, by an eye that could take in the + whole creation; the space they possess being comparatively + so small that it would scarce be a sensible blank in the + universe, although Herschell, or the Georgium Sidus, the + most remote of our planets, revolves about the sun in an + orbit whose mean distance from the sun is 1,822,575,228 + miles, and some of our comets make excursions to an amazing + distance beyond the bounds of that planet: and yet, they + are incomparably nearer to the sun than to any of the + stars; as is evident from their keeping clear of the + attractive power of all the stars, and returning + periodically by the virtue of the sun’s attraction.</p> + <p> + “In the immensity of God’s creation,” says a learned + author, “we may readily conceive one system of heavenly + bodies, and others beyond them, and others still in endless + progression, through the whole vortex of space! Every + <em>star</em> in the vast abyss of nature being a + <em>sun</em>, with its peculiar and numerous attendant + worlds. Thus there may be systems of systems, in endless + gradation, up to the throne of God!”</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “Oh, for a telescope <span + class="smcap">His Throne</span> + to reach!</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Tell me ye learn’d on earth, or blest above!</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Where your great Master’s orb? His planets where?</p> + <p class="ml0"> + * * * * * * * * * On nature’s Alps I stand</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And see a thousand firmaments beneath!</p> + <p class="ml0"> + A thousand systems as a thousand grains!</p> + <p class="ml0"> + <em>Each</em> of these <span + class="smcap">Stars</span> + is a <em>religious house</em>;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + I saw their altars smoke, their incense rise,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And heard Hosannas ring through <em>ev’ry sphere</em>;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + A seminary fraught with future gods!</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Oh, what a root! Oh, what a branch is here!</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Oh, what a Father! What a family!</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Worlds, systems, and creations!——And creations</p> + <p class="ml0"> + In one agglomerated cluster hung,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Great <em>Vine!</em> on <span + class="smcap">Thee</span>; + on <span + class="smcap">Thee</span> + the cluster hangs;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The filial cluster! infinitely spread</p> + <p class="ml0"> + In glowing globes, with various being fraught;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And drinks (nectareous draught!) immortal life!“</p> + </div> + <p id="FNanchor_138"> + What an august! what an amazing conception, if human + imagination can conceive it, does this give of the works of + the Creator! Thousands of thousands of suns, multiplied + without end, and ranged all around us, at immense distances + from each other, attended by ten thousand times ten + thousand worlds, all in rapid motion, yet calm, regular, + and harmonious, invariably keeping the paths prescribed + them; and these worlds peopled with myriads of intelligent + creatures, formed for endless progression in perfection and + felicity. If so much power, wisdom, goodness, and + magnificence, is displayed in the material creation, which + is the least considerable part of the universe, how great, + how wise, how good must He be, who made and governs the + whole!<a + href="#Footnote_138" + class="fnanchor">138</a></p> + <p> + The persuasion that rational beings inhabit other worlds, + has a powerful tendency to excite our curiosity.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">266</span> + + “Ye sparkling isles of light that stud the sea</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Of empyrean ether! Ye abodes</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Of unknown myriads, spirits, or in bands</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Held of corporeal frame! Fain would my soul</p> + <p class="ml0"> + A thirst for knowledge unreveal’d to man,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Question your habitants, and fain would hear</p> + <p class="ml0"> + A voice responsive from your distant bourn.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Tell, tell me who possess your radiant climes;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + What are their forms, their faculties, their hopes,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Their fears, if subject or to hope or fear?</p> + <p class="ml0"> + What fond pursuits, what animating toils</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Diversify existence with delight?</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Rove they in course aërial unconfined</p> + <p class="ml0"> + From sphere to sphere, with interchange of joy</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Heightening their mutual bliss; or dwell they fix’d,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Each in his native solitary orb,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Unconscious of the lot of neighboring worlds?</p> + <p class="ml0"> + What homage, what returns of grateful love</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Yield they to Him who made them? Stand they fast</p> + <p class="ml0"> + In undecaying blessedness, secure</p> + <p class="ml0"> + From risk of loss: or tread they yet the stage</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Of perilous probation? Hath sin won</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Conquests through disobedience o’er those hosts</p> + <p class="ml0"> + In your bright regions yawn the gates of Death?</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Falls he, who falls, for ever?—Power supreme</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Pardon the aspiring thoughts that would presume</p> + <p class="ml0"> + To pierce the veil which shrowds from mortal eye</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The wonders of thy realms! Enough, to know</p> + <p class="ml0"> + That Thou art Lord! Thy universal love</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Pervades Creation; on each living form</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Showers down its proper happiness; and, when guilt</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Wakes thy reluctant vengeance, stays the bolt</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Of wrath, and pales its mitigated fire!”<a + href="#Footnote_139" + class="fnanchor">139</a></p> + </div> + <hr class="r10" /> + <p> + Stars are the hieroglyphics used to express both rulers and + teachers; therefore they may with great propriety be + applied to the pastors of the church. The Jews, says Dr. + Doddridge, are said to have called their teachers + <em>stars</em>. They are represented under that emblem in + the Revelation, where St. John, speaking of our Lord, says, + “He had in his right hand seven stars;” and the allegorical + explanation is, “The seven stars which thou sawest in my + right hand are the angels (or ministers) of the seven + churches,” namely, in Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, + Sardis, Philadelphia, Laodicea. By <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: angeloi" + class="msg">αγγελοι</span>, + <em>angels</em>, we are to understand the + <em>messengers</em> or persons whom God sent to preside + over these churches. “Angel of the church,” in this place, + says a learned author, answers exactly to that officer of + the synagogue among the Jews, called <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">שליח ציבור</span> + <em>sheliach tsibbor</em>, the messenger of the church, + whose business it was to <em>read</em>, <em>pray</em>, and + <em>teach</em>, in the synagogue. The ministers of the + gospel bear this allegorical designation.</p> + <p> + 1. Because, like stars in the firmament, they are placed in + a <em>high situation</em> in the church. Eliphaz says, + “Behold the height of the stars, how high they are!” The + sacred office is the highest that men can occupy, both in + point of rank and importance; and therefore the views, + dispositions, and deportment of ministers, should accord + with it. They should not be sordid in their + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span> + + attachments, nor + grovelling in their pursuits. A predilection for lucrative + places, and worldly honors, is inconsistent with the + sanctity of their character, and the design of their + profession. As they are in a station above others, so their + minds should have a high elevation, contemplating spiritual + and divine things, with intense application, and holy + delight. The glories of the new Jerusalem, and the + felicities of the celestial Paradise, are subjects which + should engross their thoughts, and be exhibited in their + official ministrations. They should look on all debasing + pleasures, fleeting honors, and perishing riches, as things + vastly below the dignity of their character, and contrary + to the objects of their professional engagements. They have + higher considerations to excite their solicitude, and more + important affairs to employ their powers, than to spend + their time in things, which neither can afford them any + rational satisfaction, nor are of long duration. St. James + calls their attention to what is of most interest to them, + where he says, that “he who converteth a sinner from the + error of his way shall save a soul from death, and shall + hide a multitude of sins.” Success is the most valuable + remuneration, and should actuate ministers both in their + private studies, and their public labors.</p> + <p> + 2. Because of the <em>beneficial effects</em> of their + ministerial labors, being useful to men, in affording them + light, direction, and comfort; and, consequently, the need + the church has of them. Gospel ministers are as necessary + to the moral world, during the present state of things, as + the sun, moon, and stars are in the universe. A church + without such helps, would be like a firmament deprived of + globular lights. Ministers, with the bright rays of + heavenly doctrine, dispel the darkness of ignorance, chase + away the clouds of error, scatter the mists of prejudice, + disperse the fogs of vice, from the human mind. As stars + engage the attention, and draw the eyes of persons toward + heaven, presenting in themselves astonishing displays of + the infinite perfections of wisdom, power, and goodness: so + it is the work of ministers to endeavor to excite people to + the contemplation of Divine things—to behold through the + medium of the sacred Writings, the mediatorial character of + Christ, the results of his passion, the prevalence of his + intercession, the happiness of his subjects, and the + glories of his kingdom. As the stars serve for guides to + seafaring men, while traversing the untrodden paths of the + swelling ocean; so these symbolical stars are guides to + those who embark in the vessel of the church, directing her + course, through the inconstant sea of this tumultuous and + fluctuating world, to the harbor of everlasting rest. And + as an extraordinary star in the east directed the wise men + to Bethlehem, where Christ was born; so it devolves upon + ministers, as stars of the church, to conduct inquiring + sinners to Jesus, who is able and willing to save them from + their sins, and bless them with holiness + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">268</span> + + and eternal life. They may with propriety adopt the language + of an old poet:——</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “Oh that his light and influence</p> + <p class="ml2"> + Would work effectually in me</p> + <p class="ml2"> + Another new Epiphany,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Exhale and elevate me hence:</p> + <p class="v2 ml0"> + That as my calling doth require,</p> + <p class="ml2"> + Star-like I may to others shine;</p> + <p class="ml2"> + And guide them to that Sun divine,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Whose day-light never shall expire.”</p> + </div> + <p> + 3. All the light that ministers communicate to mankind, or + to the members of the church, is derived from Christ, the + Sun of Righteousness, as the light of the planets is from + the natural sun. The pastors of the church have neither + light nor grace of themselves: they receive all from the + “Father of lights,” in whose light only they can see light; + and it pleased him that in Christ should “all fulness + dwell.” Both ministers and people must be enlightened with + emanations from him, or remain in darkness. St. Paul + frankly acknowledges, “By the grace of God I am what I am.” + Without him, the most eminent minister would be like a dark + lamp. Hence they have no reason to be proud of their + qualifications; for they have received all their gifts and + graces from Christ. Their fitness for the ministerial work + is not to be ascribed either to their natural powers, the + force of a superior genius, a liberal education, intense + study, or even to goodness and piety, but to the gratuitous + bounty of God only. So likewise, whatever success in the + exercise of those gifts and graces they may have had, it + flowed not from such sources, but from Christ. “I have + planted,” says St. Paul, “and Apollos watered; but God gave + the increase.” The largest planets are inconsiderable in + comparison of the sun, which is the great natural fountain + of light and heat. The holy prophets are nothing when + brought into contrast with Jesus Christ. And John the + Baptist, though superior to all his predecessors, conscious + of his own vast inferiority, confessed, “He it is who + coming after me is preferred before me, whose shoe’s + latchet I am not worthy to unloose.”—As the planets shine + with no other light than that derived from the sun; so + ministers are to be resplendent only with the radiance of + Divine truth, received from the eternal Fountain of + illumination. They are not to shine with the glimmering + light of fallable reason, the sparks of human wisdom, the + glow-worm rays of vain philosophy; not with the subtlety of + Aristotle, the penetration of Cartes, the eloquence of + Cicero, the speculations of Plato, the propositions of + Euclid; but with the correct and comprehensive knowledge of + the Scripture, which is “given by inspiration of God, and + is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, + and for instruction in righteousness; that the man of God + may be perfect, thoroughly furnished unto all good works.” + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">269</span> + + In a lower sense, it must be + acknowledged, that human learning is of considerable use, + affording ministers certain qualifications for their work. + The knowledge of the languages, moral and natural + philosophy, sacred and profane history, mathematical + science, the art of speaking, particularly those branches + of logic which teach us to range our thoughts in a right + method, to form propositions distinctly, and to draw just + conclusions from acknowledged premises: I say, the + knowledge of these different branches of literature and + science, may very much assist ministers to discover and + defend the truth, and refute its adversaries with their own + weapons. But they must derive all their peculiar lustre and + excellence from the volume of Divine inspiration, whence, + as chosen instruments, they can make people wise to + salvation.</p> + <p> + 4. Ministers are like the stars of heaven, because of the + difference that is among them, in respect of gifts and + ability. The stars differ from one another in situation, + magnitude, influence, and glory. “There is one glory of the + sun, another glory of the moon, and another glory of the + stars: for one star differeth from another star in glory.” + The gradation extends from stars of the first to those of + the sixth magnitude. Some are so dazzling, that they appear + with a peculiar splendor among the shining beauties of the + night: others are obscure and nebulous; and there are many + which can only be seen with the help of telescopes. The + stars of the moral hemisphere are not all enlightened, “by + the Day-spring from on high,” with the same degree of + intellectual and Divine radiance. They have not all the + same gifts, nor gifts in the same measure. Profound + knowledge, excellency of speech, solidity and firmness of + judgment, prudence and dexterity of conduct, are not + usually the portion of one, but distributed among several + ministers. One excels in a talent for preaching, another is + eminent for utterance and power in prayer, and another is + distinguished by wisdom and stability for government. Paul + was sublime and cogent in reasoning; Apollos was copious, + eloquent, and mighty in the Scriptures; John soars high in + mysteries, and yet excels in sweetness; Isaiah is pompous + and magnificent in his style; David charms and surprises us + at the same time, with his ecstatic raptures and poetic + strains. In the largest assembly of ministers there are not + two alike, far less equal in all things. Some, like stars + of the first magnitude, shine with great brilliancy: others + have rays which are weak and obscure. Some are prudent, but + not eloquent. Some have the gift of preaching, but are not + remarkable for prudence and moderating their passions. Some + have the art of affecting the passions: others have the + skill of enlightening the mind, and informing the judgment. + Some, appearing as if formed in a finer mould, have a + talent of politeness and address, in their intercourse with + people of character. Some, like skillful physicians, know + how to deal with afflicted souls, and relieve wounded + consciences. Some are sons of thunder, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">270</span> + + while others are + sons of consolation. Though every minister should have a + competency of each of these gifts, yet some excel in one, + and some in another. Thus “there are diversities of gifts, + but the same Spirit;” and God, in diversifying his gifts, + makes his manifold wisdom appear. The Christians at Corinth + not understanding this, or too emulous for the first-rate + talent, without sufficiently regarding Divine agency, which + can render the meanest useful, became clamorous, and their + indecorous conduct is held up to all succeeding ages, with + the censure they deservedly merited. However, to calm their + perturbation, he says, “Therefore let no man glory in men. + For all things are yours; whether Paul, or Apollos, or + Cephas; and ye are Christ’s; and Christ is God’s.”</p> + <p id="FNanchor_140"> + 5. While some stars disappear, others arise that were not + previously observed. “Your fathers, where are they? and the + prophets, do they live forever?” Many, “of whom the world + was not worthy,” who were bold to suffer for the name of + Christ, not only the spoiling of their goods, the loss of + liberty, and banishment from their native country, but even + death itself, have rested from their labors and + afflictions, and are now enjoying a glorious reward. The + Lord also sometimes raises up extraordinary lights, for + asserting and propagating the truth, when his church is + overwhelmed with the dark clouds of heresy and + superstition. Of this Moses, Joshua, Elijah, and Elisha, as + well as many other prophets, whom the Lord called in an + extraordinary manner, were remarkable instances, in the Old + Testament: and, in the New Testament, John the Baptist, and + the apostles of Christ, whose voices were heard, and whose + rays extended to the ends of the earth. When the Christian + church was covered with the dark superstition and idolatry + of antichrist, God raised up some eminent lights, from time + to time, to diffuse the pure doctrines of the Gospel, and + lead the people out of mystic Babylon. Such were John + Wickliffe in England, John Huss and Jerome of Prague in + Bohemia; and, a hundred years afterwards, Luther in + Germany, Zuinglius in Switzerland, Calvin in France and + Geneva, and John Knox in Scotland, whom Beza calls the + apostle of the Scots. Then did the Gospel run, and was + glorified, like a mighty torrent carrying before it not + only cities and provinces, but whole nations and kingdoms.<a + href="#Footnote_140" + class="fnanchor">140</a> + Actuated by zeal for + religion, says a clergyman of the Establishment, + “Wickliffe, Jerome, and Huss, roused the slumbering + clergy to opposition. The zeal of Luther and his + associates alarmed all Germany, and shook the Papal + throne itself. Gilpin alone, in a dark period, + evangelized a large part of the northern counties of + England. Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley, by their steady + perseverance unto death, illuminated the British Isles. + The zeal of Whitefield and the two Wesleys has, even in + our day, made England, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">271</span> + + Scotland, Ireland, and + America, experience very important consequences.” + Missionaries actuated by primitive zeal, and sent out by + different societies to preach the Gospel among Heathen + nations, like burning luminaries are chasing away the + darkness of ignorance, gross superstition, and degrading + idolatry, and, on their ruins, establishing the kingdom + of Christ, and the reign of truth, peace, righteousness, + and benevolence, in the earth.</p> + <p> + 6. Ministers, considered as stars placed in the moral + firmament, should shine with purity of doctrine, fervency + of zeal, and holiness of life, both in the summer of + prosperity, and in the winter of adversity. 1st. In the + <em>solemn assemblies</em> of God’s people. Jerome says, + Our pulpit should be as Mount Tabor, where we should + converse with Moses and the Prophets, Christ and his + Apostles, minding that we have to do with a holy God, and + with the immortal souls of people, which must be shortly + either in heaven or hell. 2d. Amongst <em>their + flocks</em>, by an innocent, instructive, and pious + conversation, giving them no encouragement, by their + example, to sin; but alluring them to better worlds, and + pointing out the way thither. Their whole life should be a + transcript of the holy life of the blessed Jesus, a living + epistle in which the people may read the way wherein they + ought to walk. 3d. In <em>their families</em>. A minister + should be “one that ruleth well his own house,” properly + presiding over and governing his own family: “for if a man + know not how to rule his own house, how shall he take care + of the church of God?” Eli’s conduct brought heavy + judgments on himself and family, and a great scandal on the + church.</p> + <blockquote> + <p class="ctr"> + <em>Theory of the earth.</em></p> + <p> + [Such intimations and analogies as can be drawn from + nature may, with propriety, be applied to the explanation + of natural phenomena, in the absence of direct and + satisfactory proof. Allowing this assumption, we conclude + that the intimations and analogies in nature are + sufficiently strong and clear to authorize a belief, + <em>that all heavenly bodies are similar in their great + constitutional principles, and designs, and that our + earth may be taken as a fair and satisfactory sample of + them all</em>.</p> + <p> + The only probable departure from this strong analogy in + the heavenly bodies, seems to be this: the <em>suns</em>, + or <em>centres of systems</em>, have a peculiar + collection of phosphorescent clouds, which are designed + to be the great exciting causes, or dispensers, of light + to the planets which move round them. The planets have + not these phosphorescent clouds.</p> + <p> + This does not interfere with the <em>general</em> + analogies between the heavenly bodies; and establishes + the <em>strict analogies</em> between the planets of all + systems; and the suns, or centres of all systems.</p> + <p> + From all this we conclude, that a theory of <em>our + earth</em> which is satisfactory, will also be deemed + satisfactory in regard to the other heavenly bodies. We + therefore lay down, as authorized by the intimations and + analogies of nature, the following positions.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span> + + 1. <em>There is a general analogy between the + constitutional principles and designs of the heavenly + bodies; i.e. the suns and their planets.</em></p> + <p> + 2. <em>That the sun, or center of each system, with all + the planets and satellites revolving about it, were + created simultaneously, as it regards their + substances.</em></p> + <p> + 3. <em>That they were created at their relative distances + from the centre which they now preserve.</em></p> + <p> + 4. <em>That they were stationary when first created, + having no motion either on their axis, or in their + orbits.</em></p> + <p> + 5. <em>That the materials of each body, when first + created, were solid, frozen, and lifeless.</em></p> + <p> + 6. <em>That the materials of each body were created in + their simple, uncombined, or elementary states.</em></p> + <p> + 7. <em>That it is most probable these elementary + materials were promiscuous in the mass, without regard to + specific gravity, or any other principle or law.</em></p> + <p> + 8. <em>That the arrangement of the materials of which our + earth is composed was effected by the operation of the + laws of nature, as they are called, which were + simultaneously impressed upon the matter of the Solar + System, and is continued impressed, by the direct agency + of the Divine Being.</em></p> + <p> + 9. <em>That this reference of the commencement, and + continuance of the energies of the laws of nature, + directly to the Almighty, is both philosophical and + scriptural; and is noted by Moses in these words: “And + the spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters (or + deep.”)</em></p> + <p> + Reasoning from these data, let us now see whether the + phenomena of the structure and arrangement of our planet + are explicable to a satisfactory degree.</p> + <p> + 1. Immediately upon the impress of the laws of nature, by + the direct effort of the Divine Being, the whole mass + would commence revolving on its own axis, and moving + around its centre in its orbit. At the same time a + quickening impulse would be felt, from the operation of + the laws of nature, which would impart life and animation + to the mass. The first effect of this impulse would be to + call the <em>caloric</em>, light, and electricity into + action throughout the body. This would raise its + temperature instantly, and call into action all the other + powerful agents, as soon as formed: such as the acids, + alkalis, &c.</p> + <p> + 2. There will be no difficulty, to those who know the + power of these agents, in believing <em>that the + consequence of their united action would be an immediate + fusion of the whole mass</em>. This would establish a + state of <em>chemical mobility</em>; i.e. the various + materials, owing to their fusion, would be at liberty to + <em>combine</em>, according to the laws of chemical + affinity; and to take their relative positions, according + to the laws of gravitation.</p> + <p> + 3. The result of this process would be binary, and + ternary, and other combinations. Oxygen would enter into + combination with the bases of the various acids, and thus + form the acids; and with the various metals and thus form + oxides; and the acids and oxides would unite and thus + form other compounds, commonly called <em>salts</em>.</p> + <p> + 4. As such combinations as these would commence forming first, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">273</span> + + water and air would be + gradually and subsequently formed, by the three gasses, + oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, escaping from the mass + and rising to the surface, where the oxygen combining + with the hydrogen would form water; and with the nitrogen + would form air.</p> + <p> + 5. It is evident that the very small specific gravity of + the gases would cause them to escape from the interior + parts of the earth, rapidly, and to accumulate at the + surface in immense quantities. The consequence of this + would be, <em>an immense amount of water would be + generated at the earth’s surface; but the oxidizable + bodies in the interior of the mass would not, all of + them, be completely saturated with oxygen</em>.</p> + <p> + 6. The condition of the earth, at this stage of the + action, would be an inconceivably high state of ignition, + specially in the interior, and a rapid chemical action + still going on; the combinations still forming, and the + bodies thus formed arranging themselves. In a very little + time the various classes of bodies would have obtained, + generally, their natural relative positions, according to + their specific gravities; and all the combinable + elements, in the same neighborhood, having combined, a + state of comparative rest would ensue of course.</p> + <p> + 7. In the mean time, large quantities of different + substances would be held in solution by the acids, + alkalis, and water, whose solvent powers would be very + much increased by the presence of intense heat.</p> + <p> + 8. If we examine the whole mass at this stage of the + natural process, we will find it is in a condition to + <em>crystallize</em> whenever it can be <em>reduced</em> + to a sufficiently low temperature to admit of + crystallization. We know that the reduction of + temperature would commence at the surface, where the + caloric would be conducted upwards through the waters, + and would fly off into the celestial spaces. Of course, + the first crystallized depositions would take place + <em>at the junction of the waters with the oxides or + earths, in a state of fusion, on which the lower stratum + of water was resting</em>.</p> + <p> + 9. This first deposition would extend all around the + globe, as the waters <em>entirely invested</em> the + earth, and would lay the <em>foundation of the primitive + family of rocks</em>, which are well known to be + crystalline in their structure, and the result of + chemical action. It is, however, evident that there were + occasional tremendous agitations, and concussions during + the deposition of the primitive rocks, which altered the + state of the fluids, and caused successive, and, + sometimes, alternating strata to deposit.</p> + <p> + 10. The period of the deposition of the primitive rocks + continued until the elevations on the earth’s surface + were uncovered, became dry, and were subject to the + disintegrating, and rending powers of the elements: at + which time some marine animals, and some vegetables, + adapted to warm and moist climates, were created. The + consequence of this state of things would be that + fragments of rocks, and marine animal and vegetable + remains would be found in the composition of the strata + deposited at this period, and subsequently. The family of + rocks thus deposited is called <em>transition</em> rocks.</p> + <p> + 11. This is the proper place to institute an inquiry into + the origin of these <em>primitive elevations or + mountains</em>.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">274</span> + + 12. It will be very obvious, that a mass of materials + thrown into chemical action, and raised to a very high + temperature, as explained above, would naturally, and + necessarily be upheaved at different points on its + surface, by the gases, and other bodies escaping from the + interior. And though the general softness of the mass + would cause these elevations to sink back again <em>at + first</em>, upon the escape of the gaseous bodies + upheaving them; yet, when the surface of the earth, which + would cool by coming into contact with the water, would + thus begin to become solid, <em>the elevations would + maintain themselves, and consolidate</em>, and thus lay + the foundations of the irregularities which, + subsequently, would rise into mountains, and mountain + chains, and sink into vallies, by the combined action of + the internal heat, and the occasional rapid rise and + subsidence of the waters, which would alter the shape and + appearance of the mountains, and deepen the vallies.</p> + <p> + 13. But it becomes very natural to inquire into the cause + of the rapid rise, and subsidence of the waters at + particular times; which will also explain the cause of + the distinctions so obvious in the nature and ages of the + different families of rocks.</p> + <p> + 14. It will be recollected that the interior parts of the + earth are in a state of high ignition, and an immense + quantity of water surrounds the globe, the crust of which + is consolidating. By the natural pressure of the water, + by an occasional eruption of gas from the interior, and + by percolation, &c., the water would have access to + the interior materials in a heated state. In this case + there would be an immense production of steam, and + decomposition of water, which would of course produce an + earthquake, until it broke forth in a volcano under the + waters. In this case an <em>elevation</em> would be + produced on the surface, and, in all probability, a + <em>cavity</em> in the interior from whence the elevated + materials came.</p> + <p> + 15. These phenomena would happen in quick succession, and + very extensively in the first period of the world; and + every time they happened, they would <em>reduce</em> the + quantity of water at the surface, by admitting some into + the interior cavities; and by decomposing much; the + oxygen and hydrogen of which would enter into other + combinations.</p> + <p> + 16. This will account for the rise and subsidence of the + waters, the formation of vallies, and mountains, and the + alterations in the fluids, so as to deposit the different + strata in succession.</p> + <p> + 17. During this process above, cavities sufficiently + numerous and capacious, filled with water, would be + formed in the earth to relieve the surface, in a great + measure. But it seems pretty evident that the waters thus + retired into those cavities were occasionally thrown back + on the earth, by the same means with which earthquakes + and volcanos are produced; and thus tremendous currents + would ensue, which would successively bury the vegetable + materials in the adjoining lakes, out of which the coal + basins are formed; and also bury those immense forests of + trees, with the bones of animals, and fishes also, which + have been so clearly and satisfactorily described by + geologists.</p> + <p> + 18. Each successive deluge, in proportion to its power + and extent, would alter the quantity and quality of the + materials held in solution, and thus cause a + corresponding deposition subsequently. Hence, as + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span> + + remarked above, the distinction in the strata, and the + alternations of different substances successively.</p> + <p> + 19. It may not be amiss here to say, it is very probable, + that many deluges preceded the formation of man, produced + on the same principles as the deluge of Noah, though for + different purposes, according to the wishes of the Divine + Being.</p> + <p> + 20. To what has been said above, it is only necessary to + add, that all depositions, or formations of rocks took + place <em>at the bottom of the ocean</em>, or waters + which held the materials in solution, or suspended; and + that this ocean maintained its dominion for long periods + together, in comparative tranquility, and during such + times the different rock formations were deposited. The + marine animals would multiply, die, and their exuviæ + quietly fall to the bottom: at the same time carbonate of + lime would be copiously deposited from the sea waters, + and thus would consolidate into a stratum of rock, the + thickness of which would bear some proportion to the + length of the period of its deposition. If this stratum + <em>remained in its place</em>, upon the retiring of the + sea, it would appear at the surface at first; until it + was covered with mould, and the ruins of other rocks + disintegrated into earth, or soil. But if it were + <em>upheaved</em> by the force of the internal fire, it + would become a <em>limestone mountain</em>, containing + the organic remains as they were first quietly deposited. + The same may be said of primitive mountains, or any other + kind.</p> + <p> + 21. The <em>transition</em> rocks, the formation of which + was barely noticed above, (No. 10) were deposited + successively in strata, indicating their relative ages by + the increase of rocky fragments, and fossil remains in + their composition, from the oldest of the family to the + newest: and also by the gradual change in their + structure, which is more crystalline in the oldest, and + becomes less so in the newest, owing to the decrease of + chemical action, and the increase of mechanical + deposition.</p> + <p> + 22. From the fossil remains in the different strata of + the transition rocks, we have good evidence of successive + deluges, which swept away the animals existing at the + time, and buried their remains which are now found in a + fossil state; and others succeeded them. This will + account for particular animals being peculiar to + particular strata of rocks.</p> + <p> + 23. During the transition period the chemical action + ceased almost entirely, and the succeeding family of + rocks, i.e. the <em>secondary</em>, was deposited + <em>mechanically</em>, their materials being merely + <em>suspended</em> in the waters. This class, therefore, + is not crystalline in its structure, and is nearly + horizontal in position and contains greater quantities of + fossil remains, both of animals and vegetables. These + remains are, also, the relics of beings more delicately + organized, and approach much nearer to the genera and + species of animals now existing.</p> + <p> + 24. During the deposition of this class of rocks, and + also of the <em>tertiary</em> class which succeeded it, + the sea retired far from the up-lands, and well nigh into + its permanent beds. The up-lands would, by the + disintegrating power of the elements, be worn away at + their surface, and thus afford the matter of soil, which + would naturally be carried down towards the final retreat + of the sea, by the waters, and be deposited + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span> + + in the vallies, + and low countries. The same process would furnish + fragments of rocks in abundance, and of all kinds, which + would be rolled down the declivities of the up-lands, and + become more or less rounded, and thus be found entering + into the rocks of the secondary and tertiary classes; or + in beds of sand and gravel, or in the channels of rivers + in the form of <em>pebbles</em>. If these fragments were + thrown together in sufficient quantities, and a suitable + cement deposited among them they would consolidate and + form <em>pudding-stone</em>, or breccia marble; such as + the Potomac marble, of which the columns in the Capitol + at Washington City are made.</p> + <p> + 25. It is very evident that this process would deposit + the heavier fragments, and materials nearest the + highlands whence they originated; and carry the finer and + richer matter further away towards the sea, and deposit + it nearer the mouths of the rivers. This is well known to + be the case, as in the Mississippi. Here the phenomena + are doubtless, from the mouth, along all its tributaries + to their sources.</p> + <p> + 26. While these successive depositions were making, + modified by tremendous eruptions from the force of + subterranean fire, the same agent of these modifications + would produce another very striking phenomena. The + immense quantity of matter thrown from the interior to + the surface in a melted state, would either shoot up in + the form of cones, or columns, and by cooling crystallize + and consolidate; or would flow in its melted state over + the surface of the upper rocks, and thus cover them. This + is the case with a class of rocky substances which may be + called by the general name of <em>basalt</em>. Sometimes + when the force below was not sufficient to protrude the + melted matter through the superincumbent rocks, it drove + it in <em>between</em> the strata, or shot it up + <em>through</em> some of the strata; frequently upheaving + the rocks on one side of the protruding body, or + depressing them on the other. In this case the injected + matter constitutes what is called a <em>fault</em>, + <em>shaft</em>, or <em>dike</em>, by miners.</p> + <p> + 27. It is not improbable, nay, it is pretty certain, that + many of these basaltic ejections took place under the + ancient chaotic abyss of waters, and have become visible + by the retiring of the sea.</p> + <p> + 28. In this theory we have a satisfactory explanation of + the formation of <em>metallic veins</em>, and the + <em>dispersion</em> of metallic grains in sands, and + soil. The metals being in a pure state, or nearly so, in + the bowels of the earth when <em>projected</em> upwards + by the force of subterranean power, would be + <em>injected</em> into the rocks in the direction of the + operating force. Hence they are found in veins in solid + rocks, running in all directions, and descending to + unknown depths. Sometimes the whole of the vein appears + to be <em>insulated</em> by the rock. In this case, the + whole mass was <em>fused</em>, at least partly, and when + the force ceased to act, it would consolidate around the + injected metal, leaving no trace of its injection. + Sometimes the metallic vein evidently entered the rock + <em>from above</em>. In this case the metal in a + <em>melted</em> state was thrown to the surface, and + <em>meeting with a chasm, ran into it and consolidated + into a vein</em>. When the metal was raised from below in + a state of fusion in conjunction with an immense mass of + rocky matter in a state of fusion, they would appear at + the surface mixed throughout. When this rocky mass + yielded to the disintegrating + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span> + + power of the elements, the + particles of the metal and rock would be carried off + together into the lower positions, and be found in the + form of <em>dust</em>, in the secondary, or lower + countries.</p> + <p> + 29. The shape of the earth, in regard to which it is said + the polar diameter is less than the equatorial, would be + the same on the above theory, as it has been shown to be, + on the supposition that the earth was in a soft state by + the solvent powers of water, as commonly supposed.</p> + <p> + 30. It is a matter of peculiar pleasure to the Christian + philosopher, to observe the strong tendency in the + Science of Geology, to confirm the account of the + creation of the world, as given by Moses in the Bible. By + a careful comparison of the account of Moses with well + established geological positions, it will be found that + <em>they agree expressly, in the</em> <span + class="smcap">order</span> + <em>and</em> <span + class="smcap">nature</span> + <em>of the events</em>. This is a + splendid evidence in favor of revelation. There can be no + doubt, but, that if the phenomena of nature, and the + teachings of the Bible were better understood, more + striking and unexpected agreements would be found. + Religion and Science will one day be inseparable.</p> + <p class="v2 ctr"> + <em>Remarks.</em></p> + <p> + 1. It will be necessary for the reader to peruse the + above theory very attentively, in order to form a correct + judgment of it, as it is merely an <em>outline</em>, very + briefly drawn up, yet it is hoped, pretty clearly. + Whether it be well calculated to explain the great + leading geological phenomena which we observe, the reader + will determine for himself. It was not drawn up <em>in + view</em> of such explanation, but was constructed by + <em>induction</em> from those well ascertained phenomena. + It was drawn up <em>out of view</em> of any ultimate + object, or system, <em>previously</em> embraced, and is + even <em>different</em> from the writer’s previous + opinions, before he had diligently compared all the facts + within his reach. It is therefore entitled to the merit + of having been drawn up with a sincere desire to attain + to truth on this interesting subject, and not to support + a favorite theory.</p> + <p> + 2. Upon examination it will be found to reconcile, in a + great measure, the <em>Vulcanian</em> and + <em>Neptunian</em> theories which have so long divided + the principal writers on Geology. It will be found that + both <em>fire</em> and <em>water</em> were concerned in + producing the great geological phenomena. It cannot be + doubted but that subterranean force <em>commenced</em> + the irregularities on our earth’s surface, and continued + the action, probably with occasional intermissions, in + upheaving the mountains, and mountain chains: but as this + was commenced, and principally accomplished, + <em>under</em> the ancient sea, there can be no doubt but + that the water has had a powerful and extensive agency in + modifying the structure and composition of mountain, and + moderate elevations. And while we have every reason to + believe the force of subterranean fire was the principal + agent in rending, dislocating, and confusing the rock + formations of the crust of our earth; we have no less + reason to acknowledge the agency of water in depositing + the various strata; contributing to the disintegration of + the exposed uplands; and carrying down the + <em>alluvion</em> which form the fertile tracts of + vallies, and low countries; and the sand bars, and banks + at the outlets, of rivers, bays, gulfs, &c.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">278</span> + + 3. This view will be more clearly explained by examining + the <em>shape</em> of continents, islands, and countries, + which will be found to correspond, pretty nearly with the + shape of the mountain ranges in each. That is: the + <em>length</em> of a continent, island, or country will + be found to be <em>in the direction of the mountain + range</em>; and the <em>breadth across</em> the mountain + range.</p> + <p> + 4. This would be the shape which would naturally result + from the transition, secondary, and tertiary formations + arising principally from the disintegration of the + materials of the mountain range. This is evident from a + single reflection: if a <em>conical</em> body stood in + the midst of a plain, and was equally exposed to a power + which wore it away, the portions thus torn from the body + would roll down the declivity towards the base of the + cone, and would occupy a circle, generally speaking, of + the plane at the base equidistant from the body. In the + same manner the wasting away of the primitive elevations + would deposit the detritus equidistant from the foot of + the range.</p> + <p> + 5. It will be obvious, however, that the conformity of a + country, <em>in shape</em>, to the mountain ranges which + run through it, will be more or less modified by + adventitious circumstances. If one side of the mountain + range was originally more precipitous than the other: or + if some tremendous collection or current of water lashed + or swept one side, and not the other, the shape of the + country would be modified; but not so much as to destroy + the general conformity in shape. The above remarks will + be confirmed by an inspection of accurately drawn maps.</p> + <p> + 6. Finally: Some formations are entirely owing to the + agency of water; as sand banks, bars, shoals, &c., + and some entirely owing to the action of fire, as the + deposites of lava; the upheaving of volcanic mountains, + even in the memory of man. These are + <em>adventitious</em> formations, and do not even + <em>modify</em> a general theory.]</p> + </blockquote> + + <hr id="CHAPTER_VI" class="chap" /> + +<p class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</p> + + <h2> + CHAPTER VI.<br /> + <span class="large">FIFTH DAY.</span></h2> + <h3> + <em>Section I.</em>—<span + class="smcap">Fishes.</span></h3> + <p class="smaller hang1"> + Of Fishes in general — The Cetaceous + kind — Cartilaginous — Spinous — Crustaceous — and + Testaceous. — Animalcules. — Religious Improvement.</p> + <p> + On the <em>fifth day</em> were created fishes, and the + fowls of heaven, whatsoever flies in the expansion above + us, or swims in the watery element: these were produced + from the waters. “God said, Let the waters bring forth + abundantly the moving creature that hath life, and fowl + that may fly above the earth in the open firmament of + heaven. And God created great whales, and every living + creature that moveth, which the waters brought forth + abundantly, after their kind, and every winged fowl after + his kind: and God saw that it was good. And God blessed + them, saying, Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the waters + in the seas, and let the fowl multiply in the earth.”</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “See through this air, this ocean, and this earth,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + All matter quick, and bursting into birth;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Above how high progressive life may go,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Around how wide, how deep extend below!</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Vast chain of being, which from God began,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Nature’s ethereal, human, angel, man,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Beast, <em>bird</em>, <em>fish</em>, <em>insect</em>, what + no eye can see,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + No glass can reach; from infinite to <span + class="smcap">Thee</span>,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + from <span + class="smcap">Thee</span> + to <em>nothing</em>!“</p> + </div> + <p> + It is generally granted that life is the highest perfection + of corporeal beings, the most inestimable jewel of the + creation. Life, though but in an insect, is more glorious + than the sun. Solomon, making a comparison between living + and lifeless things, prefers the meanest of living + creatures before the best and noblest of dead things, “A + living dog is better than a dead lion.” How much soever we + may be astonished at the stupendous mass of inactive + matter, yet the least animated particle is still an object + of greater admiration. God, in creating the first + individual of each species of living creatures, not only + gave a form to matter, but also a principle of life; + inclosing in each a greater or less quantity of organical + particles, indestructible and common to all organized + beings. These pass from body to body, perpetuating this + life, and ministering to the nutrition and growth of each. + Thus every production, or increase by generation, is a + continuance of this life, of which every succession of + creatures is always full. The total quantity of life + remains the same; for whatever death seems to destroy, it + does not affect that primitive life, which is diffused + through all organized beings.</p> + <p> + However much the nature of life may perplex the most able, + acute, and diligent inquirers into the subject, or exceed + the utmost + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span> + + reach of human comprehension; yet + we see that it enables creatures to act, as it were, of + themselves, and to seek and obtain such enjoyments as give + them a sensible pleasure. The creatures on which this + amazing property has been conferred, have also an + inclination and ability to communicate it to their own + species, which will succeed one another till time shall be + no more! If we exercise our understanding on this + remarkable instance of creating energy, it will tend to + excite in us the most august thoughts of that almighty + Being, who is the boundless source of existence, vitality, + and motion to all his creatures!</p> + <p> + In the work of creation, observes a learned author, after + the formation of light, air, water, and earth, the + originals of all material objects, God proceeded from + creatures less excellent to those of a superior order. Such + was his progress in the work of creation. Fish and fowl + were both formed out of the water. Hence there is a nearer + alliance and greater resemblance between the form and + motions of creatures that swim and those that fly, than + between such as creep and those that walk on the earth; and + their bodies being intended to be lighter, and their motion + swifter, the wise Creator saw fit to form them from a light + and fluid element.</p> + <p> + The number of the different species of fish to which names + are given, and with whose figure at least we are a little + acquainted, is, according to Linnæus, above four hundred. + The majority of these are confined to the sea, and would + expire in the fresh water, though there are a few which + annually swim up the rivers, to deposit their spawn. Among + the various sizes, some have monstrous shapes, and amazing + qualities. Fishes are usually classed into three general + divisions: the <em>cetaceous</em>, or those of the whale + kind; the <em>cartilaginous</em>, or those which have + gristles instead of bones; and the <em>spinous</em>, or + bony kind, called so from their bones resembling the + sharpness of thorns.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_141"> + In the cetaceous species are included all the various kinds + of Whales, the Norwhal, or Sea-Unicorn, the Dolphin, the + Grampus, and the Porpoise. Though “God created great + whales,”<a + href="#Footnote_141" + class="fnanchor">141</a> + the words of Moses, according + to the original, <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">התנינם הגדלים</span> + <em>ha-tan-neenin + ha-gedoleen</em>, says Dr. A. Clarke, must be understood + rather as a general than a particular term, comprising + all the great aquatic animals, such as these now + mentioned. All these resemble quadrupeds in their + internal structure, and in some of their + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">281</span> + + appetites and + affections. Like quadrupeds, they have lungs, a midriff, + a stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, bladder, and parts + of generation; their heart also resembles that of + quadrupeds, with its partitions closed up as in them, + and driving red and warm blood in circulation through + the body; and to keep these parts warm, the whole kind + are also covered between the skin and the muscles with a + thicker coat of fat or blubber. The <em>aorta</em>, or + principal artery, in that stupendous animal the + <em>whale</em>, measures about a foot in diameter; and + it is computed that the quantity of blood thrown into + it, at every pulsation of the heart, is not less than + from <em>ten to fifteen gallons</em>.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “Nature’s strange work, vast Whales of differing form,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Toss up the troubled floods and are themselves a storm;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Uncouth the sight, when they, in dreadful play</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Discharge their nostrils, and refund a sea;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Or angry lash the foam with hideous sound,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And scatter all the watery dust around.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Fearless the fierce destructive monsters roll,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Ingulph the fish, and drive the flying shoal.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + In deepest seas these living isles appear,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And deepest seas can scarce their pressure bear:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Their bulk would more than fill the shelvy strait,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And fathom’d depths would yield beneath their weight.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + These animals possessing finer organs and higher sensations + than others, show an eminent superiority. They have all the + tenderness of birds or quadrupeds for their young, nurse + them with constant care, and protect them from every + injury. The female never produces more than one young, or + two at the most; and this she suckles entirely in the + manner of quadrupeds, her breasts being placed, as in the + human kind, above the navel. The ends of these she + protrudes at pleasure, to afford nutriment to her + offspring. Perhaps the prophet Jeremiah has an eye to this + when he says, “The sea-monsters draw out the breast, they + give suck to their young ones.” Those of the cartilaginous + kind, though not capable of nursing their young, yet bring + them alive into the world, and defend them with courage and + activity; while the spinous kind, a fierce, unmindful + tribe, deposit their spawn, and leave the success to + accident, without affording any protection.</p> + <p> + As this first class of sea animals breathe the air, it is + obvious they cannot bear to be a long time at once under + water. They necessarily, every two or three minutes, emerge + to the surface to take breath, as well as to spout out + through their nostril (for they have but one), that water + which they sucked in while gaping for their prey.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “Hugest of living creatures, on the deep,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Stretched like a promontory, sleeps or swims,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And seems a moving land, and at his gills</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Draws in, and at his trunk spouts out, a sea.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0" id="FNanchor_142"> + Their tails therefore are different from those of all other + fish: they are placed so as to lie flat upon the surface of + the water; while the other kinds have their tails, as we + frequently see, upright or edge-ways. This position of the + tail enables them to force themselves + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">282</span> + + suddenly to the + surface of the water, at pleasure. How well is it that + animals of this enormous size do not approach our shores, + for their presence would fright the other valuable fish + from our coasts: they are therefore kept in the abysses of + the ocean: just as wild beasts, impelled by the same + over-ruling Power, which hide themselves in the recesses of + the forest.<a + href="#Footnote_142" + class="fnanchor">142</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_143"> + The cartilaginous tribe, which have gristles instead of + bones, unite the principal of both the other classes in + their conformation: like the cetaceous, they have organs of + hearing, and lungs: like the spinous, they have gills, and + a heart without a partition. From the structure of their + gills, these animals are enabled to live a longer time out + of water than other fishes. The cartilaginous Shark, or + Ray, lives some hours after it is taken; while the spinous + Herring, or Mackarel, expires a few minutes after it is + brought on shore. Some of this class bring forth their + young alive; and others produce them by eggs, which are + afterwards brought to maturity. Most fishes having cold + blood, have not heat sufficient to produce the fœtus. The + all-wise Creator therefore has ordained, that many of them + shall propagate their species by eggs, and this they do + near the shore; where, by means of the solar rays, the + water is warmer, and fitter for that purpose; and also + because water-insects abound more there, which afford the + young fry nourishment. To the fish of the ocean, which + cannot reach the shores by reason of the distance, the + Creator has given eggs that swim, and these are hatched + amidst the floating fucus, called <em>sargazo</em>. In all, + however, the manner of gestation is nearly the same: for, + on dissection, it is ever found, that the young, while in + the body, continue in the egg till a very little time + before they are brought forth; and as soon as they leave + the shell, they also begin to quit the womb. It is + confidently asserted, that the young of the several species + of the Shark, when pursued, will take refuge in the belly + of its mother, by swimming in at her mouth. Of the same + class of fishes are the Ray, the Torpedo,<a + href="#Footnote_143" + class="fnanchor">143</a> + the Lamprey, the Sturgeon, + the Diodon, the Angler, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span> + + the Lump-Sucker, the Pipe Fish, the Hippocampus, or Sea Horse, + the Sea Porcupine, and the Galley Fish.</p> + <p> + Of the spinous, or bony kind of fishes, these are obviously + distinguished from the rest, by having a complete bony + covering to their gills; by their being furnished with no + other method of breathing than through the gills only; by + their bones which are sharp and thorny; and by their tails, + which are placed in a situation perpendicular to the body. + The history of any one of this order very much resembles + that of all the rest. They propagate not by bringing forth + their young alive, as do the cetaceous tribes, nor by + distinct eggs, as do the generality of the cartilaginous + tribes, but by spawn, or pease, as they are generally + called, which they produce by hundreds of thousands. The + bones of this order of fishes, when examined slightly, + appear to be entirely solid; yet, when viewed more closely, + every bone is seen to be hollow, and filled with a + substance less rancid and oily than marrow. These bones are + very numerous, and pointed; and, as in quadrupeds, are the + props or stays to which the muscles are fixed, which move + the different parts of the body. The number of bones in all + spinous fishes of the same kind is always the same. As this + species partake less of the quadruped in their formation + than any other, so they can bear to live out of their own + element a shorter time. Some, indeed, are more vivacious in + air than others: the eel will live several hours out of + water; and the carp has been known to be fattened in a damp + cellar. The method is, by placing the fish in a net well + wrapped up in wet moss, the mouth only out, and hung up in + a vault; then fed with white bread and milk, and the net + sometimes plunged into the water.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_144"> + The spinous class of fishes is more prolific than any other + animal. Although their usual way of propagation is by + spawn, yet there are some, such as the eel and the blenney, + which produce their young alive. Their power of increasing + is such, that if they were suffered to multiply unmolested, + and remain undiminished for only a few years, the progeny + of an individual would far exceed all human calculation. It + is asserted, that a single herring, in the space of twenty + years, would yield an offspring greater in bulk than ten + such globes as this we inhabit. A female herring deposits + at least 10,000 eggs, in the sea near to Great + Britain!<a + href="#Footnote_144" + class="fnanchor">144</a> + A tench lays 1,000 + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span> + + eggs. There + have been 200,000 ova or eggs found in a carp; and in + one of eighteen inches, 342,144: in a perch, weighing + one pound two ounces, 69,216; and in a sturgeon of one + hundred and sixty pounds, there was the enormous number + of 1,467,500. Leewenhoeck counted in a middling-sized + cod, <em>nine million</em> 384,000.</p> + <p> + This multiplication of fishes is very astonishing; but the + fact is, as they are obliged to devour one another for + necessary subsistence, the whole natives of the deep + without these extraordinary supplies, would soon be totally + extinct. Were they to bring forth no more at a birth than + land animals, the increase would be far too small for the + consumption. The weaker species would soon be destroyed by + the stronger, and the latter would soon after perish. + Therefore to supply millions of animals with food, and yet + not depopulate the watery realms, the issue produced by + some of their species is almost incredible. The spawn is + not by scores, but by millions: and by this amazing + expedient, constant reparation is made proportionable to + the immense havoc.</p> + <p> + As the different species of fishes are designed to occupy + the waters, and range to and fro in that element, so they + are wonderfully formed for that purpose. The chief + instruments of the motion of a fish are the fins, which in + some fishes are more numerous than in others. The fish in a + state of repose, spreads all its fins, and seems to rest on + its pectoral and ventral fins near the bottom: on folding + the right pectoral fin, its body inclines to the right + side; and on folding the left fin, it inclines to that + side.—When the fish desires to have a retrograde motion, + striking with the pectoral fins, in a contrary direction, + effectually produces it. When the fish desires to turn, a + blow from the tail sends it round; but if the tail strike + both ways, then the motion is progressive. If the dorsal + and ventral fins be cut off, the fish reels both to the + right and left, and endeavors to supply its loss by keeping + the rest of the fins in constant action. If the right + pectoral fin be cut off, the fish leans to that side; if + the ventral fin on the same side be cut off, then it loses + its equilibrium entirely. When the tail is cut off, the + fish loses all motion, and is carried wherever the water + impels it.</p> + <p> + In addition to the fins, an aquatic animal is furnished + with an air bladder, a philosophical apparatus in its body; + this sustains and enables it, at will to raise itself to + the surface of the water, or, otherwise, to descend. When + any accident has burst this air bladder, or it has been + punctured by way of experiment, the fish remains at the + bottom of the vessel or river, totally unable to ascend. + Flounders, Soles and Skates, which are without this + appendage, seldom rise in the water, and when they do, + require a great effort. The simple action of the fins is + not sufficient to raise the fish, its specific gravity + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span> + + being greater than the fluid in + which it is immersed. The bag containing the air is + supposed to be muscular, and when the air is compressed + into a smaller compass by the action of this muscular + power, the bulk of the fish is contracted with it; whereby, + since the absolute weight remains the same, the specific + gravity, which is the sinking force, is increased, and the + fish sinks; when, on the contrary, this compression is + removed, the air bladder expands, the fish is specifically + lighter, and it ascends.</p> + <p> + In fish, we find the arrangement of the teeth nicely + adapted to the habits of the different species. For + instance, in the Pike, the teeth are placed with their + points projecting backwards towards the throat, by which an + easy ingress is afforded, but which at the same time + prevents all egress, and retains most effectually the prey + when seized. The alarm excited among smaller fishes at the + approach of the Pike, is thus poetically expressed:</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “<em>Beware</em>, ye harmless tribes, the <em>tyrant + comes</em>,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Exclaims the silver mantled naiad of the pond;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + <em>Beware</em>, ye flirting <em>gudgeons</em>, + <em>barbles</em> fair,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And ye, quick-swimming <em>minnows</em>, gliding + <em>eels</em>,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And all who breathe the lucid crystal of the lake,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Or lively sport between the dashing wheels</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Of river mills, <em>beware</em>; the <em>tyrant comes</em>!</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Grim death awaits you in his gaping jaws,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And lurks behind his hungry fangs—<em>beware</em>!“</p> + </div> + <p class="i0" id="FNanchor_145"> + The Sword-Fish is distinguished by the upper jaw, which + runs out in the figure of a strong and sharp sword, + sometimes to the length of three feet, with which he + scruples not to engage the whale himself.<a + href="#Footnote_145" + class="fnanchor">145</a> + The Sun-Fish is one round + mass of flesh; only it has two fins, which act the part + of oars.</p> + <p> + The great Creator has beautified the innumerable myriads + that swim in the vast ocean, giving the greatest proportion + to their shapes, the gayest colors to their skins, and a + polished surface to their scales. The eyes of some are + surrounded with a scarlet circle; while the backs of others + are diversified with crimson stains. View them when they + glance along the stream, or when they are fresh from their + native brine; the silver is not more bright, nor the + rainbow more glowing than their vivid, glossy hues! But we + are lost in wonder at the exquisite contrivance and + delicate formation of their gills: by which they are + accommodated, even in that dense medium, with the benefits + of respiration! A piece of mechanism this, possessed by the + meanest of the watery tribe; yet infinitely surpassing, in + the fineness of the structure of its operation, whatever + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">286</span> + + is curious in the works of art, + or commodious in the palaces of princes.</p> + <p> + As the spinous order of fishes is extremely numerous, + various modes of classing them have been followed by + different naturalists. The simplest is that of Linnæus, who + ranks them in four divisions, according to the positions of + the fins. The 1st division is what that celebrated + naturalist terms <em>Apodal</em>; and includes the most + imperfect of the order, namely, those which want the + ventral or belly fins, and it consists of the following + genera:—The Eel, the Wolf-Fish, the Launce, or Sand-Eel, + and The Sword Fish.—The 2d division consists of the + <em>Jugular</em> fishes, or those which have ventral fins + before the pectoral, or nearer to the gills; and includes + the Dragonet, the Weever, the Cod, and the Blenny. The 3d + division is called the <em>Thoracic</em>, or those fishes + which have the belly fins immediately under the pectoral; + and includes the Goby, or Roch-Fish, the Bull-head, the + Doree, the Flounder, the Wrasse, the Perch, the + Stickleback, the Mackerel, the Surmulet, and the Gurnard. + The 4th division consists of the <em>Abdominal</em>, or + those which have the ventral fins behind the pectoral, + nearer the tail, and includes the Loach, the Salmon, the + Pike, the Argentine, the Atherine, the Mullet, the + Flying-Fish, the Herring, the Carp, &c. To the fishes, + included in these four divisions, must be added, all the + several species belonging to each, some of which are + numerous.</p> + <p> + There are two classes of animals inhabiting the water, + which commonly receive the name of fishes, entirely + different from the preceding ones, and also very distinct + from each other. They are divided by naturalists into + crustaceous and testaceous: both of which, being totally + unlike fishes in appearance, seem to invert the order of + nature. As those of the cetaceous, cartilaginous, and + spinous orders, have their bones on the inside, and their + muscles externally placed for the purpose of life and + motion; so these, on the contrary, have all their bony + parts on the outside, and their muscles within. For + instance, persons who have seen a Lobster, or an Oyster, + perceive that their shells bear a strong analogy to the + bones of other aquatic animals; and that by these coverings + they are sustained and defended.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_146"> + Crustaceous fishes, such as the Crab and Lobster, have + shells resembling a firm crust, and in some measure capable + of yielding to pressure or strength. Testaceous fishes, + such as the Oyster or Cockle, are furnished with shells of + considerable hardness, very brittle, and susceptible of + yielding to compressure like the others. Of the crustaceous + kinds, are the Lobster, the Crab, and the Turtle:<a + href="#Footnote_146" + class="fnanchor">146</a> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">287</span> + + and the testaceous, includes + the numerous tribes of Oysters, Muscles, Cockles, and + Sea Snails. Some of these are extremely prolific. Under + the tail of a Lobster, Dr. Baster says, he counted + 12,444 eggs, besides those that remained in the body + unprotruded. The female Turtle lays about eighty or + ninety eggs at a time, each the size of a pigeon’s egg, + in a hole prepared with her fore feet in the sand, a + little above the high-water mark, which she covers so + dexterously, that it is no easy task to find the place; + and then returns to the sea, leaving them to be hatched + by the solar rays. At the end of fifteen days, she + deposits about the same number of eggs again: and in + fifteen days more, repeats the same; three times in all, + using the same precautions every time for their safety.</p> + <p> + Among shell-fish, how various is their figures? The shells + of some seem to be the rude production of chance, rather + than of skill or design. Yet, even in these, we find the + nicest dispositions. Though uncouth, they are exactly + suited to the exigencies of their respective tenants. Some, + on the other hand, are extremely neat; their structure is + all symmetry and elegance; no enamel is comparable to their + polish. Not a room in all the palaces of Europe is so + adorned as the tenement of the little fish that dwells in + Mother of Pearl. Where else is such a mixture of red, blue, + and green, so delightfully staining the most clear and + glittering ground? But what is more admirable than all + their beauty, is the provision made for their safety. As + they have no speed to escape, so they have no dexterity to + elude their foe: so that, were they naked, they must be an + easy prey to every free-booter. To prevent this, what is + only clothing to other animals, is to them clothing, + habitation, and castle. They have a fortification which + grows with them, and is part of themselves. And by means of + this, they live secure amidst millions of ravenous jaws. + The dark inky fluid, which the Cuttle-Fish emits when + alarmed, not only tinges the water, but, at the same time, + is so bitter, as immediately to drive off its enemies.