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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Mosaic History of the Creation of the
+World, by Thomas Wood
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Mosaic History of the Creation of the World
+       Illustrated by Discoveries and Experiments Derived from
+       the Present Enlightened State of Science; With Reflections,
+       Intended to Promote Vital and Practical Religion
+
+Author: Thomas Wood
+
+Editor: J. P. Durbin
+
+Release Date: January 11, 2014 [EBook #44636]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MOSAIC HISTORY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Garcia, Richard Hulse and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Kentuckiana Digital Library)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE
+
+MOSAIC HISTORY
+
+OF THE
+
+CREATION OF THE WORLD;
+
+ILLUSTRATED BY DISCOVERIES AND EXPERIMENTS DERIVED FROM THE PRESENT
+ENLIGHTENED STATE OF SCIENCE; WITH REFLECTIONS, INTENDED TO PROMOTE
+VITAL AND PRACTICAL RELIGION.
+
+BY THOMAS WOOD, A. M.
+
+REVISED AND IMPROVED
+
+BY THE REV. J. P. DURBIN, A. M.
+
+PROFESSOR OF LANGUAGES, AUGUSTA COLLEGE, KENTUCKY.
+
+"Every man has a particular train of thought into which his mind falls,
+when at leisure, from the impressions and ideas which occasionally
+excite it; and if one train of thinking be more desirable than another,
+it is surely that which regards the phenomena of nature with a constant
+reference to a supreme intelligent author."--_Bacon._
+
+FIRST AMERICAN, FROM THE SECOND LONDON EDITION.
+
+NEW-YORK.--M^{C}ELRATH & BANGS.
+
+1831.
+
+
+
+
+[_Entered, according to the Act of Congress, July 27, in the year 1831,
+by M^{c}Elrath & Bangs, in the Office of the Clerk of the Southern
+District of New-York._]
+
+
+
+
+JOHN T. WEST & CO., PRINTERS.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+TO THE SECOND LONDON EDITION.
+
+
+As God made man with a capacity susceptible of knowledge, so has he
+furnished him with the means of acquiring it. The Divine Being is
+incomprehensible to all but himself: for a finite capacity can never
+fully grasp an infinite object. Neither can he be perceived at all,
+only so far as he is pleased to reveal himself. He has given us a
+revelation of his nature, perfections, and will; which could never have
+been discovered by reasoning and conjecture. He has also favored us
+with a revelation of his works, without which the origin, constitution,
+and nature of the universe, could never have been adequately known. The
+origin, duty, and interest of man, are matters in which we are greatly
+concerned. How valuable then are the Sacred Scriptures!
+
+The heathen world by wisdom knew not God. On theological subjects,
+the greatest Philosophers and Poets of whom antiquity could boast,
+were puerile in their opinions, and absurd and contradictory in their
+literary productions. Their progress in many of the sciences, and
+the polite arts, was considerable; but in religion they made none:
+not because they neglected to investigate the nature of it, as one
+observes; for there was not a subject they thought on, nor discoursed
+about, more than the nature and existence of the gods; neither was
+it for want of natural abilities, nor of learning; for persons who
+formed the brightest constellation of geniuses that ever illuminated
+the republic of letters, were devoted to the investigation of the
+principles and causes of things. Moses, the sacred historian, had
+access to the Fountain of knowledge, and has revealed the mystery
+that lay hid for ages, because he was taught it by the inspiration of
+the Almighty. By the Hebrew Lawgiver we are instructed concerning the
+Creation of the World; an illustration of whose account is attempted in
+the following pages.
+
+The attention of the reader is called to that era when the elementary
+principles of matter were first produced, and the formation of
+creatures took place; when vitality was given to a vast variety of
+animals, and mind was infused into Man as the peculiar offspring of
+God: when motion was impressed on the universe, and the various Planets
+began their orbicular revolutions: when Time commenced, and
+
+                    "History, not wanted yet,
+    Lean'd on her elbow watching Time, whose course
+    Eventful should supply her with a theme."
+
+What a stupendous fabric is Creation! a marvellous display of
+omnipotence! It is infinitely diversified, and magnificently grand. Ten
+thousand objects strike the attentive eye, and afford inexpressible
+delight to a contemplative mind. The blue ethereal arch is highly
+illuminated, and richly adorned with sparkling globes of light--whose
+number, distances, magnitudes, motions, and influences, elude the most
+diligent research: these millions of suns, the glory of other worlds,
+are equally the works of the Creator, and, with rays of dazzling
+splendor, irradiate the peculiar systems to which they belong: and,
+while they celebrate his wisdom and power, form a brilliant canopy
+over our heads. That golden globe of light, which is the center of
+our planetary system, shines forth in his glory, and spreads abroad
+the lucid day: he does not only emit his cheering rays to surrounding
+orbs, some of which revolve at immense distances, but, in running his
+prescribed course, measures out our time, renders our hours joyful, and
+without whose reviving beams we should dwell in perpetual darkness. The
+pale silver Moon gilds the shadows of the evening, and directs the feet
+of the benighted and lonely traveller in safety to his abode.
+
+In the lower walks of Nature, we perceive numerous assemblages of
+creatures, which, calling forth the exercise of our understanding,
+raise our admiration. The vapors arise, unite in the aerial regions,
+and descend in rain, snow, or hail, according to the different
+temperature of the climates; and thus the valleys are watered, the
+green carpet is spread under our feet, delightfully adorned with
+fruitful trees and variegated flowers. The vast collections of water,
+called seas, are stored with innumerable finny inhabitants, both small
+and great, which are amply supplied with necessary food. On earth,
+there are the wild beasts of the forest, the roaming cattle of the
+desert, the domestic animals of the field, the feathered tribes with
+their glossy plumage and delightful notes, beside an incredible number
+of living creatures that escape the utmost vigilance of the unassisted
+eye: which are all effects of infinite skill, omnipotent energy, Divine
+munificence, and conspire to utter his praise. The sultry regions are
+fanned with cooling breezes, which revive the numerous classes of
+creatures, and without which they would otherwise faint. But of all
+the visible effects of omnific power and uncreated goodness, Man has a
+claim to the first rank, for in his composition are mysteriously joined
+both matter and spirit.
+
+How wonderfully has God displayed his wisdom, power, and goodness, in
+the creation of the Universe! What are the most labored and diversified
+works of Art, when compared with the majestic grandeur and sublimity
+of those of Nature! The things on which the fertile imagination of man
+has long been employed, when considered in a detached point of view,
+gratify our curiosity, raise our admiration, and gain our applause;
+but when compared with the productions of the Divine Hand, they sink
+and are deprived of their lustre, like the sparkling glow-worm in the
+copse, when the Sun shines forth with the refulgence of his meridian
+splendor.
+
+Religious instruction is here mixed with philosophical discoveries. The
+works of Nature conduct an enlightened mind to the great Creator. The
+celebrated Dr. Watts, with this point in view, says,
+
+    "Part of thy name divinely stands,
+      On all thy creatures writ,
+    They show the labor of thy hands,
+      Or impress of thy feet."
+
+Mr. Adams, in his Lectures, says, "The two kingdoms of nature and
+grace, as two parallel lines, correspond to each other, follow a like
+course, but can never be made to touch. An adequate understanding
+of this distinction in all its branches, would be the consummation
+of knowledge." Stephens, in his Human Nature Delineated, says, "The
+man who would seek after knowledge in this world, and happiness in
+the world of spirits, I would advise to pursue his studies without
+any other guides than the Word and the Works of God." And Dr. A.
+Clarke, on John iv, 3, affirms, that, "properly understood, earthly
+_substances_ are the types, representatives, and shadows of heavenly
+things." St. Paul appears to inculcate this idea where he says,
+"Now we see as through a glass, darkly: but then face to face." The
+word <<ainigmati>>, rendered _darkly_, is peculiarly important,
+and the right knowledge of which will assist us to understand his
+meaning. Parkhurst gives the following definition of the _term_ and
+the _thing_. "<<Ainigma>> from <<�nigmai>>, the _perfect passive_,
+of <<ainitt�>>, to _hint, intimate, signify with some degree of
+obscurity_; an _enigma_, in which one thing _answers_ or stands in
+_correspondence to_, or as the _representative_ of another; which is,
+in _some respects, similar_ to it, occurs 1 Cor. xiii, 12. _Now_, in
+this life, _we see by means of a mirror_ reflecting the images of
+heavenly and spiritual things, <<en ainigmati>>, _in an enigmatical
+manner_, invisible things being represented by visible; spiritual,
+by natural; eternal, by temporal; _but then_, in the eternal world,
+_face to face_; every thing being seen in itself, and not by means of
+a representative or similitude."
+
+The idea thus suggested, induced the author to engage in the following
+work: he thought that if the Mosaic account of the Creation were given
+in detail, each day apart, using the aid afforded by the present
+enlightened state of science, and directing the reader to look
+
+    "Through Nature, up to Nature's God."
+
+the work would be instructive, and might tend to cultivate the mind
+and amend the heart. And he is happy that he has it in his power to
+say, that the plan has obtained not only the general approbation of
+orthodox and pious Christians, but the warm encomiums of many Ministers
+of the Gospel, both of the Establishment and among the Dissenters. He
+has received very flattering Epistolary Communications from persons of
+piety, literature, and science.
+
+The author has availed himself of various sources of information: some
+of the best works published on different illustrative subjects have
+been consulted: and those on Natural History and Chemical Science
+were found of considerable service. That part which treats on the
+Anatomical structure of Man, the reader will perceive is written
+by a gentleman deeply versed in Physiological science. It is from
+the pen of the late Benjamin Gibson, Esq. who filled the important
+situations of _Vice-President of the Literary and Philosophical Society
+of Manchester, and Surgeon to the Infirmary of that town_: and who,
+unexpectedly, and in the most obliging manner, offered to prepare a
+Manuscript for this work, which gives it a peculiar excellence it
+otherwise would not have had.
+
+The favorable reception which the former large edition has met with
+from the public, and the consequent demand there was upon the author to
+prepare a new one, produced a considerable excitement in his mind; and,
+under these circumstances, it was not less his wish, than it has been
+his endeavor, to make the second edition more worthy to meet the public
+eye, as well as more extensively useful. The _whole_ of the work, with
+the exception of that part by Mr. Gibson, therefore, has been written
+anew, and such important additions and arrangements made, as will, he
+trusts, meet the approbation of his readers. He has received assistance
+from a writer of eminence, whose name, were he at liberty to mention
+it, would do honor to his work, and whose corrections have increased
+its value. The Religious Improvements he believes to be natural and
+scriptural, and hopes they may be read with advantage by all Christians
+who have received the truth as it is in Christ. He can say, that he
+has endeavored to make the whole work both instructive and useful, so
+far as his leisure from arduous ministerial duties would allow him: by
+directing the attention of the reader to God, through the medium of
+his visible works, and by that means to inculcate true religion and
+genuine piety. May the Divine blessing render this additional effort
+successful!
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+TO THE AMERICAN EDITION.
+
+
+This work, which is now presented to the public, has not been reprinted
+in America heretofore, notwithstanding it passed through _two_ editions
+in England, with honorable approbation, in a short space of time. This
+first American edition, it is confidently believed, will be received
+with approbation; because the work will be found, on perusal, to answer
+to its title; and surely no subject can interest the Christian and
+intelligent reader more deeply, than the _illustration of the creation
+of the world, as recorded by Moses, the servant of God_.
+
+This volume inspires a deeper interest when the reader is promised that
+the illustration of this splendid subject shall be _by means of the
+discoveries drawn from the present enlightened state of science_. Thus
+the reader will see clearly confirmed this glorious truth: _Religion
+and Literature are mutual helpmates to the knowledge, love, and glory
+of God._
+
+This important truth has been strangely obscured for several ages; but
+is now emerging to light with increased splendor. Nor is it important
+to inquire, at this stage of mental improvement throughout the
+civilized world, the cause of its obscuration, but rather to rejoice,
+that it is now assuming its place as a fundamental principle in sound
+philosophy. It is the duty of every benevolent individual to contribute
+according to his ability, to an inseparable union of sound literature
+and vital religion. The one will secure the interests and success of
+the other, and both combined, the glory of God.
+
+Our author, in this respect, has been very happily successful. He has,
+generally, illustrated the various parts of the Mosaic Creation, with
+perspicuity and precision, and then applied the whole to the production
+and support of vital piety in the heart of the reader. So that while
+the astonishing magnificence, glory, and wisdom of creation, fills the
+contemplative mind with admiration, the heart also is fired with an
+ardent and rational devotion.
+
+The character of this volume is, therefore, neither _purely_
+scientific, nor _purely_ devotional; but both wisely and happily
+combined, under the high and direct sanction of revelation.
+
+It will be apparent to every person, by a mere glance at the size
+of the volume, that it is not intended to contain all the _minuti�_
+connected with the Mosaic Creation, but the principal, and most
+important facts, so as to make the work suitable to the great mass of
+intelligent and thoughtful readers. This object it will be found to
+have well accomplished.
+
+The _improvements_, which are mentioned in the title-page, have been
+added to the American edition, with design to adapt the work more
+nearly to the wants of the American public. They are found incorporated
+in the body of the volume, in smaller type, and enclosed in brackets;
+which was judged to be the best method.
+
+These additional papers are written at some length, principally on
+topics which have become more prominent since our author finished his
+work, and which are now exciting intense interest in this country. They
+are, therefore, considered to be real and interesting improvements to
+the American edition.
+
+Finally, the author of these additional papers, would respectfully
+commend this American edition of the Mosaic Creation, illustrated by
+means of the present enlightened state of science, _to the friends of_
+LITERATURE AND RELIGION COMBINED _for the instruction and salvation of
+mankind, and for the glory of God_.
+
+                                                          J. P. DURBIN.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+ON THE CREATOR OF THE WORLD.
+
+    Distinguished by his name _Jehovah_ -- His essence and
+    self-existence expressed by the words I AM --His attribute
+    of goodness the glory of all his other perfections -- Elohim
+    signifying a Trinity of Persons in a Unity of Essence -- The
+    Creation ascribed to one God, the Father, the Son, and the Holy
+    Spirit -- The first production of matter -- The creatures made
+    for the manifesting of God's attributes, that he might impart
+    happiness to them.                                    p. 13-40.
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+FIRST DAY.
+
+_Section_ I.--CHAOS.
+
+    Inquiry into the origin of things natural to man --
+    Character of Moses as a sacred historian important --
+    Explanation of the term Created -- Chaotic state of the
+    elementary principles of matter -- Influence of the Spirit
+    of God upon the chaotic mass -- Opinions of the ancients --
+    Similitude between the first and second creation -- Agency
+    of the Holy Spirit in the work of regeneration asserted and
+    proved.                                               p. 41-51.
+
+
+_Section_ II.--FIRE.
+
+    Omnific word -- Moving principles in Nature -- Criticism
+    on the original word **'vr** _aur_ -- Creation of Fire --
+    Its nature -- Friction exciting the action of fire -- Fire
+    attracted by bodies -- Fire conducted -- Fire in a state of
+    combination -- Fire elastic -- Expansive force of fire --
+    Subterraneous fires -- Earthquakes and volcanic Eruptions --
+    Air a storehouse of fire -- General and final dissolution
+    of nature by fire -- Fire a symbol of the Deity, in his
+    gracious presence, vital influence, transforming energy, and
+    destructive operation. p. 51-74.
+
+
+_Section_ III.--LIGHT.
+
+    Motion of luminous and fiery particles the first cause
+    of light -- Light the most simple body -- Velocity of light
+    -- Light diffusive -- Light the medium through which objects
+    become visible -- Light beautiful, or its rays of different
+    colors -- Light a visible resemblance of its Divine Author,
+    in his spirituality, simplicity, purity, energy, goodness,
+    manifestation, glory.                                 p. 75-89.
+
+
+_Section_ IV.--DAY AND NIGHT.
+
+    Original terms of Day and Night -- Motion the effect of
+    a Divine power -- Commencement of Time -- Utility of Day and
+    Night -- Religious Improvement of Time -- Sin moral Darkness --
+    The Gospel a Light to dispel it -- A Christian the subject of
+    a transition from the one state to the other.         p. 89-95.
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+SECOND DAY.
+
+ON THE ATMOSPHERE.
+
+    Composition of Atmospheric Air -- Atmosphere divided
+    into three regions -- Air a fluid -- Its compressibility
+    and elasticity -- Weight and pressure -- Equilibrium --
+    Transparency -- Wind -- Causes of Wind -- Variety of Winds
+    -- Velocity of Winds -- Destructive Winds -- Wind under the
+    control of God -- Wind a similitude of the Holy Spirit's
+    operations.                                          p. 95-114.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THIRD DAY.
+
+_Section_ I.--THE SEA.
+
+    Water and Land separated -- Formation of the Sea -- Its
+    restrictions -- Extent -- Depth -- Composition -- Saltiness
+    -- Motion -- Tides -- Four states of water -- Circulation --
+    Religious Improvement.                              p. 114-135.
+
+
+_Section_ II.--THE EARTH.
+
+    Surface of the Earth -- Mountains -- Fertility of Plants --
+    Dissemination of seeds -- Preservation of Plants -- Adaptation
+    to different Climates -- Number of Vegetables -- Succession of
+    Vegetables -- Remarkable Trees -- Sensitive Plants -- Kitchen
+    Vegetables -- Garden Flowers -- Religious Improvement.
+                                                        p. 136-165.
+
+
+_Section_ III.--MINERALS.
+
+    Gold -- Silver -- Platina -- Mercury -- Copper -- Iron
+    -- Tin -- Lead --Nickel -- Zinc -- Palladium -- Bismuth --
+    Antimony -- Tellurium --Arsenic -- Cobalt -- Manganese --
+    Tungsten -- Molybdenum --Uranium -- Titanium -- Chromium --
+    Columbium or Tantalium -- Cerium -- Oxmium -- Rodium -- Iridium
+    -- Religious Improvement.                           p. 165-183.
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+FOURTH DAY.
+
+_Section_ I.--THE SUN.
+
+    Signs -- Names -- Nature -- Motions -- Form -- Magnitude --
+    Distance -- Suspension -- Idolatrous worship of the Sun -- The
+    Sun an emblem of Christ.                            p. 183-198.
+
+
+_Section_ II.--THE MOON.
+
+    Names -- Dimensions -- Motions -- Seasons -- Phases --
+    Harvest Moon -- Moon's Surface -- Aerial Stones -- Eclipses --
+    Moonlight -- Epithets -- Religious Improvement.     p. 198-214.
+
+
+_Section_ III.--THE SEASONS.
+
+    Seasons: Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter -- Displaying
+    Divine Power, Wisdom, Goodness, Faithfulness -- Religious
+    Improvement.                                        p. 214-223.
+
+
+_Section_ IV.--THE PLANETS AND FIXED STARS.
+
+    Mercury -- Venus -- The Earth -- Mars -- Ceres -- Pallas --
+    Juno --Vesta -- Jupiter -- Saturn -- Georgium Sidus -- Comets
+    -- Fixed Stars -- Religious Improvement.            p. 223-278.
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+FIFTH DAY.
+
+_Section_ I.--FISHES.
+
+    Of Fishes in general -- The Cetaceous kind -- Cartilaginous
+    -- Spinous -- Crustaceous -- and Testaceous -- Animalcules --
+    Religious Improvement.                              p. 279-296.
+
+
+_Section_ II.--ON FOWLS.
+
+    Number of Species -- Superiority and peculiar construction
+    -- Skill in building their Nests -- Power and Season of
+    Propagation -- Dexterity in providing Food -- Instinct --
+    Migrations -- Insects -- Religious Improvement.     p. 296-317.
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+SIXTH DAY.
+
+_Section_ I.--ON QUADRUPEDS AND REPTILES.
+
+    Quadrupeds in general -- Motion -- Habits -- Rumination --
+    Proportion -- Tastes -- Clothing -- Weapons -- Proportionate
+    Number -- Faculties -- Reptiles -- Religious Improvement.
+                                                        p. 318-344.
+
+
+_Section_ II.--MAN.
+
+    _Body_: -- Its Creator -- Formation -- Vitality -- Blood
+    -- Heart -- Arteries and Veins -- Digestion -- Respiration --
+    Glands -- Absorbents -- Nervous System -- Organs of Sense --
+    Bones -- Sinovia -- Muscles -- Tendons -- Cellular Membrane --
+    Skin. _Soul_: Its Immateriality -- Freedom -- Immortality --
+    Moral Image -- Adam's dominion over the Creatures -- Woman --
+    Paradise.                                           p. 344-398.
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+SEVENTH DAY.
+
+ON THE SABBATH.
+
+    Sabbath instituted -- Blessed and sanctified -- Given to
+    Adam as a General Precept for his Posterity -- Renewed before
+    and at the giving of the Law -- A sign between God and his
+    people -- Worldly Business prohibited -- Works of Necessity
+    and Mercy excepted --Advantages resulting from observing it
+    -- A Seventh Day regarded by the Heathens -- The Sabbath of
+    universal and perpetual obligation -- The Lord's Day.
+                                                        p. 399-410.
+
+
+
+
+THE
+
+MOSAIC HISTORY, &c.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+ON THE CREATOR OF THE WORLD.
+
+    Distinguished by his name JEHOVAH -- His essence and
+    self-existence expressed by the words I AM -- His attribute
+    of goodness the glory of all his other perfections -- Elohim
+    signifying a Trinity of Persons in a Unity of Essence -- The
+    Creation ascribed to one God, the Father, the Son, and the Holy
+    Spirit -- The first production of matter -- The creatures made
+    for the manifesting of God's attributes, and that he might
+    impart happiness to them.
+
+
+As it is proposed, in the following pages to give the Mosaic account
+of the creation of the world, it is very natural that the mind should
+come to the meditation of this interesting subject, by contemplating
+the character of the Great Creator, according to his own revelations.
+
+It is evident that God made himself gradually known, as the state and
+condition of mankind required. In the earlier ages of the world, while
+revelation was but dawning on the human race, he was but little known,
+in comparison of the subsequent diffusion of his glory and perfections.
+When he, according to his promise, came to deliver the children of
+Israel out of Egypt, he revealed himself to them by his name JEHOVAH.
+He had before declared himself by this name to Abraham, Isaac, and
+Jacob; but not as it imports the performance of his promises; in
+which sense, their posterity afterwards, in the time of Moses, well
+understood it.
+
+Of all the names which the Divine Being has been pleased to designate
+himself by, that of JEHOVAH is the greatest. It comes from a root
+which imports his eternity, independency, efficacy, and truth. In
+the Hebrew it is written with four letters, **_yod_**, **_he_**,
+**_vau_**, **_he_**, thus i.e. **JHVH**:[1] the points used in
+that language, make our English word consist of seven letters,
+J_e_H_o_V_a_H. God himself gives the interpretation of this name.
+"And the Lord passed by before him, and proclaimed **yhvh** YEHOVAH,
+the LORD GOD, merciful and gracious, long-suffering, and abundant in
+goodness and truth, keeping mercy for thousands, forgiving iniquity,
+and transgression, and sin, and that will by no means clear the
+guilty." These different names have been considered as so many
+attributes of the Divine Nature. Commentators divide them into eleven,
+thus: 1. **yhvh** JEHOVAH. 2. **'l** EL, the strong or mighty God. 3.
+**rchvm** RACHUM, the merciful Being, who is full of tenderness and
+compassion. 4. **chnyn** CHANUN, the gracious One: He, whose nature
+is goodness itself--the loving God. 5. **'rk 'pym** EREC APAYIM,
+long-suffering, the Being who, because of his goodness and tenderness,
+is not easily irritated, but suffers long and is kind. 6. **rb** RAB,
+the great or mighty One. 7. **chsd** CHESED, the bountiful Being: He
+who is exuberant in his beneficence. 8. **'mth** EMETH, the Truth,
+or true One: He alone who can neither deceive nor be deceived--who
+is the Fountain of truth, and from whom all wisdom and knowledge
+must be derived. 9. **ntsr chsd** NOTSER CHESED the preserver of
+bountifulness: He whose beneficence never ends, keeping mercy for
+thousands of generations--showing compassion and mercy while the world
+endures. 10. **ns' 'vn vpsh' vcht'h** NOSE _�von vapesh� vechataah_:
+He who bears away iniquity and transgression and sin; properly the
+REDEEMER, the Pardoner, the Forgiver, the Being whose prerogative
+alone it is to forgive sin, and save the soul. **nqh (lv) l' ynqh**
+NAKEH _lo yinnakeh_, the righteous Judge, who distributes justice with
+an impartial hand; with whom no innocent person can ever be condemned.
+11. And **pqd 'vn** PAKED _�von_, &c. He who visits iniquity; he
+who punishes transgressors, and from whose justice no sinner can
+escape. The God of retributive and vindictive justice. These eleven
+attributes, as they have been termed, are all included in the name
+_Jehovah_; and are the proper interpretation of it.[2]
+
+The Jews had a superstitious respect for this name; and, after the
+Babylonian captivity, discontinued the use of it, which caused
+them soon to forget its true pronunciation. They called it the
+_Tetragrammaton_, or four-lettered name of God, which, to the present
+day, the Jews will neither write nor pronounce. They deemed it to be
+ineffable; and therefore when it occurred in reading the Scriptures;
+substituted **'dny** _Adonai_.
+
+The Jews tell us that the woman's son, mentioned in Lev. xxxiv, 11, was
+accused of blasphemy and stoned to death, because he pronounced the
+name _Jehovah_. But I conceive, that he had spoken contemptuously of
+God. We read, verse 10, that he and a man of Israel strove together,
+and it is probable that the Israelite, in the heat of contention, would
+deny his being a member of the church of God, because he was the son of
+an Egyptian father who was an idolater; whereupon, no doubt, the son
+of the Israelitish woman spoke scornfully and opprobriously of the God
+of Israel, despising the privilege of being one of his people. This, I
+imagine, was the blasphemy of which he was accused, and for which he
+was condemned and stoned to death; and not for pronouncing the name of
+_Jehovah_ only.
+
+The Seventy who translated the Old Testament into Greek, at the
+desire of Ptolemy Philadelphus, King of Egypt, about the 124th
+Olympiad, were also very sparing in the use of this name _Jehovah_;
+and therefore did not render it according to the sacred import of the
+Hebrew, but changed it into the word <<Kyrios>>, _Lord_, which is of
+the same signification with _Adonai_ in the Hebrew. Origen, Jerome,
+and Eusebius, testify, that, in their time, the Jews left the name
+_Jehovah_ written in their copies with Samaritan characters, instead
+of the common Chaldee or Hebrew characters. And those divines, who at
+the command of King James translated the Scriptures anew into English,
+have very rarely used the word _Jehovah_, but rendered it _Lord_.
+Yet we may observe, that when this word _Lord_ is substituted for
+_Jehovah_, it is printed in large Roman letters. It is to be wished,
+that the name _Jehovah_ had been preserved in the English translation
+of the Scriptures, and especially in those passages whose sense
+entirely depends on the meaning of the word.
+
+After the appointment of Moses, by Jehovah, to deliver the children of
+Israel from the tyranny and oppression under which they groaned, and
+to conduct them from Egypt to worship God at Horeb, he was anxious to
+obtain a particular revelation of the Divine nature and attributes,
+that he might be able to regulate, direct, and superintend their
+worship; and this he deemed necessary on account of the Israelites
+having been long conversant among the Egyptians, who were idolaters
+and polytheists, and called their gods by a variety of names. Hereupon
+he said to God, "Behold, when I come unto the children of Israel, and
+shall say unto them, The God of your fathers hath sent me unto you;
+and they shall say unto me, What is his name? what shall I say unto
+them?" Intimating, that it was expedient God should call himself by
+an appropriate name, to distinguish himself from all the gods of the
+heathen. For men did not, at this time, as Dr. Shuckford observes,
+know the works of creation well enough to demonstrate from them the
+attributes of God; nor could they, by speculation, form proper and
+just notions of his nature. Though he had revealed himself to Abraham,
+Isaac, and Jacob, by the name **'ny 'l shdy** _Ani El shaday_, "I
+am God all-sufficient," and likewise that of **yhvh** _Jehovah_;
+yet a further knowledge of him was sincerely desired and earnestly
+requested.[3]
+
+Whereupon, says God to Moses, I AM _that_ I AM, **'hyh 'shr 'hyh**
+EHEYEH _asher_ EHEYEH. The Vulgate translates these words--EGO SUM QUI
+SUM, _I am who am_. The Septuagint--<<Eg� eimi ho �n>>, _I am he who
+exists_. The Arabic paraphrases them--_The Eternal, who passes not
+away_. Not _I was_, but I AM and WILL BE: a name that expresses his
+own essence, and signifies independency, immutability, and necessary
+existence. As if he had said, You may inquire who I am, and by what
+name I would be distinguished: know then that I AM HE who has being
+from himself, and has no dependence on any other.[4] This contains in
+it the whole plenitude and possibility of being, all that is, or can
+be, or, as the Apostle expresses it, <<pan to pl�r�ma t�s Theot�tos>>
+"all the fulness of the Godhead." By this name he is distinguished
+not only from all false gods, but from all other beings whatsoever;
+implying, that he exists after some very eminent and peculiar manner,
+and that nothing else besides him truly and essentially is.[5]
+
+The self-existence of God proves that he always was, and evidently
+shows that he cannot cease to be. "He is, and was, and is to come." His
+necessary existence comprehends a duration which has neither beginning,
+succession, nor end. He can have no succession in his duration, because
+wherever this is there must be priority, and wherever there is a
+priority there must be a beginning. He is in the complete possession
+of an endless life, all at once. He exists in one eternal _now_. He
+is unchangeable in his essence or manner of existence, so that no
+perfection can be added to him, nor any excellency taken from him, but
+he remains invariably the same.
+
+All natural perfections are essential to him as an infinite being, such
+as eternity, omnipotence, immensity, omniscience, spirituality, and
+immutability; and all moral perfections belong to him as a good Being,
+such as wisdom, holiness, justice, goodness, truth, faithfulness.
+These latter are communicable, because there are some rays of them
+in his creatures, but none of them in that transcendent degree that
+are in him, nor ever can be. The former we call his _natural_ and
+_incommunicable_ perfections, for the sake of distinction; though it is
+certain the latter are equally as natural to him, and incommunicable,
+in that infinite degree possessed by himself.
+
+God being unchangeable in his essence, must also be so in all his
+perfections, because they are no other than his essence, and are not
+distinguished in him, either from his essence, or from one another;
+but are one and the same Being, revealed and manifested to us, under
+various notions, which we call _attributes_, to help us the better to
+conceive of him, who are not able to apprehend what may be known of
+him, under any one name, or by any one act of our understanding.
+
+The combination of all his perfections renders him a glorious Being;
+and that fixed and invariable state of contentment and satisfaction,
+complacency and delight, which result from the secure possession and
+enjoyment of all that is good and desirable, or, in other words, of
+all possible excellencies and perfections in the highest degree,
+constitutes him infinitely blessed.
+
+Moses was favored with another remarkable and interesting manifestation
+of the Divine Being; for perceiving God's merciful condescension in
+answer to his prayers offered up for his people, he persevered in the
+holy exercise, and even asked him for a manifestation of his glory:
+"Show me," said he, "I beseech thee, thy glory," or, according to the
+original, "make me see it." He could not mean an open view of the
+unclouded majesty of God, but only such a display of the Divine glory
+as a mortal is capable of beholding. God answered, "I will make all
+my _goodness_ to pass before thee:" intimating, that his _goodness_
+is his glory, and that he could not bear the infinite splendor of his
+holiness and justice. _Goodness_ is the true and genuine character of
+God, and the glory of all his other perfections, and by it they are
+all rendered engaging. Without this they would be terrible: for wisdom
+without goodness degenerates into insidious cunning; and power without
+it is the character of a tyrant. Were God destitute of this amiable
+perfection, he would have such a defect in his nature, as infinite
+perfection itself, in every other attribute, could not sufficiently
+compensate.
+
+All nations have acknowledged this perfection of the Divine Being.
+Plato calls him the <<idea tou agathou>>, the idea or essence of
+goodness. In the three principles of the Platonic Trinity--<<to
+agathon>> _goodness_, <<nous>> _intelligence_, and <<psych�>>
+_vitality_.--The first place is assigned to the <<to agathon>>
+_goodness_, which the Platonists conceive to be like an immense
+and most pure light, continually diffusing and communicating its
+invigorating beams. To this the Platonist Boctius alludes, in that
+celebrated description of God, where he calls him _Fons Boni Lucidus_,
+the lucid fountain of goodness.--There is an ancient cabalistical
+table, supposed to be borrowed from the Pythagoreans, which
+represents, in a visible scheme, the order of the Divine perfections:
+wherein it is observable that _goodness_ presides over, and gives laws
+and measures to all the other attributes of God.
+
+Philo says, God is the name of _goodness_; and our English word, adds
+a late author, seems to be a contraction of the word _good_; or,
+however, is the same with the German _Got_, or _Godt_, which came, as
+is thought, from the Arabic word _Gada_, of the same signification. So
+that the German and the English name of the Supreme Being, in common
+use, is taken from the attribute of his _goodness_. "The word itself
+is pure Anglo-saxon," says Dr. Adam Clarke, "and, among our ancestors,
+signified not only the Divine Being, now commonly designated by the
+word, but also _good_; as in their apprehension it appears, that _God_
+and _Good_ were correlative terms; and when they thought or spoke of
+him, they were ever led from the word itself to consider him as THE
+GOOD BEING a fountain of infinite benevolence and beneficence towards
+his creatures." The word GOD, expressed in the old Saxon, is _bona
+res_, a good thing.
+
+That God is _good_, is the constant language of Divine revelation;
+for this attribute is every where celebrated, both in the Old and
+New Testament. It may be distinguished as _natural_, _moral_, and
+_communicative_. The first of these is the absolute perfection of his
+nature, which is goodness itself in its very essence. He is originally
+good, and that of himself; which is a property peculiar to no other
+creature, for all the goodness of the creature is derived from God. He
+is infinitely and therefore incomprehensively good to men and angels;
+hence his goodness knows no limits. We read of the "riches of his
+goodness," which are as "unsearchable," as is his "greatness." He is
+immutably good, for "the goodness of God endureth continually." And as
+his dependence on no one admits not of his being changed by others,
+so neither does his immutability admit of it by himself; for if he
+alter for the better he was not God before, and if for the worse, he
+then would not be God. Thus he is essentially, originally, infinitely,
+incomprehensibly, and unchangeably good.
+
+The _moral_ goodness of God is his perfect purity or holiness;
+therefore his goodness and holiness are united--"good and upright is
+the Lord." According to any rational opinion we can form of him, he
+is a Being possessed, not only of every natural power and perfection,
+but of every moral excellence. The holiness of his nature removes
+him to the greatest possible distance from all moral evil, and makes
+him necessarily approve of moral good. All his designs are pure and
+upright, and worthy of himself: he always acts according to the perfect
+rectitude of his own nature. Though he is not under the direction of
+any superior, yet his own rectitude always determines him to pursue
+what is right to be done towards his creatures. This property of
+the Divine Being greatly heightens our idea of his excellence, and
+naturally points him out as the Governor of mankind. And as he adheres
+to it in his own conduct and administration, and likewise approves and
+loves it in his rational creatures, whom he governs; so he disapproves
+and hates the reverse in them, and will most certainly animadvert
+upon the temper and behavior of those who act contrary to his divine
+admonitions, and make them most sensibly feel the effects of their
+wickedness.
+
+The _communicative_, or relative goodness of God, or his goodness to
+his creatures, is his inclination or self-propension to deal well and
+bountifully with them. As the notion of God includes goodness, so
+the idea of goodness implies holy diffusiveness. Therefore, says the
+Psalmist, "Thou art good, and doest good." All that we are, have, or
+hope for, that is good, proceeds from God as its fountain; hence he is
+called, "the fountain of living waters." This communicative goodness
+implies, that, from his all-sufficiency, he is ready to impart to
+his creatures whatever their necessities require. This attribute is
+universal: "he is good to all" his creatures from the highest angel
+to the meanest reptile; especially, to his people, "Truly," says the
+Psalmist, "God is good to Israel, even to such as are of a clean
+heart." But, though God is good to all his creatures, yet he is not
+equally so in the same kind and degree of blessings. His munificence is
+regulated by his wisdom, and the different capacities with which he has
+formed his creatures makes this inequality necessary.
+
+    [There is one vast and awful question which must occur to
+    every reflecting mind--_What is God?_
+
+    As it regards his _Nature_, the Scriptures say, He is a
+    _Spirit_. We must therefore, conceive the Creator to be, a
+    _Living_, _Rational_, _Benevolent_, and _Spiritual_ ESSENCE;
+    absolutely, necessarily, and naturally _perfect_, and,
+    therefore, _immaterial_, _uncompounded_, _indivisible_, and
+    _eternal_.
+
+    It is necessarily understood that this essence is
+    _peculiar_: that there is nothing in its nature which has
+    any resemblance to _created_ substances, whether material
+    or spiritual; and that it is _underived_, and consequently,
+    _independent_.
+
+    This Divine Essence being immaterial, impalpable, simple
+    and indivisible, cannot have _body_ or _parts_: nor can it be
+    said to be a _whole_, for this would imply an _aggregation_ of
+    parts: but is itself a perfect, absolute, single, and eternal
+    INDIVIDUALITY, incapable of self-multiplication, or increase;
+    or of diminishing itself, or endangering its existence.
+
+    This essence is a _living_ essence; and, therefore, has
+    inherently the power and principles of _action_: It is a
+    _rational_ essence, and therefore, must act according to
+    the eternal principles of _reason_ and _right_: It is a
+    _benevolent_ essence, and therefore, all its actions must
+    be infinitely _good_ and _kind_. Absolute _perfection_,
+    _infinitude_, and _sovereignty_ in all these respects,
+    constitute the Being we call God.
+
+    As God is a single, indivisible, independent, and eternal
+    UNIT, we cannot ascribe _different_ perfections, or attributes
+    to him, so as to suppose one attribute _separate from, and
+    independent of_ another, capable of acting _per se_, or
+    participating _conjunctively_ with other attributes _as an
+    integer_. Nor can we suppose this eternal, and independent Unit
+    to act by being _operated upon_ in any degree, by other agents,
+    nor can he operate on himself. All his actions, therefore,
+    spring from himself, and are performed _without excitement,
+    effort, means, or previous ratiocination_.
+
+    It will follow from the preceding reasoning, that every
+    action of the Divine Being, in regard to himself, is precisely
+    the same in _nature_: so that we cannot say of one act it is
+    an effort of his _power_ to the _exclusion_ of his wisdom: nor
+    of his wisdom to the exclusion of his goodness: nor of his
+    goodness to the exclusion of his holiness: and so of the rest.
+    Strictly speaking we cannot say the power _of_ God; the wisdom
+    _of_ God; the goodness _of_ God, &c.; because the power of God
+    _is_ God; the wisdom of God _is_ God; the goodness of God _is_
+    God.
+
+    In contemplating this awful subject _abstractly_, we should
+    say there are no such things as _attributes_ in the Divine
+    Being, _as they are commonly understood_. What we call his
+    attributes, are only different modes of the operations of the
+    same eternal, undivided, and independent Unit. Indeed, God is
+    one entire perfection which exerts itself in different ways and
+    actions.
+
+    But as we cannot comprehend this single entire perfection;
+    nor understand _how_ it exerts the whole of itself, as a single
+    indivisible agent, _in each particular act_, as it really
+    does, mankind have always been in the habit of assisting their
+    contemplations by regarding the _nature_ of the acts of this
+    single, indivisible, and eternal agent, and thus _infering_
+    the nature of the Divine Being. And as these acts appear
+    to differ in _quality_, we infer a quality in the agent,
+    corresponding with the quality of the actions which we see: we
+    call this quality by a _name_, and _thus derive the doctrine of
+    attributes_.
+
+    For example: When we see this single, indivisible agent
+    manifesting himself in such a manner as to give us the idea
+    of _unlimited power_, we ascribe _omnipotence_ to him, as an
+    attribute. When we see a manifestation indicating _infinite
+    wisdom_, we ascribe _omniscience_ to him as an attribute.
+    In the same manner in reference to the manifestations
+    which indicate justice, goodness, mercy, truth, holiness,
+    faithfulness, righteousness, kindness, &c, all of which we
+    ascribe to him upon such indications.
+
+    Although _this rationale_, in contemplating the Divine
+    Being, is necessary to _creatures_, yet it is calculated to
+    lead the mind into error. We am insensibly inclined to ascribe
+    the divine actions to those attributes _exclusively_ which
+    we suppose they indicate. This, probably, has been the most
+    fatal error of mankind, and, doubtless, laid the foundation
+    of darkness and idolatry. We must never conceive that any act
+    of the Divine Being proceeds from _one_ or more attributes to
+    the _exclusion_ of others; or that one attribute participates
+    _more_ in one act than another. This is the fatal mistake.
+    Hence theologians have become blind and foolish, bewildering
+    the multitude by building up theories on the consideration of
+    a single attribute; thus making the Divine Being to consist
+    of parts, and these parts independent too. Instances of this
+    awful mistake might be given, but it scarcely comes within the
+    design of this paper. It is sufficient to say; if we conceive
+    correctly of the divine acts, _we will ascribe each equally to
+    all the Divine Attributes_.
+
+    As we conceive this single, indivisible, underived,
+    independent, and eternal agent, or perfection to be absolutely
+    infinite, and illimitable in all possible ways, or manner, of
+    exerting Himself, we, of course, conceive all the qualities,
+    indicated by the divine acts, which we call attributes, to be
+    absolutely infinite, perfect, and eternal: and thus we derive
+    the doctrine of the absolute perfection, and infinitude of all,
+    and each of the Divine Attributes.
+
+    From the foregoing reflections, the reader will readily
+    conceive of the Divine Being, as a Living, Rational,
+    Benevolent, and Spiritual Essence, existing as a single,
+    underived, independent, Unit: a Unit, not in reality consisting
+    of attributes, or perfections, but itself one single, entire
+    perfection: exerting itself not by attributes, but as an
+    individual Unit or Agent, in such a manner that each action
+    is the action of the Divine Being, and not of one or more of
+    his attributes: that the existence of this single, underived,
+    independent, and eternal Agent, was, and is _necessary_, and,
+    therefore, he could not but have existed, and cannot cease to
+    be; that He is absolute, and infinite in all possible ways and
+    manner of acting, and consequently we conceive Him possessed of
+    all possible perfections in an infinite degree.]
+
+By the assistance of Divine revelation we are enabled further to pursue
+our inquiries concerning this very important subject; and without
+which, we should be involved in great darkness and uncertainty, not
+only respecting his moral perfections, but the _mode_ of his existence.
+And this must be a matter of superior interest to mankind, or our
+adorable Creator would not have communicated it, which he evidently
+has done through the medium of the Scriptures, written by Divine
+inspiration.
+
+Moses, having received by Divine revelation instruction concerning the
+origin and formation of the world, conducts us at once to its great
+and adorable Architect. "In the beginning GOD created the heavens
+and the earth." Here he adopts a phraseology to express the supreme
+Being, which is generally used in the Old Testament for the same
+purpose, and is very important and necessary to be understood, as it
+gives us information after what _manner_ he exists. 'The original
+word **'lhym** _Elohim_, God,' says a great linguist, 'is certainly
+the plural form of **'l** _el_, or **'lh** _eloah_, and has long
+been supposed, by the most eminently learned and pious men, to imply
+a _plurality_ of persons in the divine nature.' As this plurality
+appears in so many parts of the sacred writings to be confined to
+_three_ Persons, namely, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit,
+hence the doctrine of the TRINITY.
+
+It is very remarkable that we no sooner open the Bible, than this
+doctrine is presented to our view. The laws and ordinances established
+among the Jews were designed to guard that people from idolatry, which
+in Abraham's time had become very general. On the recollection of this
+circumstance it appears extraordinary that Moses, when he is describing
+the creation of the world, should, in order to express his conceptions
+of the Divine Being, introduce a term which implies _plurality_; and,
+frequently connecting it with verbs and persons singular, should use
+that term _thirty_ times in the short account of the creation, when the
+language afforded other words in the singular number that would have
+answered his purpose equally well; nay, if he did not wish to express
+a _plurality_, that grammatical accuracy should have led him to adopt.
+When he made use of a plural noun for the name of God, which he has
+done, perhaps, _five hundred_ times more in one form or other in the
+five books of his writings, this _plurality_, I apprehend, was the idea
+he meant to convey to mankind. He, or rather the HOLY SPIRIT, by whom
+he was inspired to write his history, meant to give some hints and
+intimations of a doctrine more clearly to be revealed in future ages.[6]
+
+The ancient Jews understood _Elohim_ as conveying the idea of a
+plurality in the Godhead. "Come," says one of them, "and see the
+mystery of the word _Elohim_: there are _three degrees_, and each
+degree by itself _alone_, and yet notwithstanding they are all _one_,
+and joined together in one, and are not _divided_ from each other."[7]
+
+R. Bechai, a celebrated author among the Jews, discoursing of the
+word _Elohim_, and of the import and signification of it, adds these
+words:--"According to the cabalistical way, this name _Elohim_ is two
+words, namely, _El him_, that is, _they are God_. But the explanation
+of the Yod is to be fetched from Eccles. xii, 1, _Remember thy_
+CREATORS. He that is prudent will understand it." These words do
+sufficiently prove the Cabala among the Jews, says Bishop Kidder, that
+though the Divine Nature was but _one_, yet there was some kind of
+_plurality_ in this Divine Nature; and this is fairly insinuated in the
+_Bara Elohim_, which we find in the beginning of Genesis.[8]
+
+John Xeres, a Jew converted in England some years ago, published a
+sensible and affectionate address to his unbelieving brethren, wherein
+he says, that "the word _Elohim_, which we render GOD in Gen. i, 1, is
+of the plural number, though annexed to a verb of the singular number;
+which," says he, "demonstrates as evidently as may be, that there are
+several persons partaking of the same Divine nature and essence."[9]
+
+It is clear too, how sensible the Jews have been that there is a
+notion of _plurality_ plainly imported in the Hebrew text, since they
+have forbidden their common people the reading of the history of the
+creation, lest, understanding it literally, they should be led unto
+heresy.[10] When the Scriptures are suppressed, or the common people
+denied the use of them, it may with propriety be presumed that their
+superiors, who act in an arbitrary and unjust manner, have embraced
+anti-scriptural notions, and, in order to prevent detection, lay
+aside the only infallible _test_ of truth; and, to conceal their base
+motives, and make their deleterious conduct appear not only plausible,
+but necessary and proper, they boldly assert the incompetency of
+the people to judge of scripture doctrines for themselves, and wish
+to be considered compassionate and friendly in judging and deciding
+for them. The fact is, the common people are denied the use of the
+Scripture, lest understanding it in a certain sense, which their
+superiors call heresy, it should lead them into the understanding of
+plain and unequivocal facts stated therein, and which are of the utmost
+importance for them to know.
+
+It may be observed here likewise, that the Hebrew doctors always
+supposed the first verse of Genesis to contain some latent mystery. The
+Rabbi Ibba indeed expressly says it does, and adds, "This mystery is
+not to be revealed, till the coming of the Messiah."
+
+Mr. Parkhurst, who has greatly distinguished himself in Hebrew
+literature, and to whose pious and learned labors most Biblical
+students are indebted, says, "Let those who have any doubt whether
+**'lhym** _Elohim_, when meaning the true God, Jehovah, be _plural_
+or not, consult the following passages, where they will find it
+joined with adjectives, pronouns, and verbs _plural_:" he refers to
+twenty-five texts in the Old Testament on this occasion.[11]
+
+If Moses and the Jews held the doctrine of the Trinity, and the word
+_Elohim_ imports _plurality_, it is natural to ask, How comes it to
+pass that the Septuagint version renders the plural name Elohim,
+when used for the true God, by the singular one <<Theos>>, and
+never by the plural <<Theoi>>? The learned Ridley,[12] after Allix,
+has answered this question. He says, "The Talmudists own that the
+LXXII Interpreters did purposely change the notion of _plurality_
+implied in the Hebrew _Elohim_ into the Greek singular, lest Ptolemy
+Philadelphus should conclude that the Jews, as well as himself, had a
+belief of Polytheism." And Bishop Huntingford adds, "Of all the Greek
+appellations of Divinity, <<Theos>> was the only simple and direct
+term which they could adopt, to counteract idolatrous misconceptions."
+
+This phraseology, as to its signification, is not peculiar to Moses,
+but is used by the other sacred writers also, and exactly accords
+with the whole tenor of Divine revelation. The creation of the world
+is ascribed to the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, as joint,
+concurring, equal, and efficient causes thereof, in the Scriptures. It
+will not surely be presuming too much, says Bishop Huntingford, if we
+suppose Joshua and Solomon to be more deeply instructed in the Jewish
+Religion, than to be capable of using improper language respecting the
+Deity. Yet the former says, "Ye cannot serve the Lord: for he is the
+Holy Gods;" and the latter says, "The fear of Jehovah is the beginning
+of wisdom; and the knowledge of the Holies is understanding."[13]
+Such is the phraseology of the Hebrew text. In these passages, and
+others that might be produced, the word in the Hebrew is in the plural
+number, because of the _plurality_ of persons in the Godhead; but in
+our translation it is in the _singular_ number, because of the unity of
+their essence.
+
+But more particularly. The creation of the world is ascribed to
+JEHOVAH: "I have made the earth, and created man upon it: I, even
+my hands, have stretched out the heavens, and all their host have
+I commanded. I am the Lord that maketh all things, that stretcheth
+forth the heavens alone, that spreadeth abroad the earth by myself."
+He had no _moving causes_ exciting him to create matter and produce a
+universe, but his own will, goodness, wisdom, and power. He created
+all things himself, without the assistance of _any instruments_. The
+prophet ascribes to God alone the framing and stretching out of the
+heavens and the earth without the counsel, direction, or ministry of
+any subordinate agency. "Who hath measured the waters in the hollow
+of his hand, and meted out heaven with a span, and comprehended the
+dust of the earth in a measure, and weighed the mountains in scales,
+and the hills in a balance? With whom took he counsel, and who
+instructed him, and taught him in the path of judgment, and taught him
+knowledge, and showed to him the way of understanding?" He created
+all things without any _toil_, _labor_, _change_, or _alteration_ in
+himself. There was not in him any transition from rest to labor, from
+idleness to business, from strength to weariness. Though "every good
+and perfect gift is from above, and cometh down from the Father of
+lights," yet "with him there is no variableness, neither shadow of
+turning." The Prophet says, "Hast thou not known? hast thou not heard,
+that the everlasting God, the Lord, the Creator of the ends of the
+earth, fainteth not, neither is weary?" And he proceeded in the work
+of creation without _any delay_: it was not a successive forming of
+things by alteration, which required much time to render them perfect,
+but was as in a moment, as quickly and readily as a word is spoken,
+produced in the rapid succession as recorded by Moses. This work then
+God is said to have done _alone_, to the exclusion, not of the Son and
+the Spirit, but of all that are not God by nature; and by himself, to
+the exclusion of all second causes or inferior agents.
+
+It is ascribed also to the SON of God. The evangelist John asserts
+in very express terms the Divinity of Jesus Christ, of the truth
+of which he designed his whole Gospel should be a proof. "In the
+beginning was the <<Logos>> Word." By the <<en arch�>> _beginning_,
+here, we are to understand the beginning of the creation, not the
+beginning of the gospel state, as the Socinians say. We have the
+authority of Grotius, that <<en arch�>> is taken from **br'shyth**
+_Bereshith_, Gen. i, 1, translated by the Septuagint <<en arch�>>,
+and consequently must signify, from _the beginning of the creation
+of God_. It is not said, that _he_ was _made_ in the beginning, but
+that he _was_ in the beginning, did exist when the world began, which
+is of the same import as if he said, he was from eternity; for he
+that did exist in the beginning, never did himself begin to be. The
+personal Wisdom of God says, "The Lord possessed me in the beginning
+of his way, before his works of old."--"And the Logos," or "Word,
+was with God." He could be with no creature, because there was no
+creature in being; and therefore it is very properly said, that he
+"was with God," the Father; and his being with him shows, that he is
+a distinct person or subsistence from the Father.--"And the Logos,"
+or "Word was God." Though he is a person distinct from that of the
+Father, yet he is of the very same essence with him. He that was
+with God, was God; and if he was God in the beginning, that is from
+eternity, he is the same still, he cannot cease to be what he was.