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “Th’ endangered <em>cuttle</em> thus evades his fears,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And native hoards of fluid safely bears.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + A pitchy ink peculiar glands supply,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Whose shades the sharpest beams of light defy.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Pursued he bids the sable fountain flow,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And, wrapt in clouds, eludes th’ impending foe.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The fish retreats unseen, while self-born night,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + With pious shade, befriends her parent’s flight.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + The Nautilus, when he means to sail, discharges a quantity + of water from his shell, by which it is rendered lighter + than the surrounding medium, and, of course, rises to the + surface. The shell forms a kind of boat, and he extends two + of his arms upward, which are each furnished at their + extremity with an oval membrane, that he unfurls to the + wind for a sail. The other six arms hang over the sides of + the shell, and supply the place of either oars or rudder, + with which he rows himself along. When + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span> + + disposed to dive, + he strikes sail, and at once sinks to the bottom. When the + weather is calm, he ascends again, and performs his voyage + without chart or compass.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “Two feet they upwards raise, and steady keep;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + These are the masts and rigging of the ship.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + A membrane stretched between supplies the sail,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Bends from the masts, and swells before the gale.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The other feet hang paddling on each side,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And serve for oars to row, and helm to guide.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + ’Tis thus they sail, pleased with the wanton game,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The fish, the sailor, and the ship the same.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + But, when the swimmers dread some danger near,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The sportive pleasure yields to stronger fear:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + No more they wanton drive before the blasts,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + But strike the sails, and bring down all the masts.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The rolling waves their sinking shells o’erflow,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And dash them down again to sands below.”</p> + </div> + <p> + Thus, we see, according to the beneficent purpose and + blessing of God, the “waters bring forth abundantly.” The + finny tribes are numerous beyond all calculation; they + crowd to our shores in vast abundance, from which our + markets are regularly and plentifully supplied. And, as one + judiciously observes, what a merciful provision is this for + the necessities of man! Many hundreds of thousands of + mankind live, during a great part of the year, on fish + only. Fishes, which are liable to few diseases, afford not + only a wholesome, but a very nutritive diet; and generally + come in vast quantities to our shores, when in their + greatest perfection. In this also we may perceive that the + kind providence of God goes hand in hand with his creating + energy; for, while manifesting his wisdom and power, he is + making a permanent provision for the sustenance of man + through all his generations. The Mackerel, the Herring, and + various other kinds, when lean, wander up and down the + ocean: but when fat they throng our creeks and bays, or + haunt the running streams. Who bids these creatures leave + our shores when they become unfit for our service? Who + rallies and recalls the undisciplined vagrants, as soon as + they are improved into desirable food? Surely the furlough + is signed, the summons issued, and the point of re-union + settled, by a Providence ever indulgent to mankind, and + loading us with benefits.</p> + <p> + By the invention and assistance of magnifying glasses, the + two extremes of the creation, as Mr. Baker intimates, which + were out of the reach of former ages, have been brought + under our observation: the telescope is directed to the + heavenly bodies, and the microscope to unknown species of + animals, &c. The first appearance of the microscope was + about the year 1621; since which period it has been very + much improved. It is to this valuable optical instrument + that we are indebted for a great part of our present + philosophy: we are brought into a kind of new world.</p> + <p> + Numberless animals are discovered, which, from their + minuteness, must otherwise for ever have escaped our + observation. How many kinds of these invisibles there may + be, says Mr. Adams, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span> + + is still unknown; as they are + discerned of all sizes, from those which are barely + invisible to the naked eye, to such as resist the action of + the microscope, as the fixed stars do that of the + telescope, and with the greatest powers hitherto invented + appear only as so many moving points.</p> + <p> + The smallest living creatures our instruments can show, are + those which inhabit the waters; for though animalcules, + equally minute, may fly in the air, or creep upon the + earth, it is scarcely possible to get a view of them; but + as water is transparent, and confines the creatures in it, + we are able, by applying a drop of it to our glasses, to + discover, to a certain degree of smallness, all that it + contains.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml24"> + “Where the pool</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Stands mantled o’er with green, invisible,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Amid the floating verdure millions stray.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Each liquid, too, whether it pierces, soothes,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Inflames, refreshes, or exalts the taste,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + With various forms abounds. Nor is the stream</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Of purest crystal, nor the livid air,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Though one transparent vacancy it seem,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Void of their unseen people. These, concealed</p> + <p class="ml0"> + By the kind art of forming Heaven, escape</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The grosser eye of man: for, if the worlds</p> + <p class="ml0"> + In worlds inclosed should on his senses burst,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + From cates ambrosial and the nectared bowl,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + He would abhorrent turn; and in dead night,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + When silence sleeps o’er all, be stunned with noise.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0" id="FNanchor_147"> + Leewenhoeck calculates, that a thousand millions of + animalcules, which may be discovered in common water, are + not altogether so large as a common grain of sand! Eminent + naturalists have discovered not less than 30,000 in a + single drop of water! What a display is this of the + manifold wisdom of God! While he makes some of the aquatic + tribes so large, that they seem to require almost a whole + sea to float in, he forms others so astonishingly minute, + that several thousands will adhere to the point of a + needle.<a + href="#Footnote_147" + class="fnanchor">147</a></p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">290</span> + + Every animalcule being an organized body, how delicate and + subtile must the parts be that are necessary to constitute + it, and to preserve its vital actions! How inconceivably + small must it be, and yet a perfect animal. In animalcules, + we discover the same multiplication of parts, diversity of + figures, and variety of motions, as in the largest animals. + How amazingly curious must be the internal structure of + these creatures! how minute the bones, joints, muscles, + tendons! how exquisitely delicate the veins, arteries, + nerves! What a number of vessels and different circulations + must be contained in one of these little creatures, and yet + all have sufficient room for the performance of their + several functions, without interfering with each other! It + is difficult to conceive how in so narrow a compass, there + should be contained a heart as the fountain of life + propelling the circulating fluid, veins and arteries as the + conductors of the blood, a brain to supply nerves in every + part of the minute structure, muscles necessary to its + motions, glands for the secretion of its fluids, stomach, + and bowels to digest its food, eyes to direct its progress, + a mouth to take in its nourishment, and organs of + generation to propagate its kind!</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “How sweet to muse upon His skill display’d</p> + <p class="ml0"> + (Infinite skill!) in all that he has made.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + To trace in Nature’s most minute design,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The signature and stamp of Power Divine;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Contrivance exquisite expressed with ease,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Where unassisted sight no beauty sees;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The shapely limb and lubricated joint,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Within the small dimensions of a point;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Muscle and nerve miraculously spun;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + His mighty work, who speaks, and it is done;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Th’ invisible in things scarce seen revealed;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + To whom an atom is an ample field.”</p> + </div> + <p> + Animalcules in general, continues Mr. Adams, are observed + to move in all directions with equal ease and rapidity, + sometimes obliquely, sometimes straight forward; sometimes + moving in a circular direction, or rolling upon one + another, running backwards and forwards through the whole + extent of the drop, as if diverting themselves; at other + times greedily attacking the little parcels of matter they + meet with. Notwithstanding their extreme minuteness, they + know how to avoid obstacles, or to prevent any interference + with one another in their motions: sometimes they will + suddenly change the direction in which they move, and take + an opposite one; and, by inclining the glass on which the + drop of water is, as it can be made to move in any + direction, so the animalcules appear to move as easily + against the stream as with it. When the water begins to + evaporate, they flock towards the place where the fluid is, + and show a great anxiety and uncommon agitation of the + organs with which they draw in the water. These motions + grow languid as the water fails, and at last cease + altogether, without a possibility of renewal if they be + left dry for a short time. They sustain a great degree of + cold as well as insects, and will perish in + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span> + + much the same + degree of heat that destroys insects. Some animalcules are + produced in water at the freezing point, and some insects + live in snow.</p> + <blockquote> + <p> + [In the American Journal of Science and Arts for April, + 1830, there is a letter to the editor, from <em>Dr. + Joseph E. Muse</em>, from which the following is an + extract:</p> + <p> + “When the winter had made considerable progress, without + much frost, there happened a heavy fall of snow; + apprehending that I might not have an opportunity of + filling my ice house with ice, I threw in snow, perhaps + enough to fill it; there was afterwards severely cold + weather, and I filled the remainder with ice; about + August the waste and consumption of ice, brought us down + to the snow; when it was discovered that a glass of water + which was cooled with it, contained hundreds of + animalcules, I then examined another glass of water, out + of the same pitcher, and with the aid of a microscope, + before the snow was put in it, found it perfectly clear + and pure; the snow was then thrown into it, and on + solution the water again exhibited the same phenomenon; + hundreds of animalcules, visible to the naked eye with + acute attention, and when viewed through the microscope + resembling most diminutive shrimps; and wholly unlike the + eels discovered in the acetous acid, were seen in the + full enjoyment of animated nature.</p> + <p> + “I caused holes to be dug in several parts of the mass of + snow in the ice house, and to the centre of it; and in + the most unequivocal and repeated experiments had similar + results.”]</p> + </blockquote> + <p> + There is one remarkable circumstance, says Mr. Lobb, that + we must not pass over in our contemplation of these minute + animals: which is, that they are found proportionably much + stronger, more active and vivacious, than large ones. The + spring of a flea in its first leap, how vastly does it + outstrip any thing of which animals are capable! A mite, + how vastly swifter does it run than a racehorse! M. de + L’Isle has given the computation of the velocity of a + little creature scarcely visible by its smallness, which he + found to run three inches in half a second: now, supposing + its feet to be the fiftieth part of a line, it must make + 500 steps in the space of three inches; that is, it must + shift its legs 500 times in a second, or in the ordinary + pulsation of an artery!</p> + <p id="FNanchor_148"> + The modes of propagation among these animalcules are + various, and the observation of them is extremely curious. + Some multiply by a transverse division; and it is + remarkable, that though in general they avoid one another, + it is not uncommon, when one is nearly divided, to see + another push itself upon the small neck which joins the two + bodies in order to accelerate the separation. Others, when + about to multiply, fix themselves to the bottom of the + water; then becoming first oblong, and afterwards round, + turn rapidly as on a centre, but perpetually varying the + direction of their rotatory motion. In a little time, two + lines forming a cross are perceived: after which the + spherule divides into four, which grow, and + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span> + + are again divided as before.<a + href="#Footnote_148" + class="fnanchor">148</a> + A third kind multiply by a + longitudinal division, which in some begins in the fore + part, in others in the hind part; and from others a + small fragment detaches itself, which in a short time + assumes the shape of the parent animalcule. Lastly, + others propagate in the same manner as the more perfect + animals.</p> + <p> + The same rule seems to hold good in these minute creatures, + which is observable in the larger animals, namely, that the + larger kinds are less numerous than such as are smaller, + while the smallest of all are found in such multitudes, + that there seem to be myriads for one of the others. They + increase in size, like other animals, from their birth, + till they have attained their full growth: and when + deprived of proper nourishment, they in like manner grow + thin and perish.</p> + <p> + And, if the extreme minuteness of the parts of animalcules + is not merely surprising, but far above our utmost + conception, what shall we say to those various species, to + which the mite itself, in point of size, is, as it were, an + elephant? Naturalists suppose another species, or order, of + invisible animalcules; namely, such as escape the + cognizance even of the best microscopes, and give many + probable conjectures concerning them. Reason and analogy + give some support to the existence of an infinite number of + these imperceptible creatures. The naked eye, say some, + takes in from the Elephant to the Mite; but there commences + a new order, reserved only for the microscope, which + comprehends all these from the Mite to those twenty-seven + millions of times smaller; and this order cannot be said to + be exhausted, if the microscope be not arrived at its last + degree of perfection.</p> + <hr class="r10" /> + <p> + Among the Egyptians, all the natives of the water were in + some degree esteemed sacred. In many parts the people did + not feed upon them. The priests in particular never tasted + this kind of food; and the reason why they abstained from + it, was the sanctity imputed to this class of creatures. + For they were sometimes considered as sacred emblems: at + other times worshipped as real deities. One species of fish + called Oxurunchus, had, according to Strabo, a temple, and + divine honors paid to it. A fish called Phagrus, was, + according to Clemens Alexandrinus, worshipped at Syene. The + Lepidotus and Eel, were, as we find from Herodotus, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">293</span> + + objects of adoration; being each, + sacred to the god Nilus. This is ridiculed by Antiphanes, + who says, that an Eel among the Egyptians was reverenced + equally with their gods.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_149"> + The Jews were under a divine prohibition not to make an + idolatrous graven image or likeness of any aquatic animals. + However strange this idolatry may appear, yet, such was its + extent, that it prevailed not only in Syria, but in the + borders of Lebanon, also at, Ascalon, Ashdod, and Joppa, + cities within the precincts of the tribes of Dan and Judah. + Hence we see the propriety of the judgments inflicted upon + the Egyptians. “And the Lord spake unto Moses, Say unto + Aaron, Take thy rod, and stretch out thine hand upon the + waters of Egypt, upon their streams, upon their rivers, and + upon their ponds, and upon all their pools of water, that + they may become blood.—Against all the gods of Egypt I will + execute judgment.—And the fish that was in the river died: + and the river stunk.” This was a punishment particularly + well adapted to the state of that blinded and infatuated + people: as it showed them the baseness of those elements + which they reverenced, and the insufficiency of the gods in + which they trusted. And this remarkable display of the + Divine displeasure was the means of affording knowledge + very salutary to the Israelites; as it served to warn them + not to fall into the same or any similar act of idolatry, + when they had seen it thus debased and exposed, and + attended with such instances of accumulated evil.<a + href="#Footnote_149" + class="fnanchor">149</a></p> + <p> + Father Lamy remarks, that the principal parts of Fishes are + the gills, scales, and fins. Some have scales, and no fins; + others have neither scales nor fins. Upon which is founded + the distinction which Moses makes of clean and unclean + fishes. Such as have neither scales nor fins are thought + unclean. The authority for this is what the Lord commanded + Moses to communicate to the children of Israel. “These + shall ye eat of all that are in the waters: whatsoever hath + fins and scales in the waters, in the seas, and in the + rivers, them shall ye eat. And all that have not fins and + scales in the seas, and in the rivers, of all that move in + the waters, and of any living thing which is in the waters, + they shall be an abomination unto you: they shall be even + an abomination unto you; ye shall not eat of their flesh, + but you shall have their carcases in abomination.” The + physical reason for this distinction may be, because those + which have fins and scales are the most nourishing; and the + others, which are without fins and scales, being, in + general, very difficult of digestion,—such as the Conger, + Eel, &c., which are too gross and fat for many + stomachs. Among the Romans, no fishes were suffered to be + offered up in sacrifice, or served up to the table of the + gods, but such as were scaly.</p> + <p> + In this distinction, direction, and prohibition, concerning + fishes, there is a further meaning. Dr. Spencer says, “God + ordained this + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">294</span> + + distinction of meats, that the + puerile nation of the Hebrews might be led by an + application of this law to the first elements of sanctity + and actual purity. And this conjecture is founded upon the + reason God himself has assigned for this institution; for + after he had delivered the law about separating the clean + from the unclean animal, he immediately adds, ‘Be ye holy, + for I the Lord your God am holy.’ Which words St. Peter + applies not to legal but to evangelical sanctity, such as + we should aspire to through the whole course of our lives. + I must not deny that the text of Leviticus, in the outward + letter, requires only a sort of legal sanctity, extending + merely to corporeal purification: but it is agreeable to + the umbratic nature of that law, that we should believe + those words to have contained a more sacred meaning at the + bottom, and to have directed the Jews to a sort of purity + properly so called, and conformable to that of the Divine + nature itself, under the figure of external purification.” + Indeed without a view to the moral purification of the + soul, an institution merely affecting the body would be but + of minor importance.</p> + <p> + This distinction then being founded upon the moral + principles of good and evil, no doubt the peculiarities of + the animals themselves will serve to furnish instruction. A + celebrated writer on this subject remarks:—The progressive + motion of fishes is owing to the tail: for so may a boat be + driven forward by the agitation of a single oar from the + stern. The fins serve to keep a fish upright, and support + it while it is stationary in any part of the water. The + centre of gravity being above the middle region of the + body, a fish floats unnaturally with its back downwards, + when the fins are taken off. The scales of fishes, which + are very hard, bright, and radiated, compose a sort of + armor, which serves for their defence, and adds at the same + time an appearance of light and purity. The fishes thus + distinguished differ as much in their way of life from the + smooth and slimy inhabitants of the waters, as in their + color and appearance; for they are generally disposed to + raise themselves from the bottom, and swim about with + agility in the superior regions of the water; while the Eel + buries itself in the mire, and all the crustaceous tribe + lie scrabbling upon the ground. Fishes of the Eel or snake + kind are disturbed by thunder and storms, and swim about + when the waters are thick and turbulent: but as soon as the + elements are at rest again, they presently slide down to + their native mud.</p> + <p> + Thus the mind, when polluted with impiety, and bowed down + with unbelief, cannot be raised to the contemplation of + evangelical truth, unless it is alarmed by the fear of + Divine judgments; on which occasion profligate sinners are + sometimes most violently agitated, hurrying themselves as + fast as they can into a state of repentance. But as this is + a temporary repentance, excited merely by a fear of + suffering, the effect abides no longer than the cause + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span> + + continues to operate; and so their terrors and their + penitence vanish together. When there was alarming thunder + and destructive hail in the land of Egypt, and fire from + the Lord ran along the ground, even Pharaoh could recollect + himself, and say, “I have sinned this time: the Lord is + righteous, and I and my people are wicked. But when he saw + that the rain, and the hail, and the thunders were ceased, + he sinned yet more, and hardened his heart, he and his + servants.” Such is the fruitless issue of that involuntary + repentance, which has no principle of Divine grace to + support it. The moral of this distinction is obvious: the + whole being a figurative monition, that a sordid and + groveling way of life was to be abhorred by those who + professed to serve God; whose mind being under the + direction of revealed truth, and influence of the Holy + Spirit, their affections were to be raised from vice to + virtue, from pollution to purity, from things temporal to + things eternal. There are many persons who bury themselves + in the mud like the Eel, drown their senses in eating and + drinking, or waste their precious time in sleep and + idleness;<a + href="#Footnote_150" + class="fnanchor">150</a> + utterly disregarding all + serious reflection, devotional elevation, holy + rectitude, and spiritual enjoyment. Our Saviour, who + spake many things to the Jews in parables, says, “The + kingdom of heaven is like unto a net that was cast into + the sea, and gathered of every kind: which, when it was + full, they drew to shore, and sat down, and gathered the + good into vessels, but cast the bad away.” This was + spoken to fishermen, who had been called from their + employment by our Lord, and to whom he said, “I will + make you fishers of men.” They had hitherto been + laboring to catch fish, but hereafter they were to catch + men: thus their secular calling is turned into a + spiritual channel. The word <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: sôgênê" + class="msg">σωγηνη</span> + is said to mean <em>a + drag-net</em>, the particular use of which is to drag + fishes up from the bottom of the water. The similitude + between that occupation from which, and that employment + to which our Saviour called them, consists in these + particulars:—the sea in which they were now to fish is + the world, the fishes they were to catch are Jews and + Gentiles, the net with which they were to catch them is + the Gospel, and they themselves were to be fishermen. Or + thus:—by the <em>net</em> may be understood the Gospel; + by the <em>sea</em> into which it is cast, the + unconverted world; by <em>casting</em> the net into the + sea, the preaching of the Gospel; by <em>those</em> that + cast the net into the sea, ministers; by the + <em>fishes</em> enclosed, the hearers; by the net + <em>gathering of every kind</em> of fishes, profane + persons as well as sincere Christians; by the net being + <em>full</em> and <em>drawn to shore</em>, a set time + coming when the Gospel shall have fulfilled that for + which it was sent, the mystery of God being finished; by + the <em>good</em> being <em>gathered into vessels</em> + as valuable and precious, and the <em>bad cast away</em> + as vile and contemptible, that separation which shall be + made at the final close of time between merely nominal + and real + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span> + + Christians, casting the former + into hell, and bringing the latter to heaven.</p> +<p> + This parabolical method of conveying important instruction, + by which heavenly things are represented and set forth by + expressions borrowed from earthly things which are familiar + to us, was very ancient, as appears from Jotham’s parable, + and much in use among the Jews. It engaged the attention, + because it was pleasant; it assisted the memory, which is + apt to retain what is conveyed in this form; it excited + inquiry after the meaning of what was thereby intended: + and, consequently, was likely to be rendered beneficial to + the hearers. Father Quesnel remarks, The net of God’s word, + animated by his Spirit, draws souls out of the abyss of sin + and error, to Christian faith and piety. The net and vessel + of the visible church receives both the good and bad + fishes, true Christians and hypocrites. This is neither the + time, nor the place of distinction; all must continue mixed + together till the great day of separation. A man’s being in + the church will not infallibly assure him of salvation: as + yet there is time to become such as we ought to be. But the + moment will come, when all desires and endeavors to this + purpose will be attended only with despair. And who knows + but this moment may be just at hand. Our faith is very weak + if we can think of being separated from the righteous + without shuddering. Our love of salvation is very faint, if + we do not endeavor earnestly to separate ourselves in this + world from the wicked, by the holiness of our lives and + conversation.</p> + <hr id="CHAPTER_VI_2" class="tb" /> + <h3> + <em>Section II.</em>—<span + class="smcap">On Fowls</span>.</h3> + <p class="hang1 smaller"> + Number of Species — Superiority and peculiar + Construction — Skill in building their Nests — Power and + season of Propagation — Dexterity in providing + Food — Instinct — Migrations — Insects — Religious + Improvement.</p> + <p> + Not any part of nature is destitute of inhabitants. The + woods, the waters, the depths of the earth, have their + respective tenants; while the transparent and elastic air, + and those regions where man can never soar, but with much + art and at considerable risk, are occupied with the most + beautiful creatures. Every order of animals is fitted for + its situation in life; but none more apparently so than + birds. Though inferior to beasts in the scale of nature, + yet they hold the next rank, and far surpass fishes and + insects, both in the structure of their bodies, and in + their sagacity.</p> + <p> + The number of species in this order of animals is very + numerous, amounting to above eight hundred. As some degree + of classification appears necessary, they have therefore + been arranged into eight orders. The 1st is the + <em>Struthious</em>, or Ostrich order, or those which never + rise from the earth. This includes the Ostrich, the + Cassowary, the Dodo, the Solitary, and the Nazarene. The 2d is + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">297</span> + + the <em>Rapacious</em> order. This includes the Eagle, the + Condor, the Vulture, the Falcon, the Shrike, or + Butcher-Bird, and the Owl. The 3d is the + <em>Gallinaceous</em>, or Poultry order, which is without + both the talons and the hooked bill of the rapacious kind. + This includes the Bustard, the Cock, the Turkey, the + Pintada, or Guinea-Hen, the Grous, the Peacock, the + Pheasant, the Curassow, the Partridge, and the Quail. The + 4th is what some authors have termed the <em>Columbine</em> + order. This includes the Dove, or Pigeon, with its + varieties. The 5th is the order of <em>Pies</em>. This + includes the Crow, the Roller, the King-Fisher, the Cuckoo, + the Wood-Pecker, the Oriole, the Nuthatch, the Bee-Eater, + the Wryneck, the Creeper, the Hornbill, the Parrot, the + Ani, the Wattle Bird, the Grackel, the Bird of Paradise, + the Beef-Eater, the Curucui, the Barbets, the Jacamer, the + Tody, and the Humming Bird. The 6th is the + <em>Passerine</em>, or Sparrow kind. This includes the + Starling, the Thrush, the Chatterers, the Grosbeaks, the + Bunting, the Finch, the Fly-Catchers, the Lark, the + Wagtail, the Warblers,<a + href="#Footnote_151" + class="fnanchor">151</a> + the Titmouse, the Swallow, + the Goatsucker, the Coly, the Tanager, and the Manakins. + The 7th is the <em>Cloven-footed</em> Water-Fowl, + including those with pinnated feet. This includes the + Heron, the Ibis, the Curlow, the Snipe, the Sandpiper, + the Plover, the Oyster-Catcher, the Pratincole, the + Rail, the Gallinule, the Boatbill, the Umbre, the + Jacana, the Sheathbill; and with pinnated, or finned + feet, the Phalarope, the Coot, and the Grebe. And the + 8th is the <em>Web-footed</em> Water-Fowl. This includes + the Avoset, the Courier, the Flamingo, the Auk, the + Guillemot, the Diver, the Tern, the Petrels, the Gull, + the Mersanger, the Duck, the Pelican, the Albatross, the + Skimmer, the Penguin, the Tropic Bird, and the Darter. + These eight orders take in the several species belonging + to each, some of which are very numerous; the Duck genus + alone embraces one hundred species, differing much both + in size and plumage. Thus we see in birds also, that God + has shown his wisdom and his power, in the gradation + from the vast Ostrich, and Cassowary, to the Humming-Bird, + which, in size is not much larger than the Bee.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “The <em>ourissia</em>, bee-like in its size,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + <em>Humming</em> from flower to flower delighted flies,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And in a wondrous living rainbow drest,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Shifts all its colors on its wings and breast.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + Of all animated beings, this little bird is the most + elegant in form, and superb in colors. The emerald, the + ruby, and the topaz, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">298</span> + + sparkle in its plumage, which is + never soiled by the dust of the ground. In Mr. Bullock’s + Museum, Piccadilly, there is a case containing more than + one hundred <em>Humming-birds</em>; and in the “Companion” + to this delightfull repository of natural history, an + interesting account is given of this little creature, that + flutters from flower to flower, breathes their freshness, + wantons on the wings of the cooling zephyrs, sips the + nectar of a thousand sweets, and resides in climes where + reigns the beauty of eternal spring.</p> + <p> + The legs, the wings, the bones, even all parts of their + bodies, are much lighter, firmer, and more compact in birds + than in other animals. Their lungs are extended over all + the cavities of their bodies. Carniverous birds, like + carniverous quadrupeds, have but one stomach, where their + food is moistened or swelled; a gizzard, which is a very + hard muscle, almost cartilaginous, and which they commonly + fill with small stones, where the food is afterwards + ground, in order to facilitate its complete digestion. In + birds there is no ruminating: but in such as are not + carniverous, the food is immediately swallowed into the + crop, or anti-stomach (which is observed in many, + especially piscivorous birds,) where it is moistened by + some proper juice, and then transferred to the gizzard, by + the working of whose muscles, assisted by small pebbles, + swallowed for that purpose, it is ground small, and so + transmitted to the intestines.</p> + <p> + Birds we find supplied with a corney substance, instead of + teeth and lips. Their bills are cut into various shapes, + adapted to their different habits. The sharp edge and + tempered point of the Sparrow’s beak, enables it to pick + every seed from its concealment; breaking the grain to + obtain the kernel. The hooked beak of the Hawk separates, + like a dissector’s knife, the flesh from the bones of the + animals on which it preys. The spoon-bill of the Goose + enables her to graze, and collect food from the bottoms of + the pools. Birds of the Crane kind, which seek their food + among the waters, having no web-feet, are supplied with + long legs for wading, or long bills for groping, and + usually both: these are admirably adapted to the shallow + pools of water, or sides of rivers, which they frequent. + But in birds living by suction, they are serrated, or + tooth-like; these do not serve the purpose of teeth, but + act as a sieve, or strainer, separating nicely from mud + some nutriment conducive to the preservation of life.</p> + <p> + The sense of seeing in birds is remarkably acute; and + though their want of external ears is supplied by only two + small orifices or ear-holes, yet they do not appear + deficient in hearing. The scent of some species is + exquisitely delicate. Men who attend decoys where ducks are + caught, generally keep a piece of turf lighted, on which + they breathe, lest the fowls should smell them and fly + away. The voice of birds is much louder in proportion to + their size, than that of other animals; for in fact, the + bellowing of an Ox is not heard at a much greater distance + than the scream of a Peacock.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span> + + The covering of birds is perhaps one of the most beautiful. + Their feathers are light, smooth, and warm, inclining + backward, downy at the stem, overlapping at their tips, + beautifully variegated, and forming a raiment, varying in + circumstances, so as always to suit the habits of the bird. + The construction of a single feather is “a mechanical + wonder.” We see at the stem, a tough, light, pliant, and + elastic material, only found in feathers; also the pith, + which feeds the feathers, a substance peculiar to that + purpose; likewise the beard, which grows on each side of + the stem, and is stripped off when making pens, the + separate threads of which are called filaments, or rays. + These appear stronger when pressed perpendicularly to their + plane, than when rubbed either up or down in the line of + the stem; and this arises from the laminæ, of which these + beards are composed, being flat, and placed with their flat + sides towards each other. Hence, though they are easily + made to approximate each other, yet they require more force + in a contrary direction, having to encounter the impulse of + the air, which requires more strength. We find also, that + these threads, in their natural state, unite; and cannot, + be parted without force, although not joined by any + glutinous adhesion, but by a mechanical contrivance. And, + if separated by force or accident, when brought together + they immediately reclasp, resuming their former smoothness. + These threads are interlaced with each other, by means of a + vast number of fibres, or teeth, which they protrude on + each side; fifty of these have been counted in 1-20th of an + inch: they are curved after a different manner from the + filaments on which they grow. Those which proceed from the + side toward the beginning of the quill-end, are shorter, + firmer, and turn upward. Those on the side toward the + extremity of the feather, are longer, more flexible, and + bent downward. They therefore act thus; when the two laminæ + are pressed together, so that the long fibres are forced + far enough over the short ones, their crooked parts fall + into the cavity made by the crooked parts of the others, + just as a latch enters the cavity of a catch on the door + post. All this beautiful structure may be seen by the + microscope. In the Ostrich, whose feathers, or other + filaments, hang loose like down, this mechanism is wanting. + But as this bird does not fly, and requires assistance only + in running, perhaps this formation is best adapted for that + purpose. Small birds, which do not migrate in the winter + season, have the inner side of their feathers black, + because this is the warmest color: hence the heat of the + bird is prevented from escaping.</p> + <p> + The feathers of birds appear to be nourished and preserved + in a remarkable manner; especially those that much frequent + waters, for they have a larger supply of oily substance, + with which to trim them. Lest the feathers should be + injured by exposure to the air, every bird is furnished + with a gland situated on the rump, containing a proper + quantity of oil, which it presses out with its beak, and + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">300</span> + + with which it occasionally anoints them. In water fowls, + this oil is so plentiful, that it even imparts a degree of + rancidity to the flesh; and by it, their plumy coat is + rendered completely waterproof.</p> + <p> + As God made the fowls “that they might fly in the firmament + of heaven,” so has he adapted the form of their bodies, and + the structure and disposition of their plumage, for that + very purpose. The head and neck in flying, are drawn + principally within the breastbone, so that the whole + underpart exhibits the appearance of a ship’s hull. The + wings are used as sails, or rather oars, and the tail as a + helm or rudder. By means of these, the creature is not only + able to preserve the centre of gravity, but also to + accelerate its speed through the air, either straight + forward, circularly in any kind of angle, as well as upward + or downward. Though the greatest part of the aërial + creation are adorned with feathers, yet has the Deity + enabled several to fly without them; such as the Bat, one + species of Lizard, two sorts of fishes, and numberless + kinds of insects.</p> + <p> + The skill with which birds erect their houses, and adjust + their apartments, is inimitable. The caution with which + they conceal them from the searching eye, or intruding + hand, is admirable. They fix their nests on the pliant + branches that wave aloft in the air, or are suspended over + the flowing stream: by these means the vernal gales rock + their cradle, and the murmuring waters lull their young; + while both concur to terrify their enemies, and have a + tendency to prohibit their approach. Some hide their downy + offspring from view, amidst the shelter of entangled furze. + Others, with wary solicitude, place them in the centre of a + thorny thicket. And thus, by a variety of expedients, they + are generally as secure, as if intrenched behind an + impregnable mound.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml12"> + “Some to the holly-hedge</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Nestling repair, and to the thicket some;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Some to the rude protection of the thorn</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Commit their feeble offspring: the cleft tree</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Offers its kind concealment to a few,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Their food its insects, and its moss their nests.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Others apart, far in the grassy dale,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Or roughening waste, their humble texture weave.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + But most in woodland solitudes delight,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + In unfrequented glooms, or shaggy banks,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Steep, and divided by a babbling brook,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Whose murmurs soothe them all the live-long day,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + When by kind duty fixed. Among the roots</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Of hazel, pendent o’er the plaintive stream,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + They frame the first foundation of their domes;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Dry sprigs of trees, in artful fabric laid,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And bound with clay together. Now ‘tis nought</p> + <p class="ml0"> + But restless hurry through the busy air,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Beat by unnumbered wings. The Swallow sweeps</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The slimy pool, to build his hanging house</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Intent. And often, from the careless back</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Of herds and flocks, a thousand tugging bills</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Pluck hair and wool; and oft, when unobserved,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Steal from the barn a straw: till soft and warm</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Clean and complete, their habitation grows.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">301</span> + + If the Swan has large sweeping wings, and a copious stock + of feathers, to spread over his callow young; the Wren + supplies by contrivance what is wanting in her bulk. Though + small, she has to nurse a very numerous issue; therefore + with surprising sagacity designs, and with wonderful + diligence finishes her nest, being a neat oval, bottomed + and vaulted over with a regular concave, within made soft + with down, without thatched with moss, and having only a + small aperture left for her entrance.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml12"> + “It wins my admiration,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + To view the structure of that little work,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + <em>A bird’s nest</em>. Mark it well within, without.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + No tool had he that wrought, no knife to cut,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + No nail to fix, no bodkin to insert,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + No glue to join: his little beak was all,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And yet how neatly finished!“</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + By this means, the animating heat of her body is greatly + increased during the time of incubation. And her young no + sooner burst the shell, than they find themselves screened + from the annoyance of weather, and comfortably reposed, + till they gather sufficient strength and plumage in their + warm recess, to make their first essay into the wide + expanse.</p> + <p> + As to the succession of this class of animals, some are + endued with a remarkable power of propagating, while others + are confined within narrow limits. In general, the least + animals, and those which are useful and serve for + nourishment to the greatest number of other animals, are + the most prolific. The Hawk kind generally lay not more + than two eggs, or at most four; while the Poultry species + produce from 50 to 100. The Diver, or Loon, which is eaten + by a few animals, lays also two eggs; but the Duck kind, + the Moorgame, Partridges, &c., and small birds, lay a + very great number. If we suppose two pigeons to hatch nine + times a year, they may produce in four years 14,760 young!</p> + <p id="FNanchor_152"> + Birds generate in that particular season which supplies + them with a stock of provisions, sufficient, not only for + themselves, but for their increasing families. They hatch + their young when new-born insects swarm on every side. So + that the caterer, whether it be the male or female parent, + needs only alight on the ground, or make a short excursion + into the air, to find a repast ready dressed for the tender + charge at home. The love they have for their offspring, + while helpless, is invincibly strong.<a + href="#Footnote_152" + class="fnanchor">152</a> + They nurse them with the + greatest care, caress them with affectionate notes, put + food into their mouths, cherish and keep them warm, + teach them to pick, eat, and gather food: whereas, the + moment they are able to provide for themselves, this + anxious care vanishes as though it had + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">302</span> + + never been. + The Hen, while catering for her little brood, would fly + at a mastiff in their defence: yet, in a few weeks, + leaves them to their own protection, not regarding them + any more than others of the same species.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_153"> + They also provide their food with admirable art, which + dexterity they bring into the world with them. Some birds, + though not aquatic, live on fish: and must necessarily find + it more difficult to seize their prey than Water-fowl. From + whence do they derive this natural instinct? They stand on + the brink of the liquid element, and when a shoal of fish + comes (which they can discover at a distance,) they pursue + them, skim along the surface, suddenly dive into the water, + and carry off a fish.<a + href="#Footnote_153" + class="fnanchor">153</a> + Who gave the birds of prey + their piercing sight, undaunted courage, and the + destructive weapons, without which they could not + possibly subsist? Who points out to the Stork the place + where she may find frogs<a + href="#Footnote_154" + class="fnanchor">154</a> + and insects for her support? + In order to procure these, she must seek them not only + in meadows, but also in the furrows of fields; and + continue her search till the approach of morning, when + the other birds awake and begin to quit their places of + retreat. What amazing strength must the Condor have, + seeing it can carry away a sheep, a deer, and even prey + on the ox itself! How can we reconcile that maternal + instinct which causes the quail to adopt little birds of + every species, which she not only takes under her + protection, but bestows on them her tenderest cares! + What cunning does the Crow use to secure the prey, which + she cannot devour at once? She hides it in places such + as other Crows do not frequent, and when hungry again, + how well does she know where she has deposited it!<a + href="#Footnote_155" + class="fnanchor">155</a></p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span> + + There are also several birds, which, when food begins to + fail, hide themselves in the earth, or in caves, in a + torpid state, during the winter. We are assured, at least, + that before the approach of this season, the + Strand-Swallows conceal themselves in the earth; the + Wall-Swallows repair to the holes of trees and old + buildings; and the House, or Common Swallows seek for + ponds, where they fasten themselves in pairs, cling to + roots or weeds, continue without motion, and apparently + without life, till the return of spring, when they are + re-animated, and return from that state of torpidity.</p> + <p> + The infinitely wise Creator has given different instincts + to birds; none of which is superfluous, or useless, but + each is indispensably necessary to the preservation and + well-being of the animal. The motion of birds not only + requires strength and well-formed pliant limbs, but also + instinct to direct their movements. They have each two + feet; but their bodies do not rest perpendicularly on them, + for they project both before and behind; and yet a chick + will stand upright and run about almost as soon as it + leaves the shell. Young Ducks, just hatched by a Hen, know + their own element, and swim about in the water without + example or instruction. Other birds know how to rise up + from their nests into the air, balance themselves, pursue + their course, make equal strokes with their wings in true + time, stretch out their feet to equipoise their bodies, use + their tails like an oar or rudder, to direct their flight, + and make long journeys from their native country to unknown + regions.</p> + <p> + The migration of birds is truly astonishing! Very few spend + the winter with us: the Yellow-Hammer, the Chaffinch, the + Crow, the Raven, the Sparrow, the Wren, the Partridge, the + Robin, and the Fieldfare, are the principal. Most of the + others either + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span> + + retire to some invisible resort, + or leave us entirely. Some kinds of birds, without taking + any high flight, or setting off in troops, draw gradually + towards the south, to seek those seeds and fruits which are + most congenial to their taste; but they speedily return. + Others, which are termed “birds of passage,” collect at + certain seasons in large flocks, and fly off to other + climates; they even cross the seas, and make excursions of + a surprising length. The best known birds of this + description are, the Quail, the Swallow, the Wild-Duck, the + Plover, the Snipe, and the Crane, with some others, which + subsist on worms. In spring, the Cranes pass from Africa + into Europe, in order to enjoy a more temperate climate. + They migrate in flocks like clouds; and sometimes, their + strength being nearly exhausted, alight on ships, and are + taken without any difficulty. Swallows act in a different + way: while some continue in Europe, and seclude themselves + from our view as already observed, others cross the seas. + Wild-Ducks and Cranes also repair at the approach of winter + to milder climates. They all assemble on a certain day, and + take their flight together. They commonly arrange + themselves in two lines, united in one point like an + inverted ʌ, with a bird at the head, and others + following in the lines: whose beaks always rest on the + tails of those preceding. The leader holds only a temporary + commission: and having relinquished his charge, rests + himself, and is replaced by another. But all birds of + passage do not take their departure in flocks: for there + are some which travel alone; and others with their females + and young. It has been computed that they may easily go 200 + miles in six hours each day, supposing they can take rest + at intervals, or during the night. According to this + calculation, they may pass from our climates to the + Equinoctial line in seven or eight days! This conjecture + has been verified; for Swallows have been seen on the coast + of Senegal on the 9th of October, which was eight or nine + days after their leaving Europe.</p> + <p> + These migrations are wonderful in every point of view! + Doubtless the difference of heat and cold, and want of + food, apprize them of the necessity of changing their + abode. But what reason can be assigned for their departure + at the appointed time, when the season is sufficiently + mild, and food still in abundance, to invite their + continuance among us? How do they know that other climates + will afford them necessary food and warmth? By what + operative power are they impelled to make this exit at the + same period, as if preconcerted by mutual agreement? How + can they, notwithstanding the darkness of the nights, the + perplexity of the road, and the remoteness of the countries + to which they are destined, still hold on in a direct + course? Nature does not teach them all this art, industry, + and penetration, which so much surprise us: if we separate + nature from its great Author, it is then a word destitute + of meaning.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span> + + “Nature is but a name for an effect,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Whose cause is God.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + It is He alone who gives wisdom to the fowls of the air.</p> + <p> + God’s superintendence over birds is particularly noticed by + our Saviour. “Behold the fowls of the air; for they sow + not, neither do they reap, nor gather into barns; yet your + heavenly Father feedeth them.” God extends his providential + care to all his creatures, not only to those which are + domesticated and receive their supplies from men, but also + to the fowls of the air. By a natural instinct they know + how to select that kind of food which is suitable for + aliment, and where to procure it; but they are without any + particular solicitude and forecast: nor have they need of + these, because God takes care to provide for them. St. Luke + mentions the Ravens, which are carniverous creatures. + “Consider,” says he, “the ravens: for they neither sow nor + reap; which neither have storehouse nor barn: and God + feedeth them.” God asks Job, “Who provideth for the raven + his food?” There are but three things which concern such + creatures; how their craving appetites may be satiated, + where they may repose, and by what means they may be + protected from the incursions of their enemies: and for all + these God has amply provided. He takes care of their food: + “he giveth food to the young ravens which cry,” and are the + most helpless of all creatures. Naturalists observe, that + the Raven exposes her young ones as soon as they are + hatched, leaves them to provide for themselves, and + struggle with hunger as soon as they emerge into life; so + they certainly would perish, if Providence did not + interfere in their behalf. But God makes them his charge, + and supplies their voracious cravings in due time, whether + by the insect, the reptile, or the dew from heaven. He + protects their rest, and renders their habitations places + of refuge and safety. “The trees of the Lord are full of + sap: the cedars of Lebanon which he hath planted; where the + birds make their nests: as for the Stork, the fir-trees are + her house.”</p> + <p> + The meanest classes of sensitive beings are endued with the + faculty of instinct: a sagacity which is neither derived + from observation, nor awaits the finishing hand of + experience; which without a tutor teaches them all + necessary skill, and enables them, without a pattern, to + perform every needful operation. And what is more + remarkable, it never misleads them, either into erroneous + principles, or pernicious practices: nor ever fails to aid + them in the most nice and difficult of their + undertakings.—The inhabitants of the hive subsist as a + regular community.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml24"> + ——“As <em>bees</em></p> + <p class="ml0"> + In Spring-time, when the sun with Taurus rides,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Pour fourth their populous youth about the hive</p> + <p class="ml0"> + In clusters; they among fresh dews and flowers</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Fly to and fro, or on the smoothed plank,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The suburb of their straw-built citadel,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + New rubbed with balm, expatiate and confer</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Their state affairs: so thick the aëry crowd</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Swarmed and were straitened.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">306</span> + + Their indulgent Creator has given them all implements + necessary either for constructing combs, or composing + honey. Bees have each a portable vessel, in which they + bring home their collected sweets: and have the most + commodious storehouses, wherein to deposit them. They + readily distinguish every plant, which affords materials + for their business; and are complete practitioners in the + arts of separation and refinement. Aware that the vernal + bloom and summer sun are but for a season, they improve to + the utmost every shining hour, and lay up a stock + sufficient to supply the whole society, till their flowery + harvest shall return.</p> + <p> + Insects, which some persons may consider as so many rude + scraps of creation, ought to be classed among the most + polished pieces of Divine workmanship.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml0"> + ——“In the vast and the minute</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The unambiguous footsteps of the God,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Who gives its lustre to an insect’s wing,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And wheels his throne upon the rolling worlds.”</p> + </div> + <p> + “The first state in which insects appear, is that of the + <em>ovum</em> or egg; from the egg is hatched the insect in + its larva or caterpillar state. The larva, or maggot, + crawls on many feet, and is extremely voracious, devouring + the herbage, and stripping trees of their leaves. When the + time arrives in which the larva or caterpillar is to change + into the next state, namely, that of chrysalis, or + <em>pupa</em>, it ceases to feed; and having placed itself + in some quiet situation for the purpose, lies still for + several hours; and then by a kind of laborious effort, + frequently repeated, divests itself of its external skin, + or larva coat, and immediately appears in the very + different form of a chrysalis or <em>pupa</em>. From this + state emerges, at length, the insect, in its complete or + ultimate form, from which it can never change; nor can it + receive any further increase of growth. This last stage is + denominated <em>imago</em>.”</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “Waked by his warmer ray, the reptile young</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Come winged abroad; by the light air upborne,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Lighter, and full of soul. From every chink,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And secret corner, where they slept away</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The wintery storms; or rising from their tombs,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + To higher life; by myriads, forth at once,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Swarming they pour; of all the varied hues</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Their beauty-beaming parent can disclose.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Ten thousand forms! ten thousand different tribes!</p> + <p class="ml0"> + People the blaze.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + Many of them are decked with the richest finery. Their eyes + are an assemblage of microscopes. The common Fly, for + instance, perpetually surrounded with enemies, having + neither strength to resist, nor a retreat to secure + herself, has need to be very vigilant, and always on her + guard: but her head is so fixed that she cannot turn it to + see her danger; Providence, therefore, to supply this + apparent defect, has given her more than a legion of eyes, + insomuch that a single Fly is supposed to have no less than + eight thousand. Nay, it is asserted that the common + Dragon-fly is furnished with + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span> + + 25,000 of these diminutive + lenses! By the help of this truly amazing apparatus, she + sees on every side, with the utmost ease and speed, though + without any motion of the eye, or inflection of the neck. + The dress of insects is a vesture of resplendent colors, + bespangled with an arrangement of the brightest gems.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “The little <em>gnat</em>, in beauties, may compare</p> + <p class="ml0"> + With all his rival brothers of the air;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Transparent feathers, purple, green and gold,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + His wings, small feet, and gay-fringed tail enfold.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Four sharpened spears his head with weapons arm,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And his pearled eyes with liveliest graces charm.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + In down of ev’ry variegated dye</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Shines, fluttering soft, the gaudy <em>butterfly</em>,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + That powder which thy spoiling hand disdains,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The forms of quills and painted plumes contains;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Nor courts can more magnificence express,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + In all their blaze of gems and pomp of dress.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + The expansion of their wings displays the finest texture + imaginable, compared to which lawn is as course as + sackcloth. The cases, which inclose their wings, glitter + with the finest varnish, are scooped into ornamental + flutings, studded with radiant spots, or pinked with + elegant holes. Not one but is endued with weapons to seize + his prey, and dexterity to escape his foe, to despatch the + business of his station, and enjoy the pleasure of his + condition. It is affirmed that the female of the common + house-fly is capable of producing 20 millions 80 thousand + 320; hence we cannot wonder at their swarming so much in + autumn.</p> + <blockquote> + <p> + [Our author has devoted very few remarks indeed to + <em>insects</em>; yet the history of this class of + creatures is as interesting as any other, and is + attracting considerable attention. Their history is very + far from being complete: their <em>number</em> is not + known. They inhabit the air, water, and earth. This + family of creatures is called <em>insects</em>, because + of the <em>articulations</em> of the body, so as to + appear notched, or intersected. A brief notice of some of + their principal parts follows, which is chiefly taken + from No. VIII, of the Family Library, published by J. + & J. Harper, New-York.</p> + <p> + <em>Mouth.</em>—All insects either <em>divide</em> their + food, or <em>suck</em> it. In those which divide their + food, the parts of the mouth are, an upper lip, and an + under lip fixed to a piece called the chin; between these + two there are four lateral pieces, two on each side; the + two upper are called mandibles, the two lower, jaws. The + mandibles, or upper jaws cut the food: the lower jaws + divide and masticate it.</p> + <p> + The mouth of those insects which suck their food, is + elongated into a tongue or proboscis. This is a tube + attached to the head. In some it is composed of two + pieces connected by a joint; for if it were constantly + extended it would be too much exposed to accidental + injuries: therefore, in its indolent state it is securely + doubled up by means of this joint. In some species, as + the butterfly, the proboscis, when not in use, is coiled + up like a watch-spring. In some it is shut up in a + sharp-pointed sheath, which is of firmer texture than the + proboscis, and by which the insect pierces the food, and + then opens it within + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span> + the wound to allow the + proboscis to perform its office by extracting the juice.</p> + <p> + <em>Antennæ.</em>—These are very slender arms resembling + hairs, which project from the heads of almost all + insects. There are generally two to each insect, which + diverge somewhat. The insects can move them in all + directions, and when they are seen doing this it commonly + suggests the idea that these antennæ are + <em>feelers</em>. However, their functions are not + certainly known: some suppose them to be organs of sense.</p> + <p> + <em>Eyes.</em>—These are generally found in the head of + insects. Their real number is, usually, two: the surfaces + of which are cut into many small faces; more than + seventeen thousand have been counted in the butterfly. + Each face on the insect’s eye is considered as a + crystalline lens, concave within, and convex without. + They have no eye-lids.</p> + <p> + <em>Thorax, or throat.</em>—This is the second division + of the body, and is placed directly behind the head. To + the thorax are attached the wings and legs: commonly + three legs on each side. Two membranes compose the wing, + placed one above the other. Cords, or small nerves, are + found in the upper one. The expansion of the wing is + owing, as is supposed, to the introduction of a fluid, at + the will of the insect, into hollow vessels which are + detected in the composition of the wing.</p> + <p> + <em>Abdomen.</em>—This is the third division of the + insect, and is immediately connected with the thorax by + articulation: it is composed of rings from one to + fifteen. Most of these rings have an open pore placed + laterally, through which air has access to the fluids in + the body. In some insects the last ring contains the + anus; in others, the organs of generation; or the means + of defence, as a sting.</p> + <p> + <em>Muscles.</em>—These are said to be disposed in + bundles, the fibres of which are not connected by a + cellular membrane: they are fixed to the hard parts, + which are to be moved by horny tendons.</p> + <p> + The thorax contains the muscles which move the head up or + down, and those also which move the wings and the feet. + In some the muscles amount to four thousand. The muscular + power of some of these insects is astonishing, as may be + known by the distance they can leap: as the flea, and + others, which leap two hundred times their own length. If + man could do this he would leap at a single effort, more + than one thousand feet.</p> + <p> + All insects are supposed to have a knotted nervous + system. The knot nearest the head is composed of two + lobes, from which nerves pass to the eyes, antennæ, and + mouth.</p> + <p> + These are the principal common parts of insects. It would + be a delightful task to enter into a minute description + of their genera, species, habits, modes of life, + subsistence, defence, attack, &c. Only two or three + can be noticed, which must be taken as a specimen of the + whole.</p> + <p> + <em>The</em> <span class="smcap">Bee</span>.—This insect + has attracted the attention of the observing in all ages. + On a pleasant summer’s day the hive presents the + appearance of a busy, and populous city—the gates appear + to be crowded with many workmen—some going to search for + food, and + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">309</span> + + others returning with it—some + building—some tending the young—some cleansing the + dwelling, and others carrying out the dead, and, + apparently, performing some honorable sepulchral rites, + &c.</p> + <p> + <em>The hive.</em>—The interior of a bee-hive is itself a + world of wonders. It is not, as is commonly supposed, the + same in the form of its construction in all hives, it + varies according to circumstances. Yet there are some + general principles which seem to be common to all + honeycombs: they do not touch each other, but always are + sufficiently far apart to allow room to work on the + opposite faces of each comb. The combs are placed + vertically in the hive, and each complete comb is + composed of two layers of six-sided cells, united by a + common base. These two layers of six-sided cells are not + united by a common base with a <em>flat</em> bottom to + each cell: but the hexagonal tube terminates at the + bottom in a <em>three-sided pyramidal cavity</em>. The + angle, formed at the apex of this pyramidal cavity, is + 70° 32ʹ—and the angle formed at the base of the hexagonal + tube, or cell, is 109° 28ʹ. By this construction Reaumur + has demonstrated, that the bee has formed his comb on the + only plan which could produce cells of a determinate + size, equal and similar, in the strongest manner, + occupying the least space, and requiring the least + quantity of matter.</p> + <p> + The wax, out of which the cells are formed, is not the + same simple substance as honey, extracted from the + flowers: it seems to be elaborated by the bees in their + bodies, and deposited under their bellies in the form of + scales. It is produced from a nectar obtained from + flowers, which is swallowed by the bee in the greatest + possible quantity, after which the bee hangs motionless + in the hive for twenty-four hours, during which time the + wax is elaborated and deposited under the belly in thin + scales resembling talc.</p> + <p> + Some of the cells are filled with honey, and some are + found to contain the young bee in the condition of + larva.</p> + <p> + The bees which inhabit a hive may be regarded as a + community, which is found to be divided into three + classes: the queen—the males—and the workers, which are + of no sex.</p> + <p> + <em>The Queen.</em>—She is the common mother of the hive, + and deposits all the eggs from which the young ones come: + she appears to be in size between the males and workers, + but longer than either.</p> + <p> + The attention or reverence, with which the queen-bee is + regarded, is very remarkable. Upon withdrawing the queen + from a hive the workers are thrown into the greatest + consternation; they desist from work, run wildly through + the hive, and refuse all nourishment. This they do for + twenty-four hours, after which time a new queen will be + received kindly, if offered them; but previously, they + pay no attention to a strange queen, though introduced + among them.</p> + <p> + If no queen can be found, Schirach discovered, and Huber + has confirmed it, <em>that the bees have power to create + a queen</em>, in the following manner. They build some + <em>royal</em> cells (for there are different kinds) into + which they put the common worker-worm, i.e. the grub + which produces the work-bee, and feed the insect with + royal food, which is more pungent than the common + bee-food; and in a few days they have a queen-bee + produced, instead of a work-bee; then all is well.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">310</span> + + The queen is always attended with a train, which wait + upon her, do her homage, caress and feed her, by + presenting her with honey. If they lose their own queen, + and a stranger queen is introduced, after twenty-four + hours, they commence their reverence for the new + sovereign by surrounding her, caressing her, feeding her, + and opening a way for her when she moves.</p> + <p> + Their devotions to their queen do not cease if she become + sterile, or die. Their veneration and tender attentions + appear to increase towards the dead body of their queen. + It is a well known fact, that the community perishes if + they cannot procure a queen by any means.</p> + <p> + <em>The combats of the queens.</em>—The bees seem to be + purely monarchial in their constitution of government. + This will appear from the following extraordinary facts:</p> + <p> + If a strange queen be introduced into the hive where + there is a queen, the working-bees immediately seize upon + her, and detain her a prisoner: as soon as this is done, + another party hastens away to the reigning queen and + surround her. They then force the queens towards each + other, in order to make them decide the sovereignty of + the hive in mortal combat. The conquerer is cheerfully + taken for the reigning sovereign.</p> + <p> + Nor is it difficult to bring the rival queens to an + engagement: so soon as they recognize each other they + rush furiously to the combat, and the one or the other + quickly inflicts a mortal wound by piercing the belly of + the antagonist between the rings, by means of the sting.</p> + <p> + So exclusive is the passion of the queen for sovereignty, + that she puts to death the young queens, so soon as she + ascertains them to be such. This she does even in the + cells, before they have come forth.</p> + <p> + <em>The male bees.</em>—These seem not to have attracted + much interest. They are not very numerous in the hive; + generally not exceeding an hundred or two. They are the + largest in size, and live perfectly idle.</p> + <p> + <em>The working bees.</em>—These, as their name imports, + perform the labors of the hive. The details of their + labors cannot be admitted here.</p> + <p> + There is one question, in regard to bees, which is + difficult and curious: their senses. From the best + observations, and experiments, it would seem as if the + antennæ, or feelers, were the principal organs of sense. + Upon taking away the queen, in about an hour some one bee + discovers it, and becomes instantly agitated, and runs + furiously about the hive: the first companion he meets + they cross their feelers mutually, the discoverer giving + his neighbor a gentle tap with the feeler, and he in turn + commences running furiously about the hive, communicating + the intelligence in a similar manner; until the whole + hive is in an uproar.</p> + <p> + Huber introduced a queen to a hive, after twenty-four + hours absence of their own queen. The working bees which + were nearest immediately approached and touched her with + their feelers, and passing their trunks over every part + of her body, gave her honey. Then these gave place to + others which treated her in a similar manner; and all, + with a vibration of their wings, arranged themselves + around their new sovereign.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">311</span> + + From some experiments of Huber, it seems that the + antennæ, or feelers of bees are the organs of + communication. He thinks they have no organ for hearing. + Their power of vision is very clear and strong. + Anciently, in New-England, the honey-hunters are said to + have found the nest of wild bees in the following manner: + they placed a plate of honey in the woods, and when the + bees came to get it, they caught two or three of them, + the bee-hunter would let one go, and observe his course, + by a pocket compass, as he flew to the nest: he would + then walk off at a right angle a few hundred yards, and + let another bee go, and observe the course: the angle, or + point at which these two lines, described by the flights + of the bees, met, the hunter knew to be the place where + the bee-nest was.</p> + <p> + The manner in which bees take their rest is a matter of + curiosity. Some attach themselves to a part of the hive, + by their fore-feet, and extend their hind-feet down: the + next bee by his fore-feet takes hold of the hind-feet of + the first bee, and thus suspends himself; others attach + themselves in like manner, until they form clusters, or + festoons. In this condition they take their rest.</p> + <p> + It will be interesting to learn something of the + <em>sting</em> of the bee. It is situated in the lower + end of the ringed-body: it is composed of three parts: + the sheath, and two darts which are enclosed in it, very + small and penetrating. The darts are barbed. When the bee + strikes with its sting, the sharp and hard point of the + hollow sheath strikes and penetrates first, and the two + darts are immediately thrust into the incision made by + the sheath; and at the same time the bee injects a + poisonous liquor into the wound, which causes the pain + and inflammation. In some instances the sting is struck + in so deeply the bee cannot extricate it: in that case + the wound is more painful, but the loss proves fatal to + the bee.</p> + <p> + Destructive combats frequently take place between + different hives; and many perish on both sides. + Occasionally single combats, or duels, take place, which + always prove fatal to one or the other. Instances are + known, in which the bees of one hive plunder the bees of + another. In this case a battle generally ensues. And what + is more astonishing still, sometimes the hive-bees will, + five or six of them, surround an <em>humble-bee</em>, and + rob him of his honey, as he is returning home of an + evening. Indeed a whole volume might be written, and the + natural history of the bee not be exhausted.</p> + <p> + <span class="smcap">Ants.</span>—This insect has justly + rivalled the bee in the admiration of the philosopher, + and, on some accounts, is considered a more interesting + creature. The instinct of this creature does not appear + so strikingly as that of the bee: but it exhibits other + and higher qualities, approaching to the cardinal virtues + of man: such as love, courage, patience, perseverance, + &c. The proof of all these will be found in the few + brief remarks which follow.</p> + <p> + There are various kinds of ants: the fallow ant; the + sanguine ant; the legionary ant; the white ant, &c. + There are some traits common to all: They live in + communities; build cities, or ant-hills; and are divided + into general classes, with their appropriate grades and + employments, somewhat similar to bees; there are males, + females, and neuters, or workers.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">312</span> + + They also resemble the bees in their respect for their + matrons or queens; though they differ in this respect; + they admit of the presence of an indefinite number of + queens, which produces no ill consequences whatever. They + all are equally caressed, and attended.</p> + <p> + There is a very marked difference between the ant and + bee. The queens, or matrons of the bees remain in their + respective hives, and their presence is necessary to the + industry and contentment of the communities. But the + matrons or queens of the ants act differently. The male + and female ants have wings; the neuters or workers have + not. These generally swarm together between July and + September. They rise from the ant-hill together, in + immense numbers; sometimes the ants of a whole district + collect together and rise in the air, and seem only to be + sporting; but at this time the females become fecundated. + The quantity of ants with wings is so great sometimes, + as, says Dr. Bromley, to form a column on the water five + or six miles long, eight or ten feet broad, and six + inches deep, when they happened to fall into the river.</p> + <p> + In this general destruction of the winged ants, some + females escape, which quickly divest themselves of their + wings, form an ant-hill, and found a new colony by + depositing their eggs in it.</p> + <p> + It is also well ascertained that the working ants do not + permit all the females or queens to escape, but detain + some as prisoners, by cropping their wings. They pay + every attention to these royal prisoners guarding them + diligently, and feeding them liberally. When these + females drop their eggs, the workers take them up + carefully, and deposit them in their proper places.</p> + <p> + These are some of the principal traits common to the ant + tribe. A few brief remarks may be made on the principal + species.</p> + <p> + <em>The fallow ant.</em>—The wars of this insect is the + principal thing which can be noticed here. We have a + minute detail, of one long and disastrous battle, by + Huber. This battle took place between the inhabitants of + two neighboring ant-hills: they met half way: the battle + was commenced by single combatants; then they fought in + pairs on elevated ground; and finally the battle became + general. The attack is generally made by seizing each + other by the mandibles, and rearing up on their hind feet + so as to bring their abdomens forward, from which they + eject a pungent poison upon their adversaries, in order + to destroy them. This circumstance gives rise to a + pungent smell on the spot. During the combat they are + frequently grappled so closely together as to fall on + their sides; and others coming to their assistance the + group is locked fast in the struggle.</p> + <p> + During the action some are found leading away prisoners; + others going as couriers to bring fresh troops to the + fight, and some in the immediate vicinity of the hills + keeping guard, and transacting the common business of the + community.</p> + <p> + The battle occupied a space of about three feet square, + and lasted until the approach of night: then each party + retired; but was on the spot next morning at dawn of day, + and re-commenced the battle with greater fury, and + carnage. It finally terminated without subverting either + republic.</p> + <p> + It was very remarkable, says Huber, that these ants, in + promiscuous + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">313</span> + + combat, should know their own + party. In a few cases, for a moment, friends assailed, + but rectified the error, instantly, by caressing.</p> + <p> + <em>The legionary ant.</em> Though the natural history of + this insect, throughout, is very interesting, there is + place for but one principal fact: i.e. their practice of + making the <em>formica fusca</em>, or negro ant, a slave. + This curious fact was first discovered by Huber, and has + since been confirmed by Latreille, and is now admitted + readily by naturalists.</p> + <p> + A campaign, for the purpose of procuring slaves, was + observed closely by Huber on the 17th of June, 1804. The + column was first seen crossing the road, being about ten + inches long and four broad. He followed them until they + approached the nest of the negro ant. The centinels on + duty gave the alarm, and the ants rushed out, and made a + spirited resistance to the invaders, but were finally + driven into their house. The legionary ants then rushed + forward, attacked the hill, and took the little city by + assault. They remained in it but a few minutes, and + returned, each one carrying in his mouth a larva, or + young negro ant, and scampered home in confusion.</p> + <p> + They never take the old ants captive, but the young, in a + state of infancy, and thus raise them in a state of + slavery. The consequence is that they are submissive and + affectionate, and perform with cheerfulness and fidelity + all the domestic duties of a legionary city. They provide + house and food for their masters, attend them, and serve + them in every possible way.</p> + <p> + <em>The sanguine ant</em> is also a slave dealer, and in + the same manner as the legionary. Nor is the negro ant + the only victim: the <em>mining ant</em> is also reduced + to a state of slavery by the legionary, and sanguine + ants.</p> + <p> + There remains to be stated another circumstance connected + with the natural history of ants, which would scarcely be + credited, were it not tested by such names as Linnæus, + Huber, and Latreille: that is, <em>they keep + milch-cows</em>. There are certain insects, from which + they extract a sweet saccharine fluid for food, as we do + milk from cows. The principal insects which are thus + used, are the plant-louse, and the gall-insect. Linnæus, + and after him other naturalists, call these insects the + <em>milch-cows of the ants</em>.</p> + <p> + The fluid issues from the body of the insect through + little tubes placed above the abdomen on either side. + When no ants are present the plant-lice emit this liquor + from their bodies by a jerking motion: when they are in + attendance they suck the juice with great avidity. But + what is still more astonishing, the ants compel their + milch-cattle to yield their milk, by gently patting them + on each side with their antennæ, or feelers. This is + properly milking them.</p> + <p> + In addition to this the ants take care to appropriate + these milch-cattle to themselves, by collecting them in + herds, guarding and feeding them. They sometimes make an + enclosure around them, or around the tree or plant on + which they find them, and thus secure them. Some herds + are owned in common by the ant-hill; and others appear to + belong to individuals.</p> + <p> + The <em>yellow ant</em> is known to remove these + plant-lice from the plants, and domesticate them in their + hillocks for service in winter.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">314</span> + + In conclusion, in regard to ants we may mention their + ravages committed on property. In the East and West + Indies they are very destructive. They undermine houses + in such a manner as to cause them to fall. Some species + will devour the wood of a building of small size, in a + single night. And it is remarkable that they make their + ravages <em>internally</em>. One would not observe that + they had assailed a beam of timber, unless he should take + means to examine its interior. They will devour even the + exterior of the timber when they have first coated it + over with mud or clay in order to conceal their work. + They devour furniture of all kinds, and completely + consume the trees which fall in some countries. The + extent of the damage which they can do, is incalculable.</p> + <p> + These remarks will show what interest the natural history + of insects can inspire. It is not permitted to extend the + subject further in a note.]</p> + </blockquote> + <p> + The distinction between <em>clean</em> and <em>unclean</em> + Fowls, made in the Scriptures, serves to point out the + difference between the two classes of <em>saints</em> and + <em>sinners</em> among the human race. Those Fowls were + accounted clean, which are gentle in their nature, as the + Dove, and musical in their notes, as the Lark; which + qualifications are not to be found among birds of prey, as + the Ostrich, Eagle, Vulture, Hawk, Cormorant, Raven, Owl, + Bat, &c. All these, so far as their instincts and + properties are discovered to us, agree so well with the + different characters of men, to whom in Scripture they have + a symbolical allusion, that none but the infinitely wise + Creator could have distinguished and applied their several + peculiarities with so much simplicity, brevity, and + propriety.</p> + <p> + Several of the unclean Fowls feed on filth and dead + carcases; whose “young ones” also “suck up blood, and where + the slain are, there are they.” Dr. Buchanan, when at the + distance of fifty miles from Juggernaut, says, “We know + that we are approaching Juggernaut, by the human bones + which we have seen for several days strewed by the way. The + Vultures seem to live here on human prey: they exhibit a + shocking <em>tameness</em>. The obscene animals will not + leave the body sometimes till we come close to them. + Yesterday a woman devoted herself to the idol: this + morning, as I passed the place of skulls, nothing remained + of her but her bones.” The unrenewed nature of man is no + more offended with evil, than a vulture is with human + flesh, or a crow is with carrion, on which it feeds with + delight.</p> + <p> + The unclean Fowls persecute and devour those of a more + gentle nature. The Eagle, <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">נשר</span> + <em>nesher</em>, is from + <em>nasher</em> to <em>lacerate</em>, <em>cut</em>, or + <em>tear to pieces</em>; hence the <em>Eagle</em>, a most + rapacious bird of prey, has its name from tearing the flesh + of animals it feeds on: and for this purpose, birds of prey + have, in general, strong crooked talons and a hooked beak. + The Eagle is a cruel bird, exceedingly ravenous, and almost + insatiable. This propensity in birds of prey + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">315</span> + + to seize, tear, + and devour, is expressive of the violent and malevolent + dispositions of some persons, who hate and endeavor to + injure those who live in the fear of God, and keep his + commandments. Such were the heathens, whom St. Paul has + described as “cruel” and “unmerciful, full of envy, murder, + and debate,” given up to the vilest passions, and all the + uncleanness of “dead works.”</p> + <p> + The want of <em>natural affection</em>, and a <em>right + understanding</em> of Divine things, among ungodly persons, + is strikingly exhibited in the character of the Ostrich. + This foolish bird, though it has wings, is not able to + raise itself from the earth, and is void of that + instinctive tenderness, which other creatures feel for + their offspring: “which leaveth her eggs in the earth, and + warmeth them in the dust, and forgetteth that the foot may + crash them, or that the wild beast, may break them. She is + hardened against her young ones, as though they were not + hers; her labor is in vain without fear; because God hath + deprived her of wisdom, neither hath he imparted to her + understanding.” The Ostrich lays from thirty to fifty eggs, + not placed, like those of some other birds, upon trees, or + in the clefts of rocks, but in the sand, forgetting the + danger to which they are exposed from the feet of + travellers or wild beasts. On the most trivial occasion, + she forsakes her eggs, or her young ones, to which, + perhaps, she never returns; or, if she does, it may be too + late, either to restore life to the one, or preserve the + lives of the other. The prophet, applying this want of + affection, says, “The daughter of my people is cruel, like + the Ostriches in the wilderness.” She is likewise + inconsiderate and foolish in her private capacity, says Dr. + Shaw, particularly in her choice of food, which is + frequently highly detrimental and pernicious to her; for + she swallows every thing greedily and indiscriminately, + whether it be pieces of rags, leather, wood, stone, or even + iron. To secure herself, she will thrust her head into the + shrubs, though her body, which, when standing upright, is + from six to eight feet in height, from the top of the head + to the ground, be exposed. She has a little head, and + scarcely any brain: hence historians tell us, that the + emperor Heliogabalus, to gratify his luxurious taste, + together with other delicacies, such as the combs of Cocks, + the tongues of Pheasants and Nightingales, the eggs of + Partridges, the heads of Parrots and Peacocks, the brains + of Thrushes, had likewise served up to him, at one + entertainment, the heads of six hundred Ostriches for the + sake of the brains; because, being so very small, a less + number would not have been sufficient to make a dish. What + an affecting emblematical representation is this singular + bird of the moral qualifications and habits of ignorant and + wicked men! not to mention the superstitious practice of + offering children to Moloch and other diabolical deities; + the custom of exposing new-born infants in the woods to + perish with hunger, or be devoured by wild beasts; a + practice still tolerated among the idolaters of China.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">316</span> + + The heathen, who “did not like to retain God in their + knowledge, but became vain in their imaginations, and their + foolish heart was darkened,” were in this respect, + symbolically represented by the tribe of Owls and Bats, and + other birds of night, all of which the law pronounced to be + unclean. In the Owl we have a striking image of the + sceptic, who loves darkness rather than light, and is more + proud of his artificial ignorance than any man ought to be + of the most useful knowledge: who could never find Divine + truth, because he never loved it; as the Owl is offended + with that glory which the sun diffuses over the natural + creation. As the day has no charms for the Owl, so revealed + religion has nothing wise or wonderful in its nature and + design with the unbelieving philosopher; who brings with + him to the word of God all that prejudice with which the + Owl flies out of its retreat into the sun-shine. Yet he has + his admirers; as the hooting of the Owl is music in the + ears of another of the same species. This emblematical + bird, when exposed to the light of the sun against his + will, lets down a conspicuous membrane over his eyes, to + guard them from the inconvenient splendor of the orb of + day; as the infidel draws a dark veil of evil reasonings + and blasphemous objections over his heart, to intercept and + weaken the effulgent rays of heavenly truth. The Owl has a + natural aversion from the light; and if he breaks through + his ordinary rule, and settled habit, so as to appear in + the day-time, he is pursued and reprimanded by other birds, + as one that is a disgrace to their kind. But the birds + which thus express their indignation against the Owl, never + kill him, being unarmed and inoffensive in their nature.<a + href="#Footnote_156" + class="fnanchor">156</a> + So an infidel should not be + put to death for his detestable and demoralizing + principles; but all Christians should agree in giving + public notice of him, and showing the world what he is. + For internal realities do not always comport with + external appearances. The outward appearance of the Owl + seems to promise a great degree of gravity and wisdom, + while its principles and manners are opposite to the + common sense of other birds, and its office in the + creation reduces it to the rank of a common mouse-trap. + So the philosophers it represented made a pompous + display of reason and learning, all of which, so far as + they applied these to divinity, were no better than + ignorance and folly. “Professing themselves to be wise, + they became fools;” and by an unaccountable fatality + chose this very bird as the emblem of their wisdom; + which was accordingly held in great veneration at + Athens, the principal seat of heathen learning, as the + symbol of Minerva, the tutelar goddess of that city.</p> + <p> + The Bat is a sort of monster, partaking of the nature of + both a bird and a beast, having feet or claws growing out + of its pinions, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">317</span> + + and contradicts the general order + of nature by creeping with the instruments of its flight. + What a contrast between this creature and the Lark!</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml12"> + “Up-springs the Lark,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Shrill-voiced and loud, the messenger of morn;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Ere yet the shadows fly, he, mounted, sings</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Amid the dawning clouds, and from their haunts</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Calls up the tuneful nations.”</p> + </div> + <p> + Nothing can be more pleasing, observes Goldsmith, than to + see the Lark warbling upon the wing; raising its note as it + soars, till it seems lost in the immense heights above us; + the note continuing, the bird itself unseen; to see it then + descending with a swell as it comes from the clouds, yet + sinking by degrees as it approaches its nest, the spot + where all its affections are centered—the spot which has + prompted all this joy. While the Lark thus mounts on + triumphant wings, soaring up into the heavens with a song + of praise to its Creator, this little black animal lies + sleeping in holes and cracks of decayed edifices; and if + disturbed by any accident, drops down and crawls upon the + earth. When darkness prevails, it comes forth from its + concealment to haunt the cemeteries of the dead, and + desolate places; as if it purposely avoided the society of + all cheerful birds, and took a delight in associating with + Owls and Beetles in dark and solitary abodes. “The bat is + called <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">עטלף</span> + <em>âtalaph</em>,” according to Parkhurst, “from <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">עט</span> + <em>ât</em> to <em>fly</em>, and <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">עלף</span> + <em>âlaph</em>, <em>darkness</em> or <em>obscurity</em>, + because it flies about in the <em>dusk of the evening</em>, + and in the <em>night</em>; so the Septuagint <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: nykteris" + class="msg">νυκτερις</span>, + from <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: nyx" + class="msg">νυξ</span>, + the <em>night</em>, and the Vulgate, + <em>vespertilio</em>, from <em>vesper</em>, the evening.”</p> + <p> + These birds of the night but too appropriately symbolize + with persons who love darkness rather than light, because + their deeds are evil. Dr. Shaw, speaking of Ostriches, + says, “In the lonesome part of the night they frequently + make a very doleful and hideous noise, sometimes resembling + the roar of the Lion; at other times the hoarser voices of + other quadrupeds, particularly the Bull or Ox.” He adds, “I + have often heard them groan as if in the greatest agonies.” + Thus——</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “The slaves of excess, Their senses to please,</p> + <p class="ml4"> + Whole nights canbestow,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And on in a circle of riot they go;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Poor prodigals, they The night into day</p> + <p class="ml4"> + By revellings turn,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And all the restraints of sobriety scorn.</p> + <p class="v2 ml0"> + The drunkards proclaim At midnight their shame,</p> + <p class="ml4"> + Their sacrifice bring,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And loud to the praise of <em>their</em> master they sing:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The hellish desires Which satan inspires,</p> + <p class="ml4"> + In sonnets they breathe,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And shouting descend to the regions of death.”</p> + </div> + <hr id="CHAPTER_VII" class="chap" /> + +<p class="pagenum" id="Page_318">318</p> + + <h2> + CHAPTER VII.<br /> + <span class="large"> SIXTH DAY.</span></h2> + <h3> + <em>Section I.</em>—<span + class="smcap">On Quadrupeds and Reptiles.</span></h3> + <p class="hang1 smaller"> + Quadrupeds in + general — Motion — Habits — Rumination — Proportion — Tastes — + Clothing — Weapons — Proportionate Number — Faculties — + Reptiles — Religious Improvement.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_157"> + On the <em>sixth day</em> all terrestrial animals were + formed. “And God said, Let the earth bring forth the living + creature after his kind, cattle, and creeping thing, and + beast of the earth after his kind, and it was so. And God + made the beast of the earth after his kind, and cattle + after their kind, and every thing that creepeth upon the + earth after his kind.” According to Dr. A. Clarke, the + words <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">נפש חיה</span> + <em>nephesh chaiyah</em>, translated + <em>living creature</em>, are a general term used to + express all creatures endued with animal life, in any of + its infinitely varied gradations; from the half-reasoning + elephant down to the stupid potto, or lower still, even to + the polype,<a + href="#Footnote_157" + class="fnanchor">157</a> + which seems equally to share + the vegetable and animal life. The word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">חיתו</span> + <em>chaiyeto</em>, translated <em>beast</em>, and by Mr. + Parkhurst, rendered <em>wild beasts</em>, seems to + signify all wild animals, as the Lion, the Tiger, the + Panther, the Lynx, the Hyæna, &c., and especially + such as are <em>carnivorous</em>, or subsist on flesh. <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">בהמה</span> + <em>behemah</em>, which we translate + <em>cattle</em>, probably means those of the domestic + species, such as are <em>graminivorous</em>, or live on + grass and other vegetables; and are capable of being + tamed, and applied to domestic purposes. The word + properly means <em>beasts</em>, and is so understood by + the Seventy, whose interpretation of the words of Job + is, “Behold the beasts with thee, they eat grass like + oxen.” According to Ab, Ezra, and the Targum, it is the + “name of any great beast.” But R. Levi says, that it is + “an animal peculiarly called by that name.”</p> + <p> + The Hebrew <em>behemah</em>, says Buxtorf, is taken in the + singular number for the Elephant, because of its vast + greatness. Ainsworth says, the word generally implies all + large beasts; and of this classification the Elephant is + called Behemoth. “Behold now <em>Behemoth</em>, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">319</span> + + which I made with + thee; he eateth grass as an ox.” The word here is plural, + and signifies beasts; but in this passage one particular + beast is meant, for it is usual with the Hebrews or Jews to + express great and excellent things by words in the plural + number. Though some later and very learned men take the + Leviathan to be the Crocodile, and the Behemoth to be a + creature called the Hippopotamus, or river-horse, yet says + Henry, “I confess I see no reason to depart from the + opinion, that it is the Elephant that is here described, + which is a very strong, stately creature, of a very large + stature, above any other, and of wonderful sagacity, and of + such reputation in the animal kingdom, that, among so many + four-footed beasts as we have had the natural history of, + Job chap. xxxviii, xxxix, we can scarce suppose this should + be omitted.”<a + href="#Footnote_158" + class="fnanchor">158</a></p> + <p> + The Elephant may be thus denominated from its great bulk + and strength. He is the largest of all land animals. Pliny + tells us, that the Elephants in India are thirteen feet and + a half high, and have two teeth of such enormous size that + the Indians use them for posts to their houses: those of + the male being six or seven feet long, while those of the + female do not exceed one foot.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “Peaceful, beneath primeval trees that cast</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Their ample shade o’er Niger’s yellow stream,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And where the Ganges rolls his sacred wave,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Or mid the central depth of blackening woods,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + High rais’d in solemn theatre around,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + <em>Leans the</em> <span class="smcap">Huge + Elephant</span>.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + His strength is also equal to that of many beasts. “His + bones are as strong as pieces of brass; his bones are like + bars of iron.” Some historians say, that in time of war + people used to erect wooden towers on the backs of + Elephants, and from these elevated forts men combated with + their enemies. It is said that Antiochus had a great number + of these huge animals with towers constructed upon them, in + each of which were thirty-two men armed. “He is the chief + of the ways of God:” that is, a signal instance of Divine + power and wisdom, the most excellent of all mere animals, + in size, strength, understanding, and sagacity. None of the + beasts is more prudent, says Strabo: none of them + approaches nearer to man in his capacity, says Pliny. “He + moveth his tail like a cedar.” As his tail is not + proportional to the bulk of his body, many understand by + this term his proboscis or trunk. The original word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">זנב</span> + here rendered <em>tail</em>, signifies properly the extreme + part of a thing; hence it is as applicable to his trunk, + which hangs like a tail, though placed at the opposite + extremity of his body. This he “moveth” with amazing + dexterity, and, at pleasure, can stretch it out, and erect + it like a “cedar” growing out of a mountain.—“Behold, he + drinketh up a river, and hasteth not: he trusteth that he + can drink up Jordan into his mouth.” He being naturally of a + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">320</span> + + hot constitution, and generally inhabiting hot climates, + requires much liquid. His “drinking up a river,” is a + hyperbolical expression implying his ardent thirst: and + “hasteth not,” signifies his reluctance to quit the stream + till his parching desire be fully satiated. His “trusting” + that he can drink the river “Jordan” dry, is also an + hyperbolical term to express his copious draughts. “He + eateth grass as an ox, the mountains bring him forth food;” + which he gathers, collects, and conveys to his mouth with + his long trunk. He resides “where all the beasts of the + field play.” So harmless is this strong animal, that the + inferior part of the brute creation are not intimidated at + his presence, but graze with him upon the mountains, and + sport themselves about him in the plain, apprehending no + danger from him. How wondrous are the works of God! in + which are no less evinced the effects of his power, than + the displays of his wisdom. The word <em>cattle</em>, also + includes Horses, Kine, Sheep, Dogs, &c.</p> + <p> + Quadrupeds enjoy many advantages above the lower tribes of + the animal creation. They rank higher than the class of + Birds, by bringing forth their young alive; they are + superior to that of Fishes, by respiration through their + lungs; they are exalted above the order of Insects, by a + circulation of red blood through their veins; and they + differ almost from every other description of creatures, + being either wholly or in part covered with hair.</p> + <p> + What admirable wisdom is displayed in the <em>motion</em> + of animals, suited to their various occasions! Reptiles, to + which a clod, a plant, a tree, or a hole, will afford the + means of supporting life, and which protracted privations + of food do not materially affect, require no legs to make + extensive excursions, but their vermicular motion is + adequate to every essential purpose. Beasts, whose + necessities call for a larger sphere, possess accordingly a + swifter motion; and this is imparted in various degrees, + suitable to their range for food, and adapted to accelerate + their speed in escaping from their enemies.</p> + <p> + In the motion of animals, from the largest Elephant to the + smallest Mite, the whole body is exactly balanced. The head + is not too heavy, nor too light for its kindred parts, nor + they for it. The bowels hang not loose, nor are so placed + as to over-balance, or upset the system; but well-braced, + and accurately distributed to maintain an equipoise. The + most active members also are admirably well fixed, in + respect to the centre of gravity, being placed in the very + point which best serves to support and convey the body. + Every leg bears its share of the weight.</p> + <p> + The <em>mouths</em> of animals are nicely adapted to their + different habits of life. The Ox, the Deer, the Horse, and + the Sheep, have full lips, rough tongues, broad cutting + teeth, corrugated cartilaginous palates, which qualify them + for browsing, either by gathering large mouthfuls where the + grass is long, or biting close where it is + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">321</span> + + short. In those + which subsist on flesh, the teeth are sharp, and calculated + to hold and divide their food. The bore of the gullet in + animals is answerable to their necessities. In a Fox, which + feeds on bones, it is very large. But in a Squirrel it is + exceedingly small, which prevents him from disgorging his + meat in his descending leaps: and it is equally contracted + in Rats and Mice, which run along walls with their heads + downward.</p> + <p> + In all animals, the strength and size of their + <em>stomachs</em> are proportioned to the nature and + quantity of their food. Those whose aliment is more tender + and nutritive, have them smaller, thinner, and weaker: + whereas they are large and strong in those whose food is + less nutritive, and whose bodies require greater supplies. + Carnivorous beasts have their stomachs small and glandular, + as flesh is the most nutritious. Those that derive their + support from fruits and roots have them of a middle size: + while on the contrary, Sheep and Oxen, which feed on grass, + have the largest stomachs; and those which ruminate have in + general no less than four; in Africa, where the plants are + nutritive, some of this class have only two. Yet the Horse, + Hare, and Rabbit, though graminivorous, have comparatively + small stomachs. The Horse is made for labor, and both he + and the Hare are constructed for quick and continued + motion; for these the most easy respiration, also the + freest action of the diaphragm, is requisite. But this + could not be, did the stomach lie heavy and cumbersome upon + it, as in Sheep and Oxen.</p> + <p> + Another very remarkable circumstance is, that those animals + which have teeth on both jaws, possess but one stomach; + whereas most of those which have no <em>upper teeth</em>, + or no teeth at all, have three stomachs. For the meat which + is first chewed, is easily digested; but that which it + swallowed whole, requires a stronger concoctive power.</p> + <p> + The Horse eats night and day, slowly, but almost + continually: whereas the Ox eats quickly, and takes, in a + short time, all the food nature requires; and then lies + down to ruminate. This difference arises from the different + conformation of these animals. The Ox, of whose stomachs + the first two form but one capacious bag, can, at the same + time, receive grass into both of them, without + inconvenience, which he afterwards ruminates and digests at + leisure. The Horse, whose stomach is small, and can receive + but a small quantity of grass, is filled successively in + proportion as he digests it; and it passes into the + intestines, where is performed the principal decomposition + of the food. Chewing the cud is but a vomiting without + straining, occasioned by a re-action of the first stomach + on the food which it contains. The Ox fills the first two + stomachs, the paunch, and the bag, which is but a portion + of the paunch. This membrane acts with force on the grass + it contains; it is chewed but a little, and its quantity is + greatly increased by + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">322</span> + + fermentation. Were the food + liquid, this force of contraction would occasion it to pass + by the third stomach, which only communicates with the + other by a narrow conveyance, and cannot admit such dry + food, or, at least, can only admit the moistened parts. The + food must, therefore, necessarily pass up again into the + œsophagus, the orifice of which is larger than the orifice + of the conduit, and the animal again chews and macerates + it, and moistens it afresh with its saliva: he reduces it + to a paste, sufficiently liquid to enter into this conduit, + through which it passes into the third stomach, where it is + again macerated before it goes into the fourth; and it is + in this last receptacle that the decomposition of the hay + is finished, which is reduced to a perfect mucilage. What + chiefly confirms this explication is, that as long as the + animals suck, and are fed with milk and other liquid + aliments, they do not chew the cud; and that they chew the + cud much more in winter, when they are fed with dry food, + than in summer, when they eat tender grass.</p> + <p> + All the parts of the same animal are adopted to each other. + So, for instance, the length of the neck is always + proportioned to that of the legs. Though the Elephant has a + short neck, because the weight of his head and teeth would + otherwise have been insupportable; but, then, he is + provided with a trunk, which abundantly supplies the + defect. In other beasts, the neck is always commensurate to + the legs; so that they which have long legs have necks + proportioned; and so vice versa, as is observable in + Lizards of all kinds, even from the Eft to the Crocodile. + And creatures that have no legs, as they want no necks, so + they have none. This equality between the length of the + neck and legs is peculiarly seen in beasts that feed on + grass, in which these are very nearly equal; because the + neck must necessarily have some advantage, for it cannot + hang perpendicularly, but must incline a little.</p> + <p> + These creatures, while feeding, bend their heads downward + for a considerable time, which would be very laborious and + painful to the muscles, were it not for a very stiff, + strong cartilage, placed on each side of the neck, capable + of stretching and shrinking again as need requires, which + butchers call pax-wax. The one end of this is attached to + the head, and the next vertebræ of the neck; and the other + is knit to the middle vertebræ of the back: and by the + assistance of this, animals are able to hold the head in + that inclining posture all day long. The head being placed + at the end of a long lever, in a direction nearly + perpendicular to the joints of the neck, would be in + constant danger of dislocation from its own weight, had not + such a substance been added, which, by its great strength + and toughness, retains the parts together, while, by its + pliancy, it offers no obstruction to the free motion of the + neck and head.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_159"> + The members of animals are exactly adapted to their manner of + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">323</span> + + living. A Swine, whose natural food is chiefly the roots of + plants, is provided with a snout; long, that he may thrust + it to a convenient depth in the ground without injuring his + eyes; and strong and suitably formed, for rooting and + turning up the earth: therefore the retiring under-jaw + works after the manner of a plough-share, and makes its way + to the food: and besides, his scent is extremely acute in + discovering such roots as are fit for him. Hence in Italy, + the usual way of finding truffles, or subterraneous + mushrooms, is by tying a cord to the hind leg of a pig, and + driving him into pastures. They who attend then mark where + he stops and begins to root, and digging there, are sure to + find a truffle. So in pastures where there are earth-nuts, + though their roots are deep in the ground, and the leaves + are quite gone, the Swine will find them by their scent, + and root only in the places where they grow.<a + href="#Footnote_159" + class="fnanchor">159</a></p> + <p> + In some animals the head is long, in order to give room for + the olfactory nerves, as in Dogs, which hunt by scent. In + others, it is short, as in the Lion, to give him the + greater strength. In beasts of prey, as Lions, Tigers, + Wolves, they have the trumpet-part or concavity of the ear + standing forward, to meet the sound of the animals before + them, which they pursue or watch. The ears of animals of + flight are turned backward, to apprize them of the approach + of the pursuing enemy, lest he should assail them unseen. + Beasts of prey have their feet armed with claws, which some + can sheath and unsheath at pleasure. The Babyrouessa, or + Indian Stag, a species of Wild-Boar, found in the East + Indies, has two <em>bent</em> teeth more than half a yard + long, growing upward, and, which is very singular, from the + upper jaw. These instruments are not wanted for defence, + that service being provided for by two tusks issuing from + the under jaw, and resembling those of the common Boar: nor + does the animal thus use them. They might seem therefore + both superfluous and cumbersome: however, they have their + utility; for this animal sleeps standing, and, in order to + support its head, hooks its upper tusks upon the branches + of trees.</p> + <p> + In the Mole we find a most scrupulous attention to the + habits of the animal. It has short legs, feet armed with + sharp nails, a pig-like nose, a velvet coat, a small + external ear, a sunk protracted eye, all which are + conducing to utility and safety. Its feet are like so many + shovels, placed in so peculiar a manner as to enable the + animal to remove the earth on each side, and throw it + backwards. The cylindrical figure of the Mole, as well as + the compactness of its form, arising from the terseness of + its limbs, proportionably lessen its labor; because its + bulk requires the least possible quantity of + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">324</span> + + earth to + facilitate its progress. The structure of its face and jaws + is similar to those of a Swine, and equally adapted to work + in the ground. The nose is sharp, slender, tendinous, and + strong. The plush covering, which, by the smoothness, + closeness, and polish of the short piles that compose it, + rejects the cohesion of almost every species of earth, + defends the animal from cold and wet, and from the + impediment which it would otherwise experience by the + adhesion of mould to its body. Being subterraneous, of all + animals it comes out from soils of all kinds the brightest + and cleanest. But its eyes are most to be admired. This + animal occasionally visiting the surface of the earth, + self-security required a perception of light. The Mole did + not need large eyes to compass a great range of vision; and + prominent eyes would have been less easily defended, whilst + working under ground. To reconcile these inconveniences, + these eyes are scarcely larger than the head of a corking + pin; and these globules are so sunk in the skull, and + sheltered with the velvet of their covering, that any + contraction of the eye-brows, not only closes up the + apertures, but offers a cushion to prevent any sharp or + protruding substance from injuring them. These apertures in + their open state, are like pin-holes in velvet, scarcely + pervious to loose pieces of earth.<a + href="#Footnote_160" + class="fnanchor">160</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_161"> + The different <em>tastes</em> of animals show the wise + economy of nature. Oxen delight in low grounds, because + they afford the most palatable food. Sheep prefer barren + hills, on which is produced a particular kind of grass + called festuca, which they highly relish. Goats climb up + the precipices of mountains, that they may browse on the + tender shrubs; and accordingly have their feet constructed + for jumping. Horses, not in a state of domestication, + chiefly resort to woods, and feed on leafy plants. Nay, so + various are the appetites of animals, that there is + scarcely any plant which is not chosen by some, and left + untouched by others. The Horse resigns the Water-Hemlock to + the Goat; the Cow gives up the Monks-Hood to the Horse; for + that on which some animals grow fat, others abhor as + poison.—Hence no plant is absolutely poisonous, but only + respectively. Thus the Spurge, that is noxious to man, is a + most wholesome nourishment to the Caterpillar. That animals + may not destroy themselves for want of knowing this law of + nature, they are guarded by such a delicacy of taste and + smell, that thus they can easily distinguish what is + pernicious from what is wholesome; and when different + animals subsist on the same plants, one kind always leaves + something for the other, as the mouths of all are not + equally adapted to lay hold on the grass; hence there is + sufficient food for all.<a + href="#Footnote_161" + class="fnanchor">161</a> + The leaves and fruits of + trees are intended as food for some animals, such as the + Sloth and Squirrel; the latter of which has feet adapted + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">325</span> + + for climbing. The Camel + frequents the sandy and burning deserts, in order to + obtain the barren produce of those soils. How wisely has + the Creator provided for him! he is obliged to traverse + those trackless wastes where frequently no water is + found for many miles. Other animals, so circumstanced, + would perish with thirst: but he can endure it without + much inconvenience; his belly being full of cells, where + he reserves water for many days.<a + href="#Footnote_162" + class="fnanchor">162</a></p> + <p> + Quadrupeds are furnished with such <em>clothing</em> as is + suitable to their various offices. To beasts, hair is a + commodious covering, which, together with the texture of + their skins, fits them in all sorts of weather to lie on + the ground, and to render service to man. The thick and + warm fleeces of others are a good defence against the cold + and wet, and also a soft bed; and to many, a comfortable + shelter for their tender young. All the animals near + Hudson’s Bay are covered with a close, soft, warm fur; and, + what is very surprising, and shows the wisdom and goodness + of Divine providence, the Dogs and Cats which are taken + thither from England, on the approach of winter, change + their appearance, and acquire a much longer, softer, and + thicker coat of hair than they originally had.</p> + <p> + Many animals are armed with <em>weapons</em> of + self-defence, some of which are used for the destruction of + others. Nay, we scarcely know an animal which has not some + enemy to contend with. Wild beasts are the most pernicious + and dangerous enemies. But, that they may not, by too + atrocious a butchery, destroy a whole species, even these + are circumscribed within certain bounds. As to the most + fierce of all, it deserves to be noted, how few they are in + proportion to other animals. The number of them is not + equal in all countries. These fierce animals sometimes + destroy one another. Thus the Wolf devours the Fox. The Dog + infests both the Wolf and Fox. The Tiger often kills its + own male whelps. And wild beasts seldom arrive at so great + an age, as animals which live on vegetables. For they are + subject, from their alkaline diet, to various diseases, + which tend to accelerate their death: while the Elephant, + which feeds on vegetables, is fifty or sixty years before + he attains his full strength, is in the highest state of + vigor at about a hundred, and lives two or three hundred + years. But, though animals are infested by their peculiar + enemies, yet they frequently elude their violence by + stratagems and force. Thus the Hare, by her doublings, + often confounds the Dog. When the Bear attacks Sheep and + Cattle, these flock together for mutual defence. Horses + join heads together, and fight with their heels. Oxen join + tails, and fight with their horns. Swine unite in herds, + and boldly oppose themselves to any attack, so that they + are not easily overcome: and, what is remarkable, all of + them place their young, as less able to defend themselves, + in the middle, that + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">326</span> + + they may remain safe during the + battle. Some animals consult their safety by night. When + Horses sleep in woods, one by turn remains awake, and, as + it were, keeps watch. When Monkeys, in Brazil, sleep on + trees, one of them keeps awake, in order to give the sign + when the Tiger creeps toward them; and in case the guard + should be caught asleep, the rest tear him in pieces.</p> + <p> + Divine Providence is evidently displayed in keeping a just + proportion amongst all the different species of animals: + this prevents any one of them from increasing too rapidly, + to the detriment of others. For the produce of the ground + would be insufficient for the support of the animal + creation, were their increase not regulated and limited by + the over-ruling power of God. To which we may add, that, if + some animals did not feed on others, the earth would be + annoyed with putrified bodies. Therefore, when an animal + dies, Bears, Wolves, Foxes, &c., expeditiously take the + whole of it away. But if a horse die near a public road, in + a few days he is swoln, burst, and at last filled with + innumerable grubs of carnivorous Flies, by which his flesh + is soon entirely consumed, and so does not become a + nuisance to passengers by his poisonous stench. Thus the + earth is not only kept clean from the putrefaction of dead + carcases, but at the same time, by this economy of nature, + the necessaries of life are provided for many animals.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_163"> + Though animals should not die a violent death, still their + powers only continue for a limited time: they have their + determinate periods of growth, perfection, and decay: hence + it becomes necessary that one race should succeed and + replace another, and for this purpose they are endowed with + a power of procreation. The formation of the fœtus, the + manner of its existence, and the growth of its parts, are + great secrets of nature; and in all viviparous animals, the + <em>milk</em> found in the female parent is a maintenance + ready for the young animal, the moment it enters the world. + We have here, the nutritious quality of the fluid—the organ + for its reception and retention—the excretory duct, annexed + to that organ—and the determination of the milk to the + breast, at the particular juncture when it is about to be + wanted. The advanced pregnancy of the female has no + intelligible tendency to fill the breasts with milk. The + lacteal system is a constant wonder: and it adds to other + causes of our admiration, that the number of the teats or + paps in each species is found to bear a proportion to the + number of the young. In the Sow, the Bitch, the Rabbit, the + Cat, the Rat, which have numerous litters, the paps are + numerous, and are disposed along the whole length of the + belly: in the Cow and Mare, they are few.<a + href="#Footnote_163" + class="fnanchor">163</a> + And the teats of animals + which give suck are exactly adapted to the mouth, + particularly to the lips and tongue, of the suckling + progeny. Herodotus observes, that the most useful + animals are the most fruitful in their generation: + whereas the species + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">327</span> + + of those beasts that are + fierce and mischievous to mankind are but scarcely + continued. The historian instances in a Hare, which is + always either breeding or bringing forth; and a Lioness, + which bears but once and then loses all power of + conception.</p> + <p> + It is evident that animals have not only a principle + of self-motion, but are endued with a degree of understanding; + and have a will, including various passions. What then + produces the disparity between men and brutes, the line + which they cannot pass? It is not understanding: who can + say that brutes have not this? We may as well assert that + they have not sight, nor hearing. But the difference + consists in this: man is capable of knowing and enjoying + God; the inferior creatures are not. This is the specific + difference between the two: the great gulf which the brute + cannot pass over.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_164"> + We meet with a striking instance not only of industry, but + <em>understanding</em> in Beavers. In the northern parts of + America, during the months of June and July, they assemble, + and form a society, which generally consists of more than + two hundred. They always fix their abode by the side of a + lake or river; and in order to make a stagnant water above + and below, they erect, with incredible labor, a dam or + pier, perhaps fourscore or a hundred feet long, and ten or + twelve feet thick at the base. When this dyke is completed, + they build their several apartments, which are divided into + three stories. The first is beneath the level of the mole, + and is for the most part full of water. The walls of their + habitations are perpendicular, and about two feet thick. If + any wood project from them, they cut it off with their + teeth, which are more serviceable than saws: and by the + help of their tails, they plaster all their works with a + kind of mortar, which they prepare of dry grass and clay, + mixed together. In August or September, they begin to lay + up their stores of food; which consist of the wood of the + birch, the plane, and of some other trees. Thus they pass + the winter, in the enjoyment of ease and plenty.<a + href="#Footnote_164" + class="fnanchor">164</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_165"> + In the Dog we perceive evident marks of sagacity, + recollection, affection, and revenge. <em>Sagacity</em>:—In + the year 1760, whilst one Richardson, a waterman of + Hammersmith, was sleeping in his boat, the vessel broke + from her moorings, and was carried by the current under a + west country barge. Fortunately, the man’s dog happened to + be present; and the sagacious animal awaked him, by pawing + his face, and pulling the collar of his coat, at the + instant when the boat was filled with water, and on the + point of sinking; by which means he had an opportunity of + saving himself from inevitable death.<a + href="#Footnote_165" + class="fnanchor">165</a> + <em>Recollection</em>:—A Dog, + which had been the favorite of an elderly gentlewoman, + some time after her death, on seeing her picture, when + taken down from the wall, and laid on the floor to be + cleaned, discovered the strongest emotions. He had + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">328</span> + + never been observed, Dr. Percival believed, to notice + the picture previously to this incident. Here was + evidently a case of remembrance, or of the renewal of + former impressions. <em>Affection</em>:—A few miles from + Aberdeen, as a gentleman was walking across the Dee, + when it was frozen, the ice gave way in the middle of + the river, and he sunk; but, by grasping his gun, which + had fallen athwart the opening, kept himself from being + carried away by the current. A dog, who attended him, + after many fruitless attempts to rescue his master, ran + to a neighboring village, and took hold of the first + person he met. The man was alarmed, and would have + disengaged himself: but the Dog regarded him with a look + so kind and significant, and endeavored to pull him + along with so gentle a violence, that he began to think + there might be something extraordinary in the case, and + suffered himself to be conducted by the animal; who + brought him to his master in time to save his life.<a + href="#Footnote_166" + class="fnanchor">166</a> + <em>Revenge</em>:—A pack of + ravenous Fox-Hounds were half starved in their kennel, + to render them more furious and eager in the chace: and + were severely lashed every day by a merciless keeper, + that they might be disciplined to the strictest + observance of his looks and commands. It happened that + this petty tyrant entered the kennel without his + scourge. The dogs observed his defenceless state; and, + instantly seizing him, at once satisfied their hunger + and revenge by tearing him to pieces.<a + href="#Footnote_167" + class="fnanchor">167</a></p> + <p> + The Monkey tribe is very numerous, and usually divided by + naturalists into three classes. Those which have no tails + are termed Apes, and such as have very short ones, Baboons; + but by far the most numerous class consists of those which + have long tails, and are known by the general name of + Monkeys. Were we to dissect and examine the several + component parts of any one creature which God has made, we + should find a perfection among its several powers, and an + adaptation of its construction to its situation in the + grand scale of existence, far surpassing human wisdom.</p> + <p> + At the Cape of Good Hope, Baboons are under a sort of + natural discipline, and go about whatever they undertake + with surprising skill and regularity. When they undertake + to rob an orchard or vineyard (for they are extremely fond + of grapes and apples,) they go in large companies, and with + preconcerted deliberation. Part of them enter the + inclosure, while one is set to watch: the rest stand + without the fence, and form a line reaching all the way + from their fellows within to their rendezvous without, + which is generally in some craggy mountain. Every thing + being thus disposed, the plunderers within the orchard + throw the fruit to those that are + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">329</span> + + without as fast + as they can gather it; or, if the wall or hedge be high, to + those that sit on the top; and these hand the plunder to + those next them on the other side. Thus the fruit is + pitched from one to another all along the line, till it is + safely deposited at their head-quarters. They catch it with + amazing dexterity; and while the business is going forward, + a profound silence is observed. Their sentinel, during the + whole time, continues on the watch, and when he perceives + any one coming, instantly sets up a loud cry, on which + signal the whole company scamper away. Nor are they willing + to go empty-handed; for if they are plundering a bed of + melons, for instance, they go off with one in their mouths, + one in their hands, and one under their arms. If the + pursuit be vigorous and close, they drop first that from + under their arms, then that from their hands; and if it be + continued, they at last let fall that which they had kept + in their mouth.<a + href="#Footnote_168" + class="fnanchor">168</a> + There is another species of + Monkey in the West Indies, of the size of a Fox. These + are in great numbers in the woods, and make aloud and + frightful noise. But it is common for one only to make a + noise, and the rest to form a mute assembly round him. + Marcgrave says, “I have frequently seen great numbers of + them meeting about noon: at which time they formed a + large circle, and one placing himself above the rest, + began to make a loud noise. When he had sung thus by + himself for some time, the rest all remaining silent, he + lifted up his hand, and they all instantly joined in the + chorus. This intolerable yell continued, till the same + Monkey, who gave the signal for the beginning, lifted up + his hand a second time. On this they were all silent + again, and so finished the business of the assembly.”</p> + <p> + Thus we see, wherever we turn our eyes, the various species + of creatures which God has made. Every element is stocked + with inhabitants, the sea with fishes, the air with fowls, + and the earth with quadrupeds and creeping things. All + these different provinces are richly replenished with food + for the support of all the innumerable creatures that live + in them. And what surprising skill and sagacity do some in + the brute creation discover; such as might make many, who + pride themselves in their reason, to blush and be + confounded! Who does not admire the exquisite contrivance + of birds in building their nests? the subtlety of several + creatures in seeking their proper food? and of others in + securing and defending themselves? The art of the Spider in + weaving and spreading her nets, to ensnare and entangle her + prey? the sapience and industry of the Bee in building her + combs, and filling them with pleasant food? and the care + and foresight of the Ant, in laying up her store against + winter? In the meanest reptile, the Divine wisdom and power + are conspicuously displayed.</p> + <p> + The word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">רמש</span> + <em>remes</em>, translated <em>creeping + thing</em>, and rendered <em>reptile</em> by Parkhurst, + includes all the different genera of serpents, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">330</span> + + worms, and such + animals as are not pedaneous. What a disparity among + animals! While some are of an enormous size, and stalk + about in the greatness of their strength, others are of a + delicate and diminutive appearance, bordering on + comparative insignificance. But Divine “skill and power are + not less displayed in the beautiful Chevrotin, or Tragulus, + a creature of the Antelope kind, and smallest of all + <em>bifed</em> or cloven-footed animals, whose delicate + limbs are scarcely as large as an ordinary goose quill; nor + the Shrew Mouse, perhaps the smallest of the many-toed + quadrupeds. In the <em>reptile</em> race we see also the + same skill and power; not only in the immense snake called + Boa Constrictor, the mortal foe and conqueror of the Royal + Tiger, but also in the Cobra de Manille, a venomous + serpent, not much larger than a common sewing needle.”</p> + <p> + The Lizard tribe are distinguishable at first sight from + other oviparous animals. They have no shields, like the + Tortoises, and are furnished with tails, which are wanting + in Toads and Frogs. They are covered with scales, of + greater or less rigidity, or with a kind of warts or + tubercles. Some of the species are scarcely more than two + inches in length, whilst others extend even the length of + twenty-six feet. The larger ones live on animals, which + they seize by stratagem, and the smaller ones on insects. + The aquatic species undergo a metamorphosis, from a tadpole + to a perfect state. Most of them are produced from eggs, + but some are brought forth alive. In many of the species + the color and form are exceedingly beautiful. They + principally inhabit the warmer regions of the globe, and + many of them serve mankind for food.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_169"> + As according to the economy of nature, the Lion seems + appointed to the dominion of the immense deserts of the + torrid zone, the Eagle to rule as sovereign of the air, and + the Whale to have the pre-eminence in the seas; so the + Crocodile<a + href="#Footnote_169" + class="fnanchor">169</a> + and the Alligator appear to + rule over the shores of the large rivers of tropical + climates. All the rivers of Guinea are pestered with + vast shoals of the former, M. Adanson having seen in the + great river Senegal more than two hundred swimming + together; and the latter are natives of the warmer parts + of America.—The Guana, which grows to the length of four + or five feet, is very common in Surinam, the woods of + Guiana, Cayenne and Mexico, and in many parts both of + Africa and Asia; but is now become scarce in the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">331</span> + + West Indies, in consequence of being much sought after + for the table.—The Nimble Lizard, measuring from the tip + of the nose to the end of the tail about six inches, is + known in almost every part of the temperate regions of + Europe. The Green Lizard and the Nimble Lizard, are + considered by Dr. Shaw as varieties of the same species. + The Green Lizards are considered by the inhabitants of + Carolina as very useful animals, in consequence of + destroying flies, and other troublesome and noxious + insects. They will sometimes remain motionless for half + a day, waiting for insects; and when one appears, they + spring at it with the swiftness of an arrow. They are so + familiar as to enter the houses without fear, and, in + pursuit of prey, ascend the tables whilst families are + eating, and even leap on their clothes. They are so + beautiful and cleanly, as to be suffered to run across + the tables, and even the plates, without exciting the + least alarm or disgust.</p> + <p> + The Chameleon is a native of India, the Indian Islands, + Africa, some of the warmer parts of Spain and Portugal, and + several of the countries of South America. Its usual length + is about ten inches, and the tail nearly the same. All the + motions of this creature are extremely slow, so that when + travelling from one branch of a tree to another in pursuit + of food, it may rather be said to lie in ambush among the + leaves, in order to catch such insects as may come within + the reach of its long adhesive tongue, than go in search of + prey. When walking on the ground, it steps forward in a + cautious, groping manner, seeming never to lift one foot + till it is well assured of the firmness of the rest. From + these precautions, its motions have a singular appearance + of gravity, when contrasted with its diminutive size, and + the activity that might be expected in an animal so nearly + allied to some of the most active in the creation. Each of + its eyes is covered with a rough membrane, which is divided + by a narrow horizontal slit, through which the bright + pupil, as if bordered with burnished gold, is seen. The + eyes have this singular property, of looking at the same + instant in different directions. One of them may frequently + be seen to move when the other is at rest; or one will be + directed forward, whilst the other is attending to some + object behind; or in the same manner upward and downward. + The property of changing its color is singular, and has led + to various conjectures as to the cause.</p> + <p> + Serpents are distinguishable from those already mentioned, + by their total want of feet. The banded Rattle-Snake, found + both in North and South America, is the most dreaded of all + serpents. Providence has given to man a security against + its bite; for it generally warns the passenger by the + rattling of its tail, as well as by its odor, which is + extremely fetid. When it has been irritated, or the weather + is very hot, its poison being introduced into a wound, + often proves fatal in a short time. If not provoked, it is + inoffensive, being so much alarmed at the sight of men, as + always, if possible, to + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">332</span> + + avoid them, and never commencing + an attack. The Great Boa, which is the largest of all the + serpent tribe, is frequently from thirty to forty feet in + length, and of a proportional thickness. It is a native of + Africa, India, the largest Indian Islands, and South + America, where it chiefly resides in the most retired + situations in woods and marshy retreats. We are assured, + that one of these serpents killed and devoured a buffalo, + in the island of Java. It is happy for mankind that their + rapacity is often the means of their own punishment; for + whenever they have gorged themselves in this manner, they + seek a retreat where they may lurk for several days and + digest their meal, become unwieldy, stupid, helpless, + sleepy, and may be approached and destroyed with safety.<a + href="#Footnote_170" + class="fnanchor">170</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_171"> + The snake tribe comprises nearly two hundred species, which + differ from each other both in size and habit, and about + one-fifth of the whole have been discovered to be + poisonous. “The deserts of Arabia,” says Adanson, “are + entirely barren, except where they are found to produce + serpents; and in such quantities, that some extensive + plains are almost entirely covered with them.” The + apparatus of poison in the Viper is very similar to that of + the Rattle-Snake, and all the other poisonous serpents. The + <em>fang</em> of a Viper is a wonderful instance of + contrivance. It is a perforated tooth, loose at the root: + in its quiet state, lying down flat on the jaw, but + furnished with a muscle, which with a jerk, and by the + pluck, as it were, of a string, suddenly erects it. Under + the tooth, close to its root, and communicating with the + perforation, lies a small bag containing the venom. When + the fang is raised, the closing of the jaw presses its + roots against the bag underneath; and the force of this + compression sends out the fluid, with a considerable + impetus, through the tube in the middle of the tooth. By + this singular apparatus, the animal is enabled to inflict + on its enemies a most deadly bite, and infuse into the + wound the most deleterious liquid. Yet, though in the + mouth, this, in the quiescent state of the reptile, does + not interfere with its ordinary office in taking its food.<a + href="#Footnote_171" + class="fnanchor">171</a></p> + <p> + No less curious is the clothing of Reptiles. How well + adapted are the rings of some, and the contortions of the + skins of others, not only to guard the body sufficiently, + but enable them to creep, perforate the earth, and perform + all the functions of their stations, better than any other + covering! Virgil gives the following description of a + Sicilian serpent:</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “Scarce had he finish’d, when, with speckled pride,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + A serpent from the tomb began to glide;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + His hugy bulk on sev’n high volumes roll’d;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Blue was his breadth of back, but streak’d with scaly gold;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Thus riding on his curls, he seem’d to pass</p> + <p class="ml0"> + A rolling fire along, and singe the grass.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + More various colors through his body run,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Than Iris, when her bow imbibes the sun.”</p> + </div> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">333</span> + + Even the tegument of the Earthworms is made in the + completest manner, for effecting a passage in the earth, + wherever instinct directs their motions. Their bodies are + composed of small rings, and have a curious apparatus of + muscles, which enables them with great strength to extend + or contract the whole body. Each ring is likewise armed + with stiff, sharp prickles, which they can open or close at + pleasure. And under their skins is a shining juice, which + they emit, as occasion requires, to lubricate their bodies, + and facilitate their passage into the earth. By all these + means they are enabled, with ease and speed, to work + themselves into the ground, which they could not do, if + they were covered with hair, feathers, scales, or such + clothing as any of the other creatures.—One of the most + singular properties of the serpent tribe is that of casting + their skins from time to time. The beauty and lustre of + their colors are then highly augmented. The old skins have + a tarnished and withered appearance, and are forced off by + the growth of the new. When this takes place, so complete + is the spoil or coat-skin, that even the external coat of + the eyes themselves make a part of it.