+Here then the evangelist asserts the eternal existence of Christ, his
+personal co-existence with the Father, and that he is of the very
+same undivided nature and essence with him. Though he is a person
+distinct from the Father, yet he is of the same substance, equal
+with him in all divine perfections; not a _secondary_ God, inferior
+to the Father, as the Arians assert. "All things were made by him."
+All things, from the highest angel to the meanest worm, were made by
+him, not as a subordinate instrument, but as a co-ordinate agent, as
+a joint efficient cause, co-operating with the Father in this work.
+'To say that Christ made all things by a delegated power from God, is
+_absurd_; because the thing is impossible. Creation means, causing
+that to exist that had no previous being: this is evidently a work
+which can be effected only by _omnipotence_. Now God cannot delegate
+his _omnipotence_ to another: were this possible, he _to_ whom this
+omnipotence was delegated, would, in consequence, become God; and
+he _from_ whom it was delegated, would _cease to be such_: for it
+is impossible that there should be _two_ omnipotent beings.' "And
+without him was not any thing made that was made." This is added for
+the more certainty, it being usual with the Hebrews, when they would
+affirm that a thing is so indeed, to confirm by a particular negative
+what they had before affirmed. Our Lord said to the Jews, "My Father
+worketh hitherto, and I work." The phrase <<h�s arti>> signifies "to
+this time," "to the present," that is, in all works whatever. Hence
+he is no creature, or he must have created himself; and if he created
+himself, he must have been in existence and not in existence at the
+very same time, which is both contradictory and absurd. And if every
+work performed by the Father was equally performed by the Son, the
+Son must, in all respects, be equal to the Father, in nature and
+perfections. This our Lord's words signify and imply, and in this
+sense the Jews understood him--as "making himself equal with God."[14]
+"He is the image of God," the <<pr�totochos>> "FIRST PRODUCER of every
+creature: for by him were all things created, that are in heaven, and
+that are in earth, visible and invisible, whether they be thrones,
+or dominions, or principalities, or powers:" all the angels, however
+diversified in rank or employment in the heavenly world; and all
+the rational, animal, vegetable, and inanimate creatures, belonging
+to this terrestrial abode: "all things were made by him," as the
+efficient cause, "and for him," as the last end.--"God hath in these
+last days spoken unto us by his Son, whom he hath appointed heir
+of all things, by whom also he made the worlds," i.e. the heavens
+and the earth. The Father does all by the Son, and the Son does all
+from the Father. Whatsoever the Father does, that also does the Son
+likewise. "Unto the Son he saith, Thy throne, oh God, is for ever and
+ever; a sceptre of righteousness is the sceptre of thy kingdom. Thou,
+Lord, in the beginning hast laid the foundation of the earth; and the
+heavens are the works of thy hands." In these passages the _Divinity_
+of Christ is plainly asserted, and the operations of his power are
+proofs of his Godhead. He that is the Creator of all things is God:
+but Christ is the Creator of all things; therefore Christ is God. He
+calls himself "the Beginning of the creation of God," where the word
+<<arch�>> means the Creator, the efficient Cause of all things, he by
+whose power the creation had its beginning and perfection. And "he
+that built all things is God."
+
+The learned Jacob Bryant wrote a very valuable Tract entitled, _The
+sentiments of Philo Jud�us concerning the <<LOGOS>>, or Word of God_;
+from which the following are quotations. "Philo Jud�us speaks at
+large in many places of the Word of God, the second person, which he
+mentions as _the second Divinity_, the _great Cause_ of all things,
+and styles him as Plato, as well as the Jews, had done before, the
+LOGOS. Of the Divine Logos or Word he speaks in many places, and
+maintains at large the Divinity of the second Person, and describes
+his attributes in a very precise and copious manner, styling him _the
+second Deity, who is the Word of the supreme God, his first-begotten
+Son; and the image of God_. In his treatise upon _creation_, he speaks
+of the Word as _the Divine operator by whom all things were disposed_:
+and mentions him as _superior to the angels and all created beings,
+and the image and likeness of God_, and says, that _this image of
+the true God was esteemed the same as God_. _This_ LOGOS, _the_ WORD
+_of_ GOD, says he, _is superior to all the world, and more ancient;
+being the productor of all that was produced. The eternal Word of the
+everlasting God is the sure and fixed foundation upon which all things
+depend_."
+
+Creation is moreover ascribed to the HOLY SPIRIT. That the Holy Spirit
+has a _personality_ distinct from that of the Father, and also that
+of the Son, and a real and proper _Divinity_, is a doctrine of Divine
+revelation. In his personal capacity, he is not the Father, nor the
+Son. He neither is nor can be divided either from the Divine essence,
+nor from the other two persons, but yet is personally distinct from
+them. His relation to, and mission by, the Father and the Son, clearly
+evince his personal distinction. He is called the Spirit of the
+_Father_, and the Spirit of the _Son_. He is represented as _sent_ by
+the Father, and also as _sent_ by the Son. These things show that he is
+a Divine person, and has a distinct personality. The Holy Spirit is the
+last in the order of subsistence: the Father is the first, the Son is
+the second, and the Holy Spirit is the third. Yet we should know, that
+the Father is not before the Son, nor the Son before the Holy Spirit,
+by a priority of time, nor of dignity and perfections; for the three
+persons in the Divine essence are _co-eternal_.
+
+The Holy Spirit was equally concerned with the Father and the Son in
+the work of Creation. "By the Word of the Lord were the heavens made,
+and all the host of them by the breath (Heb. Spirit) of his mouth." The
+_breath_ or spirit of the Lord's _mouth_, says an excellent author,
+does undoubtedly mean the third person of the Trinity; who is called,
+"The Spirit of God, and the Breath of the Almighty."--"They lift up
+their voice to God with one accord, and said, LORD, thou art GOD, which
+hast made heaven and earth, and the sea, and all that therein is. WHO,
+by the mouth of thy servant David, hast said," &c. The terms LORD and
+GOD are here used to express the Divinity of _him_, says the same able
+writer, who spake _by the mouth_ of his servant David. But it was the
+HOLY GHOST who _spake by the mouth_ of his servant David--for, saith
+St. Peter, "This Scripture must needs have been fulfilled, which the
+HOLY GHOST," by the mouth of David, "spake," &c. Therefore the terms
+LORD and GOD are certainly used to _express the Divinity of the_ HOLY
+GHOST.[15] In the work of creation, the "SPIRIT of GOD moved upon the
+face of the waters," by an infinite vitality infusing life, and with
+a formative energy giving form. "By his SPIRIT he hath garnished the
+heavens" with an incalculable number of luminous stars; all those
+glittering worlds, which serve for use as well as beauty, were formed
+by the Spirit of God.
+
+As none but the _third_ Person in the Godhead is ever so much as once
+in the Scriptures called the _Spirit of God_; so the Holy Spirit's
+agency in the work of creation evinces his distinct personality, and
+is a confirmation of his proper Divinity. A cause must be equal to the
+effect it produces: but no finite spirit could be a joint, concurring,
+efficient cause in the work of the creation: therefore the Holy Spirit
+is God. Supposing the matter of which the worlds were made to be called
+into being out of nothing by the Almighty power of the Father, or by
+the fiat of the Son; yet the animating of the whole lifeless mass, the
+putting of every part into motion, the assortment of all the particles,
+the assigning of them their proper places, and the completing of the
+whole with such astonishing beauty and harmony, which was the peculiar
+work of the Holy Spirit, required no less than an almighty power, which
+clearly demonstrates that he is God.
+
+Thus we see that the creation of the world is ascribed to one God, the
+Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. The Son and the Holy Spirit were
+joint Creators, of equal power, and equal efficiency with the Father.
+There is no where to be found in the Scriptures the least hint of
+different degrees of creating energy, nor of sole efficiency in one of
+the Persons in the Godhead, and a bare instrumental compliance in the
+other. The creation was the common effect of their joint acting: nor
+is it ever said, nor so much as hinted or implied, that the distinct
+Persons in the Godhead had different provinces, nor that one creature
+was made by one, and another creature was the workmanship of another.
+The Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, are never represented as acting
+separately, but always in conjunction.
+
+The sacred historian assures us, that, at the commencement of time,
+**'lhym** _Elohim_, the triune God, caused matter to exist, which,
+previous to this astonishing display of his creating energy, had
+no being. Moses, as an inspired author, is the only one who could
+instruct us in the formation and unfolding of the world. He is not an
+Epicurus, who has recourse to atoms; a Lucretius, who believes matter
+to be eternal; a Spinoza, who admits a material God; a Descartes, who
+prates about the laws of motion; but a legislator, who announces to
+all men without hesitation, without fear of being mistaken, how the
+world was created. Nothing can be more simple, nor more sublime than
+his opening: "In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth."
+He could not have spoken more assuredly, if he had been a spectator;
+and by these words, mythology, systems, and absurdities, shrink to
+nought, and are mere chimeras in the eyes of reason.[16]
+
+Had Moses been a fictitious writer, how natural and how easy would it
+have been for him to have filled up the first part of his history with
+marvellous relations about the creation? With what pomp of language,
+with what waste of rhetoric, could he probably have embellished that
+surprising scene? With what a grand _apparatus_ of celestial machinery
+might he have made the omnipotent Architect come forth to build a
+universe? How many sub-agents and subalterns would a fabulous poet
+or historian have employed in this stupendous and multifarious work?
+With what solemnity would every part have been gone about, and with
+how many episodes, digressions, and reflections, would the story have
+been filled, in order to give it an air of the marvellous? But read
+the beginning of Genesis, and observe how differently Moses writes. No
+scope is given to fancy or invention. All is narrated with an ease,
+plainness, and simplicity, which evidently shows that he kept close
+to truth, and laid down the facts just as they were presented to his
+mind; a manner of writing rarely, if at all, to be found in any other
+historians, but such as had the honor of being the _amanuensis_ of the
+SPIRIT of truth.[17]
+
+The description which Moses furnishes concerning the creation, as
+relating to circumstances previous to the existence of mankind, could
+be derived only from immediate revelation. It was received by the
+Jews with full conviction of its truth, on the authority of that
+_inspiration_ under which Moses was known to act.[18] And when the
+creation of the world began, by the lapse of time, to be removed to
+a remote distance, God was pleased thus to provide a contemporary
+historian, and appoint a whole nation to be the guardians of his
+history; as well that this register might be the most authentic, as
+that all mankind might hence be instructed in the knowledge of a fact,
+which was so necessary for them to know, and yet so impossible to be
+otherwise ascertained.[19]
+
+It may be proper to notice, that some futile objections have been made
+to the period which is assigned by Moses to the creation, as though it
+were too recent to be reconciled with reason and philosophical inquiry.
+How long matter remained in a quiescent state after its creation, we
+have no data to enable us to determine: but, as its resting in an
+animate state, so far as we know, could answer no valuable purpose,
+we may reasonably conjecture the time would not be long. The creation
+of the world began, according to Usher, before the Christian era 4004
+years, if we follow the Hebrew text. The Septuagint version places it
+5872, and the Samaritan 4700 before the vulgar era.--Sanchoniathon,
+the first Phenician historian, according to the most extended accounts
+of Porphyry, flourished long after Moses, probably not less than
+two hundred years. Manetho, high-priest of Heliopolis, wrote the
+Egyptian history only in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, not more
+than 300 years before Christ, and professes to have transcribed his
+Dynasties from some pillars of Hermes Trismegistus, written in the
+Hebrew dialect.--Berosus was the first noted Chaldean historian, and
+he was contemporary with Manetho.--The Chinese have not any work in
+an intelligible character above 2200 years old. One of the Chinese
+emperors, about 213 years before the Christian era, ordered all their
+historical records to be destroyed.--The Greeks could produce no dates
+beyond 550 years before Christ, and but little historical information
+prior to the Olympiads, which began 775 years before the Christian era.
+Orpheus and Museus, fabulous poets, were not so remote as Moses; for
+it is supposed they lived about 200 years after him, in the days of
+Gideon. Daries Phrygius and Dystys Cretensis, fabulous poets, wrote the
+history of the Trojan war, about 400 years after Moses. Homer wrote his
+poems after David's time, and about 550 years after Moses. Herodotus,
+called the father of history, who flourished about 450 years before
+the Christian era, was the first Grecian historian that deserves the
+name; yet he begins with fable. Thucydides rejects, as uncertain, all
+that preceded the Peloponnesian war; and Plutarch, not one of the least
+historians among the Grecians, ventured not beyond the time of Theseus,
+who lived a little before the ministry of Samuel.[20] So that all these
+poets and historians flourished long after the time of Moses, some of
+them nearly a thousand years; for he wrote about A. M. 2460. The works
+of the Jewish lawgiver are not only the most ancient, but also the most
+authentic, of all the monuments of antiquity.
+
+If the world were some thousands of years older, it must be much better
+peopled than it is at present. Population has always increased since
+the deluge, and yet there might be three times as many more inhabitants
+on the earth than it at present contains. It has been computed that at
+least 5000 millions of men might live at once on our globe: and yet it
+does not appear that there are really more than 1080 millions. In Asia
+are reckoned 650 millions; in Africa and America, 300 millions; and in
+Europe, 130 millions.
+
+If we consider the arts invented by men, we shall find that few or none
+of them have been discovered more than two or three thousand years.
+Man owes not only to his nature and reason the aptitude he has for
+acquiring arts and sciences, but he is also led to this by necessity;
+by the desire he has to procure himself conveniences and pleasures;
+by vanity and ambition; and by luxury, the child of abundance, which
+creates new wants. This propensity is evident among all men, in all
+ages. History carries us back to the time when men had scarcely
+invented the most necessary arts; when those arts which were known were
+but very imperfectly understood; and in which they scarcely knew any
+thing of the first principles of the sciences.
+
+About four thousand years ago, men were still in a state of great
+ignorance concerning most subjects; and if we calculate according to
+the progress which they made since that time, and afterwards go back
+to the remotest periods, we may with tolerable exactness fix the era
+when men knew nothing; which is, in other words, that of the infancy
+of the human race. Were their existence to be carried higher, it is
+utterly improbable that the most useful and necessary arts should
+have continued unknown to them through such a long series of ages. On
+the contrary, all that can be discovered by the human mind must have
+been known a long time ago. From this circumstance therefore we must
+conclude, that the origin of the human race can have no other era than
+that which Moses has assigned it in his history of the creation.[21]
+
+If it be asked, What! was God a _solitary_ Being? Did he exist alone,
+before this exertion of his glorious power? Formed as we are for
+society, we have no conception of any satisfaction arising from a
+state of absolute loneliness; nor can we conceive that the Deity
+should rest _inactive_ from eternity, and not exert those amazing
+powers of which the stupendous creation proves he is amply possessed?
+There are some particulars naturally deducible from questions like
+these, which we cannot solve. We have no adequate apprehension of
+eternity; we are lost in the idea. And when we attempt to contemplate
+God existing from eternity without _cause_ or as _beginning_ to exist,
+we are utterly lost in the speculation; for among all the objects that
+come within the reach of our senses, we see nothing existing that
+has not had a cause to produce it. We frequently smile at children,
+when they ask their little simple questions, as we deem them; but we
+are mere children ourselves, in this profound ocean of wonder. But
+something very observable strikes an attentive reader in the Mosaic
+account of the creation, which suggests that the Deity is not a
+solitary Being, existing in such an absolute _unity_ as to exclude
+all degree of personality or communion. For **'lhym** _Elohim_, as we
+have already observed, the very first name by which Moses calls God,
+being plural, shows that though he exists in an undivided unity of
+nature, yet in a Trinity of Persons. And this notion of a plurality,
+so far from being contrary to reason, is more agreeable to it than any
+opinion of the absolute _unity_ of the Divine nature. For conceive we
+only three Divine persons mutually to partake of the Divine essence
+or nature, to be united by the same perfect will, and to possess the
+same infinite powers and perfections; and all our apprehensions of
+the loneliness of solitary existence immediately subside; the Father,
+the Son, and the Holy Ghost, consummately happy in each other, have
+been from eternity reciprocal objects of complacence, and will remain
+such for ever. Let this argument be fairly and impartially considered,
+and the notion of a Trinity of Subsistences in a Unity of the Divine
+Nature, will appear far more consonant to reason, and liable to less
+objections, than that of mere solitary and absolute unity.[22]
+
+    [_A further consideration of the suggestion in the close of
+    the last paragraph._
+
+    Although nothing can be clearer than that the Divine
+    Essence is _one_, simple, and indivisible; _yet_ this does
+    not prevent it from subsisting in _personality_, i.e. _in a
+    plurality of persons_.
+
+    It must be carefully observed, that the plurality has
+    regard to the _persons_, not to the Essence. We cannot say
+    there is a plurality of Essences; but we can say, the Living,
+    Rational, Benevolent, and Spiritual Essence _subsists in three
+    persons_. This then is the MODUS EXISTENDI of the Divine Being.
+
+    Although we are assured this is his _mode of existence_,
+    we do not pretend to comprehend the _nature_ of it. We may,
+    without any injury to the proposition, affirm, the _nature_ of
+    the fact is incomprehensible by _created intellect_. Yet the
+    fact itself is sufficiently well attested, and is not repugnant
+    to reason, though it is above the comprehension of reason.
+
+    It is believed by many very learned, pious, and eminent
+    men, that the doctrine of a _plurality of persons in the
+    Godhead_, can be established by an argumentation founded solely
+    on the acknowledged nature of the Divine Being.
+
+    The Rev. JAMES KIDD, Prof. of Oriental Languages, Marischal
+    College and University, Aberdeen, with the approbation of many
+    learned men in England, among whom is Dr. Adam Clarke, in
+    whose house he delivered private lectures on his manuscript,
+    has published a very able and satisfactory essay on this plan,
+    of which a brief clue to the mode of argumentation is here
+    attempted.
+
+    A. _The Divine Being is a necessarily existent, and an
+    eternally, immensely, and immutably Living, Intelligent,
+    Rational, Moral, Benevolent, and Spiritual Essence._
+
+    B. _The very_ LAW _of the nature of such a being, is
+    eternal, immense, and immutable_ ACTIVITY, ENERGY, _and_
+    EFFICIENCY, _exercised eternally, immensely, and immutably_,
+    ACCORDING TO HIS OWN NATURE.
+
+    C. _That such a being_ WAS _as necessarily existent,
+    perfect, and happy,_ BEFORE _creation, and providence as since;
+    and would forever continue as necessarily existent, perfect,
+    and happy, if creation and providence should cease to be_.
+
+    These three propositions are so obviously true, every
+    reader will readily and cordially grant them. It is proposed,
+    therefore, to show, from the nature of the Divine Being, _that
+    his Essence_ MUST _subsist in a plurality of persons_.
+
+    The proposition does not contemplate an explanation of the
+    _manner_ of this subsistence; nor, at present, the _number_
+    of persons; but the simple fact, _That_ FROM THE VERY NATURE
+    OF THE DIVINE BEING, HIS ESSENCE MUST SUBSIST IN PLURAL
+    PERSONALITY.
+
+    The existence of a being, or the possession, or exercise of
+    any principle, passion or attribute, _implies personality_, or
+    individual identity, which is the same thing. The mind cannot
+    conceive of existence, passion, principle, or action, without
+    conceiving of them inhering in actually existing Essence, which
+    _must_ assume in the mind the idea of personality. Therefore,
+    _personality_ is strictly, and properly applicable to the
+    Divine Essence. But the doctrine of a _plural_ personality is
+    to be established at present.
+
+    It will be easily conceived, and readily granted, that
+    a being which exists necessarily, eternally, immensely,
+    and immutably, as a Living, Intelligent, Rational, Moral,
+    Benevolent, and Spiritual Essence, _must have exercised
+    Himself, and his perfections, necessarily, eternally,
+    immensely, and immutably_. This then is granted. But the mind
+    will readily and easily perceive, that the Divine Being could
+    not have exercised Himself THUS, _in the works of Creation
+    and Providence_. Because, it is readily admitted, there _was_
+    a time when Creation and Providence _began_: during a whole
+    eternity _beyond_ this period, there was no existence except
+    God Himself. Consequently, He _cannot_ have been exercised
+    according to his own nature and perfections, _eternally_, in
+    reference to Creation and Providence.
+
+    Again: He cannot have exercised his perfections
+    _immensely_, in reference to Creation and Providence: because,
+    however extensive we may conceive the empire of Creation and
+    Providence to be, it is not _immense_; it is actually limited,
+    and, therefore, could not admit of an _immense exercise of his
+    nature and perfections_.
+
+    It is readily granted, that the Divine Being was as
+    necessarily, and perfectly happy _before_ Creation and
+    Providence as since; and if Creation and Providence should
+    cease, his happiness would continue the same: hence, it
+    follows, necessarily, that the happiness of the Divine Being
+    was, is, and ever will be entirely _independent_ of Creation
+    and Providence.
+
+    But the happiness of any being consists, essentially,
+    _in the exercise of its powers and perfections according
+    to the law of its own nature_. And as it has been shown,
+    that the happiness of the Divine Being is eternal, immense,
+    and immutable, it follows, _He must have exercised Himself
+    eternally, immensely, and immutably_.
+
+    As it has been _granted_, That from the very nature of
+    the Divine Being, He must have been eternally, immensely,
+    and immutably active and happy, according to the law of his
+    own nature: and it has been _proven_, That He could not have
+    been eternally, immensely, and immutably active and happy, in
+    reference to Creation and Providence, it follows, necessarily,
+    that the _means_ and _principles_ of these eternal, immense,
+    and immutable activity and happiness, _must exist_ IN HIS OWN
+    CONSTITUTION, _and be exercised entirely_ WITHIN _Himself_.
+
+    This conclusion cannot be denied, granting the premises in
+    the propositions A. B. C. in reference to the Divine Being.
+    It remains to be proven, That such principles, and means
+    of eternal, immense and immutable activity and happiness
+    _cannot_ be conceived of in the constitution of the Divine
+    Being, _without conceiving his essence to subsist in plural
+    personality_.
+
+    The consideration simply of the nature and eternal activity
+    of the Divine Being would establish the idea of _plural
+    personality_ in his Essence: because the mind cannot conceive,
+    that the same single being can be both _agent_ and _object,
+    in reference to the same action_. And as it has been proven,
+    that _previous_ to the existence of Creation and Providence,
+    God existed eternally _alone_, consequently, no possible form
+    of existence but Himself, and yet he was eternally, immensely,
+    and immutably active and happy; it will follow irresistibly,
+    that _there must be a plurality in his single Essence_; and the
+    mind naturally assumes, this plurality is _personal_; as it
+    cannot conceive of activity, and happiness without conceiving
+    them to belong to person, or persons. And as action implies
+    both _agent_, and an _object_ distinct from the agent; and
+    there being no such agent, or object existing _without_ the
+    Divine Being, it must be infered, that these agent and object,
+    concerned in the eternal activity and happiness of his nature,
+    must exist _inherently, eternally, immensely, and immutably_
+    WITHIN _Himself_.
+
+    Thus we are COMPELLED to admit a plurality of persons in
+    the Divine Essence.
+
+    It will be recollected, the Divine Being has not only
+    exercised Himself eternally, but also _immensely_, according
+    to the law of his own nature and perfections: i.e. He has
+    necessarily, and eternally exercised Himself to the extent of
+    his nature and perfections. This will be readily admitted when
+    we reflect, that unless we admit the exercise of the nature
+    and perfections of God _to their full extent_, we must admit
+    a _redundancy_ in the Divine Nature, and perfections, which
+    would be manifestly absurd, as it would _imply imperfection_.
+    For it would imply (if we may dare say so) that there is an
+    _efficiency_, or _ability_ in the Divine Being, which He
+    has never exercised to its full extent; and in proportion
+    to the _deficiency_ in the exercise, we must conclude this
+    _efficiency_ or ability is _useless_, which would be repugnant
+    to the true idea of the Divine Being.
+
+    It is therefore, _proven_, That the Divine Being
+    necessarily exercised Himself _immensely_, because his nature,
+    and perfections are immense. But it will be readily perceived,
+    this could not be done in the works of Creation and Providence:
+    because, however vast they may be, they are not _immense_:
+    and, therefore, could not admit of the immense exercise of his
+    nature and perfections to their full extent: from which it
+    must follow, inevitably, _That the immense exercise of his own
+    nature and perfections must be_ WITHIN _Himself_.
+
+    As it has already been proven above, that this internal
+    exercise in the Divine Essence necessarily implies _plurality_
+    in the Godhead; so now also, is it proven, that the admission
+    of such plurality is the only view competent to show _HOW_
+    the Divine Being could have exercised his own nature and
+    perfections _immensely_, as the attribute of immensity
+    appertains to God only.
+
+    As it is granted, that the Divine Being was necessarily as
+    happy _before_ Creation and Providence as since, and would
+    continue so, should Creation and Providence cease; of course
+    his happiness consists in the exercise of his own nature and
+    perfections according to their own law. But, in order that the
+    Divine Being should be eternally, immensely, and immutably
+    happy, the WHOLE of the Divine Nature and perfections must
+    be exercised eternally, immensely, and immutably. But if we
+    divest the Divine Essence of its plural personality, we cannot
+    conceive that some of the divine perfections can be exercised
+    at all. For example: the divine goodness, love, wisdom,
+    intelligence, and all his _moral_ perfections. We surely cannot
+    say, He manifests his goodness to Himself; or exercises his
+    love towards Himself; or employs his wisdom in understanding
+    Himself; all of which ideas are obviously absurd. But so
+    soon as we admit the idea of a plural personality, or the
+    subsistence of the Divine Essence in a plurality of persons,
+    we can conceive the moral perfections exercised in Himself,
+    between the persons of the Godhead. This is the only ground on
+    which we can conceive of his eternal, immense, and immutable
+    happiness. For we can readily conceive of the distinct persons
+    in the Divine Essence, _communicating mutually_ to each other
+    the _whole_ of the divine moral perfections; and thus conceive
+    of the perfect and independent happiness of God.
+
+    The only remaining view of this subject would be this:
+    the activity, energy, and influence of the Divine Being can
+    only regard Creation and Providence. But as there was a _past
+    eternity before_ Creation and Providence began, in which the
+    Divine Being existed, He must be considered as having been
+    _inactive_, _solitary_, and _unconscious_; (because there
+    cannot be consciousness where there is not action,) the whole
+    and every part of which view is derogatory to the acknowledged
+    character of God. How much more reasonable is it to conceive
+    the Divine Essence to subsist in a plurality of persons, and
+    thus to conceive, _consistently_, of the eternal, immense, and
+    immutable activity and happiness of the Divine Being?
+
+    _Thus we see, that what the Scriptures declare concerning
+    the plurality of persons in the Divine Essence_, CANNOT BE
+    OTHERWISE, AS IS DEMONSTRATED ABOVE, FROM THE NECESSARY NATURE
+    OF THE GLORIOUS DIVINITY.
+
+    The demonstration might be extended to each of the divine
+    perfections, and the same result would be obtained. The above
+    remarks are a mere clue to the argument which is possible, and
+    satisfactory; founded on the necessary nature of Jehovah.
+
+    The key to the whole demonstration is this:
+
+    1. The Divine Being, from his very and necessary nature,
+    must be eternally, immensely, and immutably active.
+
+    2. He must be eternally, immensely, and immutably happy.
+
+    3. In order to be eternally, immensely, and immutably
+    active and happy, He must be exercised to the whole extent of
+    his nature and perfections, eternally, immensely, and immutably.
+
+    4. That such an exercise of his nature and perfections, in
+    an eternal, immense, and immutable manner, cannot be, in regard
+    to Creation and Providence; because, Creation and Providence
+    are not eternal, immense, and immutable.
+
+    5. As there was not any thing _before_ Creation and
+    Providence, but God Himself, it must follow, necessarily, that
+    the eternal, immense, and immutable activity and happiness of
+    the Divine Being were WITHIN _Himself entirely_.
+
+    6. As it is impossible for the human intellect to conceive,
+    that a being can be both _agent_ and _object, in the same
+    action_, and the activity of the Divine Being has been shown to
+    have been within Himself entirely; it follows, THAT THE DIVINE
+    ESSENCE MUST HAVE SUBSISTED ETERNALLY, IMMENSELY, AND IMMUTABLY
+    IN A PLURALITY.
+
+    7. And as the mind is _forced_ to admit a _plurality_ in
+    the Divine Essence, it naturally, and necessarily assumes
+    PERSONS for this plurality; and thus concludes, _There must
+    be a plurality of persons in the Godhead as the Scriptures
+    declare._
+
+    From the foregoing elements of the argument, it will be
+    very easy to observe, if a _plurality_ must be admitted, there
+    is no objection in the mind to admit it is _triple_; and
+    hence, as the substance of the Divine Essence has been shown
+    to exist necessarily in a plurality, the mind conceives a
+    _triple plurality_, as easy as any other, and thus conceives
+    the reasonableness of the doctrine of the _Trinity in Unity_.
+
+    The most successful argument against this conclusion is
+    this: _It is impossible to conceive how three can be one_.
+    This is admitted, _when the objects designated by_ "three"
+    _are the same as the object designated by_ "one." But this is
+    not the case in the doctrine of the Trinity in Unity. The term
+    _Trinity_ applies to the _persons_ in which the Divine Essence
+    subsists, and _not_ to the essence itself. So the term _Unity_
+    applies to the _Essence only_, and _not_ to the persons. This
+    simple distinction removes the whole force of the objection.
+
+    The Unitarians, therefore, do us wrong when they say, _we
+    believe three are one_. And Trinitarians do themselves wrong
+    when they say, _to the three one God_: because, it is not true
+    that there is a "three one God." But it is a glorious truth,
+    THAT THE DIVINE ESSENCE SUBSISTS IN THREE PERSONS, ETERNALLY,
+    IMMENSELY, AND IMMUTABLY.
+
+    It is very natural to suppose, that God imparted a
+    knowledge of Himself to our first parents in Paradise. The
+    Scriptures clearly support this supposition. This knowledge
+    would, of course, include the doctrine of the Trinity; and we
+    cannot admit for a moment, that so important a doctrine as the
+    plurality of persons in the Godhead, could have been wholly
+    lost by mankind, though it might become obscured. Accordingly
+    we find the traditionary remains of this doctrine throughout
+    the Old World.
+
+    "The Hindoos" says M. Sonerat, "adore _three_ principal
+    Deities, Brouma, Schiven, and Vichenou, who are still but
+    _one_; which kind of Trinity is there called Trimurti, and
+    signifies the re-union of those powers. The generality of
+    Indians at present, adore only one of these three divinities;
+    but some learned men, beside this worship, also address their
+    prayers to the three united. The representation of them is to
+    be seen in many pagodas, under that of human figures with three
+    heads, which on the coast of Orissa, they call Sariharabrama,
+    on the Coromandel coast, Trimourti," &c.
+
+    This account of M. Sonerat is very pertinent, and is
+    confirmed by Dr. Buchanan who made extensive researches in that
+    country. See his _Star in the East_.
+
+    The same tradition is found in China. "Among the ancient
+    Chinese characters" says Dr. A. Clarke, "which have been
+    preserved, we find the following [triangle] like the
+    Greek _delta_. According to the Chinese dictionary _Kang-hi_,
+    this character signifies _union_. According to _Choueouen_,
+    a celebrated work, [triangle] is _three united in one_.
+    The Lieou-chou-tsing-hoen, which is a rational and learned
+    explanation of ancient characters, says; "[triangle]
+    signifies intimate union, harmony, the chief good of man, of
+    the heaven, and of the earth; it is the union of three."
+
+    Lao-tse says; "He who is as visible, and yet cannot be
+    seen, is denominated _lieou_; he who can be heard, and yet
+    speaks not to the ears, _hi_; he who is tangible, and yet
+    cannot be felt, is named _ouei_: in vain do you consult your
+    senses about these _three_; your reason alone can discourse of
+    them, and it will tell you they are but one," &c.
+
+    One of the missionaries at Peking, who wrote the letters
+    from which I have made the above extracts, takes it for
+    granted, "that the mystery of the _Trinity_ was known among the
+    ancient Chinese, and that the character [triangle] was its
+    symbol." _Dr. A. Clarke, on the 1st chap. John's Gospel._
+
+    The existence of this same tradition in China is conveyed
+    to us through another channel. "It was the leading feature in
+    _Lao-Kiun's_ system of philosophical theology, and a sentence
+    which he continually repeated as the foundation of all true
+    wisdom, that TAO, the eternal reason, produced ONE; _one_
+    produced TWO; _two_ produced THREE; and THREE produced all
+    things." _Le Compt's Memoirs of China_.
+
+    Traditions of this doctrine are found also in Chaldea and
+    Persia indeed throughout the East; from whence all agree they
+    were imported, through Phoenicia, into Egypt, and thence
+    into Greece. The great and original sources of information
+    being in the neighborhood of the Euphrates, where the _first
+    post-diluvian_ families resided; and the mighty intellects
+    which were to influence the world, by the materials which were
+    drawn from thence, being in Greece, the consequence was, we
+    find the Grecian philosophers travelling _up_ the streams of
+    knowledge to the fountains, and thence returning to enlighten
+    the world by the results of their researches. For example:
+    Pythagoras, Plato, and others visited Egypt first, thence to
+    Phoenicia, and thence to Chaldea, and the East, from whence
+    they undoubtedly drew their theology. (Nor should it be
+    forgotten that _their_ philosophy was _theological_.) The
+    concurrent testimony of history establishes this fact. The
+    consequence of all this is, the doctrine of the Trinity was
+    known to the Greek philosophers, who preserved it to the world
+    in their incomparable writings, a collateral testimony of the
+    authenticity of the Scripture doctrine. For this opinion we
+    have the highest authority in the republic of letters.
+
+    "It is said that the first Christians borrowed their notion
+    of a Triune God from the later Platonists; and that we hear not
+    of a Trinity in the church till converts were made from the
+    school of Alexandria. But if this be the case we may properly
+    ask, _Whence had those Platonists the doctrine?_
+
+    "It is not surely so simple, or so obvious as to have
+    occurred to the reasoning mind of a pagan philosopher;
+    or if it be, _why do Unitarians suppose it to involve a
+    contradiction?_--The Platonic and Pythagorean Trinities
+    never could have occurred to the mind of him, who, merely
+    from the works of creation, endeavored to discover the being
+    and attributes of God; and therefore as those philosophers
+    travelled into Egypt and the East in quest of knowledge, it
+    appears to us in the highest degree probable, that they picked
+    up this mysterious and sublime doctrine in those regions where
+    it had been handed down as a dogma from the remotest ages,
+    and where we know science was not taught systematically, but
+    detailed in collections of sententious maxims, and traditionary
+    opinions. If this be so we cannot doubt but that the pagan
+    trinities had their origin in some primeval revelation. Nothing
+    else indeed can account for a doctrine so remote from human
+    imagination, and of which we find vestiges in the sacred books
+    of almost every civilized people of antiquity. The corrupt
+    state in which it is viewed in the writings of Plato and
+    others, is the natural consequence of its descent through
+    a long course of oral tradition. The Trinity of Platonism
+    therefore, instead of being an objection, lends, in our
+    opinion, no feeble support to the Christian doctrine, since it
+    affords almost a complete proof of that doctrine having made
+    a part of the first revelation to man." _Ency. Brit. Art._
+    THEOLOGY.
+
+    "Some have indeed pretended, that the _Trinity_, which
+    is commonly called _Platonic_, was a fiction of the later
+    Platonists, unknown to the founder of the school: but any
+    person who will take the trouble to study the writings of Plato
+    will find _abundant evidence that he really asserted_ A TRIAD
+    OF DIVINE HYPOSTASES, _all concerned in the formation, and
+    government of the world_." _Ency. Brit. Art._ PLATONISM.
+
+    "Pythagoras, though inferior to Plato in reputation, and
+    lived before him, held the same doctrine, and derived it from
+    the same sources. He visited Egypt, Persia, Chaldea, &c, and
+    thence returned to Greece." _Ency. Brit. Art._ PYTHAGORAS.
+
+    These quotations are directly from the Encyclopedia
+    Britannica, than which no authority can be better. I might
+    increase the quotations to the same effect from Dr. Oglevie,
+    the learned Cudworth and others, were it necessary. The above
+    is thought sufficient to establish the fact, _That the doctrine
+    of a Trinity in Unity was once prevalent in the Pagan world,
+    and that remains and traditions of it are yet abundant through
+    all the East, where the revelations of God were made to
+    mankind_.]
+
+If it be asked, "Why did God conceal himself from eternity till within
+six thousand years; for, according to Divine revelation, it is not
+yet so long since the world was made?" I answer, God is at perfect
+liberty to do what he pleases, to do it when he pleases, and to give
+no account of the reasons of his conduct. If he had pleased to create
+the world as many millions of years sooner, as there have been days
+since its creation, the same question might have been asked, Why did
+he not create the world sooner, and thereby discover himself? For the
+longest time that can be imagined is just as nothing in comparison with
+eternity. If God had pleased, he might have concealed his existence
+and perfections to all eternity, or, in other words, never have made
+any thing. Seeing therefore it was only of his sovereign pleasure that
+he made creatures, to whom he might manifest himself, surely he had a
+right to fix on the time for doing it. We are sure he is infinitely
+wise, and consequently all his works are done in the fittest time, and
+best manner.
+
+God made the world, not because he needed the praise or service of
+creatures to add to his blessedness; for he who is self-existent
+must necessarily be infinitely perfect and absolutely independent;
+and would always have remained the same happy Being, enjoying his
+own excellencies and perfections, had no creature ever been made.
+But it was for the manifesting of his own glorious attributes, and
+communicating happiness to creatures capable of it, that he, in
+the beginning, created this magnificent fabric of the heavens and
+the earth, with all things therein, whether visible or invisible,
+animate or inanimate, material substances or immaterial spirits. For
+he created beings of different ranks and powers, to whom he might
+manifest himself, or communicate his goodness. Some of these were pure
+intellectual spirits, fit for the felicity and employments of the
+heavenly state, to stand in his immediate presence, and execute his
+righteous commands: but these were created before the solar system;
+for the angels, those "sons of God," called "morning stars," were
+present, and sung together for joy, when "the foundations" of this
+world were laid. Others he formed out of the earth, with life, sense,
+and instinct, but destitute of reason, designing them to be subservient
+to the necessities or conveniences of a higher order of beings. Besides
+these he created other beings of a middle rank, partaking of an earthly
+part, fashioned with infinite skill and art, of exquisite symmetry, and
+adorned with great external beauty; and of a spiritual part akin to
+angels, and but little inferior to them, being in their constitution a
+compound of the animal and angelic natures.
+
+It is not by reason alone then, or the light of heathen philosophy,
+but "through faith," in the infallible testimony of Divine revelation,
+"we understand that the worlds were framed by the word of God, so that
+things which are seen were not made of things which do appear." The
+sun, moon, stars, and earth, which we see, were not made of matter
+which had existed from eternity, as some of the heathen philosophers
+supposed, but of what God created anterior to the formation of those
+wonderful orbs. The word <<kat�rtisthai>>, _framed_, signifies not
+only to _make_ or _produce_ simply, but properly _to place_ or _set
+in joint_ the parts of any body or machine in their right order.
+Accordingly Plato says, that in making the world, God proceeded with
+the exactness of a geometrician, arranging every thing in complete
+symmetry. All this was done by the _word_ of God, which is not to be
+understood of any articulate sound, but of the simple act of his own
+will; he willed the universe, with all its variety of furniture, into
+existence. And this is a matter of _faith_, to be believed; not to
+be known by mere reason; for reason, without faith, can apprehend a
+formation of things from matter previously made ready.
+
+A pious expositor very justly observes, By faith assenting to Divine
+revelation, and not by reason we understand the truth and wonders,
+the reasons and causes, the manner and end, of the creation of the
+world. Reason indeed tells us that there was a creation, consequently
+a Creator; but reason without Divine revelation could never have
+discovered the circumstances and manner of the creation, which wholly
+depended upon the will of God. Reason could never have known them,
+if God had not in his word first revealed them. Reason may propound
+the question, How was the world made, and all things therein? But
+revelation must resolve it.
+
+"Oh Lord my God, thou art very great; thou art clothed with honor
+and majesty. Who coverest thyself with light as with a garment: who
+stretchest out the heavens like a curtain: who layeth the beams of
+his chambers in the waters: who maketh the clouds his chariot: who
+walketh upon the wings of the wind: who maketh his angels spirits; his
+ministers a flaming fire: who laid the foundations of the earth, that
+it should not be moved for ever. Thou coveredst it with a garment:
+the waters stood above the mountains. At thy rebuke they fled; at the
+voice of thy thunder they hasted away. They go up by the mountains;
+they go down by the valleys unto the place which thou hast founded for
+them. Thou hast set a bound that they may not pass over; that they turn
+not again to cover the earth." Such is the sublime language of Divine
+revelation!
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Footnotes - Chapter I
+
+    [1] As the name _Jehovah_, in the Hebrew consists of four
+    letters, so for the most part the name of the supreme Being
+    does in all languages. Thus among the Persians, the name is
+    <<Soru>>; among the Arabians, _Alla_; among the Assyrians,
+    _Adad_; among the Egyptians, <<Th�yth>> or <<Theuth>>; with
+    the Grecians, <<Theos>>; the Latins, _Deus_; the French,
+    _Dieu_; the Spaniards, _Dios_; the Italians, _Idio_; and with
+    the Germans, _Gott_.
+
+    The name _Jehovah_ is written differently. Sanchoniathon
+    writes it _Jevo_; Diodorus the Sicilian, Macrobius, Clemens
+    Alexandrinus, Jerome, and Origen, _Jao_; Epiphanius, Theodoret,
+    and the Samaritans, _Jab�_ or _Jave_: we find likewise _Jahoh_,
+    _Javo_, _Jaou_, _Jaod_. Lewis Capellus is for _Javo_; Drusius
+    for _Jav�_; Mercer for _Jehevah_: Hottinger _Jehra_. The Moors
+    call their God _Juba_, whom some believe to be _Jehovah_.
+    The Latins probably took their _Juvis_ or _Jovis Pater_ from
+    _Jehovah_. It is certain that these four letters may likewise
+    be expressed by _Javo_, _Jaho_, _Jaon_, _Jevo_, _Jav�_,
+    _Jehvah_, &c. Mussulmen frequently use the name _Hu_, or
+    _Hou_, which has almost the same signification as _Jehovah_,
+    i.e. _He who is_. But the great name of God is _Allah_, which
+    they pronounce often, and have great confidence in. Among the
+    Arabians, and all Mahometans the name _Allah_ corresponds with
+    the _Elohim_ and _Adonai_ of the Hebrews, and even that of
+    _Jehovah_. See Calmet's Dictionary.
+
+    [2] Dr. A. Clarke on Exod. xxxiv, 6, 7.
+
+    [3] Philo-Biblius seems to intimate, that the God of the
+    Phoenicians was anciently called by the name _Jehovah_;
+    and that _Jevo_, _Javo_, more recently used by them, is a
+    corruption of it; for it is said, that Jerombalus who supplied
+    Sanchoniathon with materials for his Phoenician history, was
+    a priest of the God Jevo. Euseb. Pr�p. Evang. lib. i. c. 9.
+
+    [4] "On the front of the famous temple of Apollo, at Delphos,
+    was graven the Greek word <<Ei>> (which signifies _thou art_,
+    being the second person singular of the verb <<eimi>>.) The
+    learned among the Philosophers labored long to discover its
+    meaning, each giving his own opinion; but could not find it
+    out, until Plutarch (who travelled into Egypt and Greece for
+    instruction in ancient sciences and other things) meeting with
+    that passage in the writings of Moses, where God manifested
+    himself by saying, I AM THAT I AM; he was struck with it, and
+    having it explained to him, he then conceived the true and
+    exalted sense of the word <<Ei>>, engraved on the front of the
+    temple. It implied, as it were, an admonition to those who
+    were about to enter the temple, to worship God, who is the
+    only self-existent Being in the universe." Creighton's Enquiry
+    into the Origin of True Religion, p. 21. Second Edition.
+
+    On a temple dedicated to Neitha, at Sais, the chief town in
+    Lower Egypt, was this inscription: "I am whatever is, or has
+    been, or will be, and no mortal has hitherto drawn aside my
+    veil; my offspring is the sun." It appears highly probable
+    that the ancient Egyptians acknowledged an active as well
+    as a passive principle in nature, and, as Plutarch asserts,
+    worshipped <<t�i pr�t�i The�i>>, the supreme Deity. Enfield's
+    History of Philosophy, vol. i. p. 76, 77.
+
+    [5] Norris on Reason and Religion. Contemp. i.
+
+    [6] Allix's Judgment of the Jewish Church against the
+    Unitarians, p. 116. Edit. 1699. See also p. 119. Simpson's
+    Apology for the Doctrine of the Trinity, p. 379, 380.
+
+    [7] Rabbi Simeon Ben Jochai, in Zoar, on the sixth section
+    of Leviticus. See Ainsworth's Annotations on the place.
+
+    [8] Demonstration of the Messias, Part iii. p, 170, 171.
+    Edit. 1700.
+
+    [9] Jones on the Trinity, chap. iii. sect. 1.
+
+    [10] Allix. p. 132.
+
+    [11] Gen. i, 26; iii, 22; xi, 7; xx, 13; xxxi, 53; xxxv,
+    7; Deut. iv, 7; v, 23; Josh. xxiv, 19; 1 Sam. iv, 8; 2 Sam.
+    vii, 23; Psal. lviii, 12; Isai. vi, 8; Jer. x, 10; xxiii, 36;
+    See Prov. ix, 10; xxx, 3; Psal. cxlix, 2; Eccl. v, 7; xii, 1:
+    Job v, 1; Isai. vi, 3; liv, 5; Hos. xi, 12, or xii, 1; Mal.
+    i,6; Dan. vii, 18, 22, 25; Hebrew Lexicon, p. 19. Edit. 1811.
+    See also Mr. Parkhurst's pamphlet against Dr. Priestly and Mr.
+    Wakefield, p. 3-9, and p. 148, &c.
+
+    [12] Ridley's Eight Discourses, p. 79.
+
+    [13] See Allix's Judgment of the Jewish Church, p. 118.
+
+    [14] Professor Kidd's Essay on the Doctrine of the Trinity,
+    p. 452.
+
+    [15] Jones on the Trinity.
+
+    [16] Ganganelli's Letters.
+
+    [17] Rev. Hugh Knox's Sermons.
+
+    [18] Gray's Key to the Old Testament.
+
+    [19] M. Pascal's Thoughts.
+
+    [20] See Gray's Key, Notes, p. 82-83.
+
+    [21] See Sturm. vol. iv. p. 266.
+
+    [22] Christian's Magazine, vol. ii, p. 97, 98.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+FIRST DAY.
+
+_Section_ I.--CHAOS.
+
+    Inquiry into the origin of things natural to man --
+    Character of Moses as a sacred historian important --
+    Explanation of the term Created -- Chaotic state of the
+    elementary principles of matter -- Influence of the Spirit
+    of God upon the chaotic mass -- Opinions of the ancients --
+    Similitude between the first and second creation -- Agency of
+    the Holy Spirit in the work of regeneration asserted and proved.
+
+
+As creatures possessed of conscious existence, and furnished with both
+intellectual and moral powers, it is very natural for us to inquire
+into the origin and first state of things; and, when difficulties
+present themselves, to meet with clear and satisfactory solutions of
+them, removing the darkness in which they were enveloped, affords
+to reflecting minds a high gratification. Without the aid of divine
+revelation, the creation of the world would have been involved in
+uncertainty, and our unassisted reason left to speculate in fields
+of wide conjecture. But in following the luminous torch of sacred
+communication, we are safely conducted to the first great Cause, by
+whose almighty _fiat_ matter was called into existence, and afterwards
+disposed and modified according to the plan devised by the eternal Mind.
+
+Moses, considered as a man of scientific habits, being well versed in
+all the "wisdom of the Egyptians"--mathematical, physical, moral, and
+divine; could not but know that his cosmogony would have to pass the
+ordeal of critical investigation, and undergo the best of philosophical
+inquiry: that contemporaries, as well as future and remote nations
+and generations, would minutely examine his historical record; and
+science, in its progressive state of improvement, try the validity
+of his system: that it would meet the inquisitive eye of genius and
+learning, and fall into the hands of both sincere friends and insidious
+enemies to religious truth: that candor would patiently search into its
+pretensions, impartially weigh its evidence, and sober inquiry respect
+its claims: while narrow prejudice, blind bigotry, or superstitious
+enthusiasm, would dispute its authority, deny its veracity, and
+disdainfully reject its aid. But listening to an all-wise Instructor,
+following a Guide that could not deceive him; and disregarding the
+envenomed tongue of calumny, the lampooning pen of the satirist, the
+surly frown of literary pride, and the imperious authority of exalted
+rank; he committed to writing a true account of the creation of the
+world, for the information and religious improvement of mankind to the
+latest generation.
+
+Viewed as the ground-work of all future revelations, if any defect or
+false position were discovered in his relation of things, that would
+deprive his history of credibility, and decisively prove him to have
+been led by the sallies of a vain and heated imagination, and not the
+Spirit of the living God. But of this there was no danger; and, as a
+distinguished author pertinently observes, "from the book of Genesis,
+almost all the ancient philosophers, astronomers, chronologists, and
+historians, have taken their respective _data_: and all the modern
+improvements and accurate discoveries in different arts and sciences
+have only served to confirm the facts detailed by Moses, and to show,
+that all the ancient writers on these subjects, have approached to,
+or receded from truth, and the phenomena of nature, in the exact
+proportion as they have followed the Mosaic history." As a writer,
+Moses does not attack other systems, formed on this or that hypothesis;
+but in a simple and incontrovertible narrative, acquaints us with the
+origin of matter, and the progressive formation and completion of the
+solar system.
+
+The Scriptures inform us, that Moses was privileged to converse with
+God "face to face, as a man speaketh unto his friend," and from him
+received clear and manifest revelations, not by visions, ecstasies,
+dreams, inward inspirations, or the mediation of angels, but familiarly
+and with confidence, by articulate sounds, in his own language. The
+Lord said, "With him will I speak mouth to mouth, even apparently,
+and not in dark speeches; and the similitude of the Lord shall he
+behold." God being a Spirit, has neither shape nor parts, consequently
+is invisible, and cannot be seen by eyes of flesh: he is the most
+simple essence. When he speaks of himself as having a face, mouth,
+eyes, hands, &c, he adapts his language to our capacities, designing
+to express by these figures the perfections of his nature; but he
+is really one undivided essence. That which Moses saw, was only the
+_Shekinah_, a glorious brightness, the symbol of the Divine presence,
+and not the essence, which is invisible.
+
+In giving an account of the true origin of things, he attends
+particularly to the _mode_, _agent_, and _time_ of their being
+produced. His history commences with the creation of matter, "In
+the beginning." Before the creative acts mentioned by him, all was
+eternity. _Time_ signifies _duration_ measured by the revolutions of
+the heavenly bodies; but prior to the creation of these bodies, there
+could be no measurement of duration, and consequently no _time_;
+therefore, "In the beginning," must necessarily mean the commencement
+of time which followed, or rather was produced by God's creative acts,
+as an effect follows, or is produced by a cause.
+
+    [From several expressions in this chapter, it is obvious
+    that Mr. Wood considered the account given by Moses, in the
+    first chapter of Genesis, to apply to _universal creation_,
+    and not to be restricted to our _Solar System_. It is also
+    plainly inferable, that he considered this the _first exercise
+    of God's creative energy in any way_. This view is entirely too
+    contracted, is not clearly warranted by the text of the sacred
+    historian, and is unnecessary.