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_172"> + Among creeping things, the Spider engaged the attention of + Solomon who observes, that he is one of those “little + things on the earth, that are exceeding wise.” This + creature subsists on flies, wasps, and similar insects, + without having wings to pursue them; a circumstance + apparently of great difficulty, yet provided for by a + resource, which no stratagem nor effort of his own could + have produced, had not both the external and internal + structure of this animal been specifically adapted to the + operation. What surprising skill and sagacity does the + Spider discover in weaving and spreading her nets to + ensnare and entangle her prey! How wonderfully artificial + is her web, or <em>house</em>! How astonishingly curious + its architecture! With the fine and delicate threads she + spins out of her bowels, how thin a web does she weave, + constructed for the purpose of procuring food! It is + fastened according to the rules of mathematics, for its + lines are drawn exactly from the centre at parallel + distances.<a + href="#Footnote_172" + class="fnanchor">172</a> + When this net is spread, that + she may the more effectually secure her prey, she + cunningly conceals herself in her covert, to evade the + discovery of flies. It is from the accuracy of this + geometrical workmanship, that this cunning artist is + immediately apprized of the approach of a fly, or any + other insect of the like nature, when she sallies forth + and seizes on her prey. She is furnished with a very + sharp hooked forceps, placed near the mouth. With this + weapon she seizes and pierces the flesh of such insects + as entangle themselves in her web; and, at the same + instant, by + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">334</span> + + means of a small white + proboscis, she infuses a deadly juice into the wound, + which, in a moment, kills the animal. This poison must + be very deleterious; for flies, and many other insects, + may be mutilated by depriving them of their legs, wings, + and even cutting their bodies through the very middle of + their abdomen, and, in that condition, will survive + several days.—The Centipeds, the Scorpion, and the + Tarantula, are all provided with poisonous weapons.</p> + <blockquote> + <p> + <em>Appendix to the Chapters on Plants, Fishes, Fowls and + Quadrupeds.</em></p> + <p> + [If we will attentively examine the <em>fossil remains of + fishes, animals, birds, and vegetables</em>, so + abundantly preserved entombed in the crust of our earth, + we shall easily see the necessity of looking into the + sepulchres of these primitive creatures if we would + freely describe the “Mosaic Creation.” Many of their + genera and species are now extinct: and those which + remain seem to have dwindled down to mere <em>dwarfs</em> + in comparison with their prototypes.</p> + <p> + It is a matter of great satisfaction, that these + interesting remains of the primordial world are so well + preserved. They are called by one <em>the medals of + creation</em>: they reveal the ancient condition of our + earth; the successive events; and the attending organic + appendages of sensitive beings: and it is a matter of + great pleasure to the Christian, that what they disclose + so clearly on this subject agrees expressly with the + Bible.</p> + <p> + The class of animated beings called <em>pisces</em>, or + <em>fishes</em>, is not so well known in regard to their + <em>genera</em>, and <em>species</em>, as the classes of + quadrupeds and birds.</p> + <p> + From the fossil remains of each, and their position in + the crust of the earth, it is well ascertained, that + their genera were created successively, and that the most + ancient genera are extinct. The same is true in regard to + vegetables. It is equally true, that, connected with the + successive creation, was a <em>successive + improvement</em> in the delicacy and complexity of their + structure and parts. There was also a reduction in the + <em>size</em> of fishes, and quadrupeds, and a great + reduction in the <em>amount</em> of vegetation, as well + as the size of many of the plants.</p> + <p> + These periodic variations in all early organized bodies, + were evidently owing to the variations of the state of + the surface of our earth, and the surrounding atmosphere. + The Divine Being appears to have created the different + genera suited in constitution to the condition of the + world at the time. The cause of their successive + extinction appears to have been successive catastrophes, + which altered the constitution of our earth and + atmosphere.</p> + <p> + All these facts taken together indicate, that, in the + early periods of the earth, the soil, water, and air were + better calculated to sustain the simply huge, and + inconceivably powerful and fierce creatures of the animal + kingdom, than the delicate and beautiful beings of the + present period. The same is eminently true in regard to + vegetables, specially their <em>quantity</em>. They were + of trunks, and spreading branches so huge as to exceed + belief, did we not see them well preserved in a + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">335</span> + + fossil state. Their quantity also was immense; hence the + amount of vegetable coal found in the earth.</p> + <p> + These facts clearly indicate that, in the early periods + of our earth, the surface was moist, perhaps, marshy for + a long time, gradually drying, and passing to a habitable + state: the air was very moist and gross, and the + temperature of the earth was much higher than at present. + Hence the huge and abundant vegetable productions. These + general facts shall be confirmed by a few remarks in + regard to each class.</p> + <p> + <em>Fishes.</em>—Under this class is included, here, + <em>testaceous</em>, and <em>crustaceous</em> creatures, + as well as <em>fishes</em> commonly so called. The most + ancient of this family seem to be entirely extinct, and + their remains are found in great abundance in the lower + transition rocks. There are many localities where fossil + fish, of various kinds, are found abundantly. They are + sometimes found in the heart of mountains, thousands of + feet above the level of the sea. Their localities are so + numerous they need not be mentioned. They are found in + all possible <em>positions</em>, and in every degree of + <em>preservation</em>—some are <em>contorted</em>, and + <em>crushed</em>; indicating sudden violence. Others are + inhumed in the very act of swallowing their prey, and in + every easy and natural position; indicating that they + expired without violence. Some of these, which are thus + quietly buried, are of the most active species; thus + proving the suddenness of the catastrophe.</p> + <p> + So extensive are the depositions of <em>shell-fish</em>, + that whole beds of rock, in some cases, appear to be + composed of them; and, indeed, in some instances, + mountains are composed principally of these rocks filled + with organic remains.</p> + <p> + From these facts, it is allowed by all, that the sea once + covered these localities; and when it is recollected that + some of the rock strata, composed of the exuviæ of these + marine creatures, are <em>hundreds</em> of feet thick, + the conclusion will be irresistible, that the sea covered + them for a long time, and that these rocks which contain + them <em>were deposited at the bottom of the sea</em>, + which have since become dry, by the retiring of the + waters, or by some subjacent force upheaving the bed of + the sea, and of course these deposits which had been made + at its bottom—when these fossil remains are found in + mountain masses they have been upheaved—when in low + lands, where the rocks lie <em + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">in situ</em>, + the sea has exposed them by retiring.</p> + <p> + <em>Amphibious Creatures.</em>—There are yet a few + animals of this class; but they can scarcely be called + the types of the ancient races, now extinct, whose + remains have lately been discovered, and attracted so + much attention in Europe. They are principally of the + <em>crocodile</em>, and <em>saurian</em> (or lizard) + families. Their size, and indicated power, ferocity, and + fierceness, are astonishing beyond measure. Their + structure clearly indicates their proper element was wet, + marshy, and reedy places, such as the crocodile delights + in at this time: thus indicating that they were in the + earth as the ancient chaotic seas retired, and was + leaving the earth dry.</p> + <p> + If a <em>single</em> skeleton only, of any one of these + creatures had been found, naturalists would have + pronounced it a <em>lusus naturæ</em>. But many have been + found, of different genera and species: only two or three + shall be mentioned here.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">336</span> + + One of the crocodile family, as is supposed, had a spine + composed of 133 vertebræ, or joints, taken together 21½ + feet in length. The head was nearly 4 feet. Its species + are extinct; some refer even this huge animal to the + lizard family.</p> + <p> + <em>The Megalosaurus.</em> The skeleton of this huge + creature has been satisfactorily examined, and + ascertained to belong to the <em>lizard family</em>. Its + thigh bone is 32 inches long. It is said some have been + found 4 feet. At 32 inches, the animal must have been 48 + feet in length. Dr. Buckland, from some fossil remains, + calculates some of them were as high as our largest + elephants, and sixty or seventy feet in length. And yet + this was a <em>lizard</em> of the ancient world!</p> + <p> + <em>The Pterodactyle.</em> This is a species of the + saurian family as those above. Its distinctive character + is the <em>elongation of its fourth toe</em>, so as to + support a membrane for the purpose of <em>flying</em>: + hence its name, <em>wing-toed</em>. It is indeed a + curiosity. Its species is extinct.</p> + <p> + <em>The Ichthyosaurus.</em> This is also a reptile of the + lizard kind: but because it so much resembles a + <em>fish</em>; it has this name, i.e. + <em>fish-lizard</em>. It has a moderate tail—long pointed + muzzel armed with sharp pointed teeth; two huge eyes; + breathed air; swam in the water; crawled in marshy, reedy + places, but could not walk or run on land, having flat + fins, or bony paddles, somewhat like seals. The skeletons + indicate some of them to have been 25 feet long.</p> + <p> + <em>The Plesiosaurus.</em> This animal, as its name + imports, was rather akin to lizards, than decidedly of + the genus. Its very peculiar characteristic is the + immoderate length of its neck, and the unexampled number + of <em>vertebræ</em> of which it is composed. In other + respects it approaches the ichthyosaurus. Its remains + indicate an animal, according to Cuvier, at least 30 feet + long.</p> + <p> + <em>The Iguanodon</em>, was of the lizard genus, three or + four times as large as the largest crocodile; having jaws + equal in size to the incisors of the rhinoceros, and + crested with horns. (<span + class="smcap">Dr. Buckland.</span>)</p> + <p> + Many more creatures of the early periods of our earth + might be mentioned, which would come expressly under the + title of this volume; and the knowledge of which is + durably preserved in the fossils of the earth, all of + which would confirm the facts stated in the commencement + of this paper, viz: that during the first and grossest + periods of our earth previously to the creation of man, + great numbers of genera and species of huge and misshapen + animals existed, which are now extinct. For instance: the + skeletons of animals of the <em>frog and toad</em> + families, have been found so large, as to induce some + naturalists at first to call them <em>human remains</em>. + A tapir has been found the <em>size of an elephant</em>; + and a species of the <em>sloth tribe</em> as long as a + <em>rhinoceros</em>!!</p> + <p> + These things will indeed appear incredible to the reader + at first; but let him recollect that the evidences of + these astonishing facts are contained in the solid crust + of the earth, and cannot be deceptive. They may be + <em>seen, measured, weighed, and put up so as to form the + whole animal</em>, an object of inspection to thousands.</p> + <p> + There are but few fossil remains of <em>birds</em> found + in the earth, and these are principally in the upper + tertiary strata, and in company with the fossil remains + of such animals as are companionable and + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">337</span> + + serviceable to + man. The reason of this is obvious: the earth was not + suitable for the habitation of birds until it had become + comparatively dry, and the seas had retired in a great + measure, and vegetation abundant. The aquatic genera + appeared first, of which there are a few remains. + Moreover this class of creatures could not be overtaken + with any violent catastrophe, so as to bury them in a + body, or in particular strata. It is, therefore, probable + that birds, as a class, have preserved their genera and + species from the first; and are now nearly the same in + this respect, as well as in size, as in the earlier + periods of the world.</p> + <p> + <em>Vegetables.</em>—In the vegetable kingdom we are if + possible, more astonished than in the animal, of the + ancient periods of our earth. From their fossil remains, + well and abundantly preserved, it is very evident that + the vegetation of the first periods of our earth was + abundant and heavy, beyond any thing which we can + conceive at this time. It cannot be doubted but that the + vegetative powers of the earth was very much greater than + at this time, or within the memory of man. This is + evident from the immense production of <em>vegetable + coal</em>.</p> + <p> + This statement may be rendered somewhat more credible + when it is recollected, that the earth, in its first + periods, was of a much higher temperature than now; and + of course not only produced more abundantly, but <em>all + parts</em> of the earth produced vegetation in abundance. + This is evident from the fact, that within the arctic + circle, where now reigns eternal winter, and no + vegetation can be found, there was anciently successive + products of heavy vegetation. (See appendix to our paper + on volcanos.) This is proven by plants being found + fossilized <em>on the spot, and in the position in which + they grew; as also the leaves and fruits of plants, which + are known now to be tropical, so well preserved, and in + such a natural, easy position as to prove clearly they + grew on the spot on which they were fossilized</em>.</p> + <p> + The <em>flora</em> of the primordial world was expressly + a part of the ‘Mosaic creation,’ and which is but little + understood as yet. Some of the principal plants were of + the <em>fern</em> and <em>palm</em> genera; but their + size very far exceeded those now found growing. By + closely examining these fossil plants, it will be found, + <em>that they increase in size and quantity as the period + of their growth is distant from the time in which man was + created</em>: thus indicating <em>an increasing + temperature of the earth as we ascend in time</em>. This + also corresponds with the well known fact, <em>that the + size of these plants now increases progressively from the + polar regions to the equator</em>.</p> + <p> + Our author has given a concise and edifying description + of the principal families and individuals which now + exist, and are found in the earth. The above remarks are + intended to direct the attention to those <em>which have + long since passed away</em>.]</p> + </blockquote> + <p> + The propriety of the distinction between clean and unclean + beasts, mentioned in the Scripture, will appear on the + first hearing of their names; for we find amongst the clean + creatures, Oxen, Sheep, Goats, and Lambs: and on the other + side, Lions, Tigers, Wolves, Foxes, Swine, Moles, and + Serpents. It is evident that + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">338</span> + + there is a wide difference + between these two parties, with respect to their manners + and ways of life.</p> + <p> + Those only are admitted among clean animals, which “divide + the hoof and chew the cud.” Animals which divide the hoof + are more inoffensive with their feet, than the several + tribes of wild beasts, whose paws are armed with sharp + claws, to seize their prey. Quadrupeds with a divided hoof + tread surer than those whose hoof is entire; there being a + plain mechanical reason why a foot, which presents several + angles and edges, should take faster hold on the ground. + They are not only surer footed, but also more orderly and + regular in their progress. Sheep have a natural tendency to + follow each other’s steps. They approach the fold, or + return from it, in a train; as well as traverse their + pastures in the like order. Oxen tread in the very + footsteps of their predecessors: so that a drove of them, + on passing through a deep and narrow road, leave the + surface divided into a regular succession of ridges and + furrows, as if it were the work of art. If animals could + reason and dispute as men can, this plodding practice of + the Ox might possibly be ridiculed by the Ass; as the + orthodox believer, who is content to tread in the steps of + his forefathers, is scoffed at by the rambling freethinker, + who uses it as the privilege of his nature, to deviate into + by-ways, untrodden by those who were much wiser than + himself. <em>Sure footing</em> is an image not improperly + applied to elementary truth and science: whence it will not + be unnatural to suppose, that this first character of the + clean animals was intended to be expressive of rectitude + and certainty of principle in moral agents. Error is + various and changeable in its nature: but truth, being + uniformly the same in all ages, will always be productive + of sobriety and regularity in those who follow it.</p> + <p> + The other character of clean animals is that of “chewing + the cud;” a faculty expressive of that act of the mind, by + which it revolves, meditates, and discourses on what it has + laid up in the memory; and the word <em>ruminate</em> has + the same metaphorical meaning. An animal thus employed has + the appearance of abstraction in its countenance, as if it + were engaged in deep meditation; and it ruminates more + particularly when lying in an horizontal position, for then + the food is more easily recalled into the mouth from its + temporary lodgment in the stomach. This character then, is + expressive of devout thought and holy conversation: for the + word of God is the food of the mind, which, being laid up + in the heart, should be frequently revolved; so that being + properly applied to the inward man, it may contribute to a + daily increase in faith, purity, and goodness.</p> + <p> + The clean animals were also <em>sacred</em>; that is, set + apart by the law for the purpose of sacrifice. The + propriety of which is evident: for if the worshipper, who + offered an animal to God, meant by that act to devote + himself, using the animal as his substitute or + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">339</span> + + proxy; then + certainly it was not fit that he should represent himself + by an unclean creature, whose instincts and habits would + convey an odious idea of his own person and character, and + consequently make his devotion appear ridiculous. In order + to make a sacrifice acceptable, it was requisite that the + qualifications of the offerer should correspond with those + of the offering. The innocent manners of a clean victim, + were a tacit reflection on an unclean offerer. When the + worshippers of the true God were corrupt in their + principles or morals, their oblations were no longer either + proper or acceptable: which was signified to them in those + words of the prophet—“He that killeth an ox, as if he slew + a man: he that sacrificeth a lamb, as if he cut off a dog’s + neck: he that offereth an oblation, as if he offered + swine’s blood.” The reason is added: “They have chosen + their own ways, and their soul delighteth in their + abominations.” But there is another sense in which the + institution of sacrifice is to be understood: for every + sacrifice had its prophetic use, and was prefigurative of + the true sacrifice of Jesus Christ; with respect to whom it + was necessary that every animal, preferred to this sacred + application, should be recommended by every possible + character of innocence, purity, and perfection: therefore + the sacrifices were taken from the tribes of Sheep, Goats, + and Oxen.</p> + <p> + The diet of the Jews being thus immediately connected with + the most solemn acts of religious adoration, the daily + course of their living carried with it an exhortation to + purity of mind and body, and directed their faith to its + supreme object, the vicarious sacrifice of the Messiah. The + moral necessities of man can only be supplied by the death + and benefits of a propitiatory sacrifice, the common + substitute of all mankind: whence God has mercifully + ordained, as well by the present condition of creation + itself, as by the appointment of revelation, that the life + of his body should be sustained in like manner: thereby to + remind us every day, that the life of man is in a state of + forfeiture; and that there can be neither the preservation, + nor the remission of sins, without the shedding of innocent + blood. Thus does mankind conspire in offering up a daily + sacrifice, and attesting the truth of the Christian + doctrine, and many persons with the same insensibility that + Caiaphas uttered a similar prophecy in its favor, “It is + necessary that one man should die, that the whole people + perish not.”</p> + <p id="FNanchor_173"> + These clean and unclean animals, with respect to their + several ways of life, are as opposite as their + dispositions. Sheep, Oxen, Goats, Deer, &c., are formed + into societies, they herd peaceably together, and are + subject to the laws of government, as well for their own + advantage as for the service of man. But beasts of prey + roam by themselves in forests and deserts, incapable of + entering into any friendly communion. They are so many + single tyrants, who acknowledge no superior, but fight + their way, and live in a state of + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">340</span> + + hostility with + the whole creation. If they ever unite in gangs, it is with + the spirit of thieves and murderers, who are banded + together only that they may plunder the innocent with + greater security. And, like other depredators, they are all + fond of darkness. When the sun goes down, the Lion stalks + forth from his den: at which time the Sheep, under the + direction of the shepherd, are retiring to their fold. And + when the cattle are climbing up the mountains to their + pasture, invited by the reviving rays of the rising sun, + the tyrants of the night are warned back to their + hiding-places.<a + href="#Footnote_173" + class="fnanchor">173</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_174"> + The blindness of the Mole, the petulance and immodesty of + the Dog, the subtlety of the Fox, the poisonous teeth and + double tongue of the Serpent, afford ample scope for + reflection. The Egyptian hieroglyphics were certain visible + representations of creatures, whose inclinations and + actions led to the knowledge of those truths which they + intended for instruction. A profane and voluptuous man was + represented by a Swine, whose filthy disposition caused it + to be hated by all the eastern people. A great hypocrite, + or a notorious dissembler of wicked intentions, was + expressed by a Leopard, because this animal acts craftily, + concealing his head that he may with less difficulty catch + his unwary prey; for the creatures are as much alarmed at + his presence, as they are pleased with the agreeable scent + of his body: when therefore they approach him, delighted + with the perfume, he will cover his head with his paws, + till they come within his reach. An incorrigible person was + also expressed by a Leopard’s skin, because its spots no + art can remove. A Chamelion likewise was the hieroglyphic + of a hypocrite, who can accommodate himself to any religion + that will serve his turn; for this animal can change its + color. A stupid, ignorant person, an enemy to religion, was + signified by an Ass; and one that was not acquainted with + men and things, or knew not how to acquit himself with + decency and propriety in the world, was painted with the + head and ears of an Ass. The Egyptians were accustomed to + put the heads of animals on the bodies of men, to express + the dispositions and conduct of those persons they were + intended to represent. A Tiger, being a most fierce animal, + signified a savage, cruel, revengeful disposition, opposed + to all goodness. A Fox is notorious for his craftiness; + therefore he is an emblem of a subtile person, under the + influence of wicked thoughts and intentions.<a + href="#Footnote_174" + class="fnanchor">174</a></p> + <p> + Rams, and Bullocks of Bashan, Lions, or any animal of prey, + are figures frequently used by the sacred writers for cruel + and oppressive tyrants and conquerors. “Hear this word, ye + kine of Bashan, which oppress the poor.” Bashan was a very + fruitful place, a fine and fattening pasture, in which were + the best fed and strongest cattle. To these, the prophet + compares the great men + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">341</span> + + among the Israelites, especially + their judges and magistrates, who were proud, insolent, + wanton and mischievous, like the bulls of Bashan; who + oppressed the poor, as high fed cattle push and gore the + weaker sort. “The Lion is come up from his thicket, and the + destroyer of the Gentiles is on his way; he is gone forth + from his place to make thy land desolate: and thy cities + shall be laid waste without an inhabitant.” By this animal + is meant Nebuchadnezzar, the king of Babylon, so termed on + account of his great power and fierceness; and as the Lion + is commonly in the forest among the thicket, so this + terrible political ruler had his strong hold and principal + seat at Babylon, which residence he left to commit awful + desolation among the cities of Judah and Israel.</p> + <p> + The prophet Isaiah, with a boldness and majesty becoming + the herald of the Most High, begins his prophecy with + calling on the whole creation to attend, when Jehovah + speaks. “Hear, oh heavens; and give ear, oh earth; for the + Lord hath spoken; I have nourished and brought up children, + and they have rebelled against me.” A charge of gross + insensibility and ingratitude is then brought against the + Jews; by contrasting their conduct with that of the Ox, and + the Ass, which is the most stupid of animals. “The Ox + knoweth his owner, and the Ass his master’s crib: but + Israel doth not know, my people do not consider.” What a + cutting reproof! what an indelible reproach! to have been + favored with the best means of instruction, and yet to be + exceeded by the herd of the stall! To perish for lack of + knowledge, after having had the best means to acquire it, + evinces the grossest inattention, and most censurable + insensibility.</p> + <p> + The prophet Jeremiah lamented the wickedness of the age in + which he lived, and the vice and immorality that every + where abounded. He saw with grief of heart the holy Sabbath + profaned, the worship of God neglected, and his house and + ordinances defiled. While a sorrowful witness to their + gross abominations, he saw the punishments that awaited + their immorality, and then wept over what he could not + amend. He gave them faithful admonitions from God, but they + disregarded them, and drank in iniquity like water, and + drew sin as with a cart-rope: because they had been + <em>taught</em> to do evil (for so the margin reads,) + trained up in their evil ways, had learned to sin by + precept and example, and were great proficients in vicious + pursuits: from their youth their natural propensity to evil + had increased by continued practice, till sinning was + become habitual, and there was little hope left of + amendment. Therefore he exclaims, “Can the Ethiopian change + his skin, or the Leopard his spots? then may ye also do + good, that are accustomed to do evil.” The Ethiopian’s skin + is of so sable a hue, that no water can wash it white. A + Leopard’s skin is beautifully spotted, which is not the + result of accident, but nature, and cannot be defaced. By + these two similes the prophet designs to represent, not + only the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">342</span> + + natural impossibility without + Divine aid, but also the extreme difficulty of habitual + sinners learning to do well, after they have long + accustomed themselves to do evil. The least sin is to be + avoided, the least growth of sin to be prevented; for sin + indulged in thought will beget desire, desire will break + out into action, action will grow into custom, custom will + settle into habit, and then, there is the utmost danger of + both body and soul being irrecoverably lost.</p> + <p> + When our Saviour sent forth his apostles to preach the + Gospel, he informed them of the hardships, dangers, and + discouragements they would have to encounter, in the + faithful discharge of their ministry; especially after his + resurrection, when they would be deprived of his personal + presence; for we do not read of any great persecutions they + endured while he was with them. These sufferings he + foretold, that they might not be surprised at their + approach; and that, by the accomplishment of this + prediction, their faith might be confirmed. “Behold, I send + you forth as sheep in the midst of Wolves.” Here we have a + prediction of their perilous condition; they were to be as + Sheep in the midst of Wolves. And what situation more + dangerous! What can sheep, that are feeble creatures, and + destitute of natural armour to defend themselves, expect, + in the midst of ravenous wolves, but to be rent and torn to + pieces? So those, amongst whom the apostles were to be + sent, would have as great an inclination, arising from + their malicious dispositions, to destroy them, as wolves + have from their nature to devour sheep. Wicked men are like + wolves, whose nature it is to destroy and devour sheep; + they are of a diabolical disposition towards the ministers + of the Gospel.</p> + <p> + Our Saviour also gave his apostles advice, how to conduct + themselves in such very unpleasant and dangerous + circumstances. “Be ye therefore wise as serpents,” not + cunning as foxes, whose aim is to deceive others; but as + serpents, whose policy is only to defend themselves, when + they are in danger. A serpent’s wisdom appears in a care to + guard and secure its head, that it may not be hurt; in + stopping its ears against the voice of the charmer, which + it does, says a certain naturalist, by laying one ear close + to the ground, and stopping the other with its tail; and in + sheltering itself in the clefts of a rock, when in danger. + So should Christ’s ministers, in a time of peril, use all + lawful means for their own safety and preservation; they + should be wary and circumspect to keep themselves from + harm, either of body or soul. “And harmless as doves.” + Ministers should be meek, do no person any harm, bear no + ill-will, be without gall, as is said of the dove; though + their enemies should be fierce and savage, like wolves, yet + they must not study how to revenge the injuries done them. + It should be their continual care to be inoffensive, in + word and deed: wisdom and innocence should dwell together. + Ministers must not be altogether doves, lest they fall into + danger; nor altogether serpents, lest they injure others; but + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">343</span> + + they must be both serpents and doves, the one for wisdom, + the other for innocence.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “That thou mayst injure no man, dove-like be,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And serpent-like, that none may injure thee!“</p> + </div> + <p> + Our Saviour likewise cautions his followers against false + teachers. “Beware of false prophets.” The term + <em>prophet</em> in the Scripture, signifies one who + foretells things to come; this is the most proper + signification of the word. It also means one who expounds + the predictions of the Old Testament. And sometimes we are + to understand by it, one employed in the ministry of the + Gospel; in this sense a prophet and a teacher are + reciprocal terms. So that by prophet here our Saviour means + false teachers, who, pretending authority from God, + exercised themselves in the ministry, and published false + doctrine, or at least represented truth in a corrupt + manner, with a fraudulent intention, from base motives, and + for vile ends; by whose doctrine persons were in no small + danger of being seduced from their simplicity, and drawn + away from the truth, sincerity, and power of godliness; + into a dead and lifeless formality, and an empty show of + religion and piety. Now against such men, Christ, in the + days of his public ministry, warned his hearers, to prevent + their deception, apprising them that they would “come in + sheep’s clothing.” They disguised their dangerous + principles and base intentions, under a show of external + religion, and fair professions of love, that, thereby they + might deceive others. “But inwardly they are ravening + Wolves.” They were as dangerous to the souls of men, as + ravenous Wolves are to Sheep, which watch for an + opportunity to seize their prey, silently approach the + sheep-fold to see whether the dogs be asleep, or the + shepherd be absent: so false teachers with wretched + hypocrisy and sophistry, counterfeit sincerity, humility, + and sanctity; and were it not for this semblance of piety, + their efforts to injure the church of God would be + ineffectual. He compares these false teachers to Wolves, + especially on account of their cruelty. These animals are + not content to satisfy their hunger, but will destroy + multitudes merely to gratify their voracious nature. So + false teachers strive to injure the whole church of God, + and thus destroy souls.</p> + <p> + Our Saviour exhorted his auditory to the exercise of + Christian prudence, in the dispensing of spiritual things. + “Give not that which is holy unto the Dogs, neither cast ye + your pearls before Swine, lest they trample them under + their feet, and turn again and rend you.” The deep things + of God, relating to doctrines, are not to be divulged to + those who are wallowing in sin; neither are the great + things he has done in his people to be declared to profane, + furious persecutors: but both classes of wicked men may be + reproved on proper occasions. By Dogs, our Saviour means + froward, perverse, malicious, revengeful, boisterous, + incorrigible, and irreclaimable sinners, who scorn holy + institutions, mock at every + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">344</span> + + thing sacred, scoff at religion, + deride the word of God, and all serious reproofs and + admonitions, whether given by parents, masters, ministers, + governors, and others; who are ready to persecute those who + preach the Gospel, and endeavor to promote their salvation. + By Swine, he means such sinners as are profane and sensual, + and like Swine wallow in the mud of sin and wickedness; to + whom it is as pleasant to live in their beastly lusts, as + it is for Swine to wallow in the mire; and to disregard, + abuse, and trample on holy things.</p> + <p> + St. Peter, in showing what all men are in the sight of God, + before they receive his grace, and what those are who turn + apostates from the truth, alludes to two offensive actions + of Dogs and Swine. “It has befallen to them according to + the true proverb, the Dog is turned to his vomit, and the + Sow that was washed to her wallowing in the mire.” + Blackwall says, this proverb, with great propriety and + strength, marks out the sottishness and odious manners of + persons enslaved to sensual appetites and carnal lusts; and + the extreme difficulty of reforming vicious and inveterate + habits. As a Dog, observe Bishop Patrick, when he has + vomited up his meat which made him sick, is no sooner well + but he returns to it, and eats it up again, forgetting how + ill it agreed with him; so an imprudent person commits the + same error over again, for which he formerly smarted. The + evil nature remaining, and at last gaining the ascendency, + in a man, who had through grace reformed his life, renders + him like the loathsome and detestable Sow, as Dr. Doddridge + remarks; for the Sow that was washed from the filthiness + she had before contracted, having still the same unclean + nature prevailing, is returned to wallow in the mire, and + so makes herself as filthy as she had ever been before. + And, adds Dr. Whitby, these two proverbs are expressive of + the folly of those men who return to those vices they had + formerly renounced.</p> + <hr id="CHAPTER_VII_2" class="tb" /> + <h3> + <em>Section II.</em>—<span + class="smcap">Man.</span></h3> + <p class="smaller hang1"> + <span class="smcap">Body</span>: — Its + Creator — Formation — Vitality — Blood — Heart — Arteries and + Veins — Digestion — Respiration — Glands — Absorbents — Nervous + System — Organs of Sense — Bones — Sinovia — + Muscles — Tendons — Cellular Membrane — Skin. <span + class="smcap">Soul</span>: + — Its Immateriality — Freedom — + Immortality — Moral Image — Adam’s Dominion over the + Creatures — Woman — Paradise.</p> + <p> + All things necessary, convenient, and delightful, being + prepared for the accommodation of Man: light, that he might + see; air, that he might hear and breathe; dry land, on + which he might walk; herbs and fruit-trees, for his + gratification and sustenance; fish, fowl, cattle, and + creeping things, for his service: then God proceeded to + make him, as the last and greatest display of his wisdom + and power, the master-piece of all sublunary creatures, + whose creation alone is represented in the sacred History, + as an effect + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">345</span> + + resulting from a divine + consultation. “And God said, Let us make man in our image, + after our likeness. So God created man in his own image, in + the image of God created he him; male and female created he + them.” It appears from the ingenious Parable of Protagoras + in Plato, it was a very ancient opinion that <em>man</em> + was last created after the other living creatures.</p> + <p> + In all the former works, God only said, Let such and such + things be, and they were; he spake the word, and it was + done. But now, when Man was to be made, God is spoken of as + calling a council, “Let <em>us</em> make man, in + <em>our</em> image, after <em>our</em> likeness.” This + imports that Man was to be a creature different from all + that had been produced, and far more excellent and + wonderful in his constitution; a compound of flesh and + spirit, heaven and earth, put together, the visible image + of the Divine glory, and dedicated and devoted to his + Creator’s service. Man was the work of <span + class="smcap">Elohim</span>, + the Divine Plurality, marked here + more distinctly by the plural pronouns <span + class="smcap">us</span> + and <span + class="smcap">our</span>; + all the Three Subsistencies in the Godhead are represented as + united in counsel and effort to bring into existence this + astonishing creature.</p> + <p> + Aben Ezra, a Jewish Rabbi, imagined that the souls of all + men were made on the first day of the creation, and that + God consulted them to obtain their consent before he would + assign them bodies of flesh, hereafter to be created. This + is a groundless hypothesis, derived from the Platonic + philosophy; for God says, “Let us make man in our image,” + which shows that Adam’s soul had then no existence, for in + that case, it doubtless would have been in the image of + God.</p> + <p> + Some other Jewish Doctors, as Manasseh ben Israel, + ridiculously conceived that God spake to the elements. But + this is more absurd than the former; for the expression, + “Let us make man,” implies capacity of consultation in + those spoken to, and real efficiency. But the elements are + not intelligent beings, neither efficient, but only + material parts of man.</p> + <p> + Nor does God here speak to the angels, as the authority of + the Paraphrase, which is called Jonathan’s, suggests. The + words of the Paraphrase are these: “God said to the angels, + which ministered before him, Let us make man.” It is a + noted saying of the Jewish Rabbis, that God does nothing + without consulting his family above: they mean, his holy + angels. Several heretics, in the first and second centuries + of Christianity, were of opinion, that this lower world was + made by angels. This notion is likewise erroneous: God here + speaks to those in whose image man was to be formed, but he + was not made in the image of angels.</p> + <p> + It is pretended by those who are enemies to the orthodox + doctrine of the Trinity, that this is a figurative way of + speaking, only to express the dignity of God, not to denote + any plurality in him; that he here speaks in the plural + number after the manner of princes, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">346</span> + + who say, We will + and require, or, It is our pleasure. But this is only a + far-fetched invention, to evade the doctrine of the + Trinity, by persons in latter times, and no way agreeable + to the first ages of the world, or the Hebrew style. + Melchizedeck, Abimelech, Pharoah, and Balak, all speak in + the singular number. The kings of Israel used the same + style, as did Saul, David, and even Solomon in all his + glory. And also the Eastern monarchs: “I (Darius) make a + decree. I, even I, Artaxerxes the king, do make a decree.” + Nor is there in the Scriptures one example to the contrary.</p> + <p> + Beside, how absurd it is to suppose that God would borrow + his mode of speaking from a practice which did not exist! + And even granting this possible, yet the cases are not + parallel. For though a King, or Governor, may say + <em>us</em> and <em>we</em>, there is certainly no figure + of speech that will allow a single person to say, <em>one + of us</em>, when he speaks of <em>himself</em>. It is a + phrase that can have no meaning, unless there be more + persons than one concerned. Yet in addition to US and OUR, + this we find is the style in which God has spoken of + himself.</p> + <p> + There are some persons who maintain, in opposition to the + clear light of revelation, that there is but one + Subsistence in the Divine Nature. This was the opinion of + the Sabellians, a denomination which arose in the third + century; and, certain persons, in modern times, have + embraced the same. These contend that God here speaks to + himself, as consulting with himself, to create man, and + that, though the words be plural, yet the sense is + singular, as if he had said, Let <em>me</em> make man.</p> + <p> + One of the Persons, or Subsistencies in the Godhead, here + speaks to the other Two, and who more likely than the + Father, who is first in the order of arrangement, as given + by the sacred Writers. The Father, not the Son, is the + first; the Son, not the Holy Spirit, is the second; and the + Holy Spirit, not the Father, is the third. Hence, the + Father, when he said, “Let us make man,” addressed himself + to the Son, and to the Holy Spirit, who were therein joint + and equal Creators with him. “None saith, Where is God my + Maker?” in the Hebrew, <em>Makers</em>, is the language + used in the Book of Job, implying a Plurality of Persons in + a Unity of Essence: a phraseology like that of Solomon, + “Remember thy Creator,” in the original, <em>Creators</em>. + The prophet Isaiah adopts the same style, “Thy Maker is + thine husband,” in the Hebrew, <em>thy Makers are thy + Husbands</em>. Thus it evidently appears, that this + consultation was among the Persons in the Godhead; that all + the Three, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, were + concerned in man’s creation; and were therein joint + Creators, equal in nature, power, and efficiency.</p> + <p> + Dr. Waterland says, that this text, <em>Let us make + man</em>, has been understood of Father, Son, and Holy + Ghost, or at least of Father and Son, by the whole + succession of Christian writers, from the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">347</span> + + times of the + apostles; which is a circumstance of considerable + importance, and will impress the minds of sincere and + impartial men. That the Christian Fathers were unanimous in + their judgment, that these words were spoken by the Father + to the Son, or Spirit, or both, appears in their works, + from which we shall adduce a few proofs.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_175"> + <em>Barnabas</em> says:—“And for this the Lord was + contented to suffer for our souls, though he be the Lord of + the world; to whom God said, the day before the formation + of the world, Let us make man after our image and + similitude.”<a + href="#Footnote_175" + class="fnanchor">175</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_176"> + <em>Hermas</em>:—“He was present in counsel with his Father + for the forming of the creature.”<a + href="#Footnote_176" + class="fnanchor">176</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_177"> + <em>Theophilus</em> of Antioch:—“He directed these words, + <em>Let us make man</em>, to none other than his own Word + and his own Wisdom.”<a + href="#Footnote_177" + class="fnanchor">177</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_178"> + <em>Irenæus</em>:—“His Word and Wisdom, his Son and Spirit, + are always present with him, to whom also he spake, saying, + <em>Let us make man</em>, &c.”<a + href="#Footnote_178" + class="fnanchor">178</a> + Again:—“Man was fashioned + after the image and likeness of the uncreated God, the + Father willing his creation, the Son ministering and + forming him, the Holy Ghost nourishing and increasing him.”<a + href="#Footnote_179" + class="fnanchor">179</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_180"> + <em>Tertullian</em>:—“Nay, because his Son is ever present + with him, the second person, his Word; and the third, the + Spirit in the Word; therefore he spake in the plural, + <em>Let us make man in our image</em>.”<a + href="#Footnote_180" + class="fnanchor">180</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_181"> + <em>Novatian</em>:—“Who does not acknowledge the Son to be + the second person after the Father, when he reads that it + was said to the Son by the Father, <em>Let us make man</em>.”<a + href="#Footnote_181" + class="fnanchor">181</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_182"> + <em>Origen</em>:—“To him also spake he (the Father,) + <em>Let us make man after our image</em>.”<a + href="#Footnote_182" + class="fnanchor">182</a></p> + <p> + <em>Athanasius</em>:—“Who is this that God converses with + here? To whom are these notifications and determinations of + his pleasure directed? Not to any of the creatures already + made; much less to those things which were not yet created; + but, undoubtedly to some person, who was then present with + the Father, to whom he communicated his councils, and of + whose agency he made use in the creation of them. And who + could this be but his eternal Word? With whom can we + conceive the Father holding his conference, but with his + Son, the divine LOGOS, that Wisdom of God, that was present + with him, and acted with him, in the creation of the world, + who was in the beginning with God, and was God? and who + saith of himself, <em>When he prepared the heavens, I was + there; when he appointed the foundations of the earth, then + was I by him, as one brought up with him</em>.”</p> + <p> + <em>St. Augustine</em>:—“Had God said no more than, <em>Let + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">348</span> + + us make man</em>, it might, with some color, be understood as + spoken to the angels, whom the Jews pretend he employed in + framing the body of man, and other creatures; but seeing it + immediately follows, <em>after our image</em>, it is highly + profane to believe, that man was made after the similitude + of angels; and that the similitude of God and angels is one + and the same.”</p> + <p> + <em>St. Ambrose</em> speaks to the same purpose:—“God would + not speak thus to his servants, because it is not to be + thought, that servants were partners with their Lord, in + his works of creation; or the works with their Author. And, + supposing this should be admitted, that the work was common + to God and angels, yet the image was not common.”</p> + <p id="FNanchor_183"> + Nay, the second Council of Sirmium, which was held in 351, + pronounced an anathema on all those who denied this. The + words of the Council are these:—“If any say, that the + Father did not speak to the Son, when he said, <em>Let us + make man</em>, but that he spake to himself, let him be + accursed.”<a + href="#Footnote_183" + class="fnanchor">183</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_184"> + <em>Epiphanius</em>:—“This is the language of God to his + Word, and Only-begotten, as all the faithful + believe.”<a + href="#Footnote_184" + class="fnanchor">184</a> + And again he says, “Adam was formed by the hand of the Father, + and the Son, and the Holy Ghost.”<a + href="#Footnote_185" + class="fnanchor">185</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_186"> + I observe more at large from <em>Irenæus</em>, that he + rejects the notion of the Jews and Heretics, who supposed + God spake to his angels. For disputing against Heretics, + who attributed the creation of the world to angels, and + powers separate from the one true God, he says + thus:—“Angels did not make us, nor did they form us; + neither was it in their power to make the image of God: + none but the Logos could do this; no powers distinct from + the Father of all things: for God did not want their + assistance in making the things which he had ordained. For + his Word and his Wisdom, the Son and the Holy Ghost, are + always with him; by whom and with whom, he made all things + freely, and of his own accord; to whom also he spake in + these words, <em>Let us make man in our image and + likeness</em>.”<a + href="#Footnote_186" + class="fnanchor">186</a></p> + <p> + The testimony of Dr. Kennicott will be respected by those + who are lovers of the truth. “God, says he, being about to + create man, is introduced saying—<em>Let</em> <span + class="smcap">us</span> + <em>make man in</em> <span + class="smcap">our</span> + <em>image, after our likeness</em>; in + consequence of which the historian tells us—<em>so God + created man in his own image, in the image of God created + he him</em>. It is evident then, that God created man in + his own image; this is mentioned thrice by way of emphasis, + and to prevent, if possible, all possibility of + misconstruction. Now what God did, was certainly what he + proposed to do; God created man in his own image, that is, + in the image of the Godhead, and therefore God proposed to + create him in the image of the Godhead. But if God proposed + to create him in the image of the Godhead, the + proposal + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">349</span> + + must have been made to the + Godhead; because the words are—<em>Let us make man in</em> + <span class="smcap">our</span> <em>image</em>. And if the + proposal be here made by God to the Godhead, it is absurd + to suppose it made to the same Person that makes it; and + consequently reasonable to think it made to the other two + persons in the Unity of the Godhead.”<a + href="#Footnote_187" + class="fnanchor">187</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_188"> + The creature now to be made is man.<a + href="#Footnote_188" + class="fnanchor">188</a> + <em>And God said, Let us make + man.</em> It is evident that God, by introducing the + creation of man with this peculiar phraseology, intends + to impress the mind with a sense of something + extraordinary in his formation. The word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">אדם</span> + <em>Adam</em>, which is translated <em>man</em>, is + intended to designate the <em>species</em> of animal, + which is vastly superior to all the rest. Though the + same kind of organization may be found in Man, as + appears in the lower animals, yet, as one observes, + there is a variety and complication in the parts, a + delicacy of structure, a nice arrangement, a judicious + adaptation of the various members to their great offices + and different functions, a dignity of mien, and + perfection of the whole, which are sought for in vain in + all other creatures.</p> + <p> + Man is a compound creature, consisting of two distinct + essential parts, body and soul. The union of these + constitutes man, for neither of them when separated can be + so denominated. The body was made before the soul, and + formed out of the earth, or, as <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">עפר</span> + <em>âpher</em> + implies, the <em>dust</em>. “The Lord God formed man of the + dust of the ground.” He afterwards pronounced, <em>Dust + thou art</em>. This led Solomon to affirm, “All are of the + dust.” The Apostle adds, “The first man was of the earth, + dusty,” as Ainsworth renders it. And we are said to “dwell + in houses of clay,” and to have our “foundation in the + dust.” Of the soul it is said, “God breathed into his + nostrils the breath of life:” <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">רוח חיים</span> + <em>ruach chayim</em>, the breath of <span + class="smcap">lives</span>; + i.e. animal, intellectual, and + spiritual. While this breath of God expanded the lungs, and + set them to play, his inspiration gave both spirit, + understanding, and felicity. Thus we see that the soul and + the body are not the same thing; the one is of the earth, + the other is from God. The Rabbins say, “The form of the + soul is not compounded of the elements, &c., but is of + the Lord from heaven. Therefore when the material body, + which is compounded of the elements, is separated, and the + breath perishes because it is not found, but with the body, + and is needful for the body in all its actions; this form + (i.e. the soul) is not destroyed, &c., but continues + for ever. This is that which Solomon by his wisdom said, + ‘Then shall the dust return unto the earth as it was; and + the spirit shall return unto God who gave it.’”</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">350</span> + + As the formation of man’s body was effected previously to + the infusion of his soul, we shall attend to the same + order, in attempting to elucidate this important and very + interesting subject. The word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ייצר</span> + <em>jitzer</em>, + rendered <em>he formed</em>, observes Mr. Benson, is not + used concerning any other creature, and implies a gradual + process in the work, with great accuracy and exactness. It + is properly used of potters forming vessels on the wheel; + and Rabbi D. Kimchi says, that, when used concerning the + creation of man, it signifies the formation of his members. + Bishop Patrick intimates, that the body of man was made not + of <em>dry</em>, but <em>moist</em> dust; and that this + agrees with the Hebrew <span + class="smcap">Jitzer</span>, + <em>formed</em>, which is used concerning potters, who make + their vessels of <em>clay</em>, not of <em>dry</em> earth. + Diodorus Siculus says, “Man was made out of the + <em>slime</em>, or <em>mud</em>, of the Nile.” The word of + the Lord once came to Jeremiah, saying, “Arise, and go down + to the potter’s house, and there I will cause thee to hear + my words. Then I went down to the potter’s house, and, + behold, he wrought a work on the wheel. And the word of the + Lord came to me, saying, Behold, as the clay is in the + potter’s hand, so are ye in mine hand!” A scene like this + is presented to our imagination by the words of Moses; the + Lord God <em>formed</em>, moulded, or modelled man, as a + potter does; we see the work, observes Bishop Horne, as it + were upon the wheel, rising and growing under the hands of + the Divine Artificer!</p> + <p> + But, to give the thing a stronger impression on the mind, + we will suppose, says Judge Hale, that this figure rises by + degrees, and is finished part by part, in some succession + of time; and that, when the whole is completed, the veins + and arteries bored, the sinews and tendons laid, the joints + fitted, and liquor (transmutable in blood and juices) + lodged in the ventricles of the heart, God infuses into it + a vital principle, whereupon the liquor in the heart begins + to descend, and thrill along the veins, and a heavenly + blush arises in the countenance, such as scorns the help of + art, and is above the power of imitation. The image moves, + it walks, it speaks; it moves with such a majesty, as + proclaims it the lord of the creation, and talks with such + an accent and sublimity, as makes every ear attentive, and + even its great Creator enter into converse with it: were we + to see all this transacted before our eyes, I say, we could + not but stand astonished at the thing; and yet this is the + exact emblem of man’s formation.</p> + <p> + The human body is an excellent piece of workmanship, the + shape and contexture of it admirable, evidently superior to + that of all other animals, and the brightest visible + display of the wisdom of the Divine Architect. The erect + posture, figure, stature, use of every part, and symmetry + of the whole, cannot but excite admiration. The fabric of + the eye, the texture of the brain, the configuration of the + muscles, the disposition of the nerves, the construction of + the bones; the veins and arteries, spread throughout + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">351</span> + + the system, the former to return + the blood to the heart, and keep that mysterious engine + playing, which throws the vital fluid through the latter + with prodigious force, to animate and invigorate every + part; and many other important particulars, which we shall + now proceed to mention and illustrate, are not only + manifest proofs of the great excellence of this system, but + also of the skill, contrivance, and consummate wisdom of + God.</p> + <p> + When we take a general view of the animal world, we find + the numerous individuals which compose it, differing + considerably in the phenomena which their economy exhibits. + Man, and the higher orders of animals, are characterized by + the constant performance of many complex and active + functions; as respiration, digestion, circulation, &c. + Torpid or hibernating animals display this singular + peculiarity, that these functions are performed for several + months, and suspended for several months, alternately. In + another modification of animated matter, namely the egg, + the evidences of vitality would not be exhibited, were not + certain agents applied to evolve them, and, when thus + called forth, they cannot be resumed after long suspension.</p> + <p> + Although we are ignorant of the nature of the cause which + regulates the uniform performance of this series of + phenomena, thus more or less extensively displayed in the + economy of different animals, we are nevertheless convinced + that such a cause must exist, and are hence naturally led + to distinguish the phenomena by some appropriate term. Thus + observing that the human body, and the bodies of animals + which bear it resemblance, possess locomotive powers, can + regulate their actions, and are capable not only of + resisting the laws which govern inanimate substances, but + are enabled to act upon these substances in direct + opposition to these laws, we employ the terms life, + vitality, and vital power, to express the phenomena which + thus distinguish animate from inanimate matter; and in + order simply to determine the import of those terms, we may + take a general view of those powers which a living animal + body possesses, and which cease with its existence.</p> + <p> + When we compare the living with the dead body, the most + striking circumstance we observe is, that the former was + surrounded by the same chemical agents which are capable of + producing the decomposition and destruction of its soft + parts after death; hence it becomes evident, that its + component elements must have been sustained and preserved + by some superior power, which ceases to act at the moment + of its dissolution.</p> + <p> + Of all the phenomena which enter into the general idea of + life, this power of self-preservation, or the capability of + resisting the laws which govern inanimate matter, appears + the most essential. Without this principle we can form no + conception of life, since it evidently exists without + interruption till the moment of dissolution. It is this + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">352</span> + + + principle which, communicated to an egg, enables it to + resist for a certain period the powers of heat, cold, and + putrefaction; a principle of which the addle or barren egg + is entirely devoid. Thus we find from Mr. J. Hunter’s + experiments, that an impregnated egg is longer in freezing + than an addle egg, and every one knows that the former + remains sweet or free from putrefaction much longer. This + principle, which we may consider the most simple state of + existence, is limited in its duration; and for its + maintenance, the performance of no active function is + necessary. Hence it continues in the egg either quiescent + for a certain time, and is gradually destroyed; or, by the + agency or stimulus of heat, it acquires the accession of + the power of action, which assimilates inanimate matter + into a living form, and, at length, exhibits in the chick + all the phenomena of a more perfect state of existence, + which may be distinguished by the term active life. In this + state, many other phenomena of vitality are exhibited. + Besides the power of self-preservation, an internal + principle of support and reparation, and the power of + performing the important actions of circulation, + respiration, digestion, &c., which are subservient to + this principle, is given to animals. These form the + features of what we call life, as it appears in man, and + the higher orders of animals, and certainly constitute its + most useful, though not most essential part. For how little + superior is an egg, or a torpid animal, to vegetable or + inanimate matter, till the former contain a living chick, + the latter become an active animal? Thus, though life may + subsist under the quiescent form of self-preservation, it + requires the accession of certain principles, and a power + of performing various important actions, to display its + chief characters. The economy then of an egg, and of a + perfect animal, such as man, may be considered as examples + of the most simple and extensive phenomena of vitality. + These, however, are more or less perfectly exhibited in the + different orders of animals. It belongs, for instance, to + the economy of certain animals, which at one time of the + year perform active functions, to become torpid at the + approach of winter. In these creatures, respiration, + digestion, and every function which characterizes active + life, is suspended; as in the egg, the principle of + self-preservation, that latent spark of vitality, alone + remains, by which we distinguish torpidity from death. This + <a id="FNanchor_189"></a> + condition, however, is not of long continuance; at the + approach of summer’s warmth, the power of action is again + called forth, active functions are superadded to the + principle of self-preservation, and life, before quiescent + and obscure, now resumes its most perfect form; or, in + other words, the animal just now inert and motionless, + respires again; its heart beats, its blood circulates, its + muscles resume their accustomed motions, and it leaves its + winter quarters in search of food. Having now assumed the + nature of an active animal, the performance of the + functions + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">353</span> + + characteristic of that state + (which we shall now proceed to describe) becomes requisite; + and, first, the circulation of a fluid which we call + <em>blood</em>.<a + href="#Footnote_189" + class="fnanchor">189</a></p> + <p> + This fluid differs in its appearance in the different + orders of animals, though, in its essential properties + there is little variety; the appearance of the blood in + man, and the more perfect animals, is that of a red fluid, + having a certain degree of viscidity, not being limpid like + common water. Though it appears to be a homogenous fluid + whilst circulating, or at the moment it escapes from its + vessels, it is composed of three parts, essentially + differing from each other; of <em>particles</em>, upon + which the color of the blood depends; of <em>coagulating + lymph</em>, which has the property of becoming + spontaneously solid under certain circumstances, and from + which various structures in the body are formed; and of a + limpid fluid called <em>serum</em>, which dilutes the + coagulating lymph, and fits it for circulating through + blood vessels of a very minute size. In some of the lower + orders of animals, however, the color of the particles of + the blood is green, in others white, corresponding with the + color of the animal; in others there is no color whatever + in the blood, so that it is either void of particles, or + they are transparent, so as not to be seen. But this + deficiency must be considered as making no great difference + in the blood itself, as its particles do not appear to be + its most essential part. + <a id="FNanchor_190"></a> + Many microscopical observations + have been made to determine the size of a single particle + of the blood, and according to the observations of several + philosophers, the diameter of a single particle in man has + been computed at the 3,000th part of an inch. The size of + the particles in red blooded animals, is found not to + correspond with the size of the animal. They are as large + in the mouse as the elephant, larger in some insects than + in man, smaller in the ox. They are in prodigious numbers, + so as to give color to the blood, and of all its parts + appear to be renewed the most slowly; thus when animals are + frequently bled, the flesh becomes paler and paler.<a + href="#Footnote_190" + class="fnanchor">190</a></p> + <p id="FNanchor_191"> + The next part of the blood, or coagulating lymph, is of the + greatest + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">354</span> + + importance. This constituent part + becomes apparent, when blood is drawn from a vein into a + cup, from its power of spontaneously coagulating into a + solid mass, which appears red from a mixture of red + particles: the color of the lymph however is transparent. + This coagulation of the blood differs very essentially from + the coagulation of inanimate substances, and is considered + by many physiologists to be the last exertion of a living + principle, which the blood is supposed to possess. This + opinion, although not capable of absolute proof, is + rendered extremely probable from a variety of facts, and by + none more than the analogy between the coagulation of the + blood, and the contraction of the muscles at death. These + two actions appear to be influenced in some degree by the + same causes. Thus, sudden death from lightning, or a blow + upon the stomach, prevents the muscles from becoming rigid + after death, and prevents also the coagulation of the + blood. Under these circumstances it remains fluid. Besides + violent death, several circumstances influence its tendency + to coagulate and become solid, such as a great loss of + blood—inflammation—pregnancy in females, and other causes.<a + href="#Footnote_191" + class="fnanchor">191</a></p> + <p> + The third important part of the blood is the serum. This is + limpid like water, and remains permanently fluid, unless + certain substances are employed to coagulate it, such as + alcohol, alum, or a certain degree of heat. It dilutes the + other parts of the blood, so as to reduce the whole to a + proper state of fluidity. It is secreted, or naturally + separated from the blood, and poured out by exhalent + vessels in various cavities and parts of the body, as the + chest, abdomen, cellular membrane, &c. It facilitates + the easy motion of the various organs upon each other, and, + when accumulated in large quantities, forms the fluid of + dropsies.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_192"> + Besides these constituent parts, a quantity of water always + circulates with the blood, varying according to the + quantity of fluids taken in, and regulated in its + proportion by the kidneys. Thus if a large quantity of + water is taken into the stomach, particularly if it contain + a little spirit in the form of punch, the kidneys are + stimulated + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">355</span> + + to an increased action, so as to + separate from the blood the redundant quantity. A variety + of other substances also are occasionally introduced into + the blood, along with the aliment, alkaline substances + producing their effect upon the nature of the urine, + rhubarb on bile giving it a yellow color, and turpentine or + asparagus altering its odor; all these substances, before + passing off by urine, must have been mixed with the blood, + from whence the urine is formed, being in fact its + excrementitious part.<a + href="#Footnote_192" + class="fnanchor">192</a></p> + <p> + It is necessary for the blood thus formed, to pass to every + part of the body, that it may be converted into the nature + of these parts, and thus become subservient to their + growth; that fluids, serving important purposes in animal + bodies, may be separated or secreted from it; and that the + temperature of the body may be equably maintained. The + blood, however, has no power of motion in itself; if it be + not propelled by certain parts of the body, it remains + quiescent like any extraneous fluid.</p> + <p> + In two very numerous classes of animals, insects and + zoophites, the motion of the blood is very simple; they are + nourished like vegetables, by the absorption of the fluid, + which is prepared in their alimentary canal, and have no + circulation properly so called.</p> + <p> + But in man, and the higher orders of animals, a complex + apparatus for the motion of the blood becomes necessary, + consisting of an heart, arteries, and veins. The + <em>heart</em> may be considered as the chief agent in + circulation, the general reservoir, and source from whence + the blood flows. It is composed of two principles, one a + principle of reception, the other a principle of + propulsion. That cavity of the heart, which is called its + auricle, receives the blood from the veins; the cavity + called its ventricle, propels it through the arteries.</p> + <p> + Although the heart in all animals is formed on the same + general principle, and for the same purpose, yet the + economy of some animals admits of a greater simplicity in + the conformation of this organ, than others. The most + simple kind of heart is composed of one cavity, with a tube + entering into it, by which it receives the blood, and + another passing out of it, by which the blood is conveyed + over the body. The next simple heart is composed of two + cavities, an auricle, which receives the blood, and propels + it into a ventricle, which diffuses it over the body. + Another kind of heart is composed of three cavities; two + auricles, and one ventricle; one auricle receiving the + blood from the lungs, the other from the body generally; + the blood from these two sources is mixed together in a + single ventricle. This structure we find in some amphibious + animals, in which it is not necessary that the blood should + circulate with so much influence from the oxygenous part of + the atmosphere, as in + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">356</span> + + other animals. Accordingly we + find the heart adapted to transmit only one half of the + blood through the lungs at each circulation, whilst in more + perfect animals the whole mass passes by this route. The + last kind of heart is formed of four cavities, two auricles + and two ventricles, and is the most perfect apparatus as it + is found in man, and quadrupeds generally.—It must, + however, be considered as composed of two distinct parts, + or two simple hearts adhering together, and performing + distinct parts of the circulation; and one part intended to + receive the blood from the body, and circulate it through + the lungs; the other part to receive the blood from the + lungs, and propel it over the rest of the body. It is + better suited to the economy of some animals, as the cuttle + fish, that these parts should be separated to a + considerable distance from each other. The reason why the + heart is formed of two parts in most animals is, that it is + necessary that the blood should receive the impulse of the + heart twice, first to propel it through the lungs, next to + propel it over the rest of the body.</p> + <p> + The blood is conveyed from the heart to every part of the + body, by means of elastic tubes, called <em>arteries</em>. + These arise from the ventricles of the heart by two large + trunks, which branch out in every part of the body, into + arteries of great minuteness, conveying the blood from the + heart to its most distant parts, so that it is impossible + to wound any part of the body with the finest point, + without opening one of these vessels. This gives a good + idea of their minuteness.</p> + <p> + From the minute termination of the arteries, begins a + second set of vessels, the <em>veins</em>, which, having a + contrary course, return the blood from every part of the + body into the auricles of the heart.