+
+    There are no passages of Scripture which say distinctly,
+    the Mosaic creation is the first or only acts of creative
+    energy: but there are several which intimate the _previous
+    existence of creatures_, and of course imply a previous
+    exercise of creative power.
+
+    It is sufficiently clear that there were intelligent beings
+    existing at the creation of this world. Hence it is said, "the
+    morning stars sang together, and the sons of God shouted for
+    joy," in view of the rising creation.
+
+    Since, therefore, the previous existence of intelligent
+    beings is established, we must, of course, assign to them some
+    _mode_ of subsistence; and this will compel us to assign at
+    least what must be _necessary_ to every creature, a _place of
+    abode_, suited to his wants and conditions, without which he
+    cannot subsist. Thus we establish even a _material_ creation,
+    _anterior_ to the creation mentioned by Moses.
+
+    After weighing the account which Moses gives in the first
+    chapter of Genesis, together with the facts and analogies in
+    Nature, the conclusion seems irresistible, _that he describes
+    only our Solar System_; which includes the seven primary
+    planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and
+    Herschel: the four asteroides, Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas:
+    and the eighteen moons which attend the primary planets.
+    Because,
+
+    1. As this account forms the introduction to a revelation
+    designed for the _human family only_, it is reasonable to
+    conclude it would have reference to those bodies only which
+    operate materially to their benefit or injury. But there are no
+    such bodies except in the Solar System.
+
+    2. Moses in describing the formation of the heavenly
+    bodies, mentions only the _sun_ and _moon_ in a conspicuous
+    manner: because, these are the only luminaries which contribute
+    _essentially_ to our comfort: and then, lest a beholder might
+    imagine God did not also make the other suns and stars, says
+    incidentally, "He made the stars also."
+
+    3. The conclusion is clear from the fact, that _the Solar
+    System is complete in itself_: forming a perfect whole, which
+    could exist were all other stars and suns destroyed, and vice
+    vers�, all other systems could exist were the Solar System
+    destroyed.
+
+    4. It does not well comport with the character of the
+    Divine Being, when we consider his eternal power, infinite
+    wisdom, and boundless goodness, to suppose He never exercised
+    his creative energies but _once_, and that not until a few
+    thousand years since. Yet we are compelled to this conclusion,
+    however reluctantly, unless we restrict the Mosaic account of
+    the creation to our Solar System.
+
+    This argument will derive additional weight, when we
+    recollect the _immensity_ of God's works taken together, and
+    the _illimitable space_ in which he has, and may, exercise his
+    creative energy. We may _approximate towards_ a very faint idea
+    of their immensity, by calling to mind the immense number of
+    _fixed stars_. All astronomers admit their number to be very
+    great indeed, but how many cannot be correctly known. There
+    may be millions whose light has not reached us yet. Of those
+    which may be detected, Professor _Vince_, says, there are at
+    least _seventy-five millions_; and each the centre of a system
+    as large, possibly much larger than our own. Indeed we can
+    scarcely approach towards a competent idea of _illimitable
+    space_. The nearest _fixed star_ is supposed to be Sirius, or
+    the dog-star, at the lowest calculation _twenty-two billions
+    of miles distant_. If we compute according to this analogy,
+    and say there are seventy-five millions of fixed stars, each
+    the _centre_ of a system, perfect, and independent: what mind
+    can conceive the illimitable space through which these worlds
+    must lie? Yet this would scarcely be an approximation towards
+    the true extent. Beyond this there is still _unoccupied space_,
+    "where existence sleeps in the wide abyss of possibility."
+
+    It may, therefore, be asked with justice, whether a being
+    capable of creating, even in this limited view, would have
+    exercised his creative powers _but once_, and that not until
+    a few thousands years since? _Credat qui posset, non ego._
+    Who can tell what may have been the _successive_ creations,
+    durations, and, possibly, destructions of those worlds which we
+    see, and of others, of which the inhabitants of this earth have
+    never heard, whose light has not yet reached us since their
+    creation, though coming at the rate of nearly _twelve millions
+    of miles in a minute_?
+
+    Finally: A _succession_ of creative acts, whose
+    commencement runs back _almost_ parallel with eternity, and
+    will extend forward _almost ad infinitum_, seems to comport
+    best with the eternal, immense, and immutable activity, energy,
+    and goodness of the Divine Being.]
+
+The word _created_ means, that God caused that to exist which,
+previously to this moment, had no being. The Rabbins, who are
+legitimate judges in a case of verbal criticism on their own language,
+are unanimous in asserting, that the word **br'** _bara_ expresses
+the commencement of the existence of a thing, or its egression from
+nonentity to entity. It does not, in its primary meaning, denote the
+_preserving_ or _new forming_ things that had previously existed,
+as some imagine; but _creation_, in the proper sense of the term,
+though it has some other acceptations in other places. The supposition
+that God formed all things out of a pre-existing eternal nature, is
+certainly absurd: for, if there was an eternal nature besides an
+eternal God, there must have been two self-existing, independent, and
+eternal Beings, which is a most palpable contradiction. _Ex nihilo
+nihil fit_, "That out of nothing, nothing is produced" is a maxim
+that applies itself in every case where Deity is not concerned; it
+was the main argument used by Aristotle and his followers, but is
+completely refuted by the authority of Divine revelation. God created
+**'th hshmym v'th h'rts** _eth hashamayim veet haarets_, "the heavens
+and the earth." The word **'th** _eth_, which is generally considered
+as a particle, simply denoting that the word following is in the
+accusative or oblique case, is often understood by the Rabbins in a
+much more extensive sense, "The particle **'th** _eth_," says Aben
+Ezra, "signifies the _substance_ of the thing." The like definition
+is given by Kimchi in his _Book of Roots_. "This particle," says
+Mr. Ainsworth, "having the _first_ and _last_ letters of the Hebrew
+alphabet in it, is supposed to comprise the _sum_ and _substance_ of
+_all things_." "The particle **'th** _eth_," says Buxtorf, Talmudic
+Lexicon sub voce, "with the Cabalists, is often mystically put for the
+_beginning_ and the _end_, as <<Alpha>> alpha and <<Omega>> omega are
+in the Apocalypse." On this ground, these words should be translated,
+"God in the beginning created the _substance_ of the heavens, and the
+substance of the earth: i.e. the _prima materia_, or first elements,
+out of which the heavens and the earth were successively formed."[23]
+
+During the first state of things, Moses informs us, that "the earth
+was without form and void; and darkness was upon the face of the
+deep." The original terms **thv:** _tohoo_, and **bhv** _bohoo_,
+translated, "without form and void," convey the idea of confusion and
+disorder. The translation by Paginus, is _desert and emptiness_; in
+the Vulgate, it is _empty and void_; in the Septuagint, _invisible and
+incomposed_; from the Syriac, _desert and uncultivated_; the Samaritan
+is the same as the Vulgate; the Arabic, _covered with abysses_: these
+translations are allowed by the learned Walton. There is but little
+difference in their real meaning, and all the Versions express the
+first state of things.[24] The whole collection of matter, created
+in a fluid state, was a crude, indigested chaos: all belonging to
+our system, as the sun, moon, stars, earth, and seas, lay blended
+together in one vast, confused mass, without any arrangement of their
+constituent particles, heavy and light, dense and rare, fluid and
+solid, being all mixed together; air, water, and earth, (which have
+since obtained the name of elements,) were promiscuously scattered
+throughout.
+
+The chaotic mass remained in this primitive state, till God was pleased
+to assimilate, assort, and arrange the materials,--out of which he
+built up, in the space of six days, the whole of creation.[25] _The
+Spirit of God_, represented us sitting upon the vast abyss, like a
+bird, while either in the act of incubation or fostering its young,
+_moved_ or brooded _upon the face of the waters_, communicating, by his
+vital energy, life and motion to the unformed chaos.
+
+Some writers understand by **rvch 'lhym** _the Spirit of God_, a
+"mighty sweeping wind," a "tremendous tempest," separating diversified
+particles of the elementary principles of matter, and combining those
+of the same kind together. But this is making an effect to be produced
+by a cause, which, as yet, had no existence; nor, as a cause, is it
+sufficient to produce so great an effect. To make an effect superior
+to its cause, is as absurd and contradictory as to say, a long line
+and a short one are equal. That the single Hebrew word **rvch**
+_ruach_, the Greek <<pneuma>> _pneuma_, the Latin _spiritus_, and
+the ancient Saxon _ghost_ or _gast_, signifies _wind_, as well as
+the vital breath, the soul of man, a created spirit good or evil,
+is readily admitted. But concerning the phrase **rvch 'lhym**,
+_the Spirit of God_, so frequently used in the Scriptures of the
+Old Testament, there is not one instance that it signifies _wind_,
+and to attempt to force such meaning upon it, is a most manifest
+violation done to the text. By _the Spirit of God_, is meant the third
+subsistence in the Divine essence, distinguished from the person of
+the Father, and that of the Son; he is called a _Spirit_, to signify
+his spiritual and immaterial nature, as well as to express his mighty
+agency; and the works of which he is the author can only be effected
+by an omnipotent power.
+
+Milton, who was well versed in the Hebrew language, in his address to
+the Holy Spirit, says,
+
+                            "Thou from the first
+    Wast present, and with mighty wings outspread,
+    Dove-like, sat'st brooding on the vast abyss,
+    And mad'st it pregnant."
+
+The Holy Spirit, by his vital influence, infused that efficient power
+into the great mass of matter, which was necessary for the assumption
+of different forms, and the discharge of the assigned functions of
+selecting and arranging the materials out of which the world is
+formed. By brooding over the mingled earth and water, says Dr. Owen,
+"he communicated a prolific virtue; and inlaid them with the seeds of
+animal life; and therefore the earth and the water brought forth all
+sorts of creatures in abundance, according to the seeds and principles
+communicated to them by the cherishing motion of the _Spirit of God_."
+
+As several of the ancients have described the elementary principles
+of all things to be a gloomy chaos, consisting of _darkness_ and
+_water_, we may easily infer from what source they derived this notion.
+Aristotle observes, the theologists and natural philosophers agreed,
+that all things were produced, as the former said, "out of night;" or,
+as the latter, "out of a confused mixture." Whatever knowledge the
+inhabitants of Chaldea had of the creation of the world, they ascribe
+to the teaching of an amphibious monster denominated Oannes. He taught
+his auditors, that there was a time when all things were darkness
+and water, in the midst of which various monsters of horrible forms
+received life and light. Over this chaotic mass presided the demon
+Omoroca, a mythological personification of the ocean. At length arrived
+the destined hour of the creation. The monster Omoroca fell subdued
+beneath the victorious arm of Belus; the animals which composed her
+empire were annihilated; and the world was formed out of her substance.
+Oannes, however, taught, that this physiological description was to be
+taken merely in an allegorical sense, and that the whole fable alluded
+to the aqueous origin of the universe. Matter having been thus created,
+Belus divided the darkness from the light, separated the earth from the
+heavens, disposed the world in order, and called the starry host into
+existence.
+
+According to the Phoenician system, the principle of the universe was
+a _dark air_, and a _turbulent evening chaos_; an opinion not very
+dissimilar to that given by Moses. Sanchoniathon afterward ascribes
+to material operation the origin of that which may be denominated the
+will or desire of God, when in his great wisdom he thought fit to
+create the world out of nothing. From this personification of Divine
+love, a chaotic mixture was produced, and within it were comprehended
+the rudiments of all things.
+
+The cosmogony of the ancient Egyptians, though more obscure, is
+given by Diodorus Siculus. "Damascius having inquired about what was
+the first principle in the world, gives this as an ancient Egyptian
+doctrine. The Egyptians have chosen to celebrate the first cause
+as _unspeakable_. They accordingly style it _darkness unknown_ and
+mention it with a three-fold acclamation. Again. In this manner the
+Egyptians styled the first principle _an inconceivable darkness; night
+and darkness past all imagination_." This is perfectly consonant
+to passages from the same author, quoted by Dr. Cudworth. "There
+is one origin of all things, celebrated by the name of _unknown_
+(incomprehensible) _darkness_." Again. "They hold, that the first
+beginning or cause of things was _darkness beyond all conception; an
+unknown darkness_."
+
+Hesiod mentions, "A chaos as first existing. Next was produced the
+spacious earth, the seat of the immortals; Tartarus hid within the
+recesses of the ample globe; and divine love, the most beautiful of the
+deities. From chaos sprung Erebus, and black night; and from the union
+of night and Erebus were born ether and the day."[26] Zeno, of Cittium,
+the founder of the Stoics, said, Hesiod meant by the chaos, "Water, out
+of which all things were formed, which by concretion became firm earth."
+
+In the work of Aristophanes, we meet with a similar passage. "Chaos,
+and night, and black Erebus, and wide Tartarus, first existed; at that
+time, there was neither earth, air, nor heaven. But in the bosom of
+Erebus, black-winged night produced an a�rial egg; from which, in due
+season, beautiful Love, decked with golden wings, was born. Out of dark
+chaos, in the midst of wide-spreading Tartarus, he begot our race, and
+called us forth into the light."[27]
+
+It is unnecessary to multiply quotations to prove, that the ancients
+were not only acquainted with the cosmogony of Moses, but received it
+as true; to which they added their own coloring.
+
+    [It is now generally agreed by cosmogonists, commentators,
+    biblical critics, and natural philosophers, that the
+    _substance_ of the earth certainly, and probably the materials
+    of the Solar System, was first created in a chaotic state, and
+    subsequently arranged in order. This opinion is very ancient
+    and almost universal, found in all nations. Ovid, an ancient
+    heathen poet, has well described this chaos:
+
+        Ante mare et terras, et, quod teget omnia, Coelum,
+        Unus erat toto natur� vultus in orbe,
+        Quem dix�re Chaos; rudis indigestaque moles,
+        Nec quicquam nisi pondus iners; congestaque eodem.
+        Non bene junctarum discordia semina rerum.
+
+        Before the seas, and this terrestrial ball,
+        And heaven's high canopy that covers all:
+        _One_ was the face of nature if a face:
+        _Rather a rude and indigested mass:
+        A lifeless lump, unfashioned and unframed,
+        Of jarring seeds, and justly_ CHAOS _named_.--Dryden.
+
+    Notwithstanding the general prevalence of this opinion,
+    and the high authorities which support it, the reader must not
+    imagine it is absolutely _universal_. Some eminent men have
+    suggested, that the earth, and matter generally, was created in
+    a _solid_ state at first. This is the view taken by Mr. Ure, of
+    the Andersonian University. He supposes _the earth was created
+    a solid ball, or spheroid, regular on its surface, without
+    hills and vallies, and immersed in a crust of ice, which
+    completely and uniformly surrounded it: that it was a cold
+    lifeless lump; heat not yet having pervaded it_. The first, and
+    all quickening operation of heat he supposes to be indicated
+    by these words of Moses: "And the Spirit of God moved on the
+    face of the waters." He supposes, all the matter of our earth
+    is in the same relative position, in which it was when it first
+    existed at the command of God; _except such cases in which some
+    subsequent force has disarranged it_. These cases he supposes
+    to have been many, and to have operated to the _upheaving_
+    the mountains, and hollowing out the beds of the sea, &c. He
+    says of the earth: "The central mass composed, most probably,
+    of the metallic bases of the earths and alkalies, as volcanic
+    phenomena seem to attest, would fuse, when first the calorific
+    energy was made to actuate the body of the earth, and the
+    exterior parts would oxydize into the crust of mineral strata,
+    and the outermost coat of all, the fixed ice, would melt into
+    the moveable _waters_." _New Syst. of Geol. B. 1. chap. 1. p.
+    7._
+
+    Perhaps Mr. Ure's view might be improved, and made
+    to approximate much nearer the common opinion, possibly
+    identified with it, by supposing the mass of matter composing
+    our earth, was confusedly mixed,--and of course chaotic--but
+    was in a frozen, hard, inactive state: that the quickening
+    energy, which softened and fused it, was simultaneous with its
+    revolution on its axis. The consequence then would be precisely
+    what we find it to be; viz: an enlargement of the equatorial
+    diameter, and a flattening of the poles. This I conceive to be
+    the true theory in this case.
+
+    Mr. Ure confirms his view by a quotation from Sir Isaac
+    Newton; Optics, Book 3. towards the conclusion. "It seems
+    probable to me that God in the beginning formed matter in
+    solid, massy, hard, impenetrable, movable particles, of such
+    sizes and figures, and with such other properties, and in such
+    proportions to space, as most conduced to the end for which he
+    formed them. All material things seem to have been composed
+    of the hard and solid particles above mentioned, variously
+    associated in the _first creation_ by the counsels of an
+    intelligent agent. For it became him who created them to set
+    them in order; and if he did so, it is unphilosophical to seek
+    for any other origin of this world, or to pretend that it might
+    rise out of chaos by the mere laws of Nature; though being once
+    formed, it may continue by those laws for many ages."
+
+    I have given this quotation precisely as I found it in
+    Mr. Ure's New System of _Geology_, B. 1. chap. 1. p. 10.
+    Considering the well founded reputation of Newton, it adds very
+    much to the probability of the above theory: yet it seems to
+    me to be at variance with the commonly received impression of
+    Newton's opinion on this subject. I have not his work at hand
+    to examine it.
+
+    The Encyclopedia Britannica, Article _Earth_, seems to
+    favor this view. It says, "The common notion of the earth's
+    being originally a chaos, seems neither to have a foundation in
+    reason, nor in the Mosaic account of the creation."
+
+    The reader will here perceive high authorities on both
+    sides, and all claiming to agree with Moses. The weight of
+    evidence seems to be in favor of a chaotic creation, which
+    does _not_ necessarily imply that the mass was created in a
+    _soft_ state. But the configuration, and internal structure of
+    the earth abundantly prove it was in a soft, or compressible
+    state when it was assuming its present form and structure.
+    This condition was the effect of the quickening energy of the
+    Spirit of God. The difference between the _equatorial_ and
+    _polar_ diameters of the earth, which is now well established,
+    and is about twenty-seven miles, can scarcely be accounted for,
+    without supposing the substance of the earth, at least to a
+    great depth, to have been partially or wholly fluid; in which
+    case, by turning round rapidly on its own axis, it would assume
+    the shape it is known to possess. It may, indeed, be said, the
+    Almighty could give it any shape and qualities he pleased, and
+    we cannot well object to it.
+
+    As it regards the interior, or central parts of our planet,
+    our author has said nothing, and possibly he would give
+    this very good reason for his silence--_we can know nothing
+    certainly_. Still, however, we may subjoin the conjectures of
+    some eminent philosophers.
+
+    Some suppose the central parts of our globe to be
+    _cavernous_ or _hollow_. The principal argument for this
+    theory is the transmission of _sound_ and _motion_ through vast
+    extents of country, in case of volcanoes and earthquakes. It is
+    supposed this could not be done so perfectly and extensively,
+    unless we suppose some _a�riform_, or _gaseous_ body within the
+    earth, by means of which it might be transmitted: which would
+    be to suppose it _cavernous_ or _hollow_.
+
+    Dr. Halley supposes the earth is a hollow sphere, in
+    which there is inclosed a central magnetic globe, and by the
+    motions of this globe the variations of the magnetic needle are
+    produced.
+
+    Our own ingenious, but unfortunate countryman, _Symms_,
+    supposed the earth to be hollow, and inhabited within, and its
+    interior accessible to us. He argues, there is no necessity,
+    for the purposes of gravitation, or for any other purposes, to
+    suppose the earth solid to the centre: And it is inconsistent
+    with the divine beneficence to suppose such an amount of matter
+    as this globe would be, if solid, should have been created to
+    afford so small a portion, _scarcely one-fourth_, fit for the
+    actual habitation of man, for whom principally it was created.
+    He, therefore, supported, that the interior of the earth was an
+    immense cavern blessed with changes of season, succession of
+    day and night, cold and heat, and inhabited by human beings,
+    and other animals. He supposed the poles of the earth were
+    hollow, and this hollow entrance gradually verged round towards
+    the equator; and ships have, without knowing it, been within
+    the verge, from whence they found no difficulty of returning.
+
+    Others have supposed the central parts of our globe are
+    solid. This is the common supposition, and is principally
+    supported by these two arguments:--As the attraction of
+    gravitation depends on the _quantity_ of matter, as well as
+    the distance; unless we suppose the earth a _solid_ body it
+    will not be able to exert a sufficient attractive influence on
+    the moon to keep her in her orbit. Again: it is ascertained
+    by actual experiment, that the _mean_ density of the earth is
+    about _five_ times that of water: from which it is infered it
+    is solid, and must increase in density from the surface to the
+    centre, in order to give this high mean proportion over the
+    bodies at its surface.
+
+    The increasing density of the earth, from the surface to
+    the centre is owing to _compression_ in part, and partly to the
+    supposed fact, that the heavier substances are placed nearer
+    the centre. Thus we find the different strata of rocks indicate
+    the same. Granite is the heaviest and lowest rock _in situ_.
+
+    Some have supposed that _iron_, probably nearly in a
+    metallic state, constitutes the nucleus of our earth. This idea
+    seems to have been suggested to account for the influence of
+    the earth on a magnetic needle.
+
+    But the most splendid, and very probable conjecture is
+    founded on the experiments of Berzelius, and Sir H. Davy, on
+    the earths, which experiments prove them to have _metallic
+    bases_ universally: hence all our earths are _metallic oxides_.
+    From these circumstances it is conjectured, that the nucleus
+    of our globe is constituted of the metals in a pure, or nearly
+    pure state, which are the bases of our earths, alkalis, and
+    alkaline earths.
+
+    It would almost seem a legitimate conjecture to suppose the
+    substances of our globe were, at _first, metals_ and _gases_:
+    that the oxygen, combining with the metals formed earths, and
+    alkalis; and the gases combining among themselves formed air,
+    water, &c. This would be a chemical process, and necessarily
+    _fuse_ and soften the earth, and introduce the process of
+    cooling, which would proceed from the surface towards the
+    centre. Hence some eminent philosophers have conjectured that
+    there is a great degree of heat in the interior of the earth
+    yet: probably the central parts are in a state of igneous
+    fusion. Some recent researches of Cordier tend to establish
+    this opinion. The amount of evidence in favor of this
+    conjecture is increasing annually, and probably will prevail.
+    See the _additional_ paper on _volcanos_ in this volume.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+_Section_ II.--_Fire._
+
+    Omnific word -- Moving principles in Nature -- Criticism
+    on the original word **'vr** aur -- Creation of fire --
+    Its nature -- Friction exciting the action of fire -- Fire
+    attracted by bodies -- Fire conducted -- Fire in a state of
+    combination -- Fire elastic -- Expansive force of fire --
+    Subterraneous fires -- Earthquakes and Volcanic Eruptions --
+    Air a storehouse of fire -- General and final Dissolution
+    of Nature by fire -- Fire a symbol of the Deity, in his
+    gracious presence, vital influence, transforming energy, and
+    destructive operation.
+
+
+The sacred historian here informs us of the first regular production
+reduced from the chaotic mass. With an astonishing majesty of
+expression, God said, **yhy 'vr vyhy 'vr** YEHI AUR, _vayehi aur_,
+_Let there be light: and there was light_. Or, more literally, _Be
+light: and light was_. Pagninus translates the words **'vr yhy** YEHI
+AUR, literally, _Sit lux, Be light_. In the Greek it is <<geneth�t�
+ph�s>>, _Be light made_, or _generated_. In the Vulgate, _Fiat
+lux_, which is much the same as the Greek. The celebrated Dionysius
+Longinus, meeting with this passage in the Septuagint, considered
+it as a specimen of the _true sublime_. Though a heathen, he thus
+expresses himself: "So likewise the Jewish lawgiver, (who was no
+ordinary man) having conceived a just idea of the divine power, he
+expressed it in a dignified manner; for at the beginning of his laws
+he thus speaks: GOD SAID--_What?_ LET THERE BE LIGHT! _and there was
+light_. LET THERE BE EARTH! _and there was earth_."[28]
+
+Here we may inquire, Whether this was a word uttered with a sound, like
+that which God spake from mount Sinai in giving the Law; or only the
+exercise of the inward faculty of reason or understanding? It could not
+be a word spoken with a sound, for that requires air as its _medium_,
+and none as yet existed; neither was there any ear to hear, nor any
+use of such words. Nor could it be any exercise of the Divine Mind,
+now beginning to think of the creation and formation of things; for
+this purpose was in his thoughts from eternity. The meaning therefore
+is, that God did, without any instruments, toil, labor, alteration,
+or delay, for the manifestation of his own infinite goodness, wisdom,
+power, and will, actually working like a powerful word or command,
+instantaneously produce _light_.[29] Thus
+
+    "Dark Chaos heard his voice."
+
+The Psalmist, touching on the subject of creation, says, "He spake,
+and it was done: he commanded, and it stood fast"--**y`md** _jagnamad,
+it stood forth_, as a servant at his master's command, prepared to do
+his will, and to execute his pleasure.[30]
+
+The divine commandment which produced light, says an intelligent
+writer, must be considered as operating on the properties of matter
+already created; and as light is found to proceed from the motion
+of luminous particles, we must conceive some central force, or
+attracting power, to be the instrument of producing this phenomenon
+of light, by its attractive or propelling properties. There seem to
+be moving principles in all nature, which, when put in action by the
+first Cause, produce natural effects according to established laws,
+which cannot be altered unless by the first Mover. As the Hebrew
+word **thvm** _tehom, abyss_, translated _deep_, signifies also to
+move with a sort of confused motion; we may justly conclude that the
+chaotic mass had some gravitating powers in it, before the forming
+of the system; and that attracting and repelling force was naturally
+and originally in the universe; and that the first Mover gave them
+in a regular course, the specifical direction, and systematical
+attractions. What our distinguished philosopher, Sir Isaac Newton,
+has suggested concerning attraction and gravitation, even in point of
+philosophy, appears to agree with the Principia of Moses.
+
+Another author writes, Whether Moses intended a philosophical account
+of light in this place, I will not pretend to say; but one thing
+is certain, that he makes use of a word which points out some of
+the principal properties of light. The original word **'vr** _aur_
+signifies that body which renders objects visible, which we call
+_light_; it also signifies _fire_, and perhaps Moses intended to
+point out in one word, what in our language requires two, _light_
+and _fire_. When we consider the words of Moses, it appears evident
+that what is in our version called _light_, is in the Hebrew rather
+something that sends forth light. The original word **'vr** _aur_ may
+signify any thing that makes things visible by emitting particles of
+light. When the Almighty said, "Let there be **'vr** _aur, light_," it
+is not certain that he meant elementary fire, or original unpropagated
+light. It is more probable that he intended by that word, a body
+that sent forth light by means of the motion of similar particles of
+luminous and igneous matter.
+
+Whatever may be the philosophic differences between these two, _light_
+and _fire_, continues the same author, we are certain that they are
+seldom separated. The origin of that light which now renders bodies
+visible to us, seems chiefly to be _fire_, though light and fire are
+not inseparably connected; for light may be propagated where there is
+no fire, as from putrid bodies, &c, and fire may be where there is no
+light, as in iron, sulphur, &c.
+
+The Hebrew word **'vr** _aur_, signifies not only light, but _fire_.
+God created this powerful agent on the first day, and diffused it
+through every part of nature; because without it no operation could be
+carried on and perfected. T. Bartholine quotes Aristotle as saying,
+"That fire is the efficient cause of all things." Robison says, "Heat
+is susceptible of fixation--of being accumulated in bodies, and, as
+it were, laid up till we have occasion for it; and we are as certain
+of getting the stored-up heat, as we are sure of obtaining from our
+drawers the things we put in them."[31] It pervades all bodies: this
+is not the case with any other substance we know of--not even light.
+It lies hid in every thing around us. It is a substance which we are
+ever in want of; it is therefore deposited on every side, and is ready
+for every exigency.
+
+_Caloric_ is the name given by modern chemists, to that substance by
+whose influence the phenomena of heat are produced, and which had
+before been distinguished by the terms _igneous fluid_, _matter of
+heat_, and other analogous denominations. In order to give precision
+to chemical language, it was necessary to adopt a word by which to
+distinguish between the substance which produces the sensation we call
+heat, and the sensation itself; these being connected as cause and
+effect; for whenever caloric becomes fixed in a body, it loses its
+property of affording heat. Whatever is the nature of that quality in
+bodies called heat, we are assured it does resemble the sensation of
+heat. A man whose mind is destitute of the cultivation of science, if
+endued with common sense, never imagines the sensation of heat to be
+in the fire; he only imagines that there is something in fire which
+occasions this sensation.
+
+Though we are well acquainted with the effects of fire, we know but
+little of its nature. It is so active, as well as powerful a principle,
+that it eludes all our researches. We may, however, define it to be the
+phlogiston or inflammable principle, which pervades in a greater or
+less degree all substances. Boerhaave thinks it is a fluid of a nature
+peculiar to itself; that it was created such as it is, and cannot be
+altered in its nature or its properties; that it naturally exists in
+equal quantities in all places; and that it is wholly imperceptible to
+our senses, being only discoverable by such effects as in its operation
+it produces.[32]
+
+That fire is really a substance, and not a quality, appears from its
+acting upon other substances, the reality of which has never been
+doubted. Charcoal, in its natural state, contains within its pores a
+large quantity of air; but if charcoal is heated, this air is expelled
+by the fire, which assumes its place, and occupies the pores of the
+charcoal. The burning of lime also, which deprives it of a great part
+of its weight by expelling the fixable air, demonstrates that fire, as
+a substance, enters into the pores of the lime, and forces out those
+other substances which are least intimately combined with it.
+
+Collision or friction of solid bodies, is the means most generally
+used for exciting the action of fire. The vacuities of all solid
+bodies are replete with fire, so that it is impossible to agitate or
+separate their parts swiftly, without giving the same rapid motion to
+the element contained within them. When a piece of hardened steel is
+struck with a flint, some particles of the metal are scraped away from
+the mass, and so violent is the fire which follows the stroke, that it
+melts and vitrifies them. If the fragments of steel are catched upon
+paper, and viewed with a microscope, you will find most of them perfect
+spherules, and very highly polished. Their sphericity demonstrates that
+they have been in a fluid state, and the polish upon their surface
+shows them to be vitrified; the fire being disengaged with violence,
+disposes the particles of the substance to combine with the vital
+air, while this air accelerates the combustion. The whole of the heat
+produced is not afforded by the body itself, because in proportion as
+the interior fire is disengaged, the external air acts upon the body
+and gives out fire.
+
+If the irons at the axis of a coach-wheel are applied to each other,
+without the interposition of some unctuous matter to keep them from
+immediate contact, they will become so hot when the carriage runs
+swiftly along, as to set the wood on fire; and the fore wheels being
+smallest, and making more revolutions, will be most in danger. The same
+will happen to mill-work, or any other machinery, if the necessary
+precautions are neglected. It is no uncommon practice with a blacksmith
+to use a plate of iron as an extemporaneous tinder-box; for it may be
+hammered on an anvil till it becomes red hot, and will fire a match of
+brimstone. A strong man who strikes quick, and keeps turning the iron,
+so that both sides may be equally exposed to the force of the hammer,
+will perform this in less time than would be expected. If in the
+coldest season you lay one dense iron plate upon another, and press the
+upper one, by a weight, on the lower one, and then rub the one over the
+other; by reciprocal motions, they will first grow warm, and at length
+so hot, as in a short time to emit sparks, and at last grow red hot, as
+if taken out of a vehement fire.
+
+It is not necessary that the substance should be very hard; a cord
+rubbed backwards and forwards swiftly against a post or a tree will
+take fire; a stick of wood pressed against another which is turned
+swiftly about in a lathe, will soon make it turn black and emit smoke.
+Even the palms of your hands, if you rub them briskly together, when
+they are dry, will smell as if they were scorched. The method of
+exciting fire by rubbing two sticks of wood together, was anciently
+practised by country people, and is still retained in some parts of
+the world. The manner is exactly described in Captain Cook's voyage.
+The inhabitants of New-Holland are there said to produce fire with
+great facility, and spread it in a wonderful manner. To produce it,
+they take two pieces of _soft_ dry wood; one is a stick about eight or
+nine inches long, the other piece is flat. The stick they shape into an
+obtuse point at one end, and pressing it upon the other, turn it nimbly
+by holding it between both their hands, as we do a chocolate mill,
+often shifting their hands up and down, and then moving them down upon
+it to increase the pressure as much as possible. By this method they
+get fire in less than two minutes, and from the smallest spark they
+increase it with speed and dexterity.
+
+The matter of fire is attracted more or less by all bodies. When any
+heated body comes in contact with a cold one, the former loses a part
+of its heat, and both of them become equally warm. If heated iron is
+laid upon a stone, its heat will flow into the stone; if thrown into
+the water, the heat will be diffused through the water. If a number of
+different substances, as metals, wood, wool, &c, are brought together
+into a place where there is not a fire, if they are of different
+temperatures, that is of different degrees of heat, the fire will be
+attracted from the hottest to those that are colder, till a perfect
+equilibrium is produced, or till they have all acquired the same
+temperature, as may be proved by applying the thermometer successively
+to each of them.
+
+It does not appear, however, that all bodies have an equal attraction
+for the matter of fire. If a rod of iron is put into the fire for a
+short time, the end which is at a moderate distance from the fire will
+almost burn the hand; but a rod of wood, of the same length will be
+consumed to ashes at the end which is in the fire, before the other end
+is sufficiently heated to burn the hand. A ball of lead, and a ball of
+wool, may be of exactly the same temperature by the thermometer, but
+they will not appear of the same degree of heat on applying the hand.
+If they are of a temperature below that of our bodies, the lead will
+appear much colder than the wool, because it attracts the heat more
+rapidly from the hand; if they are of a higher temperature, the lead
+will appear much hotter, from the facility with which it parts with its
+heat. This property in bodies is called their _conducting_ power; and
+those bodies through which the element of fire most rapidly circulates,
+are called good conductors.
+
+The power of conducting the matter of fire seems to depend upon the
+texture of bodies, that is, upon the contact of their parts; hence the
+excessive slowness with which heat is communicated to bodies of a rare
+and spongy texture. Thus flannel, wool, and feathers, are considered as
+warm coverings, not because they possess more heat in themselves--for
+they serve to preserve any cold body in a cool state better than other
+substances--but because they prevent the escape of the animal heat from
+our bodies.
+
+The matter of fire will exist in a state of combination, in a _latent_
+state, so as not to be perceptible to our senses. It will be found by
+observation, that every body which exists contains a quantity of the
+matter of fire in a fixed or neutralized state, disarmed of all its
+active, penetrating, and destructive qualities, like an acid and an
+alkali in combination.
+
+Fluids, from their very nature and constitution, contain a greater
+quantity of caloric in a latent state than solid bodies: indeed it is
+now universally admitted, and may be easily proved, that the fluidity
+of all bodies is altogether owing to the quantity of fire which they
+retain in this latent or combined state, the elasticity of which keeps
+their particles remote from each other, and prevents their fixing into
+a solid mass. All bodies, therefore, in passing from a fluid to a solid
+state, emit a quantity of fire or heat. When water is thrown upon quick
+lime, it is absorbed by the lime, and in this state it is capable of
+retaining a much smaller quantity of caloric than in its natural state;
+on the slacking of lime, therefore, a very intense heat is produced,
+the matter of fire which preserved the water fluid being disengaged and
+detached. If spirit of vitriol is added to strong oil of turpentine,
+they will condense into a solid mass, and a great quantity of heat will
+be sensibly emitted. Upon the same principle it will be found, on the
+other hand, that when any body passes from a solid to a fluid state,
+the adjacent bodies will be deprived of a quantity of their natural
+heat.
+
+    [This theory of what is called _burning lime_, is not
+    sufficiently clear. Fire does not enter into the pores of the
+    lime by burning. The mineral commonly used for procuring _quick
+    lime_ is the _carbonate_ of lime, or common _limestone_, which
+    is composed of carbonic acid with a small quantity of water,
+    43, and lime 57, in 100 parts. By submiting it to a strong
+    heat, the carbonic acid is driven off, and the quick or pure
+    lime remains, which is an _oxide of calcium_. The loss in
+    weight is owing to the expulsion of the carbonic acid, with
+    the small portion of water. By adding water to the quick lime,
+    it is dissolved, and falls into a powder. This process is
+    called _slacking lime_, and the product, _slack-lime_. During
+    the process a large quantity of heat is disengaged; and if
+    the slacking be done in the dark, _light_ is also observed to
+    be thrown out. This heat is given out by the _water_, not the
+    lime. The lime having a _greater affinity_ for the _hydrogen_
+    of the water than exists between the hydrogen and oxygen in
+    water, seizes upon it, and the _oxygen passes off_, together
+    with the _latent caloric_ of the water, and thus the heat is
+    produced which is observed in slacking lime. The hydrogen of
+    the water combines with the lime and becomes solid, forming
+    an _hydrate of lime_, which is the common slacked lime used in
+    mortar.]
+
+The matter of fire is _elastic_, as is proved evidently from all its
+effects. There is indeed reason to believe, that caloric is the only
+fluid in nature which is permanently elastic, and that it is the
+cause of the elasticity of all fluids which are esteemed so. From the
+elasticity of this element it results, that all natural bodies can only
+retain a certain quantity of it, without undergoing an alteration in
+their state and form. Thus a moderate quantity of fire admitted into a
+solid body expands it; a still larger quantity renders it fluid; and if
+the quantity is still increased, it will be converted into vapor.
+
+Caloric expands all bodies which it penetrates, more or less, in
+proportion to its quantity, and to the nature of those bodies. The
+expansion of water, even previous to its assuming the form of vapor,
+may be seen in an easy experiment. If a quantity of cold water,
+contained in a clear flask, is immersed in a vessel of boiling water;
+as the heat enters, the water in the flask will be seen to rise in the
+neck till it overflows.
+
+An iron rod a foot long being heated red hot, became 1-60 longer
+than before; and a glass cylinder, a fathom long, under the same
+circumstances, gained 1-50 in length. A metalline ring thus heated was
+increased 9-100 in its diameter; and a glass globe became extended
+1-100 part by the heat of the hand only applied to its surface.[33]
+
+The _general_ effects of caloric are to increase the bulk of the
+substances with which it unites, and to render them specifically
+lighter than they were before; but in whatever quantity it is
+accumulated in bodies, it never adds to their absolute weight.
+Caloric favors the solution of salts, and promotes the union of many
+substances. In other cases it serves to separate bodies already united;
+so that in the hands of chemists it is the most useful and powerful
+agent with which they are acquainted. It is the cause of fluidity in
+all substances which are capable of becoming fluid, from the heaviest
+metal to the lightest gas. Let it be remembered that _all_ fluids are
+formed from solids by an addition of caloric; and that, by abstracting
+this caloric, solids would be reproduced. It insinuates itself among
+their particles, and invariably separates them in some measure from
+each other. We have reason to believe that every solid substance on
+the face of the earth might be converted to a fluid, or even a gas,
+were it submitted to the action of a very high temperature in peculiar
+circumstances.[34]
+
+    [The general and aggregate bearing of the facts and
+    experiments which are now known, render the statement here
+    made by Mr. Wood extremely probable, viz; That caloric is a
+    very subtle fluid which pervades in large quantities every
+    particle of matter in the universe--that it is the agent which
+    regulates the _densities_ of all bodies, and by consequence,
+    regulates in some measure their _weight_ and _dimensions_. It
+    is considered as an almost settled question, _that a stratum
+    of caloric surrounds each ultimate particle of every body, so
+    that the ultimate particles of bodies do not, and cannot be
+    made to touch each other_. Their inherent inclination to come
+    into actual contact is called their _attraction of cohesion_:
+    the power of this attraction is in proportion to the distance
+    at which they are kept from each other by the atmosphere of
+    caloric which intervenes between them. This atmosphere of
+    caloric is _idio-repulsive_: of course the particles of caloric
+    have an inherent _repulsion_ among themselves, and are ever
+    struggling to get further asunder.
+
+    This idio-repulsive nature of caloric is the great, and
+    constant antagonist power to the attraction of cohesion.
+    Caloric has a tendency to drive the particles of matter further
+    from each other, and these particles have a mutual tendency
+    to approach. Hence these two principles are ever in conflict.
+    As a general rule we may say, when the attraction of cohesion
+    prevails greatly, the body becomes _solid_: when the two forces
+    are pretty nearly balanced, the body becomes _liquid_: when the
+    caloric prevails greatly, the body becomes _gaseous_.
+
+    There is sufficient reason to believe, that _every_ body
+    in nature might be raised to a _gaseous_ state by the addition
+    or action of a sufficient quantity of caloric: and there is,
+    probably, a sufficient quantity in nature, to render the whole
+    _universe_ gaseous, were it sufficiently excited to a state
+    of freedom. It is a well known fact, that _all the metals are
+    fusible by heat_, and many of them have been _volatalized_, and
+    it is extremely probable all of them may be.
+
+    As caloric regulates the density of bodies, by resisting
+    and modifying the influence of the attraction of cohesion: if
+    it were entirely withdrawn from nature, or the whole of it
+    rendered perfectly latent, _all matter would become perfectly_
+    SOLID and FIXED: even _water_ and _air_ would assume the
+    _solidity of the diamond_.
+
+    We must, therefore, regard caloric as the great
+    conservative principle of the Universe, and yet capable, if
+    called into action, of destroying it instantly.
+
+    These views strongly corroborate _our_ paper on _chaos_.]
+
+From the experiments of General Roy, in the 75th volume of the
+Philosophical Transactions, it appears that the expansion of a steel
+pendulum of a clock is such, that every four degrees of the thermometer
+will cause a variation of a second per day; and that the difference
+between the going of a clock in summer and winter will be about six
+seconds per day, or one minute in ten days, owing to the metallic
+pendulum varying in length with every change of temperature. A
+knowledge of this circumstance gave rise to Harrison's self-regulating
+time-piece, which, by the different expansion of _different_ metals,
+accommodates its movements to every change of seasons or climate.
+
+The fire deposited below the surface of the earth is peculiarly
+important, having produced earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Dr.
+Watson, late Bishop of Llandaff, in his Chemical Essays, says, The most
+remarkable changes which have taken place in the form and constitution
+of the earth, since the deluge, have probably been produced by
+subterraneous fires; for it is to their agency that philosophers
+ascribe volcanos and earthquakes; those tremendous instruments of
+nature, by which she converts plains into mountains, the ocean into
+islands, and dry land into stagnant pools. Mr. Lemery, as far as I have
+been able to learn, adds the learned Bishop, was the first person who
+illustrated, by actual experiment, the origin of subterraneous fires.
+He mixed twenty-five pounds of powdered sulphur with an equal weight of
+iron filings; and having kneaded the mixture together, by means of a
+little water, into the consistency of a paste, he put it into an iron
+pot, covered it with a cloth, and buried the whole a foot under ground.
+In about eight or nine hours time the earth swelled, grew warm, and
+cracked: hot sulphureous vapors were perceived: a flame which dilated
+the cracks was observed; the superincumbent earth was covered with a
+yellow and black powder: in short, a subterraneous fire, producing a
+volcano in miniature, was spontaneously lighted up from the reciprocal
+actions of sulphur, iron, and water.
+
+Volcanic eruptions are awfully terrific, and sometimes extensively
+destructive. The violent eruption of Vesuvius, in 1767, is reckoned the
+27th since that which destroyed the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii,
+in the reign of the Emperor Titus; and this eruption of 1767, has been
+succeeded by several others. Of the eruptions of �tna, Mr. Oldenburg
+has given a historical account in the Philosophical Transactions, No.
+xlviii. p. 967. A very great eruption of this mountain was in the year
+1669. The progress of the lava, or fiery deluge, was at the rate of a
+furlong a day. It advanced into the sea 600 yards, and was then a mile
+in breadth. It had destroyed, in forty days, the habitations of 27,000
+persons; and of 20,000 inhabitants of the city of Catanea, only 3,000
+escaped. This inundation of liquid fire, in its progress, met with a
+lake four miles in compass, and not only filled it up, although it was
+four fathoms deep, but raised it into a mountain. Borelli, an ingenious
+Neapolitan, has calculated, that the matter discharged at this eruption
+was sufficient to fill a space of 93,838,750 cubic spaces. The lava
+which ran from it is fourteen miles in length, and, in many parts, six
+in breadth. There have been no such eruptions since, although there
+have been signs of many, more terrible, that preceded it.[35]
+
+The principal volcanos in Europe are Mount Vesuvius, near Naples, in
+Italy; Mount �tna, in Sicily; Mount Hecla, in Iceland; and Stromboli,
+the most northern of the Lipari islands, north of Sicily. Of all the
+volcanos recorded in history, Stromboli seems to be the only one that
+burns incessantly. �tna and Vesuvius are sometimes many months, and
+even years, without the least emission of fire; but this is ever at
+work, and, for ages past, has been considered as the light-house of
+the Mediterranean Sea. It is very probable, that Mount Vesuvius and
+Mount �tna form but different portions of _one_ chain of mountains that
+passes under the sea, and the isle of Lipari; for whenever one of the
+volcanos has a great eruption, it is observed that the other, and the
+volcano in the isle of Lipari, throw out more flames than ordinary.
+This remark was made by Huet, Bishop of Avranches, in France, a
+celebrated philosophical, historical, and commercial writer. The force
+of volcanos is supposed to be the greatest of any thing yet known in
+nature. In the great eruption of Vesuvius, in 1779, a stream of lava,
+of an immense magnitude, is said to have been projected to the height
+of at least 10,000 feet above the top of the mountain.
+
+    [The present state of chemical science, and the
+    geological discoveries of the last ten or fifteen years,
+    seem to discountenance the theory, that volcanic action, and
+    earthquakes result from _sulphur_, _iron_, and _water_, as Mr.
+    Lemery's experiment seems to indicate.
+
+    The vast extent of volcanic action, as indicated by extinct
+    and active volcanos, would require a greater amount of these
+    materials, than can be supposed to exist in the composition of
+    the earth. Thus, according to the Newtonian test of a correct
+    theory, the means, if true, would not be sufficient.
+
+    Again: If sulphur and iron were the principal agents in
+    producing volcanic action, and earthquakes, _volcanic products
+    would give evidence of it_, by being, principally, _sulphate
+    of iron_. So far is this from being the fact, that in 100
+    parts, volcanic product, Dr. Kennedy found, in reference to two
+    volcanos, not exceeding 14.25 oxide of iron, and no sulphur at
+    all.
+
+    Volcanic products are generally, "mixtures of the earth in
+    an oxidated and fused state, under intense ignition; water and
+    saline substances, such as might be furnished by the sea and
+    air, altered as might be expected from the formation of fixed
+    oxidated matter." URE.
+
+    These two simple considerations must set aside the theory
+    mentioned in the text. Other valid objections might be urged.
+
+    As this theory is inadmissible, because, neither true in
+    application to volcanic action and product, nor sufficient in
+    force, it is proper to supply the deficiency.
+
+    By a careful inspection of the phenomena attending volcanic
+    action, as well as an examination of its products, we are
+    clearly convinced, the _agents are a�riform_; chiefly _steam_
+    and the _gases_, and they act with an _expansive force from
+    beneath_.
+
+    Mouna Roa, in the island Owhyhee, rises 15,000 feet,
+    and has on its top a crater _eight miles_ in circumference,
+    containing a vast lake of molten lava. Mr. Goodrich visited it
+    in 1824. He says, "exhalations escape from all the fissures of
+    the lava crust, producing here and there a blast _like strong
+    vapor blowing out of a steam boiler_."
+
+    Subsequently, a party from the Blonde frigate visited it,
+    and the Rev. Charles Stewart, who accompanied the party, has
+    given a description of the crater. He says, "its surface had
+    all the agitation of the ocean. Billow after billow tossed
+    its monstrous bosom into the air, and occasionally the waves
+    from apposite directions met with such violence, as to dash
+    the fiery spray, in the concussion, forty or fifty feet high."
+    _Ure's New Syst. Geol._ pp. 381-2.
+
+    In both these accounts we clearly see a�riform agents
+    acting from beneath. The _hissing_ noise of steam escaping from
+    a boiler, convinces of the _nature_ of the body escaping. The
+    _upheaving_ of the melted lava proves, not only, that the agent
+    acts from _beneath_ by expansion, but also, by its resemblance
+    to the common phenomenon observed in boiling liquids, that
+    the agent is formed below, and rises through the melted lava,
+    heaving it up in swells and waves, until it escapes in a
+    gaseous state, like vapor from boiling liquids.
+
+    We must come to the same conclusion from the experiments,
+    observations, and reports of the celebrated, and intrepid
+    Spallanzani, who visited and examined the crater of the
+    ever-burning Stromboli. His words are nearly these: Fluid lava,
+    resembling melted brass red-hot, and liquid filled the crater
+    to a certain height, and this matter appeared to be influenced
+    by two distinct impelling powers; the one whirling and
+    agitated; and the other upwards, terminating in an explosion
+    like a short clap of thunder. Immediately before the explosion
+    occurred, the lava appeared _inflated_, and _large bubbles_,
+    some several feet in diameter, rose and burst, the detonation
+    followed and the lava sunk. During the rising, _a sound
+    issued from the crater like that produced by a liquid boiling
+    violently in a caldron_. In this case we have every evidence of
+    an _a�riform agent acting from beneath_.
+
+    An a�riform agent is detected also by examining the
+    _structure_ of volcanic products, which have been ejected in
+    a melted state. They are found to be _vesicular_, _cellular_,
+    and _porous_. This structure proves, incontestibly, that these
+    cavities and cells were filled with an a�riform body, which
+    escaped upon cooling.
+
+    This position might be sustained by other proofs, but it
+    is unnecessary. It remains only to ask, _whether these elastic
+    agents are sufficient to produce the astonishing amount and
+    products of volcanic action and earthquakes_?
+
+    The force which elastic agents are known to possess, when
+    generated suddenly, and raised to a high temperature, answers
+    this question promptly in the _affirmative_. A very few grains
+    of gunpowder, when converted into gas by sudden ignition in
+    a gun-barrel, by their expansive force drive a bullet with
+    astonishing power and velocity. A few cubic feet of water
+    converted into steam, will burst the strongest metallic barrier
+    which man can construct, unless it find vent.
+
+    As we have seen sufficiently clearly that a�riform bodies,
+    as steam and gases, are the elastic agents in producing
+    earthquakes and volcanos, it remains to inquire into the
+    _production_ and _action_ of those agents.
+
+    As it regards their production, the present state of
+    geological and chemical science suggests _three_ theories,
+    each of which would be adequate to the object.
+
+    It is necessary to premise that _water_ is a common agent
+    in each of the three theories.
+
+    1. The splendid discoveries of Sir H. Davy, in regard to
+    the _bases_ of the earths, demonstrating them to be _metallic_,
+    and the earths merely _oxides_ of those metals, have led to the
+    conjecture, _that these metals exist in nearly a pure state in
+    the interior of the earth_; of course the _crust_ of the earth
+    is composed of the various metallic oxides.
+
+    It is well known that many of these metals _take fire on
+    coming into contact with water, as potassium, sodium, &c_; and
+    _all of them oxidize rapidly on meeting with water and air_,
+    and thus _large quantities of hydrogen gas would be evolved_.
+
+    This theory is so reasonable, in view of the
+    _combustibility_ of metals, and so conformable to science, that
+    we almost decide it is true, without further examination.
+
+    But, in order that its demonstration should be clear, it
+    must first be shown, _that the metals do exist in nearly a pure
+    state in the interior of the earth_: and then, _that they are
+    accessible by water, or air, or both_.
+
+    The first point can only be rendered _probable by analogy_.