</p> + <p> + The larger arteries and veins, near the heart, differ very + much from each other in their structure and action. This + difference, however, does not descend to their minute + ramifications, which must be considered as having the same + structure, and performing the same office, the one passing + into the other by such imperceptible degrees, that we + cannot mark where the one terminates or the other begins.</p> + <p> + If we consider these tubes as subservient to the + circulation of the blood, we shall see the necessity of + certain principles entering into their structure. As the + blood is forcibly thrown from the heart, these vessels must + be distended; one of their properties therefore, must be a + capability of being distended, which is given to them by + elastic matter entering into their composition. As the + vessels, however, are not to remain in a distended state, a + power of reaction is added, which arises also out of their + elasticity, and assists in propelling the blood forwards.</p> + <p> + Thus the elastic matter allows the vessels to be distended + to a certain degree, and also reduces them to a smaller + size. But it is necessary that the heart shall be assisted + considerably, in the circulation + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">357</span> + + of the blood, by + a contractile power of the vessels themselves; and the same + quantity of blood is not to circulate in the same body at + all times, for animals are liable to frequent injuries, by + which the quantities of blood in their bodies may be very + suddenly reduced. Hence the vessels have given to them a + further power of contraction to assist the heart, and + accommodate themselves, under certain circumstances, to a + smaller quantity of blood. For this purpose, a muscular + structure is added to them, which is present in largest + proportion in the smaller arteries; by this means, they are + enabled so far to withstand the power of the heart, as to + shut their cavities, and prevent the escape of blood when + divided, forming one of the means by which the effusion of + blood is spontaneously checked in living animals. And it + may be remarked, that this power, for the purpose of + self-preservation, is extended to larger arteries in the + brute creation; for Mr. Hunter found, that the flow of + blood from the large artery in the neck of an ass was + checked by an exertion of this power, whilst every one + knows that its division in man is fatal.</p> + <p> + Besides these parts, arteries have an internal lining, + which is perfectly smooth, and of considerable density, + that the blood may circulate with as little resistance, and + be contained as completely as possible within its proper + channels.</p> + <p> + The same observations will apply to the veins, though some + of their properties are less strongly marked. They possess + an elastic power capable of distension and reaction, a + muscular structure endowed with contractility, and an + internal lining over which the blood circulates with as + little resistance as possible. By these powers the blood is + circulated through every part of the body with great + velocity. According to the best calculations, the heart + alone exerts a power equal to the pressure of 51½ pounds, + which propels the blood through the arteries at the + velocity of 149 feet in a minute; in which time it expels + from its cavities about 160 ounces.</p> + <p> + Thus all animals are provided with an organ for propelling + the blood, by certain channels, to the different parts of + the body; but, as the functions of these parts are various, + they require to be visited by very different proportions of + blood, according to their activity or powers of life. Some + parts of the body may be said to be inert, and merely + possessed of a principle of life, to connect them with the + other organs of the body, as parts of a living system, and + to enable them to go through certain processes in their + healthy and diseased states. Other parts are formed for + active functions, and possess great sensibility. It is + accordingly observed, that a smaller quantity of blood is + distributed to bones, tendons, and similar inert parts, + than to muscles and glands, whose exertions are more + considerable.</p> + <p> + This then is the general apparatus in perfect animals, by + which the blood performs its circulation through the + various parts of the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">358</span> + + body, but during its course it is + subject to constant exhaustion from various sources. It is + converted in its passage into the nature of all the + component parts of the body, and has the different secreted + fluids derived from it, and these processes go on with more + activity in a young, than an adult person: hence we see the + necessity of a constant supply of materials to the blood, + and this in the greatest proportion at an early period of + life.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_193"> + Animals are furnished with the means of this supply, by + their power of converting animal and vegetable substances + into the nature of blood, by a process called + <em>digestion</em>. Some animals are led by their nature to + live on vegetable food, others on animal food only, whilst + others can subsist on either, or any mixture of both.<a + href="#Footnote_193" + class="fnanchor">193</a> + The digestive powers of man + fit him for any proportion of animal or vegetable foods, + and are the most perfect of all animals. Other creatures + may be said to be confined to a certain district, but + the curiosity of man is to lead him over the whole + world, and frequently place him in situations where only + one kind of food is attainable.</p> + <p> + The first change which takes place in the food, in order + that it shall be converted into the nature of the blood, is + its division into smaller parts, by the teeth or gizzards + of animals. It is then passed into the stomach, where it + remains for some time exposed to the action of a fluid, + formed in the stomach, which is called gastric juice. This + possesses a very strong power of coagulating and dissolving + various animal and vegetable substances. As far as we know, + it acts on the principle of any other solvent, for it + produces the same change in substances out of the body, or + even within the body after death. It frequently happens, + for instance, when a person has been killed, by accident, + in full health, that, on inspection, the stomach is found + dissolved, and reduced to a gelatinous mass in several + parts, arising from the action of the gastric juice, which + had been formed in it before death. The gastric juice, + however, cannot act upon living substances: hence the + stomach resists its action, and worms sometimes reside and + are even generated in the stomach. Every substance capable + of being acted upon in the stomach, is reduced, by the + solvent power of the gastric juice, into a pulpy mass, + which has been called chyme, the exact chemical properties + of which have not been ascertained; in this state it is by + degrees transferred into the beginning of the small + intestines, where it is mixed with the bile and pancreatic + fluid, and undergoes + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">359</span> + + a change into a milky fluid, + which is called chyle. It is then diffused by an undulating + motion of the intestines over their inner surface, that it + may be absorbed, and carried into the general mass of + blood.</p> + <p> + As far as has yet been ascertained by experiment, the chyle + of animals, most opposite to each other in their food, + structure, and habits of life, is so much alike as to have + no distinguishable difference. The chyle of a Dog, or Wolf, + differs in nothing from that of a Sheep or an Ox. This + would appear surprising, were it not ascertained that + almost every alimentary matter undergoes a chemical change + before it is converted into chyle, and that the ultimate + analysis of either animal or vegetable matter presents us + with the same elements as those of the blood, which, though + only three or four in number, are capable of forming the + various substances of which the body is composed, by + combining with each other, and in different proportions. + There is, however, this difference observable in the chyle, + that in reptiles and insects it is transparent like lymph.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_194"> + The lacteals are the vessels by which the chyle is absorbed + from the intestines: they form small processes on the + internal surface of the intestines like the pile of velvet, + which are hence called villi. A small portion of chyle + being received into their open mouths, is propelled by + successive contractions of these vessels into their large + trunk, the <em>thoracic duct</em>, from whence it is poured + into a great vein near the heart, and, by circulating + through the lungs, probably receives its final change into + blood; and this change would seem to be easily effected, as + the chyle already possesses the principal properties of + blood, being formed of particles swimming in a thinner + fluid, and having a power of coagulating spontaneously.<a + href="#Footnote_194" + class="fnanchor">194</a></p> + <p> + This is the apparatus by which the food is digested in man + so as to replenish the blood; but the digestive organs of + different animals exhibit considerable varieties, some + being more simple, others more complex in their structure, + adapted to the kind of food with which the animal is + nourished. Ruminating animals, or animals which chew the + cud, such as the Cow, have several stomachs, and the food + undergoes mastication several times, at each time being + passed into a different stomach, before being finally acted + upon by the gastric juice, after which it is transmitted + through a long tract of intestines. This is an example of + the most complex + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">360</span> + + digestive organ fitted to act + upon hard and fibrous food, which must be subjected to the + action of several menstrua preparatory to its being acted + upon by the gastric juice.</p> + <p> + In birds who live on grain as has been noticed, we meet + with a different apparatus to prepare it to be acted upon + by the gastric juice. The food first passes into the crop, + which forms a kind of reservoir from whence it may pass by + degrees into the gizzard, by which the grain is ground into + small particles, before it is transmitted into the stomach: + and it is surprising with how great power the gizzard acts + for this purpose. The Abbé Spallanzani introduced a garnet, + which is a very hard and angular stone, into the gizzard of + a Wood-Pigeon, and, in the course of a day, it was ground + perfectly smooth, by the action of the gizzard. He also + introduced a leaden ball stuck full of tin points, and + another with fine lancets, into the gizzard of a Turkey, + and in about 18 hours, the whole of the points were rubbed + down. The gizzard also possesses an amazing power of + compression. Raumeur introduced into the gizzard of a + Turkey tubes of tinned iron, seven lines in length, and two + in diameter, closed with solder at each end; some were + indented by the action of the gizzard, and others crushed + flat. Similar tubes, introduced into the teeth of a vice, + required the weight of about 440 lb. to produce the same + effect. The gizzard thus reduces into small particles + whatever food the animal selects, that it may be more + readily acted upon by the gastric juice in the stomach; for + the gastric juice acts like any other solvent, and + therefore acts most advantageously when the food is reduced + into small parts.—The digestive organs of some of the lower + orders of animals form a striking contrast to these. In the + most simple apparatus with which we are acquainted, the + stomach and the intestines are composed of a simple bag + which has but one opening, which serves both to receive the + food, and discharge the excrement. It composes in fact the + whole bulk of a fresh-water Polypus. In these animals the + chyle is absorbed by small vessels in the sides of the bag, + and is conveyed to every part of the body.</p> + <p> + Thus we find that the supply of materials to the blood is + commensurate to its exhaustion, that in young animals where + a more active process of formation is going on, a larger + proportion of food is requisite, and more chyle formed; + this, however, is not all that is necessary to prepare the + blood for its important purposes within the body. The + blood, by passing through the various parts of the body, is + so changed by the abstraction of certain properties, as to + render it unfit for circulation, which implies the + necessity of an organ, which may restore to the blood its + requisite qualities. This office is performed by + <em>respiration</em>, that function in animals by which the + blood receives the influence of atmospherical air.</p> + <p> + There is a great variety in the structure of the organ for + exposing the blood to the air, suited to the mode of life + in different animals. + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">361</span> + + In man and quadrupeds generally + the lungs serve this purpose; they are composed of a number + of blood vessels spread out upon minute air cells, which + communicate with and receive the air by means of the + trachea or windpipe, in consequence of the expansion of the + chest by certain muscular powers. These vessels and cells + are connected together by cellular membrane, so as to form + a spongy mass called lungs, which are commonly placed in + the chests of animals.—But besides this kind of organ, + which in birds is very large, they have air bags, or + appendages to the lungs, diffused through various parts of + the body; even some of their long bones contain nothing but + air, and communicate with the lungs. It was from a + knowledge of this fact that Mr. J. Hunter made a Turkey + breathe by its wings, by making an opening into their large + bones, and closing the animal’s mouth.</p> + <p> + In Fish, the gills serve the purpose of lungs. They are + composed of a number of processes arising from cartilages, + having distributed upon them minute blood-vessels, which + receive the influence of air contained in water: and hence + distilled water, which contains little air, destroys fish, + in the same manner as the exhausted receiver of an air pump + does a breathing animal.</p> + <p> + There is another mode of conveying air for the use of the + blood in many insects, by means of a number of tubes or + spiracula: these receive the external air, and, by + ramifying in the body of the animal, convey its influence + to the blood. Thus these animals may be said to respire + like vegetables, throughout the whole of their surface, by + vessels which introduce the air at different points into + their bodies. In some insects the rectum forms the + principal organ of respiration, and, in the class of + animals called Zoophites, there are no visible organs of + respiration.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_195"> + These different modifications, in the respiratory organs of + the higher and lower orders of animals, are all formed with + the same intention, viz. that the blood may be exposed more + or less to atmospherical air. In consequence of this the + blood undergoes a process similar to combustion, which + extracts from it a part of its carbon, in the form of + carbonic acid, and by this means increases the relative + proportion of its remaining elements. The inspired air at + the same time is deprived of a part of its oxygen, which is + the elastic fluid which commonly supports respiration. All + the corresponding effects produced upon the blood are not + yet fully explained. But by this means the color of the + blood is changed from a dark to a florid red, it acquires + the power of exciting the action of the heart, and is + fitted for its various purposes within the body.<a + href="#Footnote_195" + class="fnanchor">195</a> + By these organs, respiration + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_362">362</span> + + is performed more or less + extensively in the different orders of animals, + corresponding in a great degree, to their activity, + digestive powers, and the heat maintained in their + bodies. Birds, whose extensive respiratory organs + consume a larger quantity of air, are capable of greater + exertion; make more frequent meals than quadrupeds, and + maintain a superior temperature. Quadrupeds hold a + middle place between birds and reptiles. Respiration + appears in the class of reptiles, as Frogs and Toads, to + be a subordinate function only; they can exist without + it nearly as long as they please; at the same time they + make very long fasts, and the heat of their bodies is + more variable and lower than quadrupeds; hence they are + called cold blooded animals. Their other habits accord + well with their organs of respiration. They generally + live in impure air, their motions are languid, and they + pass a great part of their existence in a state of + torpidity.</p> + <p> + A subordinate use of respiration in most animals, is the + formation of the voice: for this purpose there are + membranes stretched across the narrow part of the windpipe, + which are thrown into a state of vibration by the current + of air: the vibrations thus produced, being modified by + other accessory parts, produce the voice. In many animals, + however, it is produced by a very different mechanism. Some + animals employ the friction of certain elastic parts of the + body, as Grasshoppers and Crickets; others employ the + vibration of certain parts in the air, whilst others + impress a rapid motion on portions of air inclosed in + certain parts of their bodies.</p> + <p> + There is a particular part of the heart in man, intended + merely to propel the blood, which passes through the lungs + to receive the influence of the air; this is the right + ventricle; from whence the blood passes, by the pulmonary + artery, through the minute vessels expanded on the air + cells, and is changed from a dark to a florid color: it is + then returned back to the left ventricle, by the pulmonary + veins, and is propelled over the rest of the body, where it + is again changed (by the abstraction of certain properties) + to the dark color peculiar to venous blood: the blood is + lastly conveyed by the veins to the right side of the heart + from whence it set out, having passed through two circles.</p> + <p> + The blood thus prepared by the lungs for circulation, + passes in different quantities to different parts of the + body, according to their activity, and has various fluids + formed from it, which are called secreted fluids, as + gastric juice, milk, bile, &c. The parts of the body + forming many of these fluids, are very peculiar in their + structure, and are called <em>glands</em>. They consist in + an arrangement of + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_363">363</span> + + vessels, endowed with a mode of + action, with which we are unacquainted, by which the + component parts of the blood are disposed to enter into new + combinations, and to form compounds differing from the + blood itself. Thus the vessels are arranged on the inside + of the stomach, in such a way, as by their action to form + gastric juice from the blood; on the same principle, milk + is produced from the blood which circulates in the breast, + or bile in the liver. As gastric juice, milk, and bile, + differ very much from each other in their properties, we + must infer, that there is a considerable variety in the + action, by which these vessels form these fluids from the + blood; and this is necessarily connected with a variety in + arrangement, which is the case in all the glands of the + body. In one gland, for example, the blood-vessels form a + minute net-work; in another, are convoluted at their + extremities; in a third, a large branch suddenly divides + into a number of small branches, like the hairs of a + painter’s brush; in a fourth, they are disposed in an + arborescent form, each gland differing from every other in + the mode of distribution of its blood-vessels, and forming + different products from the blood.</p> + <p> + The substances formed by many of the glands of the body, + are applied to useful purposes, within or without the body. + An instance of the former we have in the bile formed by the + liver, or the gastric juice formed by the stomach; and of + the latter, in the milk.—Other secreted fluids are rejected + as excrementitious: the best example of this is the urine + formed by the kidneys. This gland separates from the blood + a great variety of substances, which might otherwise prove + noxious by circulating along with it; many of these have + occasionally very curious chemical properties, and under a + certain state of the body, the altered secretion of this + organ is very remarkable, in as far as it produces a large + quantity of a familiar substance, which in this instance is + composed within the body. In the disease called diabetes, + for example, a patient sometimes makes four or five gallons + of urine in the 24 hours, in which is dissolved a + considerable quantity of matter, like common sugar or + treacle, probably to the amount of two or three pounds.</p> + <p> + Besides these fluids formed from the blood, each by an + appropriate glandular apparatus, there are watery fluids + constantly secreted in various parts of the body; and, that + these may not accumulate, or remain after they have + performed their office, it is necessary for the body to be + furnished with vessels, whose powers of removal may keep + pace with the deposition of these fluids. This introduces + the system of vessels called <em>absorbents</em>, which are + distinct in their office and nature from the blood-vessels, + and are widely diffused over the whole body. In every part + of the body a limpid fluid is thrown out for the purpose of + easy motion, moistening the cellular membrane, which + connects the various parts of the body to each other, and + lubricating the contents of all the cavities + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_364">364</span> + + of the body; this + fluid is thrown out in the form of vapor by the exhalents, + which belong to the arterial system, whilst the lymphatic + absorbent vessels, by their action, remove what is not + convenient for the function of the part; and these two + actions, of deposition, by the exhalents, and absorption, + by the lymphatics, go on during health, so nicely balanced, + that when we open into any of the great cavities of the + body, as the belly or chest, the quantity of fluid we find + is extremely small. When, however, the balance between + these two orders of vessels is destroyed, when the + exhalents throw out more fluid than usual, and the + lymphatics only absorb their natural quantity; or the + exhalents deposit their natural quantity, whilst the + lymphatics absorb less than natural, accumulation of water + in the cellular membrane, or great cavities of the body, + takes place, and produces dropsies.</p> + <p> + There is another set of vessels, which have been already + mentioned, a part of the same system of absorbents, which + from their office of absorbing a white fluid, the chyle, + have been denominated lacteals; these arise from the inner + surface of the intestines, in great numbers, and convey the + chyle into the general mass of blood.—Whilst the minute + beginnings of the lacteal vessels, from the internal + surface of the intestines, is a matter of ocular + demonstration, we have only presumptive proof of the origin + of the lymphatics, which make the greatest part of the + absorbent system. We have, however, good grounds for + concluding, that they arise from every external and + internal surface of the body. We find, for example, that + certain remedies, as mercurial ointment, or turpentine, + rubbed on the skin of any part of the body, produce effects + on distant parts; the mercury by removing affections of + various parts of the body, the turpentine increasing the + flow of urine, and giving it a peculiar odor: these effects + are explained by presuming the absorption of these + substances, by the lymphatics, arising from the surface of + the skin. We have further proof of this from the occasional + absorption of watery fluids, under peculiar circumstances. + Sailors at sea, in want of fresh water, have quenched their + thirst by dipping their clothes in salt water, and applying + them to the surface of the body, from which only the + elementary part was absorbed by these vessels. A jockey, + after reducing himself to a great degree has become in a + short time too heavy to ride his match, merely by drinking + a glass of wine, which had stimulated the absorbents of the + skin to take up a large quantity of aqueous matter from the + air. Or a person gibbeted alive, has been observed to make + a considerable quantity of urine as long as he lived, + without any liquid being taken by the mouth. These are all + considered as evidences that the lymphatic absorbent + vessels arise from every external surface of the skin, and + are capable of taking up substances applied to them.</p> + <p> + We find next that water accumulated in the large cavities + of the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_365">365</span> + + chest or abdomen, or underneath the skin in the cellular + membrane, of every part of the body, is occasionally + removed from these situations, by remedies which have the + power of increasing the action of the absorbent vessels. We + hence conclude, that these vessels arise from every + internal part, and are, in short, widely diffused over the + whole body, though their beginnings are too minute to be + detected by any mode of examination with which we are + acquainted.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_196"> + The absorbent vessels, from whatever part they arise, + terminate in the blood-vessels, principally by one vessel + or trunk, which is called the <em>thoracic duct</em>. This + commences in the cavity of the abdomen, passes through the + chest on the right side of the spine, and, at length, + enters a large vein situated on the left side of the neck. + Through this vessel, besides the fluids taken up in various + parts of the body, the whole of the nourishment from + digested aliment passes into the blood; it may therefore be + said to be the most important vessel in the body,<a + href="#Footnote_196" + class="fnanchor">196</a> + and it is situated in one of + the safest positions in the body, so that an injury done + to it is a very rare occurrence.</p> + <p> + Thus the absorbent system is formed of two sets of vessels, + having the same structure, the same absorbing office, and + the same termination, but differing in the fluids they + convey, and the parts of the body they occupy. The one + widely diffused over the whole body, and from their office + of usually absorbing limpid fluids, called lymphatics; the + other arising only from the intestines, and denominated + lacteals, from the milky whiteness of the chyle they + absorb.</p> + <p> + Thus far the absorbent vessels have been described, as + employed in taking up fluids only. The action of the + absorbent system, however, is not considered as confined to + the fluid parts of the body; there are a variety of + instances, in which the most solid parts appear to be + removed by the absorbents. Thus when a tooth is extracted, + or drops out in old age, its bony socket is removed by the + action of the absorbents. The pressure of a pulsating + tumor, called aneurism, against the ribs, or thigh bone, + has produced their removal in the same way. These are + considered as instances of solid matter being removed by + the absorbent vessels, from internal parts of the body, + without any external opening. It is, however, a matter of + doubt, which we cannot at present discuss, whether a bone + is broken down by the absorbents themselves, so as to be + removed in small particles; or whether, as is more + probable, its presence or irritation (as an extraneous + body) produces the secretion of a fluid, similar in its + properties to the gastric juice, by + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">366</span> + + which it is first + reduced into minute particles, or entirely dissolved, so as + thus to enter the absorbent vessels.</p> + <p> + Another important part of the office of these vessels, is + to model the shape of the body, and to concur with the + action of the blood-vessels in regulating its growth. For + the human body does not, like a marble statue, constantly + contain the same identical particles in its composition. As + the stream of a river is formed of a constant succession of + aqueous particles, sometimes increasing, sometimes + diminishing its natural bulk; so the human body is + constantly undergoing an imperceptible change of parts. The + absorbents, by their action, remove exhausted particles, + whilst the arteries form from the blood an adequate supply + of new parts. When these two powers are equal, the body + continues of the same bulk; when from disease or contingent + circumstances, the one or the other predominates, the body + increases in growth, becomes corpulent, or emaciated.</p> + <p> + Thus we have seen a variety of organs necessary to carry on + the functions of perfect animals: these, however, are + inert, and incapable of motion in themselves. Hence a + <em>nervous system</em> becomes requisite, which may excite + and influence the whole. We find in man, and quadrupeds + generally, the nervous system placed principally in the + brain and spinal marrow; from these sources, the nerves are + distributed like white cords, and pass in various + proportions to the different parts of the body, conveying + the excitements of the brain.</p> + <p> + One of the most important excitements conveyed from the + brain, through the medium of the nerves, is volition; by + this means the muscles become obedient to the will, and + perform the voluntary actions of animals. If, for instance, + I wish to take up a pen, I exert my volition towards the + action, and the consequence of this is, that the muscles + employed in the action, are stimulated to contract, from a + peculiar excitement being conveyed to them from the brain, + through the medium of the nerves. We are totally ignorant, + however, of the state of the brain, whilst giving out the + excitement, or the change which takes place in the nerves + whilst conveying it. We know, however, that the brain may + be rendered incapable of giving rise to the excitement, and + it may be arrested in its progress down the nerves by + artificial means. If a ligature be applied upon a nerve by + tying a piece of thread round it, the nerve is rendered + incapable of transmitting the excitement, so as to produce + motion in muscles. The same state is frequently produced in + the brain and nerves, by the disease called palsy, or by + fractures of the skull. There are also various excitements + passing from the brain to the vital organs of the body, + whose actions are not regulated by the will, and are + therefore called involuntary, or automatic actions, as + circulation, parturition, &c. Thus if a person have + ever so strong + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_367">367</span> + + a desire, he cannot make his + heart beat more frequently; nor can he prevent it from + beating more frequently, if any one should put him in + bodily fear; although the heart is formed of muscular + flesh, similar to the muscles, which he can command in his + arm. The reason of this is, that the nerves of the heart + cannot convey the influence of volition; for the wisest + reasons the heart acts without it.</p> + <p> + It is also necessary for various influences to be + communicated from external objects to the brain, to keep up + a correspondence between animals, and the material world + around them, and to communicate those impressions from + which the brain is afterwards to carry on its functions. As + the parts formed for this purpose differ from ordinary + parts of the body, in having a larger share of nervous + influence given to them, they have been called the + <em>organs of sense</em>, which in an anatomical point of + view, may be said to be five in number, the eye, the ear, + the tongue, the nose, and the skin.</p> + <p> + In the <em>eye</em>, we discover a most accurate optical + instrument, adapted to converge the rays of light at its + posterior part. It is composed of a spherical box, + containing transparent media of different densities, by + which the rays of light are conveyed to a point, so as to + impress a minute image of the visible appearance of + external objects upon the retina or expansion of the optic + nerve, by which the impression is conveyed to the brain, so + as to bring us acquainted with external objects.</p> + <p> + The <em>ear</em> is formed to receive impressions from + bodies in a state of vibration, which are conveyed to the + brain by an apparatus composed of various substances, and + eminently calculated to transmit the slightest tremors. The + vibrations of the air, for instance, first strike the drum + of the ear; are thence communicated to a delicate chain + composed of four minute bones. By these the vibration is + increased, and transmitted to a fluid, contained in several + small winding canals, in which the delicate filaments of + the nerves of hearing are arranged, so as to transmit the + impressions they receive from the surrounding fluids, and + produce in the brain the perception of sound; these two + senses, by the infinitely varied modification of their + impressions, convey a prodigious supply of materials for + the action of the mind.</p> + <p> + The organ of <em>touch</em> is next in point of importance; + it has its seat in the extremities of the nerves + distributed over the skin, and is the only sense which + belongs to every class of animals. This organ gives rise to + sensations, which have no natural alliance with each other. + By this sense we compare different degrees of temperature + with each other; from this we derive our idea of distance + between bodies; of their tangible figure, of their + roughness, smoothness, hardness, and other qualities, from + the relative position with respect to ourselves, or the + degree or kind of resistance they offer. + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_368">368</span> + + And, when man has + been deprived of his communication with many external + objects, by the loss of vision, we find the organ of touch + gradually encroaching upon the function of the eye, and + from attention to its finer impressions, becoming, through + the education of necessity, a much more extensive source of + information. As an instance of this, I may adduce Mr. + Gough, who can accurately distinguish the color and + character of flowers, by the nice sense of touch possessed + by the tip of the tongue.</p> + <p> + The other senses may be said to be of less importance. The + <em>nose</em> affords a passage for the air to the lungs, + and is impressed by the odorous particles of bodies + diffused through it, and, whilst it thus occasionally + administers to our gratification, it gives us notice of the + presence of those aeriform fluids which are noxious to + respiration. Like the organ of <em>taste</em>, which is + impressed by sapid bodies, it has a peculiar sympathy with + the stomach; thus the taste, or smell, of any disagreeable + substance, very commonly excites sickness and vomiting.</p> + <p> + Thus each of the organs of sense are formed in a peculiar + manner, and are supplied with nerves of a peculiar + structure, which are capable of being excited by certain + impressions only, so as to give rise to sensation. The + odorous particles of bodies, for instance, if applied to + the nerves of the nose, excite an impression, which, when + conveyed to the brain, gives rise to the perception of + smell; but, every one knows that they produce no such + effect when applied to the nerves of the skin. In the same + way, the rays of light applied to the nerves of the eye + produce vision; but, no such effect takes place when they + impinge upon the tongue.—Each of the organs of sense then + possess a peculiar modification of nerves, which are + excited by appropriate impressions.</p> + <p> + By these organs we become acquainted with what passes + around us; but the nervous system gives us notice of many + changes which take place within our bodies. Internal pains + point out to us the presence and situation of diseases; and + the disagreeable sensations of hunger, thirst, and fatigue, + incline us to give refreshment and repose to the body. It + is also by means of the nervous system, that we experience + the passions and emotions of the mind.</p> + <p> + There are some animals so simple in their structure, that + neither brain, nor organs of sense have been detected; yet + they are endowed with motion, and are capable of selecting + and swallowing their food, and expelling their excrement; + and as these acts appear to be voluntary, we must conclude, + that they possess nervous matter, though it be so + interwoven with the rest of their structure that we cannot + exhibit or detect it.</p> + <p> + All these different structures which have been described as + entering into the formation of a perfect animal, are soft + and flexible in themselves, and, in order to the right + performance of their functions, require the support of a + substance of considerable firmness, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_369">369</span> + + which may + preserve them in their relative situations, and give a + general shape to the body. For this purpose, <em>bones</em> + are formed in the higher orders of animals. They consist of + a certain portion of animal matter, on which their powers + of life depend, mixed with a portion of earthy matter, + which gives them a degree of solidity. The firmest + substance in the body, composed entirely of animal matter, + is cartilage, which possesses, however, too little solidity + for the support of animals of considerable size, living in + so rare a medium as air. Hence it happens that when the + earthy part is, by disease, abstracted from the bones, they + become bent and deformed by the weight of the body, or the + action of its moving powers. In fishes, however, who + inhabit a denser medium, cartilage becomes a convenient + structure, being sufficiently firm for their support, and, + from its lightness, better suited to their condition.</p> + <p> + Had the osseous system been merely intended to give shape + to animals, and preserve the relative position of their + parts, it might, for any useful purpose, have been as well + formed of one piece; and accordingly, when almost all the + bones of the body have been anchylosed, or immoveably + united to each other by disease, the functions of life have + gone on uniformly to an advanced age. There is a remarkable + skeleton of this kind preserved at Trinity College, Dublin; + where all the large bones of the body are immoveably united + together, except the lower jaw, and the joints of the + fingers; every joint in the body was immoveable, and yet + this person lived to an old age. In order, however, that + animals may enjoy a power of changing their situation, the + osseous system has been composed of a variety of pieces, + and an apparatus added by which this may be easily + effected. This is accomplished by adapting the ends of + bones to each other so as to form joints, which vary in + different parts of the body according to the motion of the + part, some being formed for strength, others for extent and + variety of motion; the two being incompatible, and never + found in the same joint.</p> + <p> + In the formation of a joint, however, it appears that two + surfaces of bone would move with considerable attrition + upon each other, not being capable of a sufficient degree + of smoothness; it is therefore necessary, in order to + diminish attrition, that a substance be interposed having a + high degree of polish; this is supplied by cartilage, with + which the ends of all bones, performing motion, are + covered; and as animals, both from the common occurrences + of life, and from accident, are liable to considerable + shocks, in order to guard the system, as much as possible, + against injury from these sources, cartilages are endowed + with a considerable degree of elasticity, and thus by their + reaction are capable of evading certain degrees of + violence.</p> + <p> + The smoothness of cartilage, however, only prevents + attrition to a certain degree; that joints therefore may + move with all possible ease and freedom, a fluid is + interposed called <em>sinovia</em>. This is + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">370</span> + separated from + the blood, by the vessels distributed to the inner surface + of the joint, and is the most slippery of all fluids.</p> + <p> + In order that bones may not be separated from each other, + but preserve their relative situations, with a certain + capacity of motion, it is requisite that they should be + joined together; this is done by the ligaments surrounding + a joint, which are of two kinds. The one adapted to the + firm junction of the bones with each other, upon which the + strength of the joint depends; the other loosely attached + round the ends of contiguous bones, to secrete sinovia, and + retain it in its proper situation; and hence called + capsular or purse-like ligament.</p> + <p> + This kind of structure, endowed with a power of secreting + sinovia, is not confined to the joints alone; for in many + parts of the body, where muscles during their action rub on + bones, or tendon on tendon, small bags are formed for + supplying sinovia, which are called bursæ mucosæ.</p> + <p> + As all these parts subservient to motion are inert in + themselves, that animals may enjoy the means of changing + their situations and attitudes, a power must be applied to + the bones for this purpose, which is supplied by muscular + action. Thus we find the bones clothed with + <em>muscles</em>, which give, in a great measure, the + external shape to the body, and act in considerable numbers + on the joints, particularly those which possess much + motion.</p> + <p> + All animals have a muscular structure entering into their + composition, with some variety in its appearance. Muscles + are generally fibrous to the eye, and in Man and Quadrupeds + are of a red color; in some animals, however, these + circumstances are not at all obvious. Thus in many fishes, + the muscles are white, and put on a flaky appearance; + whilst in the fresh water Polypus, which possesses a great + degree of contractile power, no fibres can be seen. So that + it is not necessary that these properties should be obvious + in the muscles of all animals. Thus no person has ever seen + the fibres in the muscles of a Flea, yet no animal can + exert greater muscular power. In the same way, many parts + of the body possess a contractile power, which have no + apparent fibrous structure; the best example of this, is + the skin of the scrotum. The redness of a muscle, in fact, + depends in a great measure on the degree of exertion it + undergoes; thus when a limb becomes motionless from palsy, + the muscles uniformly become pale.—The function of a muscle + consists in its contracting or shortening itself, in + consequence of the application of certain stimuli or + excitements; the effect of this contraction is, that the + different bones to which the muscles are attached are moved + in various directions. Thus (to give an example) a muscle + affixed to two contiguous bones, by shortening itself, + brings those points to which it is affixed nearer to each + other; and, from this mechanism, arise all the motions of + the body. The greatest part of the muscles which put the + limbs in motion by their + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_371">371</span> + + contractions, are said to act + under the excitement of volition, or, in other words, are + under the control and influence of the will, and are + therefore called voluntary muscles. There are many muscles, + however, which are not excited by volition, and are + therefore called involuntary. As these are directed by + influences, and perform the actions on which life + immediately depends, they, for obvious reasons, are not + only put beyond the powers of the will, but are enabled to + carry on their contractions and motions without + interruption or fatigue, entirely independent of its + direction or our consciousness. In this manner the heart + performs the circulation of the blood, and the stomach and + intestines give the requisite motion to the food.—There are + many other excitements which produce contraction in + muscles, such as the passions and emotions of the mind, and + various mechanical and chemical stimuli. Some of them + occasionally excite the voluntary muscles of the body to a + degree of action, over which volition has no control. Thus + a person in an ordinary state of mind, can walk more or + less quietly as suits his convenience; but it occasionally + happens, we shall say in the field of battle, that the + passion of fear is excited; this excitement frequently + disregards the power of the will, and strongly excites the + muscles employed in running away.<a + href="#Footnote_197" + class="fnanchor">197</a></p> + <p> + In most animals, there is connected with the muscles + another kind of structure called <em>tendon</em>, which + consists in a white substance very different from muscles, + but having a fibrous structure. Although tendons are not + necessary to the action of muscles, yet there are several + advantages derived from them; they occupy much less room + than muscles, and can be placed in greater numbers around + the joints, so as to preserve the beauty and uniformity of + the limbs. They may be considered as living cords, joining + the muscle to the bone on which it is to act, and, being + more scantily supplied with blood than muscles, make a + smaller quantity of blood necessary to the system, which is + certainly a convenience. Although the different parts of + the body vary very much in their functions and degree of + motion; yet, it is convenient, that they should be all + united together by a substance of considerable elasticity. + This is done by the interposition of <em>cellular + membrane</em>, which is the general connecting medium + throughout the body, attaching each organ to its neighbor, + but allowing sufficient play for the performance of its + function.</p> + <p> + It is in the cellular membrane of different parts of the + body that fat is deposited; and from the seeming caprice of + nature, in overloading some animals, and entirely denying + it to others, its use has been thought inconsiderable in + the system. When, however, we remark, that fat is taken up + in some diseases where the appetite is impaired; and that + torpid animals, before hibernation, have a large quantity + of it accumulated, and come out of that state quite + emaciated: + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_372">372</span> + + and that bees, who have no fat in + their bodies, lay up a stock of food, having the same + chemical properties, against their hibernating season; it + appears very probable, that one use of fat is to form a + reservoir of nutriment, which supplies the wants of an + animal when food is not introduced by the stomach.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_198"> + If we add the <em>skin</em> to the cellular membrane, we + may say, without these the beauty and symmetry of the + exterior would have been much diminished. We should have + seen the raw muscles in all their actions, and the naked + nerves exposed to the air and to injury. There would have + existed deep fissures between the muscles, cavities in + almost every part, and the body would have presented the + sad appearance it now does in consumption.<a + href="#Footnote_198" + class="fnanchor">198</a> + But the cellular substance in + some places only separates one part from another, or + affords a slippery surface for one muscle to slide over + the other: in others forming membranes or fascia to + hide, to bind down and strengthen different organs; + while in others admitting into its cells an oily + substance, becomes fat, and fills up all the + interstices, rounds off all prominences, softens acute + lines, and gives a graceful softness and contour to the + whole. And the skin enveloping in a close case, keeps + all compact, and hides from the eye whatever might be + offensive: while, at the same time the cutis or true + skin serves for a surface for the nerves and exhalent + vessels to terminate, the cuticle or scarf skin defends + them from injury, and moderates their excessive + sensibility.</p> + <p> + As all animals are to live in media where the heat varies, + it was necessary either to form them in such a way, that + their functions should not be affected by varieties in + temperature, or that they should be enabled to keep up the + heat of their bodies at a regular point. Animals have been + endowed with the latter power, and can accordingly maintain + their heat, whether exposed to a high or low degree of + temperature, with some exception as to the degree in the + lower orders of animals, in some of which the temperature + varies with that of the medium in which they are placed. + This is the case with the Frog.—This animal, when placed in + warm water, has the temperature of its body raised several + degrees, and, on the other hand, may be reduced to the + freezing point, without producing death. The heat of the + human body, however, is little changed, whether it be + exposed to intense cold, or much above the heat of boiling + water. In the experiments made in heated rooms by Dr. + Fordyce, and Sir Charles Blagden, these gentlemen remained + several minutes in the heat of 260 degrees, nearly 50 + degrees more than boiling water. At this heat a beefsteak + and + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_373">373</span> + + eggs were cooked near the stove, and yet the heated air + produced no bad effect upon their bodies: it raised the + temperature of their bodies only a few degrees.—The lungs + are the chief agents by which heat is introduced into + animal bodies. By their means, the blood is exposed to the + air, and consumes its oxygenous part, which contains the + principle of heat in a combined state. This, during + circulation, is evolved by the minute blood vessels, so as + to become sensible on every part of the body: and it is an + important fact, that the quantity of oxygen consumed is + greater in cold than warm weather; by this wise provision, + in proportion as the heat is more quickly carried off by + the coldness of the surrounding medium, the animal receives + an increased internal supply. Many experiments have been + instituted to ascertain the quantity of oxygen consumed in + a given time by ordinary respiration, and, according to the + best calculations, it appears that the consumption amounts + to about 33½ ounces troy weight, in 24 hours; and it has + been computed by philosophers, that the quantity of heat, + which the oxygen consumes and will supply to the body, is + nearly equal to that given out by a common candle.<a + href="#Footnote_199" + class="fnanchor">199</a> + I have thus attempted to give + a short view of the different structures and functions + of the body, and have briefly pointed out some of their + varieties in the different classes of animals.</p> + <p> + This corporeal system, which by its uniform and harmonious + action contributes so essentially and largely to our + terrestrial enjoyment, exhibits an astonishing display of + the infinite wisdom, almighty power, and boundless goodness + of its glorious Creator. Galen, an ancient Pagan physician, + on contemplating the different parts of the human body, and + the disposition of them, fell on his knees in humble + adoration of the wisdom with which the whole is contrived; + and was excited to challenge any one, after a hundred + years’ study, to tell how the least fiber or particle could + have been more commodiously placed, either for use or + beauty. His seventeen books on the subject are like so many + hymns of praise + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">374</span> + + to the almighty and all-wise God, + the Creator. Lactantius calls his writings on the body of + man, a marvellous comment on his creation, and Galen + himself managed the subject as a full demonstration of a + Deity which every man carries about with him.</p> + <p> + But what is still more deserving of our attention is the + <em>soul</em> of man: for if the external structure be so + admirable a piece of mechanism, what shall we say of the + immaterial and intellectual spirit resident in it? This + noble, constituent, essential part of man, is yet a more + astonishing production of infinite skill and power. Elihu + says, “The Spirit of God hath made me, and the breath of + the Almighty hath given me life. There is a spirit in man, + and the inspiration of the Almighty giveth them + understanding.” God, by his creating energy, called all + things out of nothing, but there was neither order, light, + nor motion, till the Divine Spirit moved on the lifeless + chaos; so the same all-wise and powerful Architect formed + of clay the wonderful fabric of man’s body, which remained + without life and action, till the Holy Spirit infused a + vital spirit into him, thereby enduing him with sense, + motion, understanding, will, and active powers. This soul, + therefore, became a living principle of intelligence, + consciousness, and activity, in man.</p> + <p> + The great Creator said, “Let us make man in <em>our + image</em>, after <em>our likeness</em>.” Now, as the + Divine Being is infinite, he is neither limited by parts, + nor definable by passions: therefore he can have no + <em>corporeal image</em> after which he formed the body of + man. The <em>image</em> and <em>likeness</em> in which he + was created must necessarily be intellectual: his soul must + have been formed after the nature and perfections of God. + The Creator was now producing a spirit, formed after + himself. He is the fountain whence it issued; hence the + stream must resemble the spring which produced it.</p> + <p> + The most perfect description of God, given to us in the + Scripture, is that by our Saviour:—“God is a Spirit.” It + has been observed by expositors, that this assertion is no + where else to be found in the sacred Writings. That + passage, “Now the Lord is that Spirit,” sounds something + like it, but in meaning is different. The word <em>God</em> + here is not to be understood personally, either for the + Father, or the Son, or the Holy Ghost, alone, but + essentially for the Divine Nature, which each of these + glorious Persons possesses. The Divine Nature is + <em>spirit</em>. This shows, that, according to the popular + and common use of the word, he is a Being entirely + separated from matter or body, in all its properties and + affections; that he is a pure mind, and possessed of the + most excellent powers and perfections, which belong to + spiritual beings.</p> + <p> + It is difficult, for persons of a low understanding, who + are unaccustomed to abstract reflections, and who have + imbibed their knowledge by means of the external senses, + employed on material objects, to raise their minds to the + contemplation of the existence of immaterial, invisible + beings. But that there really are such, and + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_375">375</span> + + particularly that + God is such, admits of the clearest proof, and will not be + called in question by any who on rational grounds + acknowledge his existence. It is usually granted, that it + is much more easy to say what a spirit is not, than to + define what it is. It is not in the power of the wisest and + most knowing of men, to declare its nature. Nay, who can + explain what the consistence of any piece of matter is, + which we every day see and touch!</p> + <p> + But as, notwithstanding our ignorance of the essence of + material objects, we are not only sure of their existence, + but also know many of their properties; so in like manner, + though we are ignorant of the nature of spirits, yet from + their manifest operations and effects, we are both + convinced that such beings exist, and have some notion of + several of their faculties and powers.</p> + <p> + The powers and capacities that we observe in all the + operations and works of God, are utterly inconsistent with + the properties we discern in matter. In the works of + creation we perceive evident proofs of thought, intention, + contrivance, and design; which powers, we are sure, having + no affinity with solidity, figure, and a capacity of being + moved by the impulse of another, cannot arise from the + composition or mixture of any of the known properties of + matter. Not only the existence, but many of the perfections + of God, may be discerned in various parts of the universe.</p> + <p> + In short, we can say nothing higher of God, than that he is + a Spirit. This notion leads us to conceive of him as a most + perfect Being, and to reject concerning him whatever would + argue any imperfection. It leads us to believe him to be + perfectly immaterial, free from all the imperfections of + matter, and from all the infirmities of corporeal + creatures. But though <em>spirit</em> signifies a being of + higher rank than body or matter, yet the word is too low to + express the essence of God, any otherwise than + analogically, or metaphorically. He is infinitely more + excellent than the highest created spirits, being eternal, + and immutable. But some may inquire, if God be such a + Spirit, how is it that in Scripture we read of his having + bodily members, and natural affections, like men; such as + head, eyes, ears, mouth, hands, and feet; and the + affections, or passions, of anger, grief, love, joy, + &c? these are ascribed to him, or rather assumed by + him. I answer; this is done in condescension to our narrow + capacities; for if God should speak to us of himself, as he + is in himself, our understandings could not comprehend him. + As the inconceivable glories of the world to come, are + explained to us by the honors and pleasures of this life; + so the nature of God, by a gracious condescension to our + weakness, is signified to us by a likeness to our own. By + human members being ascribed to God, are implied the moral + excellencies of his spiritual nature, or rather his + operations, which are more sensible to us than his + invisible nature. His eyes are emblems of his knowledge, + wisdom, omniscience, and providence. His face indicates + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_376">376</span> + + his favor, and sometimes is + expressive of his displeasure, because both these appear in + the countenance of a man. His mouth is the symbol of the + revelation of his will. His hand, or arm, is indicative of + the less or greater exercises of his power.—Such a + <em>Spirit</em> is the Creator of man, whom he made in his + <em>image</em> or <em>likeness</em>.</p> + <p> + Whoever reflects with attention on the human soul, may + easily perceive it to be of a nature entirely different + from the body. Being immaterial, it is not compounded of + material principles, nor consists of innumerable parts + which may be separated from each other; neither is it + capable of solidity, figure, extension, and other + properties of matter; but is a simple, uncompounded + substance, though possessed of various and distinct powers; + and therefore is neither visible nor divisible, nor has it + any dimensions or shape.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_200"> + The soul has a power of <em>thought</em>, with which mere + matter can never be endued. If it pass through all the + changes, and assume all the shapes of which it is capable, + thought will never be the result. It may be differently + modified, framed, and disposed, but cannot think. “I find + in me something that <em>thinks</em>,” says a celebrated + author, “which neither earth, water, air, fire, nor any + mixture of them, can possibly do. Something which sees, + hears, smells, tastes, and feels, all which are so many + modes of thinking.” Thought is the privilege of immaterial + beings.<a + href="#Footnote_200" + class="fnanchor">200</a></p> + <p> + This inward principle is capable not only of thinking, but + of love, desire, hope, joy; hatred, fear, sorrow, anger, + and a whole train of inward emotions, which are commonly + called <em>passions</em> or <em>affections</em>. A + something apprehended to be good in itself, or calculated + to be beneficial to us, is the object of love. If that good + be absent, it excites desire: if there be a probability of + obtaining it, that produces hope; and the possession of the + desired object yields delight and joy. Evil, whether real, + or imaginary only, is the object of dislike and aversion. + If there be any probability of this evil coming in contact + with us, it causes fear; and if it unavoidably come upon + us, it produces sorrow or anger. These passions or + affections seem to be the only spring of action in the + soul.</p> + <p> + The soul has received from God a principle of motion, + whereby it governs at pleasure every part of the body, and + directs its operations: only with this exception, that all + the vital motions, which are absolutely necessary for the + continuance of animal life, are involuntarily going on, + whether we advert to them or not; which is a marvellous + instance of the wisdom and goodness of God. With the + exception of these, I direct the motion of my whole body. + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_377">377</span> + + By a single act of my will, I put my head, eyes, hands, or + any part into motion: although the manner of doing this I + do not comprehend. Every one feels that he has an inherent + power to move this or that part of his body or not, and to + give it a direction this way or the contrary, just as he + pleases. I can, as I choose, open or shut my eyes, speak or + be silent, rise up or sit down, stretch out my hand or draw + it in, and use any of my limbs according to my pleasure, as + well as my whole body. Matter may be moved, but it can + never move itself.</p> + <p> + The soul is free in its operations; it possesses this + property, which is capable of being exerted with regard to + all its faculties, as well as all the motions of the body. + It is a power of self-determination, which, though not + affecting all our thoughts and imaginations, yet extends to + our words and actions in general, with but few exceptions. + I am certain, that I am free to speak or not to speak, to + act or not to act, to do this or to do the contrary, as I + am of my own existence. I have not only what is termed a + <em>liberty of contradiction</em>, but what is termed a + <em>liberty of contrariety</em>, a power to act one way, or + the contrary: to deny this would be to contradict the + uniform experience of all human kind. The soul is not + necessitated to judge or act by any bodily impulse. Let + things appear as they may to the senses, the soul can + suspend its judgment, till it has examined and considered + them more thoroughly. Let the appetites and inclinations of + the body strongly urge their own gratification, the soul + can refuse their solicitations, and maturely weigh what the + consequences would be. Let all the allurements of sensible + objects, the assurance of sensual enjoyments, or the + influence of custom and example, try to corrupt the + integrity of the soul, and lead it astray from the paths of + peace and purity; unless it consent, the attempts will + prove ineffectual. We can reason, discourse, study, + contrive, choose, and refuse with discretion; begin a work, + and cease again at pleasure. We can reflect on what we have + done, and either rejoice and delight in it, or be ashamed + and grieved for it. We distinguish truth from error, moral + good and evil; we fear punishment on having committed evil, + and hope for reward on having done well. And, through the + grace of God assisting us, we have a power to embrace and + resolve to do good, as well as evil. We are free to choose + whom we will serve, and, if we determine in favor of the + better part, to continue therein.</p> + <p> + <em>Conscience</em> is not a faculty of the soul distinct + from the understanding, memory, will, and affections, but + that power by which we are conscious of our own state, + reflect on our actions, and pronounce them either good or + evil. This supposes, that we are acquainted with the law of + God, either natural or written, which is the rule of our + duty. The name is derived from the Latin word <em + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">conscientia</em>, + into which the Greek word <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: syneidêsis" + class="msg">συνειδησις</span> + is exactly translated. Both these words for conscience, + signify, that the mind is + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_378">378 </span> + + possessed of a consciousness of + the actions and thoughts of the man, and passes a judgment + on them, according to some rule. The Jews have no proper + word in their language for conscience, and therefore use + the term <em>heart</em>; which is also used in the New + Testament. Conscience is the journal or diary of the + actions of man. Its office is, 1. To call, urge, and excite + us to duty. 2. To testify and bear witness either for or + against us, according as we perform or neglect our duty. 3. + Either to excuse or acquit, or accuse and condemn us, on + the evidence it gives of the moral nature and quality of + our actions: if they be conformable to the Divine rule, as + to matter and manner, it acquits us; if they be contrary to + it, conscience accuses, condemns, and passes sentence upon + us. 4. And if its sentence be true and just, conformable to + rule, it is ratified by God the Supreme Judge, whose deputy + and vicegerent it is in the breast of every man.</p> + <p> + Though the soul is not under the imperious influence of the + body, yet for many ages it has been allowed by sensible + men, that “there is nothing in the understanding which is + not first perceived by some of the senses.” The imagination + is the place where the images of things are first + engendered, and from which they are transferred to the + understanding. And therefore those who want any sense, + cannot have the least knowledge or idea of the objects + peculiar to that sense: as they who never had sight, have + not the least conception of light or colors. But there is a + great difference between our senses, considered as the + avenues of knowledge. Some of them have a narrow sphere of + action: others a more extensive one. By <em>feeling</em> we + discern only those objects which touch some part of our + body; and consequently this sense extends only to a small + number of objects. Our senses of <em>taste</em> and + <em>smell</em> extend to fewer still. But, on the other + hand, our nobler sense of <em>hearing</em> has a wide + sphere of action: especially in the case of loud sounds, as + thunder, the roaring of the sea, or the discharge of + cannon: the last of which sounds has been frequently heard + at the distance of near a hundred miles. Yet the space to + which the hearing itself extends is small, compared to that + through which the <em>sight</em> extends. This sense takes + in at one view, not only the most unbounded prospects on + earth, but also the moon, and the other planets, the sun, + yea, the fixed stars, though at such an immeasurable + distance.</p> + <p> + But still none of our senses can reach beyond the bounds of + this visible world. They supply us with such knowledge of + the material world, as answers all the purposes of life. + But as this was the design for which they were given, + beyond this they cannot go. They furnish us with no + information at all, concerning the <em>invisible + world</em>. But the wise and gracious Governor of the + worlds, both visible and invisible, has prepared a remedy + for this defect. He has favored us with a + <em>revelation</em>, concerning himself, his existence, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_379">379</span> + + perfections, and will; and + another world, its nature, certainty, and duration: and + this revelation is contained in the Scriptures. And he has + appointed <em>faith</em> to supply the defect of sense; to + take us up where sense sets us down, and help us over the + great gulf. Its office begins where that of sense ends. + Sense is the evidence of things that are seen; of the + visible, the material world, and the several parts of it. + Faith, on the other hand, is the “evidence of things not + seen,” of the invisible world: of all these invisible + things, which are revealed in the Oracles of God.<a + href="#Footnote_201" + class="fnanchor">201</a> + Though eternal things come + not within the reach of sense, yet, by faith, they are + as present to the mind, in their reality, excellence, + and continuance, as if they were seen with the eye of + the body. The testimony of the God of truth, is the + foundation and reason of this faith; for what he says + must be true, because he cannot lie: this is a principle + concerning which all agree who own his existence.</p> + <p id="FNanchor_202"> + The soul has a vast intellectual capacity; for the + knowledge of God, nature, providence, the original and + present state of man, the visible world, sublime + speculations, and useful discoveries, come within its + comprehension. It can reason, infer, reflect, and carry on + a chain of thoughts, with perspicuity and close connection, + concerning things. Its powers take in objects of all + dimensions; yet they are not situated as bodies in a + material place, where the greater occupy more space than + the less: for the thought of a mile, or ten thousand miles, + does no more fill or stretch the soul, than that of a foot, + an inch, or a mathematical point. And whereas all matter + has its parts, and those extended, one without another, + into length, breadth, and thickness, and so is measurable + by inches, yards, or solid measures; there is nothing of + measurable extension in any thing belonging to the soul, + neither length, breadth, nor thickness; nor is it possible + to form an idea of a foot of thought, a yard of reason, a + pound of wisdom, or a quart of virtue.<a + href="#Footnote_202" + class="fnanchor">202</a> + The soul is capable of + abstract notions, mathematical and metaphysical + conceptions. Its powers are so great, that we can + explore nature, span the surface of the earth, dive into + its capacious seas, and there discover the numerous + inhabitants of the watery world. We can travel to the + sun, continue our journey through our own spherical + system, from planet to planet, tell their dimensions, + measure their distances, and accompany them through + their various revolutions. We can pass the boundaries of + our own, and enter into other systems; and from thence, + into eternity itself: ascending from region to region, + from world to world, from the creature till we reach the + abode of the great Creator, who is the first cause of + all things; and then, with ravished eyes, gaze on that + glorious Luminary of the moral world, till we are + amazed, delighted, and overpowered, with the splendor of + his infinite perfections.</p> + <p> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_380">380</span> + + The soul is <em>immortal</em> in its duration: it once + began to be, but will never cease to exist. When the whole + of time is elapsed, it will live in the vigorous exercise + of its active powers, and its existence run parallel with + eternity. The death of the soul cannot be effected by the + operation of second causes; and God, who is the first + cause, will never annihilate it. The Sadducees denied the + immateriality and immortality of the soul, saying, that, + except God, there was no spirit: they were much like the + Epicureans among the Gentile philosophers. In refutation of + this Sadducean notion, our Saviour referred them to the + five Books of Moses, which they acknowledged as of Divine + authority, where God says, “I am the God of Abraham, and + the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob.” Abraham had been + dead upwards of 300 years when these words were spoken to + Moses. Now, says our Saviour, “God is not the God of the + dead, but of the living.” Though the bodies of these + renowned patriarchs had been long dead, and ceased to exist + among mortals, their souls were still living, not only in a + future state, but with God. He also warned his disciples of + the opposition they would meet with, in the faithful + discharge of their religious and ministerial duties, from + the prejudice, rage, and fury of men; but urged them to + take courage, and not suffer themselves to be intimidated, + so as to neglect in any degree the execution of the + important commission he had given them, saying, “Fear not + them which kill the body, but are not able to kill the + soul.” Hence the soul is a principle distinct from the + body, actually survives it, and can subsist without it, not + only retaining its vital existence, but its consciousness, + reflection, and activity. The following lines of Addison + are strongly and beautifully descriptive of the immortality + of the soul:</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “The soul, secure in her existence, smiles</p> + <p class="ml0"> + At dissolution, and defies its power.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The stars shall fade away, the sun himself</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Grow dim with age, and nature sink in years;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + But thou shalt flourish in immortal youth—</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Unhurt, amidst the war of elements,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The wreck of matter, and the crash of worlds.”