+    We _know_ that the earths which are found in the crust of our
+    planet are _metallic oxides_. It is very natural to suppose
+    these metals existed in a pure _metallic state at the creation,
+    as well at the surface as at the centre_; as all other bodies
+    most probably existed in an elementary and uncombined state
+    when God first produced them. From this supposition it is
+    easy to see, that when water and air came into action, which
+    would be at the earth's surface, these metals would be rapidly
+    oxidized, thus forming the earths. But as this process would
+    commence at the _surface_ of the earth, and _tend towards the
+    centre_, it is evident its _progress would be arrested by its
+    own action_.
+
+    For the _accumulation of the earths_, by the oxidation of
+    the metals, would gradually form the _superincumbent crust_,
+    which would act as a _barrier_ to the water and air, preventing
+    their contact with the metals in the interior, _which_, of
+    course, _would not be oxidized_.
+
+    In this state they would remain buried deep under the
+    superincumbent oxidated crust of the earth, until water and
+    air should find access to them. When this should take place
+    a rapid, and extensive _chemical action_ would commence,
+    generating immense quantities of hydrogen gas, the metals
+    _decomposing_ the air and water, in the process of oxidation,
+    and setting the _hydrogen_ of the water, and _nitrogen_ of the
+    air _free_. Thus a large amount of the most inflammable of all
+    gases would be disengaged. The rapid chemical action would
+    _raise the temperature_ of these gases, and thus _increase
+    their bulk_ immensely, which would produce an irresistible
+    _expansive force_, which would _increase the pressure_ against
+    the sides of the cavern in which the gases were generated,
+    _and the_ IGNITION _of the hydrogen would be a necessary
+    consequence_. Such an immense volume of gas being ignited, and
+    confined, would produce such a degree of heat, as rapidly to
+    _decompose_ or _melt_ the substances in its neighborhood, and
+    set at liberty a vast quantity of other gases; all of which
+    being _ignited_, and of course _expanded_ immeasurably, would
+    not only shake a given section of the earth, but, if placed
+    in its centre, would shake the solid globe throughout, and
+    rend it into ten thousand pieces, if it did not find means to
+    escape. If it found means of escape by some opening forced from
+    its seat to the surface of the earth, _that opening would_
+    CONSTITUTE A VOLCANO; from which the gases would escape, and
+    throw out before them the vast amount of volcanic products
+    which are known to come forth of the craters.
+
+    It now remains to inquire, _whether a sufficient quantity
+    of water can be supposed to have access to these metals_?
+
+    From what we know of the distribution of water generally
+    in the bowels of the earth, we should have no difficulty in
+    admitting the _affirmative_. But this question may be clearly
+    answered by two circumstances.
+
+    First: Large quantities of boiling water and mud, are
+    frequently ejected from volcanos. This proves an _excess_
+    of water at, or near the seat of action, which could not be
+    decomposed, before the amount of gases generated, and acting
+    with incredible force, drove it out of the crater. This fact is
+    true in some measure of all volcanos, but eminently so of those
+    in South America. "Bouguer and Condamine saw these formidable
+    torrents tear up the surface of a whole country. Six hours
+    after an explosion of Cotopaxi, a village nearly eighty miles
+    distant in a straight line, and probably one hundred and forty
+    by the winding channel, was entirely swept away by the flood."
+    _Ure's New Sys. Geol._ p. 386.
+
+    Secondly: The position of volcanos, _always near the
+    sea_, together with the _agitations of the sea_, previous to,
+    and during an eruption, as well as the _saline_ matter in
+    the ejected substances, render it very clear, _that the sea,
+    by subterranean communication, supplies water at the seat
+    of volcanic action_. "The sea seems to sympathise with the
+    agitations of the adjoining volcanos, rising and falling with
+    rapid alternation--_caused by the sudden deflux of a great body
+    of water into the vast volcanic caverns_." _Ure's New Sys.
+    Geol._ p. 388.
+
+    This fact is so well known in the history of volcanos,
+    that it needs no further proof. It has, however, led to the
+    remark, that volcanos are generally situated in islands, or
+    near the sea coast. Indeed many of them are _submarine_, and
+    have actually been seen in operation, throwing up vast columns
+    of water to an immense height, until the edge of the crater
+    appeared above the surface of the sea, and increased into
+    islands, which have become permanent. At such times the water
+    of the sea for a great distance round became _hot_, fishes
+    died; and even the pitch melted from the hulks of the vessels
+    in the neighborhood.
+
+    2. Another theory has been proposed which does not differ
+    from the first, in regard to the _materials_ employed at the
+    seat of volcanic action, nor in the _manner_ of the process;
+    but in regard to the _condition_ of those materials when they
+    _begin_ to operate in the production of the elastic agents.
+    These materials may be in a state of _igneous fusion_ in the
+    interior of the earth. This state is supposed to have resulted
+    thus:
+
+    When God created the substances of the earth, they were
+    in an _elementary_ and _uncombined_ state, promiscuously
+    mixed through each other from the surface to the centre. By
+    his _Spirit brooding over the great deep_, caloric and light,
+    which were in a _latent_ state, were called into action,
+    which gave impulse and motion to every particle of matter,
+    thus quickening the whole mass by producing _intense heat_.
+    This would cause the _aqueous_ and _gaseous_ particles to
+    rise through the mass, and collect at the surface. This would
+    bring them in contact with the metals in a pure state, which
+    would of course _oxidize_, and become _earths_. This action
+    would go on until it arrested its own progress, by forming and
+    consolidating the oxidated crust of the earth inclosing all
+    the interior substances in a state of igneous fusion, which
+    have been gradually cooling ever since. The _primitive_ rocks,
+    which have a crystalline structure, are supposed to have been
+    deposited during this process, as it is evident they could not
+    have crystallized under any other circumstances, and they are
+    well known to be composed of the earths which are only metals
+    in a state of oxidation. It is now only necessary to introduce
+    the water to this mass of melted matter, or any part of it, as
+    in the first theory to the metals in their pure state, _and we
+    have the same results in all respects_.
+
+    This theory has two advantages over the first. It agrees
+    best with the crystalline structure which primitive rocks are
+    known to possess, and which must result from chemical action on
+    the materials in a state of solution. It also seems to accord
+    best with the Mosaic account of the action of heat and light,
+    in assimilating, arranging and settling the materials of the
+    earth.
+
+    Moreover, it is confirmed by experiments made on the
+    _temperature_ of the earth at different depths. The following
+    tables are extracted from Mr. Ure's New System of Geology, pp.
+    426-7. They accord, in their tendency, with the opinions of
+    other eminent philosophers than those whose names appear in the
+    tables.
+
+    _Observations on the temperature of the earth._
+
+        In the mines of Giro-Magny, three leagues from Befort,
+        M. Gensanne found:
+
+            At 333 feet, 54� Fahr.
+               680   "   62
+              1016   "   66�
+              1429   "   73
+
+        In the mines of Freyberg, M. D'Aubuisson found
+
+            External air           41
+            In the galleries       50
+            528 feet, water pool   52
+            858 water of a spring  57
+
+        At Junghohebirke,
+
+            external thermometer   32
+            1040 feet, water was   63
+
+        Observations by Captain Lean in the mines of
+        Cornwall.
+
+            At surface, in June,   59
+               118 feet deep       64�
+               480  "              68
+               840  "              69�
+              1144  "              79
+
+        _December._
+
+            At the surface air     50
+               120 feet air        57
+               600  "   air        66
+              ----  "   water      64
+               962  "   air        70
+              ----  "   water      74
+              1200  "   air        78
+              ----  "   water      78
+
+    M. Humboldt obtained analogous results in many mines
+    in South America. The evidence in favor of a _perpetually
+    increasing temperature as you descend into the earth_, and a
+    _higher temperature formerly at the surface of the earth_, is
+    increasing daily. _See the conclusion of this paper._
+
+    3. There is yet a third theory, founded on _voltaic
+    energy_, or _galvanism_ and _electricity_.
+
+    The application of these agents to the production of
+    volcanic action, had occurred to me, before I met with the
+    "Outline of the course of Geological Lectures, given in Yale
+    College," by Professor Silliman, from which the following
+    extract is made. I had not regarded their application in
+    the same manner as he has explained it. Indeed, my thoughts
+    on the subject had not assumed any definite direction. I
+    shall transcribe from his "Outline," pp. 118-19, inserted in
+    "Bakewell's Introduction to Geology, first American Edition."
+
+    "Whatever we may think of the hypothesis now detailed, may
+    we not suppose, with sufficient probability, that those voltaic
+    powers which we _know_ to exist--whose action we can command,
+    and whose effects having been first observed within the memory
+    of the present generation, now fill us with astonishment, are
+    constantly active in producing the phenomena of earthquakes and
+    volcanos?
+
+    "Arrangements of metals and fluids are the common means
+    by which we evolve this wonderful power, in our laboratories;
+    and it would seem that nothing more than juxta-position, in
+    a certain order, is necessary to the effect. Even substances
+    apparently dry and inert, with respect to each other, will
+    produce a permanent, and in proportion to the means employed,
+    a powerful effect, as in the columns of De Luc and Zamboui. It
+    would seem indeed that metals and fluids are not _necessary_
+    to the effect. Arrangements of almost any substances that are
+    of different natures, will cause the evolution of this power.
+    Whoever has witnessed the overwhelming brilliancy and intense
+    energy of the great galvanic combinations, especially the
+    deflagrator of Dr. Hare, and considers how very trifling, in
+    extent, are our largest combinations of apparatus, compared
+    with those natural arrangements of earths, salts, metals, and
+    fluids, which we know to exist in the earth, in circumstances
+    similar to those which, in our laboratories, are effectual in
+    causing this power to appear, will not be slow to believe that
+    it may be in the earth perpetually evolved, and perpetually
+    renewed; and now mitigated, suppressed, or revived, according
+    to circumstances influencing the particular state of things at
+    particular places.
+
+    "In our laboratories we see emanating from this source,
+    intense light, irresistible heat, magnetism in great energy,
+    and above all, a decomposing power, which commands equally
+    all the elements, and the proximate principles in all their
+    combinations.
+
+    "Sir Humphrey Davy, after discovering that the supporters
+    of combustion and the acids, were all evolved at the
+    positive pole, and the combustibles and metals, and their
+    oxidated products, at the negative--proved that even the
+    firmest rocks and stones could not resist this power; their
+    immediate principles and elements being separated by its
+    energy. The decomposition of the alkalies, earths, and other
+    metallic oxides being a direct and now familiar effect of
+    voltaic energy--their metals being set at liberty, and being
+    combustible both in air and water--elastic agents produced
+    by this power, and rarified by heat, being also attendant on
+    these decompositions, it would seem that the first principles
+    are fully established by experiment, and that nothing is
+    hypothetical, but the application to the phenomena of
+    earthquakes and volcanos."
+
+    The reader will perceive that all of the above theories
+    agree in one respect, viz; in the agency of _elastic bodies_,
+    as steam and gases, produced by the decomposition of
+    substances; and that the same substances are supposed to be
+    employed, though not precisely in the same manner, nor in the
+    same condition. Further Geological and Chemical experiments
+    may, hereafter, settle the question between these theories.
+    They are all scientific in their principles, and fully
+    competent to the object, and it is not impossible but that they
+    may all be true in part or in whole, acting separately in some
+    instances, and combined in others.
+
+    Under the agency of either of them the products would be
+    the same. Dr. Kennedy has made experiments on the composition
+    of volcanic products, and found, Silex, 51--Alumina, 19--Lime,
+    9.5--Oxide of iron, 14.5--Soda, 4--Muriatic acid, 1--in 100
+    parts.
+
+    As it regards the extent of volcanic action and
+    earthquakes, the two first theories agree best with actual
+    appearances. They would lead us to conclude that volcanic
+    action was necessarily more extensive in the earlier ages of
+    the world than now. Because, every action would oxidize the
+    crust of the earth deeper, and increase the superincumbent
+    strata, and render the access of water and air more difficult.
+    _This is found to be the fact by observation in different
+    countries._
+
+    In some parts of France, in which kingdom there is not,
+    and has not been for the last two thousand years, any active
+    volcano, _there are ranges of extinct volcanos, in which may
+    be counted from seventy to one hundred craters_. They are so
+    close their bases touch in many instances. The same fact is
+    observed along the Rhine, and in Hungary, and other countries.
+    _See Ure's New Syst. Geol. and Bakewell's Geology._
+
+    Mr. Ure reckons up two hundred and five _active_
+    volcanos at this time. One hundred and seven in islands, and
+    ninety-eight on continents.
+
+    It is very evident that the _seat_ of volcanic action is
+    vastly below the surface of the earth. The _extent_ of country
+    which is shaken by the effort of the gases to escape, will
+    prove this. The agitations have been felt over all Europe, and
+    even _across the Atlantic_!
+
+    Again: If the action were not situated far below the
+    surface of the earth, the mountains, which only serve as
+    _chimnies_, and which have been formed by the action of the
+    volcanos, _would sink in_. This has been the case in a few
+    instances. This will appear more clearly if we consider
+    the _amount_ of matter ejected. Did it not come from an
+    immeasurable distance beneath, the accumulated mass at the
+    surface of the earth would break down the _substrata_ which
+    lie over the immense caverns formed by the ejection. The
+    _dimensions_ of those caverns, situated under the volcanic
+    mountains, are far greater than one would suppose at first
+    consideration. _The internal caverns must be as large as the
+    ejected masses, which came out of them._ �tna is known to have
+    thrown out matter sufficient to form twenty such mountains as
+    it is. It is strongly probable that the whole island of Sicily
+    is of volcanic origin. Humboldt says the dome-shaped craters
+    of volcanos rise from six hundred to eighteen thousand feet in
+    height. He considers the _whole mountainous district of Quito
+    as one immense volcano_.
+
+    Indeed, from a close survey of the geological features of
+    the earth, there is reason to believe, that at very remote
+    periods almost the whole surface of our globe has been the
+    theatre of volcanic action. It is a matter of gratitude
+    that its amount is growing less every year, of course the
+    destructions by earthquakes are more limited. In process
+    of time, it may be hoped, the earth may become permanently
+    tranquil, nor flame, nor shake, until the final catastrophe,
+    which God has ordained to destroy our planet, by a general and
+    simultaneous action of all the fires of the earth.
+
+    P.S. It may be of advantage to recollect, that the
+    _expansive force of steam is to that of gunpowder as 140 to
+    5_. According to Vauban, 140 pounds of water converted into
+    vapor would produce an explosion capable of blowing up 77,000
+    pounds, while 140 pounds of gunpowder could only blow up a mass
+    of 30,000. _See the text under the head_, "SALUTARY EFFECTS OF
+    WATER."
+
+
+    APPENDIX.
+
+    _On the temperature of the earth anciently._
+
+    That the temperature of the earth's surface was much higher
+    in the first ages of its existence, than since the period of
+    authentic history, seems now to be nearly established, in the
+    opinion of the learned, and only requires time to have the
+    weight of evidence produce its proper effect on the great mass
+    of community.
+
+    Though this fact would be apprehended from what is said
+    above, it may be desirable to the reader to see a concise view
+    of the reasons which induce this opinion.
+
+    1. _It may be inferred from the original constitution of
+    the globe, and the chemical action consequent upon it._ It
+    has been seen above that the _natural_ condition of matter
+    is _cold_, _frozen_, _inactive_, and _solid_: and that the
+    elements of this globe were created in a _simple, uncombined
+    state_. If this mass of elements received a quickening impulse,
+    the chemical laws of _affinity_ and _attraction_, and also the
+    natural law of _gravitation_, would commence exerting their
+    influence. This we know would create a rise in the temperature
+    of the whole mass, in proportion to the _amount_ of matter
+    acted on, and the _force_ of the different principles and
+    agents which were in operation. Upon consideration of these
+    points in regard to our earth, no one can doubt but that they
+    would raise the temperature to an inconceivable height.
+
+    _Refrigeration_ would commence at the surface as soon
+    as the first violent action was abated, and the water and
+    air began to assume their relative places, through which the
+    heat would escape into celestial space. This refrigeration
+    would be increased by the oxidation of the metals forming the
+    crust of the earth, which would confine the interior heat
+    more effectually, because, the earths are almost complete
+    _non-conductors_ of caloric. Thus the crust of the earth would
+    continue to cool, and the oxidation would thicken it, and, of
+    course, contribute to the reduction of its temperature.
+
+    From this natural process it is very evident that the earth
+    was much warmer during its first periods; earthquakes, and
+    volcanos much more common than now, and a general instability
+    in the condition of our globe. The deluge was the climax of its
+    alternations, and settled, in some measure, its constitution by
+    a sudden and great reduction of temperature.
+
+    2. _It may be inferred from the vast extent of volcanic
+    action, as indicated by the remains of extinct volcanos, and
+    their effects on the earth._ This argument is merely _called up
+    here_, not to be discussed at length, but to be _referred_ to,
+    as it has been mentioned in a preceding part of this paper.
+
+    It is almost impossible for the ordinary reader, who has
+    not closely studied the geological phenomena which present
+    themselves to the close observer, to conceive of the extent
+    to which volcanic action operated anciently. It would not be
+    exaggeration to say, there was a remote period _when our globe
+    was a single volcano_: the whole surface of it being subject to
+    its action.
+
+    Though we may ascribe something of the formation of hills
+    and vallies to the action of water, yet, doubtless, the
+    most effectual agent in upheaving the mountains, and even
+    continents, possibly, was volcanic force.
+
+    "Those ranges of volcanos," says the celebrated Humboldt,
+    "those eruptions through vast chasms, those subterranean
+    thunders, that roll under the transition rocks of porphyry and
+    slate in the new world, remind us of the present activity of
+    subterranean fire, of the power, which in remote ages, _has
+    raised up chains of mountains, broke the surface of the globe,
+    and poured torrents of liquid earth in the midst of the most
+    ancient strata_."
+
+    From this constant and extensive volcanic action we may
+    safely infer the high temperature of our earth anciently.
+
+    3. _It may be inferred from the origin of primitive,
+    trapean, and basaltic rocks._ The primitive rocks, as granite,
+    gneiss, mica slate, &c, give evidence on this consideration;
+    they must have been deposited when their substance was in
+    solution, admitting of _chemical mobility_, in order that they
+    might assume a crystalline form which they are known to have.
+
+    It is not easy to conceive _how_ the substances of the
+    primitive rocks could be solved, except by _heat_, as a
+    _principal solvent_. The acids, and water also, may have
+    contributed to their solution, but would not be competent of
+    themselves. This consideration would give a high temperature
+    for the earth anciently.
+
+    It is now generally admitted that the trap, and basaltic
+    rocks are of _igneous_ origin. When we consider the _magnitude_
+    of the trap and basalt formations, the extent of surface which
+    they cover, the hills, and even elevated and lofty mountains
+    which they form, we shall not hesitate to assign a higher
+    temperature to our earth at the period when fires, so immense
+    as to effect the upheaving and ejection of all these, actually
+    burned in the bowels of the earth.
+
+    4. _It may be inferred from the well preserved remains of
+    vegetables and animals of warm equatorial climates, in high
+    northern latitudes where they have not been found since the
+    memory of man._ This is a conclusive argument if its _data_
+    be well established. Because, if _tropical_ and _equatorial_
+    animals and fruits are _now_ found buried and fossilized
+    in Siberia, and the islands of the _arctic sea_, in such a
+    state of preservation as to forbid the supposition they were
+    transported thither, it will follow inevitably, that they _grew
+    there_, and there flourished, died, and were buried.
+
+    Moreover, if _herbivorous_ animals are found fossilized
+    in those high northern latitudes, under such circumstances as
+    forbid the supposition, that they were transported thither, it
+    will doubtless, follow, that not only _they_ lived there, but
+    also _luxuriant vegetation_ must at the same time have covered
+    the plains where their remains are entombed.
+
+    The inference which we are forced to draw from these
+    _data_, is this: _As no such tropical and equatorial animals or
+    plants have been known to exist there, nor even herbage of any
+    kind, on which such animals might subsist, since the memory of
+    man, there was a time anciently when the climate suited their
+    growth, and of course was very much warmer than it is known to
+    be now, its temperature then corresponding to the temperature
+    of the present equatorial regions, as it produced and subsisted
+    anciently the animals and plants which the tropical regions
+    produce and subsist at the present time, and which cannot
+    subsist in any other climates._
+
+    In proof of the above position, it is well known that
+    animals and plants have their peculiar climates, in which they
+    are _indigenous_, and out of which they cannot thrive, or even
+    live, if too far removed. It is also well known, that the
+    warmer, and more moist the climate is, the more luxuriant the
+    vegetation, and the more huge the animals.
+
+    Hence we are in the habit of denominating animals and
+    plants by the climates in which they are indigenous, as
+    _arctic_, or northern; _tropical_, or southern. Let us now see
+    if the tropical animals and plants once lived and flourished in
+    high northern latitudes. The best authorities follow.
+
+    "We proceed now to examine the remains of quadrupeds:
+    _these are found accumulated in regions where similar animals
+    do not_ NOW _exist_. Some are buried deep in gypsum.--Some
+    present themselves to view, accumulated in vast caverns, and
+    destitute of any envelope. The islands of Lachof, situated
+    to the NORTH _of Siberia_, are, according to a modern
+    traveller, _only heaps of sand, ice, and bones of elephants and
+    rhinoceros_, mixed with those of great cetaceous animals, and
+    even, agreeably to the latest accounts, with the remains of
+    gigantic birds.
+
+    "There have been found in _Siberia, whole carcases of the
+    elephant, covered with their_ FLESH and SKIN, preserved by the
+    frosts which prevail in those regions.--Germany has furnished
+    the greatest number (of bones:)--In France a great many bones
+    of the elephant have been met with.
+
+    "These discoveries, though as yet scarcely commenced, have
+    thrown already _a new light upon the revolutions which our
+    globe must have undergone, and upon the_ STATES WHICH MUST HAVE
+    PRECEDED THE PRESENT COURSE AND CONSTITUTION OF NATURE.
+
+    "These bones, presenting no trace of having been rolled
+    up and down, occurring only fractured as we find those of
+    our domestic animals, and sometimes joined together in the
+    form of skeletons, often even as it were heaped up in common
+    cemeteries, clearly demonstrate, _that the catastrophe which
+    has destroyed the living beings to which they belonged must
+    have overtaken them in the_ SAME CLIMATES WHERE WE MEET WITH
+    THESE RECORDS OF THEIR FORMER EXISTENCE.
+
+    "The quantity of nourishment which such huge animated
+    masses required, and their numbers, proved by the existence of
+    the carnivorous kinds, _render it probable that the countries
+    where we find their remains_ ONCE _enjoyed a temperature, if
+    not warmer, at least more favorable to vegetation_." MALTE
+    BRUN, _Physical Geography, Book 12_.
+
+    In the above quotations, the data on which our argument
+    rests are so clearly sustained there needs no comment. The
+    authority given is unquestionable, and could be corroborated by
+    scores of weighty names, and in reference to all the _northern_
+    countries of Asia, Europe, and America.
+
+    It is impossible to read the above extracts without being
+    convinced that those tropical and equatorial animals lived,
+    flourished, and died _where_ their remains are _now_ found. And
+    it is equally impossible to avoid another conclusion; viz: that
+    there must have been a heavy vegetation on those plains, where
+    _now_ the rein-deer can scarcely pick up a blade of grass.
+
+    From these convictions no other inference can be drawn, but
+    that the temperature of the _frigid zones_, was anciently much
+    higher than at present; and of course the general temperature
+    of the earth also.
+
+    From the perfect preservation of these fossil remains; from
+    the fact that they are found in their relative position, bone
+    to bone, and, in some instances, with their _hair_, _skin_,
+    and _flesh undecayed_, it is obvious, _the animals must have
+    perished by a catastrophe which overwhelmed them suddenly, and
+    was, instantaneously followed by a freezing of the overwhelming
+    waters_. Such was the catastrophe of the _scripture deluge_,
+    which _physically_ was competent to perform the phenomena, as
+    shall be shown presently.
+
+    Let us now see if we do not arrive at the same conclusion
+    by examining the _fossil_ VEGETABLES.
+
+    At Portland, England, the Rev. Dr. Buckland finds fossil
+    plants _akin to the cycas family of Malabar_, from which he
+    concludes, "it is probable that the climate of these regions,
+    _at the time when the oolites_ (a series of rocky strata) _were
+    deposited, was of the same warm temperature with that_ (the
+    tropical) _which produces a large proportion of the existing
+    cycade�_." URE, _New Syst. Geol._ p. 433.
+
+    "The remarkable development of these vegetables
+    (equisetums) during the first (or coal measure) period of
+    vegetation, and their size in the second (or oolitic) period,
+    _smaller_ than before, but still far greater than our existing
+    equisetums, accord with many other facts, furnished by fossil
+    vegetables of many other families, to lead us to regard the
+    _climate of the earth, at these remote epochs, to have been
+    hotter than the hottest of modern climates_." _Ibid_, p. 443.
+
+    "There is no doubt, however, that _palms with fan-shaped
+    leaves covered Europe with their lofty vegetation at this
+    remote period, in regions where no species of these plants
+    could_ NOW _grow_!" _Ibid_, p. 452.
+
+    The palm is well known to be a _tropical_ plant, and cannot
+    thrive, except in a warm climate. The climate of Europe, when
+    it grew in the north, must have been tropical. Indeed, in
+    all parts of northern Europe _tropical flowers_, _leaves_,
+    and _fruits_ are found in such a state of preservation as to
+    convince the most incredulous, _that they must have grown
+    on the spot_; which would be to convince him of the high
+    temperature, anciently, of those regions.
+
+    "Professor Kounizin describes in the Isis for 1821, immense
+    beds of fossil wood in several localities of the governments
+    of Novogorod and Twer in the _north_ of Russia, _where no such
+    trees are now found to grow_.
+
+    "Near Constand on the river Necker, M. Autenrieth found an
+    entire forest of the trunks of _palm trees_, buried along with
+    the remains of elephants." _Ure, Ibid_, p. 455.
+
+    "The fossil shells found in the strata of England, and
+    France, and the contiguous countries, having for the most part,
+    no _antitypes alive except in equatorial regions_, harmonize
+    with the preceding details." _Ibid_, p. 456.
+
+    To the above testimony might be added the _caves_ in
+    Germany, England, and France, in which great quantities of
+    bones are found in such a state of preservation, and under such
+    circumstances as to show that the animals whose bones are found
+    were in the habit of frequenting these caves, and perished
+    in them suddenly, as their remains are found mixed with sand
+    and gravel, _but not water-worn_. Of these bones, the great
+    majority are those of the hy�na; hence these dens, specially in
+    England, are called _hy�na dens_. In them are also found the
+    bones of other animals _gnawed_ by the hy�nas.
+
+    From these facts there can be no doubt but the hy�na
+    inhabited England, France, and Germany, and dwelt in these
+    caves, and here perished when the sudden catastrophe of the
+    flood overtook him. This argues beyond doubt that these
+    countries were once _warm_, _when these tropical animals lived
+    in them_.
+
+    5. _The same fact may be inferred from the immense amount
+    of vegetable matter which was necessary to supply the materials
+    for the coal measures._ This is an irresistible argument in
+    view of the _immense amount_ of coal in the bowels of the
+    earth, which must be of _vegetable origin_. Because at the
+    ratio of vegetable product of _our age_, the earth would not
+    produce a sufficient amount to form the coalbeds, short of
+    millions of years.
+
+    The _vegetative power_ of the earth, therefore, must have
+    been anciently very much greater than at present, which could
+    only be on the supposition of a _warmer_ and more moist climate.
+
+    Moreover, the fact that tropical plants are known to have
+    contributed almost entirely to the formation of coal measures
+    in the _northern latitudes_, is proof direct. This is clear
+    from the fact that their roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and
+    fruits are found impressed on the coal, in such a manner that
+    there can be no mistake; and the _perfection_ of the impression
+    forbids the supposition that they were _transported_ thither
+    from tropical climates.
+
+    "Brown coal and black coal, the former sometimes called
+    wood coal, is found chiefly in diluvial or alluvial ground.
+    It contains, besides charcoal and bitumen, _various vegetable
+    principles, and the branches or trunks of trees_ partially
+    decomposed, _which mark the origin of this kind of coal_."
+    _Bakewell's Geology_, p. 111.
+
+    "Wood coal, or brown coal, is found in low situations
+    and appears to have been _formed of heaps of trees_ buried
+    by inundations under beds of clay, sand, or gravel.--In some
+    specimens of this coal the _vegetable fibre, or grain_, is
+    perceptible in one part, and the other part is reduced to
+    coal." _Ibid_, p. 121.
+
+    "In wood coal we may almost seize nature in the fact of
+    making coal, before the process is completed. These formations
+    of coal are of far more recent date than that of common coal,
+    though their origin must be referred to a former condition
+    of our globe, _when the vegetable productions of tropical
+    climates flourished in northern latitudes_. The _vegetable
+    origin_ of common mineral coal appears to be established by its
+    association with strata _abounding in vegetable impressions_,
+    by its close similarity to wood coal, (which is undoubtedly a
+    _vegetable product_) and lastly by the decisive fact, that some
+    mineral coal in the Dudley coal-field is _entirely composed of
+    the layers of mineralized plants_." _Ibid_, p. 122.
+
+    "When we see the multitude of reeds filled and surrounded
+    with sandstone, having their thin scaly bark _converted into
+    a true coal_, it is _impossible to doubt of its vegetable
+    origin_." _Ure's New System Geol._ p. 166.
+
+    Quotations from the best authorities might be multiplied
+    to the same effect, but it is deemed unnecessary. It remains
+    to repeat the question, _Could such an amount of vegetable
+    matter have been accumulated, short of millions of years, at
+    the ratio of the present vegetative powers of the earth?_ It is
+    impossible. The only remaining conclusion is, the vegetative
+    power of the earth anciently was much greater than at present,
+    which could not have been except its temperature was much
+    higher also.
+
+    In conclusion on this question, it is necessary to say,
+    that the reduction of the earth's temperature would be gradual,
+    in a natural way, by the heat flying off into celestial spaces,
+    until the crust became so thick and compact as to prove a
+    perfect non-conductor of caloric. Then the surface of the earth
+    would depend on the heating power of the sun altogether.
+    The thickening of the crust of the earth would be attended
+    with earthquakes, volcanos, and partial deluges, the natural
+    and necessary results of the oxidations of the metals. Hence
+    we would have different strata of rocks, sand, gravel, &c,
+    deposited at different times, and over different sections of
+    the country. Hence also forests would be overthrown, and the
+    vegetation of years be thrown together in the nearest lakes
+    or seas; which explains the origin of _coal-basins_. This
+    state of things also well explains the alternations of strata
+    of different kinds, as sand, gravel, chalk, fresh and salt
+    water deposites, &c, as well as the dislocations, fractures,
+    contortions, and confusions observable in the structure of the
+    earth's crust.
+
+    There are however various phenomena which indicate
+    clearly that there was _a general and sudden reduction of
+    temperature_. The state of preservation, in which those animals
+    in Siberia are found, proves this. The vestigia of the _last_
+    great revolution in our globe clearly indicate the DELUGE
+    to have been the cause of this general and sudden reduction
+    of temperature. This would be the natural consequence of
+    _submerging_ the earth in water: and the suddenness of the
+    event is well attested both by the scriptures, and the physical
+    history of our earth.
+
+    The action of the deluge does not come within the
+    contemplation of this volume, and therefore will not be noticed
+    here.]
+
+The air is another storehouse of fire. When lucid igneous particles
+are strongly attracted to one another in great quantities, their heat
+becomes intolerable, and is capable of destroying the most solid
+bodies. It is well known, that when converged in the focus of one of
+Hartsocker's burning-glasses, they will produce wonderful effects: tin,
+lead, or any soft metal, will dissolve at the first touch; and iron,
+which requires a very strong fire for liquefaction, will melt before
+one of these glasses almost as soon as applied. They will consume
+wood, though wet, in a moment; vitrify bricks and pumice stones, and
+dissolve earthen vessels full of water; and plume-allum, which will
+resist the fire of the hottest glass-houses, without alteration, is
+instantly melted. Even gold, that resists the force of common fire, is
+soon liquefied by their powerful agency. This plainly shows us that,
+provided there were not a wise and almighty Providence, superintending
+all his works, those materials which are of the greatest utility to the
+harmony and order of things, would have a direct tendency to destroy
+the whole. If lucid igneous particles were to form solid bodies, and
+depart from their state of fluidity, they would, in an instant, reduce
+this globe to ashes, or render it liquid fire. Were they all of one
+kind, it is probable they might unite in solid bodies; but the wisdom
+of Providence has formed them of various colors, and of different
+reflections and refrangibility. This prevents them from associating in
+such a manner as to do harm, which can only be produced by converging
+them with some instrument which prevents their flying off. As all
+these have not the same degree of reflexibility and refrangibility, but
+as some are capable of greater reflections and refractions than others,
+they cannot, without force, be united in one solid body, yet they are
+all serviceable for important purposes, contributing to the happiness
+of man, and the welfare of all living creatures.
+
+Considering the extent of fire, and that its property is, when put
+into motion, to consume all combustible substances within its reach,
+it is astonishing that the world has not long since been destroyed!
+This terrible element is at present restrained and directed by its
+almighty Creator; but divine revelation informs us, that a period
+will arrive when its utmost energies shall be called into action. The
+apostle Peter asserts, that "the heavens and earth, which are now, by
+the same word are kept in store, reserved unto fire against the day of
+judgment and perdition of ungodly men;--in the which the heavens shall
+pass away with a great noise, and the elements shall melt with fervent
+heat; the earth also, and the works that are therein shall be burnt
+up." Again he says, "looking for and hasting unto the coming of the
+day of God, wherein the heavens being on fire shall be dissolved, and
+the elements shall melt with fervent heat." The _passing away of the
+heavens_ means the same as their being _dissolved by fire_. The word
+<<Rhoiz�don>> signifies with a _very loud_ and _terrible noise_: with
+a sound resembling that of a great _storm_. In this place it more
+particularly denotes the horrid crackling noise of a wide-spreading
+fire.
+
+    "The cloud-capp'd towers, the gorgeous palaces,
+    The solemn temples, the great globe itself
+    Yea, all which it inherit, shall _dissolve_;
+    And, like the baseless fabric of a vision,
+    Leave not a wreck behind."
+
+The word rendered _melt_, is a metaphor taken from _metals_,
+dissolving in the fire, or _wax_ before the flame; so will the fierce
+and spreading fire of the last day _melt down_ this globe, and its
+surrounding atmosphere.[36] That the world was to be dissolved by fire
+was the opinion of Anaximander, Anaxiphanes, Anaxagoras, Archelaus,
+Diogenes, and Leucippus.[37] The inference which the apostle deduces
+from this view of the general and final conflagration of the world,
+is highly impressive. "Seeing then that all these things shall
+be dissolved, what manner of persons ought ye to be in all holy
+conversation and godliness."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+_Section_ III.--LIGHT.
+
+    Motion of luminous and fiery particles the first cause
+    of light -- Light the most simple body --Velocity of light
+    -- Light diffusive -- Light the medium through which objects
+    become visible -- Light beautiful, or its rays of different
+    colors -- Light a visible resemblance of its Divine Author,
+    in his spirituality, simplicity, purity, energy, goodness,
+    manifestation, glory.
+
+
+Moses, in the original word **'vr** _aur_, seems plainly to hint
+at the operation of a principle in the universe which, as a second
+cause, produced the phenomenon of _light_. This, most probably, was
+the motion of the luminous and fiery particles in the chaotic mass
+which, at the Divine command, separated themselves from the other
+gross materials of the miscellaneous composition, and by an attractive
+sympathy associated in one body.
+
+It is conjectured, that light was at first impressed on some part of
+the heavens, or collected in some lucid body. Dr. Wall says, Though the
+sun was not yet formed into a compact body, yet the most subtile and
+active particles had already begun to fly together to the centre of the
+solar system, which gave some light; though probably not so great as
+when afterward they made the compact body of the sun. And the earth,
+which was then only a round lump of mud, or muddy salt-water, being
+turned, as it has been ever since, upon its own axis, receiving that
+light on its several hemispheres successively, made night and day, or
+evening and morning. Milton gives his opinion in the following lines:
+
+    "Let there be light! said GOD; and forthwith light
+    Ethereal, first of things, quintessence pure,
+    Sprung from the deep; and from her native east
+    To journey through the aery gloom began,
+    Spher'd in a radiant cloud; (for yet the sun
+    Was not;) she in a cloudy tabernacle
+    Sojourn'd the while."
+
+Light, after a short progression, concentrated in the sun, the common
+centre of our system; the various parts of this system, by his central
+light or fire, are balanced, and, by mutual attraction, move in the
+expanse, according to fixed laws, or determined distances.[38]
+
+Light was once considered to be a property or quality of matter only;
+but more recently it has been discovered to be a _body_, a very subtile
+fluid, consisting of minute particles. We have no certain knowledge of
+its nature; though a collection of its rays make other things visible,
+yet its constituent parts themselves are most exquisitely small, and
+quite imperceptible; and therefore it approaches the nearest to the
+nature of spirit.[39]
+
+Of all material bodies, light is the most _simple_. Most others are
+compounded of several parts, not only of different, but sometimes of
+contrary natures: but light is an unmixed body. It is also a most
+pure matter; It has no defilement in itself, neither is it capable
+of contracting pollution from other objects. When it shines upon a
+dunghill or sepulchre, which sends forth the most offensive effluvia,
+it still remains uncontaminated.
+
+    [The author is undoubtedly mistaken when he considers light
+    "of all material bodies--the most simple," and "an unmixed
+    body."
+
+    It is well known that a beam, or pencil, of light, as
+    emitted from the sun, is _not_ a simple body, but is capable of
+    being divided into seven prismatic colors. The image which is
+    formed by the refraction of the pencil, by means of a prism, is
+    called a _Spectrum_, and clearly exhibits the compound nature
+    of light. The refracted rays of the Spectrum may be collected
+    and made to constitute a pencil of light again, which will be
+    white, or colorless as before.
+
+    If this prismatic Spectrum be examined closely, it will
+    be found that the different colored rays differ very much
+    in their _heating_, _illuminating_, and _chemical_ powers.
+    Dr. Herschell, and other experimenters, have found that the
+    _orange_ rays possess a greater illuminating power than the
+    red; and the _yellow_ more than the orange: but the _maximums_
+    of illumination lies in the _brightest yellow_ or _palest
+    green_.
+
+    There is also a very sensible difference in the _heating_
+    power of these colored rays. By passing the bulb of a
+    delicate air thermometer through the different colored rays,
+    it indicates the greatest heat in the _red_ rays; next in
+    the _green_, and so on diminishing to the _violet_. But
+    the maximum of heat has been ascertained to be immediately
+    _beyond_ the red rays, and of course _out_ of the Spectrum,
+    in an _unilluminated_ spot: thus indicating that there are
+    _invisible_ rays possessing a greater heating power than any of
+    the seven colored rays. These are called _calorific rays_.
+
+    By the experiments of Ritter and Wallaston it is now
+    satisfactorily ascertained that there are also _chemical rays
+    which excite neither heat nor light_, and lie on the _other
+    side_ of the Spectrum from the invisible calorific rays, just
+    without the violet. It is true, the chemical effect can be
+    distinguished even to the green rays, but this seems to be by
+    _diffusion_, or a species of sympathy. The sensible chemical
+    power is exerted just without the violet rays.
+
+    This fact is established more clearly by Berard. He
+    concentrated, by a lens, all the portion of the Spectrum from
+    the green to the red rays, and made them act on muriate of
+    silver _two hours_ without effect. He then concentrated all
+    the portion of the Spectrum from the green to the violet rays,
+    and made them act on muriate of silver, and _they blackened it
+    in less than six minutes_. Thus, evidently, are detected very
+    different properties in the different portions of the prismatic
+    Spectrum.
+
+    Instead, therefore, of light being a "simple substance,"
+    and "unmixed" it is found to be decidedly _compound_. It is
+    capable of being divided into seven differently colored rays,
+    and these rays, according to their natural properties, into
+    three classes: the _illuminating_ rays, _calorific_ rays, and
+    _chemical_ rays.]
+
+The rays of light always proceed in _straight lines_, unless diverted
+by some intervening body. They are subject to the laws of attraction
+like other small bodies. If a stream of light be admitted through a
+small hole into a dark room, and the edge of a knife be applied, it
+will be diverted from its natural course, and _inflected_ towards it.
+When the rays of light are thrown back by any opposing body, they are
+said to be _reflected_. When in passing from one medium to another,
+they are inflected or diverted from their rectilineal course, they
+are said to be _refracted_; and this property of light is called its
+_refrangibility_. Refraction arises from this, that the rays are more
+attracted by a dense, than by a rare medium.
+
+The _velocity_ of light is prodigious, and almost incredible; it moves
+at the rate of near 200,000 miles in _a second_ of time! Roemer, a
+Danish philosopher, was the first who found the means of determining
+the velocity of light, by the difference of time in the eclipses
+of Jupiter's satellites, when the earth was on the same, or on the
+contrary side of the sun, with that planet. This point may be easily
+proved; for when the earth is between the sun and this planet, those
+eclipses will happen about 8� minutes sooner, than according to the
+tables; but when the earth is in the contrary position, the eclipses
+happen about 8� minutes later than they are predicted by the tables.
+Hence, therefore, light takes up about 8� minutes in passing from the
+sun to the earth, a distance of 95,513,794 miles; and it takes about
+16� minutes of time to go through a space equal to the diameter of the
+earth's orbit, which is at least 190 millions of miles in length; which
+is near a million of miles swifter than the motion of a cannon-ball,
+which flies with the velocity of about a mile in eight seconds.[40]
+In comparing this velocity of light with that of a cannon-ball, it
+has been observed, that light passes through a space in about eight
+minutes, which a cannon-ball with its ordinary velocity, could not
+traverse in less than thirty-two years! The velocity of sound bears a
+very small proportion to that of light. Light travels, in the space of
+eight minutes, a distance in which sound could not be communicated in
+seventeen years; and even our senses may convince us, if we attend to
+the explosion of gunpowder, &c, of the almost infinite velocity of the
+one compared with that of the other.[41] Were the propagation of the
+rays of light less rapid, the darkness would be very slowly dissipated,
+and great inconveniences would result to the inhabitants of the earth.
+
+The _divisibility_ of the parts of matter is no where more apparent
+than in the minuteness of the particles of light. The unobstructed rays
+of light which proceed from a candle, will, almost instantaneously,
+fill a space of two miles; and it has been computed, says Dr. O.
+Gregory, that there fly out of the end of the flame of a burning
+candle, in a second of time, ten thousand millions of times more such
+particles than there are visible grains of sand in the whole earth.
+Dr. Nieuwentyt has computed, that an inch of candle, when converted to
+light, becomes divided into 269,617,040 parts, with 40 ciphers annexed;
+at which rate there must issue out of it, when burning, 418,660, with
+39 ciphers more, particles in the second of a minute; vastly more than
+a thousand times a thousand million of times the number of sands the
+whole earth can contain; reckoning ten inches to one foot, and that 100
+sands are equal to one inch.[42] As sound is propagated only at the
+rate of 1,142 feet in a second, a particle of light must be 786,000
+times more subtile than a particle of air. If the particles of light
+were not extremely small, their velocity would be highly destructive.
+Indeed, were they equal in bulk to the two millionth part of a grain of
+sand, this impulse would not be less than sand shot from the mouth of a
+cannon. If the particles of light had more density, they would not only
+dazzle us by their splendor, but injure us by their heat.
+
+There is no creature of God that _diffuses_ itself, and whose influence
+reaches so far and wide, and fills so large a vacuum, as light. All
+that inconceivable space between this globe and the fixed stars, a
+distance which numbers cannot reach, is replete with light. Nay, the
+space in which it is diffused is not less than the universe itself; the
+immensity of which exceeds the conception of human understanding. It is
+from this almost unlimited diffusion of light that the very remotest of
+the heavenly bodies in the solar system become discernible, either by
+the naked eye or by telescopes. And had we instruments that could carry
+our sight as far as the light is extended, we should discover those
+bodies which are placed at the very extremity of the universe.[43]
+
+Light is the _medium_ through which objects become _visible_ to us.
+It is owing to it, that we are enabled to behold and contemplate the
+wonderful works of the great Creator; to discover unexplored systems
+in the trackless regions of unbounded space, to imbibe knowledge from
+things created, to hold intercourse with each other, to steer the
+hollow bark to distant climes, and to investigate the records of all
+science. Without its aid, the world would have been an inhospitable
+wilderness, involved in sable shades of perpetual night. "Truly the
+light is sweet, and a pleasant thing it is for the eyes to behold it."
+
+Light _beautifies_ every delightful object which comes within the reach
+of its rays.
+
+            "Nature's resplendent robe!
+    Without whose vesting beauty all were wrapt
+    In unessential gloom."
+
+All colors are rays of light differently reflected. The cause of their
+diversity was first rationally accounted for by Sir Isaac Newton. He
+has shown that color is not a specific property of bodies, but is
+caused by the different rays of light being reflected from the surface
+of the body; the rest of the rays passing into or through the body. He
+discovered that in the rays of light are all the colors in nature; and
+the primary colors he considered to be seven in number, namely, red,
+orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet; and that bodies appear
+of different colors, as they have the property of reflecting some rays
+more powerfully than others. These colors are poetically enumerated by
+Thomson.
+
+                "First the flaming _red_
+    Sprung vivid forth; the tawny _orange_ next;
+    And next delicious _yellow_; by whose side
+    Fell the kind beams of all-refreshing _green_:
+    Then the pure _blue_, that swells autumnal skies,
+    Ethereal play'd; and then, of sadder hue,
+    Emerg'd the deepen'd _indigo_, as when
+    The heavy-skirted evening droops with frost;
+    While the last gleamings of refracted light
+    Dy'd in the fainting _violet_ away."
+
+Since the time of this justly celebrated philosopher, it has been
+objected, that the seven colors above mentioned are not primitive.
+It seems very obvious that there can be only three primitive colors,
+namely, red, yellow, and blue; since all the colors can be made by
+means of these. It has lately been advanced by Prieur, that the
+primitive colors are violet, green, and red; that the yellow is formed
+with red and green, the latter being in excess; and that when the red
+is in excess, they form orange; the green and violet form blue. The
+colors excited by the different refrangible rays do not appear to
+determine what are the primitive colors, since we find that different
+rays are capable of producing the same color, as a mixture of the
+yellow with the red produces orange. And it must be admitted, that the
+violet rays excite, in some degree, the idea of red along with the
+blue; as in the green, the yellow and blue may be discerned, but none
+of the red. When the different colored rays are mixed together, either
+by recomposition, or by getting each color by a separate Spectrum, the
+result will be white light. Hence Sir Isaac Newton concluded, that
+when the rays are promiscuously reflected from any surface it will
+appear white. He also found, and the discovery has since been confirmed
+by the experiments of Dr. Herschell, that the different colored rays
+have not by any means the same illuminating power. The violet rays
+appear to have the least luminous effect, the indigo more, the blue a
+little more, the green very great, between the green and the yellow the
+greatest of all, the yellow the same as the green, and the red less
+than the yellow.[44] From experiments it is found, that those rays of
+light are of the largest quantity that paint the brightest colors;
+and of all these, the red rays have the least refrangibility. Without
+light vegetables would have no color, but would appear white; this has
+been remarkably illustrated by Professor Robison. Some bodies absorb
+one colored ray, others another, while they reflect the rest. This is
+the cause of color in bodies. A red body, for instance, reflects the
+red rays and absorbs the rest. A white body reflects all the rays, and
+absorbs none; while a black body, on the contrary, absorbs all the
+rays, and reflects none:[45] this shows, that black colored apparel is
+very improper during the heat of summer, or in tropical climates.
+
+    [There is one difficulty scarcely mentioned, and surely
+    not accounted for, in the preceding chapter: i.e. _How are we
+    to reconcile the creation of light on the first day, and the
+    creation of the sun not until the fourth?_
+
+    This has been a standing proposition since the revival
+    of learning. There can be no doubt but the account of the
+    creation, arrangement and nature of the world, as given
+    by Moses, is correct; and would so appear to the most
+    philosophically scientific, could we ascertain certainly
+    the meaning of the sacred historian, and did we understand
+    perfectly the phenomena of nature.
+
+    It is reasonable to suppose that the discoveries in natural
+    philosophy would tend to influence the explanations of Moses'
+    account. This is the fact. These discoveries have produced two
+    theories in regard to light: The _vibratory_, or Cartesian; and
+    the _corpuscular_, or Newtonian.
+
+    The Newtonian theory supposes the sun to be the original
+    and principal source of light; and that light is emitted
+    from the sun's surface in inconceivably small _corpuscles_,
+    in such rapid succession, and in straight lines, as to seem
+    a continuous ray, though, in reality, the particles are a
+    thousand miles apart in their approach to the earth.
+
+    This is the most popular of modern theories, and the only
+    one, as I recollect, employed by commentators in illustrating
+    the account of Moses; or rather in solving the difficulty by
+    reconciling this theory with his account.
+
+    Some have supposed the sun was created long before, our
+    earth, and that his beams took effect on our earth, as now, on
+    the fourth day from his creation. Others have supposed that
+    the sun and earth were created _simultaneously_, but that the
+    sun's beams did not fully penetrate our atmosphere, so as to
+    make himself distinctly visible as now, until the fourth day.
+    In both these cases it is supposed that the words of Moses,
+    in regard to the creation of the sun on the fourth day, are
+    to be interpreted of his _appearance_, and _influence_ on the
+    earth, by dispensing light. But this does not account for the
+    _existence_ of light _from the first to the fourth day_. This
+    is an insuperable objection here.
+
+    Finding the foregoing theories pressed with this
+    insurmountable difficulty, other commentators have supposed,
+    Light was a real substance, created _simultaneously_, and in
+    conjunction with the original chaotic mass of our earth; and
+    when God said "Let there be light, and there was light," He,
+    by his divine power, caused the chaotic light to separate
+    itself from the earth, and, departing, _to condense_ in the
+    body of the sun; or, as some would probably say, in view of Dr.
+    Herschell's solar discoveries, in the phosphoric clouds which
+    surround the real body of the sun. In this case, if the light
+    concentrated in the body of the sun, then that luminary must be
+    a body of _condensed light_: if in the solar phosphoric clouds
+    of Dr. Herschell, then those clouds would be _condensed light_.
+    This body of condensed light is considered the source of our
+    solar light, which flies off from it in the form of rays or
+    beams.
+
+    DR. URE, in his Chemical Dictionary, article LIGHT, takes
+    this view. He says, "We learn from scripture, that light
+    pre-existed before this luminary (the sun) and that its
+    _subsequent condensation_ in his orb was a particular act of
+    Almighty Power. The phosphorescence of minerals, buried since
+    the origin of things in the bowels of the earth, coincides
+    strictly with the Mosaic account of the creation. We shall
+    therefore regard light as the first born element of chaos,
+    as an independent essence, universally distributed through
+    the mineral, vegetable, and animal world, capable of being
+    disengaged from its latent state by various natural and
+    artificial operations."
+
+    This theory, as I understand Dr. Ure's view, has _two_
+    advantages, and _three_ disadvantages. It accounts for the
+    production of light on the _first_ day, as Moses says. It
+    also accounts for the _artificial production_ of light by
+    friction between bodies which have never been exposed to solar
+    light, by combustion, compression, &c. For though it supposes
+    light "subsequently condensed" in the sun, I presume it does
+    not suppose _all_ the light thus transferred from the earth,
+    and condensed: much of it is latent, and combined with other
+    substances, from which it is evolved by friction, combustion,
+    compression, &c.
+
+    But this ingenious theory, which is mentioned by our
+    author, and attributed to Dr. Wall, is pressed with _three_
+    difficulties:
+
+    1. It does not suppose the existence of the sun until the
+    _fourth_ day, and of course no common centre of attraction to
+    the earth and other planets. But it is impossible to conceive
+    of the _safe existence_ of the planets _previous_ to the
+    existence of their common center, which now regulates their
+    order and motion. This is an insuperable difficulty, unless we
+    resort to a "particular act of Almighty Power."
+
+    2. If the body of the sun be "condensed light,"
+    _abstracted_ from the earth, the scene of its creation, then
+    we must suppose that _a body more than a million times
+    greater than the earth was drawn off from it_, which indeed
+    would require an "act of Almighty Power," and is utterly
+    irreconcilable to the laws of attraction.
+
+    3. This view also destroys the idea of the sun's being
+    an opake and habitable globe, unless we could conceive the
+    inhabitants capable of dwelling in "condensed light;" which
+    supposition is at variance with all our ideas of rational
+    existence. Hence it robs the mind of the pleasing and almost
+    intuitively correct idea of the sun's being a habitable globe.
+
+    These difficulties appeared so great that others, and
+    particularly Dr. Adam Clarke, have offered a new mode of
+    interpretation, founded on the Newtonian theory as improved by
+    Dr. Herschell. Dr. Clarke supposes that _caloric_, or latent
+    heat, was produced on the first day, when God said, "let there
+    be light; and there was light." In this case he considers that
+    latent heat and latent light are, probably, the same: or that
+    it is the same subtile substance diffused throughout creation,
+    which is capable of producing heat and light, when properly
+    excited.
+
+    Yet, in his remarks on the sun, he embraces Dr. Herschell's
+    ideas of the sun's real body being opake and habitable,
+    surrounded by phosphoric clouds which are the source of our
+    solar light. Of course the Doctor only transfers the source
+    of light from the real body of the sun to these phosphoric
+    clouds with which he is invested. Our solar light then comes by
+    _impulsion_ from these clouds, and not from the sun's real body.
+
+    These clouds are supposed to give light to the _Solar_
+    inhabitants also, the intensity of which is regulated by a
+    stratum of clouds placed _below_ the _outer_ phosphoric clouds,
+    and which defends the sun's real body from too great degree of
+    light.
+
+    This is Dr. Herschell's supposition, and seems to be pretty
+    well established.
+
+    This ingenious theory solves the difficulty under notice,
+    by supposing that _caloric_, and not light, is intended in
+    the third verse, where God said, "Let there be light." And by
+    supposing latent light, as well as latent heat, it seems to
+    provide for the well known existence of light in combination
+    with many, if not all, terrestrial substances; and yet it
+    refers to the sun as the principal source of light, which
+    according to this interpretation, was not necessary to the
+    existence of the substance intended in the third verse--"Let
+    there be light, and there was light."
+
+    This theory has another most excellent suggestion, viz:
+    that the heat excited by the sun at the earth's surface, is
+    produced by the luminous rays of the sun combining with the
+    caloric in the atmosphere, and other substances at the surface
+    of the earth. This suggestion supposes a very close affinity,
+    if not identity in the matter of light and heat.
+
+    Although this explanation approaches much nearer a
+    satisfactory solution of the difficulty in question, yet it is
+    by no means unembarrassed.
+
+    In the first place it is built upon a singular translation
+    of a word. The text, according to this theory, should be, "And
+    God said let there be _caloric_, and there was caloric."
+    This may be the text; but I cannot help thinking, that a bias
+    to a system of philosophy, and a strong desire to _cut_ the
+    difficulty rather than _solve_ it, suggested this translation.
+    The text seems to have been so generally and uniformly
+    understood of light, it would be difficult to alter it. It
+    would be better to suspect a defect in our knowledge of the
+    source and nature of light.
+
+    Again: this view seems to suppose a _consecutive_ creation,
+    which is at variance with a seemingly well settled opinion,
+    in regard to the _Solar System_, and even at variance with
+    Dr. Clarke's own remarks on Gen. chap. i, v. 2. On this verse
+    he says: "God seems at _first_ to have created the elementary
+    principles of _all things_."
+
+    Finally: as his view is Newtonian, it is liable to all
+    the objections to which that theory is liable: such as the
+    _diminution_ which would take place at the source from whence
+    the light came; and the _destructive force_ with which it would
+    fall at the surface of the earth.
+
+    These considerations, with others, have influenced many of
+    the most learned and acute philosophers to look for another
+    theory. Our own countryman, Dr. Franklin, felt them. He says,
+    in a letter dated April 23, 1752, in reference to the theory,
+    of light being _particles of matter driven off from the sun's
+    surface_; "Must not the smallest portion conceivable have, with
+    such a motion, a force exceeding that of a twenty-four pounder
+    discharged from a cannon? Must not the sun diminish exceedingly
+    by such a waste of matter, and the planets, instead of drawing
+    near to him, as some have feared, recede to greater distances,
+    through the lessoned attraction? Yet these particles with this
+    amazing motion, will not drive before them, or remove the
+    least, and slightest dust they meet with, and the sun appears
+    to continue of his ancient dimensions, and his attendants move
+    in their ancient orbits."
+
+    He then supposes the phenomena of light may be more
+    satisfactorily solved by supposing a subtle fluid, universally
+    diffused, which is invisible _when at rest_, but _becomes
+    visible when put in motion_, by affecting the nerves of the
+    eye, as the vibrations of the air affect the ear, and produce
+    the sensation of sound; and that the different degrees of
+    intensity in the vibrations, will account for the different
+    colors. _See Nicholson's Encyclopedia_, LIGHT.
+
+    This is the _vibratory_ or Cartesian system of light. As
+    already suggested, it supposes the existence of a subtle,
+    luminiferous ether, diffused throughout the universe, pervading
+    every particle of matter, and is capable of being put in
+    motion, so as to become visible, by the sun, as the grand
+    natural _excitant_, friction, combustion, compression, &c.
+    The _laws_ of the vibrations of this luminiferous fluid, are
+    precisely the same with those ascertained, and determined, in
+    regard to light as commonly understood. This luminiferous fluid
+    is to be considered an elementary substance, and was created
+    when the different substances composing the chaotic mass were
+    created. At its first creation, like caloric, it was in a
+    _latent_ state, as no excitant as yet had put it in motion.
+
+    It is to be understood, therefore, that the substances of
+    each planet in the _Solar System_, as well as the sun himself,
+    were created _simultaneously_ in a chaotic state, at their
+    proper relative distances from each other: that the requisite
+    quantity of each elementary substance was present in each mass:
+    but as caloric, and this luminiferous ether were _latent_,
+    these masses were solid, frozen lumps; inactive and lifeless;
+    and darkness necessarily prevailed. This then was the original
+    condition of the elements of our Solar System, according to
+    the scriptures. "And the earth was without form and void; and
+    darkness was upon the face of the deep." Gen. i, 2.
+
+    In order, therefore, to produce a quickening in these
+    masses, which rendered them _soft_, it was only necessary to
+    call the latent caloric, and this luminiferous ether into
+    action, which would agitate, and bring to light the whole
+    mass, and thus commence the arrangement and organization of
+    the Solar System. However, as there was no exciting cause
+    _then_ in operation, it is evident the Almighty must have given
+    the _first_ impulse to these elements. This he did, and the
+    important fact is recorded by Moses in these words: "AND THE
+    SPIRIT OF GOD MOVED UPON THE FACE OF THE GREAT DEEP," Jehovah
+    saying at the same time, "LET THERE BE LIGHT."
+
+    Here is the Mosaic account of the production of light,
+    and possibly heat also, which took place on the _first_ day.
+    The same process went on _simultaneously_ in the sun and
+    planets, and the continued action cleared up their respective
+    atmospheres, and the _sun_ became visible at the earth's
+    surface on the _fourth_ day. Hence, the sun was said to have
+    been _made_ on the fourth day.
+
+    This solution of the difficulty is consistent with the
+    account of Moses; and also all the well ascertained phenomena
+    of light can be satisfactorily explained by it. It will
+    naturally lead the mind to observe the resemblance between the
+    phenomena of light and heat, and impel us to the conclusion,
+    that light, or vision, is the _effect_ of a material cause, as
+    heat is of caloric: and it is natural to suppose this cause
+    is in the same relation to light, that caloric is to heat. Of
+    course we should conclude that light, or the luminiferous ether
+    in a latent state, enters into combination with all substances,
+    as does caloric; and at the same time a large proportion of it
+    is _free_, or in motion, and of course sensible to the eye, as
+    _free_ caloric is to the sense of feeling. Moreover we must
+    conclude that this latent light is capable of being set free
+    or evolved by the exciting influence of the sun, as also by
+    friction, compression, combustion, chemical action, &c. It
+    will be of advantage, therefore, to establish the fact of the
+    existence of _latent_ light, in combination with terrestrial
+    substances.
+
+    That this is the fact may be proven by a single reflection
+    on the process of _combustion_. It is a daily observation that
+    light is produced by _burning_ bodies. Let us suppose these
+    bodies burnt at midnight in a close room; still light will
+    be given out copiously and constantly. _Whence_ this light?
+    The natural and obvious answer is, it was in combination in
+    a _latent state_ with the burning bodies, and by combustion
+    it was set free, and thrown out, and thus put the surrounding
+    luminiferous ether in motion.
+
+    It is said by some, the light evolved in this case is not
+    from the burning bodies, but from the oxygen which is supplied
+    by the air to support the combustion. This does not alter the
+    case at all: for then the light was in combination with the
+    oxygen, and was invisible, being in a latent state, until it
+    was set free from the oxygen by combustion.
+
+    The same conclusion is obtained in the process of
+    _compression_ and _expansion_. If atmospheric air, or oxygen
+    be suddenly compressed in a glass syringe; or if a glass ball,
+    filled with the latter, be suddenly broke _in vacuo_, a _flash
+    of light_ is instantly perceived. In this case the light
+    suddenly becomes visible, which was invisible before, being
+    latent in combination with the air. (URE.)
+
+    We arrive at the same conclusion in case of _friction_. It
+    is well known that pieces of wood can be made to _blaze_ by
+    rubbing them together. But it is not so well known, that two
+    pieces of rock crystal, or quartz, taken from any depth in the
+    earth, and which cannot be supposed to have ever been in the
+    light of the sun, when rubbed quickly together, even _under
+    water, will give out volumes of light_. _Whence_ this light?
+    from the quartz doubtless. Of course it must have been in a
+    latent state, and was set free by friction. Let it be strictly
+    observed, the crystals _never were exposed to the light of the
+    sun, of course could not have derived this light from that
+    luminary_.
+
+    We must come to the same conclusion, in regard to the light
+    given out by _animal_ substances. Many _insects_ are known to
+    have the power of evolving light, or putting the surrounding
+    luminiferous ether in motion, which is the same. Putrescent
+    animal matter has been observed to possess it, in some cases,
+    in a very great degree; sufficiently to illuminate a room, or
+    pantry, for hours together. In some instances the fingers of
+    those who touched the luminous flesh, became luminous.
+
+    This is eminently the case in regard to some fishes. A
+    species of fish called PHOLAS, has the power of evolving a
+    large quantity of light. This power is greater when the fish is
+    sound and fresh. Pliny mentions this fish, and says it rendered
+    the hands and clothes of persons luminous. When put in water,
+    under proper circumstances, it renders the water luminous. But
+    when put in milk, a single _pholas_ made seven ounces of it so
+    luminous as to enable one to distinguish the faces of persons
+    present. _Ency. Brit. Art._ LIGHT.
+
+    The evolution of light from the sea in the night, is a fact
+    of common observation, and is sometimes so great as to enable
+    one to read large print on a ship's deck. _Ency. Brit. Art._
+    LIGHT.
+
+    In all the above instances, and many more might be added,
+    the light evolved, or, (which is the same thing in this
+    investigation,) the luminiferous ether put in motion, must have
+    been in a state of combination with the substances from which
+    it was evolved. The only question which remains is this: _Was
+    all this light transmitted from the sun, and become latent and
+    combined at the earth's surface by absorption?_
+
+    It would certainly be hazardous to answer this question in
+    the affirmative. For how could we account for the evolution of
+    light from those bodies which have never been subject to the
+    sun's influence?
+
+    Again: If all this light had been transmitted from the
+    sun, it will inevitably follow, that there was a time when
+    the quantity of light at the surface of the earth, and in
+    combination with terrestrial bodies, _was very small_, and of
+    course combustion, friction, and compression of bodies produced
+    anciently a much smaller quantity of light than now; because
+    there was a smaller quantity in combination.
+
+    It is evident that this supposition would come to this
+    conclusion: _The quantity of light, in combination at the
+    earth's surface, has increased in the same ratio as the
+    increase of the duration of the influence of the sun on the
+    earth: and, by consequence, the quantity of light produced by
+    artificial means has increased in the same proportion._ Of
+    course, fires and candles burn more brightly now than they did
+    five thousand years since.
+
+    Though this conclusion is legitimate from the foregoing
+    supposition, yet it is at war with common sense, and the
+    current observations of the world.
+
+    We are therefore compelled to conclude that the MATTER _of
+    light_ is diffused throughout the universe, as is caloric, and
+    that it is evolved, or put in motion by the influence of the
+    sun; as also by artificial and chemical means; as combustion,
+    compression, friction, chemical action, &c.
+
+    This conclusion is much strengthened by the fact, that the
+    _existence of caloric_ is well ascertained, _not as proceeding
+    from the sun_, but in combination with all terrestrial
+    substances; and also by the fact of the constant _analogy_
+    between the phenomena of light and heat. This analogy is so
+    strong and striking that we are compelled to conclude, _if
+    heat be the effect of a real substance, light must be also_.
+    Indeed the analogy is so strong that it almost convinces us of
+    the _identity_ of the matter of heat, light, electricity, and
+    galvanism.
+
+    Notwithstanding the amount of evidence is against this
+    supposition at present, yet there is a strong tendency in
+    recent philosophical experiments to confirm it; and I am
+    inclined to believe that future discoveries will confirm this
+    identity. Some of the most obvious evidences in favor of it may
+    be introduced here.
+
+    1. Almost all the celebrated authors and experimenters have
+    occasionally _suggested_ the probability of this identity.
+    Mr. Turner, Elements of Chemistry, p. 67, says, in reference
+    to heat and light: "It has been supposed that _they are
+    modifications of the_ SAME AGENT; and though most persons
+    regard them as independent principles, yet they are certainly
+    allied in a way which at present is inexplicable." Again,
+    p. 71. "Mr. Leslie conceives that light when absorbed, _is
+    converted into heat_." Dr. Henry (Art. Light,) says, "A new
+    fact has been lately ascertained by Dr. Delaroche, which seems
+    to point out _a close connection_ between heat and light,
+    _and a gradual passage of the one into the other_. The rays
+    of _invisible_ heat pass through glass with difficulty at a
+    temperature below that of boiling water; but they traverse
+    it with a facility always increasing with the temperature,
+    as it approaches the point at which bodies become luminous."
+    "The general facts, says Sir H. Davy, of the refraction and
+    effects of the solar beam, offer an analogy to the agencies
+    of electricity." (_Ure, Chemical Dictionary, Article Light._)
+    It is well known that this view pressed itself strongly on
+    the attention of Sir Isaac Newton, during his philosophical
+    investigation. _See Ure, Chem. Dic. Art. Light._
+
+    2. This identity is strongly suggested by the constant and
+    striking analogy between the laws of heat and light.
+
+    _First:_ The color of surfaces has an influence on the
+    passage of light and heat.
+
+    _Secondly:_ The power of light, heat, and electricity
+    diminishes as the squares of their distances.
+
+    _Thirdly:_ The particles of heat, light, and electricity,
+    are _idio-repulsive_.
+
+    _Fourthly:_ The passage of the electric spark is generally
+    attended with the production of light and heat.
+
+    _Fifthly:_ Heat is emitted in all directions from the
+    surface of an ignited body: so is light from the surface of a
+    burning body.
+
+    _Sixthly:_ The laws of reflection are the same in light and
+    heat.
+
+    Other coincidences might be established, and other
+    celebrated names added.
+
+    If this identity should be established finally, it would
+    not effect the doctrine of the foregoing pages in the least. It
+    would only be necessary to say, the luminiferous fluid of this
+    essay is the well established substance now called caloric.
+
+
+    _Addenda on Light._
+
+    1. It is now generally admitted that the real body
+    of the sun is surrounded with a peculiar set of clouds,
+    _phosphorescent_ in their nature. It is also allowed that these
+    clouds do not emit heat. And as it is well known that no one of
+    the _planets_ has such clouds, but receive their light from the
+    sun, _it is extremely probable that these phosphorescent clouds
+    are intended by the Creator, to be the great dispenser of light
+    to the solar system, by operating as the exciting cause to put
+    the luminiferous ether in motion throughout the solar system_.
+
+    By a parity of reasoning, each centre of a system may be
+    invested with similar clouds, which operate in the same way in
+    reference to the planets which belong to it.
+
+    2. If light were a real substance, _as commonly
+    understood_, solar light must proceed from the sun by
+    _impulsion_, and artificial light from burning bodies by
+    _evolution_. Take the case of burning bodies. A single candle
+    placed two miles above the surface of the earth in the air, and
+    lighted up in that position, will _instantly illuminate a space
+    of two miles in every direction from itself, or a spherical
+    space four miles in diameter_. In this case a sufficient
+    quantity of light is instantly evolved to fill this space,
+    and the evolution continues as long as the candle burns. The
+    question upon this fact is this: Can it be supposed that there
+    is a sufficient quantity of light, in combination with a single
+    candle, or the oxygen necessary to keep up its combustion, to
+    fill a spherical space four miles in diameter for several hours
+    together? This would indeed be almost incredible in view of the
+    space filled by light evolved from a single candle.
+
+    But this difficulty would be satisfactorily solved upon
+    the supposition that light is the _effect_, produced by a
+    luminiferous ether, universally diffused, and put in motion,
+    by which it becomes visible, by the sun, burning bodies,
+    &c. Because, the motion which renders the luminiferous
+    ether visible, commences instantly upon the commencement of
+    combustion, and is propagated from the point of combustion _in
+    right lines_, under the appearance of rays of light: but the
+    motion ceases instantly on the cessation of combustion, and of
+    course darkness instantly ensues.]
+
+After having attended to the production of _light_, and noticed some
+of its properties, it is a paramount duty to contemplate its glorious
+Author; especially as by this mysterious production he himself has
+chosen to be represented. If creatures be excellent, what must be
+the Creator? and to admire the former without adoring the latter,
+would be profane and atheistical. "The Deity," says Sir Isaac Newton,
+"in infinite space, as in his own _sensorium_, has an intimate
+perception of all things:" so we, possessing intellect, should "look
+through nature up to nature's GOD." Then matter, however rarefied or
+diversified, would serve as his minister to introduce us into his
+presence. A pious ancient, on being asked by a profane philosopher, How
+he could contemplate high things, since he had no books? answered, That
+he had the whole world for his book, ready open at all times, and in
+all places, and that he could therein read things heavenly and divine.
+As the visible creation is the outward expression of the existence of
+God, and displays several of his infinite perfections; so we should
+study him in the works of nature, and trace him in the operation of his
+hands.
+
+The late excellent and pious Bishop Horne very beautifully
+observes,--"When the angels beheld the dark and disordered state of
+created nature upon its first production, they were, doubtless, thrown
+into some perplexity to conceive how it should ever be made a means of
+manifesting forth the glory of the Creator. But when they saw the light
+spring up, at the Divine command, from that blackness of darkness, and
+fix its residence in its tabernacle the sun, illuminating and adorning
+the firmament of heaven with its glorious show, and the earth with its
+beautiful furniture, all formed out of rudeness and confusion, then
+they confessed that the difficulty of the work served only to display
+the skill of the workmaster, which is proportionally estimated by the
+unpromising nature of the materials.
+
+In like manner, whoever views the chaos to which the infinite wisdom of
+a presiding Providence sometimes permits the moral world to be reduced
+by the prevailing power of the prince of darkness, and the agency of
+his instruments, will scarce be able, at first, to discern any traces
+of the Divine counsels in a mirror so sullied and clouded over by the
+enormities of sinful men. Yet let him wait with patience for a little
+season, and those clouds shall pass away; a light shall shine, and some
+great end present itself to sight, so worthy of God, so beneficial to
+man, that standing amazed at a power able to bring the greatest good
+out of the greatest evil, he will be forced to cry out concerning the
+economy of the spiritual system, as David did concerning the operations
+of the natural--'Oh Lord, how manifold are thy works! In wisdom hast
+thou made them all.'"[46]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+_Section_ IV.--DAY AND NIGHT.
+
+    Original terms of Day and Night -- Motion the effect of
+    a Divine power -- Commencement of Time -- Utility of Day and
+    Night -- Religious improvement of Time -- Sin moral darkness --
+    The Gospel a Light to dispel it -- A Christian the subject of
+    a transition from the one state to the other.
+
+The separation of _light_ from the _darkness_, was the work of the
+_first day_. This was an arrangement made by infinite Wisdom, as well
+as a display of almighty power. When this took place, it is highly
+probable that God gave to the earth its rotation upon its own axis,
+to produce the necessary succession of _day_ and _night_. "The word
+**`rb** _�reb_, which we translate _evening_, comes from the root
+**`rb** _�rab_, to _mingle_, and properly signifies that state in
+which neither absolute darkness, nor full light, prevails. It has
+nearly the same grammatical signification with our _twilight_, the
+time that elapses from the setting of the sun till he is eighteen
+degrees below the horizon, and eighteen degrees before he arises. Thus
+we have the morning and evening twilight, or _mixture_ of light and
+darkness, in which neither prevails; because, while the sun is within
+eighteen degrees of the horizon, either after his setting, or before
+his rising, the atmosphere has power to refract the rays of light, and
+send them back to the earth. The Hebrews extended the meaning of this
+term to the whole duration of night, because it was ever a _mingled_
+state; the moon, the planets, or the stars, tempering the darkness
+with some rays of light. From the _ereb_ of Moses came the <<Erebos>>
+_Erebus_ of Hesiod, Aristophanes, and other heathens, which they
+_deified_, and made with _nox_, or night, the parent of all things.
+The word **bqr** _boquer_, which we translate _morning_, from **bqr**
+_boquar_, he _looked out_, is a beautiful figure, which represents the
+morning as _looking out_ at the east, and illuminating the whole of
+the upper hemisphere."[47]
+
+All bodies continue in a state of rest, till they are put into motion
+by some external force impressed on them. Motion is the removal of a
+body from one place to another, or a continual change of place.[48]
+Any force acting on a body to move it, is called a _power_. The
+_momentum_, or quantity of motion, is in proportion to the force
+impressed. The heavier any body is, the greater is the power required
+to move it.
+
+There are but three possible ways of accounting for motion:--either
+by supposing that there has been an infinite succession of impulses
+communicated from one body to another from eternity, without any active
+principle either in matter or without it: or, that there is an active
+principle in matter that renders it self-active, and motion essential
+to it: or, else, that there is a Being distinct from matter, and is the
+cause of its motion.
+
+An infinite succession of impulses, without an active or moving
+principle, will never give birth to motion, because this would be to
+produce an effect without the assistance of a cause. This absurdity
+was asserted by Spinosa; yet when urged by his friends to explain how
+matter could ever come into motion, if motion was neither essential to
+matter, nor proceeded from any external cause, he always avoided giving
+a direct answer. This conduct makes it reasonable to believe, that he
+himself would have given up his account of motion, if he could have
+saved his atheistical scheme and his reputation.
+
+That motion is essential to all matter, and action as much an attribute
+of matter, as extension or solidity; and, consequently, every atom of
+matter is necessarily self-moving, or active from the necessity of its
+own nature, is asserted by Toland. Though he thought fit to reject the
+hypothesis of Spinosa as indefensible, yet he believed in the atheistic
+notion, that motion is essential to matter, and thinks it will be
+sufficient without troubling the Supreme Being. The reason which has
+always determined mankind to look out for a cause of motion extrinsical
+to matter, was this: though they could easily conceive it capable of
+being moved and divided; yet the conceiving of it to be undivided, and
+unmoved, was a more simple notion of matter, than the conceiving it
+divided and moved. This being first in order of nature, and an adequate
+conception of it too, they thought it necessary to inquire, how it
+came out of this state, and by what causes motion, from whence this
+diversity in matter arose, could come into the world?
+
+Descartes, though he allowed the infinity of matter, as well as Toland,
+was yet sensible that even this would not alter the nature of matter,
+nor the idea that every person had of its inactivity, and therefore
+could see no way of altering its primitive idea, and reconciling it
+with the motion of matter, but by introducing an infinite Being, who
+had sufficient power to rouse matter out of that sleepy state in which
+its original idea had represented it.[49]
+
+That such a circumstance exists, and what it is, a French author very
+clearly states. He says, The universe is composed of matter, and, as a
+system, is sustained by motion. Motion is not a property of matter,
+and without this motion the solar system could not exist. Were motion a
+property of matter, that undiscovered and undiscoverable thing, called
+perpetual motion, would establish itself. It is because motion is not
+a property of matter, that perpetual motion is an impossibility in
+the hand of every being but that of the Creator of motion. When the
+pretenders to atheism can produce perpetual motion, and not till then,
+they may expect to be credited.
+
+The natural state of matter, as to place, is a state of rest. Motion,
+or change of place, is the effect of an external cause acting upon
+matter. As to that faculty of matter called _gravitation_, it is the
+influence which two or more bodies have reciprocally on each other to
+unite and be at rest. Every thing which has hitherto been discovered
+with respect to the motion of the planets in the system, relates only
+to the laws by which motion acts, and not to the cause of motion.
+Gravitation, so far from being the cause of motion to the planets that
+compose the solar system, would be the destruction of the solar system,
+were revolutionary motion to cease; for as the action of spinning
+upholds a top, the revolutionary motion upholds the planets in their
+orbits, and prevents them from gravitating and forming one mass with
+the sun.
+
+    "By ceaseless action all that is subsists;
+    Constant rotation of the unwearied wheel
+    That nature rides upon, maintains her health,
+    Her beauty, her fertility. She dreads
+    An instant's pause, and lives but while she moves.
+    Its own revolvency upholds the world."
+
+In one sense of the word, philosophy knows, and atheism says, that
+matter is in perpetual motion. But the motion here meant refers to
+the state of matter, and that only on the surface of the earth. It
+is either decomposition, which is continually destroying the form of
+the bodies of matter, or recomposition, which renews that matter in
+the same or another form, as the decomposition of animal or vegetable
+substances enter into the composition of other bodies. But the motion
+that upholds the solar system is of an entirely different kind, and is
+not a property of matter. It operates also to an entirely different
+effect. It operates also to perpetual preservation, and to prevent any
+change in the state of the system.
+
+Giving then to matter all the properties which philosophy knows it
+has, or all that atheism ascribes to it, and can prove, and even
+supposing matter to be eternal, it will not account for the system
+of the universe, or of the solar system, because it will not account
+for motion, and it is motion that preserves it. When, therefore, we
+discover a circumstance of such immense importance, that without it the
+universe could not exist, and for which neither matter, nor any, nor
+all, the properties of matter can account, we are by necessity forced
+into the rational and comfortable belief of the existence of a cause
+superior to matter, and that cause is GOD.
+
+The motion of the earth, therefore, is an effect of Divine power,
+because there is none other equal to it; and the constant operation of
+the same cause is requisite to perpetuate its progress. How amazing
+it is that this globe, so large in circumference, should move at all!
+Plato attributes motion to the power of God, "How is it possible," he
+argues, "for so prodigious a mass to be carried round for so long a
+time, by any natural cause? For which reason," he says, "I assert God
+to be the cause, and that it is impossible it should be otherwise."[50]
+"Every thing that is moved," adds Aristotle, "must of necessity be
+moved by some other thing; and that thing must be moved, either by
+another, or not by another thing. If it be moved by that which is moved
+by another, we must of necessity come to some Prime Mover that is not
+moved by another. For it is impossible that what moves, and is moved by
+another, shall proceed _ad infinitum_."[51] Since motion then is not
+a property of matter, but an effect produced by the power of a Divine
+agent, what a constant display we have of this efficient energy, in
+moving this earth, and with such a surprising, swiftness! Surely all
+men should fear and reverence a Being, who possesses and exercises
+such a power! He who created all things out of nothing, could, if he
+pleased, extinguish the light, and shake the solid earth into atoms!
+
+When the ponderous wheel of nature first began to move, _time_,
+consisting of days, months, years, and ages, and measured by the
+duration and revolutions of the heavenly bodies, commenced.
+
+    _Time_ (in eternity parenthesis)
+    Is measur'd by successive days and months,
+    Seasons and years; which closely like the links
+    Of an extended chain progressive join:
+    Or as a clock, with all its hidden springs
+    And constant motions, wound up to the top,
+    Begins its course, revolving until down.
+
+The distinction between _day_ and _night_ is a wise and gracious
+provision for man. In the morning, after the weary limbs have repaired
+their exhausted vigor by the indulgence of soft repose, we are pleased
+with the blessing of light; and, after a few fleeting hours engaged
+in our diversified pursuits of the day, we begin to court the evening
+shades, pleased again to enjoy that balmy retreat which alone refits
+us for the fatigues of the ensuing day. When a few fleeting hours
+are spent, the day is no longer gratifying; but its light becomes
+burdensome, and we wish for the shadows of the evening to be stretched
+over us. This sable period is scarcely gone, when we welcome the
+dawning day, and leave the place of our rest with gladness.
+
+_Day_ and _night_, and their alternate changes, are adapted to suggest
+useful thoughts, and calculated to employ our serious meditation.
+
+      "From night to day, from day to night,
+    The _dawning_ and the _dying_ light
+      Lectures of heavenly wisdom read;
+    With silent eloquence they raise
+    Our thoughts to the Creator's praise.
+      And neither sound nor language need."
+
+A force continually impressed by the supreme Being produces and
+preserves these different and useful motions, which measure out that
+portion of time assigned us, for the performance of his work, and
+the securing of our own salvation. We are directed in his word how
+to employ this important _talent_ lent to us; also warned to guard
+against a misapplication of it, and told that a day will come when we
+shall have to give an account of our stewardship. As _day_ is afforded
+for the management of those employments which could not be done in
+the night, how unwise would it be to postpone such concerns till the
+approach of darkness? So the short period of life is given us that we
+may "work out our own salvation." We are favored with the light of
+Divine truth to illuminate our understandings; the operation of the
+Holy Spirit to influence our wills; and our pressing necessities should
+impel us to perform what God requires.
+
+The Greeks have two words for _time_, <<chronos>> and <<kairos>>: the
+former signifies time in general; and the latter that part of it which
+is proper for doing a thing--the present season in which any thing to
+be done may be done fitly and to advantage. Accordingly Solomon says,
+"To every thing there is a season, and a time to every purpose under
+heaven."
+
+What the apostle says to the Christians at Ephesus is equally
+applicable and interesting to persons in succeeding ages of the world;
+giving a view of the importance of time, and directing to a right
+improvement of it. "See that ye walk circumspectly, not as fools, but
+as wise, redeeming the time, because the days are evil."
+
+_Walking_, in the Scripture style, is a word frequently used to denote
+the whole course of a man's life and conversation, including all his
+thoughts, words and actions. Walking _circumspectly_, <<akrib�s>>,
+signifies correctly, accurately, consistently, or perfectly. In
+another place the same word is rendered _diligently_. Herod said
+to the wise men come from the east, Go to Bethlehem, and search
+<<akrib�s>>, _diligently_, narrowly, for the young child Jesus. But
+the word _circumspect_ is from the Latin _circumspicio_, and signifies
+to look round about, on all hands, to be every way watchful, wary, and
+cautious, in order to avoid danger, discern enemies before they come
+too nigh, and secure a man's interest by every possible and lawful
+means.[52]
+
+The necessity of this duty is suggested in the Greek text, <<blepete
+oun>> _see then_ or _therefore_, take care of this as a matter of the
+highest concern and greatest importance; it is that on which your all
+depends. He adduces a cogent reason for this--"Not as fools, but as
+wise." As if he should say, It is your _wisdom_ to walk circumspectly,
+and not to walk so would be your _folly_: to walk circumspectly is the
+wisdom that God recommends to you, and which is adapted to make you
+truly wise, both in this world and in that which is to come.
+
+The word _redeeming_, <<exagorazomenoi>>, literally signifies _buying
+time_. The term _buying_ is proper in reference to civil contracts,
+but it is here applied morally. Properly speaking, time cannot be
+bought: it is a commodity for which all the treasures in the world
+would not be an equivalent. Its price is above rubies. But the
+term imports the great value of time, and intimates that we should
+be willing to suffer any privation or inconveniences, rather than
+lose it. _Redeeming_ properly implies the laying down a price for
+re-purchasing or recovering that which was ours, but which has fallen
+into the possession of another. A captive sometimes is redeemed out
+of the hand of an enemy. Now, in this sense, to redeem time already
+past is impossible, for when once gone it is irrecoverable. So that
+by _redeeming_ time, nothing else can be understood but a diligent
+and prudent improvement of it, which is the only way in our power
+to counterbalance the loss we have sustained by our former neglect.
+The effects of our past negligence should be counteracted by double
+diligence in future: we should do much work in a little time. This
+is to redeem that time, concerning which we have allowed worldly
+business, unprofitable visits, sensual indulgence, carnal recreations,
+and vain thoughts, to rob us, and, as it were, to take and keep us
+captive. To redeem time then is to be diligent in future, wisely
+improving it so as may make amends for our very culpable remissness.
+Future diligence is, as it were, the price of redemption paid down for
+what we had mortgaged into the hands of those things which we have
+suffered to deprive us of it.
+
+The argument used to enforce the practice of this duty is, "because the
+days are evil." Time, in itself, properly speaking, is neither good nor
+evil; but in regard to the moral state of mankind may be so called.
+The days here primarily intended by the apostle, denominated _evil_,
+were those of his own time, in which he himself and his contemporaries
+lived, and which abounded with trouble and danger, by reason of the
+opposition made by unbelieving Jews and Gentiles against Christianity.
+But all our days, as well as those, may be called evil, because of
+the prevalence of sin, Satanic delusion, and hostility of the ungodly
+against real religion. Many persons can adopt the language of the
+patriarch Jacob, "Few and evil have the days of the years of my life
+been." Job gives a similar testimony, "Man that is born of a woman, is
+of few days, and full of evil."
+
+The whole argument runs thus: seeing that you cannot enjoy true quiet
+and substantial comfort in this terrestrial abode, and are in danger
+of being quickly deprived of all opportunity of getting and doing
+good, fail not to improve the present time to the best advantage, in
+reference to the future state, that you may secure for yourselves a
+happy and glorious eternity.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Footnotes - Chapter II
+
+    [23] See Dr. A. Clarke on Gen. i. 1.
+
+    [24] Barington's Dissertations, &c, p. 82.
+
+    [25] An eminent chemist and philosopher, Dr. Priestley,
+    has very properly observed, that it seems plain that Moses
+    considered the whole terraqueous globe as being created in
+    a _fluid_ state, the earthly and other particles of matter
+    being mingled with the water. The present form of the earth
+    demonstrates the truth of the Mosaic account, for it is well
+    known, that, if a soft or elastic globular body be rapidly
+    whirled round on its axis, the parts at the poles will be
+    flattened, and the parts on the equator, midway between the
+    north and the south poles will be raised up. This is precisely
+    the shape of our earth; it has the figure of an _oblate
+    spheroid_, a figure pretty much resembling the shape of an
+    _orange_. It has been demonstrated by admeasurement, that the
+    earth is flatted at the poles, and raised at the equator. This
+    was first conjectured by Sir Isaac Newton, and afterwards
+    confirmed by M. Cassini, and others, who measured several
+    degrees of latitude at the equator and near the north pole,
+    and found that the difference perfectly justified Sir Isaac
+    Newton's conjecture, and consequently confirmed the Mosaic
+    account. The result of the experiments instituted to determine
+    this point, proved, that the diameter of the earth at the
+    equator is greater by more than _twenty-three_ and _a half_
+    miles than it is at the poles, allowing the polar diameter to
+    be 1-334 part shorter than the _equatorial_, according to the
+    recent admeasurements of several degrees of latitude made by
+    Messrs. Mechain and Delambre. L'Histoire des Mathem. par M. de
+    la Lande, tom. iv, part v, liv. vi: and Dr. Adam Clarke, on
+    Gen. i. 10.
+
+    [26] Hesiod. Theog. 116.
+
+    [27] Aristoph. Aves, 694.
+
+    [28] Longin, sect. ix, Edit. Pearce.
+
+    [29] Walker's History of the Creation, p. 8, 9.
+
+    [30] Benson on the Text.
+
+    [31] Preface to Dr. Black's Lectures, by Robison.
+
+    [32] Carpenter's Lectures on the Works of Creation, vol. i.
+    p. 87.
+
+    [33] Boerhaave's Chem. by Shaw, vol. i. p. 299.
+
+    [34] Parkes's Chemical Catechism, or Rudiments of
+    Chemistry, chap. ii.
+
+    [35] Contemplative Philosopher, vol. ii. p. 149, 150.
+
+    [36] See Dr. Burnet's Theory, vol. ii, p. 30.
+
+    [37] Apud Stob. Eclog. Phys. p. 44.
+
+    [38] That light is a fluid which encompasses the earth,
+    and requires only to be agitated by some other inflamed body,
+    in order to render it perceptible, is an hypothesis, says a
+    celebrated German divine, that has been adopted by the most
+    eminent philosophers. "It is certain, at least, that there is
+    a great difference between _fire_ and _light_. The latter is
+    incomparably more subtile than the former. It penetrates glass,
+    and other transparent bodies, in a moment; whereas fire does it
+    very slowly. The pores of glass are consequently large enough
+    to give a free passage to the light, while the fire meets with
+    more resistance, because it is less subtile. Fire moves more
+    slowly than light. Let burning coals be brought into a room,
+    the heat diffuses itself very slowly, and the air becomes
+    warm by degrees; but the moment a candle is brought into an
+    apartment, the whole is suddenly illuminated; and wherever
+    the rays can reach the parts become more visible. From these
+    facts, and some others, it is concluded, that fire and light
+    are different substances; although we generally see them both
+    together, and find that one may produce the other. But the
+    consequence drawn from this is possibly false."
+
+    [39] A new material has recently been introduced in
+    this country, for the purpose of lighting houses, streets,
+    manufactories, &c, namely, the inflammable gas of coals.
+    When coals are burning in a common fire-place, a flame more
+    or less luminous, according as it is more or less encumbered
+    with incombustible smoke and vapor, issues from them; and
+    very frequently emit some very beautiful streams of a flame
+    remarkably bright. All this arises from the gases which are
+    extricated from the coal by the heat. It was natural to imagine
+    that such gas might be received in proper reservoirs, and, on
+    being forced out of small apertures, and lighted, would serve,
+    as the flames of candles, to illuminate rooms or other places.
+    The trial was easily made, and has been attended with the
+    desired effect.
+
+    [40] Dr. Rees's New Cyclop�dia, Art. Light; and Dr. O.
+    Gregory's Lessons, Astronomical and Philosophical p. 157.
+
+    [41] Gregory's Economy of Nature, vol. i, p. 173.
+
+    [42] See Relig. Philos. vol. iii, pp. 869, 870, Fourth
+    Edition.
+
+    [43] Sturm's Reflections, vol. iii, p. 184.
+
+    [44] Dr. Rees's Cyclop�dia, Art. Light.
+
+    [45] Parkes's Rudiments of Chemistry, chap. xii.
+
+    [46] Sermon on 1 Pet. ii, 21.
+
+    [47] Dr. Adam Clarke on Gen. i, 31.
+
+    [48] When Zeno, the Prince of the Stoics, was endeavoring
+    to prove, by a sophistical argument, that there was no
+    motion, Diogenes, the cynic, who had come into his school to
+    hear him, quickly started up and walked: which was an ocular
+    demonstration of motion, and sufficient to refute all his
+    sophisms adduced to the contrary.
+
+    [49] See Gurdon's Sixth Sermon at Boyle's Lecture.
+
+    [50] Plato in Epinom.
+
+    [51] Aristot. Physic. lib. vii, c. 5.
+
+    [52] Dr A. Clarke on Eph. v, 15.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+SECOND DAY.
+
+ON THE ATMOSPHERE.
+
+    Composition of Atmospheric Air -- Atmosphere divided
+    into three regions -- Air a fluid -- Its compressibility
+    and elasticity -- Weight and pressure -- Equilibrium --
+    Transparency -- Wind -- Causes of Wind -- Variety of Winds
+    -- Velocity of Winds -- Destructive Winds -- Wind under the
+    control of God -- Wind a similitude of the Holy Spirit's
+    operations.
+
+
+On the _second day_ God made a space or _expansion_, surrounding the
+solid earth to a certain height, called the _atmosphere_. This word
+is derived from <<atmos>> and <<sphaira>>, and signifies a body of
+vapor in a spherical form. By this name we understand the "entire
+mass of air which encircles all parts of the terrestrial globe, which
+moves with it round the sun, which touches it in all parts, ascending
+to the tops of its mountains, penetrating into its cavities, and
+incessantly floating on its waters. It is a fluid which we inhale
+from the first to the last moment of our existence." The Hebrew word
+**rqy`** _raki�_, from **rq`** _rak�_, used by Moses, (and which our
+translators, by following the _firmamentum_ of the Vulgate, which is
+a translation of the <<stere�ma>>, of the Septuagint, have improperly
+rendered _firmament_,) signifies to _spread out as the curtains of
+a tent or pavilion_.[53] It corresponds with those beautiful words
+of Isaiah, "It is he that STRETCHETH OUT the heavens as a curtain,
+and SPREADETH THEM out as a tent to dwell in." "Thus," as a learned
+and pious author justly observes, "the second great production of
+the Almighty was the element which is next in simplicity, purity,
+activity, and power, to the light, (or, rather _fire_,) and no
+doubt was also used by him as an agent in producing some subsequent
+effects."[54]
+
+It is particularly deserving notice, that, after the creation of
+caloric, the atmosphere was the next regular production. If heat
+had not previously existed, could the atmosphere have been formed?
+The Creator, having first impressed certain principles on matter,
+impregnating it with repelling forces and systematical attractions,
+proceeded with his work according to these radical and fixed laws.
+One of the general laws discovered by Dr. Black, and which is laid
+down as a chemical axiom, is, that "Whenever a body _changes_ its
+state, it either combines with caloric, or separates from caloric."
+"The most probable opinion concerning the nature of caloric," says Mr.
+Dalton, "is that of its being an elastic fluid of great subtlety, whose
+particles repel one another, but are attracted by all other bodies.
+Every kind of matter has its peculiar affinity to heat, by which it
+requires a certain portion of the fluid, in order to be in equilibrium
+with other bodies at a certain temperature."[55] It is now generally
+supposed, adds Mr. Parkes, that the air owes its elasticity to the
+caloric which it contains; and, that if it could be deprived entirely
+of this, it would lose its elastic form. The expansibility of the air
+is effected by the operation of caloric: for being rarefied by heat,
+it occupies a larger space than otherwise it would. It is extremely
+probable, says Lavoisier, that air is a fluid naturally existing in a
+state of vapor; or, as we may better express it, that our atmosphere
+is a compound of all the fluids which are susceptible of the vaporous
+or permanently elastic state, in the usual temperature, and under the
+common pressure.[56]
+
+For the discovery of the composition of atmospheric air, we are
+indebted to Scheele, an able chemist, born 1742, at Stralsund, in
+Germany, who was a member of the Academy of Stockholm, and one of the
+Royal Society of Medicine at Paris, and whose laborious investigations
+of nature have perpetuated his memory. When the nature of atmospheric
+air began to be understood, it was imagined that it was a mere
+_mixture_ of oxygen gas and nitrogen gas; and Mr. Dalton is still of
+this opinion: but, says Mr. Parkes, we have now abundant reason to
+believe that it is a mere chemical compound; that is, that the oxygen
+and nitrogen form atmospheric air by a chemical union. Atmospheric air
+is a chemical mixture of oxygen and nitrogen rendered a�rial by the
+expansive power of caloric: it likewise contains a portion of carbonic
+acid gas, which was formerly calculated at one per cent.; but Mr.
+Dalton has lately demonstrated that it does not amount to more than
+one part in a thousand.[57] Carbonic acid gas is nearly twice as heavy
+as common air; hence it is evident that it must combine _chemically_
+with the atmosphere, or it would be found only near the surface of the
+earth. If it were merely _mixed_ with atmospheric air, its gravity
+would prevent it from ascending to any great height: but it is found to
+exist in the atmosphere at the greatest heights, (though probably not
+in the same proportion) as well as near the surface of the earth; which
+is a proof that it is not a mere mixture, but that it is chemically
+combined with the air. There are about 22 parts of oxygen, and 78 of
+nitrogen, in every 100 measures of atmospheric air, or 23 of the former
+and 77 of the latter, if the calculation be made by weight.[58]
+
+Antony de Marti observes, If a few hundredth parts of oxygen only were
+wanting in atmospheric air, fire would lose its strength, candles would
+not diffuse such complete light, and animals would with difficulty
+separate the necessary quantity of the vivifying oxygen. On the other
+hand, if the atmosphere were more charged with oxygen than nitrogen,
+animals indeed would acquire a more free respiration; but, let us
+consider the activity which fire would acquire by air of superior
+purity. We know that, on some occasions, the least spark excites the
+strongest flame in a combustible body, and which increases so much
+as to consume it in a few moments: candles _then_ would be no sooner
+lighted than they would be destroyed, without answering any other
+purpose than that of dazzling us for a few moments: iron would be
+calcined, instead of acquiring from the fire that softness necessary
+for transforming it into its various instruments, and which it cannot
+receive in a more moderate heat. Nothing would be capable of checking
+the progress of this destructive element, which is nourished by vital
+air, if this a�riform substance were not abundantly mixed with mephitic
+air, which serves to restrain it.
+
+Pure atmospheric air is composed of three gaseous substances only, but
+is perpetually contaminated by a variety of exhalations from the earth.
+"The atmosphere is a vast laboratory," says Fourcroy, "in which nature
+operates immense analyses, solutions, precipitations, and combinations:
+it is a grand reservoir, in which all the attenuated and volatilized
+productions of terrestrial bodies are received, mingled, agitated,
+combined, and separated. Notwithstanding this mixture, of which it
+seems impossible for us to ascertain the nature, atmospheric air is
+sensibly the same, with regard to its intimate qualities, wherever we
+examine it." Hence, whatever may be the nature of the a�rial fluid,
+when absolutely pure, that which we breathe, and which commonly
+goes under the name of _air_, must be considered as an exceedingly
+heterogeneous mixture, various at various times, and which it is by
+no means possible to analyze with accuracy. The whole mass of it
+contains a great deal of water, together with the vast collection of
+particles raised from all bodies of matter on the surface of the earth
+by effluvia, exhalations, &c, so that it may be termed a _chaos_ of the
+particles of all sorts of matter confusedly mingled together. And hence
+it has been considered as a large chemical vessel, in which the matter
+of all kinds of bodies is copiously floating; and thus exposed to the
+continual action of that immense surface, the sun, from whence proceed
+innumerable operations, sublimations, separations, compositions,
+digestions, fermentations, putrefications, &c.
+
+Though, in this view, the atmosphere seems to be a kind of sink or
+common sewer, where all the poisonous effluvia arising from putrid
+and corrupted matter is deposited; yet it has a wonderful facility of
+purifying itself, and one way or other, of depositing those vapors
+contained in it; so that it never becomes noxious, except in particular
+places, and for a short time; the general mass remaining, upon all
+occasions, pretty much the same.[59] The way in which this purification
+is effected, is different according to the nature of the vapor with
+which the air is loaded. Aqueous vapor ascends; and also much of that
+vapor arising from decayed and putrid animal and vegetable substances,
+(and which, by some modern philosophers, is called _phlogiston_,
+attaching itself to the aqueous vapor,) ascends along with it; and
+probably descends again with the rain; whence the fertilizing qualities
+of rain-water above those of any other: while another part is absorbed
+by vegetables; for the phlogistic vapor is probably the food for
+plants. But sulphureous, acid, and metalline exhalations, produced
+principally by volcanos; vapors, arising from houses where lead and
+other metals are smelted; descend, in consequence of their specific
+gravity, and suffocate and spread destruction around them, poisoning
+not only animals, but vegetables also. From all these, the air seems
+not capable of purifying itself, otherwise than by winds, or by letting
+them subside by their superior gravity, till they are absorbed either
+by the earth or water, according as it is their nature to unite with
+one or other of these elements. Of this kind also seem to be the vapors
+which are properly called pestilential. The contagion of the plague
+itself seems to be of a heavy, sluggish nature, incapable of rising in
+the air, but attaching itself to the walls of houses, bed-clothes, and
+wearing apparel. Hence, scarcely any constitution of the atmosphere
+can dispel these noxious effluvia; nor does it seem probable that
+pestilential distempers ever cease until the contagion has operated so
+long, and been so frequently communicated from one to another, that,
+like a ferment much exposed to the air, it becomes vapid, communicates
+a milder infection, and at last loses its strength altogether.
+
+The atmosphere, or body of air encompassing the earth on all sides,
+is generally divided into _three_ regions. The lowest region extends
+from the earth to the place where the air is no longer heated by the
+rays which the earth reflects: this region is the wannest. The _middle_
+region begins where the preceding one ends, and goes to the summit of
+the highest mountains, or even the highest clouds; this is the space
+where rain, hail, and snow are engendered: this region is much colder
+than the preceding one. The _third_ region extends from the middle one
+to the utmost height of the atmosphere; whose limits have not been
+ascertained.[60] If the air were of an equal density throughout, the
+height of the atmosphere might be determined: but since the density
+of the air decreases with the pressure, it will be more rarefied and
+expanded the higher we go; and by this means the altitude of the
+atmosphere becomes indefinite, and terminates in pure ether. But though
+we cannot assign its real height, it is certain, from observations and
+experiments, that a distance of 45 or 50 miles is the utmost limit
+where the density is sufficient to refract the rays of light. For the
+beginning and ending of twilight show, that the height at which the
+atmosphere begins to refract the sun's light is about 45 English miles;
+and therefore that may be reckoned the altitude of the air to the least
+degree of density.
+
+The air is justly reckoned among the number of _fluids_, because it
+has all the properties by which a fluid is distinguished. It requires
+but little attention to be convinced of this. The air yields to the
+smallest force impressed on it; its parts are easily moved among
+themselves; it presses according to its perpendicular height, and its
+pressure is every where equal. That the air is a fluid consisting of
+such particles as have no cohesion among themselves, but easily glide
+over one another, and yield to the smallest impression, appears from
+the ease and freedom with which animals breathe in it, and move through
+it without any difficulty or sensible resistance. The ease with which
+it is penetrated, and driven about in every direction, and the motion
+of it in pipes and channels, however crooked and intricate, demonstrate
+its fluidity. It is also known to be a fluid, by the easy conveyance
+which it affords to sound.
+
+_Compressibility_ and _elasticity_ are evident properties of air. Its
+elasticity was first ascertained by some experiments of Lord Bacon.
+The air nearest the earth is in a state of compression, occupying a
+smaller space than it otherwise would do, were it not compressed by
+the superincumbent air. It must therefore be in a state something
+resembling that of a quantity of fine carded wool thrown loosely into a
+deep pit; the lower strata supporting the weight of the upper strata,
+and being compressed by them; and so much the more compressed as they
+are further down, while the upper stratum only is in its unconstrained
+and most expanded state. If we should suppose this wool thrown in by
+a hundred weight at a time, it will be divided into strata of equal
+weights, but of unequal thickness, the lowest being the thinnest, and
+the superior strata gradually increasing in thickness.[61]
+
+When the air is in a state of compression, we find that the same force
+with which we compressed it is necessary to keep it in its bulk; and
+that if we cease to press it together, it will swell out and regain its
+natural dimensions, which shows its elasticity. This distinguishes it
+essentially from such a body as a mass of flour, salt, and such like,
+which remains in the compressed state to which we reduce it. There is
+something therefore which opposes the compression of air, different
+from its simple impenetrability, and produces motion, by repelling
+the compressing body. As an arrow is gradually accelerated by the
+bow-string pressing it forward, and at the moment of its discharge
+is brought to a state of rapid motion; so the ball from a pop-gun or
+wind-gun is gradually accelerated along the barrel by the pressure
+of the air during its expansion from its compressed state, and
+finally quits it with an accumulated velocity. These two motions are
+indications perfectly similar to the elasticity of the bow and of the
+air.