</p> + </div> + <p class="i0"> + In a word, since the soul is not material, it can have no + parts; if it have no parts, then it cannot be separated; if + it cannot be separated, then it cannot be dissolved; if it + cannot be dissolved, then it is incorruptible; and if it be + incorruptible, then it is immortal.</p> + <p> + Thus it is evident, from all the perceptions of the soul, + that it is not compounded like the body. Those powers and + affections, such as thought and reason, judgment and + liberty, love and hatred, joy and sorrow, can never be the + properties or effects of matter, in any possible variation + or modification of its parts. Nor can matter ever produce + those noble and just sentiments, those sublime and generous + affections, to which the soul sometimes rises in its + contemplations of God, the phenomena of the universe, and + the operation of Providence which sustains and governs all + things. All this can + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_381">381</span> + + never be produced by matter, + which is altogether inactive of itself; and when motion is + impressed on it, the only change produced is in the + situation and contexture of its parts. Surely all attempts + to account for these things, by any laws of nature known in + the corporeal world, are absolutely ridiculous.</p> + <p> + How strange is it then, that such a spiritual being should + be united so closely to flesh and blood, imprisoned in a + tenement of clay, and use the body as the instrument of + active operations.—Several philosophers, among whom is + Socrates, have called the body <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: tês psychês oikêtêrion" + class="msg">της ψυχης οικητηριον</span>, + <em>the habitation of the soul</em>; yea, <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: phylakê kai taphos" + class="msg">φυλακη και ταφος</span>, + her moveable <em>prison</em>, and living + <em>sepulchre</em>. These two essential parts of man, which + God, at his creation, united so closely together, that both + make but one person, is a great mystery; considering the + different natures that adhere, soul and body, matter and + spirit. All this is unintelligible to the human intellect, + however improved and capacious. The disputers of this world + will find themselves completely perplexed, in attempting to + explain by what ties a spirit is united to a piece of clay; + and what holds it confined to its habitation. The adhesion + of the material particles in the human body, the flame of + animal life kindled and burning clear and strong within us, + and the union of spirit and matter, so that the one is the + tenement of the other, and the instrument of its + operations, are, as to their manner, mysterious, and + attended with difficulties that would perplex and confound + the most penetrating and sagacious mind.</p> + <p> + Man then was created in the <em>natural</em> image of God, + which consisted chiefly in the spiritual nature, amazing + powers, and immortality of his soul; like God, it is a + <em>spirit</em>, immaterial, invisible, active, + intelligent, free, and immortal: and partly, in a lower + sense, in the privilege of his body, which, in his state of + innocence, was, by the promise of his Creator, entitled to + a gratuitous immortality. Some make reason or understanding + to be the image in which God created man: but, though this + may be included, yet, it is not the principal thing + intended by the Divine <em>image</em>: for if rationality + were the image, it could never be lost. Sin, which defaces + this beautiful image, does not deprive man of intellect: + his nature will for ever continue rational; he can never, I + presume, be deprived of his reason so as not to possess it + any more. Thought and consciousness are inseparable from + the nature of man, and therefore this <em>image</em> of God + in which Adam was created, must be something distinct from + reason. Indeed reasonable creatures only can be the + subjects of it, but reason is not the thing itself. To + suppose that mere reason is God’s image in man, is an + hypothesis unworthy of a reasonable nature; and with how + much confidence soever some assert, the assertion is + reproachful to our Maker.</p> + <p> + The chief thing intended by the Divine <em>image</em>, is + moral rectitude; man was created in the <em>moral + image</em> of God; but that + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_382">382</span> + + image in man was only a + <em>likeness</em>, it did not equal,but resembled its + high original—a disparity which necessarily exists between + a creature and its Creator. According to any rational + opinion we can form of God, we must believe that he is a + spiritual Being; which includes the simplicity of his + nature, his indivisibility, and his immortality; possessed + not only of every natural perfection, but of all moral + excellencies. He is not only an intelligent, omnipresent, + omniscient, almighty Being, but wise, holy, righteous, and + good. Without moral perfections, his character would not be + very interesting to us. If he had no radical and + constitutional principle in his nature that could move him + to regard the temper of our minds, and the complexion of + our actions, or cause him to be either pleased or + displeased with our behavior, however conducted, we should + have no reason to act either from motives of love or fear + of him. His natural attributes alone, are very far from + finishing his character; in conjunction with these, his + moral excellencies complete his glory, exhibit him as the + most perfect Agent, and render him in the most exalted + sense our Governor. His holiness, justice, goodness, and + truth, are called moral attributes, or communicable + perfections; because we can trace some resemblance in + angels and men; though there is an infinite disproportion + between these perfections as they exist in God, and are + faintly displayed in the creatures: in him they are + infinite, in the creatures finite and limited.</p> + <p> + These moral perfections constitute God a proper object of + religious adoration, and without which no worship would be + due or could be rendered to him. The Divine Nature is the + foundation of that worship which we, as rational beings, + are under obligations to perform; and the revelation of the + will of God, with which he has graciously favored us in the + Scripture, is the constant rule of his worship. On + believing his existence, and cultivating the knowledge of + his attributes, especially those which are so astonishingly + displayed and harmonized in the redemption of mankind by + Jesus Christ, it very naturally follows, to every + reflecting mind, that we owe him ourselves, and are bound + by the strongest ties to present to him the most spiritual + worship of which our intelligent nature is capable.</p> + <p> + The moral image of God, after which man was created, was + his greatest excellence. His <em>understanding</em> + possessed a large capacity for improvement, equal to an + extensive and accurate acquaintance with things both + natural and divine, the acquisition of which would + facilitate his own happiness, by rendering him more + competent to answer the benevolent design which his Creator + projected in calling him into existence. This capacity was + amply supplied by his Creator; for all divine knowledge is + given by revelation; which he must either communicate to + man, or he must remain ignorant of him. The capacity is one + thing, and its improvement is another; + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_383">383</span> + + which, as it is not + naturally inherent in man, so it must be acquired. The knowledge + of the nature, perfections, and will of God, can, in the + first instance, only be made known by himself; for there is + not a correct notion of him in the whole intellectual and + moral world, but what has been received from either Divine + revelation, or his own immediate influence. Adam, then, as + an intelligent creature, was endued with the knowledge of + God, so far as was necessary to enable him to fear, love, + and serve him. Without a perception of his existence and + perfections, and the knowledge of his will, he could not + perform any acts of adoration, reverence, reliance, regard, + and delight, toward him. If therefore man, in his primitive + state, was obliged to worship his Creator (of which + certainly no one can doubt,) it must be granted that he + possessed knowledge equal to the nature and extent of his + obligations. In his state of innocence, he did not perform + a blind devotion, or worship he knew not what. Such + ignorance is the consequence of sin; therefore he could not + be the unhappy subject of it before he transgressed.</p> + <p> + Some persons have thought that Adam, in his primeval state, + understood the doctrine of a Trinity of Persons or + Subsistencies in the Godhead. Though the knowledge of this + important doctrine cannot be attained by reasoning on the + operations of Divine wisdom, power, and goodness, visibly + and conspicuously displayed in the universe; yet, as Adam + received by immediate revelation some truths, why may we + not suppose that this mystery was not conveyed to him in + the same way, that his acts of devotion might comport with + the honors due to each of the Sacred Three? The Divine + Nature is without multiplicity, it is one; but the Three + Subsistencies in that Essence are essential to the Godhead: + this arrangement is radical, constitutional, and eternal. + Therefore why should not God be worshipped according to his + own natural distinction of Persons in his undivided + Essence, by man in his primitive state? A Trinity in Unity + is the most correct view of God; and, consequently, the + worship that accords with it, being the most accurate, must + be acceptable to him. The Christian religion has not given + existence to this doctrine of the Trinity; for + independently of the mediatorial scheme of redemption and + salvation by Christ, God was from eternity the same Triune + Being, and cannot change. It is not improbable that man, + while he retained his pristine state, worshipped the + Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, in all his acts of + religious worship. Lord Bacon, in his Confession of Faith, + says,—“I believe that nothing is without beginning but God; + no nature, no matter, no spirit, but one only, and the same + God. That God, as he is eternally almighty, only wise, only + good, in his nature; so he is eternally Father, Son, and + Spirit, in Persons.”</p> + <p> + We cannot rationally suppose that Adam was a stranger to + his <em>duty</em>, either in its nature, manner, or extent. + If he had not known + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_384">384</span> + + what duties his Creator required him to + perform, it would have been impossible for him to act + agreeably to his will. Obedience to any authority + necessarily supposes a knowledge of what it enjoins: and, + consequently, Adam must have known what he ought to + practise, in what manner, and with what views; for, + otherwise, he could not be obedient to the will of God in + what he did. Hence we must conclude, that he was acquainted + with the whole compass of his duty. As his understanding + was not blinded by contracted prejudices, so it was free + from any natural defect. His mind was furnished with + correct views of God, his own dependence upon him, + relations and obligations to him, and the way to please and + enjoy him.</p> + <p> + Adam, in his primitive state, knew wherein his + <em>happiness</em> consisted. If he had been ignorant of + that happiness to which he was entitled so long as he + preserved his integrity, how could he have enjoyed it while + in his possession; for a delight in any present good arises + from a perception of its nature and value. Neither was he + ignorant of the misery, into which an action committed + against the will of his Creator would bring him. He + certainly knew that sinning against God would inevitably be + attended with fatal effects to himself. His unclouded + reason could not but discern, that rebellion against the + dignity and sovereignty of his Maker would unavoidably + expose him to his righteous displeasure.</p> + <p> + As the judgment of Adam could not but entirely approve of + the supreme Good, in all the perfections of its nature, and + revelation of the Divine Mind; so his <em>will</em>, with + great freedom following its dictates, readily embraced what + was right, and exactly harmonized with every requisition. + He had a holy disposition, such as comported with the + infinite perfection of holiness, so resplendent in the + Divine Nature. Some have asserted, that God formed man + without any direction in his will either to good or evil. + But this imagination is irrational, for it supposes that he + was neither holy nor unholy. It is evident from Scripture, + that he was created good in an ethical or moral sense, for + he was made in the <em>image</em> of God, which chiefly + consisted in a conformity to his moral perfections. He + resembled these, particularly that of holiness; so that, + though in an infinitely lower degree, he was holy as God is + holy; without the least taint of sin in his nature, or any + inclination to evil, all his powers and faculties being + disposed to comply with his utmost requisition.</p> + <p> + Adam’s <em>affections</em> were subordinate and obedient to + the higher faculties of his soul, and moved without the + least tumult or disorder. Being pure and regular, there was + no depravity or discord among them. No temptation arose + from vanity seated in any of the inferior powers: neither + was there a rebellious disposition among the passions + directed against his reason. No unlawful love, delight, or + aversion had any place in his innocent nature, and + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_385">385</span> + + therefore the dictates of reason did not meet with any + control from corruption in the + affections; and, consequently, obedience to his Creator was + not rendered difficult by unruliness in the passions. Being + thus made after the <em>likeness</em> of God, he had the + moral law written on his heart: that hereby he might have a + perfect rule of obedience, and be easily apprised of his + duty to him. And as he was indispensably obliged to yield + obedience to this law, and the consequence of violating it + would be endless ruin, God, as a just and gracious + Sovereign, gave him ability to keep it. Herein he treated + him as a rational creature, and a subject of moral + government.</p> + <p> + The inferior <em>appetites</em> of Adam were in a state of + perfect subjection, and never indulged to the least excess. + The animal structure requiring food for its support, there + was a great variety provided. But while surrounded with + plenty, he was strictly temperate; his appetite was + regular, consistent with purity, and in harmony with his + devotions. The <em>senses</em> also corresponded to the + faculties of the soul, and were inlets to wisdom and + enjoyment. Thus, as one observes, all his faculties both of + body and mind were subservient to the glory of God, and + contributed to his own felicity: a state which we are to + regain by Christ.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “Enslav’d to sense, to pleasure prone,</p> + <p class="ml4"> + Fond of created good;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Father, our helplessness we own,</p> + <p class="ml4"> + And trembling taste our food.</p> + <p class="v2 ml0"> + Trembling we taste; for, ah! no more</p> + <p class="ml4"> + To thee the creatures lead;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Chang’d, they exert a baneful power,</p> + <p class="ml4"> + And poison, while they feed.</p> + <p class="v2 ml0"> + Curs’d for the sake of wretched man,</p> + <p class="ml4"> + They now engross himwhole;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + With pleasing force on earth detain!</p> + <p class="ml4"> + And sensualize hissoul.</p> + <p class="v2 ml0"> + Groveling on earth we still must lie,</p> + <p class="ml4"> + Till Christ the curse repeal:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Till Christ descending from on high</p> + <p class="ml4"> + Infected nature heal.</p> + <p class="v2 ml0"> + Come then, our heavenly Adam, come,</p> + <p class="ml4"> + Thy healing influence give;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Hallow our food, reverse our doom,</p> + <p class="ml4"> + And bid us eat, and live.</p> + <p class="v2 ml0"> + Turn the full stream of nature’s tide:</p> + <p class="ml4"> + Let all our actions tend</p> + <p class="ml0"> + To thee their source; thy love the guide,</p> + <p class="ml4"> + Thy glory be the end.</p> + <p class="v2 ml0"> + Earth then a scale to heaven shall be,</p> + <p class="ml4"> + Sense shall point out the road;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The creatures all shall lead to thee,</p> + <p class="ml4"> + And all we taste be God.”</p> + </div> + <p> + Man was <em>happy</em> in his original state; he not only + was free from pain and misery, but enjoyed delight. His + pleasure was of a pure nature, not only such as God + approved, but derived from a Divine source. If his mind had + not been possessed of correct + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_386">386</span> + + knowledge, his will disposed + to obedience, his affections regular and holy, and + his appetites and senses subject to a rational control, + what pleasure could he have taken in the contemplation of + infinite perfections, and in a compliance to the + requisitions of the moral law? Happiness necessarily + supposes delight, and delight as necessarily supposes a + concordance between the disposition of the soul, and the + objects from which its pleasure springs. Man was happy + while innocent; he therefore enjoyed pleasure, which was + pure, arising from positive holiness, and the presence and + blessing of God. Surely it is reasonable to conclude, that + Adam performed devotional acts with holy reverence and + supreme delight. He could not but give the tribute of + praise to his beneficent Creator, for his superabundant + goodness toward him; being favored with every thing, not + only necessary to his sustenance, in the excellent + circumstances in which he was placed, but with whatever he + could desire for the entertainment and delight of his + innocent and heavenly mind. Above all, his grateful soul + most certainly adored his Creator, for the glorious and + beneficial displays of his wisdom, power, and goodness, and + rejoiced in the interest he had in his approbation, + protection, and kindness. While he retained his integrity, + and enjoyed free access to his Maker, intimate communion + with him, and was free from his displeasure, what serenity, + satisfaction, and pleasure must fill his soul! He possessed + that first and greatest of blessings, mentioned by Horace, + <em>mens sana in corpore sano</em>, a sound mind in a + healthy body.</p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the excellent state in which Adam was + created, and advantageous circumstances in which he was + placed, yet he was liable to fall. By reason of the + spiritual and intelligent principle in him, he became a + moral agent, and a subject of moral government. He knew his + duty, and had the power of determining his own choice and + actions. He could choose good, and refuse evil, and be + influenced by the hope of reward and the fear of + punishment. He had no disposition to sin in his nature: for + God could not create him in a sinful state, since that + would render him the author of sin. He had full power to + stand: but God could not interfere with the freedom of his + will; and herein he acted toward him in a way agreeable to + his condition of probation. The mutability of his will was + essential to him as a rational creature, placed in a state + of responsibility for his actions to the great Governor of + the world. Dr. Paley says, “Free agency in its very essence + contains liability to abuse. Yet, if you deprive man of his + free agency, you subvert his nature.” God answers for + himself in Milton:——</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml12"> + ——“Man had of me</p> + <p class="ml0"> + All he could have: I made him just and right,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Sufficient to have stood, though free to fall.”</p> + </div> + <p> + The sentiments of Faber are very appropriate. “When the + Almighty ceased from the work of creation, he pronounced + all that + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_387">387</span> + + he had made to be very good. The new world was as + yet free from the inroads of sin, and from + the curse of sterility.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml12"> + ——‘Nature then </p> + <p class="ml0"> + Wanton’d as in her prime, and play’d at will</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Her virgin fancies.’</p> + </div> + <p id="FNanchor_203"> + “The whole creation smiled upon man, and the golden age of + the poets was realized. Blessed with perfect health, both + mental and corporeal, our heaven-born progenitor was + equally unconscious of the stings of guilt and the pangs of + disease. His understanding was unclouded with the mists of + vice, ignorance, and error; his will, though absolutely + free, was yet entirely devoted to the service of God; and + his affections warm, vigorous, and undivided, were ardently + bent upon the great Fountain of existence. Though vested in + an earthly body, his soul was as the soul of an angel, + pure, just, and upright. He was uncontaminated with the + smallest sin, and free from even the slightest taint of + pollution. His passions perfectly under the guidance of his + reason, yielded a ready and cheerful obedience to the + dictates of his conscience; an obedience, not constrained + and irksome, but full, unreserved, and attended with + sensations of unmixed delight. Such was man when he came + forth from the hand of his Creator, the image of God + stamped upon his soul and influencing all his actions.”<a + href="#Footnote_203" + class="fnanchor">203</a></p> + <p> + We may add, the authority and <em>dominion</em> with which + God invested Adam. This extended “over the fish of the sea, + and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over + the earth, and over every living thing that creepeth upon + the earth.” God constituted him the ruler, under him, of + all the inferior creatures. He probably inducted him into + this office when he caused the creatures to pass in review + before him. “And the Lord God brought every beast of the + field, and every fowl of the air, unto Adam to see what he + would call them: and Adam gave names to all cattle, and to + the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field: and + whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the + name thereof.” Man alone, says Smellie, enjoys the power of + communicating and expressing his ideas by articulate and + artificial language. This inestimable prerogative is a + great source of improvement to the human intellect. Without + artificial language, though the Author of nature has + bestowed on every animal a mode of expressing its wants and + desires, its pleasures and pains, what a humiliating figure + would the human species exhibit?</p> + <p> + Dr. Beattie, in defining the human voice, says, it is air + sent out from the lungs, and so agitated, or modified, in + its passage through the windpipe and larynx, as to become + distinctly audible. The windpipe conveys air into the lungs + for the purpose of respiration and speech; the top or upper + part of which is called the larynx, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_388">388</span> + + consisting of four or + five cartilages, that may be expanded or brought together, + by the agency of certain muscles which operate all at the + same time. In the middle of the larynx there is a small + aperture, called the <em>glottis</em>, through which the + breath and voice are conveyed, but which, when we swallow + any thing, is covered by a lid called the + <em>epiglottis</em>. Authors have determined that the voice + is produced by two semi-circular membranes in the middle of + the larynx, which form by their separation the aperture + that is termed the glottis. The space between them is not + wider than one-tenth of an inch; through which the breath + transmitted from the lungs must pass with considerable + velocity. In its passage it is supposed to give a brisk + vibratory motion to the membranous lips of the glottis, and + so to form the sound which we call <em>voice</em>: in order + to the production of which, it, however, seems necessary, + that, by an energy of the will, a certain degree of + tenseness should be communicated to the larynx, or at least + to the two membranes in the middle of it. The voice, thus + formed, is strengthened and mellowed by a reverberation + from the palate, and other hollow places in the inside of + the mouth and nostrils; and as these are better or worse + shaped for this reverberation, it is said to be more or + less agreeable. The glottis is found to be narrower in + women and young persons than in men; hence the voices of + the latter are deeper, or more grave, than those of the + former. We can at pleasure dilate or contract this + aperture, so as to form the tones of the voice to every + variety of the musical scale.<a + id="FNanchor_204"></a> + If we consider the many + variations of sound, which the same human voice is capable + of uttering, together with the small diameter of the + glottis; and reflect that the same diameter must always + produce the same tone, and, consequently, that to every + change of tone a correspondent change of diameter is + necessary: we must be astonished at the mechanism of these + parts and the fineness of the fibers, producing effects so + minute, various, and uniform. For it admits of proof, that + the glottis is capable of at least sixty distinct degrees + of contraction and enlargement, by each of which a + different note is produced.<a + href="#Footnote_204" + class="fnanchor">204</a></p> + <p> + Concerning the origin of language, numerous conjectures + have been formed. As an instance how far the human mind, + unassisted by a Divine revelation, can go, Diodorus Siculus + and Vitruvius have asserted, “that men at first lived like + beasts in woods and caves, forming only strange and uncouth + noises, till their fears caused them to associate together; + and that on growing acquainted with each other, they came + to correspond about things, first by signs, then to make + names for them, and in time, to frame and perfect a + language; and that the languages of the world are + different, because different companies of men happening + thus to come together in different places, would, of + course, form different sounds + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_389">389</span> + + or names of things; hence + would arise the variety observable even in ancient + languages.” Thus we perceive the necessity of the + Scriptures relative even to this subject.</p> + <p> + “The Mosaic History,” observes Dr. A. Clarke, “represents + man as being immediately capable of conversing with his + Maker: of giving names to the various tribes and classes of + animals; and of reasoning consecutively, and in perfectly + appropriate terms, concerning his own situation, and the + relation he stood in to the creatures. As in man’s first + attempt at speech, according to this account, there appear + no crudeness of conception, no barrenness of ideas, and no + inexpressive or unappropriate terms, it is most rational to + conclude, that God who made and endued him with corporeal + and mental powers, perfectly suited to his state and + condition in life, endued him also, not only with the + faculty of speech, but with speech or language itself; + which latter was as necessary to his comfort, and, indeed, + to the perfection and end of his being, as any other power + or faculty which his Creator thought proper to bestow upon + him.”</p> + <p> + Some assert that Adam <em>gave names</em>, from an intimate + knowledge of the nature and properties of each creature: + that this shows the perfection of his knowledge, for the + names affixed to the different animals in Scripture always + express some prominent feature and essential characteristic + of the creatures to which they are applied; and that had he + not possessed an intuitive knowledge of the grand and + distinguishing properties of those animals, he never could + have given them such names. Dr. Leland states, that man was + immediately endued with the gift of language, which + necessarily supposes that he was furnished with a stock of + ideas, a specimen of which he gave in giving names to the + inferior animals, which were brought to him for that + purpose. Dr. Johnson affirms, that the origin of language + must have come by inspiration. But Bishop Warburton + conjectures, that God, in this transaction with Adam, + taught him language. Here, says he, by a common figure of + speech, the historian, instead of directly relating the + fact, that God taught man language, represents it, by + showing God in the <em>act</em> of doing it, in a + particular <em>mode</em> of information; and that the most + apposite we can conceive in elementary instruction; namely, + the giving of names to substances; things with which Adam + was to be conversant, and which therefore had need of being + distinguished each by its proper name. And what a familiar + image do these words give one of a learner of his + rudiments? <em>And God brought every beast to Adam to</em> + <span + class="smcap">see</span> + <em>what he would call + them</em>. But though it appears that God taught man + language, yet we cannot reasonably suppose it any other + than what served his present occasions, he being now of + himself able to improve and enlarge it, as his future + necessities should require. The celebrated Cowper, touching + this subject says:——</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_390">390</span> + + “One man alone, the father of us all,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Drew not his life from woman; never gaz’d,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + With mute unconsciousness of what he saw,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + On all around him: learn’d not by degrees,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Nor aw’d articulation to his ear;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + But, moulded by his Maker into man</p> + <p class="ml0"> + At once, upstood intelligent, survey’d</p> + <p class="ml0"> + All creatures, with precision understood</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Their purport, uses, properties, assign’d</p> + <p class="ml0"> + To each his name significant, and, fill’d</p> + <p class="ml0"> + With love, and wisdom, render’d back to Heaven</p> + <p class="ml0"> + In praise harmonious the first air he drew.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + He was excus’d the penalties of dull</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Minority. No tutor charg’d his hand</p> + <p class="ml0"> + With the thought-tracing quill, or task’d his mind</p> + <p class="ml0"> + With problems.”</p> + </div> + <p> + However, by the creatures passing before Adam, probably in + pairs, and he giving them names as they passed according to + the nature and properties of each, one thing evidently + appears, namely, he was convinced that none of these + animals could be a suitable companion for him; for, among + all which he had named, “there was not a help-meet for + him:” one suitable and proper as an intimate companion and + friend.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml8"> + “He views the vast creation o’er,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Marks his own structure more than e’er before;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Sees all the creatures with their co-mates blest,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Himself left pensive, far unlike the rest;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Without compeer with whom his hours to spend,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Or jointly at the sacred altar bend.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + <em>Religion</em>—sacred to the first great Cause:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + <em>Philosophy</em>—the voice of Nature’s laws;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And <em>social dictates</em>, all at once combine</p> + <p class="ml0"> + To teach their pupil, that the whole design</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Is not completed, while his lonely life</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Is left without a helper, friend, and wife.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Refulgent Sol, while traversing his way,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Has Luna shining with her lucid ray;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And though her glory is a borrow’d light,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + She reigns sole empress of the sable night.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Soft purling streams to rivers speed their course,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And blend themselves with their capacious source.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The spreading branches of uxorious vines,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Clasp round each other with encircling twines.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The climbing Ivy does the Oak embrace,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And meets with verdant wreaths his bending face.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The feather’d tribes that wing the firmament,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + By instinct led, to wedded love consent:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + They range the neighb’ring meads in quest of food,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And guard and cherish their young callow brood.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And shall the creatures without just pretence,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Alone possess this high pre-eminence?</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Though with abounding earthly comforts blest,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Shall man pre-eminent still want the best:—</p> + <p class="ml0"> + A bosom friend, than virgin rose more sweet,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And whom he can with heart-felt rapture greet;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Of pleasing form, equal and tender mind,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + To whom he can in closest ties be join’d?”</p> + </div> + <p> + God did not approve of this state of solitude: he said, “It + is not good that man should be alone,” or only himself. The + Creator had not yet finished his works. He saw it necessary + to relieve man in his solitary situation; and his goodness + and power were ready to concur with the dictates of his + wisdom. He said, “I will + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_391">391</span> + + make him a <em>help-meet</em> for + him;” i.e. his counterpart, one like himself in + shape, constitution, and disposition; exactly adapted to + both his body and mind, the very image of himself, <em>a + second self</em>.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml2"> + “Must the fair creature promis’d to be giv’n,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Be sent to earth from the abode of heav’n?</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Angelic nature could not well supply</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The craving void, remote, and far too high.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Will God select amongst the brutal race,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + One, and refine it for his fond embrace?</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Nay, that would be too mean for his respect,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Beneath his nature, void of intellect.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The wise Creator, to complete his plan,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Resolves to make a <em>help-meet</em> from the Man,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Procure the stamina from him alone,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Thus constitute her “bone of his own bone.”</p> + <p class="ml0"> + From Man! but where? what part can he forego,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + From head majestic to the servile toe?</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The head imperial would be much too high,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Lest she, perchance, should for the mast’ry try.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The toilsome feet are base, of low renown,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Lest he should trample the fair creature down.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + In Man’s organic structure, mark! the part</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Is that which lies contiguous to the heart;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Main spring of life, whence all the frame looks gay,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Centre, where all the lovely passions play;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Under the shield of the protecting arm,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Which can defend her from impending harm.”</p> + </div> + <p> + Accordingly, God proceeded in his work: not as before, when + he made man, and formed his body of the dust of the earth; + but he took of the substance of man, and of that formed an + associate for him. The process is mentioned by Moses, “And + the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall upon Adam, and he + slept: and he took one of his ribs, and closed up the flesh + instead thereof; and the rib, which the Lord God had taken + from man, made he a woman.” The word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">תרדמה</span> + translated <em>a + deep sleep</em>, signifies such a sleep as renders a man + insensible of any thing done to him; which was not natural + but an extraordinary sleep; not occasioned by any act of + violence done to nature, but the immediate effect of the + hand of God upon him. Sleep, says a German author, is one + of the most remarkable effects of the Divine goodness. It + is certainly a proof of the wisdom of our Creator, that we + fall asleep imperceptibly. Sleep comes unsummoned: it is + the only change in our manner of existence in which + reflection bears no part; and is alike independent of the + understanding and the will. Our situation, indeed, during + the time of sleep, is wonderful. We live, but without + knowing or perceiving it! The palpitations of the heart, + the circulation of the blood, the process of digestion, + and, in a word, all the animal functions continue to be + performed without interruption. The mind appears, as it + were, to suspend its activity, for a time: by degrees, it + looses all sensation, every distinct idea. The senses are + deadened, and stop their wonted operations. The muscles, by + degrees, are moved more slowly, till all voluntary motion + ceases. This change begins in the forehead: then the + muscles of the eye-lids, and of the neck, arms, and feet, + are so much deprived of their + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_392">392</span> + + activity, that the man seems + to be metamorphosed into a plant. The situation of + the brain becomes such, that it cannot transmit to the soul + the same ideas as when we are awake. The soul perceives no + object, though the nerve of vision is not altered; and it + would see nothing, were the eyes to be even open. The ears + are not shut, and yet they hear nothing. In a word, we find + an unceasing source of admiration, in the wonderful + preparations, and the tender care, which the Divine Being + has employed, to procure us the blessings of sleep. The + following epigram, translated from the Latin by Dr. + Wolcott, is beautiful:——</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “Come, gentle sleep, attend thy votary’s prayer,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And, though death’s image, to my couch repair!</p> + <p class="ml0"> + How sweet, thus lifeless, yet with life to lie,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Thus without dying, oh how sweet to die!“</p> + </div> + <p id="FNanchor_205"> + The word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">צלע</span> + <em>tsela</em>, and in the Septuagint <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: pleura" + class="msg">πλευρα</span>, + rendered a <em>rib</em>, most probably means <em>bone</em>, + and <em>flesh</em>, not a naked bone, but one with flesh + adhering to it. “And the rib which the Lord God had taken + from man, <em>made</em> he a woman,” or, according to the + Hebrew, <em>builded it up</em> to be a woman; signifying, + that the human species was perfect when the woman was + created, which before was like an imperfect building. This + implies, an old author intimates, that as children are + derived from their parents to build up the family, so the + woman was derived from Adam to build up his great family, + mankind, of his own nature and substance; and that his + posterity might spring wholly from him, both in respect of + himself, and of his wife, their common mother, who was + taken out of him. What amazing wisdom is herein displayed; + not only in producing a creature <em>like</em> man, but out + of <em>a part of man himself</em>! God could have animated + and organized the dust of the earth, and of it formed the + woman; but had he done so, she would have appeared in the + eyes of man as a distinct being, to whom he had no natural + relation.<a + href="#Footnote_205" + class="fnanchor">205</a></p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml2"> + “Her form completed, lo! she rises fair,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Possess’d of beauties far beyond compare!</p> + <p class="ml0"> + This last production of the Artist’s skill,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Best effort of his wisdom, might, and will,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Gains science’ height: the high-wrought features shine,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Her form displays a symmetry divine.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Her pleasing gesture, as she walks along,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Exceeds the powers of harmony and song.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Her fine exterior, by her Maker drest,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Is but the mansion of a brighter guest,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + To flesh superior far, howe’er refin’d;—</p> + <p class="ml0"> + A pure, reflective, comprehensive mind!</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Expression soft sits sparkling in her eyes,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + While from her bosom heavenly raptures rise;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Intrinsic worth, comprising every grace,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Displays its radiance in her roseate face.”</p> + </div> +<p> + When the woman was formed, “God brought her unto the man,” + i.e. he presented her to him to be his wife. We are not to + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_393">393</span> + + imagine, by <em>bringing her to the man</em>, is meant, + that God merely placed her before his eyes, + and thus exhibited her: but that he joined the man and the + woman together in marriage.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml2"> + “Attending angels strike the choral lay,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And hymn your anthems on this bridal day;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + While the first Pair unite their willing hands,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Whose hearts are join’d in love’s eternal bands.”</p> + </div> + <p> + On receiving the woman, Adam said, “This is now bone of my + bones, and flesh of my flesh.” Adam was the common stock + and root of all mankind; not only all his posterity were + wholly contained in him alone, but also the first woman, + the mother of us all, had her vital life in him, and was + part of his living flesh and bones: he saw that she was of + the same nature, the same identical flesh and blood, the + same constitution in all respects, having the same physical + powers, mental faculties, and inalienable rights. He added, + “She shall be called <em>Woman</em>, because she was taken + out of man;” i.e. she shall partake of my name as she does + of my nature. A literal version of the Hebrew would appear + strange, says Dr. A. Clarke, and yet a literal version is + the only proper one. <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">איש</span> + <em>Ish</em>, signifies <em>man</em>; + and the word used to express what we term <em>woman</em>, + is the same with feminine termination, <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">אשה</span> + <em>ishah</em>, and literally means <em>she-man</em>. + Most of the ancient versions have felt the force of the + term, and have endeavored to express it as literally as + possible. The Vulgate Latin renders the Hebrew + <em>virago</em>, which is a feminine form of <em>vir</em>, + a man. Symmachus used <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: andris" + class="msg">ανδρις</span> + <em>andris</em>, a female form of <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: anêr" + class="msg">ανηρ</span>, + <em>aner</em>, a man. Our own term is equally + proper, when understood: it is a literal translation of the + original; and we may thank the discernment of our + Anglo-Saxon ancestors for giving it. Wombman, of which + <em>woman</em> is a contraction, means the <em>man with the + womb</em>. Verstegan, in his Restitution of Decayed + Intelligence, justifies this sense of the word, on the + ground of antiquity and propriety, and says it should be so + written. The term <em>woman</em> was not peculiar to her, + but common to the sex; she differing from man in sex only, + not in nature. Afterward Adam called her <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">חוה</span> + <em>chavah</em>, which answers exactly to <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: zôê" + class="msg">ζωη</span> + of the + Septuagint, both signifying <em>life</em>, because she was + the mother of all <em>living</em>.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="ml2"> + “Oh blest existence! (now the man exclaims,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And higher praises of his God proclaims.)</p> + <p class="ml0"> + My cup with blessings hast thou amply fill’d,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Consummate joys for my great portion will’d:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + No wants are left, no good hast thou denied,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Thy lib’ral hand has all I wish’d supplied.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Thou Fount of being! source of pure delight!</p> + <p class="ml0"> + In thee my comforts center and unite:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Thyself I love, thy vast perfections see,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And all thy gifts receiv’d enjoy in Thee.</p> + <p class="v2 ml3"> + He turns to Eve, whose charms are all in view,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The perfect form which highest wisdom drew:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Her sweet attractions touch his yielding mind,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + As three-fold cords his willing passions bind.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Sensations soft with quick transition roll,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And raise the transports of his grateful soul:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + While thrilling raptures through his bosom move,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + He feels his heart the seat of <span + class="smcap">God</span>—and + <em>love</em>.</p> + <p class="v2 ml3"> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_394">394</span> + + Their minds now glowing with celestial fire,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + They jointly bend before their gracious <span + class="smcap">Sire</span>;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Devotion’s flame with greater ardor burns,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And both are vocal in his praise by turns.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + While thus their pow’rs in pleasing acts employ,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The <em>social</em> worship much augments their joy:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Their warm addresses to the sacred throne,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Ascend as incense, and bring blessings down.”</p> + </div> + <p> + The relation between <em>husband</em> and <em>wife</em> is + the strongest union that results from the highest + obligations of nature. “Therefore,” said Adam, “shall a man + leave his father and mother, and shall cleave unto his + wife: and they shall be one flesh.” Here we perceive, as + Dr. Delany intimates, that Adam had a perfect idea of + father and mother, before any existed; that he had clear + ideas of the affection arising from that relation, before + any children were born into the world: and yet perceived + that the endearment arising from marriage should be + stronger than these ties, so as to attach a man with warmer + affection to his wife, than to those very parents to whom + he was indebted for life. Now if the received doctrines of + philosophy be true, that the senses are the inlets of + ideas, and that we can have no ideas without objects: then + we must conclude, that as he had these ideas, and had them + not from nature, he must have received them from express + revelation. Hence our Saviour, in his answer to the + Pharisees, informs us, that the words pronounced by Adam on + this occasion, were the declaration of God himself. “Have + ye not read that he which made them at the beginning, made + them male and female, and said, For this cause shall a man + leave father and mother, and shall cleave to his wife: and + they twain shall be one flesh.” These two shall be + considered as <em>one body</em>, having no separate or + independent interests: or, these two shall be <em>for the + production</em> of one flesh; from their union a posterity + shall spring, as exactly resembling themselves as they do + each other. The Greek word <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: proskollêthêsetai" + class="msg">προσκολληθησεται</span>, + translated <em>one flesh</em>, signifies shall be + <em>glued</em> to her.</p> + <p> + How happy must such a state be, where the parties married + come up to the design of this sacred institution! Dr. + Hunter observes, “What an important era in the life of + Adam! What a new display of the Creator’s power, skill, and + goodness! How must the spirit of devotion be heightened, + now that man could join in <em>social</em> worship! What + additional satisfaction in contemplating the frame, order, + and course of nature, now that he possessed the most + exalted of human joys, that of conveying knowledge to a + beloved object! Now he could instruct Eve in the wonders of + creation, and unfold to her their Maker’s nature, + perfections, and will!“ Oh happy state! They are happy in + the constitution of their nature,—being innocent, upright + creatures; and in having their pure minds perfectly united + in love and kindness to each other. They were happy in all + their united acts of adoration and praise to their + Creator,—exact harmony, unmixed delight, and untainted + piety, residing in each breast! They lived in communion with + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_395">395</span> + + God, enjoyed a transporting sense of his favor, walked + in the light of his countenance, and were raptured in their + meditations on the Divine glory!</p> + <p> + We have here the first institution of marriage, and we see + in it several things worthy of peculiar attention and + regard. 1. God pronounces the state of celibacy <em>not a + good one</em>: and the Lord God said, “It is not good that + man should be alone,” <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">לבדו</span> + <em>lebaddo</em> only himself. + It was neither for his comfort, who was formed for society, + nor for the accomplishment of God’s purpose in the increase + of mankind. Though he was created in the image of God, and + enjoyed delightful intercourse with him, his solitary + condition required a suitable companion. 2. God made the + woman <em>for</em> the man; he was not made <em>for + her</em>, but she was made <em>for him</em>, and derived, + under God, her being from him. The apostle says, “Neither + was the man created for the woman: but the woman for the + man,” to be a suitable helper and comfort to him. And thus + God has shown us, that every son of Adam should be united + to a daughter of Eve to the end of the world. 3. God made + the woman <em>out</em> of the man: as Adam was immediately + from God, so Eve was immediately from Adam; “the man is not + of the woman, but the woman of the man:” made of a part of + his body, taken out, not of his head, to show that she was + not to exercise dominion over him; nor of his foot, to + indicate that she must not be his slave; but of his side, + to intimate that she needs his counsel and direction; from + under his arm, to teach him that he must protect her; and + near his heart, to tell him that he must love her as + himself. The closest union, and the most affectionate + attachment, should subsist in the matrimonial connection. + The man should ever consider and treat the woman as a + <em>part of himself</em>; and as no one ever hated his own + flesh, but nourishes and supports it, so should a husband + evince the greatest tenderness and affection for his wife: + and on the other hand, considering that the woman derived + her being from man, and was made <em>for</em> him, + therefore the wife should “see that she reverence her + husband.” “For as man is the image and glory of God; so the + woman is the glory of the man.” 4. God himself instituted + the marriage union, and being appointed and established by + him, it must be an honorable state. “Marriage is honorable + in all,” being a Divine institution; and consequently + suitable for persons of any rank, or employment, either + civil or sacred. The corruption of manners has strangely + perverted this original purpose and institution of God. + However, he will never accommodate his morality to the + times, nor to the inclinations of men. What was settled at + the beginning, he judged most worthy of his glory, most + profitable for man, and most suitable to his nature. 5. + Marriage was instituted immediately on the creation of man + and formation of the woman; + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_396">396</span> + + whence it is evident that God + never designed that mankind should be preserved, + and the earth peopled any other way. And as the marriage + union took place while man was in a state of innocence, + upright and pure, just such as his Creator made him, it is + therefore suitable to the greatest purity both of heart and + life. 6. The design of this institution was, that man and + woman might be mutually helpful to each other, in all the + necessities and uses of life partaking of the cares and + labors of each other, reciprocally sharing in each other’s + delights and pleasures, and combining together to love, + serve, and please God.</p> + <p> + The <em>situation</em> of Adam and Eve is worthy of our + attention. The sacred historian says, “And the Lord God + planted a garden eastward in Eden; and there he put the man + whom he had formed.” The word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">עדן</span> + <em>Eden</em>, signifying + <em>pleasure</em> or <em>delight</em>, is expressive of + their excellent residence. The Septuagint render the + passage thus: <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: ephyteusen ho Theos paradeisou en Edem" + class="msg">εφυτευσεν ὁ Θεος παραδεισου εν Εδεμ</span>, + <em>God + planted a Paradise in Eden</em>. The Fathers of the Church; + says Huet, both Latin and Greek, all the Interpreters of + Scripture, ancient and modern, and all the Orientals, do + agree, that Eden is a local name taken from the beauty of + the place. The Garden or Paradise was situated in Eden, + being two different places, as the whole from its part. + “And a river went out of Eden to water the garden; and from + thence it was parted, and became into four heads. And the + name of the first is Pison; that is it which compasseth the + whole land of Havilah, where there is gold; and the gold of + that land is good; there is bdellium and the onyx stone. + And the name of the second river is Gihon: the same is it + that compasseth the whole land of Ethiopia. And the name of + the third river is Hiddekel: that is it which goeth toward + the east of Assyria. And the fourth river is Euphrates.” + The most probable account of the situation of the + terrestrial Paradise, says Dr. A. Clarke, is that given by + Hadrian Reland. He supposes it to have been in Armenia, + near the sources of the great rivers, Euphrates, Tigris, + Phasis, and Araxes. He thinks Pison was the Phasis, a river + of Cholchis, emptying itself into the Euxine Sea, where + there is a city called Chabala, the pronunciation of which + is nearly the same with that of Havilah, or <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">חוילה</span> + <em>Chavilah</em>, according to the Hebrew, the + <em>vau</em> <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ו</span> + being changed in Greek to <em>beta</em> <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc">β</span>. + This country was famous for gold, whence the fable of the + Golden Fleece, attempted to be carried away from that + country by the heroes of Greece. The Gihon he thinks to be + the Araxes, which runs into the Caspian Sea, both the words + having the same signification, namely, a <em>rapid + motion</em>. The land of Cush, washed by the river, he + supposes to be the country of the Cussæi of the ancients; a + nation of Asia, destroyed by Alexander to appease the manes + of Hephæstion. The Hiddekel all agree to be the Tigris; and + the other river, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_397">397</span> + + Phrat, or <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">פרת</span> + <em>Perath</em>, to be the Euphrates. All these rivers rise + in the same tract of mountainous country, though they do not + proceed from one head.</p> + <p> + Man, says Faber, was placed by the Deity in the garden of + Paradise. The beauty of its scenery, the salubrity of its + climate, the variety and excellence of its fruits, all + contributed to the beatitude of the first pair, and tended + to elevate their thoughts to that Being, who was the author + and contriver of such numerous blessings. Trained, says + Bishop Horne, in the school of Eden by the material + elements of a visible world, to the knowledge of one that + is immaterial and invisible, Adam found himself excited by + the beauty of the picture, to aspire after the transcendent + excellence of the Divine original.</p> + <p> + From this, says Dr. A. Clarke, the ancient heathens + borrowed their ideas of the gardens of Hesperides, where + the trees bore golden fruit; the gardens of Adonis, a word + which is evidently derived from the Hebrew <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">עדן</span> + <em>Aden</em>; and hence the origin of sacred gardens, or + inclosures, dedicated to purposes of devotion, some + comparatively innocent, others impure. From the holiness of + the garden of Eden, says Faber, the Pagans probably + borrowed their ancient custom of consecrating groves to the + worship of their various deities. The description given by + Quintus Curtius of the sacred grove of Jupiter Hammon is + singularly beautiful, and almost presents to the + imagination the deep shades and the crystal streams of + Eden. “At length,” says he, “they arrived at the + consecrated habitation of the deity, which, incredible as + it may seem, was situated in the midst of a desert, and + shaded from the sun by so luxuriant a vegetation, that its + beams could scarcely penetrate through the thickness of the + foliage. The groves are watered by the meandering streams + of numerous fountains; and a wonderful temperature of + climate, resembling most of all the delightful season of + spring, prevails through the whole year with an equal + degree of salubrity.”</p> + <p> + This golden age is described by Plato, in a manner which, + independently of his confession (namely, that he gained his + information from the Phœnicians, who received it from their + ancestors,) proves him to have derived it, not from written + records, but from traditional reports. His mansion of + primeval bliss was not in this dark, diminished, and + deformed, this corrupted globe, but in a pure, ethereal, + and lucid orb of unlimited extent, where men breathed, not + air, but light, drank nectar, and partook of fruits + spontaneously produced. The inclement seasons were unknown, + raiment was not yet invented, and nakedness produced no + distress. When weary, the inhabitants reclined to sleep on + soft herbage, which received the influence of one eternal + spring. In these delightful regions no stormy winds + interrupted their calm repose; no evil passion disturbed + their serenity of soul; and reason, guided by + benevolence, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_398">398</span> + + bore a universal sway. Whilst + this state continued, man conversed freely with those + animals, which, now wild, avoid his presence, and fly at + his approach.</p> + <p> + Virgil was no stranger to a golden age; and Seneca has well + described the peaceful state whilst Saturn reigned. But of + all the representations, that which we find in Ovid is the + most beautiful, and, allowing for poetic imagery, is + accurately just.</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “The golden age was first; when man, yet new,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + No rule but uncorrupted reason knew,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + And with a native bent did good pursue.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Unforc’d by punishment, unaw’d by fear,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + His words were simple, and his soul sincere.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Needless was written law where none opprest:</p> + <p class="ml0"> + The law of man was written in his breast.</p> + <p class="ml0"> + No suppliant crowds before the judge appear’d;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + No court erected yet, nor cause was heard;</p> + <p class="ml0"> + But all was safe, for conscience was their guard.”</p> + </div> + <p id="FNanchor_206"> + Such notions of the felicity enjoyed by man in a state of + innocence, were not confined to Italy and Greece, but have + been discovered equally among the Persians, Indians, and + Chinese. The Brahmins say, that in the beginning of the + world, plenty was every where diffused, and milk, with wine + and honey, flowed from fountains. Similar images were used + by the Persian magi to convey a notion of primeval + happiness.<a + href="#Footnote_206" + class="fnanchor">206</a></p> + <p> + Thus Adam and Eve were happy in their situation, being + placed in Paradise, which was delightful for agreeable and + pleasing accommodations of every kind to regale their + senses; it was stored with the utmost profusion of Divine + bounty!</p> + <div class="poem"> + <p class="mlQ"> + “O Jesus! at thy feet we wait,</p> + <p class="ml2"> + Till thou shalt bid us rise,</p> + <p class="ml0"> + Restor’d to our unsinning state,</p> + <p class="ml2"> + To love’s sweet paradise.”</p> + </div> + + <hr id="CHAPTER_VIII" class="chap" /> + +<p class="pagenum" id="Page_399">399</p> + + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII.<br /> + <span class="large">SEVENTH DAY.</span></h2> + <h3 class="smcap"> + On The Sabbath.</h3> + <p class="hang1 smaller"> + Sabbath Instituted — Blessed and Sanctified — Given to Adam + as a General Precept for his Posterity — Renewed before + and at the giving of the Law — A Sign between God and his + People — Worldly Business prohibited — Works of Necessity + and Mercy excepted — Advantages resulting from observing + it — A Seventh Day regarded by the Heathens — The Sabbath + of universal and perpetual obligation — The Lord’s Day.</p> + <p> + When God had made the world, and furnished it with a + variety of creatures, suited to the different elements of + which it is composed; had created man after his own + image, far superior to all the other species of beings, + endued with rational faculties, whom he therefore + constituted lord over them, situated in a residence + curiously and beautifully adorned, and plentifully stored + with every thing adapted for sustenance and delight; he + exacted a reasonable service, which consisted in the + worship of himself, the one only true God, in celebrating + the expressions of his almighty power, infinite wisdom, + and boundless goodness, displayed in his works. And to + perpetuate, as well as give a solemnity to this worship, + he set apart a portion of time for the exercise of it; by + the constant and regular observation of which, a just + sense of his infinite perfections, the recollection of + his wondrous works, and the true worship of him, might be + retained among men.</p> + <p> + Moses, the sacred historian, says, “Thus the heavens and + the earth were finished, and all the host of them. And + God rested the seventh day, and sanctified it: because + that in it he had rested from all his work which God + created and made.” Here we have the origin of the + Sabbath, <em>because that in it he rested</em>, says + Moses; <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">שבה</span> + <em>shebath</em>, from <em>shabath</em>, he + rested; and hence <em>sabbath</em>, the name of the + seventh day, signifying <em>a day of rest</em>. Not that + he was weary with working, but he ceased to work, or + rested from making any more creatures, or species of + beings, all kinds being already either actually or + virtually made. When he had finished the works of + creation, in which he was employed six days, he rested on + the seventh, and <em>blessed</em> and <em>sanctified</em> + it; consecrated it for man to rest from all secular + labors, and religiously employ this portion of time. This + <em>blessing</em> and <em>sanctifying</em> the seventh + day has the force of a law or command. God separated it + from a common to a religious use, to be a standing + memorial of his works of creation; and to be a sign to + Adam and his posterity, who, by working six days and + resting on the seventh, should show themselves to be the + worshippers of that Being who made the world in six days, + and rested on the seventh.</p> + <p> + The method pursued in creating the world, presenting a + regular + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_400">400</span> + + succession of astonishing events, was doubtless + intended to convey useful instruction to + mankind. Considering the almighty power of the Creator, + his <em>fiat</em> would have been sufficient instantly to + produce the whole apparatus of nature, in beautiful and + regular order. But he proceeded by degrees in this work, + probably to teach us, that, after working six days, we + also should rest on the seventh. What other reason can be + assigned for his procedure, when a more expeditious plan + would have been as easy to him, and more consonant to his + omnipotence: but only, that all mankind from this measure + should have a perpetual reason and obligation to + consecrate a seventh day, after six days labor, to be a + holy rest to the Lord; and it is reasonable to suppose + that God expressly declared his will to our first parents + as to this matter.</p> + <p> + As the command for observing the seventh day was given to + Adam, as a general precept for all his posterity, no + doubt he and his sons regarded it. Afterwards, through + the impiety of the ante-deluvians, it might be + obliterated in the earth, except in the solitary family + of Noah; who, being a preacher of righteousness, cannot + be supposed to have neglected the observation of this + day, or to have omitted recommending such an important + point of religion to the new world after the Flood. And + though after this, when men were again multiplied on the + earth, wickedness and idolatry were introduced, and the + lapse of time had effaced from their minds this and other + precepts of religion received from Noah; yet, we cannot + but suppose that this important institution, with other + things relating to the worship of God, was retained in + the family of Abraham, and the succeeding Patriarchs, + till their bondage in Egypt. But when, through the + iniquity and idolatry of succeeding generations, the + particular time, at first designed and allotted for this + special service, became forgotten, and Divine worship was + entirely neglected by the generality of mankind, God then + revealed and instituted the Jewish religion, prescribed + the mode of worship to be used, and by a special law + appointed a certain season for the more solemn exercise + of it; and to be a token of the sincere worshippers of + the true God, who created all things: and the day thus + appointed and consecrated to public worship, was called + the <em>Sabbath</em>, on account of the rest required to + be strictly observed on it, and a command given to all + that they observe and sanctify it.</p> + <p> + This command originally given to Adam, was renewed before + the giving of either the moral, judicial, or ceremonial + law. It is expressly taken notice of at the fall of the + manna, which was granted to the children of Israel in the + wilderness of Sin, before they came to Sinai, Exod. xvi, + 23-27. It was afterwards inserted in the body of the + moral law. Exod. xx, 8. It is annexed to the judicial + laws; i.e. the laws determining right between man and + man, and the punishment of transgressors, Exod. xxiii, + 12. And + + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_401">401</span> + + it is added to the first part of the ceremonial + law, or Levitical rites and ceremonies, Exod. + xxxi, 13-18; in which passage it is repeated four times + in the compass of four verses. In the fourth command God + says, “Remember the Sabbath-day, to keep it holy.” What + day is meant, the following words determine, “Six days + shall thou labor, and do all thy work: but the seventh is + the Sabbath of the Lord thy God: in it thou shall not do + any work.” That is after six days of labor, the seventh + shall be a day of holy rest, set apart for the public + worship of God. The reason to enforce this is added, + “Because in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the + sea, and all that in them is, and rested the seventh + day.” The Jews, in many of their feasts, were commanded + to rest from servile labor, on which account these are + sometimes called <em>sabbaths</em>; but we also read of + one day, which, by way of eminence, is styled the + Sabbath, or day of rest. Thus we see, that the precept + which God gave the Jews for the observation of the + Sabbath, appears to be only the repetition or renewal of + the law given to mankind from the beginning of the world, + and not the first publication of it. A new reason indeed + is added for the observation of it, namely, their + redemption from Egyptian bondage, which was effected on + the seventh day of the week, when God overthrew Pharaoh + and his host in the Red Sea, and thereby delivered them. + “Remember that thou wast a servant in the land of Egypt, + and that the Lord thy God brought thee out thence through + a mighty hand, and by a stretched out arm: therefore the + Lord thy God commanded thee to keep the Sabbath-day.” And + the Jews kept their Sabbath on the seventh day of the + week, in remembrance of their redemption from slavery in + Egypt.</p> + <p> + It is worthy of remark, that the command for the + religious observance of the Sabbath, was delivered by + Moses at Mount Sinai, in a way different from all those + ordinances which were only ceremonial. It was written by + the supreme Being himself on tables of stone, on which + every other thing written was confessedly moral, and of + perpetual obligation: but no part of the ceremonial law + was written by the finger of God. The fourth command was + written on tables of stone, to signify that it was to + continue, as well as the other; and also it was put into + the Ark, with the rest of the moral precepts, and is + referred to Deut. x, 4. as being one of the number.</p> + <p> + The sanctification of the Sabbath is considered as a + <em>sign</em> between God and his people. “Verily my + sabbaths ye shall keep: for it is a sign between me and + you, throughout your generations; that ye may know that I + am the Lord that doth sanctify you:” or, as the original + may be rendered, a sign to acknowledge that I Jehovah am + your sanctifier. Again—“And hallow my Sabbaths; and they + shall be a sign between me and you, that ye may know that + I am the Lord your God.” Thus God made the sanctification + of the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_402">402</span> + + Sabbath a sign by which it might be known who did + belong to him. Working six days, and + keeping a holy rest on the seventh, is a sign of being + the worshippers of the one living and true God, who made + heaven and earth in the space of six days, and rested the + seventh: consequently, the neglecting and profaning the + Sabbath is a tacit renouncing of him. Therefore the + Jewish Rabbies have this saying among them, Whoever + breaks the other commands is a wicked Israelite; but he + who openly and avowedly profanes the Sabbath, is + considered as an infidel and idolater. Hence we read, + that such were to be cut off from the people, and put to + death: as they would not comply with this institution, so + God would not own them as his people, but reject them.