+
+Mr. Parkes observes, that atmospheric air in all states, and in all
+seasons, is _permanently_ elastic. This elasticity arises from caloric
+being chemically combined with the solid substances of which it is
+composed. I say _solid_, because we have abundant evidence that oxygen
+and nitrogen are both capable of taking a solid form, and actually
+do, in many instances, exist in a state of solidity. Nitrogen is a
+component part of all animal substances, and exists in a solid state in
+all the ammoniacal salts. Oxygen takes the same state when it combines
+with metals and other combustibles; and in the composition of the
+nitrous salts they both take the same state of solidity. These facts
+surely evince that atmospheric air owes its fluidity to caloric.
+
+Dr. Hales, by means of a press, condensed the air 33 times; and,
+afterwards, by forcing water in an iron globe, into 1,551 times less
+space than it naturally occupies. The dilation of the air, by virtue of
+its elastic force, is found to be very surprising. In experiments made
+by Mr. Boyle, it dilated to 10,000, and even, at last, in 13,679 times
+its space; and this altogether by its own expansive force, without the
+help of fire. In fact, it appears that the air we breathe is compressed
+by its own weight into at least the 13,679th part of the space it would
+occupy in _vacuo_. But if the same air be condensed by art, the space
+it would take up when most dilated, will be, according to the same
+author's experiments, as 550,000 to 1.
+
+It is only by means of the experiments made with pumps,[62] and the
+barometrical tube, by Galileo and Torricelli, that we came to the
+proof, not only that the atmosphere is endued with _weight_ and
+_pressure_, but also of the measure and quantity of that pressure. The
+rise of water in a pump was formerly attributed to the horror that
+nature had of a vacuum. This absurd notion was refuted about the middle
+of the seventeenth century, by the following occurrence. The Duke of
+Florence, having occasion to raise water to the height of 50 or 60
+feet, ordered a common pump to be made for that purpose; but when it
+was completed, the workmen were astonished to find that it would not
+work. The matter was referred to Galileo, but he was unable to account
+for it in any way. All they were able to determine was, that water
+would not rise in a common pump more than 32 or 35 feet. The fact
+remained inexplicable till philosophers caught the idea of atmospheric
+pressure; since when, the suspension of mercury in the barometer, and
+water in a pump, have been well understood.[63]
+
+That the air is a heavy body, has been demonstrated by a variety of
+experiments. The air next the earth is more dense than that at a
+distance, because, as it is of an elastic or springy nature, it is
+pressed down by the whole weight of the superincumbent air. Its general
+force of gravity appears, from its surrounding the earth, and always
+accompanying it in its orbit round the sun. As the matter of which the
+air is composed is always variable, so likewise will its weight or
+gravity be, as barometers of various kinds and structure evince. The
+weight of the air at the earth's surface, is found by the quantity of
+mercury that the atmosphere balances in the barometer; in which, at a
+mean state, the mercury stands 29� inches high. And if the tube were
+a square inch wide, it would at that height contain 29� cubic inches
+of mercury, which is just 15 pounds weight; and so much weight of air
+every square inch of the earth's surface sustains; and every square
+foot, as containing 144 inches, must sustain a pressure of 2,160. At
+this rate, a middle-sized man, whose surface is about 15 square feet,
+must sustain a weight of 32,400 pounds, or 16 tons; for the air, like
+other fluids, presses equally upwards, downwards, and sideways, in
+every direction. But because this enormous weight bears equally on all
+sides, and is counterbalanced by the spring of air diffused through all
+parts of the body, it is not in the least felt by us.[64]
+
+By this enormous pressure we should undoubtedly be crushed in a moment
+were not all parts of our bodies filled either with air or some other
+elastic fluid, whose spring is just sufficient to counterbalance the
+weight of the atmosphere. The human body is a bundle of solids, hard
+or soft, filled or mixed with fluids, and there are few or no parts of
+it which are empty. All communicate either by vessels or pores; and
+the whole surface is a sieve through which the insensible perspiration
+is performed. The whole extended surface of the lungs is open to the
+pressure of the atmosphere; every thing therefore is in equilibrio: and
+if free or speedy access be given to every part, the body will not
+be damaged by the pressure, however great, any more than a wet sponge
+would be deranged by plunging it any depth in water. The pressure is
+instantaneously diffused by means of the incompressible fluids with
+which the parts are filled: and if any parts are filled with air or
+other compressible fluids, these are compressed till their elasticity
+balances the pressure. Besides, all our fluids are acquired slowly, and
+gradually mixed with that proportion of air which they can dissolve or
+contain. The whole animal has grown up in this manner from the first
+vital atom of the embryo. For such reasons the pressure can occasion
+no change of shape by squeezing together the flexible parts; nor any
+obstruction by compressing the vessels or pores.
+
+Sometimes the air is so heavy and elastic as to support the mercury in
+the tube at the height of 31 inches nearly; at other times it is so
+light and unelastic, as to suffer it to fall as low as 28 inches. The
+difference between these two altitudes is three inches, that is, about
+1-9th of the whole weight of the atmosphere. Our bodies, therefore, are
+sometimes pressed with a weight one-ninth more than at other times,
+that is, with about 3,360 pounds more weight at one time than another.
+This has considerable effect on our feelings, and consequently on our
+health, but we are apt to ascribe this effect to a wrong cause. When
+we feel ourselves dull and languid, we think it is owing to the air
+being too thick and heavy about us. But it is just the reverse: the air
+is then too light and thin, as is evident from the mercury's sinking
+in the barometer, and its not bearing up the clouds: it is seldom
+dense enough at two miles height to bear them up.[65] The weight of
+the air is proved by its supporting the clouds and vapors which we so
+frequently see floating in it; in the same manner that the swimming of
+a piece of wood indicates the weight of the water which supports it.
+
+It may be remarked, says Mr. Parkes, that the Creator has endowed
+atmospheric air with the property of preserving its own _equilibrium_
+at all times and in all places. Its elasticity is such, that,
+however it may be consumed by respiration or combustion, its place
+is immediately supplied with a new portion; and though by a mistaken
+policy the doors and windows of our habitations may be constructed so
+as to exclude it as much as possible, it will have admission; it forces
+its way through every crevice, and performs the most important office
+assigned it, in defiance of all our exertions. If the properties which
+are given to the different substances in nature, and the laws by which
+they are governed, be thus examined, we shall find them all tending to
+promote the welfare and felicity of every species of animated beings.
+
+The _transparency_ of the air is a very beneficial property it
+possesses. According to Dr. Keill, and other writers on astronomy, it
+is entirely owing to the atmosphere that the heavens appear bright in
+the day-time. For, without an atmosphere, that part of the heavens only
+would shine in which the sun is placed: and if we could exist without
+air, and should turn our backs toward the sun, the whole heavens would
+appear as dark as in the night, and the stars would be seen as clear
+as in the nocturnal sky. In this case we should have no twilight;
+but a sudden transition from the brightest sunshine to the blackest
+darkness immediately after sunset; and from the blackest darkness
+to the brightest sunshine at sun-rising; which would be extremely
+inconvenient, if not fatal to the sight of men. But, by means of
+the atmosphere, we enjoy the sun's light, reflected from the a�rial
+particles, for some time before he rises, and after he sets. For, when
+the earth by its rotation has prevented us from seeing the sun, the
+atmosphere, being still higher than we, has the sun's light imparted to
+it, which gradually decreases until he has descended 18 degrees below
+the horizon; and then, all that part of the atmosphere which is above
+us becomes dark. The atmosphere refracts the sun's rays so, as to bring
+him in sight every clear day, before he rises in the horizon; and to
+keep him in view for some minutes after he is really set below it. For,
+at some times of the year, we see the sun ten minutes longer above the
+horizon, than he would be if there were no refractions; and about six
+minutes every day at a mean rate. We cannot but perceive the wisdom of
+God displayed in this contrivance, to prevent the sudden transition
+from light to extreme darkness, and his goodness manifested therein to
+man.
+
+Besides these, there are many other advantages we derive from the
+atmosphere. Were it not for the atmospheric air, which is the vehicle
+of light and sound, our eyes would be useless, and the pleasures which
+arise from the variegated prospects that now surround us, unknown.
+Sound would never strike our ears, nor convey the charms of language
+from one person to another; all the delights of mutual converse would
+be lost. The sense of smell would never be regaled with odoriferous
+sweets; nor annoyed with exhalations from putrid and morbid substances.
+In short, life would become extinct, and a chaos of darkness and
+emptiness ensue. It has been well remarked, that, if the Deity had
+intended only to give us existence, and had been indifferent about
+our happiness or misery, all the necessary purposes of hearing might
+have been answered without harmony; of smell, without fragrance; of
+vision without beauty. The consideration of the various _uses_ to
+which the different substances in nature may be applied, gives so
+satisfactory an assurance of the goodness of the Almighty, as is
+calculated to produce in us gratitude and obedience. With this view,
+an elegant French writer has said on this necessary fluid, "In the
+use of atmospheric air, _man_ is the only being who gives to it all
+the modulations of which it is susceptible. With his voice alone, he
+imitates the hissing, the cries, and the melody of all animals; while
+he enjoys the gift of speech denied to every other. To the air he also
+communicates sensibility; he makes it sigh in the pipe, lament in
+the flute, threaten in the trumpet, and animates to the tone of his
+passions even the solid brass, the box tree, and the reed. Sometimes he
+makes it his slave: he forces it to grind, to bruise, and to move for
+his advantage an endless variety of machines. In a word, he harnesses
+it to his ear, and obliges it to waft him over the stormy billows of
+the ocean."
+
+_Wind_ is air in motion. As the air is a fluid, its natural state is
+that of rest, which it cannot have but by an universal equilibrium
+of all its parts. When, therefore, this natural equipoise of the
+atmosphere is destroyed in any part, the circumjacent air necessarily
+moves towards that part, to restore it; and this motion of the air is
+called _wind_. Hence, where the equilibrium of the air is disturbed,
+the wind may blow from every point of the compass at the same time:
+those who live northward of that point have a north wind; those who
+live southward have a south wind; and so on of the rest: but those
+who live on the spot, where all those winds meet and rush together,
+will have turbulent and boisterous weather, such as whirlwinds and
+hurricanes, accompanied with rain, lightning, and thunder. For
+sulphureous exhalations from the south, torrents of nitre from the
+north, and aqueous vapors from every part, are there violently blended
+together, and seldom fail to produce these phenomena.
+
+The causes of wind augment or diminish the gravity or elasticity of
+the atmosphere; for two portions of air, which are equal in elasticity
+or gravity, remain mutually immoveable. We must look for the causes of
+wind in the variation of heat and cold, the position of the sun, the
+nature of the soil, the inflammation of meteors, the condensation of
+the vapors into rain, and other similar circumstances: but the most
+general causes are heat and cold. Fire, which expands and rarefies the
+air, diminishes its elasticity, and, consequently, makes it lighter in
+some places than in others; hence the pressure of the ambient air is
+greater than that of the rarefied, whence a motion arises; and thus
+several winds blow towards the part where the air is rarefied by the
+heat; which currents of air, if strong, are called _winds_, if gentle,
+_breezes_ or _gales_. Thus the air is constantly carried from the polar
+regions towards the torrid zone, where it is also affected by the
+diurnal motion of the sun from east to west.
+
+"When we reflect attentively upon the nature of winds in general,"
+says Dr. O. Gregory, "considering all the causes which disturb the
+equilibrium of the atmosphere, the great mobility due to its fluidity
+and its elasticity, the influence of heat and cold upon the latter,
+the immense quantity of vapor with which it is charged and discharged
+alternately, the mutual effect of contiguous air and water in motion,
+the varied attractions of the sun and moon, upon the a�rial fluid, and
+finally the changes produced by the earth's rotation in the velocity of
+the atmospherical molecul� at different parallels of latitude; we shall
+no longer be astonished at the inconstancy and variety which infringe
+upon the regularity of some of our winds, nor of the extreme difficulty
+of reducing the whole to laws wearing the semblance of certainty."[66]
+
+There is a great variety of winds. The ancients observed only four,
+called _venti cardinales_, because they blow from the four cardinal
+points. Homer mentions no more than _eurus_, the east; _notus_, the
+south; _zephyrus_, the west; and _boreas_, the north wind.[67] In
+imitation of him, others do the same. Afterwards intermediate winds
+were added, first one, then two, between each of these. Most writers,
+make only eight winds, and Vitruvius[68] informs us that the Athenians
+built a marble tower in the form of an octagon with eight winds
+marked, every one on that side which faced it. The moderns make 32
+winds, the four cardinal winds 90 degrees distant, and 28 collateral
+or intermediate, 11 degrees and 15 minutes distant from each other, of
+which those in the middle between two cardinals, are 45 degrees distant
+from each cardinal.[69] But some make as many points on the compass,
+and as many winds, as there are degrees on the horizon, namely, 360.
+
+The winds for a considerable space north of the equator, about 30
+degrees in the open sea, blow from the north-east, and as far south
+of the equator, from the south-east. These are called _trade-winds_,
+from their facilitating trading voyages. In the Indian ocean, from its
+particular situation, and that of the lands which surround it, from
+April or May, to October or November, the wind blows from south-east to
+north-west; and during the rest of the year from the opposite quarters:
+these winds are called _monsoons_. In Jamaica and the Caribbee islands,
+in the months of July, August, or September, there are usually violent
+storms of wind, called _hurricanes_; the wind during the hurricane
+frequently veering, and blowing in every direction.
+
+    "Winds from all quarters agitate the air
+    And fit the limpid element for use,
+    Else noxious. Oceans, rivers, lakes, and streams,
+    All feel the fresh'ning impulse, and are cleansed
+    By restless undulation. E'en the oak
+    thrives by the rude concussion of the storm.
+    He seems indeed indignant, and to feel
+    The impression of the blast with proud disdain,
+    Frowning, as if in his unconscious arm
+    He held the thunder. But the monarch owes
+    His firm stability to what he scorns,
+    More fixed below, the more disturbed above."
+
+Winds have been measured, and their velocity calculated. The following
+is Mr. John Smeaton's table of the rate at which the wind travels:
+
+    Wind.                       Miles in  Feet in
+                                an Hour.   a Sec.
+
+    Hardly perceptible                 1     1,47
+    Just perceptible                   2     2,98
+                                       3     4,40
+    Gentle, pleasant                   4     5,87
+                                       5     7,35
+    Pleasant brisk gale               10    14,67
+                                      15    22,00
+    Very brisk                        20    29,34
+                                      25    36,67
+    High winds                        30    44,01
+                                      35    51,34
+    Very high                         40    58,68
+                                      45    66,01
+    Storm, tempest                    50    73,35
+    Great storm                       60    88,02
+    Hurricane                         80   117,36
+    ---- that tears up trees,      }
+         destroys buildings &c. &c.} 100   146,70[70]
+
+There are some winds that are awfully destructive. In the Gulf of
+Persia, particularly at Ormus, during the months of June and July, a
+hot suffocating wind sometimes blows from the west, for a day or two
+together, which scorches up and destroys any animal exposed to it. On
+this account the people of Ormus then leave their habitations, and
+retire to the mountains. Winds similar to this in kind, but not in
+degree, are sometimes felt on the coast of Coromandel, where they are
+called _terrenos_; and likewise on the Malabar coast. On the coast of
+Africa, north of Cape Verd, during the months of December, January, and
+February, an easterly wind sometimes blows for a day or two, called by
+sailors _harmattan_, so intensely cold, as to be almost as destructive
+as the west winds at Ormus. The _simoon_ is a hot wind which blows
+occasionally in the deserts of Arabia, parched by a vertical sun. If
+inhaled in any quantity, it produces instant suffocation, or at least
+leaves the unhappy sufferer oppressed with an asthma and lowness of
+spirits. Its approach is perceived by a redness in the air, well
+understood by those who are accustomed to journey through the desert;
+and the only refuge which they have from it, is to fall down with
+their faces close to the ground, and to continue as long as possible
+without respiration.[71] _Sirocco_ is a periodical wind which generally
+blows in Italy and Dalmatia every year about Easter. It blows from
+the south-east by south; it is attended with heat, but not rain; its
+ordinary period is twenty days, and it usually ceases at sunset. When
+the sirocco does not blow in this manner, the summer is almost free
+from easterly winds, whirlwinds, and storms. This wind is prejudicial
+to plants, drying and burning up the buds; though it hurts not man
+any otherwise than by causing in him an extraordinary weakness and
+lassitude; inconveniences that are fully compensated by a plentiful
+fishing, and a good crop on the mountains. In the summer time, when
+the westerly wind ceases for a day, it is a sign that the sirroco will
+blow the day following, which usually begins with a sort of whirlwind.
+When St. Paul was sailing close to the shore at Crete, there arose in
+the north-east, a tempestuous wind, called by the sacred historian,
+_euroclydon_; by Pliny, the _mariner's plague_; and in modern language,
+a _levanter_, which drove the ship from the coast: this not being a
+point wind, but rather a kind of hurricane, often shifting its quarter,
+tossed them backward and forward in the Adriatic.
+
+On Saturday, November 27, 1703, a tremendous storm shook all Europe,
+which has been considered the most dreadful tempest that has ever
+taken place since the deluge. This storm commenced three days before
+it arrived at its height. A strong west wind set in about the middle
+of the month, the force of which was increased every day till the
+27th. Great damage was sustained, and much alarm excited, both by sea
+and land. The late Rev. Dr. Stennett, in endeavoring to account for
+it, observes, that "having most probably taken its rise in America,
+it made its way across the western ocean, and collecting confederate
+matter in its passage over the seas, spent its fury on those parts of
+the world, whither this army of terrors was principally commissioned."
+The violence of the wind produced a hoarse, dreadful noise, like one
+continued peal of thunder; whilst the excessive darkness of the night
+added to the horror of the scene. Some accounts say, that it lightened;
+but it is probable, that this apprehension arose from there being, at
+times, many meteors and vapors in the air; the hurry and agitation of
+nature being too great to admit of thunder and lightning, in their
+usual course.
+
+Great loss of property was sustained; many painful accidents happened
+to those who escaped with their lives; and not a few had all their
+apprehensions realized, as they met death in some of its most
+dreadful forms. In the city of London and its vicinity, more than 800
+dwelling-houses were laid in ruins, and above 2,000 stacks of chimnies
+were precipitated to the ground. As a further proof of its strength
+and fury, we are informed, that the lead which covered the roof of
+100 churches, was rolled up, and hurled, in prodigious quantities, to
+great distances. But the dreadful devastation spread throughout the
+country. In one extensive plain, on the banks of the Severn, not less
+than 15,000 sheep, being unable to resist its violence, were driven
+into the river and drowned. Such was the quantity of trees torn up
+by their roots, that a person anxious to ascertain the number, had
+proceeded through but a part of the county of Kent, when, arriving at
+the prodigious amount of 250,000, he relinquished the undertaking.
+If such were the dreadful ravages of this storm by land, it will be
+anticipated they were still more disastrous on the water. Accordingly
+we are informed, that the best part of our navy being then at sea, if
+it had been at any other than a full flood and spring tide, the loss
+might have proved fatal to the nation. It was computed that not less
+than 300 ships were utterly destroyed by this tempest; among which were
+15 of the royal navy, containing upwards of 2,000 seamen, who "sunk as
+lead in the mighty waters." The whole loss of property was estimated
+at four millions of money--of lives, about eight thousand--and cattle
+without number.
+
+Towards the evening of the 27th, it pleased Him, "who gathereth the
+wind in his fists," gradually to suppress the storm, till there was a
+perfect calm. Men were encouraged to leave the retreats in which they
+had taken refuge, and view the "desolations which God had made in the
+earth."[72]
+
+Though the winds are produced by the operation of natural causes, and
+seem to move in natural courses, yet there is a first Cause, whose
+efficiency is necessary to their existence, motions, and continuance.
+We shall select the following remarkable instance as an illustration of
+the truth of this assertion.
+
+The disciples of Christ were once in imminent danger from a storm at
+the sea of Tiberias, which is also called the Sea of Galilee, and the
+Lake of Gennesaret, and, according to Pliny, is sixteen miles long,
+and six broad. It is said, "Behold, there arose a great tempest in
+the sea," <<seismos megas>>, a great concussion or shaking. The same
+expression is frequently used, both in the Scripture and in other
+writings, for an earthquake; but here it is applied to the sea. Luke
+calls this tempest "a storm of wind;" Mark, "a great storm of wind;"
+and both of them use the word <<lailaps>>, which the philosopher says
+is a particular kind of wind, or rather a conflict of many winds. The
+most probable derivation, says Mr. Parkhurst, seems to be from <<la>>
+or <<lian>>, _very much_, and <<lapt�>>, _to lick_ or _lap up_, as
+wolves do water in drinking; for a whirlwind _violently licks up_, as
+it were, the dust of all light bodies in its way. Hence <<lailaps>>
+is a wind that is suddenly whirled and rolled about downwards and
+upwards. Aristotle explains the word by _a violent whirlwind, moving
+from beneath upwards_. Hesychius, a learned Grecian, defines it to
+be a storm or tempest of wind, with rain. It seems to have been a
+whirlwind and hurricane in which the disciples then were. Luke says,
+that this storm of wind _came down_; it descended with great force
+into the sea, and lifted up its waves, which beat into the ship, and
+pressed it much, so that it was in great danger of being swallowed
+up and sunk by them. All the views given us of this tempest show the
+disciples to have been in imminent danger. It is said, "that the ship
+was covered with the waves," which "beat into it, so that it was now
+full of water," as Mark expresses it. Nay, Luke says, "they were
+filled with water, and were in jeopardy," or in great danger. The ship
+was immersed, or just sinking into the deep. So that the disciples
+were brought to the utmost extremity. The great distress they were
+in is expressed in these words, "We perish, <<apollymetha>>, _we are
+lost_."[73] This way of speaking is still in use among sea-faring men,
+and indeed among others. Nothing is more common than for men to say,
+Such a vessel, or such a ship's crew, or such a person, was lost at
+sea, in such a place, and at such a time. It is also to be observed,
+they do not say, We are in danger of being lost, or we are ready to
+be lost, or we shall be lost, but, _we are lost_. Which shows what
+apprehension they had of their condition; they saw no probability of
+escaping by any naturally rational method; they looked on themselves
+as lost.
+
+All the Evangelists agree in this, though they do not use the same
+word. Mark mentions the place where he was asleep, _in the hinder
+part of the ship_, or stern, where he, as Lord and Master, should be.
+But to the great concern of the disciples, he was there in a deep or
+sound sleep, as the word <<aphypn�se>>, which Luke uses, signifies,
+and is confirmed by the loud cry, and repeated call of the disciples
+to him, saying, "Master, Master, we perish!" This sleep, doubtless,
+was brought on him through his great fatigue in preaching all the
+preceding day, and from the great concourse of people resorting
+to him, to have the sick healed, and devils cast out. He seems to
+have signified that he was very weary, just before he entered into
+the ship, to a man who said to him, "Master, I will follow thee
+whithersoever thou goest:" the answer he returned was, "The foxes
+have holes, and the birds of the air have nests; but the Son of Man
+hath not where to lay his head." Intimating as though he wanted an
+opportunity to lie down, and take some rest: and accordingly, when he
+was come into the ship, placing himself at the stern, he lay down, and
+fell fast asleep.
+
+Christ was their last resource, but he was asleep in the same ship.
+However, they resolved to apply to him, and in so doing were certainly
+right. They used this language, "Lord, save us;" which implies that
+they believed he was able to save them; and indeed the considerable
+miracles which had been so lately wrought in their presence, were
+sufficient to convince them of his ability to deliver them in their
+greatest extremity. Our Lord indeed blamed them for their incredulity
+and want of faith. The question he put to them, as related by Luke, is
+"Where is your faith?" You professed to have faith in me, and doubtless
+had a little while ago; where is it now? Mark expresses himself, "Why
+are ye so fearful? how is it that ye have no faith?" that is, none in
+exercise, none sufficient to suppress your alarming fears? Matthew
+says, "Why are ye fearful, Oh ye of little faith?" It would seem they
+had no faith in Christ when sleeping, though not destitute of it when
+awake; but for this he justly reprimanded them. For though, as the Son
+of Man, he was asleep, yet as the Son of God, by nature, he neither
+sleeps nor slumbers. He was equally able to save them when sleeping as
+well as when waking.
+
+It is not only certain that he was able to save them, but it is matter
+of fact that he in reality did so. Being awaked by his disciples, he
+rises up, and, with a majestic voice, and in an authoritative manner,
+showing, as it were, some kind of resentment at the wind and sea, as
+if they had exceeded their commission, and the one had blown and the
+other raged too much, and too long, rebukes them, saying, "Peace, be
+still:" <<Si�pa, pephim�so>>, be silent, hold thy peace, stop thy
+mouth, put a bridle on it, (as the last Greek word signifies;) go on
+no longer to threaten with shipwreck, and loss of lives. On this the
+wind ceased, and the sea became calm and smooth. The ship now moved
+quietly on, and they all arrived safe at the land of the Gadarenes,
+which is opposite to Galilee.
+
+This had a very considerable effect both on the mariners and disciples,
+who rightly concluded from hence that their deliverer was more than
+a man. There was such a display of majesty, such a lustre of Divine
+power appeared in this behest, as filled them with astonishment and
+fear. They _marvelled_ greatly, and _feared exceedingly_. Matthew seems
+to relate this, as though the mariners were the only persons who were
+affected with their deliverance: the men said one to another, "What
+manner of man is this, that even the winds and the sea obey him?"
+But Mark and Luke represent it as a question of the disciples to one
+another, "What manner of man is this?" of what qualities, powers,
+and perfections? He must be more than a mere man, he can be no other
+than the mighty God, "whom the winds and the sea obey." It is to be
+observed, that the word _man_, inserted in our translation, is not in
+the question, as expressed by any of the Evangelists, in the original,
+but "Who is this?" The disciples were sufficiently convinced by this
+miracle, which so nearly concerned themselves, that their Master must
+be God over all, blessed forever.
+
+This amazing instance of the power of Christ, shows clearly his Deity.
+Since he has such authority over the wind and seas, it must unavoidably
+follow that he is truly and properly God. It is said, "he rebuked the
+wind and the sea," a phrase that is used only of the Most High God, who
+stands distinguished from all other beings by this, that "he stilleth
+the noise of the seas, the noise of their waves, and the tumult of the
+people." The Messiah makes use of this as an argument to prove, that
+he is able to redeem, because he can rebuke the sea, dry it up, and
+cover the heavens with clouds. "Is my hand shortened at all, that it
+cannot redeem? or have I no power to deliver? behold, at my rebuke I
+dry up the sea: I make the rivers a wilderness. I clothe the heavens
+with blackness, and I make sackcloth their covering." That it is the
+Messiah who here speaks, the following words abundantly declare: "The
+Lord God hath given me the tongue of the learned, that I should know
+how to speak a word in season to him that is weary: he wakeneth morning
+by morning; he wakeneth mine ear to hear as the learned. The Lord
+God hath opened mine ear, and I was not rebellious, neither turned
+away back. I gave my back to the smiters, and my cheeks to them that
+plucked off the hair: I hid not my face from shame and spitting." Now
+on our Lord rebuking the wind and the sea, the one _ceased_, and the
+other became _calm_; this was done by speaking a word only, in an
+authoritative manner. Moses divided the waters of the Red Sea with a
+rod; Joshua, the waters of Jordan with the ark of the covenant; Elisha,
+with the Prophet's mantle: but here Christ calmed the raging billows
+with a word. When he rebuked the wind and the sea, not only the former
+instantly ceased to rage, but the sea immediately became calm, which
+was very unusual and extraordinary; for after the wind has ceased, and
+the storm is over, the waters of the sea commonly continue raging, and
+in a violent motion for a considerable time. Must not that man be an
+infidel, who can read this account, and deny the Deity of Jesus Christ?
+Or, must he not be forced to one or other of these two conclusions,
+either to deny the truth of the fact, or to believe that Jesus Christ
+is truly and properly God?
+
+    [_Addenda on Atmosphere._
+
+    1. By more recent and accurate experiments it is
+    established, that the relative proportions of oxygen and
+    hydrogen in air, are not precisely as given by Mr. Wood; but
+    are 21 of oxygen, and 79 of hydrogen in 100 parts.
+
+    2. Experiments on the _compressibility_ of the atmosphere
+    have been carried to a much greater extent than stated in the
+    text, and since our author wrote. It was generally believed
+    that air might be made to assume a _liquid_ form by pressure;
+    and it has been recently accomplished by Mr. Perkins, as he
+    states, by a pressure of 2,000 atmospheres.
+
+    3. Our author very justly states, that the _gaseous_ state
+    of the atmosphere is owing to the quantity of _caloric_ in
+    combination, the entire _abstraction_ of which would render
+    our atmosphere a body as solid as the diamond. This caloric is
+    not imparted to it by the beams of the sun _passing through_
+    it; because, radiant matter does not warm gaseous bodies by
+    passing through them. This caloric is chiefly supplied from the
+    _earth_, by the lowest stratum of air coming in contact with
+    it, and when heated ascends, and thus gives place to a colder
+    stratum. Hence the air is much warmer at the surface of the
+    earth, than in its higher regions.
+
+    4. Our author inclines to the opinion that the atmosphere
+    is the product of a _chemical_ combination of the gases, yet
+    great names, and weighty arguments are in favor of the opposite
+    theory of a _mere mixture_ of gases.
+
+    5. There is one point not presented in the preceding
+    section. It is well known that oxygen is abstracted from the
+    air by _combustion_, and the _breathing_ of animals. This
+    abstraction is very large. From whence then comes the supply
+    of oxygen sufficient to keep up the constitutional quantity of
+    this gas in the atmosphere? The only answer I have met with to
+    this difficult question is this: The _growing of vegetables_
+    is supposed to supply it, as it is well known that they absorb
+    carbonic acid during the day, and evolve oxygen. But it is also
+    well known that this process is _reversed_ during the night.
+    Hence it would appear that this is not a sufficient cause.
+    Still it would seem there must be a sufficient supply from some
+    source, as chemists have not been able to detect any change in
+    the constitution of the air.
+
+    May not the oxygen be _restored_ back again by _evolution_
+    from those bodies which have _absorbed_ it, _upon their
+    decomposition_? Thus there would be a successive absorption and
+    evolution as the process of nature went on; which would tend to
+    keep up an equal distribution of oxygen.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Footnotes - Chapter III
+
+    [53] Dr. Clarke on Gen. i, 6.
+
+    [54] Benson on Gen. i, 6.
+
+    [55] Dalton's New System of Chemical Philosophy, part 1, p.
+    1.
+
+    [56] Lavoisier's Elements of Chemistry, p. 78.
+
+    [57] Manchester Memoirs, New Series, vol. i, p. 254.
+
+    [58] When solid substances are rendered permanently
+    a�riform by heat, the air thus produced is called a _gas_. John
+    Baptist van Helmont, a physician and chemist, born at Brussels,
+    in 1577, and educated at Louvain, was the first chemist who
+    made use of this term to denote an elastic fluid. He gave fixed
+    air the name of _gas_.
+
+    The oxygen gas in atmospheric air is the principle
+    of combustion, as the vehicle of heat; and is absolutely
+    necessary for the support of animal life. Pure oxygen gas
+    has the property of accelerating the circulation of all the
+    animal fluids, and occasions the most rapid combustion of all
+    combustible substances; so that it is the most energetic and
+    powerful agent that chemists are acquainted with. Oxygen gas is
+    a little heavier than atmospheric air, and 740 times lighter
+    than water.
+
+    Nitrogen gas is chiefly distinguished by certain _negative_
+    qualities, such as being incapable of supporting combustion and
+    animal life. It is uninflammable, and somewhat lighter than
+    atmospheric air. Nitrogen gas has the effect of neutralizing,
+    in some measure, the properties of oxygen gas, and rendering
+    it fit for respiration and combustion. By the union of
+    nitrogen gas with the oxygen gas this change is effected: the
+    latter, which would burn every thing within its reach with an
+    unparalleled activity, is, as it were, dissolved and diluted;
+    and the nature of the former is so much enveloped by the
+    latter, that the compound possesses properties different from
+    either of these gasses, so as to be fitted for every purpose
+    for which it was designed.
+
+    Though nitrogen gas is, by itself, so noxious to animals,
+    it answers an important end when mixed with oxygen gas in
+    atmospheric air. Were it not for this large quantity of
+    nitrogen in the atmosphere, the blood would flow with too great
+    rapidity through the vessels, and all animals would have too
+    great spirits; the consequence of which would be, that the
+    life of man would not be protracted to the length that it now
+    is. "If the proportions of oxygen and nitrogen were reversed
+    in the atmospheric air, says Dr. Lambe, the air taken in by
+    respiration would be more stimulant, the circulation would
+    become accelerated, and all the secretions would be increased:
+    but the tone of the vessels, thus stimulated to increased
+    action, would be destroyed by over-excitement; and, if the
+    supply from the stomach were not equal to the consumption, the
+    body must inevitably waste and decay." Hence the wisdom of God
+    is remarkably displayed in the constitution of the atmospheric
+    air! See Parke's Chemical Catechism, chap. ii.
+
+    [59] "Mr. Cavendish," says Dr. O. Gregory, "is the first
+    who endeavored to establish that the proportions of the two
+    principal elements of the atmospheric air were constant. The
+    observations since made by M. de Mairy in Spain, M. Berthollet,
+    in Egypt and in France; Mr. Davy, in England; and by Dr.
+    Beddoes on the air brought from the coast of Guinea, seem
+    to have confirmed this grand result. But one of the finest
+    experiments made on this subject is that of Gay Lussac, in
+    France, who, having been elevated alone in a balloon to the
+    height of 6,900 metres, the greatest ever attained by any
+    person, brought some atmospheric air from these regions. This
+    air, being analysed at his return, comparatively with that
+    on the surface of the earth, gave the same principles in the
+    same proportions; a proof that the chemical constitution of
+    the atmosphere at these great heights, is the same as at the
+    surface of the earth. This result has been since confirmed by
+    the experiments made by Messrs. Humboldt and Gay Lussac on
+    eudiometry. The air of the surface of the earth, analysed at
+    different days, at various hours and temperatures, presented
+    no change in its composition: it always contained 0.21 of
+    oxygen in volume, 0.783 of azote, 0.003 of hydrogen, and 0.004
+    of carbonic acid. Biot and Arrago have also lately verified
+    this grand result. The atmospheric air, analysed in places
+    the most distant from each other, in deep valleys, on high
+    mountains, on banks of lakes, and in the glaciers of Chamouny,
+    always presented to them the same composition." Ha�y's Natural
+    Philosophy, Note, vol. i. p. 218.
+
+    [60] Sturm's Reflections, vol. iv. p. 49.
+
+    [61] "Galileo, to whom was reserved the glory of preparing,
+    long before, the way for the theory of Newton, by the discovery
+    of the law to which the acceleration of heavy bodies is
+    subjected, having let fall from a great height different balls
+    of gold, of lead, of copper, or porphyry, with a ball of wax,
+    observed that all these bodies employed nearly the same time
+    in falling to the earth. The ball of wax, the only one that
+    was sensibly retarded, was no more than four inches from the
+    earth at the end of the fall of the other bodies. Galileo,
+    considering that this difference was very far from being
+    proportional to that of the weights, concluded that it depended
+    solely on the resistance of the air. This conjecture has been
+    since verified by direct experiments, consisting in letting
+    fall from the top of a tube, within which the vacuum has been
+    made the most perfect possible, bodies of different materials,
+    such as lead, iron, wood, cork, feathers, wool, &c, and it has
+    been found that none of these bodies will then permit of our
+    perceiving any sensible difference in the duration of their
+    fall. As to bodies which raise themselves in air, such as
+    smoke, it is known that their ascension is occasioned by the
+    circumstance of their being specifically lighter than air: they
+    are with respect to this fluid, situated as a piece of cork
+    is with respect to water, which when immersed in that water
+    to a certain depth, and then left to itself, rises again to
+    the surface. The vulgar regard all as being without gravity
+    which rises instead of falling: whence Newton remarked that the
+    weight of the vulgar was the excess of the absolute weight of
+    a body above the weight of the air. The ascent of air-balloons
+    in the midst of the air is well calculated to undeceive the
+    partisans of this theory of bodies without heaviness." Ha�y's
+    Natural Philosophy, vol. i. p. 48.
+
+    [62] To Otto Guericke, a burgo-master of Magdeburgh, we
+    are indebted for the invention of the pneumatic machine, or
+    air-pump.
+
+    [63] The atmosphere presses equally on the whole surface of
+    the water in the well, until the rod of the pump is moved; but,
+    by forcing the rod down, the bucket compresses the air in the
+    lower part of the pump tree, which being elastic, forces its
+    way out of the tree through the valve; so that when the bucket
+    is again raised, that part of the pump tree under the bucket
+    is void of air; and the _weight of the atmosphere_, pressing
+    on the body of water in the well, forces up a column of water
+    to supply its place; the next stroke of the pump rod causes
+    another column of water to rise; and as long as the bucket fits
+    the pump tree close enough to produce a vacuum, a constant
+    stream of water may be drawn from below. Parkes's Chemical
+    Catechism, pp. 47, 418.
+
+    [64] As the earth's surface contains, observes Mr.
+    Ferguson, in round numbers, 200,000,000 square miles, must
+    contain no less than 5,575,680,000,000,000 square feet; which
+    being multiplied by 2,160, the numbers of pounds on each square
+    foot, amounts to 12,043,468,800,000,000,000 pounds, for the
+    weight of the whole atmosphere. Mr. Coates computed that the
+    weight of the air which pressed upon the whole surface of the
+    earth, is equal to that of a globe of lead sixty miles in
+    diameter.
+
+    The following simple experiments within the reach of every
+    one's observation, show clearly the weight or gravitating power
+    of the air. Let any one lay his hand on the top of a long
+    perpendicular pipe, such as a pump filled to the brim with
+    water, which is at first prevented from running out by the
+    valve below: then let the valve be opened, so that the water
+    may descend, and he will find his hand so hard pressed to the
+    top of the pipe that he cannot draw it away. The prop is now
+    gone; he has no pressure under his hand; a column of air, 45
+    miles high forces it down by its weight; and he must let in
+    the air under it before the hand can be withdrawn.--If we shut
+    the nozzle and valve-hole of a pair of bellows after having
+    squeezed the air out of them, we shall find that a very great
+    force, even some hundred pounds, is necessary for separating
+    the boards; they being kept together by the pressure of the air
+    which surrounds them.--If any one will apply the open end of a
+    syringe to his hand, and then draw up the piston, he will find
+    his hand sucked into the syringe with great force, and it will
+    give pain, and the soft part of the hand will swell into it,
+    being pressed in by the neighboring parts, which are subject to
+    the action of the external air.
+
+    [65] A heavy air is more favorable to health than a
+    light one, because it promotes the circulation of the blood,
+    and insensible perspiration. When the air is heavy, it is
+    generally clear; whereas a light air is generally accompanied
+    with clouds, rain, or snow, which render it damp. Too great
+    a dryness of the air is very injurious to the human body;
+    but this seldom happens for any length of time, except in
+    sandy countries. A damp air is very unwholesome, because it
+    relaxes the fibres, obstructs insensible perspiration, and
+    if heat accompany the dampness, it disposes the humors to
+    putrefy. An air too hot dilates all the fluids of the body, and
+    occasions sweatings, which bring on weakness and oppression.
+    On the other hand, when the air is to cold, the solid parts
+    contract excessively, and the fluids are condensed; hence
+    result obstructions and inflammations. The best air is that
+    which is neither too heavy nor too light, too moist nor too
+    dry, and which is not impregnated with noxious vapors. Sturm's
+    Reflections, vol. iv, p. 50.
+
+    [66] "The most ingenious theories of the periodical winds
+    we recollect, are those of Mr. Hadley, first proposed in Phil.
+    Trans. vol. xxxix, p. 58, and lately revised by Mr. Dalton,
+    in his Meteorological Essays,--and of Dr. Halley, first
+    published in Phil. Transac. vol. xvi, p. 153, and recently
+    defended by Dr. Kirwan, in his paper, 'On the Variations of
+    the Atmosphere.' In the latter mentioned paper Kirwan has
+    given some interesting information relative to variable winds,
+    as westerly, easterly, southerly, northerly, and opposite
+    concomitant winds; also relative to the succession of winds,
+    and the Sirocco. See likewise the Philosophical Magazine,
+    No. 60. Some curious facts respecting winds, and waves on
+    the surface of the sea, are related by Mr. Horsburg in the
+    Philosophical Journal, No. 60." Ha�y's Nat. Phil. vol. i, pp.
+    285,286.
+
+    [67] Odyss. v. 295.
+
+    [68] A celebrated architect, born at Formio, in Italy. He
+    was greatly esteemed by Julius C�sar, and employed by Augustus
+    in constructing public buildings and warlike machines. He wrote
+    a valuable Treatise on Architecture.
+
+    [69] This division, with the several names on each point,
+    was made by the Germans, as most commodious; but these names
+    are not easily expressed in other languages. They are thus
+    marked in English:
+
+        North.          East.           South.         West.
+        N and by E      E and by S      S and by W     W and by N
+        N N E           E S E           S S W          W N W
+        N E and by N    S E and by E    S W and by S   N W and by W
+        N E             S E             S W            N W
+        N E and by E    S E and by S    S W and by W   N W and by N
+        E N E           S S E           W S W          N N W
+        E and by N      S and by E      W and by S     N and by W
+
+    [70] "The most decisive circumstance tending to show the
+    great velocity of brisk winds," says Dr. O. Gregory, "is that
+    of the rapid passage of the celebrated a�ronaut M. Garnerin,
+    from London to Colchester. On the 30th of June, 1802, the wind
+    being strong, though not impetuous, M. Garnerin and another
+    gentleman ascended with an inflammable air-balloon from
+    Ranelagh Gardens, on the south-west of London, between four and
+    five o'clock in the afternoon; and in exactly three-quarters of
+    an hour they descended near the sea, at the distance of four
+    miles from Colchester. The distance of the places of ascent and
+    descent is at least 60 miles; so that, allowing no time for
+    the elevation and depression of the balloon, but, supposing
+    the whole period occupied in transferring it in a path nearly
+    parallel to the earth's surface, its velocity must have been at
+    the rate of 80 miles per hour. If, therefore, the wind moved
+    no faster than the balloon, its velocity was then 80 miles per
+    hour, or 117� feet per second; a celerity but little less than
+    the greatest assigned by Kraaft: and hence it is probable, that
+    the velocity of very impetuous winds is not less than 130 or
+    140 feet per second." Ha�y's Nat. Phil. vol. i, p. 282.
+
+    [71] Mr. Bruce, who, in his journey through the desert,
+    suffered from the simoon, gives of it the following graphical
+    description. "At eleven o'clock, while we contemplated with
+    great pleasure the rugged top of Chiggre, to which we were fast
+    approaching, and where we were to solace ourselves with plenty
+    of good water, Idris, our guide, cried out, with a loud voice,
+    'Fall on your faces, for here is the simoon.' I saw from the
+    south-east a haze come, in color like the purple part of the
+    rainbow, but not so compressed or thick. It did not occupy
+    twenty yards in breadth, and was about twelve feet high from
+    the ground. It was a kind of blush on the air, and it moved
+    very rapidly: for I scarce could turn to fall on the ground
+    with my head to the northward, when I felt the heat of its
+    current on my face. We all lay flat on the ground as if dead,
+    till Idris told us it was blown over. The meteor or purple-haze
+    which I saw, was indeed passed, but the light air that still
+    blew was of heat sufficient to threaten suffocation. For my
+    part, I found distinctly in my breast that I had imbibed a part
+    of it, nor was I free of an asthmatic sensation, till I had
+    been some months in Italy, at the baths of Poretta, near two
+    years afterwards." Though the severity of this blast seems to
+    have passed over them almost instantaneously, it continued to
+    blow so as to exhaust them till twenty minutes before five in
+    the afternoon, lasting through all its stages very near six
+    hours, and leaving them in a state of the utmost despondency.
+
+    _Fatal Simoon._--Extract of a letter from Smyrna:--We have
+    received intelligence of a dreadful calamity having overtaken
+    the largest caravan of the season, on its route from Mecca
+    to Aleppo. The caravan consisted of 2,000 souls, merchants
+    and travellers from the Red Sea and Persian Gulf, pilgrims
+    returning from Mecca, and a numerous train of attendants; the
+    whole escorted by 400 military. The march was in three columns.
+    On the 15th of August last, they entered the great Arabian
+    Desert, in which they journeyed seven days, and were already
+    approaching its edge. A few hours more would have placed them
+    beyond danger; but on the morning of the 23d, just as they had
+    struck their tents, and commenced their march, a wind arose
+    from the north-east, and blew with tremendous violence. They
+    increased the rapidity of their march to escape the threatening
+    danger; but the fatal Kamsin had set in. On a sudden dense
+    clouds were observed, whose extremity obscured the horizon, and
+    swept the face of the desert. They approached the columns, and
+    obscured the line of march. Both men and beast, struck with a
+    sense of common danger, uttered loud cries. The next moment
+    they fell beneath its pestiferous influence lifeless corpses.
+    Of 2,800 souls, composing the caravan, not more than 20 escaped
+    this calamity; they owed their safety to the swiftness of their
+    dromedaries. Literary Panorama, for January, 1814.
+
+    [72] See Baptist Magazine, for December, 1816.
+
+    [73] So the word is translated Luke xix, 10; 2 Cor. iv, 3.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THIRD DAY.
+
+_Section_ I.--THE SEA.
+
+    Water and land separated -- Formation of the sea -- Its
+    restrictions -- Extent -- Depth -- Composition -- Saltness
+    -- Motion -- Tides -- Four states of water -- Circulation --
+    Religious improvement.
+
+
+On the _third day_, the earth was drained, and the waters, which before
+covered its surface, were gathered into copious receptacles, and called
+seas. God said, "Let the waters under the heaven be gathered into one
+place, and let the dry land appear; and it was so. And God called the
+dry land Earth; and the gathering together of the waters called he
+Seas." The almighty Creator proceeds to separate, put in order, and
+control the element nearest to _light_ and _air_ in quality and use,
+and, although not elastic, yet of great power. Probably the air was
+used by him as the great agent in gathering the waters into one place.
+Thus, instead of the confusion, which existed when the earth and the
+water were mixed in one great mass, there is now order; and by their
+separation each is rendered useful: the earth affording a habitation
+and support for man and the various orders of land animals; and the
+water forming an abode for the numerous tribes of living creatures
+adapted to subsist in that liquid element.[74]
+
+Previous to this arrangement, the water, being a pure element, was
+above the earth. Thus the Psalmist, "Thou coveredst it with the deep
+as with a garment: the waters stood above the mountains," so that they
+did not appear. "At thy rebuke they fled; at the voice of thy thunder
+they hasted away." At the omnipotent word they started back, and shrunk
+away, says Bishop Patrick; like an affrighted slave at the thunder
+of his master's threatenings, if his commands are not obeyed. They
+gathered themselves in those places where they now are, which by Moses
+are called seas; and there God shut them up, confining them that they
+might not return to cover the earth. God "brake up," for the reception
+of the waters, his "decreed place," that vast concave or hollow in the
+earth; "and set bars and doors," banks and shores, the weak sand to
+control this element, which, however it roar and struggle, it cannot
+pass.
+
+It is wonderful that the sea, which has a natural disposition, from its
+being a purer and lighter element, to be above the earth, should not
+overflow it; but the amazing power of Omnipotence retains it within its
+prescribed limits. For he has pronounced, "Hitherto shalt thou come,
+but no further; and here shall thy proud waves be stayed." As if he had
+said, Though thy tides flow with mighty strength, though the swelling
+billows of thy pride (so the original) rise high in a storm, and dash
+against the shore with impetuous force and overwhelming rage, yet here
+shall they stop: though they roar and foam, as if irritated at the
+opposing strand, yet dare not to approach beyond those limits to thee
+assigned; but, obedient to thy Lord and Master, submissively retire.
+Here we see the power and dominion of the supreme Being in the kingdom
+of nature, whose sway the sea is subject to! Our preservation from its
+threatening destruction, by the continual restrictions it is under, is
+a perpetual expression of Divine goodness and mercy, and should induce
+all men to live always in the reverential fear of God. "Fear ye not
+me? saith the Lord: will ye not tremble at my presence, which have
+placed the sand for the bound of the sea, by a perpetual decree, that
+it cannot pass; and though the waters thereof toss themselves, yet they
+cannot pass over it."
+
+If we look upon the map of the world, we shall find that the ocean
+occupies a considerably greater surface of the globe than the land
+is found to do. Although the ocean, properly speaking, is but one
+extensive sheet of water, continued over every part of the globe
+without interruption; and although no part is divided from the rest,
+yet geographers have distinguished it by different names, as the
+Atlantic or Western Ocean; the Northern, Southern, Pacific, Indian,
+and German Oceans. In this vast receptacle, almost all the rivers of
+the earth ultimately terminate. And yet these vast and inexhaustable
+supplies do not seem to increase its stores; for it is neither
+apparently swelled by their tribute, nor diminished by their failure;
+it continues constantly the same. Indeed, the quantity of water of
+all the rivers and lakes in the world is nothing compared to that
+contained in this prodigious reservoir. And some natural philosophers
+have carried their ideas on this subject so far as to assert, in
+consequence of certain calculations, that, if the bed of the sea were
+empty, all the rivers of the world flowing into it with a continuance
+of their present stores, would take up at least 800 years to fill it
+again to its present height.[75]
+
+To ascertain the _depth_ of the sea has been found impracticable,
+both on account of the numerous experiments which it would be found
+necessary to make, and the want of proper instruments for that purpose.
+Beyond a certain depth the sea has hitherto been found unfathomable;
+and though several methods have been contrived to obviate this
+difficulty, none of them has completely answered the purpose. We know
+in general that the depth of the sea increases gradually as we leave
+the shore; but if this continued beyond a certain distance, the depth
+in the middle of the ocean would be prodigious. Indeed, the numerous
+islands every where scattered in the sea demonstrate the contrary,
+by showing us that the bottom of the water is unequal like the land,
+and that so far from uniformly sinking, it sometimes rises into lofty
+mountains. If the depth of the sea be in proportion to the elevation
+of the land, as has been generally supposed, its greatest depth will
+not exceed five or six miles; for there is no mountain six miles
+perpendicular above the level of the sea. The sea has never been
+actually sounded to a greater depth than a mile and 66 feet; every
+thing beyond that, therefore, rests entirely upon conjecture and
+analogical reasoning, which, in this case, are in no wise conclusive.
+Along the coasts, where the depth of the sea is generally well known,
+it has always been found proportioned to the height of the shore; when
+the coast is high and mountainous, the sea that washes it is deep;
+when, on the contrary, the coast is low, the water is shallow. Whether
+this analogy holds at a distance from the shore, experiments alone can
+determine.
+
+Water is an uninflammable fluid, says Dr. O. Gregory, and, when pure,
+is transparent, colorless, and void of taste and smell. Mr. Cavendish
+made a discovery that it is formed by the union of _hydrogen_ and
+_oxygen_. It may, therefore, be considered as _oxide of hydrogen_:
+oxygen and hydrogen appearing to unite, only in that certain proportion
+of which water is the result. In 1798, (observes Mr. Parkes) Mr. Sequin
+made a grand experiment for the composition of water. He expended no
+less than 25,582 cubic inches (or nearly two hogsheads) of inflammable
+air, and 12,457 of vital air. The first weighed 1,039 grains, and
+the second 6,210, amounting to 7,249 grains, and the water obtained
+amounted to 7,245 grains, or about three-fourths of a wine pint. The
+loss was only four grains. Another experiment was afterwards made
+by Le Fevre, in which nearly two pounds and a quarter of water was
+produced.