</p> + <p> + To those who religiously observe the Sabbath, there are + many particular promises made. “If thou turn thy foot + from the Sabbath, from doing thy pleasure on my holy day; + and call the Sabbath a delight, the Holy of (or to) the + Lord, honorable; and shalt honor him, not doing thine own + ways, not finding thine own pleasure, nor speaking thine + own words: then shalt thou delight thyself in the Lord; + and I will cause thee to ride upon the high places of the + earth, and feed thee with the heritage of Jacob thy + father: for the mouth of the Lord hath spoken it.” Here + God secures to such persons the good of the land of + Canaan, which he has promised as an heritage to Jacob and + his seed. Plenty, honor, and security in the enjoyment of + temporal blessings, are annexed to a religious + performance of the duty; he will bless the honest labors + of those who faithfully serve him, on the six days of the + week, which he has appointed for secular employments. The + more sincere and devout any person is in keeping the + Sabbath, the more will his business prosper on other + days. Promises of this nature have been accomplished in + all ages, to those who have sanctified the Sabbath; and + no doubt they will continue to be so in every subsequent + period of time.</p> + <p> + Attending to worldly business on the Sabbath, is a + profanation of it, and strictly prohibited. God says, + “Thou shalt not do any work, thou, nor thy son, nor thy + daughter, thy man-servant, nor thy maid-servant, nor thy + cattle, nor the stranger that is within thy gates.” + Again: “Six days shall work be done: but the seventh day + is the Sabbath of rest; ye shall do no work therein: it + is the Sabbath of the Lord in all your dwellings.” The + Sabbath was awfully profaned in the days of Nehemiah. He + says, “In those days saw I in Judah some treading + wine-presses on the Sabbath, and bringing in sheaves, and + leading asses; as also wine, grapes, and figs, and all + manner of burdens, which they brought into Jerusalem on + the Sabbath day: and I testified against them in the day + wherein they sold victuals. There dwelt men of Tyre also + therein, which brought fish, and all manner of ware, and + sold on the Sabbath unto the children of Judah and + Jerusalem. Then I + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_403">403</span> + + contended with the nobles of Judah, and + said unto them, What evil thing is this that ye do, + and profane the Sabbath-day? Did not your fathers thus, + and did not our God bring all this evil upon us, and upon + this city? yet ye bring more wrath upon Israel by + profaning the Sabbath. And it came to pass, that when the + gates of Jerusalem begun to be dark before the Sabbath, I + commanded that the gates should be shut, and charged that + they should not be opened till after the Sabbath: and + some of my servants set I at the gates, that there should + no burden be brought in on the Sabbath-day. So the + merchants, and sellers of all sorts of ware, lodged + without Jerusalem once or twice. Then I testified against + them, and said unto them, Why lodge ye about the wall? if + ye do so again I will lay hands on you. From that time + forth came they no more on the Sabbath.” This is a noble + instance of well-directed zeal, and successful effort, in + that great and good governor. His example ought to be + followed by persons in authority, filling high official + situations. The prophet Jeremiah speaks to the same + purpose, “Thus saith the Lord, Take heed to yourselves, + and bear no burden on the Sabbath-day, nor bring it in by + the gates of Jerusalem: neither carry forth a burden out + of your houses on the Sabbath-day, neither do ye any + work, but hallow ye the Sabbath-day, as I commanded your + fathers.”</p> + <p> + Works of necessity and mercy are here to be excepted: + these may be done consistently with the sanctification of + the Sabbath, though they are servile and laborious. But + great care must be taken, not to plead necessity where + there really is none. By such works are meant things of + importance, which could not be done the day before, nor + postponed till after the Sabbath. A necessity which is + occasioned by negligence, or want of thought, or is only + necessary to some worldly advantage, will not be a + sufficient excuse in this case. In seasons when people + have more than ordinary business in their hands, and + therefore are apt to plead necessity for encroachments on + the Sabbath; yet, even then, God has particularly + commanded them to rest. “Six days shalt thou work; but on + the seventh day thou shalt rest: in earing-time and + harvest thou shalt rest.”</p> + <p> + The religious observance of the Sabbath is adapted to + promote the spiritual advantage of God’s people. Its + exercises tend to wean them from this present world, and + raise them above the attractions of sense. By this holy + rest there is a pause made in their earthly pursuits, and + they are called more solemnly to reflect on the invisible + and important realities of a better world, in order to + excite their devout affections. Had they no such + intervals, their hearts would soon be overcharged with + the labors and cares of this life, and they would be too + regardless of a better state. God has made it even + unlawful for them to follow any secular employments on + this day, on purpose to preserve them from the undue + influence + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_404">404</span> + + of the objects of sense, and that they might + with more intenseness pursue spiritual and eternal + things. It is certain, as one judiciously observes, that + much of the power of godliness consists in persons living + above the present world, in being dead to it, in viewing + it with a holy indifference, and in setting their + affections on things above. But this would be very + difficult, or next to impossible, if they were to be + constantly employed in worldly affairs; and therefore he + who best knows the composition and constitution of man, + has wisely and graciously appointed one day in seven, as + a rest from terrestrial pursuits, and as a season wherein + he should set himself more intensely to prepare for the + heavenly world. When thus withdrawn from earthly + concerns, persons can more impartially examine, weigh, + and consider how unsuitable a portion they are for an + immaterial soul, immortal in its duration. They have + leisure to meditate with greater freedom on the Author of + their being, on his end or design in placing them on the + earth, and on the results of their conduct awaiting them + in a future state. They, therefore, who are duly informed + of the worth of the soul, and suitably impressed with the + awfulness of that world to which they are hastening; who + desire the felicity of heaven, and dread the misery of + hell; will rejoice at the return of the Sabbath, wherein + they are called diligently to prepare for the one, and + most cautiously to avoid the other. While thus abstracted + from all sublunary things, and engaged in the exercise of + devotion, they gain a more intimate communion with God. + “Every one that keepeth the Sabbath from polluting it, + and taketh hold of my covenant; even them will I bring to + my holy mountain, and make them joyful in my house of + prayer; their burnt-offerings and their sacrifices shall + be accepted upon mine altar.” When persons are employed + on this sacred day, in meditating on the infinite + perfections of God displayed in his works; when the + desires of their souls are after him, and they are + engaged in offering up prayers and praises to the + glorious Author of their being and blessings; then he + manifests himself to them in a manner he does not to + other men, sheds abroad his love in their hearts, accepts + their persons and services, and fills them with joy and + peace. This communion is most effectually promoted, when + they are disengaged from earthly things, and wholly + employed in the duties of religion: according to that + very encouraging promise, “In all places where I record + my name, I will come unto thee, and I will bless thee.”</p> + <p> + The seventh day was observed by heathen nations, as well + as the Jews. Josephus ventured to affirm, “There is no + city, whether Grecian or Barbarian, there is no nation, + which does not rest on the seventh day.” Philo Judæus + stated many years before, that the seventh day was a + festival, not to one city or one country, but to all; and + he, therefore, calls it the <em>universal festival</em>. + The heathen writers speak of the Sabbath as a high day + among them. + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_405">405</span> + + Clemens Alexandrinus gives quotations from + Linus, Homer, Hesiod, and Callimachus, who + speak of the seventh day as a day on which the work of + the creation was finished, and call it <em>the holy + day</em>, and <em>the birth day of the world</em>. Lucian + informs us, in his Pseudologista, that children at school + were exempted from study on the seventh day. This day + Suetonius calls a <em>sabbath</em>. If any should say, + that the Heathen, from the acquaintance they had with the + Jews and the writings of Moses, knew that the seventh day + was to be kept holy: I would answer; that is not + probable, for some of the Heathen writers who speak of + the seventh-day Sabbath, lived near the time of Moses. + Beside, the Greeks were at that time wholly ignorant of + his writings: the Jews thought it a profanation to + communicate any part of them to the Heathen. Nor were the + writings of Moses translated into the Greek language till + several hundred years after Homer: the translation was + made in the days of Ptolemy the second, king of Egypt, + about three hundred years before the Christian era. And + it is not of the Jews Saturday-sabbath that the Heathen + writers speak, but of another day in the week. It was not + the seventh day of the week to which the ancient heathens + confined their rest, but <em>a</em> seventh day, + <em>one</em> day in seven. Their Sabbath or high festival + was that day of the week on which they worshipped the + sun, their chief god. It remains then, that the notice of + the seventh day among the Heathen came to them originally + from the Patriarchs, whose descendants, in their several + dispersions, carried along with them some impressions of + the true religion, which partially continued with them + afterward, though awfully corrupted with idolatry. To + cure mankind of this idolatry, and secure the worship of + him who made the sun, and the whole universe, Moses, by + Divine direction, appointed the last day of the week to + be the Jewish sabbath. We may also state, that the reason + which God has assigned for sanctifying the seventh day to + be the Jewish sabbath, namely, his creating the world in + six days, and resting the seventh, not only concerns the + Jews, but also the Heathens, who are equally bound to + remember and adore their Creator. Hence the + <em>Strangers</em>, or Gentiles, who sojourned among the + Jews, and were not obliged to keep the ceremonial law, + were bound to keep holy the Sabbath.</p> + <p> + Thus we perceive, that this command is of a moral nature, + and, therefore, of universal and perpetual obligation. + The Sabbath was instituted from the beginning of the + world, while all things were perfectly good, and our + first parents were innocent and adorned with the beauty + of holiness: even then the Creator appointed that the + seventh day should be employed in his more immediate + service. Some have thought, that there is no express + command for the observance of the Sabbath, till after the + children of Israel had come out of Egypt; and, therefore, + that all the obligations + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_406">406</span> + + to observe it must be derived + from the law of Moses. But this command was given before + sin had infected human nature, consequently previous to + the ceremonial law, which, in all its parts, was + contrived on account of sin, and intended to point to a + Saviour: for in a state of innocence, there could be no + propriety in the adoption of such shadows and ceremonies. + Nay, as Archbishop Usher observes, the appointment of the + Sabbath was not only before any part of the ceremonial + law, but before any promise or prediction of Christ, to + whom all the ceremonies of the law had respect. Therefore + we may conclude, that a command which was to be observed + though man had never sinned, and which stood in full + force from the creation of the world, cannot be made a + part of the ceremonial law, which was not given till + after the expiration of 2,500 years. This is a duty + incumbent on all mankind, as is evident from the reason + and end of its first institution; all men being alike + God’s creatures, and as such equally concerned to worship + him and commemorate his works. The Sabbath is as + obligatory on all succeeding generations of men, as it + was formerly on the Jews, or before the Mosaic economy, + on the Patriarchs and their contemporaries. Every + creature of God on earth, endued with reason, is obliged + to separate this day from his common time, and to keep it + holy to the Lord.</p> + <p> + When the Jewish ceremonial law was abrogated by Christ, + the fourth command continued in force, and was observed. + Speaking of the moral law, our Saviour says, “Think not + that I am come to destroy the law or the prophets. I am + not come to destroy, but to fulfil. For verily I say unto + you, Till heaven and earth pass, one jot or one tittle + shall in no wise pass from the law, till all be + fulfilled.” Now if not one <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">י</span> + <em>yod</em>, the smallest + letter in the Hebrew alphabet, or <em>tittle</em>, or + <em>point</em>, <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: keraia" + class="msg">κεραια</span>, + either meaning those + <em>points</em>, as a learned author remarks, which serve + for vowels in this language, if they then existed; or the + <em>apices</em>, or points of certain letters, such as <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ר</span> + <em>resh</em>, or <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ד</span> + <em>daleth</em>, <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ה</span> + <em>he</em>, or <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ח</span> + <em>cheth</em>, as the change of any of these into the + other would make a most essential alteration in the + sense; I say, if not one of these was to pass from the + law, surely not the command which is the longest of all + the ten, is the only one to which a memento is prefixed, + and has more reasons to enforce it than any of the other + nine! Yea, so far from abolishing this command, our + Saviour explains it, in the case of his disciples + plucking the ears of corn on the Sabbath; which is a + manifest proof that he intended it to be continued for + the use of the Christian Church. He also enjoined his + disciples to pray, when Jerusalem should be destroyed, + which did not occur till forty years after his death, and + the consequent abolishing of all the Jewish rites and + ceremonies, that their <em>flight</em> might not be on + the <em>Sabbath-day</em>.</p> + <p> + From the beginning of the world to the Christian + dispensation, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_407">407</span> + + the seventh day of the week was the + Sabbath: ever since the resurrection of Christ from the + dead, the first day of the week is the Christian Sabbath. + Our Saviour, who is “Lord of the Sabbath,” changed it + from the seventh to the first day of the week; which does + not in the least derogate from the honor and glory of + God. If one Sabbath had been abolished and not another + instituted in the room of it, then he would lose the + honor of public worship, which he has appointed to be + performed on that day. However, if there be a greater + work than that of creation to be remembered and + celebrated, to appoint a day for that special purpose, + tends much more to advance the glory of God, than if it + should be wholly neglected. And if “all men should honor + the Son, even as they honor the Father,” then it is + expedient that a day should be set apart for this + worship, namely, the day on which Christ rested from the + work of redemption, or, as the apostle expresses it, + “ceased from his own works, as God did from his.” In + altering the Sabbath, from the seventh to the first day + of the week, our Saviour displayed his sovereign + authority; herein he enjoined what time he would have + consecrated for his worship under the Gospel + dispensation, as well as what worship he would have + performed on that day. In observing the Christian + sabbath, we express our faith in a public manner, that + Christ is come in the flesh, and has completed the work + of our redemption; and, consequently, that there is a way + prepared for our justification, access to God, and hope + of finding pardon, acceptance, sanctification, and + eternal life. And as all the ordinances of Gospel-worship + have a peculiar relation to Christ, it is proper that the + time in which they are performed should likewise have + respect to him; and, therefore, the first day of the week + is set apart in commemoration of his finishing the work + of our redemption.</p> + <p> + That the Sabbath was actually changed from the seventh to + the first day of the week, appears from the example of + the apostles, who, after the resurrection of Christ, + celebrated that day as a Sabbath. It was on the first day + of the week that the Holy Ghost was poured down in a most + miraculous manner on the apostles, to qualify them for + the ministry, and render them fit instruments for + propagating Christianity in the world. While St. Paul was + at Troas, we read, that “upon the first day of the week, + when the disciples came together to break bread,” i.e. to + receive the Holy Sacrament, “Paul preached unto them.” + This was not a private, but a public meeting of the + Church; nor was it a day occasionally appointed by the + apostle, but the stated time of their meeting; and it was + usual for the Christians on their Sabbath to receive the + Lord’s Supper. The apostle had continued at Troas seven + days; why did they not meet together, and he preach to + them, on the seventh day of the week? because it was no + longer the Sabbath, + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_408">408</span> + + but changed to the first day. It was + on the first day of the week that the primitive + Christians made collections for the poor.—“Now concerning + the collection for the saints, as I have given order to + the churches of Galatia, even so do ye. Upon the first + day of the week let every one of you lay by him in store + as God hath prospered him, that there be no gatherings + when I come.” Every man at the conclusion of the week, + was to cast up his weekly earnings, and see how much God + had prospered him; and then to bring a right proportion, + on the first day of the week, as is most likely, to the + church or assembly, that it might be put in the common + treasury. Thus it appears, as a learned commentator + remarks, that the first day of the week, which is the + Christian sabbath, was the day on which their principal + religious meetings were held in Corinth, and the churches + of Galatia; and, consequently, in all other places where + Christianity had prevailed. The apostle John speaks of + the Lord’s day, “I was in the spirit on the Lord’s day.” + He calls it the <em>Lord’s day</em>, because on it Jesus + Christ rose from the dead, and had appointed it to be the + Christian sabbath: thus one Gospel ordinance is called + the Lord’s Supper, from its having been instituted by + Christ.—If any should inquire when it was that Christ + gave instruction to his apostles concerning the change of + the Sabbath; we may reply, that it was in that interval + of time, during which he “showed himself alive after his + passion by many infallible proofs, being seen of them + forty days, and speaking of the things pertaining to the + kingdom of God;” of which we may reckon the change of the + Sabbath to have been one. But if this should not be + deemed sufficiently satisfactory, we have the highest + reason to conclude, that information was given to the + apostles by the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, whom + Christ had promised to send them, and that should guide + them into all truth. And surely there could not have been + a more proper day fixed on for the Christian sabbath; and + which the Christian church has ever since continued to + observe, and of which God himself has signified his + approbation. And as the reason of the change now stands, + we can neither observe the Jewish seventh-day Sabbath, + without disowning the redemption which Christ has + accomplished for us; nor can we refuse to comply with + this alteration, and keep holy the Lord’s day, without a + manifest contempt not only of our Creator, but of our + gracious and merciful Redeemer, who, on this day of the + week, rose from the dead, and thereby confirmed our + redemption from sin, Satan, spiritual thraldom, and + everlasting misery.</p> + <p> + As the redemption of the Jews out of Egypt was typical of + our redemption by Christ, and the Jews on their Sabbath + were to keep their deliverance in remembrance; so surely + Christians are under the greatest obligations on the + first day of the week to remember + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_409">409</span> + + their redemption by + Christ. On this day our blessed Saviour rose from the dead, + and his resurrection is a demonstrative evidence that the + Supreme Judge is fully satisfied, and become the God of + peace. There is no dispensing with the honor of the moral + law, no receding from the sacred rights of justice. The + obedience and death of Christ, as our surety, were such + as the law and justice required; and by which the honor + of God is secured, and of which he has most expressly + declared his acceptance. When Christ had laid down his + life, in as ignominious death, which was all that the law + and justice could insist on, God himself unloosed the + fetters of the grave, threw open the prison door, and in + his resurrection from the dead, gave an evident and + solemn testimony of his approval. This was the + accomplishment of the words of the prophet, “He was taken + from prison, and from judgment;” released and discharged, + in full evidence that he had made satisfaction, and that + God had accepted the payment at his hands. The apostle + remarks on this important point, “Whom God hath raised + up, having loosed the pains of death: because it was not + possible that he should be holden of it.” Not possible, + as it is not just or righteous that a prisoner, who has + satisfied every demand that the law has on him, should be + kept longer in prison. The resurrection of Christ, + therefore, was an open and authentic acknowledgment, that + God, considered as the moral Governor and Supreme Judge + of mankind, acquiesced in his death, as a proper, full, + and perfect satisfaction to Divine justice for sin. Hence + he is represented, in raising Christ from the dead, as + acting under the peculiar character of the God of peace. + “Now the God of peace, that brought again from the dead + our Lord Jesus Christ, that great shepherd of the sheep, + through the blood of the everlasting covenant.” What a + delightful view does this present of the resurrection of + Christ—a risen Saviour, and a reconciled God! How safely + may men trust in the one, and with what humble confidence + may they apply to the other, for pardon, holiness, and + heaven. With what holy joy should they on the Lord’s day + call to remembrance his resurrection, and meditate on the + greatness of his love in shedding his blood for “the + remission of sins,” and to secure for them everlasting + happiness.</p> + <p> + The ardent desire he manifested for our welfare was not + extinguished, or even abated, by the most discouraging + considerations: not by the unworthiness of those who were + the objects of his compassion; not by the thoughts of + obscuring his Divine glory with frail humanity; not by + the prospect of being exposed to the contempt of men and + contradiction of sinners; not by the view of meeting with + very ungrateful usage from his friends, and falling under + the most bitter persecutions of his enemies; not by the + necessity, arising from a covenant engagement, of + suffering the + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_410">410</span> + + punishment due to sin, and submitting to a + most ignominious and painful death. In opposition to + these formidable obstacles, our blessed Redeemer + resolutely and immoveably persevered in his benevolent + design of dying for us, and thereby effecting our + salvation; and when suspended on the cross, he cried, “It + is finished,” and gave up the ghost. For calling this to + remembrance, was the Christian sabbath instituted; and if + the consideration of the love of Christ in being + “delivered for our offences, and rising again for our + justification,” will not constrain us to sanctify the + Lord’s day, every other motive or reason will fail.</p> + <h3> + THE END.</h3> + + <hr class="blank" /> + <div class='footnote'> + <h2>Footnotes:</h2> + <table summary=""> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_1" + href="#FNanchor_1">1</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — As the name <em>Jehovah</em>, in the + Hebrew consists of four letters, so for the most part the + name of the supreme Being does in all languages. Thus among + the Persians, the name is <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: Sory" + class="msg">Σορυ</span>; + among the Arabians, <em>Alla</em>; among the Assyrians, + <em>Adad</em>; among the Egyptians, <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: Thôyth" + class="msg">Θωυθ</span> + or <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: Theuth" + class="msg">Θευθ</span>; + with the Grecians, <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: Theos" + class="msg">Θεος</span>; + the Latins, <i + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">Deus</i>; + the French, <i + lang="fra" + xml:lang="fra">Dieu</i>; + the Spaniards, <i + lang="spa" + xml:lang="spa">Dios</i>; + the Italians, <i + lang="ita" + xml:lang="ita">Idio</i>; + and with the Germans, <i + lang="deu" + xml:lang="deu">Gott</i>. + <br /><br /> + The name <em>Jehovah</em> is written differently. + Sanchoniathon writes it <em>Jevo</em>; Diodorus the + Sicilian, Macrobius, Clemens Alexandrinus, Jerome, and + Origen, <em>Jao</em>; Epiphanius, Theodoret, and the + Samaritans, <em>Jabé</em> or <em>Jave</em>: we find + likewise <em>Jahoh</em>, <em>Javo</em>, <em>Jaou</em>, + <em>Jaod</em>. Lewis Capellus is for <em>Javo</em>; Drusius + for <em>Javé</em>; Mercer for <em>Jehevah</em>: Hottinger + <em>Jehra</em>. The Moors call their God <em>Juba</em>, + whom some believe to be <em>Jehovah</em>. The Latins + probably took their <em>Juvis</em> or <em>Jovis Pater</em> + from <em>Jehovah</em>. It is certain that these four + letters may likewise be expressed by <em>Javo</em>, + <em>Jaho</em>, <em>Jaon</em>, <em>Jevo</em>, <em>Javé</em>, + <em>Jehvah</em>, &c. Mussulmen frequently use the name + <em>Hu</em>, or <em>Hou</em>, which has almost the same + signification as <em>Jehovah</em>, i.e. <em>He who is</em>. + But the great name of God is <em>Allah</em>, which they + pronounce often, and have great confidence in. Among the + Arabians, and all Mahometans the name <em>Allah</em> + corresponds with the <em>Elohim</em> and <em>Adonai</em> of + the Hebrews, and even that of <em>Jehovah</em>. See + Calmet’s Dictionary.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_2" + href="#FNanchor_2">2</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Dr. A. Clarke on Exod. xxxiv, 6, 7.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_3" + href="#FNanchor_3">3</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Philo-Biblius seems to intimate, + that the God of the Phœnicians was anciently called by + the name <em>Jehovah</em>; and that <em>Jevo</em>, + <em>Javo</em>, more recently used by them, is a + corruption of it; for it is said, that Jerombalus who + supplied Sanchoniathon with materials for his Phœnicians + history, was a priest of the God Jevo. Euseb. Præp. + Evang. lib. i. c. 9.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_4" + href="#Page_16">4</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — “On the front of the famous temple + of Apollo, at Delphos, was graven the Greek word <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: Ei" + class="msg">Ει</span> + (which signifies <em>thou art</em>, being the second + person singular of the verb <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: eimi" + class="msg">εἰμὶ</span>.) + The learned among the + Philosophers labored long to discover its meaning, each + giving his own opinion; but could not find it out, until + Plutarch (who travelled into Egypt and Greece for + instruction in ancient sciences and other things) meeting + with that passage in the writings of Moses, where God + manifested himself by saying, <span + class="smcap">I am that I am</span>; + he was struck with it, and having it + explained to him, he then conceived the true and exalted + sense of the word <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: Ei" + class="msg">Ει</span>, + engraved on the front of the + temple. It implied, as it were, an admonition to those + who were about to enter the temple, to worship God, who + is the only self-existent Being in the universe.” + Creighton’s Enquiry into the Originof True Religion, + p. 21. Second Edition. + <br /><br /> + On a temple dedicated to Neitha, at Sais, the chief town + in Lower Egypt, was this inscription: “I am whatever is, + or has been, or will be, and no mortal has hitherto drawn + aside my veil; my offspring is the sun.” It appears + highly probable that the ancient Egyptians acknowledged + an active as well as a passive principle in nature, and, + as Plutarch asserts, worshipped <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: tô prôtô Theô" + class="msg">τῳ πρώτῳ Θεῳ</span>, + the supreme Deity. Enfield’s History of Philosophy, + vol. i. p. 76, 77.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_5" + href="#Page_16">5</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Norris on Reason and Religion. Contemp. i.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_6" + href="#Page_22">6</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Allix’s Judgment of the Jewish Church against the + Unitarians, p. 116. Edit. 1699. See also p. 119. + Simpson’s Apology for the Doctrine of the Trinity, + p. 379, 380.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_7" + href="#FNanchor_7">7</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Rabbi Simeon Ben Jochai, in Zoar, on the sixth section + of Leviticus. See Ainsworth’s Annotations + on the place.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_8" + href="#FNanchor_8">8</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Demonstration of the Messias, Part + iii. p, 170, 171. Edit. 1700.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_9" + href="#FNanchor_9">9</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Jones on the Trinity, chap. iii. sect. 1.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_10" + href="#Page_23">10</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Allix. p. 132.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_11" + href="#FNanchor_11">11</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Gen. i, 26; iii, 22; xi, 7; xx, 13; + xxxi, 53; xxxv, 7; Deut. iv, 7; v, 23; Josh. xxiv, 19; 1 + Sam. iv, 8; 2 Sam. vii, 23; Psal. lviii, 12; Isai. vi, 8; + Jer. x, 10; xxiii, 36; See Prov. ix, 10; xxx, 3; Psal. + cxlix, 2; Eccl. v, 7; xii, 1: Job v, 1; Isai. vi, 3; liv, + 5; Hos. xi, 12, or xii, 1; Mal. i,6; Dan. vii, 18, 22, + 25; Hebrew Lexicon, p. 19. Edit. 1811. See also Mr. + Parkhurst’s pamphlet against Dr. Priestly and Mr. + Wakefield, p. 3-9, and p. 148, &c.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_12" + href="#FNanchor_12">12</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Ridley’s Eight Discourses, p. 79.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_13" + href="#FNanchor_13">13</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — See Allix’s Judgment of the Jewish + Church, p. 118.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_14" + href="#Page_26">14</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Professor Kidd’s Essay on the + Doctrine of the Trinity, p. 452.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_15" + href="#FNanchor_15">15</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Jones on the Trinity.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_16" + href="#FNanchor_16">16</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Ganganelli’s Letters.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_17" + href="#FNanchor_17">17</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Rev. Hugh Knox’s Sermons.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_18" + href="#FNanchor_18">18</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Gray’s Key to the Old Testament.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_19" + href="#FNanchor_18">19</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — M. Pascal’s Thoughts.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_20" + href="#FNanchor_20">20</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — See Gray’s Key, Notes, p. 82-83.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_21" + href="#FNanchor_21">21</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — See Sturm. vol. iv. p. 266.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_22" + href="#Page_32">22</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Christian’s Magazine, vol. ii, p. 97, 98.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_23" + href="#Page_45">23</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — See Dr. A. Clarke on Gen. i. 1.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_24" + href="#FNanchor_24">24</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Barington’s Dissertations, &c., p. 82.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_25" + href="#FNanchor_25">25</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — An eminent chemist and philosopher, + Dr. Priestley, has very properly observed, that it seems + plain that Moses considered the whole terraqueous globe as + being created in a <em>fluid</em> state, the earthly and + other particles of matter being mingled with the water. The + present form of the earth demonstrates the truth of the + Mosaic account, for it is well known, that, if a soft or + elastic globular body be rapidly whirled round on its axis, + the parts at the poles will be flattened, and the parts on + the equator, midway between the north and the south poles + will be raised up. This is precisely the shape of our + earth; it has the figure of an <em>oblate spheroid</em>, a + figure pretty much resembling the shape of an + <em>orange</em>. It has been demonstrated by admeasurement, + that the earth is flatted at the poles, and raised at the + equator. This was first conjectured by Sir Isaac Newton, + and afterwards confirmed by M. Cassini, and others, who + measured several degrees of latitude at the equator and + near the north pole, and found that the difference + perfectly justified Sir Isaac Newton’s conjecture, and + consequently confirmed the Mosaic account. The result of + the experiments instituted to determine this point, proved, + that the diameter of the earth at the equator is greater by + more than <em>twenty-three</em> and <em>a half</em> miles + than it is at the poles, allowing the polar diameter to be + 1-334 part shorter than the <em>equatorial</em>, according + to the recent admeasurements of several degrees of latitude + made by Messrs. Mechain and Delambre. L’Histoire des + Mathem. par M. de la Lande, tom. iv, part v, liv. vi: and + Dr. Adam Clarke, on Gen. i. 10.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_26" + href="#FNanchor_26">26</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Hesiod. Theog. 116.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_27" + href="#FNanchor_27">27</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Aristoph. Aves, 694.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_28" + href="#FNanchor_28">28</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Longin, sect. ix, Edit. Pearce.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_29" + href="#FNanchor_29">29</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Walker’s History of the Creation, p. 8, 9.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_30" + href="#Page_52">30</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Benson on the Text.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_31" + href="#FNanchor_31">31</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Preface to Dr. Black’s Lectures, by Robison.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_32" + href="#FNanchor_32">32</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Carpenter’s Lectures on the Works + of Creation, vol. i. p. 87.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_33" + href="#FNanchor_33">33</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Boerhaave’s Chem. by Shaw, vol. i. p. 299. + (Note: Location of footnote 33 was not marked in the + original text.)</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_34" + href="#FNanchor_34">34</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Parkes’s Chemical Catechism, or + Rudiments of Chemistry, chap. ii.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_35" + href="#FNanchor_35">35</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Contemplative Philosopher, vol. ii. + p. 149, 150.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_36" + href="#FNanchor_36">36</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — See Dr. Burnet’s Theory, vol. ii, p. 30.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_37" + href="#FNanchor_36">37</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Apud Stob. Eclog. Phys. p. 44.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_38" + href="#FNanchor_38">38</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — That light is a fluid which + encompasses the earth, and requires only to be agitated by + some other inflamed body, in order to render it + perceptible, is an hypothesis, says a celebrated German + divine, that has been adopted by the most eminent + philosophers. “It is certain, at least, that there is a + great difference between <em>fire</em> and <em>light</em>. + The latter is incomparably more subtile than the former. It + penetrates glass, and other transparent bodies, in a + moment; whereas fire does it very slowly. The pores of + glass are consequently large enough to give a free passage + to the light, while the fire meets with more resistance, + because it is less subtile. Fire moves more slowly than + light. Let burning coals be brought into a room, the heat + diffuses itself very slowly, and the air becomes warm by + degrees; but the moment a candle is brought into an + apartment, the whole is suddenly illuminated; and wherever + the rays can reach the parts become more visible. From + these facts, and some others, it is concluded, that fire + and light are different substances; although we generally + see them both together, and find that one may produce the + other. But the consequence drawn from this is possibly + false.”</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_39" + href="#FNanchor_39">39</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — A new material has recently been + introduced in this country, for the purpose of lighting + houses, streets, manufactories, &c., namely, the + inflammable gas of coals. When coals are burning in a + common fire-place, a flame more or less luminous, according + as it is more or less encumbered with incombustible smoke + and vapor, issues from them; and very frequently emit some + very beautiful streams of a flame remarkably bright. All + this arises from the gases which are extricated from the + coal by the heat. It was natural to imagine that such gas + might be received in proper reservoirs, and, on being + forced out of small apertures, and lighted, would serve, as + the flames of candles, to illuminate rooms or other places. + The trial was easily made, and has been attended with the + desired effect.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_40" + href="#FNanchor_40">40</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Dr. Rees’s New Cyclopædia, Art. + Light; and Dr. O. Gregory’s Lessons, Astronomical and + Philosophical p. 157.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_41" + href="#Page_78">41</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Gregory’s Economy of Nature, vol. i, p. 173.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_42" + href="#FNanchor_42">42</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — See Relig. Philos. vol. iii, pp. + 869, 870, Fourth Edition.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_43" + href="#FNanchor_43">43</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Sturm’s Reflections, vol. iii, p. 184.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_44" + href="#Page_80">44</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Dr. Rees’s Cyclopædia, Art. Light.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_45" + href="#Page_80">45</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Parkes’s Rudiments of Chemistry, chap. xii.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_46" + href="#FNanchor_46">46</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Sermon on 1 Pet. ii, 21.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_47" + href="#FNanchor_47">47</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Dr. Adam Clarke on Gen. i, 31.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_48" + href="#FNanchor_48">48</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — When Zeno, the Prince of the + Stoics, was endeavoring to prove, by a sophistical + argument, that there was no motion, Diogenes, the cynic, + who had come into his school to hear him, quickly started + up and walked: which was an ocular demonstration of motion, + and sufficient to refute all his sophisms adduced to the + contrary.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_49" + href="#FNanchor_49">49</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — See Gurdon’s Sixth Sermon at Boyle’s Lecture.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_50" + href="#FNanchor_50">50</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Plato in Epinom.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_51" + href="#FNanchor_50">51</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Aristot. Physic. lib. vii, c. 5.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_52" + href="#FNanchor_52">52</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Dr A. Clarke on Eph. v, 15.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_53" + href="#FNanchor_53">53</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Dr. Clarke on Gen. i, 6.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_54" + href="#FNanchor_53">54</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Benson on Gen. i, 6.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_55" + href="#FNanchor_55">55</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Dalton’s New System of Chemical + Philosophy, part 1, p. 1.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_56" + href="#FNanchor_56">56</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Lavoisier’s Elements of Chemistry, p. 78.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_57" + href="#FNanchor_57">57</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Manchester Memoirs, New Series, vol. i, p. 254.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_58" + href="#Page_97">58</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — When solid substances are rendered permanently aëriform + by heat, the air thus produced is + called a <em>gas</em>. John Baptist van Helmont, a + physician and chemist, born at Brussels, in 1577, and + educated at Louvain, was the first chemist who made use of + this term to denote an elastic fluid. He gave fixed air + the name of <em>gas</em>. + <br /><br /> + The oxygen gas in atmospheric air is the principle of + combustion, as the vehicle of heat; and is absolutely + necessary for the support of animal life. Pure oxygen gas + has the property of accelerating the circulation of all the + animal fluids, and occasions the most rapid combustion of + all combustible substances; so that it is the most + energetic and powerful agent that chemists are acquainted + with. Oxygen gas is a little heavier than atmospheric air, + and 740 times lighter than water. + <br /><br /> + Nitrogen gas is chiefly distinguished by certain + <em>negative</em> qualities, such as being incapable of + supporting combustion and animal life. It is uninflammable, + and somewhat lighter than atmospheric air. Nitrogen gas has + the effect of neutralizing, in some measure, the properties + of oxygen gas, and rendering it fit for respiration and + combustion. By the union of nitrogen gas with the oxygen + gas this change is effected: the latter, which would burn + every thing within its reach with an unparalleled activity, + is, as it were, dissolved and diluted; and the nature of + the former is so much enveloped by the latter, that the + compound possesses properties different from either of + these gasses, so as to be fitted for every purpose for + which it was designed. + <br /><br /> + Though nitrogen gas is, by itself, so noxious to animals, + it answers an important end when mixed with oxygen gas in + atmospheric air. Were it not for this large quantity of + nitrogen in the atmosphere, the blood would flow with too + great rapidity through the vessels, and all animals would + have too great spirits; the consequence of which would be, + that the life of man would not be protracted to the length + that it now is. “If the proportions of oxygen and nitrogen + were reversed in the atmospheric air, says Dr. Lambe, the + air taken in by respiration would be more stimulant, the + circulation would become accelerated, and all the + secretions would be increased: but the tone of the vessels, + thus stimulated to increased action, would be destroyed by + over-excitement; and, if the supply from the stomach were + not equal to the consumption, the body must inevitably + waste and decay.” Hence the wisdom of God is remarkably + displayed in the constitution of the atmospheric air! See + Parke’s Chemical Catechism, chap. ii.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_59" + href="#FNanchor_59">59</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — “Mr. Cavendish,” says Dr. O. + Gregory, “is the first who endeavored to establish that the + proportions of the two principal elements of the + atmospheric air were constant. The observations since made + by M. de Mairy in Spain, M. Berthollet, in Egypt and in + France; Mr. Davy, in England; and by Dr. Beddoes on the air + brought from the coast of Guinea, seem to have confirmed + this grand result. But one of the finest experiments made + on this subject is that of Gay Lussac, in France, who, + having been elevated alone in a balloon to the height of + 6,900 metres, the greatest ever attained by any person, + brought some atmospheric air from these regions. This air, + being analysed at his return, comparatively with that on + the surface of the earth, gave the same principles in the + same proportions; a proof that the chemical constitution of + the atmosphere at these great heights, is the same as at + the surface of the earth. This result has been since + confirmed by the experiments made by Messrs. Humboldt and + Gay Lussac on eudiometry. The air of the surface of the + earth, analysed at different days, at various hours and + temperatures, presented no change in its composition: it + always contained 0.21 of oxygen in volume, 0.783 of azote, + 0.003 of hydrogen, and 0.004 of carbonic acid. Biot and + Arrago have also lately verified this grand result. The + atmospheric air, analysed in places the most distant from + each other, in deep valleys, on high mountains, on banks of + lakes, and in the glaciers of Chamouny, always presented to + them the same composition.” Haüy’s Natural Philosophy, + Note, vol. i. p. 218.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_60" + href="#FNanchor_60">60</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Sturm’s Reflections, vol. iv. p. 49.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_61" + href="#FNanchor_61">61</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — “Galileo, to whom was reserved the + glory of preparing, long before, the way for the theory of + Newton, by the discovery of the law to which the + acceleration of heavy bodies is subjected, having let fall + from a great height different balls of gold, of lead, of + copper, or porphyry, with a ball of wax, observed that all + these bodies employed nearly the same time in falling to + the earth. The ball of wax, the only one that was sensibly + retarded, was no more than four inches from the earth at + the end of the fall of the other bodies. Galileo, + considering that this difference was very far from being + proportional to that of the weights, concluded that it + depended solely on the resistance of the air. This + conjecture has been since verified by direct experiments, + consisting in letting fall from the top of a tube, within + which the vacuum has been made the most perfect possible, + bodies of different materials, such as lead, iron, wood, + cork, feathers, wool, &c., and it has been found that + none of these bodies will then permit of our perceiving any + sensible difference in the duration of their fall. As to + bodies which raise themselves in air, such as smoke, it is + known that their ascension is occasioned by the + circumstance of their being specifically lighter than air: + they are with respect to this fluid, situated as a piece of + cork is with respect to water, which when immersed in that + water to a certain depth, and then left to itself, rises + again to the surface. The vulgar regard all as being + without gravity which rises instead of falling: whence + Newton remarked that the weight of the vulgar was the + excess of the absolute weight of a body above the weight of + the air. The ascent of air-balloons in the midst of the air + is well calculated to undeceive the partisans of this + theory of bodies without heaviness.” Haüy’s Natural + Philosophy, vol. i. p. 48.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_62" + href="#FNanchor_62">62</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — To Otto Guericke, a burgo-master of + Magdeburgh, we are indebted for the invention of the + pneumatic machine, or air-pump.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_63" + href="#FNanchor_62">63</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — The atmosphere presses equally on + the whole surface of the water in the well, until the rod + of the pump is moved; but, by forcing the rod down, the + bucket compresses the air in the lower part of the pump + tree, which being elastic, forces its way out of the tree + through the valve; so that when the bucket is again raised, + that part of the pump tree under the bucket is void of air; + and the <em>weight of the atmosphere</em>, pressing on the + body of water in the well, forces up a column of water to + supply its place; the next stroke of the pump rod causes + another column of water to rise; and as long as the bucket + fits the pump tree close enough to produce a vacuum, a + constant stream of water may be drawn from below. Parkes’s + Chemical Catechism, pp. 47, 418.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_64" + href="#Page_102">64</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — As the earth’s surface contains, + observes Mr. Ferguson, in round numbers, 200,000,000 square + miles, must contain no less than 5,575,680,000,000,000 + square feet; which being multiplied by 2,160, the numbers + of pounds on each square foot, amounts to + 12,043,468,800,000,000,000 pounds, for the weight of the + whole atmosphere. Mr. Coates computed that the weight of + the air which pressed upon the whole surface of the earth, + is equal to that of a globe of lead sixty miles in + diameter. + <br /><br /> + The following simple experiments within the reach of every + one’s observation, show clearly the weight or gravitating + power of the air. Let any one lay his hand on the top of a + long perpendicular pipe, such as a pump filled to the brim + with water, which is at first prevented from running out by + the valve below: then let the valve be opened, so that the + water may descend, and he will find his hand so hard + pressed to the top of the pipe that he cannot draw it away. + The prop is now gone; he has no pressure under his hand; a + column of air, 45 miles high forces it down by its weight; + and he must let in the air under it before the hand can be + withdrawn.—If we shut the nozzle and valve-hole of a pair + of bellows after having squeezed the air out of them, we + shall find that a very great force, even some hundred + pounds, is necessary for separating the boards; they being + kept together by the pressure of the air which surrounds + them.—If any one will apply the open end of a syringe to + his hand, and then draw up the piston, he will find his + hand sucked into the syringe with great force, and it will + give pain, and the soft part of the hand will swell into + it, being pressed in by the neighboring parts, which are + subject to the action of the external air.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_65" + href="#FNanchor_65">65</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — A heavy air is more favorable to + health than a light one, because it promotes the + circulation of the blood, and insensible perspiration. When + the air is heavy, it is generally clear; whereas a light + air is generally accompanied with clouds, rain, or snow, + which render it damp. Too great a dryness of the air is + very injurious to the human body; but this seldom happens + for any length of time, except in sandy countries. A damp + air is very unwholesome, because it relaxes the fibres, + obstructs insensible perspiration, and if heat accompany + the dampness, it disposes the humors to putrefy. An air too + hot dilates all the fluids of the body, and occasions + sweatings, which bring on weakness and oppression. On the + other hand, when the air is to cold, the solid parts + contract excessively, and the fluids are condensed; hence + result obstructions and inflammations. The best air is that + which is neither too heavy nor too light, too moist nor too + dry, and which is not impregnated with noxious vapors. + Sturm’s Reflections, vol. iv, p. 50.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_66" + href="#FNanchor_66">66</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — “The most ingenious theories of the + periodical winds we recollect, are those of Mr. Hadley, + first proposed in Phil. Trans. vol. xxxix, p. 58, and + lately revised by Mr. Dalton, in his Meteorological + Essays,—and of Dr. Halley, first published in Phil. + Transac. vol. xvi, p. 153, and recently defended by Dr. + Kirwan, in his paper, ‘On the Variations of the + Atmosphere.’ In the latter mentioned paper Kirwan has given + some interesting information relative to variable winds, as + westerly, easterly, southerly, northerly, and opposite + concomitant winds; also relative to the succession of + winds, and the Sirocco. See likewise the Philosophical + Magazine, No. 60. Some curious facts respecting winds, and + waves on the surface of the sea, are related by Mr. + Horsburg in the Philosophical Journal, No. 60.” Haüy’s Nat. + Phil. vol. i, pp. 285,286.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_67" + href="#FNanchor_67">67</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Odyss. v. 295.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_68" + href="#FNanchor_67">68</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — A celebrated architect, born at + Formio, in Italy. He was greatly esteemed by Julius Cæsar, + and employed by Augustus in constructing public buildings + and warlike machines. He wrote a valuable Treatise on + Architecture.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_69" + href="#FNanchor_67">69</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — This division, with the several + names on each point, was made by the Germans, as most + commodious; but these names are not easily expressed in + other languages. They are thus marked in English: + <table class="mini xs" summary=""> + <tr> + <th> + North.</th> + <th> + East.</th> + <th> + South.</th> + <th> + West.</th></tr> + <tr> + <td> + N and by E</td> + <td> + E and by S</td> + <td> + S and by W</td> + <td> + W and by N</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + N N E</td> + <td> + E S E</td> + <td> + S S W</td> + <td> + W N W</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + N E and by N</td> + <td> + S E and by E</td> + <td> + S W and by S</td> + <td> + N W and by W</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + N E</td> + <td> + S E</td> + <td> + S W</td> + <td> + N W</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + N E and by E</td> + <td> + S E and by S</td> + <td> + S W and by W</td> + <td> + N W and by N</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + E N E</td> + <td> + S S E</td> + <td> + W S W</td> + <td> + N N W</td></tr> + <tr> + <td> + E and by N</td> + <td> + S and by E</td> + <td> + W and by S</td> + <td> + N and by W</td></tr> + </table></td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_70" + href="#WindTable">70</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — “The + most decisive circumstance tending to show the great + velocity of brisk winds,” says Dr. O. Gregory, “is that + of the rapid passage of the celebrated aëronaut M. + Garnerin, from London to Colchester. On the 30th of June, + 1802, the wind being strong, though not impetuous, M. + Garnerin and another gentleman ascended with an + inflammable air-balloon from Ranelagh Gardens, on the + south-west of London, between four and five o’clock in + the afternoon; and in exactly three-quarters of an hour + they descended near the sea, at the distance of four + miles from Colchester. The distance of the places of + ascent and descent is at least 60 miles; so that, + allowing no time for the elevation and depression of the + balloon, but, supposing the whole period occupied in + transferring it in a path nearly parallel to the earth’s + surface, its velocity must have been at the rate of 80 + miles per hour. If, therefore, the wind moved no faster + than the balloon, its velocity was then 80 miles per + hour, or 117½ feet per second; a celerity but little less + than the greatest assigned by Kraaft: and hence it is + probable, that the velocity of very impetuous winds is + not less than 130 or 140 feet per second.” Haüy’s Nat. + Phil. vol. i, p. 282.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_71" + href="#FNanchor_71">71</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Mr. Bruce, who, in his journey through the desert, + suffered from the simoon, gives of it the following + graphical description. “At eleven o’clock, while we + contemplated with great pleasure the rugged top of Chiggre, + to which we were fast approaching, and where we were to + solace ourselves with plenty of good water, Idris, our + guide, cried out, with a loud voice, ‘Fall on your faces, + for here is the simoon.’ I saw from the south-east a haze + come, in color like the purple part of the rainbow, but + not so compressed or thick. It did not occupy twenty + yards in breadth, and was about twelve feet high from the + ground. It was a kind of blush on the air, and it moved + very rapidly: for I scarce could turn to fall on the + ground with my head to the northward, when I felt the + heat of its current on my face. We all lay flat on the + ground as if dead, till Idris told us it was blown over. + The meteor or purple-haze which I saw, was indeed passed, + but the light air that still blew was of heat sufficient + to threaten suffocation. For my part, I found distinctly + in my breast that I had imbibed a part of it, nor was I + free of an asthmatic sensation, till I had been some + months in Italy, at the baths of Poretta, near two years + afterwards.” Though the severity of this blast seems to + have passed over them almost instantaneously, it + continued to blow so as to exhaust them till twenty + minutes before five in the afternoon, lasting through all + its stages very near six hours, and leaving them in a + state of the utmost despondency. + <br /><br /> + <em>Fatal Simoon.</em>—Extract of a letter from + Smyrna:—We have received intelligence of a dreadful + calamity having overtaken the largest caravan of the + season, on its route from Mecca to Aleppo. The caravan + consisted of 2,000 souls, merchants and travellers from + the Red Sea and Persian Gulf, pilgrims returning from + Mecca, and a numerous train of attendants; the whole + escorted by 400 military. The march was in three columns. + On the 15th of August last, they entered the great + Arabian Desert, in which they journeyed seven days, and + were already approaching its edge. A few hours more would + have placed them beyond danger; but on the morning of the + 23d, just as they had struck their tents, and commenced + their march, a wind arose from the north-east, and blew + with tremendous violence. They increased the rapidity of + their march to escape the threatening danger; but the + fatal Kamsin had set in. On a sudden dense clouds were + observed, whose extremity obscured the horizon, and swept + the face of the desert. They approached the columns, and + obscured the line of march. Both men and beast, struck + with a sense of common danger, uttered loud cries. The + next moment they fell beneath its pestiferous influence + lifeless corpses. Of 2,800 souls, composing the caravan, + not more than 20 escaped this calamity; they owed their + safety to the swiftness of their dromedaries. Literary + Panorama, for January, 1814.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_72" + href="#FNanchor_72">72</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — See Baptist Magazine, for December, 1816.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_73" + href="#Page_111">73</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — So the word is translated Luke xix, 10; + 2 Cor. iv, 3.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_74" + href="#FNanchor_74">74</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Benson on Gen. i, 9, 10.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_75" + href="#FNanchor_75">75</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Contemplative Philosopher, vol. ii, + pp. 177-179.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_76" + href="#Page_118">76</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — M. Savary, in his instructive and entertaining Letters on + Greece, has the following pertinent reflections: “We + enjoy the finest weather imaginable; not a cloud obscures + the sky, and a south-east wind wafts us directly towards + the port to which our wishes tend. We have now entirely + lost sight of land, and, as far as the eye can reach, + only view the immense abyss of the waters, and the vast + expanse of the heavens. How awful is this sight! How does + it inspire the mind with great ideas! How adventurous is + man, who trusts his fortune and his life to this frail + vessel he has built, which a worm may pierce, or a single + blast dash to pieces against a rock. Yet in this he + braves the fury of the ocean! But how admirable is his + ingenuity! He commands the winds, enchains them in the + canvas, and forces them to conduct him where he pleases. + He sails from one end of the world to the other, and + traverses the immense liquid plains without any signals + to direct him. He reads his course in the heavens. A + needle, which wonderfully points perpetually to the pole, + and the observation of the stars, inform him where he is. + A few lines and points mark out to him the islands, + coasts, and shoals, which his skill enables him to + approach or avoid at pleasure. Yet has he cause to + tremble, notwithstanding all his science and all his + genius! The fire of the clouds is kindling over his head, + and may consume his dwelling. Unfathomable gulfs are + yawning beneath his feet, and he is separated from them + only by a single plank. His confidence might make us + imagine he knew himself immortal; yet he must die—die + never to revive again, except in another state of being.” + </td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_77" + href="#FNanchor_77">77</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — As it + is sometimes necessary to preserve sea water in casks for + bathing and other purposes, it is of importance to know + how to keep it from putrefaction. Dr. Henry from many + experiments made by him for the preservation of sea water + from putrefaction, has concluded, that two scruples of + quick-lime are sufficient to preserve a quart of sea + water. The proportions, however, may vary a little + according to the strength of quick-lime employed. + </td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_78" + href="#FNanchor_78">78</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — “Frosts often occasion a scantiness of water in our + fountains and wells. This is sometimes erroneously + accounted for by supposing that the water freezes in the + bowels of the earth. But this, as Dr. Robison remarks, is + a great mistake: the most intense cold of a Siberian + winter would not freeze the ground two feet deep; but a + very moderate frost will consolidate the whole surface of + a country, and make it impervious to the air; especially + if the frost have been preceded by rain, which has soaked + the surface. When this happens, the water which was + flittering through the ground is all arrested, and kept + suspended in its capillary tubes by the pressure of the + air.” Haüy’s Nat. Phil. p. 198.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_79" + href="#FNanchor_79">79</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Dr. Black’s Lectures, vol. i. p. 69.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_80" + href="#FNanchor_80">80</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — See Ellis’s voyage to Hudson’s Bay.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_81" + href="#FNanchor_80">81</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — St. Pierre’s Studies, vol. i, pp. 129-132.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_82" + href="#FNanchor_80">82</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — See 21st volume of the Philosophical Magazine.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_83" + href="#FNanchor_83">83</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — The specific gravity of water is as follows; a wine-pint + measure weighs one pound; consequently a cubic foot of + water weighs about 1,000 ounces, or 62½ pounds, + avoirdupois. It is 816 times heavier than atmospheric + air.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_84" + href="#FNanchor_84">84</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Parkes’s Chemical Catechism, p. 108.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_85" + href="#Page_125">85</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Haüy’s Natural Philosophy, vol. i. + pp. 197, 198.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_86" + href="#FNanchor_86">86</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Parkes’s Chemical Catechism, pp. 94, 95.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_87" + href="#FNanchor_87">87</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Parkes’s Chemical Catechism, p. 92.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_88" + href="#FNanchor_88">88</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Driessen on the Nature of Snow.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_89" + href="#FNanchor_89">89</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Thomson’s Chemistry, vol. i, p. 365.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_90" + href="#FNanchor_90">90</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — “The + English word <em>hail</em>, in Latin <em>grando</em>, in + Greek <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: chalaza" + class="msg">χαλαζα</span>, + gives us no information about the nature of + the thing: but, if we take the word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ברד</span> + BeReD in Hebrew, + it resolves itself into <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">ב..רד</span>, + which signifies <em + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">in descensu</em>, + and so describes to us the physiological + formation of hail: which, as philosophers agree, is first + formed into drops of rain, and, <em>as it falls</em>, is + frozen into hail.” Jones’s Letter on the Use of the + Hebrew Language.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_91" + href="#FNanchor_91">91</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Dr. Clarke on Exod. ix, 18.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_92" + href="#FNanchor_92">92</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — See Dr. Paley’s Natural Theology, p. 407.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_93" + href="#FNanchor_93">93</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — There + are hot spouting springs of water in Iceland, of which a + traveller says, “Near Laugervatan, a small lake about two + days’ journey distant from Mount Hecla, we beheld the + steam of the hot springs rising in eight different + places, one of which of which continually threw up into + the air a column of water from eighteen to twenty-four + feet high. The water was extremely hot, so that a piece + of mutton and some salmon trouts were almost boiled to + pieces in it in six minutes. + <br /><br /> + At Gyser, not far from Skallholt, one of the Episcopal + sees in Iceland, within the circumference of three + English miles, forty or fifty boiling springs are seen + together; and the largest, which is in the middle, + particularly engaged our attention the whole of the day + that we spent here. The aperture through which the water + arose is nineteen feet in diameter; and round the top is + a basin nine feet higher than the conduit. Here the water + does not continually, but only by intervals several times + a day; and, as I was informed by the Icelanders, in wet + weather higher then at other times. + <br /><br /> + On the day we were there the water spouted ten different + times, between the hours of six and eleven in the + morning, each time the height of fifty or sixty feet. + Before, the water had not risen above the margin of the + pipe; but now it began by degrees to fill the upper + basin, and at last to run over. Our guides told us that + the water would soon spout up much higher than it had done. + <br /><br /> + Soon after four o’clock we observed that the earth began + to tremble in three different places; as well as the top + of a mountain which was about three hundred fathoms + distant from the mouth of the spring. We also frequently + heard a subterraneous noise, like the discharge of a + cannon; and immediately afterwards a column of water + spouted from the opening, which at a great height divided + itself into several rays, and according to our + observation was ninety-two feet high. Our great surprise + at this uncommon force of the air and fire was increased, + when many stones which we had flung into the aperture + wore thrown up again with the spouting water.” + <em>Troil.</em></td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_94" + href="#FNanchor_94">94</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Savary, Newcomen, Cawley, Watt, and Boulton, Englishmen; + and Betancourt and the brothers Perrier, Frenchmen; are + names well known in the history of steam-engines. And + those persons who wish to acquaint themselves with the + principles and manner of operation of this most important + class of machines, says Dr. O. Gregory, may be referred + to the following work:—The Repertory of Arts and + Manufactures, the Philosophical Journal, and the + Philosophical Magazine, in various places; the second + volume of Mr. Brewster’s edition of Ferguson’s Select + Lectures, the second volume of Gregory’s Mechanics, and + the second volume of Prony’s treatise entitled Nouvelle + Architecture Hydraulique.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_95" + href="#FNanchor_95">95</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Plymouth Chronicle.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_96" + href="#FNanchor_96">96</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Whitehurst’s Inquiry into the Original State and + Formation of the Earth.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_97" + href="#FNanchor_97">97</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Examination of Dr. Burnet’s Theory of the Earth, + pp. 92, 93.