+
+The sea water contains a quantity of _salt_, but not in the same
+proportions every where. In the torrid zone, where otherwise, from the
+excessive heat, it would be in danger of putrefaction, the water is
+found most salt; as we advance northward its briny quality diminishes,
+till at the poles it is nearly gone altogether. Under the line,
+Lucas found that the sea comprised a seventh part of solid contents,
+consisting chiefly of sea-salt. At Harwich, he found it yielded 1-25 of
+the same matter. At Carlscroon, in Sweden, it contains 1-30 part, and
+on the coast of Greenland a great deal less. This gradual diminution
+of saltness from the equator to the pole, is not, however, without
+particular exceptions. The Mediterranean sea contain 1-22 of the
+sea-salt, which is less than the German sea contains. The saltness of
+some seas, or of particular parts of the same seas, may be increased,
+as Mr. Boyle intimates, from rocks and other masses of salt, either at
+the bottom of the sea, or dispersed near their shores.
+
+This phenomenon of the sea perplexed the philosophers before the time
+of Aristotle, and surpassed even the great genius of that philosopher.
+Father Kircher, after having consulted three and thirty authors
+upon the subject, could not help remarking, that the fluctuations
+of the ocean itself were scarcely more various than the opinions
+concerning the origin of its saline impregnation. Bernadine Gomesins,
+(observes Bishop Watson) about 200 years ago, published an ingenious
+treatise on salt: in this treatise, after reciting and refuting the
+opinions of Empedocles, Anaxagoras, and Aristotle, on the subject in
+question, he proposes his own; wherein he maintains, that the sea was
+originally created in the same state in which we at present find it,
+and impregnated, from the very first, with the salt which it contains.
+Indeed, we cannot account for the general saltness of the sea from
+second causes; hence we must suppose it has had this property from
+the creation. Naturalists assure us, that, though some few species of
+fishes thrive in fresh water, and some others live alternately in fresh
+and salt, yet by far the greatest number cannot exist out of the sea;
+which is a proof that the sea was at the creation impregnated with salt.
+
+The saltness of the sea has been considered by some as a peculiar
+blessing from Providence, in order to keep so great an element pure
+and wholesome: but facts prove that this property is not capable of
+preserving it from putrefaction. Sir Robert Hawkins, one of our most
+enlightened navigators, gives an account of a calm, in which the sea
+continuing for some time without its usual motion, began to assume a
+very formidable appearance. "Were it not (says he) for the moving of
+the sea, by the force of winds, tides, and currents, it would corrupt
+all the world. The experiment of this I saw in the year 1590, lying
+with a fleet about the islands of Azores, almost six months; the
+greatest part of the which time we were becalmed. Upon which all the
+sea became so replenished with various sorts of gelies, and forms of
+serpents, adders, and snakes, as seemed wonderful; some green, some
+black, some yellow, some white, some of divers colors, and many of
+them had life; and some there were a yard and a half and two yards
+long; which had I not seen, I could hardly have believed. And hereof
+are witnesses all the companies of the ships which were then present;
+so that hardly a man could draw a bucket of water clear of some
+corruption. In which voyage, towards the end thereof, many of every
+ship fell sick, and began to die apace. But the speedy passage into
+our country was a remedy to the crazed, and a preservative for those
+that were not touched."[76] Mr. Boyle informs us, that he once kept a
+quantity of sea water, taken from the English channel, for some time
+barrelled up; and, in a few weeks, it began to acquire a fetid smell.
+He was also assured by one of his acquaintance, who had been becalmed
+for about fourteen days in the Indian ocean, that the water, for want
+of motion, began to stink; and, that had the calm continued much
+longer, the stench would probably have poisoned him. It is the motion,
+therefore, and not the saltness of the sea, that preserves it in its
+present state of salubrity.[77]
+
+The sea has three kinds of motion: the _first_ is that undulation
+which is occasioned by the wind. This motion is evidently confined to
+the surface; the bottom, even during the most violent storms, remains
+perfectly calm. Mr. Boyle has remarked, from the testimony of several
+divers, that the sea is affected by the winds to the depth only of six
+feet. It would follow from this, that the height of the waves above
+the surface does not exceed six feet; and that this holds, in the
+Mediterranean sea at least, we are informed by the Compte de Marsigli;
+though he also sometimes observed them, during a very violent tempest,
+rise two feet higher.
+
+The _second_ kind of motion is that continual tendency which the whole
+water in the sea has towards the west. It is greater near the equator
+than about the poles; and, indeed, cannot be said to take place at all
+in the northern hemisphere beyond the tropic. It begins on the west
+side of America, where it is moderate; hence that part of the ocean has
+been called _Pacific_. As the waters advance westward, their motion is
+accelerated; so that, after having traversed the globe, they strike
+with great violence on the eastern shore of America. Being stopped
+by that continent, they turn northward, and run with considerable
+impetuosity in the Gulf of Mexico; from thence they proceed along
+the coast of North America, till they come to the south side of the
+great bank of Newfoundland, when they turn off, and run down to the
+Western Isles. This current is called the _Gulf stream_. It was first
+accurately described by Dr. Franklin, who remarked also, that the
+water in it having been originally heated in the torrid zone, cools so
+gradually in its passage northward, that even the latitude might be
+found in any part of the stream by means of a thermometer. This motion
+of the sea westward has never been explained: it seems to have some
+connection with the trade-winds, and the diurnal revolution of the
+earth upon its axis.
+
+The _third_, and most remarkable motion of the sea, is the tide; which
+is a regular swell of the ocean every 12 hours, accounted for from the
+principal of gravitation. The sagacious Kepler long ago conjectured,
+that the earth and moon, and every particle of them, mutually gravitate
+towards each other, and are the cause of the tides. If, says he, the
+earth ceased to attract its waters towards itself, all the water in
+the ocean would rise and flow into the moon: the sphere of the moon's
+attraction extends to our earth, and draws up the water. This, at that
+time, was mere conjecture; for Sir Isaac Newton was the first who
+clearly pointed out the cause of this phenomenon. On the shores of the
+ocean, and in bays, creeks, and harbors, which communicate freely with
+it, the waters rise above their mean height twice a day, and as often
+sink below it, forming what is called a _flood_ and an _ebb_, a _high_
+and _low water_. It has been stated, that in the middle of the sea the
+tide seldom rises higher than one or two feet; but, on the coast, it
+frequently reaches to the height of 45 feet, and, in some places, even
+to more. At Plymouth, it is sometimes 21 feet between the greatest and
+least depth of the water in the same day, and sometimes only 12 feet.
+
+When the sun and moon act conjointly on the tides, which is at the
+change and full of the moon, they are stronger and run higher than at
+other times, and are called _spring tides_; but when the sun and moon
+are 90 degrees apart, their attractive powers, being in opposition to
+each other, occasion the tides to be weaker and lower than at other
+times, and these are called _neap tides_. The word _neap_ is derived
+from the Saxon; it signifies low, decrescent, and is used only of the
+tide. These different heights of tide are observed to succeed each
+other in a regular series, diminishing from the greatest to the least,
+and then increasing from the least to the greatest, according to the
+age and situation of the moon.
+
+    "The moon turns ocean in his bed,
+    From side to side, in constant ebb and flow,
+    And purifies from stench his watery realms."
+
+Sir Isaac Newton calculated the attractive powers of the sun and moon
+on the tides, and found the attraction of the latter to be about three
+times greater than that of the former.
+
+Water is found to exist in four states: namely, solid, or ice;
+liquid, or water; vapor, or steam; and in a state of composition
+in other bodies. The younger Lemery observes, that ice is only the
+re-establishment of the parts of water in their natural state;
+that the mere absence of fire is sufficient to account for this
+re-establishment; and that the fluidity of water is a real fusion, like
+metals exposed to the fire; differing only in this, that a greater
+quantity of fire is necessary to the one than the other.
+
+Underneath the poles, water is always solid; there it is similar to the
+hardest rocks, and may be formed by the chisel of the statuary like a
+stone. The following circumstance, noticed by Bishop Watson, will show
+the solidity that water is capable of acquiring when divested of a
+large portion of caloric. It is related that at the whimsical marriage
+of Prince Gallitzen, in 1739, the Russians applied ice to the same
+purposes as stone. A house, consisting of two apartments, was built
+with large blocks of ice; and the icy cannon, which were fired in honor
+of the day, performed their office more than once without bursting.
+
+During the severe winter of 1740, observes M. de Bomare, a palace of
+ice, 52 feet long, 16 wide, and 20 high, was built at Petersburgh,
+according to the most elegant rules of art. The river Neva afforded the
+ice, which was from two to three feet thick, blocks of which were cut
+and embellished with various ornaments. When built up, the different
+parts were colored by sprinkling them over with water of various tints.
+Six cannons, made of and mounted with ice, with wheels of the same
+matter, were placed before the palace; and a hempen bullet was driven
+by one of these cannons, in the presence of the whole court, through
+a board two inches thick, at the distance of sixty paces. Cowper
+remarks,--
+
+                        "No forest fell,
+    Imperial mistress of the fur-clad Russ,
+    When thou wouldst build--no quarry sent its stores
+    T' enrich thy walls; but thou didst hew the floods,
+    And make thy marble of the glassy wave.
+    Silently as a dream the fabric rose,
+    Ice upon ice; the well-adjusted parts
+    Were soon conjoin'd; nor other cement ask'd
+    Than water interfused to make them one.
+    Lamps gracefully disposed, and of all hues,
+    Illumin'd ev'ry side. Long wavy wreaths
+    Of flowers, that feared no enemy but warmth,
+    Blush'd on the pannels, which were once a stream,
+    And soon to slide into a stream again."
+
+In the most northern part of the Russian territory, the cold is
+sometimes sufficient to freeze mercury, or 72 degrees below the
+freezing point of water.[78] It is so intense in some seasons, that the
+poor inhabitants cannot venture out of their miserable huts but at the
+hazard of their lives.
+
+    "There, through the prison of unbounded wilds,
+    Barr'd by the hand of nature from escape,
+    Wide roams the Russian exile. Nought around
+    Strikes his sad eye but deserts lost in snow,
+    And heavy loaded groves, and solid floods,
+    That stretch athwart the solitary vast
+    Their icy horrors to the frozen main."
+
+In Iceland and Germany the thermometer frequently falls to zero, which
+is 32 degrees below the freezing point. At Hudson's Bay it has been
+known to sink even 50 degrees lower. When stones or metals, which have
+been exposed to such degrees of cold, are touched by the tongue, or
+the softer parts of the human body, they absorb the heat from those
+parts with such rapidity, that the flesh becomes instantly frozen and
+mortified, and the principle of life in them is extinguished. Some
+French academicians, who made a journey to the northern end of the
+Baltic, and wintered under the polar circle, found it necessary to use
+all possible precautions to secure themselves from the dreadful cold
+which prevailed. They prevented, as much as possible, the entrance of
+the external air into their apartments; and if at any time they had
+occasion to open a window or a door, the humidity of their breath,
+confined in the air of the house, was condensed and frozen into a
+shower of snow; their lungs, when they ventured to breathe the cold
+air, felt as if they were torn asunder; and they often heard the
+rending of the timber around them by the expansive power of the frost
+on the fluid in its pores. In this terrible cold the thermometer
+fell to 33 below zero.[79] The most intense cold ever known in the
+neighborhood of London was on December 25th, 1796, when the thermometer
+indicated 2 below zero.
+
+The ice at each pole of the earth forms an immense cupola, the arch of
+which extends some thousand miles over the continents; the thickness
+of which, beyond the 60th degree of latitude, is several hundred
+feet. Navigators have assigned to detached masses, which are met with
+floating at sea, an elevation of from 1,500 to 1,800 feet.[80] There
+can be no doubt but that the thickness of these cupolas of ice is much
+greater nearer the poles; for astronomy sometimes presents in the
+heavens so vast an image of them, that the rotundity of the earth seems
+to be considerably affected thereby. Captain Cook could never approach
+nearer the south pole, where there is no land, than the 70th degree of
+latitude; that is, no nearer than 1,500 miles; and it was only under
+the favor of a bay, that he was permitted to advance even so far.[81]
+All the results of observations made by navigators, concur in proving
+that the temperature of the sea decreases according to the depth; and
+that the deepest gulfs are continually covered with ice, even under the
+equator. From a late memoir by M. Perron, some say, there is reason to
+believe that these mountains of ice at the poles, which have hitherto
+impeded the progress of European navigators, have been detached from
+the depths of the sea to float at the surface.[82]
+
+When water is converted into ice, it is lighter[83] than when in a
+fluid state, which is a circumstance of great importance. Galileo
+was the first who observed this. Ice consequently floats upon water,
+its specific gravity being to that of water as eight to nine. This
+rarefaction seems to be owing to the air-bubbles produced in water
+by freezing; and which, being considerably larger in proportion to
+the water frozen, render the body so much specifically lighter: these
+air-bubbles, during their production, acquire a great expansive power,
+so as to burst the containing vessels though ever so strong.
+
+    [The specific weight of ice is known to be less than
+    that of water. Our author assigns a reason not entirely
+    satisfactory. We must admit that the freezing of the upper
+    stratum of water, although it may _include_ the air which was
+    in the water frozen, yet, _it does not expel the air from the
+    subjacent volumes of water_. Hence the air in the water below
+    will balance the effects of the air included in the ice.
+
+    It is a singular fact, and is regarded as a deviation from
+    the general rule, that water _expands_ in volume in proportion
+    as its temperature is _reduced below_ 40� Fahrenheit. It also
+    expands by raising its temperature above this degree.
+
+    The _expansion_ of the volume then, and not the enclosed
+    air bubbles, is the cause of water being specifically lighter
+    when converted into ice. But it remains to account for its
+    expansion by a _reduction_ of temperature.
+
+    This is a difficult question. It seems most probable
+    that this expansion is owing to a peculiar arrangement, of
+    the particles of water, in the act of crystallization, i.e.
+    _freezing_. M. Mairan found that the particles of water, in
+    the act of freezing, arranged themselves constantly at an angle
+    of 60�, and by this arrangement _increased the bulk_ of the
+    water thus crystallized.
+
+    It is obviously a mistake to attribute the "expansive
+    power" of freezing to the force of the inclosed air-bubbles:
+    because the reduction of temperature would reduce this supposed
+    expansion of the inclosed air. The true cause of the expansion
+    of ice is supposed above, in the arrangements of the particles
+    of water in the process of crystallization.
+
+    The _power_ which disposes these particles to arrange,
+    _increases with the reduction of temperature_, until the
+    disposing power becomes sufficiently great to force every
+    impediment to the inclination to arrange. Hence the strongest
+    vessels burst in the process of freezing.
+
+    The impediments may restrain the accomplishment of the
+    arrangement of the particles for a time, but the disposing
+    power will overcome them, if the reduction of temperature go
+    on; and when they are overcome _suddenly_, the crystallization
+    will take place _instantly_. Hence the sudden rending of
+    vessels, trees, mountain rocks, &c, upon the sudden congelation
+    of water.
+
+    Even when there is no cause to impede crystallization, it
+    is well known that the _preparation_ to crystallize, or freeze,
+    may be observed in the liquid; the particles seeming to be
+    _preparing_ to arrange themselves; and then, at a given stage
+    of the preparation, they take their places _suddenly_, and thus
+    we have ice.
+
+    This consummation may be retarded, or hastened by
+    _artificial_ means. Water may be reduced to a lower temperature
+    by being kept _still_, than when _agitated_. And if it be
+    cooled down to the lowest possible temperature, _without
+    congealing_, it may remain fluid at that temperature for a long
+    time. But if the vessel be _suddenly struck_; or the surface
+    of the water _touched with a piece of ice_; or _a large piece
+    of cold metal be brought in contact with the outside of the
+    vessel; the water will instantly crystallize or freeze in
+    beautiful crystals_.
+
+    These facts establish the above theory. Because, 1. there
+    is no increased reduction of temperature effected, by striking
+    the vessel, touching the surface of the water with ice, or the
+    outside of the vessel with cold metal. 2. There is every reason
+    to conclude these things _commence the motion_ in the water,
+    which is at rest, balanced between an inclination to be at
+    rest, and an inclination to move in arranging the particles;
+    the motion communicated overcomes this balance in favor of
+    the disposition to crystallize, and hence the water freezes
+    instantly, with an expansion of volume.]
+
+It is owing to the _expansion_ of water in freezing, that rocks
+and trees are often split during intense frosts. According to the
+calculations of the Florentine academicians, a spherule of water, only
+one inch in diameter, expands in freezing with a force superior to the
+resistance of 13� tons weight. Major Williams also attempted to prevent
+this expansion; but during the operation the iron plug which stopped
+the orifice of the bomb-shell containing the freezing water, and which
+was more than two pounds weight, was projected several hundred feet
+with great velocity; and in another experiment the shell burst. This
+property of water is taken advantage of in splitting slate. At Colly
+Western, the slate is dug from the quarries in large blocks: these are
+placed in an opposite direction to what they had in the quarry, and the
+rain is allowed to fall on them: it penetrates their fissures, and the
+sharp frost freezes the water, which, expanding with its usual force,
+splits the slate into thin layers.[84]
+
+M. Mairan, in a dissertation on ice, attributes the increase of its
+bulk chiefly to a different arrangement of the parts of the water
+from which it is formed; the icy skin on the water being composed
+of filaments, which according to him, are found to be constantly
+and regularly joined at an angle of 60�; and which, by this angular
+disposition, occupy a greater volume than if they were parallel. He
+found the augmentation of the volume of water by freezing, in different
+trials, a 14th, an 18th, a 19th, and when the water was previously
+purged of air, only a 22d part: that ice, after its formation,
+continues to expand by cold; for, after water had been frozen to some
+thickness, the fluid part being let out by a hole in the bottom of the
+vessel, a continuance of the cold made the ice convex; and a piece of
+ice, which was at first only a 14th part specifically lighter than
+water, on being exposed some days to the frost, became a 12th part
+lighter. To this cause he attributes the bursting of ice on ponds.
+
+Several philosophers have been very desirous to experience how far the
+expansive force of freezing water might be carried. "An iron gun of an
+inch thickness," says M. Ha�y, "filled with water and exactly closed,
+having been exposed by Buot to a strong frost, was found to be burst
+in two places at the end of twelve hours. The Florentine philosophers
+were able, by means of the same cause, to burst a sphere of very thick
+copper; and Musschenbroek, having calculated the effort which would
+occasion the rupture, found that it would be capable of raising a
+weight of 27,720 pounds."
+
+"Colonel E. Williams, of the Royal Artillery, when at Quebec, in the
+years 1794 and 1795," says Dr. O. Gregory, "made many experiments.
+He filled all sizes of iron bomb-shells with water, then plugged the
+fusee-hole close up, and exposed them to the strong freezing air of the
+winter in that climate; sometimes driving in the iron plugs as hard as
+possible with a sledge-hammer: and yet, though they weighed near three
+pounds, they were always forced out by a sudden expansion of the water
+in the act of freezing, like a ball impelled by gunpowder, sometimes
+to the distance of between 400 and 500 feet: and when the plugs were
+screwed in, or furnished with hooks and barbs, by which to lay hold of
+the inside of the shell, so that they could not possibly be forced
+out; in that case the shell was always split in two, though its
+thickness of metal was about an inch and three quarters. It is further
+remarkable, that through the circular crack, round about the shells
+where they burst, there stood out a thin film or sheet of ice, like a
+fin; and in the cases where the plugs were projected by freezing water,
+there suddenly issued from the fusee-hole a bolt of ice of the same
+diameter, and stood over it sometimes to the height of eight inches
+and a half. Hence we need not be surprised that excessive frost should
+cause the ice to split rocks, and other solid substances."[85]
+
+It was necessary for the preservation of the world, that water should
+in this instance be subjected to a law different from that of other
+substances which change from fluid to solid. The wisdom and goodness
+of the great ARTIFICER of the world will manifest itself in this
+arrangement, if we consider what would have been the consequences had
+water been subject to the general law, and like other fluids, become
+specifically heavier by the loss of its caloric. In winter, when the
+atmosphere became reduced to 32�, the water on the surface of our
+rivers would have sunk as it froze; another sheet of water would
+have frozen immediately, and sunk also; the ultimate consequence of
+which would have been, that the beds of our rivers would have become
+repositories of immense masses of ice, which no subsequent summer could
+unbind; and the world would shortly have been converted into a frozen
+chaos. How admirable the wisdom, how skilful the contrivance, that by
+subjecting water to a law contrary to what is observed by other fluids,
+as it freezes it becomes specifically lighter, and, swimming upon the
+surface, performs an important service by preserving a vast body of
+caloric in the _subjacent_ fluid from the effects of the surrounding
+cold, ready to receive its own accustomed quantity on the first change
+of the atmosphere?[86]
+
+Owing to the distance of this globe from the sun, and to the vast
+mountains of ice at the poles, the atmosphere over a large portion of
+the earth is at times reduced to so low a temperature, that, if it
+were not for a wise provision of nature, all vegetable life must be
+destroyed. Caloric has always a tendency to equilibrium; therefore, if
+the temperature of the air be lowered, the earth cools in proportion:
+but when the atmosphere is reduced to 32�, the water which it held
+in solution becomes frozen, and precipitates in the form of snow on
+the earth, covering it as with a carpet, and thereby preventing the
+escape of that caloric which is necessary for the preservation of
+those families of vegetables that depend on it for their support and
+maturity. Be the air ever so cold, the ground, thus covered, is seldom
+reduced below 32�, but is maintained equably at that temperature for
+the purpose above mentioned.[87] Homer has described a shower of snow,
+and its extensive effects, in a fine strain of poetry.
+
+    "In Winter's bleak uncomfortable reign,
+    A snowy inundation hides the plain:
+    Jove stills the winds, and bids the skies to sleep;
+    Then pours the silent tempest thick and deep:
+    And first the mountain tops are covered o'er,
+    Then the green fields, and then the sandy shore;
+    Bent with the weight the nodding woods are seen,
+    And one bright waste hides all the works of men:
+    The circling seas alone, absorbing all,
+    Drink the dissolving fleeces as they fall"--POPE.
+
+Snow is furnished with the power of absorbing and combining with a
+large portion of oxygen, which gives it its fertilizing property. The
+snow melting and penetrating into the softened earth communicates to it
+oxygen, and this oxygen promotes the germination of seeds. The carbon
+of the earth combining with the oxygen, is converted into carbonic
+acid, and thereby acquires more solubility; while the water contributes
+to excite that activity which had been rendered dormant in the roots
+by the cold. It is this property of carbon which deprives water of the
+superabundant oxygen that would render it prejudicial to health, and
+unfit for the purposes of life. Thus what would otherwise be injurious
+to us is improved by the ground, and gives at the same time power and
+activity to the mould. How multiplied are those means which infinite
+wisdom and goodness employ for the preservation of the productions of
+Nature![88]
+
+Ice at 32� must absorb 140� of caloric before it can become a fluid;
+or such a quantity as would raise a body of water of equal bulk with
+itself from 32� to 172�. For instance: "Take any quantity by weight of
+ice or snow at 32�, and mix it with an equal weight of water heated
+exactly to 172�. The snow instantly melts, and the temperature of
+the mixture is still only at _thirty-two_ degrees. Here the water is
+cooled 140�, while the temperature of the snow is not increased at
+all; so that 140� of caloric have disappeared. They must have combined
+with the snow; but they have only melted it, without increasing its
+temperature. Hence it follows irresistibly that ice, when converted
+into water, absorbs and combines with 140� of caloric. Water then,
+after being cooled down to 32�, cannot freeze till it has parted with
+140� of caloric; and ice, after being heated to 32�, (which is the
+exact freezing point), cannot melt till it has absorbed 140� more of
+caloric. This is the cause of the extreme slowness of these operations.
+There can be no doubt, then, but water owes its fluidity to its latent
+caloric, and that its caloric of fluidity is 140�."[89] And all this
+arrangement in nature, connected with the operation of these elements,
+is immediately under the control and direction of the infinitely wise
+and almighty Creator of the universe. "He sendeth forth his commandment
+upon earth: his word runneth very swiftly. He giveth snow like wool:
+he scattereth the hoar-frost like ashes. He casteth forth his ice like
+morsels: who can stand before his cold? He sendeth out his word, and
+melteth them: he causeth his wind to blow, and the waters flow."
+
+Drops of rain, falling through a cold region of the atmosphere, are
+frozen and converted into hail; and thus the _hail_ is produced by
+_rain_. When it begins to fall, it is _rain_; when it is falling, it
+is converted into _hail_; so that it is literally true, that _it rains
+hail_. The further a hail-stone falls, the larger it generally is;
+because, in its descent, meeting with innumerable particles of water,
+they become attached to it, are also frozen, and thus its bulk is
+continually increasing till it reaches the earth.[90] A storm of hail
+fell near Liverpool, in Lancashire, in the year 1795, which greatly
+damaged the vegetation, broke windows, &c, &c. Many of the stones
+measured five inches in circumference. Dr. Halley mentions a similar
+storm of hail in Lancashire, Cheshire, &c, April 29, 1697, that for
+sixty miles in length, and two miles in breadth, did immense damage,
+by splitting trees, killing fowls and all small animals, knocking
+down men and horses, &c, &c. Mezeray, in his History of France, says,
+that in Italy, in 1510, there was for some time a horrible darkness,
+thicker than that of night; after which the clouds broke into thunder
+and lightning, and there fell a shower of hail-stones which destroyed
+all the beasts, birds, and even fish of the country. It was attended
+with a strong smell of sulphur, and the stones were of a blueish color,
+some of them weighing one hundred pounds weight. The Almighty says to
+Job--"Hast thou seen the treasures of the hail, which I have reserved
+against the time of trouble, against the day of battle and war." While
+God has such artillery at his command, how soon may he desolate a
+country, or a world![91]
+
+The aqueous fluid is in continual circulation. The constant _round_
+which it travels, says Dr. Paley, and by which, (without suffering
+either adulteration or waste,) it is continually offering itself to
+the wants of the habitable globe, is much to be admired. From the sea
+are exhaled, by the heat of the sun, into the air, those vapors which
+are there condensed into clouds: these clouds are dissolved into rain
+and dew, or into snow and hail, which are but rain congealed, by the
+coldness of the air, and descend in showers, which, penetrating into
+the crevices of the hills, supply the springs: which springs flow in
+little streams into the valleys; and there uniting, become rivers,
+which rivers, in return, feed the ocean. So there is an incessant
+circulation of the same fluid; and not one drop probably more or less
+now than there was at the creation. A particle of water takes its
+departure from the surface of the sea, in order to discharge certain
+important offices to the earth: and, having executed the service which
+was assigned to it, returns to the bosom which it left.[92] Thus, as
+one of the greatest of naturalists says, "All the rivers run into the
+sea; yet the sea is not full: unto the place from whence the rivers
+come, thither they return again."
+
+Water, when taken up by the atmosphere, is not in an aqueous state, but
+is converted into vapor by the efficiency of heat, and then combines
+with more than five times the quantity of caloric than is required to
+bring ice-cold water to a boiling heat, and occupies a space 800 times
+greater than it does when in the form of water. A large portion of the
+matter of heat combining chemically with water, renders it specifically
+_lighter_; which is the cause of its rising and mixing with the
+atmosphere. The waters on the face of the earth would be dissipated in
+vapor by a small degree of heat, if we had no atmosphere. Under the
+pressure of the atmosphere water boils at 212�, but in vacuo it boils
+when heated only to 67�. On the contrary, if additional pressure be
+given to water by a Papin's digester, it may be heated to 400�, without
+producing ebullition. However long we boil a fluid, in an open vessel,
+we cannot make it in the smallest degree hotter than the boiling
+point.[93] When arrived at this point, the vapor absorbs the heat, and
+carries it off as fast as it is generated. When water is received into
+the atmosphere, if the air be warm, it becomes so far changed by its
+union with the matter of heat as to be perfectly invisible. In this
+state it occupies a space 1,400 times greater than its ordinary liquid
+state.
+
+After vapor has remained some time in the atmosphere, it becomes in a
+measure condensed; and the particles of water of which it is composed
+unite, and form hollow vesicles, which accumulate together and produce
+clouds. How this is effected, those who have attentively considered
+the subject are not agreed. Dr. Thomson, after well investigating the
+matter, concludes, from all the facts, that "the formation of clouds
+and rain cannot be accounted for by a single principle with which
+we are acquainted." It is, however, says Mr. Parkes, probable that
+_electricity_ alone is the primary cause. Saussure conjectures that it
+is the electrical fluid which surrounds these vesicles, and prevents
+them from dissolving in the air. And the idea of the formation of
+clouds by the agency of electricity was mentioned by Volta, and also by
+Dr. Franklin.
+
+    [It is allowed by all, that clouds are formed by the
+    aqueous vapors which are held suspended, or in solution, by
+    the atmosphere. It is not a settled question, whether the air
+    holds these vapors in solution, or merely suspended; and thus,
+    keeping the particles asunder, prevents their condensation.
+
+    This aqueous vapor is _invisible_ when perfectly in union
+    with the air. When it begins to separate from the air, it
+    becomes visible by condensation, in the form of _clouds_,
+    _mists_, and _fogs_. When it is perfectly separated and
+    sufficiently condensed it becomes _rain_, and when the
+    temperature is sufficiently low to freeze the condensed drops,
+    they become _snow_, or _hail_.
+
+    The above process is quite intelligible, but the _agent_ of
+    this condensation is, perhaps, inexplicable. It is impossible
+    to solve all the phenomena of the formation of clouds, by
+    supposing the vapors condensed by a reduction of temperature,
+    produced by the warmer volumes of clouds rising into the
+    regions of colder ones. For we know the natural tendency of the
+    warmer strata of air, from the neighborhood of the earth, is to
+    rise, with its watery particles, to colder regions. Hence there
+    would be a constant condensation, which would seem to require a
+    constant deposition of rain, or mist; or, at least, a constant
+    accumulation of clouds.
+
+    Again: On this theory, the nights would be cloudy and
+    rainy: as the vapors raised during the day would be condensed
+    by the superior coldness of the night succeeding. Moreover, it
+    is well known that great rains fall in very warm weather, and
+    when a _rise_ of temperature is observed.
+
+    These, and other considerations, have induced many persons
+    to have recourse to _electricity_ to solve this difficult
+    question, and various observations seem to countenance the
+    idea that it may be the remote agent of the formation of
+    clouds, by producing a sudden rarefaction of the air, which
+    would, of course, produce a sudden reduction of temperature;
+    the consequence of which would be a rapid condensation of the
+    watery particles in combination with the air. This condensation
+    would form clouds, and if sufficiently rapid and extensive, a
+    fall of rain would ensue.
+
+    This supposition is much strengthened by a fact of common
+    observation, viz: _when clouds are impending over us, but no
+    rain falling, a sudden shower comes down instantly upon a
+    flash of lightning._ In this case it is so obvious that the
+    lightning had an immediate agency, that none can doubt, who
+    ever observed the phenomenon.
+
+    The _electrified_ state of _clouds_, _fogs_, and _mists_,
+    is considered strong proof in favor of this theory. Clouds are
+    almost always highly charged with electricity, and sometimes so
+    highly charged as to become _luminous_, and very destructive.
+
+    On the 11th of August, 1772, about midnight, a bright cloud
+    was observed covering a mountain in the district of Cheribon,
+    in the island of Java, at the same time several reports were
+    heard like those of a gun. The people who dwelt upon the upper
+    parts of the mountain not being able to fly fast enough, a
+    great part of the cloud, almost three leagues in circumference,
+    detached itself under them, and was seen at a distance rising
+    and falling like the waves of the sea, and emitting globes of
+    fire so luminous, that the night became as clear as day. The
+    effects of it were astonishing; every thing was destroyed for
+    seven leagues round; the houses were demolished; plantations
+    were buried in the earth, and 2,140 people lost their lives.
+    _Ency. Brit. Article_, CLOUDS.
+
+    In another case, October 29th, 1757, in the island of
+    Malta, a little after midnight, there was seen to the South
+    west of the city Melita, a great black cloud, which, as it
+    approached, changed its color, till at last it became like a
+    flame of fire mixed with smoke. A dreadful noise was heard on
+    its approach, which alarmed the whole city. It passed over the
+    port, and came first on an English ship, which in an instant
+    was torn to pieces, and nothing left but the hulk; part of
+    the masts, sails, and cordage were carried to a considerable
+    distance along with the cloud. The small craft were sunk
+    instantly. It demolished a part of the city, and passed over to
+    Sicily, but did no injury there as it was previously exhausted.
+    Several hundred were killed. _Ency. Brit. Article_, CLOUD.]
+
+The principle of evaporation is the primary cause of all rain, mist,
+dew, &c. The ocean loses many millions of gallons of water hourly by
+evaporation. The Mediterranean alone is said to lose more by it, than
+it receives from the Nile, the Tiber, the Rhone, the Po, and all the
+other rivers that fall into it. When Dr. Halley made his celestial
+observations upon the tops of the mountains at St. Helena, he found
+that the quantity of vapor which fell there (even when the sky was
+clear) was so great, that his observations were thereby much impeded:
+his glasses were so covered with water through the condensation of the
+vapors, that he was obliged to wipe them every ten minutes. In order to
+determine, with some degree of accuracy, how much water would be raised
+in vapor in any space of time, he took a vessel of water salted to the
+same degree with that of sea-water, in which he placed a thermometer,
+and by means of a pan of coals brought the water to the same degree of
+heat as would be produced by the sun in summer: he then affixed the
+vessel of water with the thermometer in it, to one end of a pair of
+scales, and exactly counterpoised it with weights on the other. Then,
+at the end of two hours, he found by the alteration in the weight of
+the vessel, that a sixtieth part of an inch in the depth of the water
+was gone off in vapor; and therefore, in twelve hours, one-tenth of an
+inch would have gone off. From this experiment the Doctor calculates
+(in as accurate a manner as the subject will admit of) the quantity of
+water raised by evaporation from the Mediterranean Sea, to be at least
+five thousand two hundred and eighty millions of tons of water in a
+day; and from the river Thames twenty millions three hundred thousand
+tons per day, on the average.
+
+This water is conveyed by the winds to every part of the continents:
+these it fertilizes in the form of rain, and afterwards supplies the
+rivers, which flow again into the sea. In our climate, evaporation is
+found to be about four times as much from the vernal to the autumnal
+equinox, as from the autumnal to the vernal. Heat facilitates all
+solutions; and the greater the difference between the temperature
+of the air and the evaporating surface, the greater will be the
+evaporation. Bishop Watson found that, even when there had been no rain
+for a considerable time, and the earth had been dried by the parching
+heat of summer, an acre of ground dispersed into the air above 1,600
+gallons of water in the space of twelve hours of a summer's day. A
+little reflection would convince any one of the importance of the
+principle of evaporation. Innumerable instances of its use might be
+adduced; suffice to add, that without it neither grass nor corn could
+be sufficiently void of moisture to lay up for use. Our clothes when
+washed could not be dried; neither could a variety of the most common
+operations, which conduce much to our comfort and convenience, be
+performed without it.
+
+It is evident that water exists in the atmosphere in abundance, even in
+the driest seasons, and under the clearest sky. By the experiments of
+Saussure, it appears, that a cubic foot of atmospheric air will hold
+eleven grains of water in solution. From this property of the air we
+derive many advantages. It has a tendency to preserve every thing on
+the face of the earth in a proper degree of moisture. It appears, from
+the experiments of some a�ronauts, that the air is much drier in the
+higher regions than it is near the surface of the earth.
+
+When two opposite currents of air meet, of different temperatures,
+the vapors are sometimes condensed thereby, and rain ensues. It may
+be remarked, that if the temperature of our atmosphere had been 212,
+or upwards, rain could never have fallen on the earth; for the water
+taken up by evaporation would have been converted into a _permanently_
+elastic fluid. Such is the necessity of rain, that it _alone_ not only
+affords a proper degree of moisture to the vegetable creation, but
+is of service in bringing the soils into a fit state to perform their
+office. Dry earth of itself is ineffective; but when _moistened_ it
+has the property of decomposing atmospheric air, and of conveying its
+oxygen to the roots of those plants which vegetate within it. We are
+indebted to Humboldt for the knowledge of this fact. It is impossible
+ever to contemplate the various ways in which the different operations
+of nature are made to correct and balance each other, without being
+struck with the infinite comprehension of the Divine Mind, which could
+thus foresee the tendency of every law which it was about to establish.
+How many cases are there in which the slightest oversight would have
+produced the destruction of the world!
+
+The effects of vapor have furnished a new moving force to mechanics,
+says Ha�y, which it required no ordinary genius to have created, and to
+have measured its energy. This science, during a long time, had only
+employed water as a moving force, by availing itself of its natural
+course, or by judiciously managing its fall, so as to subject it to the
+operation of machines which is regulated by an impulsion continually
+renewed. The experiments made upon the force of water reduced to
+vapor, gave birth to the idea of applying that vapor so much the more
+advantageously to the same purpose, because independently of its
+great energy, it may be transported wherever it is called for by the
+interests of commerce and industry.
+
+The execution of steam-engines has had, like that of all other
+machines, its different epochs, to which successively corresponded new
+degrees of perfection. To diminish, as far as possible, the quantity
+of vaporisation requisite for the effect in contemplation, and to make
+a moderate use of the combustible; to combine with this chief economy
+that of substance and of workmanship, by contracting the dimensions of
+the pieces without diminishing their utility; to prevent explosions,
+by the wisest precautions adopted in the management of an agent whose
+power becomes destructive when it is not limited: these are in general
+the objects which have fixed the attention of engineers, and have
+excited among them a laudable kind of rivalship.[94]
+
+In no invention, either for ingenuity or utility, has modern genius
+been more conspicuous than in the invention of the steam-engine.
+The amazing power wielded by man, by this means, is just matter
+of astonishment and wonder. In no part of the kingdom have these
+stupendous machines been brought to greater perfection, either in size
+or principle, than in the mining counties of Cornwall and Devon. The
+largest ever built has lately been erected at Chacewater mine, in the
+county of Cornwall, by Mr. S. Moyle, of that place, and is for size and
+efficiency, as well as neatness, without a parallel. This stupendous
+machine is equal to 1,010 horses; it works day and night in pumping dry
+a mine of 100 fathoms deep, and of a large extent: and the quantity of
+water pumped out in one minute, and the column consequently lifted,
+is greater than any other machine of the kind ever erected. The whole
+reflects the greatest credit on the abilities of the engineer, and
+forms an interesting object to all those who are curious in mechanism,
+or who may visit the mines of Cornwall.[95]
+
+A very ingenious naturalist suggests the idea, that subterraneous
+fire, and steam generated from it, are the true and real causes of
+earthquakes. And he thinks the elasticity of steam and its expansive
+force, are every way capable of producing the stupendous effects
+attributed to earthquakes, when it is considered that this expansive
+force of steam is to that of gunpowder as 140 to 5. He also apprehends
+that subterraneous fire must, at different times, have existed
+universally in the bowels of the earth, and that in union with water,
+or by the expansive power of steam, it has produced the immense
+continents, as well as the mountains of our globe.[96] There are,
+in the Memoirs of the Paris Academy of Sciences for the year 1707,
+some observations communicated by Vauban, from which it results that
+140 pounds of water converted into vapor, would produce an explosion
+capable of blowing up a mass of 77,000 pounds, while 140 pounds of
+powder could only produce a similar effect upon a mass of 30,000.
+
+Water would be the purest of all drinks, says Sturm, were it as
+absolutely simple body; but on the other hand, its medicinal virtue
+would be reduced to nothing. If we consider the manner in which water
+nourishes plants, it is easy to presume that it communicates the
+nutritious juices which it contains, to men and animals in the same
+way. Water is not very nutritive by itself, but being very subtile, it
+dissolves the nutritious parts of aliments, is a vehicle for them, and
+carries them along into the minutest vessels. It is consequently the
+most wholesome drink; and is essentially necessary to men and animals;
+and its salutary effects are felt, where all other liquids are found
+hurtful to health. "The water of Egypt," says the Abb� Mascrier, "is
+so delicious, that one would not wish the heat to be less, or to be
+delivered from the sensation of thirst. The Turks find it so exquisite,
+that they excite themselves to drink of it by eating _salt_. It is a
+common saying among them, that if Mahomed had drank of it, he would
+have besought God that he might never die, in order to have had this
+continual gratification. When the Egyptians undertake the pilgrimage of
+Mecca, or go out of their country on any other account, they speak of
+nothing but the pleasure they shall have, at their return, in drinking
+of the waters of the Nile. There is no gratification to be compared to
+this: it surpasses, in their esteem, that of seeing their relations
+and families. All those who have tasted of this water, allow that they
+never met with the like in any other place. When a person drinks of it
+for the first time, he can scarcely be persuaded that it is not a water
+prepared by art: for it has something in it inexpressibly agreeable and
+pleasing to the taste; and it should have the same rank among _waters_,
+that _champaigne_ has among _wines_. But its most valuable quality is,
+that it is exceedingly salutary. It never incommodes, let it be drank
+in what quantity it may: this is so true, that it is no uncommon thing
+to see some persons drink three buckets full of it in a day, without
+the least inconvenience! When I pass such encomiums on the water of
+Egypt, it is right to observe, that I speak only of that of the _Nile_,
+which indeed is the only water, drinkable, for their _well-water_ is
+detestable and unwholesome. _Fountains_ are so rare, that they are a
+kind of prodigy in that country; and as to _rain-water_, that is out of
+the question, as scarcely any falls in Egypt."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Having attended to the situation and properties of water in the world
+of nature, we shall now show that by this element is represented the
+blessings of Divine grace in the moral or spiritual world. God is
+the _fountain of living waters_, ever-living, all-sufficient, and
+incessantly flowing; like waters, arising and issuing from a spring,
+which continue during the whole year: not like waters that proceed only
+from some excess of rain, such as land-floods, or those flowing down
+from hills, which in the winter season run in torrents, but in the
+heat of summer are dried up and fail. Such uncertain waters are well
+expressed by Job--"My brethren have dealt deceitfully as a brook, and
+as the stream of brooks they pass away; which are blackish by reason
+of the ice, and wherein the snow is hid: what time they wax warm they
+vanish: when it is hot they are consumed out of their place. The paths
+of their way are turned aside; they go to nothing, and perish. The
+troops of Tema looked, the companies of Sheba waited for them. They
+are confounded because they had hoped; they came thither, and were
+ashamed." He alludes to those merchants who travelled in companies or
+caravans, with beasts of burden, through the deserts of Arabia; who,
+having in the winter observed and marked out in certain places on the
+road great pools of water, or copious streams locked up in the valleys
+by severe frosts; so that, when travelling the same road in summer,
+they expected finding water there still to refresh themselves and their
+thirsty camels; but, to their great grief and consternation, instead
+of pools or brooks of water, found heaps of dry sand, occasioned by
+intense heat. But God is a fountain which sends forth streams of
+blessings in all seasons, and never fails. The _living waters_ which
+proceed from him as their fountain, are not stagnant, or dead, but
+running, like those that issue from springs which are never dry, and
+possess the most refreshing and invigorating properties.
+
+The element of water is used for washing and purifying the body; so the
+operation of Divine grace on the soul removes its moral defilement.
+All the purifications by water under the law, were outward expressions
+of this inward cleansing. Thus those important words by the prophet
+Ezekiel, "I will sprinkle clean water upon you, and ye shall be clean;
+from all your filthiness, and from all your idols, will I cleanse you:
+a new heart also will I give you, and a new spirit will I put within
+you." Accordingly the Psalmist says, "Thou shalt wash me, and I shall
+be whiter than snow." He also prays, "Create in me a clean heart, oh
+God; and renew a right spirit within me." As purity is necessary for
+enjoying communion with God in all his instituted ordinances, he says,
+"I will wash mine hands in innocency: so will I compass thine altar,
+oh Lord." Similar language is used in the New Testament. Our Lord said
+to Peter, "If I wash thee not, thou hast no part in me." The apostle
+Paul, after mentioning several immoral characters to the Christians at
+Corinth, says, "And such were some of you: but ye are washed, but ye
+are sanctified, but ye are justified in the name of the Lord Jesus, and
+by the Spirit of our God."
+
+Our Lord gave himself for us, not only that he might redeem us from
+all iniquity, but also that he might purify us unto himself a peculiar
+people. This cleansing, washing, and purifying the soul from sin, is,
+in the Holy Scripture, attributed to the virtual efficacy of his blood.
+"The blood of Jesus Christ his Son cleanseth us from all sin." "Unto
+him that loved us, and washed us from our sins in his own blood."
+The primary effect of his blood is the expiation of sin; and, as a
+consequence thereof, the remission of it. "This is my blood which is
+shed for the remission of sins." "In whom we have redemption through
+his blood, the forgiveness of sins." Now by the blood of Christ in
+these places we are to understand his sufferings, which were completed
+in the shedding of his blood on the cross.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+_Section_ II.--THE EARTH.
+
+    Surface of the Earth -- Mountains -- Fertility of Plants --
+    Dissemination of Seeds -- Preservation of Plants -- Adaptation
+    to different Climates -- Number of vegetables -- Succession of
+    vegetables -- Remarkable Trees -- Sensitive Plants -- Kitchen
+    vegetables -- Garden flowers -- Religious Improvement.
+
+
+The dry land and the seas constitute what is called the _terraqueous
+globe_; what proportion the superficies of the sea bears to that of the
+land, cannot be easily ascertained; but, as one observes, the earth
+and the water exist in a most judicious proportion to each other.
+According to the most exact calculations, the surface of the earth is
+199,512,595 square miles; and that of the sea is to the land as three
+to one. There is no certain measurement of the proportion of land and
+water which the parts within the polar circles contain. The superficies
+of the sea appearing so large, may lead some persons to suppose, that
+the proportions between the land and water are not wisely adjusted; and
+that had there been less sea and more dry land, this would have been
+more adapted to the accommodation and service of mankind. As such a
+supposition as this tends to arraign the wisdom of God, so it proceeds
+from ignorance of natural philosophy. For, as Dr. Keill asserts, "if
+there were but half the sea that now is, there would be also only half
+the quantity of vapors; and, consequently, we could have no more than
+half so many rivers as there now are, to supply not only all the dry
+land we have at present, but half as much more; for the quantity of
+vapors which are raised, bears a proportion to the surface whence they
+are raised, as well as the heat which raised them. The wise Creator so
+prudently ordered it, that the sea should be large enough to supply
+vapors sufficient for all the land, which it would not do if it were
+less than it now is."[97] The Scriptures speak of God as making all
+things in number, weight, and measure; as proceeding in his works with
+the greatest exactness. "He hath measured the waters in the hollow of
+his hand, and meted out heaven with a span, and comprehended the dust
+of the earth in a measure, and weighed the mountains in scales, and the
+hills in a balance." Those who wish to see this further illustrated,
+would do well to consult Ray's "Wisdom of God manifested in the works
+of the Creation," and his "Physico-theological Discourses."
+
+The stately mountains, that lift their lofty heads above the clouds,
+serve for very beneficial purposes. Does the bold atheist call them
+blemishes, and irregularities in the formation of the earth? Surely
+he never considered how necessary they are, for arresting the clouds
+in their flight, and conveying their waters through imperceptible
+channels, till they meet in some common receptacle, whence they burst
+out in springs to fertilize the lower grounds, and afford refreshing
+streams for man and beast. "This," says Mr. Halley, "seems to be the
+design of the hills, that their ridges, being placed through the midst
+of the continents, might serve as it were for alembics, to distil
+fresh water for the use of man and beast; and that their heights might
+give a descent to those streams to run gently, like so many veins of
+the microcosm, to be more beneficial to the creation." They are, says
+Mr. Ray, "for the generation and maintenance of rivers and fountains,
+which--on the hypothesis that all proceed from rain water--could not
+subsist without them, or but rarely. So we should have only torrents,
+which would fail in summer, or in any dry season, and nothing to trust
+to, but stagnating water, reserved in pools and cisterns. The great
+inconvenience resulting from this I need not take pains to show. I say
+that fountains and rivers would be but rare, were there no mountains.
+For the whole dry land being but one continued mountain, and ascending
+all along from the sea to the mid-land, as is undeniably proved by
+the descent of rivers even in plain countries; the water sinking into
+the earth, may run under ground, and, according as the vein leads it,
+break out in the side of this mountain, though the place, as to outward
+appearance, be a plain. There are huge ridges and extended chains of
+mountains directed for the most part to run east and west; by which
+means they give admittance and passage to the vapors, brought by the
+winds from the Atlantic and Pacific oceans; but stop and inhibit their
+excursions to the north and south, either condensing them on their
+sides into water, by a kind of external distillation; or by straitening
+and constipating them, compelling them to gather into drops, or descend
+down in the rain."
+
+After the waters had subsided, the land appeared, dry and fit for
+vegetation. "And God said, Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb
+yielding seed, and the fruit-tree yielding fruit after his kind,
+whose seed is in itself upon the earth: and it was so. And the earth
+brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed after his kind, and the
+tree yielding fruit, whose seed was in itself, after his kind." Here we
+rise to organized and vegetative bodies. At the Divine command, herbs,
+plants, trees, and all the almost endless varieties of the vegetable
+world, bearing their several seeds and fruits, according to their
+different kinds, immediately began to appear. Thus before God formed
+any living creature to dwell upon the earth, he provided abundantly
+for its sustenance. "Now as God delights to manifest himself in the
+little as well as the great," says a celebrated commentator, "he has
+shown his consummate wisdom in every part of the vegetable creation.
+Who can account for, or comprehend, the structure of a single tree or
+plant? The roots, the stem, the woody fibres, the bark, the rind, the
+air-vessels, the sap-vessels, the leaves, the flowers, and the fruits,
+are so many mysteries. All the skill, wisdom, and power of men and
+angels, could not produce a single grain of wheat!"
+
+Dr. Hales, in his Statistical Essays, has observed, that the substances
+of vegetables appear, by a chemical analysis, to be composed of
+sulphur, volatile salt, water, and earth, which are all endued with
+mutually attracting powers; and also of a large portion of air, which
+has a wonderful power of strongly attracting in a fixed state, or
+of repelling in an elastic state, with a power which is superior to
+great compressive forces.[98] By the infinite combinations, action,
+and reaction of these principles, all the operations in animal and
+vegetable bodies are effected. These active a�rial principles are very
+serviceable in carrying on the work of vegetation to its perfection
+and maturity; not only in helping, by their elasticity, to distend
+each ductile part, but, also, by enlivening and invigorating their
+sap, where, mixing with the other mutually attracting principles, they
+are, by gentle heat and motion, set at liberty to assimilate into the
+nourishment of the respective parts. The sum of the attracting powers
+of these mutually acting and re-acting principles, is, while in this
+nutritive state, superior to their repelling power; by which the work
+of nutrition is gradually advanced by the nearer and nearer union of
+these principles from a less to a greater degree of consistency, till
+they are advanced to that viscid, ductile state, whence the several
+parts of vegetables are formed; and are, at length, firmly compacted
+into hard substances, by the flying off of the watery diluting vehicle:
+but when they are again disunited by the watery particles, their
+repelling power is thereby become superior to their attracting power,
+and the union of the parts of vegetables is so thoroughly dissolved,
+that putrefaction commences.