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_98" + href="#FNanchor_98">98</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — The + substances of which vegetables are composed, now amount + to fifteen in number; but almost the whole of vegetable + substances are composed of four ingredients, namely, + carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and azote. Of these, the last, + namely, azote, forms but a small proportion even of those + vegetable substances of which it is a constituent part, + while, into many, it does not enter at all.—Contemplative + Philosopher, vol. i. p. 150.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_99" + href="#FNanchor_99">99</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Of the + efficacy of water in vegetation, we have on record some + remarkable instances. That vegetables will grow in + woollen cloth, moss, and in other insoluble media, + besides soils provided they be supplied with water, has + been repeatedly shown since the days of Van Helmont and + Boyle: but the experiments of a modern author, says Mr. + Parkes, from their apparent correctness, seem more highly + interesting and conclusive. + <br /><br /> + Seeds of plants were sown in pure river-sand, in + litharge, in flowers of sulphur, and even among metal, or + common leaden shot; and in every instance nothing + employed for their nourishment but distilled water. The + plants throve, and passed through all the usual + gradations of growth to perfect maturity. The author then + proceeded to gather the entire produce, the roots, stems, + leaves, pods, seeds, &c. These were accurately + weighed, dried, and again weighed, then submitted to + distillation, incineration, lixivation, and the other + ordinary means used in a careful analysis. Thus he + obtained from these vegetables all the materials peculiar + to each individual species, precisely as if it had been + cultivated in a natural soil—viz. the various earths, the + alkalies, acids, metals, carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, + nitrogen, &c. He concludes this very important paper + nearly in these extraordinary words: “Oxygen and + hydrogen, with the assistance of solar light, appear to + be the only elementary substances employed in the + constitution of the whole universe; and Nature, in her + simple progress works the most infinitely diversified + effects by the slightest modifications in the means she + employs.”—See Recherches sur la Force assimilatrice dans + les Végétaux, par M. Henri Braconnot, Annales de Chimie, + Fev. et Mars, 1808.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_100" + href="#FNanchor_100">100</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — He + was born at Verona, of an illustrious family; and at the + foot of Vesuvius, while attempting to ascertain the cause + of an extraordinary cloud issuing therefrom, was, by the + sulphureous exhalation from the burning lava, suffocated, + A.D. 79.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_101" + href="#FNanchor_101">101</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — The <em>Tabacum</em>, or common Tobacco plant, was first + discovered in America, by the Spaniards, about the year + 1560, and by them imported into Europe. It had been used + by the inhabitants of America long before; and was called + by the inhabitants of the islands, <em>yoli</em>, and by + those of the continent, <em>pætux</em>. It was sent into + Spain from Tabaco, a province of Yucatan, where it was + first discovered, and from whence it takes its common + name. Sir Walter Raleigh is generally said to have been + the first who introduced it into England, about the year + 1585, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and who taught his + countrymen how to smoke it. The following anecdote is + related of him. He having imitated the Indians in smoking + this plant, at length so much delighted in it, that he + was unwilling to disuse it on his return to England; and + therefore supplied himself with several hogsheads, which + he placed in his own study, and generally indulged + himself with smoking secretly two or three pipes a day. + He had a simple man, who waited at his study door, to + bring him up daily a tankard of old ale and nutmeg, and + he always laid aside his pipe when he heard him + approaching. One day, being earnestly engaged in reading + some book which amused him, the man abruptly entered, + and, surprised at seeing his master enveloped in smoke, + (a sight perfectly new to him) the smoke ascending in + thick vapors from his mouth and the bowl of the + tobacco-pipe, immediately threw the ale in his master’s + face, ran down stairs, and alarmed the family with + repeated exclamations, that his master was on fire in the + inside, and that if they did not make haste, before they + could get up stairs, he would be burned to ashes.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_102" + href="#FNanchor_102">102</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Taylor on remarkable Trees, Plants, and Shrubs.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_103" + href="#FNanchor_103">103</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Evangelical Magazine, January, 1814.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_104" + href="#Page_167">104</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Dr. Black, ii. 694.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_105" + href="#Page_167">105</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Phil. Trans. for 1796.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_106" + href="#FNanchor_106">106</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — See Mr. Hitchen’s Paper, in Phil. Trans. vol. xci. + p. 159.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_107" + href="#FNanchor_107">107</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Storch’s Picture of Petersburgh, p. 330.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_108" + href="#FNanchor_108">108</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Several salts are formed by art with this metal for + medicinal purposes. One of the most valuable is + <em>calomel</em>, which is made by triturating fluid + mercury with corrosive sublimate, and then submitting the + mixture to sublimation. As this medicine is much used in + private families, and as dreadful consequences might + ensue if it were improperly prepared, it ought to be + generally known, says Mr. Parkes, that if it be not + perfectly insipid to the taste, and indissoluble by long + boiling in water, it contains a portion of oxymuriate of + mercury, or corrosive sublimate, and consequently is + poisonous.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_109" + href="#FNanchor_109">109</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Monthly Review, Appendix, vol. xxvii. N.S. + p. 551.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_110" + href="#FNanchor_109">110</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Storch’s Picture of Petersburgh, p. 319.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_111" + href="#FNanchor_109">111</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — In domestic economy, the necessity of keeping copper + vessels always clean is generally acknowledged; but it may + not perhaps be so well known, that fat and oily substances, + and vegetable acids, do not attack copper while + <em>hot</em>; and, therefore, if no liquor be ever + suffered to grow <em>cold</em> in these utensils, they + may be used for every culinary purpose with perfect + safety.—Dr. Percival gives an account of a young lady who + amused herself, while her hair was dressing, with eating + samphire pickle impregnated with copper. She soon + complained of pain in the stomach, and in five days + vomiting commenced, which was incessant for two days. + After this her stomach became prodigiously distended: and + in nine days after eating the pickle, death relieved her + from her sufferings. Medical Transactions, vol. iii, + p. 80.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_112" + href="#FNanchor_112">112</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — The + materials forming nearly the whole of this Section have + been selected and arranged from the <em>seventh</em> + Edition of Parkes’s <em>Chemical Catechism</em>: a work + of peculiar interest, and which was confidently + recommended to the Author by a physician and chemist of + distinguished celebrity.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_113" + href="#FNanchor_113">113</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Encyclopædia Britannica.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_114" + href="#FNanchor_114">114</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Time’s Telescope for 1815, Introduction.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_115" + href="#FNanchor_115">115</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Dr. + Robert Wittie, in his Survey of the Heavens, makes the + following observations concerning this miraculous + interposition of Divine providence. “We read that Joshua, + in his zeal against the enemies of God and his people, in + the heat of battle, called to the sun and moon to stand + still, &c. The design was that the light might be + lengthened, till he might destroy the army of the + Amorites, and the day was accordingly prolonged, as the + sun went not down for the whole day, and the moon also + staid.—But why should Joshua call to the moon to stand + still, as well as the sun, which I could be of no use to + him, while the sun was up? To this I answer with all due + modesty; I do believe Joshua did call thus by + inspiration, and a special impulse from God upon his + spirit: for that which would make the sun stand still, + would stay the moon. He that from the hasty zealous call + of this great general, shall think to form an argument to + prove the philosophical notion of the sun’s diurnal + motion about the earth, by taking the words in a proper + literal sense, may as well go on, and eke it out a little + further, and then he may prove the sun to have been in + the next great town, Gibeon, and the moon in the valley; + but if to all men this latter shall be judged a weak + inference, I dare say, to many wise men, so will the + former.” P. 12, 13.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_116" + href="#Page_194">116</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Aristotle de Cœl. lib. ii, cap. 13.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_117" + href="#FNanchor_117">117</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Macrob. Sat. lib. i, cap. 21.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_118" + href="#FNanchor_118">118</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Macrob. in Somn. Scip. lib. i, cap. 20.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_119" + href="#FNanchor_119">119</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — That is, in adoration; from <em>ad ore</em>, to the + mouth, i.e. <em>hand</em> to the mouth.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_120" + href="#FNanchor_120">120</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Baseley’s Glory of the Heavens, pp. 73-76.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_121" + href="#Page_202">121</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — The new moon is often styled a <em>crescent</em>; a + word formed from the Latin <em>crescere</em>, to + <em>grow</em>; and though it is used from the same figure + of the moon in her wane or decrease, when her horns are + turned towards the west, yet these horns always point to + the east in the just crescent.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_122" + href="#FNanchor_122">122</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — M. Schroëter, of the Royal Society of Gottingen, has + recently published a very curious and elaborate work in + German, entitled, Selenotographische Fragmente, &c., + or Selenotopographical Fragments, intended to promote a + more accurate knowledge of the moon’s surface: a valuable + extract from which may be seen in the Pantologia, article + <em>Moon</em>.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_123" + href="#FNanchor_123">123</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — See Mr. Howard’s valuable paper on the Philosophical + Transactions for 1802, Dr. Hutton’s Dissertation in the + New Abridgment, part xxi, and Dr. Adam Clarke on Josh. x, + 11.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_124" + href="#FNanchor_124">124</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — The principal eclipse of the sun, for the present century, + has been already calculated, and it is fully determined + that it will take place in the year 1847. It will be + annular in this country, and several other places. Time’s + Telescope for 1815. + <br /><br /> + The Athenians, according to Plutarch, entertained very + terrific ideas of eclipses of the moon. Nicias and his + army, when they were on the point of withdrawing secretly + from Sicily, without being observed or suspected by the + enemy, refused to embark, because the moon became + suddenly eclipsed; this ignorant and superstitious + conduct proved fatal, for they were all, shortly after, + either slain or taken prisoners.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_125" + href="#FNanchor_125">125</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — A valuable correspondent writing from Matura, in Ceylon, + May 7, 1817, says, “A festival was lately celebrated + here, principally on the river. A large boat was rigged + for the purpose, somewhat after the manner of a ship, + which carried a number of dancers and other persons in + disguise, accompanied with the music of pipes and drums. + I particularly inquired into the meaning of the + ceremonies; and, as far as I could learn, it was a + celebration of the birth of the sun and moon. The world + is believed to have been once inhabited by holy brahmins, + whose bodies were transparent, and afforded sufficient + light. When these fell into sin, they lost their + splendor, and other lights became necessary.” + <br /><br /> + The African negroes, in the West Indies, on seeing the + new moon, take out of their pocket a piece of whatever + money they have, and, holding it up in their hand, say, + “God bless the new moon, this is all I can give you; take + this, and give me good luck:” and then throw it up toward + it. After this action, they believe that prosperity will + attend them during the time that moon continues. On + embracing the Christian religion, they lay aside this + heathenish practice.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_126" + href="#FNanchor_126">126</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — On the dial of the cathedral at Bruges, the sun is + represented directing the hours, with this motto, <em + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">Non rego, nisi regar</em>: + signifying, that the sun could not + rule the day, if it was not first ruled itself. Had the + Pagan world known this truth, the greatest part of it had + not fallen into idolatry.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_127" + href="#FNanchor_127">127</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Literary Panorama, for January, 1814, pp. 954, + 955.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_128" + href="#FNanchor_128">128</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — “At what time the earth began to be considered, or rather + suspected, to be spherical,” says Costard, “is uncertain, + but probably not before the undertaking long voyages; the + first of which, it may be, were down the Arabian Gulf, + and out of the Straits of <em>Bab-Al-mandub</em>, by + Europeans corruptly called <em>Babelmandel</em>. What + opinion was commonly entertained of those who undertook + those long voyages, may be learned, in some measure, from + this word. For <em>Mandub</em> is one that is lamented at + his funeral; therefore <em>Bab-al-mandub</em> is the + <em>gate</em>, or <em>strait</em>, of one lamented at his + funeral; as if a person sailing beyond that point, was + considered as going to certain death, or never to + return.”</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_129" + href="#FNanchor_129">129</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — See Verstigan’s “Restitution of Decayed Intelligence,” + Edit. 1673, pp. 64-68; and Time’s Telescope.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_130" + href="#FNanchor_130">130</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — On June 14, 1815, was published the following + astronomical notice. The Georgium Sidus is now visible to + the naked eye any clear night. It souths now a little + before midnight, is paler and less vivid than the fixed + stars near it in Scorpio; it will remain in company with + Arcturus for two or three years, passing north of it + about the middle of the year 1816, and veering to the + east, or left hand, at the rate of 4° 18ʹ annually, being + near seven years in passing one sign, and near 84 in + making an entire revolution. + <br /><br /> + Dr. Herschell assumes, that the eclipses of the + satellites of the Georgium Sidus will, in the year 1818, + be visible to those who possess telescopes of high + magnifying powers, when they will appear to ascend + through the shadow of the planet in the direction almost + perpendicular to the ecliptic.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_131" + href="#FNanchor_131">131</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — In the year 1712, Mr. Whiston having calculated the + return of a comet, which was to make its appearance on + Wednesday, the 14th of October, at five minutes after + five in the morning; he gave notice to the public + accordingly, with this terrifying addition, that <em>a + total dissolution of the world by fire was to take place + on the Friday following</em>. The reputation Mr. Whiston + had long maintained, both as a divine and a philosopher, + left little or no doubt with the populace of the truth of + his prediction. Several ludicrous events took place in + consequence. A number of persons in and about London + seized all the barges and boats they could lay their + hands on in the Thames, very rationally concluding, that + when the conflagration took place, there would be the + most safety on the water. A gentleman who had neglected + <em>family prayer</em> for longer than five years, + informed his wife that it was his determination to resume + that laudable practice the same evening; but his wife + having engaged <em>a ball at her house</em>, persuaded + her husband to put it off till they saw whether the comet + appeared or not. The South-sea stock immediately fell to + <em>five per cent.</em>, and India stock to + <em>eleven</em>. The captain of a Dutch ship threw all + his powder into the river, that the ship might not be + endangered. + <br /><br /> + The next morning the comet appeared according to the + prediction, and before noon the belief was universal, + that <em>the day of judgment was at hand</em>. About this + time of the day 123 clergymen were ferried over to + Lambeth, it was said, to petition that a short prayer + might be penned and ordered, there being none in the + church service on that occasion. Three maids of honor + burnt their collections of novels and plays, and sent to + a bookseller’s to buy each of them a Bible, and Bishop + Taylor’s Holy Living and Dying. The run upon the Bank was + so prodigious, that all hands were employed from morning + till night in discounting notes, and handing out specie. + On Thursday, considerably more than <em>seven thousand + kept mistresses were legally married</em>! in the face of + several congregations. And to crown the whole, Sir + Gilbert Heathcote, at that time head director of the + Bank, issued orders to all the fire-offices in London, + requiring them “to keep a good look out, and have a + particular eye upon the Bank of England.” + <br /><br /> + The comet which might have put the earth in most hazard, + was that of 1680. By Halley’s calculation it passed, + November 11, within 60 semi-diameters of the earth’s + orbit: and if, at that time, the earth had been in that + part of her orbit, there is no conjecturing at the + consequences.—Literary Panorama, for December, + 1811.—Probably the above was only a hoax upon Mr. Whiston + on account of the singularity of his opinion concerning + comets.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_132" + href="#Page_251">132</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Dr. Keill’s Astronomy, 5th Edit. pp. 189, 190.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_133" + href="#FNanchor_133">133</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Dr. O. Gregory’s Treatise on Astronomy, p. 413.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_134" + href="#FNanchor_134">134</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — The celebrated Buffon supposed, that our earth was + originally formed by a comet’s sweeping off and receiving + in his train a portion of the exterior part of the sun; + which, after having been sufficiently cooled, in the lapse + of time, perhaps hundreds of thousands of years, had + gradually assumed its present form! When we reflect that + this eminent French naturalist was an infidel and a + libertine, his many strange theories confirm the remark + of the Poet, + <br /> + <span class="xs ml12"> + “An undevout astronomer is mad.”</span> + <br /> + When a person through the pride of intellect, will not + submit his fallible understanding to the sure light of + Divine revelation, he is liable to embrace the greatest + absurdities, which a sober and well-regulated mind would + prevent.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_135" + href="#FNanchor_135">135</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Guardian, No. 103.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_136" + href="#FNanchor_136">136</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — The distances of the fixed stars have never been + absolutely determined, and what is here stated is not + given as the true distance of Sirius; but from what has + been ascertained, the distance cannot be less than as + above. Dr. Bradley, after another method of calculation, + makes it to be more than ten times greater, or twenty-five + millions of millions, and 650 thousand of + millions.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_137" + href="#Page_258">137</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — In + 1627, Schiller published a work, entitled Cœlum Stellatum + Christianum, containing the ancient catalogue, with new + constellations. In this work he rejected the old + designations, and substituted new figures for the + constellations, and names taken from the sacred + Scriptures; thus Aries he changed into St. Peter; Taurus, + into St. Andrew; Andromeda, into the holy sepulchre; + Lyra, into the manger of Christ; Hercules, into the wise + men of the east; Canis Major, into David; and so on. This + he is said to have done in imitation of the venerable + Bede, who, instead of the profane names and figures + adopted by pagans, substituted the names of the twelve + apostles for those of the twelve constellations in the + zodiac: but these innovations were disregarded by + astronomers. Weigelius, professor of mathematics at Jena, + attempted to make an innovation of another kind; he + wished to change the starry heavens into a kind of Cœlum + Heraldicum, by introducing the arms of all the princes + and states of Europe, by way of constellations; but his + project experienced the same fate as those of Bede and + Schiller.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_138" + href="#FNanchor_138">138</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — See Ferguson’s Astronomy.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_139" + href="#Page_266">139</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Gisborne’s <em>Walks in a Forest</em>, sixth edit. pp. + 44, 45, 46.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_140" + href="#FNanchor_140">140</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — The + author thankfully acknowledges his obligations for many + of the above thoughts to an old sermon preached “at the + opening of the Synod of Lothian and Tweeddale;” but + cannot say of what date, or by whom delivered, as his + copy of it is without title-page.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_141" + href="#FNanchor_141">141</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — The + great Greenland Whale is a large, heavy animal, usually + found from sixty to seventy feet long. The head alone is + equal to a third of its bulk; and the cleft of the mouth + is above twenty feet long. The upper jaw is furnished + with barbs, that lie like the pipes of an organ, the + greatest in the middle, and the smallest on the sides; + these compose the whale-bone, the longest spars of which + are found to be not less than eighteen feet. The fins on + each side are from five to eight feet, consisting of + bones and muscles, and sufficiently strong to give speed + and activity to the great mass of body which they move. + The tail is about twenty-four feet broad; and, when the + fish is on one side, its blow is tremendous. The skin is + smooth and black, and in some places dappled with white + and yellow: which, running over the surface, have a very + beautiful effect. The outward or scarf skin is no thicker + than parchment; but this removed, the real skin appears + of about an inch thick, and covers the fat or blubber + that lies beneath: this is from eight to twelve inches in + thickness; and, when the fish is in health, of a + beautiful yellow. The muscles lie beneath: and these, + like the flesh of quadrupeds, are very red and + tough.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_142" + href="#FNanchor_142">142</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — A variety of opinions we meet with concerning the + <em>whale</em> which swallowed Jonah, and in whose belly + he was <em>three days and three nights</em>. The + following is offered by Dr. A. Clarke. “That a fish of + the <em>shark</em> kind, and not a <em>whale</em>, is + here meant, <em>Bochart</em> has abundantly proved, vol. + iii, col. 742, &c., edit, Leyd. 1692. It is well + known, that the throat of a whale is capable of admitting + little more than the <em>arm</em> of an ordinary man; but + many of the shark species can swallow a whole man; and + men have been found whole in the stomachs of several. + Every natural history abounds with facts of this kind. + Besides, the shark is a native of the <em>Mediterranean + Sea</em>, in which Jonah was sailing, when swallowed by + what the Hebrew terms <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">דג גדול</span> + <em>dog gadol, a great + fish</em>; but every body knows that <em>whales</em> are + no produce of the Mediterranean Sea, though some have + been by <em>accident</em> found there, as in most parts + of the maritime world: but let them be found where they + may, there is none of them found capable of swallowing a + man.”</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_143" + href="#FNanchor_143">143</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — The <em>Torpedo</em> is formidable, being well known by + the effect it produces when touched: but the manner of its + operating is to this hour a mystery to mankind. Such is + the unaccountable power it possesses, that, the instant + it is touched, it benumbs not only the hand and arm, but + sometimes also the whole body. The shock received, by all + accounts, much resembles the stroke of an electrical + machine; being sudden, tingling, and painful. “The + instant,” says Kemfer, “I touched it with my hand, I felt + a terrible numbness in my arm, and as far up as the + shoulder. Even if one tread on it with the shoe on, it + affects not only the leg, but the whole thigh. Those who + touch it with the foot, are seized with a stronger + palpitation than even those who touch it with the hand. + This numbness bears no resemblance to that which we feel + when a nerve is a long time pressed, and the foot is said + to be asleep: it rather appears like a sudden vapor, + which, passing through the pores in an instant, + penetrates to the very springs of life; whence it + diffuses itself over the whole body, and gives real pain. + The nerves are so affected, that the person struck + imagines all the bones of his body, and particularly + those of the limb that received the blow, are driven out + of joint. All this is accompanied with an universal + tremor, a sickness of the stomach, a general convulsion, + and a total suspension of the faculties of the mind.” + <br /><br /> + We are in possession of some facts which relate to the + manner of its acting. Reaumur, who made several trials on + this animal, has at least convinced the world that it is + not necessarily, but by an effort, that the Torpedo + benumbs the hand of him that touches it. He tried several + times, and could easily tell when the fish intended the + stroke, and when it would continue harmless. Always + before the fish meditated the stroke, it flattened the + back, raised the head and the tail; and then by a violent + contraction in the opposite side, struck with its back + against the pressing finger; while the body, which before + was flat, became humped and round. The most probable + solution of this phenomenon is, that it depends on + electricity. When the fish is dead, the whole power is + destroyed, and it may be handled, or eaten with perfect + security.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_144" + href="#FNanchor_144">144</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — A large herring-fishery is carried on at Douglas, in the + Isle of Man. Herrings are so abundant in the neighborhood + of Gottenburgh, that 200,000 barrels, on an average, are + salted there every year, and about 400,000 are employed + in making train oil. Besides these, 50,000 barrels are + consumed fresh in the country, or sent to Denmark. + Allowing 1,200 fish to each barrel, in this district + alone, about 780,000,000 of herrings are caught in a + season. In the year 1776, 56,000 barrels were sent to + Ireland, and thence exported to the West Indies.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_145" + href="#FNanchor_145">145</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — The Indians of Jamaica and Cuba (says Oviedo) go a + fishing with the Remora, or Sucking-Fish, which they + employ as + falconers employ hawks.—This fish, which is not above a + span long, is kept for the purpose, and regularly fed. + The owner, on a calm morning, carries it out to sea, + secured to his canoe by a small but strong line, many + fathoms in length; and the moment the creature sees a + fish in the water, though at a great distance, it darts + away with the swiftness of an arrow, and soon fastens + upon it. The Indian, in the mean time, loosens and lets + go the line, which is provided with a buoy that keeps on + the surface of the sea, and serves to mark the course + which the Remora has taken, and pursues it in his canoe + until he conceives his game to be nearly exhausted and + run down: he then, taking up the buoy, gradually draws + the line towards the shore; the Remora still adhering + with inflexible tenacity to its prey; and it is with + great difficulty that he is made to quit this hold. By + this method (adds Oviedo) I have known a turtle caught, + of a bulk and weight which no single man could + support.—Edward’s West Indies, vol. i. p. 100.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_146" + href="#FNanchor_146">146</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — A species of sea turtle, weighing 840 lb. was harpooned + and caught on the 27th of September, 1811, off Sandy Hook, + near New-York. It measured three feet two inches round + the neck, was seven feet long, eight feet in + circumference, and seven feet and a half from the + extremity of one fin to the other: of a coal black color, + with five black ridges on the back resembling the + sturgeon. It is said to be a trunk turtle, a native of + the East Indies, and was the first ever seen in the + American seas. The proprietor of a museum purchased it + for fifty dollars.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_147" + href="#FNanchor_147">147</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Sir W. Jones, when in India, formed en acquaintance with + an intelligent and respectable Brahmin. The religion of + these men permits them not to destroy life, nor to + swallow any creature which has possessed it; and so + strict are some, that in the season when insects abound, + they cover their mouths and nostrils, and sweep the + ground on which they walk with a soft broom, that they + may not tread on them. Sir William had a solar microscope + sent from England, and showing it to his Hindoo friend, + demonstrated the impossibility of his eating even fruit + and vegetables without swallowing the animalcules which + adhere to them. The Brahmin was astonished and seemed + gratified; but begged importunately for the microscope, + <em>so</em> importunately, that, at length, Sir William + reluctantly resigned it to him. A momentary gleam of joy + flashed across the Brahmin’s countenance; and, grasping + the instrument, he immediately descended from the + viranda, where they were conversing, into the garden, + when, seizing a stone, he instantly smashed it to pieces. + On assigning his reason for this act, which he did a few + days afterwards, when his friend’s anger had subsided, he + said, “Oh that I had remained in that happy state of + ignorance wherein you first found me! Yet will I confess, + that, as my knowledge increased, so did my pleasure, + until I beheld the last wonders of the microscope. From + that moment I have been tormented by doubt, and perplexed + by mystery: my mind, overwhelmed by chaotic confusion, + knows not where to rest, nor how to extricate itself from + such a maze. I am miserable, and must continue so to be, + until I enter on another stage of existence. I am a + solitary individual, among fifty millions of people, all + educated in the same belief with myself, all happy in + their ignorance! So may they ever remain! I shall keep + the secret within my own bosom, where it will corrode my + peace, and break my rest; but I shall have some + satisfaction in knowing that I alone feel those pangs + which, had I not destroyed the instrument, might have + been extensively communicated, and rendered thousands + miserable! Forgive me, my valuable friend, and, oh, + <em>convey no more implements of knowledge and + destruction</em>!“ These religious prejudices, which + cannot bear the light of sound philosophy, we perceive to + be the results of lamentable ignorance and degrading + superstitions, and it may be hoped will soon be removed + by the cultivation of science, and especially the + dissemination of the Scriptures. The missionaries now in + the East will certainly be of very singular use to the + natives.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_148" + href="#FNanchor_148">148</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — M. de Saussure, in a letter to Bonnet, says, + “Infusion-animalcules multiply by continued divisions and + sub-divisions. Those roundish or oval animalcules that + have no beak or hook on the fore part of their bodies, + divide transversely. A kind of stricture of strangulation + begins about the middle of the body, which gradually + increases, till the two parts adhere by a small thread + only. Then both parts make repeated efforts, till the + division is completed. For some time after separation, + the two animals remain in seemingly torpid state. They + afterwards begin to swim about briskly. Each part is only + one half the size of the whole: but they soon acquire the + magnitude peculiar to the species, and multiply by + similar divisions. To obviate every doubt, I put a single + animalcule into a drop of water, which split before my + eyes. Next day, I had five; the day after, sixty; and, on + the third day, their number was so great, that it was + impossible to count them.”—La Palingenesie Philosophique, + par C. Bonnet, tom. i. pp. 428, 429.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_149" + href="#FNanchor_149">149</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — See Bryant’s Observations upon the Plagues inflicted + upon the Egyptians, Part I.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_150" + href="#Page_295">150</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — See Jones’s Disquisition concerning clean and unclean + Animals.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_151" + href="#Page_297">151</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Nicholas, in his voyage to New-Zealand, vol. i, p. 334, + says, “The morning of the 10th of January, 1815, was + announced to our enraptured ears by the swelling notes of + the woodland choristers, and never either before or since + did I hear such delightful harmony. Rising together at an + early hour, we fancied ourselves for the moment in some + enchanted ground, while the forest seemed to ring with + the mellow warblings of nature, and a thousand feathered + songsters poured their soft throats in responsive melody. + There was, however, one bird that was distinguished from + all the rest, as well by the compass and variety of its + notes, as by their incomparable sweetness. This bird, + which has been brought to Port Jackson, and highly prized + there, is called by the colonists the + <em>organ-bird</em>, and is, I believe, peculiar to + New-Zealand: the notes of the Nightingale, however + exquisite, are, in my opinion, much inferior to the song + of this bird; and I never thought before that either the + grove or forest could boast of such a vocal + treasure.”</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_152" + href="#FNanchor_152">152</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — A Martin recently fixed her nest directly over the window + of the Inn at Rampside, in Low Farnes. After her young + were hatched, she became a very troublesome visitant, by + throwing the cleansing of her nest upon the window. The + servant-maid, with more attention to cleanliness than + humanity, removed the little inconvenience by destroying + the nest with a broom. The young birds of course fell to + the ground; in the mean time the parents collected a + great number of their own species, who quickly built a + second nest, sufficiently commodious for the reception of + the distressed family, and the young were safely conveyed + to their new lodgings by the parents and their + assistants.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_153" + href="#FNanchor_153">153</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Dr. Edmonston, in his view of the Zetland islands, says, + “The white-tailed Eagle, or Erne, boldly attacks fishes of + the largest size. Several desperate combats have been + witnessed between this bird and the Halibut. The former + strikes his claws into the fish with all his force, + determined not to relinquish his hold, and, although but + rarely, is sometimes drowned in the attempt to carry off + his prize. When he has overcome the Halibut, he raises + one of his wings, which serves as a sail, and if favored + by the wind, in that attitude drifts towards the land. + The moment he touches the shore, he begins to eat out and + disengage his claws; but if discovered before this can be + effected he falls an easy prey to the first + assailant.”</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_154" + href="#FNanchor_153">154</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Bellonius says, “The Storks come to Egypt in such + abundance, that the fields and meadows, are white with + them. Yet the Egyptians are not displeased with this + sight; as frogs are generated in such numbers there, that + did not the Storks devour them, they would over-run every + thing. Besides, they also catch and eat Serpents. Between + Belha and Gaza, the fields of Palestine are often desert + on account of the abundance of Mice and Rats; and were + they not destroyed by the Falcons that come here by + instinct, the inhabitants could have no harvest.”</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_155" + href="#FNanchor_153">155</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Dr. Edmonston says:—“The crows generally appear in pairs, + even during winter, except when attracted to a spot in + search of food, or when they assemble for the purpose of + holding what is called the <em>Crow’s court</em>. This + latter institution exhibits a curious fact in their + history. Numbers are seen to assemble on a particular + hill or field, from many different points. On some + occasions the meeting does not appear to be complete + before the expiration of a day or two. As soon as all the + deputies have arrived, a very general noise and croaking + ensue, and, shortly after, the whole fall upon one or two + individuals, whom they persecute and beat until they kill + them. When this has been accomplished, they quietly + disperse.” + <br /><br /> + On the subject of Gulls, Dr. Edmonston says:—“In the + affectionate care of their offspring, these Gulls display + great sagacity and even foresight. When the cradle at + Noss is about to be slung, the gulls, aware of the + approaching capture of their young, are unremitting in + their efforts to carry them off. From the first moment + that they observe preparations making to enter the holm, + they become noisy and restless, + <br /> + <span class="xs ml12"> + ——‘and chide, exhort, command,</span> + <br /> + <span class="xs ml12"> + Or push them off,’</span> + <br /> + so that if bad weather delay the arranging of the cradle, + but for a few days, scarcely any are left to be taken + away. + <br /><br /> + “This bird is a great enemy to the fowler, by intimating + to other birds his approach. One of them is an + inseparable attendant on the <em>Scarfs</em>, when they + assemble on the rocks for the purpose of drying and + resting themselves; and they seem sensible of the good + offices of this voluntary guardian, by quietly receiving + it among them, and obeying its friendly admonitions.—On + the approach of a person from the shore, or of a boat, + the Gull having first testified marks of anxiety and + apprehension, flies off before either have approached + within gunshot, and all the Scarfs, except those who are + young and inexperienced, follow. It not merely contents + itself with giving them warning in due time, but urges + their departure by repeated calls, and sits down in the + water, at a considerable distance from the spot from + which it fled, as if intending to point out the place + where they may consider themselves in safety; and they + generally all repair to the same place. To the Seal this + bird is of essential service. These animals frequently + lie upon the rocks for hours in succession, and so well + acquainted are some sportsmen with their haunts, that + they raise small bulwarks, or <em>rests</em>, to conceal + their approach, or wait their arrival behind a rock. The + Gull, however, frustrates all these precautions, by first + flying over the head of the hunter, and then screaming + close to the Seal; and, when the latter is not disposed + to avail himself at once of this friendly intimation, I + have known them <em>strike him on the head</em> with + their feet. As soon as he slips into the water they + appear to be perfectly satisfied, as if they then + conceived him in a situation to protect himself. + <br /><br /> + “The Gull seems to consider itself the natural guardian + of the coast. If it spies a person at a distance, walking + in a cautious manner, in the neighborhood of any bird, it + instantly repairs to the spot, and by a keen acute cry, + different from the common note, endeavors to inform it of + the approaching danger. Ducks and Curlews know the hint + quite well, and almost always take advantage of it, and + fly off long before the fowler can arrive within gun-shot + of them. On these occasions it often comes with a sweep, + as if intending to strike the person, who by that means + is kept in a state of constant alarm and irritation; but + if it do not immediately fly off, after having succeeded + in accomplishing the object of its mission, this + officious interference not unfrequently draws the + vengeance of the fowler on itself, and it falls the + victim of its own good intentions. This Gull is not + satisfied with having alarmed birds on any particular + occasion. It does indeed fly to a distance and sit down, + but after its anxiety has been once roused, it never + loses sight of the fowler, but follows him at a distance + wherever he goes, and unless by pretended inactivity the + sportsman can quiet the apprehension of his enemy, it is + in vain to think of getting within reach of any bird that + is naturally shy and of a timid disposition. The scream + of this bird is peculiarly wild, and indicative of + anxious impatience.”</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_156" + href="#Page_316">156</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Hasselquist, speaking of the <em>Strix Orientalis</em>, + or Oriental Owl, says, “It is of the size of the common + owl, living in the ruins of old deserted houses of Egypt + and Syria; and sometimes in inhabited houses. The Arab in + Egypt calls it <em>Massasa</em>, the Syrians + <em>Bana</em>. It is very ravenous in Syria, and in the + evenings, if the windows be left open, it flies into + houses, <em>and kills infants</em>, unless they are + carefully watched; wherefore the women are much afraid of + it.”—Travels, p. 196.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_157" + href="#FNanchor_157">157</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — The <em>marine</em> Polypus is different in form from the + fresh-water Polype; but is nourished, increased, and may + be propagated after the same manner. When it produces its + young, they issue from its sides, as branches from a + tree; these young shoots are no sooner detached from + their parents, than they become separate Polypuses, and + fish for prey. + <br /><br /> + It seems that every part of this animal possesses a + principle of life. If it be cut into three pieces, it is so + far from being destroyed, that it becomes three polypuses: + the head produces a body and tail; the body, a head and + tail; and the tail, a head and body. When a Polypus is cut + in two lengthways, these close themselves, the wounds are + healed in a few moments, and in the course of some hours + they will eat greedily. If these Polypuses be again cut + into four, or six pieces, these divisions of the animal + will also become Polypuses; but they will not be matured, + nor capable of eating, for some days. If this creature be + turned like a glove, by pushing the tail into the body + until it come out of the mouth, after such an operation it + will still eat, and continue to produce young ones; so + strong and vigorous is the principle of life which it + possesses. + <br /><br /> + There are other insects which possess similar properties; + and it is certain that nearly all plants which are produced + from suckers, have no part which may not become either a + stem or branch, and which will germinate, and furnish one, + or even many plants.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_158" + href="#Page_319">158</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — For the contrary opinion, see Fragments appended to + Calmet’s Dictionary, pp. 114-117.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_159" + href="#FNanchor_159">159</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — “Some time ago, a person in the Isle of Wight, digging + the ground for the foundation of an out-house, + discovered the nest or magazine of a field-mouse. It + was of large dimension, and was stored with acorns, + which were laid up in the neatest and most compact + manner imaginable. These were so numerous that he was + induced to count them, and found, in the whole, no + fewer than <em>eight hundred and two</em>. How + wonderful are those faculties with which the beneficent + Creator of the world has endowed his creatures, for the + purpose of providing for wants which they have no power + to foresee, and yet, without which provision, they + must, during the severity of winter, be inevitably + destroyed!”—New Monthly Magazine, July, 1814, + p. 531.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_160" + href="#Page_324">160</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — See Dr. Paley’s Natural Theology, pp. 296-299.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_161" + href="#FNanchor_161">161</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — To this may be referred an economical experiment well + known to the Dutch, that when eight Cows have been in a + pasture, and can no longer get nourishment, two horses + will do very well there for some days; and when nothing + is left for the Horses, four Sheep will live + on it.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_162" + href="#Page_325">162</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — The Arabians, when travelling, and in want of water, + frequently kill their camels to obtain a supply, which, + though taken out of the animal, they find perfectly + good.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_163" + href="#FNanchor_163">163</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Dr. Paley’s Natural Theology, p. 278.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_164" + href="#FNanchor_164">164</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Dr. Percival’s Instructions, p. 23.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_165" + href="#FNanchor_165">165</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — See Annual Register, vol. iii, p. 90.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_166" + href="#Page_328">166</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Dr. Beattie’s Dissertations, Moral and + Critical.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_167" + href="#Page_328">167</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Dr. Percival’s Instructions, p. 8. + <br /><br /> + The Chinese consider the flesh of this animal as a + dainty, and public shambles are erected for the sale of + it. In Canton particularly, there is a street + appropriated to that purpose; and, what is very + extraordinary, whenever a dog-butcher appears, all the + dogs in the place pursue him in full cry. They know + their enemy, and persecute him as far as they are + able.—Goldsmith’s History of the Earth.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_168" + href="#Page_329">168</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Wesley’s Philosophy, vol. i, p. 233.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_169" + href="#FNanchor_169">169</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — For a description of the <em>Crocodile</em>, given by + Divine inspiration, see Job chap. xli. It is a great + question among learned men, says Mr. Benson, what + creature is meant by <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">לויתן</span>, + <em>leviathan</em>. Our + translators were evidently uncertain respecting it, and + therefore have given us the original term untranslated. + The Seventy, however, have rendered it <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: drakôn" + class="msg">δρακων</span>, + <em>the + dragon</em>; but that is far from being correct. The + dragon is a genus belonging to the order of amphibia + reptilia. There are two species, 1. The volans, or + flying dragon, with the wings entirely distinct from + the fore-legs, which is found in Africa and the East + Indies. 2. The præpos, with the wings fixed to the + fore-legs, which is a native of America. They are both + harmless creatures; and feed on flies, ants, and small + insects. The word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">לויתן</span>, + <em>leviathan</em> is supposed to be derived from <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">לוי</span>, + <em>levi</em>, <em>joined</em>, or <em>coupled</em>, + and <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">תן</span>, + _than_, or <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">תנין</span> + <em>thannin, a dragon</em>, that is, a <em>large + serpent</em>, or <em>fish</em>, the word + <em>thannin</em> being used both for a land-serpent, + and a kind of fish. And “after comparing what Bochart + and others have written on the subject, it appears to + me,” says Parkhurst, “that the compound word <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">לויתן</span>, + <em>leviathan, the coupled dragon</em>, denotes some + animal, partaking of the nature both of the land + serpents, and fishes, and, in this place, signifies the + <em>crocodile</em>, which lives as well under water as + on the shore.”</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_170" + href="#Page_332">170</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Bingley’s Animal Biography, vol. ii, + p. 410, &c.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_171" + href="#FNanchor_171">171</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Dr. Paley’s Natural Theology, p. 286.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_172" + href="#FNanchor_172">172</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Aristotle asserts that <em>spinning</em> and + <em>weaving</em> were first learned from the spider. + Thence it has its Greek name <span + lang="grc" + xml:lang="grc" + title="TN: arachnês" + class="msg">αραχνης</span>, + Latin <em + lang="lat" + xml:lang="lat">Aranea</em>, + French <em + lang="fra" + xml:lang="fra">Araignce</em>, + from the Hebrew <em + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">Aragnevit</em>, <em>texuit</em>, or + <em>Arach, textura</em>. And it is not improbable that + our English word <em>Spider</em> is but a corruption of + <em>Spinner</em>, for <em>Spinn</em> is the German word + for <em>Spider</em>. With this agrees that poetic + fancy, that <em>Arachne</em> an excellent + <em>spinster</em>, was by <em>Pallas</em> turned into a + <em>Spider</em>. Pallas was the goddess of wisdom, war, + weaving, spinning, and the liberal arts; and she was + invoked by almost every artist, particularly such as + worked in wool, embroidery, painting, and + sculpture.—Edward’s Demonstration, &c.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_173" + href="#FNanchor_173">173</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — See Jones’s Disquisition concerning clean and unclean + Animals.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_174" + href="#FNanchor_174">174</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — See D’Assigny on the Hieroglyphics of Egypt.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_175" + href="#FNanchor_175">175</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Epist. cap. v.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_176" + href="#FNanchor_176">176</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Simil. ix, sect. 13.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_177" + href="#FNanchor_177">177</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Ad. Autol. lib. 2, p. 96.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_178" + href="#FNanchor_178">178</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Lib. iv, cap. 37, et lib. v. c. 15.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_179" + href="#FNanchor_178">179</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Lib. iv, cap. 75.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_180" + href="#FNanchor_180">180</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Adv. Prax. c. 12.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_181" + href="#FNanchor_181">181</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Cap. 21, 25.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_182" + href="#FNanchor_182">182</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Cont. Cel. lib. i, p. 63.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_183" + href="#FNanchor_183">183</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Socrat. lib. ii. c. 30, where the Creed may be seen at + large.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_184" + href="#FNanchor_184">184</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Hæres. 23, n. 2.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_185" + href="#FNanchor_184">185</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Hæres. 44, n. 4. See Bibliotheca Biblica on + the place.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_186" + href="#FNanchor_186">186</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Lib. iv, cap. 37.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_187" + href="#Page_349">187</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Two Dissertations, &c. pp. 29, 30.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_188" + href="#FNanchor_188">188</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Among the numerous traditions of the New-Zealanders, + says Nicholas, there is one which is very remarkable. + It refers to the creation of man, and has been handed + down from father to son, through all generations. They + believe the first man to have been created by three + gods, Mowheerangaranga, or Toopoonah, or grandfather, + Mowheermooha, and Mowheebotakee; but give the greatest + share in the business to the first-mentioned of these + deities.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_189" + href="#FNanchor_189">189</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Moses says, “the <em>life</em>, <span + lang="heb" + xml:lang="heb">נפש</span> + nephesh, of the + flesh is in the <em>blood</em>.” And St. Paul affirms, + “God hath made of <em>one blood</em> all nations of + men.” This sentence of Moses, which, in conjunction + with that of St. Paul, contains a most important truth, + had existed in the sacred Scriptures for 3,600 years, + before it arrested the attention of any philosopher. + This is more surprising, as the nations in which + philosophy flourished, were those which especially + enjoyed the Divine oracles in their respective + languages. That the blood actually possesses a + <em>living principle</em>, and that the life of the + whole body is derived from it, is a doctrine of Divine + revelation, and which the observations and experiments + of the most accurate anatomists have served strongly to + confirm. The proper <em>circulation</em> of this + important fluid through the <em>whole</em> human + system, was taught by Solomon in figurative language, + Eccles. xii, 6; and discovered, as it is called, and + demonstrated by Dr. Harvey in 1628; though some Italian + philosophers had the same notion a little before. This + distinguished anatomist was the first who fully revived + the Mosaic notion of the <em>vitality</em> of the + blood; and which correct view was afterwards adopted by + the justly celebrated Mr. John Hunter, whose strong + reasoning and accurate experiments have served to + sanction and give publicity to a fact so long unknown + to mankind. The doctrine of Moses and St. Paul proves + the truth of the doctrine of Harvey and Hunter: and the + reasonings and experiments of the latter, illustrate + and confirm the doctrine of the former.—See Dr. A. + Clarke on Lev. xvii, 11.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_190" + href="#FNanchor_190">190</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — As an instance of this I may mention the case of a + gentleman who was subject to frequent attacks of + asthma, to such a degree, that if he were not relieved + immediately by bleeding, he was in danger of + suffocation: by being so frequently bled in that state, + his blood at length became so pale as scarcely to stain + a linen cloth, in consequence of the particles of the + blood being so slowly renewed.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_191" + href="#FNanchor_191">191</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Two of these causes are peculiarly important and + interesting. When an animal has lost a considerable + quantity of blood, and faints in consequence, the power + of the blood to coagulate quickly is greatly + increased.—When, for example, a sheep is bled to death, + if you receive a cupful of the blood which first issues + from the throat, and a cupful of the last, you will + find that the latter will coagulate sooner, and become + much more solid than the first portion. By way of + experiment, the large artery of the thigh of a dog has + been divided and laid open; the animal bled till he + fainted, and on recovering had no return of the + bleeding. On examining the artery, its divided end was + found plugged up by coagulated blood, and much + contracted in its diameter; this natural means, + however, of checking hæmorrhage, we shall afterwards + find, is assisted by the contractile power possessed by + the vessel from whence it is effused. Hence it appears + that fainting is favorable to checking hæmorrhages, as + far as it puts a temporary check on the circulation, + and should always be encouraged to a certain degree. + Another cause which influences the coagulation of the + blood, is inflammatory diseases. Under such + circumstances it remains much longer in a fluid state, + but coagulates at length more firmly. This coagulation + of the lymph is the first step towards its conversion + into various parts of the body, or the union of divided + parts. When, for example, the coagulating lymph is + thrown out upon inflamed internal parts of the body + which lie in contact, as the intestines or lungs, it + becomes solid, and connects them loosely together. + Blood vessels shoot into it, and convert it at length + into cellular membrane, forming what are called + adhesions, and in a similar way it is converted into + the nature of various parts of the body. We may + therefore say, that the coagulating lymph is the most + important part of the blood, inasmuch as it is + subservient to the formation of various organs in the + body. Many parts, particularly the muscles, very nearly + resemble it in their nature.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_192" + href="#FNanchor_192">192</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Substances may even be introduced into the blood + directly. By way of experiment, Ipecacuanha, or a small + portion of Emetic Tartar, or Jalap, have been infused + into the veins: the result of this has been found to + be, that they have produced the same effect as if + introduced by the stomach; the former produced + vomiting, the latter purging.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_193" + href="#FNanchor_193">193</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Mr. Hunter, however, found that this natural + inclination might be changed by education, for he + taught an Eagle, which is a carnivorous animal, to + subsist on farinaceous food alone. The plan he adopted + was this: he began by abstracting the flesh meat, and + substituting bread and butter, till at length the meat + was entirely taken away; he then by degrees diminished + the quantity of butter, till at length the animal fed + on bread alone. It appears, however, from experiment, + that this transition cannot be made suddenly, as the + gastric juice of the animal is not adapted to act upon + an opposite kind of food. It has been found that a + quantity of pear or apple introduced into the stomach + of a Buzzard Hawk was not digested, but remained + unacted upon when the fowl was killed for inspection + many hours afterwards; yet the stomach of this animal + habitually digested bone.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_194" + href="#FNanchor_194">194</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Dr. A. Hunter says, “When we consider the delicacy of + the internal structure of the stomach, and the high and + essential consequence of its office, we may truly say, + it is treated with too little tenderness and respect on + our parts. The stomach is the chief organ of the human + system, upon the state of which all the powers and + feelings of the individual depend. + <br /><br /> + “The stomach is the kitchen that prepares our + discordant food, and which, after due maceration, it + delivers over by a certain undulatory motion, to the + intestines, where it receives a further concoction. + Being now reduced into a white balmy fluid, it is + sucked up by a set of small vessels, called lacteals, + and carried to the thoracic duct. This duct runs up the + back-bone, and is in length about sixteen inches, but + in diameter it hardly exceeds a crow quill. Through + this small tube, the greatest part of what is taken in + at the mouth passes, and when it has arrived at its + greatest height, it is discharged into the left + subclavian vein; when mixing with the general mass of + blood, it becomes, very soon, blood itself.”</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_195" + href="#FNanchor_195">195</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Dr. O. Gregory observes, “Animal heat is preserved + <em>entirely</em> by the inspiration of atmospheric + air! The lungs which imbibe the oxygen gas from the + air, impart it to the blood; and the blood, in its + circulation, gives out the caloric to every part of the + body. Nothing can afford a more striking proof of + creative wisdom, than this provision for the + preservation of an equable animal temperature. By the + decomposition of atmospheric air, caloric is evolved, + and this caloric is taken up by the arterial blood, + without its temperature being at all raised by the + addition. When it passes to the veins, its capacity for + caloric is diminished, as much as it had been before + increased in the lungs: the caloric, therefore, which + had been absorbed, is again given out; and this slow + and constant evolution of the caloric in the extreme + vessels over the whole body, is the source of that + uniform temperature which we have so much occasion to + admire. Dr. Crawford ascertained, that whenever an + animal is placed in a medium the temperature of which + is considerably high, the usual change of arterial + venous blood does not go on; consequently, no evolution + of caloric will take place, and the animal heat will + not rise much above the natural standard. How pleasing + it is to contemplate the arrangements which the Deity + has made for the preservation and felicity of his + creatures, and to observe that he has provided for + every possible exigency!”—Lessons, Astronomical and + Philosophical, 4th edit. p. 87.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_196" + href="#FNanchor_196">196</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — A London Alderman, who had accidentally heard of the + thoracic duct, was so struck with the importance and + delicacy of the vessel, that he became very + apprehensive lest it should be in the least obstructed; + and, being one day caught in a crowd, from whence he + could not extricate himself, he most earnestly + entreated those who pressed on him, to take care of his + thoracic duct.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_197" + href="#Page_371">197</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — This is a good example of muscles, which, under + ordinary circumstances, are directed by the will, + becoming involuntary from an altered excitement.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_198" + href="#FNanchor_198">198</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Dr. A. Hunter remarks, “Were it possible for us to view + through the skin and integuments, the mechanism of our + bodies, after the manner of a watch-maker when he + examines a watch, we should be struck with an awful + astonishment! Were we to see the stomach and intestines + busily employed in the concoction of our food by a + certain undulatory motion; the heart working, day and + night, like a forcing pump; the lungs blowing alternate + blasts; the humors filtrating through innumerable + strainers; together with an incomprehensible assemblage + of tubes, valves, and currents, all actively and + unceasingly employed in support of our existence, we + could hardly be induced to stir from our places!”</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_199" + href="#Page_373">199</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Mr. Cruikshank, late Professor of Chemistry at + Woolwich, judiciously observes, says Dr. Olinthus + Gregory, that the size of the body, the quantity of + food taken in, the vigor with which the system is + acting, the passions of the mind, and external heat or + cold, are circumstances which will ever occasion + considerable variety in the quantity of the insensible + perspiration. This gentleman, assuming that the surface + of the hand is to that of the rest of the body as one + to sixty (an assumption which Mr. Abernethy thinks much + too small for the body,) and that every part of that + surface perspired equally with his hand, concluded that + he lost during an hour, by insensible perspiration from + the skin, 3 ounces, 6 drams; and in 24 hours, at that + rate, would have lost 7 pounds, 6 ounces. Also, that he + lost 124 grains of vapor by respiration, in an hour; or + 6 ounces, 1 dram, and 36 grains, in 24 hours; which, + added to the former cutaneous exhalation, would make + the whole insensible perspiration, in 24 hours, equal + to 8 pounds, 1 dram, and 36 grains: the evaporation + from the lungs will be little more than one-fifteenth + of the whole. + <br /><br /> + Mr. Cruikshank has not the smallest doubt, but that + <em>electric fluid</em> is also perspired from the + pores of the skin: it appearing to him impossible that + an enraged Lion, or Cat, should erect the hairs of the + tail on any other principle: indeed he strongly + suspects that, as electric fire is now known to be the + prime conductor of the variation in the atmosphere, so + it is also the grand conductor of insensible + perspiration. He likewise states it as a matter beyond + doubt, that, independent of aqueous vapor (of fixed air + and phlogiston,) emitted from the skin in insensible + perspiration, there is an odorous effluvia, which, + though generally insensible to ourselves and the by + standers, is perceptible to other animals.—Hence it + happens, that a Dog follows the footsteps of his master + by the smell; and, in like manner, with regard to other + animals: the Fox-Hound knows <em>afar</em> the smell of + the Fox; the Pointer that of the Partridge, the Snipe, + or the Pheasant; and every carnivorous animal that of + its prey.—Haüy’s Natural Philosophy, vol. i, + p. 27.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_200" + href="#FNanchor_200">200</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Dr. Priestley has positively asserted, that the + doctrine of the soul has no foundation in reason or the + Scriptures. But Dr. Jortin, in his sermon on John xi, + 25, vol. vi, and Dean Sherlock, in his discourse on the + immortality of the soul, completely refute the Doctor’s + arguments. In the fourth volume of the Memoirs of the + Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, there + is a very valuable paper, by Dr. Ferriar, proving, by + evidence apparently complete, that every part of the + brain has been injured without affecting the act of + thought; the reasoning of which memoir, being built on + matters of fact and experience, appears to have shaken + the modern theory of the materialists from its very + foundation.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_201" + href="#Page_379">201</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — See Wesley’s Sermon on Heb. xi, 1.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_202" + href="#FNanchor_202">202</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Dr. Scott’s Christian Life, vol. v, p. 14.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_203" + href="#FNanchor_203">203</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — Practical Treaties on the Holy Spirit, + pp. 7, 8.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_204" + href="#FNanchor_204">204</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — See Dr. Beattie’s Theory of Language, chap. ii.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_205" + href="#FNanchor_205">205</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — It is very singular, says Nicholas, in his very + interesting history of New-Zealand, that the natives + believe that the first woman was made of one of man’s + ribs; and, what adds still more to this strange + coincidence, their general term for bone is + <em>hevee</em>, which, for ought we know, may be a + corruption of the name of our first parent, + communicated to them, perhaps, originally, by some + means or other, and preserved, without being much + disfigured, among the records of ignorance.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="rt"> + <a id="Footnote_206" + href="#FNanchor_206">206</a></td> + <td class="foot"> + — See Townsend’s Character of Moses, pp. 66-68.</td></tr> + </table> + </div> + + + <hr class="blank" /> + <div class='tn'> + <h2>Transcriber's Notes:</h2> + <p class="hang1"> + Punctuation has been standardised.</p> + <p class="hang1"> + Non-printable symbols have been presented in square brackets + with a description [triangle]</p> + <p class="hang1"> + This book was written in a period when many words had not + become standarized in their spelling. Numerous words have + multiple spelling variations or inconsistent hyphenation in + the text. These have been left unchanged while obvious + spelling mistakes have been repaired.</p> + + </div> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44636 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/44636-h/images/cover-page.jpg b/44636-h/images/cover-page.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3fc4b12 --- /dev/null +++ b/44636-h/images/cover-page.jpg |