+
+God has endued the vegetable creation with the astonishing power
+of multiplying itself by seeds, slips, roots. &c. ad infinitum: it
+contains in itself all the rudiments of the future plants through
+their endless generations. The celebrated Linn�us, in an "oration
+concerning the augmentation of the habitable earth," which proceeds on
+the supposition of the existence of a sexual system in the vegetable
+world, shows how from one plant of each species the immense number
+of individuals now existing might arise. He gives some instances of
+the surprising fertility of certain plants; as, of the elecampane,
+one plant of which produced 3,000 seeds; of spelt, 2,000; of the
+sun-flower, 4,000; of the poppy, 3,200; of tobacco, 40,320: and one
+grain of Turkey-corn produces 2,000 others! But supposing any annual
+plant producing yearly only two seeds, even of these, after 20 years,
+there would be 1,048,576 individuals. For they would increase yearly
+in a double proportion, _viz._ 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, &c. The seed of the
+_elm_, as a learned author observes, affords a remarkable instance of
+the prolific power with which the vegetable creation is endued, to
+multiply its different species. "This tree produces one thousand five
+hundred and eighty-four millions of seeds; and each of these seeds
+has the power of producing the same number. How astonishing is this
+produce! At first one seed is deposited in the earth; from this one a
+tree springs, which in the course of its vegetative life produces one
+thousand five hundred and eighty-four millions of seeds. This is the
+first generation. The second generation will amount to two trillions,
+five hundred and ten thousand and fifty-six billions. The third
+generation will amount to fourteen thousand six hundred and fifty-eight
+quadrillions, seven hundred and twenty-seven thousand and forty
+trillions! And the fourth generation from these would amount to fifty
+one sextillions, four hundred and eighty-one thousand three hundred
+and eighty-one quintillions, one hundred and twenty-three thousand one
+hundred and thirty-six quadrillions! Sums too immense for the human
+mind to conceive; and when we allow the most confined space in which a
+tree can grow, it appears that the seeds of the third generation from
+one elm would be many myriads of times more than sufficient to stock
+the whole superficies of all the planets in the solar system!"
+
+While many plants and trees may be propagated by branches, buds,
+suckers, and leaves fixed in the ground; so concerning the
+dissemination of seeds after they come to maturity, the Author of
+nature has wisely provided in various ways; this being absolutely
+necessary, since without it no crop could follow. The stalks and stems
+favor this purpose; for these raise the fruit above the ground, so that
+the winds, shaking them to and fro, widely disperse the ripe seeds.
+The pericarpium, a pellicle or thin membrane encompassing the fruit or
+grain of a plant, is generally shut at the top, that the seeds may not
+fall before they are shaken out by stormy winds. Wings are given to
+many seeds, by the help of which they fly far from the mother plant,
+and frequently spread over a large tract of country. These wings
+consist either of down, as in most of the composite-flowered plants;
+or of a membrane, as in birch, alder, ash, &c. Several kinds of fruits
+are endued with a remarkable elasticity, by the force of which the
+ripe pericarpies throw the seeds to a great distance; as wood-sorrel,
+spurge, phyllanthus, and dittany. Other seeds or pericarpies are rough,
+or provided with hooks, as hounds-tongue, agrimony, &c; so that they
+are apt to stick to animals which pass by them, and by this means are
+carried to their holes, where they are both sown and manured. Berries,
+as well as other pericarpies, are by nature allotted for aliment to
+animals; but, with this condition, that while they eat the pulp, they
+shall sow the seeds: for when they feed on it, they either disperse
+them at the same time; or, if they swallow them, they are returned
+unhurt. The mistletoe always grows on other trees, because the thrush
+eating its seeds, casts them forth with its dung. The cross-bill living
+on fircones, and the haw-finch feeding on pinecones, sow many of their
+seeds.
+
+The structure of plants contributes essentially both to their own
+preservation, and that of others. But the wisdom of the Creator appears
+very remarkable in the manner of the growth of trees. For as their
+roots descend deeper than those of other plants, provision is thereby
+made that they shall not rob them too much of nourishment;[99] and
+what is still more, a stem, not above a span in diameter, often shoots
+its branches very high; these bear perhaps many thousand buds, each of
+which is a plant, with its leaves, flowers, and stipul�. Now if all
+these grew on the plain, they would take up a thousand times as much
+space as trees do; and, in this case, there would scarcely be room in
+all the earth for so many plants as at present trees alone afford.
+Besides, plants that shoot up in this way are more easily preserved
+from cattle by a natural defence: their leaves also, falling in autumn,
+cover the plants growing about them against the rigor of the winter;
+and, in the summer, they afford a pleasing shade, not only to animals,
+but to plants, against the intense heat of the sun. We may add, that
+trees, like all other vegetables, imbibe water from the earth: which
+does not circulate again to the root, but being dispersed like small
+rain, by the transpiration of the leaves, moistens the plants that grow
+around. Many plants and shrubs are armed with thorns, as the buckthorn,
+sloe, carduus, cotton-thistle, &c: these serve to keep off animals,
+which otherwise would destroy their fruit. At the same time, they cover
+many other plants, especially of the annual kind, under their branches.
+Nay it has frequently been observed on commons where furze grows, that
+wherever a bush was left untouched for some years by the inhabitants a
+tree has sprung up, being secured by the prickles of that shrub from
+the bite of cattle. So that while adjacent grounds are robbed of plants
+by voracious animals, some may be preserved to ripen flowers and
+fruit, and stock the surrounding parts with seeds which otherwise would
+be quite extirpated. All herbs cover the ground with their leaves, and
+by their shade hinder it from being totally deprived of that moisture
+which is necessary to their nourishment. Mosses, which adorn the most
+barren places, do, at the same time, preserve lesser plants when they
+begin to shoot, from cold and drought; as is evident in gardens, where
+plants are preserved in the same way. They also hinder the fermenting
+earth from forcing the roots of plants upwards in the spring; like what
+happens annually to trunks of trees, and other things put into the
+ground. Hence very few mosses grow in warm climates, the same necessity
+not existing in those places.
+
+The great Author of all things intended that the whole earth should be
+covered with plants, and that no place should be void or barren. But
+since all countries have not the same changes of seasons, and every
+soil is not equally adapted to every plant; therefore, that no place
+should be without some, he gave to each of them such a nature as might
+be chiefly accommodated to their own climate: so that some of them can
+bear intense cold, others an equal degree of heat; some delight in dry
+ground, others in moist, &c. Hence plants grow where the seasons of the
+year and the soil are friendly to their constitution. Grasses, the most
+common of all plants, can bear almost any temperature of air: in this
+the good providence of the Creator particularly appears; for all over
+the globe they are necessary for the nourishment of cattle. The same
+is observed in relation to our most common grains. Thus neither the
+scorching sun, nor the pinching cold, hinders any country from having
+vegetables. Nor is there any soil which does not bring forth many kinds
+of plants. Deserts and sandy places are adorned with trees and plants.
+
+If we connect the vast fecundity of vegetables with their number,
+how bountiful will the great Author of nature appear! Solomon had a
+comprehensive knowledge of the different species of plants, for he
+"spake of trees, from the cedar-tree that is in Lebanon even unto
+the hyssop that springeth out of the wall;" but his writings on this
+subject, not being quoted by any ancient author, nor the least fragment
+remaining, are entirely lost. Theophrastus, a Greek philosopher, who
+succeeded Aristotle in his school at Athens, where his name became so
+celebrated that he was attended by two thousand pupils, wrote a work
+entitled "The History of Plants," in which above 500 different plants
+are described. Dioscorides, a Grecian by birth, but under the Roman
+empire, a physician and botanist in the time of Nero, being near 300
+years posterior to Theophrastus, describes about 600 plants. Pliny
+the elder,[100] in his voluminous work entitled "The History of the
+World," gives descriptions of above 1,000 different species of plants.
+Hieronymus Bock, or Bouc, a German, generally known by the name of
+_Tragus_, in 1532, published a History of Plants, in which he describes
+800 species.
+
+From later botanical researches, we learn, that the bountiful
+Creator has enriched the earth with about 20,000 different species
+of vegetables. The following statement of the progress of botanical
+knowledge has recently been given to the public. Messrs. Humboldt
+and Boupland, the celebrated travellers, have collected in their
+five years' travels through South America, 3,800 species of plants,
+of which upwards of 3,000 were new, and absolutely unknown before
+to the botanists of Europe. We are at present acquainted altogether
+with 44,000 species of plants; while the whole number mentioned by
+the Greeks, Romans, and Arabians, does not exceed 1,400. It is worth
+remarking, that the vegetable productions of the new world seem to have
+been in an inverse ratio, both in point of number and luxuriance, to
+those of the animal kingdom. In North America, for instance, the number
+of lofty trees is far greater than in Europe. In the former country,
+there are found 137 species of trees, whose trunks exceed the height
+of 30 feet; while in Europe there are scarcely 45 species. But it is
+singular there are no firs to be found on any part of the mountains of
+South America, between the tropics, though they are very abundant in
+North America. The reason why Magnolias, and other equinoxial plants,
+appear so far north in America, is, that as far as lat. 48 deg. the
+summers are 9 degrees (of Fahrenheit) hotter than in the corresponding
+European latitudes. The winters, however, are more than proportionably
+colder. At Philadelphia the summer is as hot as at Rome; while the
+winter corresponds with that of Vienna. At Quebec, the summer is warmer
+than at Paris; the winter colder than at St. Petersburgh. Beyond Lake
+Superior, and at Hudson's Bay, it is said that the earth is perpetually
+frozen at the depth of three feet from the surface, which prevents the
+inhabitants from digging wells. The same thing happens in Siberia,
+on the banks of the Lena; while in South America there are cities at
+a greater height than the highest summit of the Pyrenees, and houses
+more elevated than the Peak of Teneriffe, the region, in Europe, of
+perpetual congelation. To this we may add, that Linn�us, the celebrated
+botanist, divided all plants into classes, the classes into orders, the
+orders into genera, and the genera into species: and the species, we
+are told, amount perhaps to 40,000, or 50,000, or more!
+
+The fertility of the earth has been continued from the creation,
+through every successive period, to the present time. Plants spring
+up, grow, flourish, ripen their fruit, wither, and at last, having
+finished their course, die, and return to the dust again, from whence
+they first took their rise. Thus black mould, which covers the earth,
+is generally owing to dead vegetables. For all roots descend into the
+sand by their branches, and after a plant has lost its stem, the root
+remains; but this too rots at last, and changes into mould. Thus this
+kind of earth is mixed with sand, by the arrangement of nature, nearly
+in the same way as dung thrown on fields is wrought into the earth by
+the industry of the husbandman. But the earth offers again to plants
+from its bosom what it has thus received. For when seeds are committed
+to the earth, they draw to themselves, accommodate to their nature,
+and turn into plants, the more subtile parts of this mould by the
+co-operation of the sun, air, and rain; so that the tallest tree is,
+properly speaking, nothing but mould wonderfully compounded with air
+and water, and modified by a virtue communicated to a small seed by the
+Creator. From these plants, when they die, just the same kind of mould
+is formed as gave birth to them originally; whence fertility remains
+continually uninterrupted. Whereas the earth could not make good its
+annual consumption, unless it were constantly recruited by new supplies.
+
+That the Author of nature had so constituted the world that none of the
+elements should be subject to destruction, might have been supposed by
+the ancients; but, till the present advanced state of the science of
+chemistry, no proof of this interesting fact could have been adduced.
+Of the indestructibility of matter it may be remarked, that provision
+has been made even for the restoration of the fallen leaves of
+vegetables, which rot on the ground, and, to a careless observer, would
+appear to be lost for ever. Berthollet has shown by experiment, that,
+whenever the soil becomes charged with such matter, the oxygen of the
+atmosphere combines with it, and converts it into carbonic acid gas.
+The consequence of this is, that this same carbon in process of time
+is absorbed by a new race of vegetables, which it clothes with a new
+foliage, and which is itself destined to undergo similar putrefaction
+and renovation to the end of time.
+
+The selection of a few remarkable trees and plants will serve to
+impress the reader with a sense of the wisdom and power of God, as
+displayed in the vegetable kingdom. As rivers and brooks are very
+seldom found in deserts and sandy places, many of the trees growing
+there distil water; and, by that means, afford great comfort both to
+man and beast. Thus the _Tillandsia_, which is a parasitical plant,
+growing on the tops of trees in the deserts of America, has its leaves
+turned at the base into the shape of a pitcher, with the extremity
+expanded; in these the rain is collected, and preserved for the use of
+men, beasts, and birds. The water-tree in Ceylon produces cylindrical
+bladders, covered with a lid; into these is secreted a most pure
+and refreshing water. There is a kind of cuckow-pint in New France,
+of which, if a person break a branch, it will afford him a pint of
+excellent water. How wise, how beneficial is the adaptation of plants
+to the inhabitants of those countries where they grow!
+
+On the top of a rock, in one of the Canary Islands, says Glass, in
+his History, grows the _Fountain Tree_, called, in the language of
+the ancient inhabitants, _Garse_, (sacred or holy tree,) which for
+many years has been preserved sound, entire, and fresh. Its leaves
+constantly distil such a quantity of water as is sufficient to furnish
+drink to every living creature in Hierro; nature having provided this
+remedy for the drought of the island. It is situated about a league
+and a half from the sea. Nobody knows of what species it is, only
+that it is called _Til_. It is distinct from other trees, and stands
+by itself. The circumference of its trunk is about twelve spans, the
+diameter four, and in height from the ground to the top of the highest
+branch forty spans: the circumference of all the branches together, is
+one hundred and twenty feet. The branches are thick and extended: the
+lowest commence an ell from the ground. Its fruit resembles the acorn,
+and tastes something like the kernel of a pine-apple, but is softer and
+more aromatic. The leaves of this tree resemble those of the laurel,
+but are larger, wider, and more curved; they come forth in perpetual
+succession, so that the tree always remains green. On the north side
+of the trunk, are two large tanks, or cisterns, of rough stone, or
+rather one cistern divided, each half being twenty feet square, and
+sixteen spans in depth. One of these contains water for the drinking of
+the inhabitants; and the other that which they use for their cattle,
+washing, and such like purposes. Every morning, near this part of
+the island, a cloud or mist arises from the sea, which the south and
+easterly winds force against the fore-mentioned steep cliff, so that
+the cloud, having no vent but by the gutter, gradually ascends it,
+and from thence advances slowly to the extremity of the valley, where
+it is stopped and checked by the front of the rock, which terminates
+the valley, and then rests upon the thick leaves and wide-spreading
+branches of the tree, from whence it distils in drops, during the
+remainder of the day, until it is at length exhausted, in the same
+manner that we see water drip from the leaves of trees after a heavy
+shower of rain. This tree yields most water in those years when the
+Levant or easterly winds have prevailed for a continuance, for by these
+winds only the clouds or mists are drawn hither from the sea. A person
+lives on the spot near where this tree grows, who is appointed by the
+council to take care of it, and its water; and is allowed a house to
+live in, with a certain salary. He every day distributes to each family
+of the district, seven pots or vessels full of water, besides what he
+gives to the principal people in the island.
+
+In Cockburn's Voyages we find the following account of the _Dropping
+Tree_, near the mountains of Vera Paz, in America. "On the morning of
+the fourth day we came out on a large plain where were numbers of fine
+deer, and in the middle stood a tree of an unusual size, spreading its
+branches over a vast compass of ground. Curiosity led us up to it; we
+had perceived, at some distance, the ground about it to be wet, at
+which we began to be somewhat surprised, as well knowing there had no
+rain fallen for near six months past, according to the certain course
+of the season in that latitude; that it was impossible to be occasioned
+by the fall of dew on the tree, we were convinced, by the sun having
+power to exhale all moisture of that nature a few minutes after his
+rising. At last, to our great amazement, as well as joy, we saw water
+dropping, or, as it were, distilling fast from the end of every leaf of
+this wonderful (nor had it been amiss, if I had said miraculous) tree;
+at least it was so with respect to us, who had been laboring four days
+through extreme heat without receiving the least moisture, and were now
+almost expiring for the want of it. We could not help looking on this
+as liquor sent from heaven to comfort us under our great extremity. We
+catched what we could of it in our hands, and drank very plentifully
+of it, liking it so well, that we could hardly prevail with ourselves
+to give it over. A matter of this nature could not but excite us to
+make the strictest observations concerning it; and accordingly we staid
+under the tree near three hours: we found that we could not clasp its
+body by five times. We observed the soil where it grew to be very
+stony; and upon the nicest inquiry we could afterwards make, both of
+the natives of the country, and the Spanish inhabitants, we could not
+learn that there was any such tree known throughout New Spain, nor
+perhaps all America over."
+
+The _Tallow Tree_, mentioned by Du Halde in his History of China, grows
+in great plenty in that country, producing a substance much like our
+tallow, and serving for the same purposes. It is about the height of a
+cherry tree; its leaves are in form of a heart, of a deep shining red
+color, and its bark very smooth. Its fruit is enclosed in a kind of pod
+or cover, like a chestnut, and consists of three round white grains,
+of the size and form of a small nut, each having its peculiar capsule,
+and within that a little stone. This stone is encompassed with a white
+pulp, which has all the properties of true tallow, as to consistence,
+color, and even smell; and accordingly the Chinese make their candles
+of it, which doubtless would be as good as those in Europe, if they
+knew how to purify this vegetable as we do the animal tallow, and make
+their wicks as fine. All the preparation they give it, is to melt it
+down, and mix a little oil with it, to make it softer and more pliant.
+It is true, their candles made of it yield a thicker smoke, and give a
+dimmer light than those of ours; but these defects are owing in a great
+measure to the wicks, which are not of cotton, but only a little rod or
+switch of dry light wood, covered with the pith of a rush, wound round
+it, which, being very porous, serves to filtrate the minute parts of
+the tallow, attracted by the burning stick, and which by this means is
+kept burning.
+
+The _Tea Tree_ is a native of China, of very slow growth; it has a
+black, woody, irregular, branched root, and rises to a fathom high, or
+rather more. Its leaves are very thick set, without any regularity,
+and are, in substance, like those of the morella cherry tree; but,
+when young, they resemble, except in color, the spindle tree, with red
+berries, called _euonymus_. The larger leaves are about two inches
+long, and one broad. The method of gathering them is one by one, lest
+they should be torn. The first gathering begins at the middle of the
+first moon, immediately before the vernal equinox; these leaves are
+scarcely full opened, being only of two or three days growth; but
+they are accounted the best, fetch the best price, and are called the
+flower of the tea; but, by the Chinese, _veui boui_, or bohea tea. The
+second gathering begins about a month after, and the last gathering is
+in June; the leaves of the gatherings are sorted into three several
+classes, according to their size and goodness, and sold accordingly.
+After the leaves are gathered, they are the same day carried to the
+work-house, and roasted over a slow fire in an iron pan; and, that they
+may be thoroughly and equally dried, the roaster keeps them continually
+stirring with his hands, then takes them out, with a shovel like a fan,
+and commits them to the rollers, who roll them with the palms of their
+hands in small parcels, till they are equally cooled, and the sharp
+yellow and greenish juice is quite discharged. They are then poured
+upon a mat, and sorted a second time into different classes according
+to their goodness, and those that are less curled or burnt are taken
+out.--It is said that the Dutch were the first importers of tea into
+Europe, about the year 1606, for which they exchanged dried sage with
+the Chinese: and though the English did certainly about the same time
+gain a knowledge of this plant, we do not find that the government
+took any cognizance of it till the Restoration, when in 1660, a duty
+of eight-pence per gallon was laid on the liquor made, and sold in all
+coffee-houses.
+
+The _Coffee Tree_ is a native of the Indies, grows surprisingly quick,
+and its body is naturally of an upright form; its leaves are something
+like those of the common bay, but curl at the end and hang downwards.
+The blossoms first appear in July, when they show themselves in bunches
+at the joints, near the ends of the branches; they are much like
+the flowers of the jessamine, but have the addition of some yellow
+_apices_, which are loose on the top of the blossom, and a _style_
+which shoots out near half an inch above it. The fruit appears about
+October, which hangs on the tree till the next July before it is ripe:
+it is then gathered and prepared for the market, or for propagating
+other plants. Coffee is, perhaps, one of the greatest blessings, among
+those that are not really necessaries of life, that Providence has
+granted to mankind; and, considering its beneficial qualities as well
+as its agreeable properties, it should be ranked among the most elegant
+plants, in foliage, blossom, and fruit. It is a wholesome, pleasant,
+and cheap beverage, and of great use in many disorders. The origin of
+the use of coffee is stated to be as follows. A prior of a monastery
+in the part of Arabia where this berry grows, having remarked that the
+goats which eat of it became extremely brisk and alert, resolved to try
+the experiment on his monks, of whom he so continually complained for
+their lethargic propensities. The experiment turned out successful;
+and, it is said, it was owing to this circumstance that the use of this
+Arabian berry came to be so universal.
+
+The _Banian Tree_ is a native of several parts of the East Indies. It
+has a woody stem, branching to a great height and vast extent, with
+heart-shaped entire leaves, ending in acute points. Of this tree the
+following lines of Milton contain a description equally beautiful and
+just.
+
+                    "There soon they chose
+    The fig tree; not that tree for fruit renown'd,
+    But such as at this day to Indians known
+    In Malabar or Decan, spreads her arms,
+    Branching so broad and long, that in the ground
+    The bended twigs take root and daughters grow
+    About the mother tree, a pillar'd shade,
+    High over arch'd and echoing walks between;
+    There oft the Indian herdsman, shunning heat,
+    Shelters in cool, and tends his pasturing herds
+    At loop-holes cut through thickest shade."
+
+The banian tree, or Indian fig, is perhaps the most beautiful of
+nature's productions in that genial climate, where her luxuriance is
+displayed with the greatest profusion and variety. Some of these trees,
+as they are continually increasing, and, contrary to most other things
+in animal and vegetable life, seem to be exempted from decay, grow to
+an amazing size. Every branch projecting from the main body throws out
+its own roots, at first in small tender fibres, several yards from the
+ground; these continually grow thicker till they reach the surface; and
+there striking in, they increase to large trunks, and become parent
+trees, shooting out new branches from the top; these at length suspend
+their roots, which, swelling into trunks, produce other branches:
+thus continuing in a state of progression as long as the earth, the
+first parent of them all, contributes her sustenance. The Hindoos
+are peculiarly fond of this tree; they view it as an emblem of the
+Deity, from its long duration, outstretching arms, and overshadowing
+beneficence; they almost pay it divine honors, and
+
+    "Find a fane in every sacred grove."
+
+Near these trees the most esteemed pagodas are generally erected; under
+their shade the brahmins spend their lives in religious solitude; and
+the natives of all casts and tribes are fond of recreating in the cool
+recesses, beautiful walks, and lovely vistas of this umbrageous canopy,
+impervious to the hottest beams of a tropical sun.
+
+A description of a tree in the island of Java, called the _Upas_, or
+Poison Tree, is given to the public by a surgeon belonging to the
+Dutch East India Company, of the name of Foersch, who was stationed at
+Batavia, in the year 1774. Surprising its this account may be, it is
+accompanied by so many public facts, and names of persons and places,
+that it is somewhat difficult to conceive it fabulous. The Upas grows
+about seven leagues from Batavia, in a plain surrounded by rocky
+mountains, the whole of which plain, containing a circle of ten or
+twelve miles round the tree, is totally barren. Nothing that breathes
+or vegetates can live within its influence. The bird that flies over
+it drops down dead. The beast that wanders into it expires. The whole
+dreadful area is covered with sand, over which lie scattered loose
+flints and whitened bones, Thus,
+
+    "Fierce in dread silence on the blasted heath,
+    Fell Upas sits!"
+
+This tree may be called the emperor's great military magazine. In
+a solution of the poisonous gum which exudes from it, his arrows
+and offensive weapons are dipped; the procuring, therefore, of this
+poisonous gum, is a matter of as much attention as of difficulty.
+Criminals are only employed in this dreadful service. Of these, several
+every year are sent with a promise of pardon and reward if they procure
+it. Hooded in leather cases, with glass eyelet-holes, and secured as
+much as possible from the foul effluvia of the air they are to breathe,
+they undertake this melancholy journey, travelling always with the
+wind. About one in ten escapes, and brings away a little box of this
+direful commodity!
+
+Every one skilled in natural history knows, that the mimos�, or
+sensitive plants, close their leaves, and bend their joints, on
+the least touch. This is truly astonishing: but hitherto no end or
+design of nature has appeared from these motions; they soon recover
+themselves, and the leaves are expanded as before. Dion� Muscipula, or
+Venus's Fly Trap, is a newly discovered sensitive plant; and shows that
+nature may have some view towards its nourishment, in forming the upper
+joint of its leaf like a machine to catch food. Upon the middle of this
+lies the bait for the unhappy insect that becomes its prey. Many minute
+red glands, that cover its inner surface, and which, perhaps, discharge
+some sweet liquor, tempt the poor animal to taste them; and the instant
+these tender plants are irritated by its feet, the two lobes rise up,
+grasp it fast, lock the two rows of spines together, and squeeze it to
+death. Further, lest the strong efforts for life, in the creature thus
+taken, should serve to disengage it, three small erect spines are fixed
+near the middle of each lobe among the glands, that effectually put an
+end to all its struggles. Nor do the lobes ever open again, while the
+dead animal continues there. But it is nevertheless certain that the
+plant cannot distinguish between an animal and a mineral substance; for
+if we introduce a straw, or a pin, between the lobes, it will grasp it
+full as fast as if it were an insect. This plant grows in America, in
+wet shady places, and flowers in July and August. The largest leaves
+are about three inches long, and an inch and a half across the lobes:
+the glands of those exposed to the sun are of a beautiful red color;
+but those in the shade are pale, and inclining to green. The roots are
+squamous, sending forth few fibres, and are perennial. The leaves are
+numerous, inclining to bend downwards, and are placed in a circular
+order; they are jointed and succulent; the lower joint, which is a kind
+of stalk, is flat, longish, two-edged, and inclining to heart-shaped.
+In some varieties, they are serrated on the edges near the top. The
+upper joint consists of two lobes, each lobe is of a semi-oval form,
+with their margins furnished with stiff hairs, like eye-brows, which
+embrace or lock in each other when they are inwardly irritated. The
+upper surfaces of these lobes are covered with small red glands, each
+of which appears, when highly magnified, like a compressed arbutus
+berry. Among the glands, about the middle of each lobe, are three very
+small erect spines. When the lobes enclose any substance, they never
+open again while it continues there. If it can be shoved out, so as
+not to strain the lobes, they expand again; but if force is used to
+open them, so strong has nature formed the spring of their fibres,
+that one of the lobes will generally snap off, rather than yield. The
+stalk is about six inches high, round, smooth, and without leaves,
+ending in a spike of flowers. The flowers are milk-white, and stand,
+on foot stalks, at the bottom of which is a little painted bractea, or
+flower-leaf.
+
+There is not an article in botany more admirable than a contrivance,
+visible in many plants, to take advantage of good weather, and to
+protect themselves against bad. They open and close their flowers and
+leaves in different circumstances; some close before sun-set, some
+after; some open to receive rain, some close to avoid it. The petals
+of many flowers expand in the sun; but contract at night, or on the
+approach of rain. After the seeds are fecundated, the petals no longer
+contract. All the trefoils may serve as a barometer to the husbandman;
+they always contract their leaves on an impending storm. Some plants
+follow the sun, others turn from it. Many plants, on the sun's recess,
+vary the position of their leaves, which is styled, the _sleep of
+plants_. A singular plant was lately discovered in Bengal. Its leaves
+are in continual motion all day long; but when night approaches; they
+fall down from an erect posture to rest.[101]
+
+A plant has a power of directing its roots for procuring food. The red
+whortle-berry, a low evergreen plant, grows naturally on the tops of
+our highest hills, among stones and gravel. This shrub was planted in
+an edging to a rich border, under a fruit wall. In two or three years
+it over-ran the adjoining deep-laid gravel walk, and seemed to fly from
+the border, in which not a runner appeared. An effort to come at food,
+in a bad situation, is extremely remarkable, in the following instance.
+Among the ruins of New Abbey, formerly a monastery in Galloway, there
+grows on the top of a wall, a plane tree, about twenty feet high.
+Straitened for nourishment in that barren situation, it several years
+ago directed roots down the side of the wall, till they reached the
+ground ten feet below; and now the nourishment it afforded to those
+roots during the time of their descending, is amply repaid, having
+every year, since that time, made vigorous shoots. From the top of the
+wall to the surface of the earth these roots have not thrown out a
+single fibre, but are now united in a single root.
+
+Plants, when forced from their natural position, are endowed with the
+power to restore themselves. A hop-plant, twisting round a stick,
+directs its course from south to west, as the sun does. Untwist it, and
+tie it in the opposite direction, it dies. Leave it loose in the wrong
+direction, it recovers its natural direction in a single night. Twist
+the branch of a tree, so as to invert its leaves, and fix it in that
+position, if left in any degree loose, it untwists itself gradually,
+till the leaves be restored to their natural position. What better can
+an animal do for its welfare? A root of a tree meeting with a ditch
+in its progress, is laid open to the air. What follows? It alters its
+course, like a rational being, dips into the ground, surrounds the
+ditch, rises on the opposite side to its wonted distance from the
+surface, and then proceeds in its original direction. Lay a wet sponge
+near a root laid open to the air; the root will direct its course
+to the sponge. Change the place of the sponge; the root varies its
+direction. Thrust a pole into the ground at a moderate distance from
+a climbing plant; the plant directs its course to the pole, lays hold
+of it, and rises on it to its natural height. A honeysuckle proceeds
+in its course till it be too long for supporting its weight; and then
+strengthens itself by shooting into a spiral. If it meet with another
+plant of the same kind, they coalesce for mutual support, the one
+screwing to the right, the other to the left. The claspers of briony
+shoot into a spiral, and lay hold of whatever comes in their way for
+support. If, after completing a spiral of three rounds, they meet with
+nothing, they try again, by altering their course.
+
+By comparing these and other instances of seeming voluntary motion
+in plants, with that share of life wherewith some of the inferior
+kind of animals are endowed, we can scarce hesitate at ascribing
+the superiority to the former: that is, putting sensation out of
+the question. Muscles, for instance, are fixed to one place as much
+as plants are; nor have they any power of motion, besides that of
+opening and shutting their shells; and in this respect, they have no
+superiority over the motion of the sensitive plant: nor does their
+action discover more sagacity, or even so much, as the roots of the
+plane tree, mentioned by Lord Kames.[102]
+
+Beckmann's History of Inventions and Discoveries presents us with an
+interesting account of Kitchen Vegetables and Garden Flowers, collected
+from numerous authorities; some parts of which I shall now transcribe,
+and incorporate with information derived from other sources.
+
+Our foreign kitchen vegetables have, for the most part, been procured
+from the southern countries, but chiefly from Italy; and the number of
+them has rapidly increased, in the course of the last two centuries.
+Many of them require laborious attention to make them thrive in our
+climate. On the other hand, some grow so readily, and increase so much
+without culture, even in the open fields, that they have become like
+indigenous weeds, as is the case with hops, which at present abound
+in our hedges. Some plants, however, both indigenous and foreign,
+which were formerly raised by art and used at the table, are no
+longer cultivated, because we have become acquainted with others more
+beneficial.
+
+Among many which were formerly cultivated, but at present are no longer
+esteemed, are the following. Winter-cresses, _erysimum barbarea_;
+common alexander, _smyrnium olosatrum_, which in the seventeenth
+century was used instead of celery; bulbous ch�rophyllum, the roots of
+which are still brought to market at Vienna, where they are boiled and
+eaten as salad. Rampion, _phyteuma spicata_, was formerly used in like
+manner. The earth nut, the tuberous roots of the _lathyrus tuberosus_,
+which grows wild in many parts of Germany, is still cultivated in
+Holland and in some districts on the Rhine. Rocket, _brassica eruca_,
+in Italian, _ruchette_, the young leaves of which were eaten by our
+forefathers as salad, and is still retained in Italy. And there are
+several others either but imperfectly known or little regarded.
+
+Among the kitchen vegetables of which no certain traces are to be found
+in the works of the ancients, is spinage, _spinacea oleracea_. Its
+native country is unknown; but the name is new, and certainly derived
+from the nature of its prickly seeds. As far as I know, it first occurs
+in the year 1351, among the food used by the monks on fast-days; and at
+that time it was written _spinagium_ or _spinachium_.
+
+The ancients were acquainted with curled cabbages, and even with
+some of those kinds which we call _broccoli_. Under this term is
+understood all those species, the numerous young flower heads of which,
+particularly in spring and autumn, can be used like cauliflowers.
+The broccoli used at present was however first brought from Italy to
+France, together with the name, about the end of the sixteenth century.
+
+Our cauliflower, about the same time, was first brought from the Levant
+to Italy; and in the end of the seventeenth century was transplanted
+thence to Germany. For a long time the seeds were procured annually
+from Cyprus, Candia, and Constantinople, by the Venetians and Genoese,
+who sent them to every part of Europe, because at that time the art
+of raising seed was not understood. The seeds of cauliflowers were
+brought from Italy to Antwerp, where no seed was raised, or such only
+as produced degenerate plants. Prosper Alpinus, in the year 1588, found
+abundance of this vegetable in Egypt, and from his account there is
+reason to conjecture it was then very little known in Europe. Conrad
+Gesner seems not to have been acquainted with it; at any rate it is not
+mentioned by him in a list of the cabbage kind of plants. Even in the
+time of Bauhin, it must have belonged to those vegetables which were
+scarce; because he has been so particular in naming the garden in which
+he saw it. Von Hohberg, who wrote about 1682, says that cauliflower, a
+few years before, had been brought to Germany for the first time.--It
+would be difficult to define all the species of the cabbage kind, the
+leaves and flowers of which were used by the ancients as food; but
+it would be a task still more arduous to determine those that have
+esculent roots.
+
+Potatoes were first imported into Europe, in the year 1565, by Hawkins,
+from Santa-Fe, New Mexico, Spanish America. They were planted for
+the first time in Ireland, by Sir Walter Raleigh, who had an estate
+in that kingdom. The natural history of the potatoe was so little
+understood, that a total ignorance which part of the plant was the
+proper food, had nearly ruined any further attention towards its
+cultivation. For perceiving green apples appear on the stems, these
+were first supposed to be the fruit; but on being boiled, and finding
+them unpalatable, or rather nauseous, Raleigh was disgusted with his
+acquisition, nor thought any more of cultivating this plant. Accident,
+however, discovered the real fruit, owing to the ground being turned
+over, through necessity, that very season; and to his surprise, a
+plentiful crop was found under ground, which being boiled, proved
+nourishing to the stomach, and grateful to the taste. On its utility
+being known, its cultivation became general through Ireland. It found
+its way to this kingdom, and was first planted on the western coast,
+in consequence of a vessel containing some potatoes, being wrecked at
+the village of Formby, in Lancashire; a place still famed for this
+excellent vegetable.
+
+Asparagus was first planted in England in the year 1662, in the reign
+of Charles II. Artichokes were first introduced about the same time.
+Cos lettuces were originally brought from the island of Cos, near
+Rhodes, in the Mediterranean. Turnips were brought into this country
+from Hanover. In the time of Henry VIII, several kinds of fruits and
+plants were cultivated in England, as apricots, and a fine gooseberry
+from Flanders; also salads, carrots, and other edible roots. These
+vegetables were before this period imported from Holland and Flanders.
+So that Queen Catherine, to procure a salad, had to dispatch a
+messenger to fetch it from those countries. Fruit seems to have been
+scarce in the time of Henry VII. In an original manuscript, signed by
+himself, and kept in the Remembrance office, it appears that apples
+were not less than one or two shillings each, and that a red one cost
+two shillings. The great plenty and variety of vegetables displayed
+upon modern tables, through every month in the year, evidently shows
+what superior blessings we enjoy, in this respect, compared with those
+of our forefathers.
+
+Some of the flowers introduced into our gardens, and now cultivated
+either on account of their beauty, or the pleasantness of their smell,
+have been procured from plants which grew wild, and which have been
+changed, or, according to the opinion of florists, improved by the art
+of the gardener. The greater part of them however came originally from
+distant countries, where they grow in as great perfection as ours,
+without the assistance of man. It is probable that the modern taste for
+flowers came from Persia to Constantinople, and was imported thence
+to Europe for the first time, in the sixteenth century. At any rate,
+many of the productions of our flower-gardens were conveyed to us by
+that channel. Clusius and his friends, in particular, contributed very
+much to excite this taste; and the new plants brought from both the
+Indies by travellers who frequently visited these countries, tended
+to increase it. That period also produced some skilful gardeners, who
+carried on a considerable trade in the roots and seeds of flowers; and
+these, likewise assisted to render it more general. Among these were
+John and Vespasian Robin, gardeners to Henry IV, of France, and Emanuel
+Sweert, gardener to the emperor Rodolphus II, from whom the botanists
+of that time procured many rarities, as appears from different passages
+of their works.
+
+Simon de Tovar, a Spanish physician, brought the tuberose to Europe
+before the year 1594 from the East Indies, where it grows wild in Java
+and Ceylon, and sent some roots of it to Barnard Paludanus, who first
+made this flower publicly known, in his annotations on Linschoten's
+voyage. The full tuberoses were first procured from seed by one Le
+Cour, at Leyden, who kept them scarce for some years, by destroying
+the roots. The propagation of them in most countries is attended with
+difficulties: but in Italy, Sicily, and Spain, it requires no trouble;
+and at present the Genoese send a great many roots to England, Holland,
+and Germany. The oldest botanists classed them among the hyacinths, and
+their modern name _polianthes tuberose_ was given them by Linn�us in
+his Hortus Cliffortianus.
+
+The auricula, _primula auricula_, grows wild among the long moss
+covered with snow, on the confines of Switzerland and Steyermark,
+whence it was brought to our gardens, where, by art and accident, it
+has produced more varieties than any other species of flower. I do not
+know who first transplanted it from its native soil. Pluche says only
+that some roots were pulled up by Walloon merchants, and carried to
+Brussels. However, this is certain, that it was first cultivated with
+care by the Flemings, who were very successful in propagating it. In
+the time of Clusius, most of the varieties of the auricula were scarce.
+
+The common fritillary, or chequered lily, _fritillaria meleagris_,
+was first observed in some parts of France, Hungary, Italy, and other
+warm countries, and introduced into gardens about the middle of the
+sixteenth century. At first it was called _lilium variegatum_; but
+Noel Capperon, an apothecary at Orleans, who collected a great many
+scarce plants, gave it the name of _fritillaria_, because the red or
+reddish-brown spots of the flower form regular squares. It was first
+called _meleagris_ by Dodon�us, because the feathers of that fowl are
+variegated almost in the same manner.
+
+The roots of the magnificent crown imperial, _fritillaria imperialis_,
+were about the middle of the sixteenth century brought from Persia to
+Constantinople, and were carried thence to the Emperor's garden at
+Vienna, from which they were dispersed all over Europe. This flower was
+first known by the Persian name _tusac_, until the Italians gave it
+that of _corona imperialis_, or crown imperial. It has been imagined
+that the figure of it is to be found represented on the coins of Herod,
+and that, on this account, it has been considered as the lily so much
+celebrated in the Scripture.
+
+The Persian lily, _fritillaria Persica_, which is nearly related to
+it, was made known almost about the same time. The bulbs or roots
+were brought from Susa to Constantinople, and for that reason it was
+formerly called _lilium Susianum_.
+
+African and French marigolds, _tagetes erecta_ and _patula_, are
+indigenous in South America, and were known to botanists under the
+name of _caryophillus Indicus_, from which is derived the French
+appellation _oeillet d' Inde_. Cordus calls them, from their native
+country, _tanacetum Peruvianum_.
+
+Among the most beautiful ornaments of our gardens, is the bella-donna
+lily, _amaryllis formosissima_, the flower of which, composed of six
+petals, is of a deep red color, and in a strong light, or when the
+sun shines upon it, has an agreeable yellow lustre like gold. The
+first roots of it ever seen in Europe were procured in 1593, on board
+a ship which had returned from South America, by Simon de Tovar, a
+physician at Seville. In the year following, he sent a description of
+this flower to Clusius; and as he had at the same time transmitted
+some roots to Bernard Paludanus, and count d'Aremberg, the former
+sent a dried flower, and the latter an accurate drawing of it, to
+Clusius, who published it in 1601. One of the Robins gave, in 1608,
+a larger and more correct figure, which was afterwards copied by
+Bry, Parkinson, and Rudbeck; but a complete description, with a good
+engraving, was published in 1742, by Linn�us, who in 1737 gave to that
+genus the name by which they are known at present. Tovar received it
+from South America, where it was found by Plumier and Barrere, and at
+a later period by Thiery de Menonville. At first it was classed with
+the narcissus, and it was afterwards called _lilio-narcissus_, because
+its flower resembled that of the lily, and its roots those of the
+narcissus. It was named _flos-Jacob�us_, because some imagined that
+they discovered in it a likeness to the badge of the knights of the
+order of St. James in Spain, whose founder, in the fourteenth century,
+could not indeed have been acquainted with this beautiful amaryllis.
+
+Another species of this genus is the Guernsey lily, _amaryllis
+Sarniensis_, which in the magnificence of its flower is not inferior
+to the former. This plant was brought from Japan, where it was found
+by K�mpfer, and also by Thunberg, during his travels some years ago
+in that country. It was first cultivated in the beginning of the
+seventeenth century, in the garden of John Morin, at Paris, where it
+flowered, for the first time, on the 7th of October, 1634. It was then
+made known by Jacob Cornutus, under the name of _narcissus Japonicus
+flore rutilo_. After this it was again noticed by John Ray, an
+Englishman, in 1665, who called it the _Guernsey lily_, which name it
+still very properly bears. A ship returning from Japan was wrecked on
+the coast of Guernsey, and a number of the bulbs of this plant, which
+were on board, being cast on shore, took root in that sandy soil. As
+they soon increased, and produced beautiful flowers, they were observed
+by the inhabitants, and engaged the attention of Mr. Hatton, the
+governor's son, whose botanical knowledge is highly spoken of by Ray,
+and who sent roots of them to several of his friends who were fond of
+cultivating curious plants. Of this elegant flower Dr. Douglass gave a
+description and figure in a small treatise published in 1725, which is
+quoted by Linn�us in his Bibliotheca, but not by Haller.
+
+Of the numerous genus of the ranunculus, florists, to speak in a
+botanical sense, have obtained a thousand different kinds; for,
+according to the manner in which they are distinguished by gardeners,
+the varieties increase almost every summer.
+
+The principal part of them, however, and those most esteemed, were
+brought to us from the Levant. Some were carried from that part of the
+world so early as in the time of the crusades; but most of them have
+been introduced into Europe from Constantinople since the end of the
+sixteenth century, particularly the Persian ranunculus, the varieties
+of which, if I am not mistaken, hold at present the first rank. Clusius
+describes both the single and the full flowers as new rarities. This
+flower was in the highest repute during the time of Mahomet IV. His
+Grand Vizir, Cara Mustapha, well known by his hatred against the
+Christians and the siege of Vienna, in 1683, wishing to turn the
+Sultan's thoughts to some milder amusement than that of the chase,
+for which he had a strong passion, diverted his attention to flowers;
+and, as he remarked that the Emperor preferred the ranunculus to all
+others, he wrote to the different Pachas throughout the whole kingdom
+to send him seeds or roots of the most beautiful kinds. The Pachas of
+Candia, Cyprus, Aleppo, and Rhodes, paid most regard to this request;
+and the elegant flowers which they transmitted to court were shut up
+in the seraglio as unfortunate offerings to the voluptuousness of the
+Sultan, till some of them, by the force of money, were at length freed
+from their imprisonment. The ambassadors from the European courts,
+in particular, made it their business to procure roots of as many
+kinds as they could, which they sent to their different sovereigns.
+Marseilles, which at that period carried on the greatest trade to the
+Levant, received on this account these flowers very early; and a person
+there, of the name of Malaval is said to have contributed very much to
+disperse them all over Europe.
+
+Some of our most common flowering shrubs have been long introduced into
+the gardens: the bay-tree has been cultivated more than two centuries;
+it is mentioned by Tusser, in the list of garden plants inserted in
+his work called, "Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry," printed in
+1573. The laurel was introduced by Cole, a merchant at Hampstead, some
+years before 1629, when Parkinson published his Paradisus Terrestris,
+and at that time we had in our gardens oranges, myrtles of three sorts,
+lauristinus, cypress, phyllyrea, alaternus, arbuttus; a cactus, brought
+from Bermuda, and the passion-flower, which last had flowered here, and
+showed a remarkable peculiarity, by rising from the ground near a month
+sooner, if a seedling plant, than if it grew from roots brought from
+Virginia.
+
+
+_Crust of the Earth._
+
+    [In the preceding section the Author has noticed the
+    _superficies_ of the earth principally; as its inequalities
+    because of seas, lakes, rivers, mountains, vallies, &c. The
+    _rocky_, and _earthy_ masses and strata, which cover the
+    nucleus of our globe, are scarcely mentioned at all. Whether
+    the _central_ parts of the earth be solid, soft, or hollow, and
+    filled with gaseous matter, is not the subject of enquiry here:
+    but the _composition_ and _arrangement_ of the _solid crust_ of
+    the planet come under consideration.
+
+    As it regards the composition of the crust of the earth
+    considered principally, it consists of _metallic oxides_.
+    The bases of the different earths are well known to be
+    _metals_. The metal called _Silicon_, is the base of silex or
+    flint--_Aluminum_ is the metallic base of pure clay--_Calcium_,
+    of lime--_Magnesium_, of magnesia--_Potasium_, of potash, &c.
+    Iron, also, enters largely into the composition; and soda,
+    whose metallic base is _sodium_, forms a considerable portion.
+
+    These bases, at their creation, existed in an _uncombined_
+    state, as did all the elementary substances. When they entered
+    into combination with _oxygen_ they became _earths_, which are
+    simple metallic oxides, which readily combine with the _acids_,
+    in which combination they are generally seen, though not
+    always, at the earth's surface; as carbonate of lime, or common
+    limestone; the composition of which is _calcium_, _oxygen_, and
+    _carbonic acid_.
+
+    Rocks of the _silicious_ family are not considered _earthy
+    salts_, though, occasionally, they may contain a small per
+    cent. of acid. They are called _earthy compounds_. _Granite_
+    is an instance; composed of _feldspar_, _quartz_, and _mica_.
+    Gneiss, and mica slate are of similar composition, though in
+    different proportions, and under different arrangements.
+
+    It will readily occur to the reader that there are some
+    other earths, and other substances also, as the acids, and
+    gases, which enter into the composition of the earth's crust,
+    though in small proportions, and, therefore, are not considered
+    _principal_ ingredients, and hence not noticed in this general
+    sketch.
+
+    The rocky, or stony substances, composed of the above
+    elements, under the influence of chemical affinities, and
+    other principles, are found in _crystalline_, _stratified_,
+    _amorphous_, and _aggregate masses_. The _position_,
+    _structure_, and _contents_ of these masses will develope the
+    _natural history of the solid crust of our Earth_.
+
+    In order to facilitate this development, the rocks have
+    been divided, according to their age into,
+
+    1. _Primitive Rocks._ These were deposited _first_, as is
+    evident from their position, being the lowest of all the rocks.
+    Their name indicates their relative age.
+
+    2. _Transition Rocks._ These rocks are deposited
+    immediately above the primitive, of course subsequently to
+    them. They are called _transition_ rocks, because they were
+    deposited as the earth was _passing_ from an uninhabitable to a
+    habitable state, as is evident from the fact that _they contain
+    the first traces of organized being imbedded in them_.
+
+    3. _Secondary Rocks._ These are deposited next in
+    succession to the transition rocks, and mark a _third_ grand
+    geological epoch, by being almost altogether a _mechanical_
+    deposition, and lie _horizontally_ when _in situ_, and contain
+    an increase of organic remains, both in quantity and variety.
+
+    4. _Tertiary Rocks._ These derive their name from their
+    succession to the secondary, and of course mark the _fourth_
+    geological epoch in the history of the arrangement of the
+    earth's crust, which completed its redemption from the abyss of
+    waters, and fitted it for the habitation of man.
+
+    This division of the rocks designates the _order of time_
+    in which they were successively deposited, as is evident from
+    their position.
+
+    Considering these rocks _in situ_, they may be reckoned
+    _general formations_, extended all around the globe in
+    concentric circles, as the coats of an onion around its centre,
+    in the order above stated, beginning with the primitive rocks.
+
+    It is, however, well known that _fractures_ and
+    _dislocations_ prevail to a great extent, the result of
+    violence subsequently to the deposition of these rocks,
+    removing large portions of them _out of place_. But this
+    circumstance need not interrupt the grand _natural_ order of
+    the construction of the earth's crust.
+
+    There is also a class of stony substances which follow no
+    general laws, either in regard to _position_, _form_, or _age_.
+    These are volcanic and igneous productions of every kind; as
+    basalt, lava, &c. These shall be mentioned subsequently.
+
+    In the above remarks we have an _outline_ of the structure
+    of the crust of the earth; but in order to have a more
+    satisfactory development, the principal and distinctive
+    features of the leading rock formations must be stated in order.
+
+
+    _Primitive Rocks._
+
+    1. _This class occupies the lowest position as a class_,
+    yet the individual rocks of this class have a general order of
+    position among themselves. Granite is lowest; then Gneiss--Mica
+    Slate--Clay Slate--Primitive Limestone--Porphyry--Sienite--and
+    Greenstone.
+
+    _These rocks are sometimes observed alternating with each
+    other, and sometimes passing into each other._ But these
+    circumstances do not effect the general order. When the
+    formations are _undisturbed_, in penetrating them we should
+    come to granite last; and it is universally the lowest of all
+    observed rock formations.
+
+    2. _This class is generally, indeed we may say,
+    universally, crystalline in its structure._ Each integrant
+    particle is not a _perfect crystal_; but throughout the mass
+    there is a partial crystallization, such as would be the result
+    of an effort to crystallize perfectly, under a great pressure;
+    in which case the particles would mutually interfere with each
+    other.
+
+    The very fact of this crystallization implies _first_; a
+    prevailing state of _unagitated solution_ of the crystallizing
+    materials: _secondly_: that their crystallization was the
+    effect of _chemical action_.
+
+    3. _The primitive rocks contain no fragments, either
+    angular, or rounded by attrition, imbedded in them_; simply
+    because no rocks preceded them, and of course could not be
+    broken up. It is, however, to be carefully observed, that
+    perfect crystals of different kinds are found imbedded in
+    primitive rocks. When they prevail to a great extent they
+    constitute _porphyritic rocks_. It is evident that these
+    crystals must have been formed before the consolidation of the
+    including rock, and must have been suspended in the solution
+    which formed the rock upon crystallization.
+
+    4. _The primitive rocks contain no traces of organized
+    bodies._ This is an universal characteristic, and proves
+    incontestibly that they were formed _previous to the existence
+    of organized beings_.
+
+    5. _The primitive rocks are usually inclined at a high
+    angle to the horizon, and frequently are vertical._ This seems
+    to be the result of crystallization, as mechanical deposition
+    would place them _horizontally_, having the general bearing of
+    the curve of the earth.
+
+    6. The principal primitive rocks are granite, gneiss, and
+    mica slate.
+
+    They are composed of the same materials, in different
+    proportions; viz; feldspar, quartz, and mica. These three
+    minerals constitute granite, when feldspar is the _base_,
+    and the quartz is embedded in a crystalline state, and the
+    mica interspersed generally. They constitute gneiss, when the
+    feldspar _decreases_, and the mica _increases_, and is arranged
+    in layers. They compose mica slate, when the feldspar almost
+    _disappears_, and the mica and quartz are intimately united.
+
+    7. Though the primitive rocks occupy the lowest position
+    _in situ_, yet they sometimes form, not only the _summits_ of
+    lofty mountains, but sometimes the _mountain mass_ itself, and
+    appear at the surface. In these cases it is evident that they
+    have been _upheaved_ by a force acting beneath, and forcing
+    them through the superincumbent rocks, which were rent, and
+    glided down the sides of the rising mass of primitive rocks,
+    leaving them bare and visible at the summit. In this case the
+    rocks which were uppermost before the mountain mass began
+    to rise, would be found at the _foot_ of the mountain; and
+    the rocks which were next to the uppermost, would be found
+    immediately above them, reclining on the side of the mountain;
+    and thus _ascending through the ages of the rocks to the summit
+    of the mountain, where we find the primitive rock formations
+    constituting its apex_.
+
+    This phenomena of primitive rocks forming the apices of
+    mountains may be explained differently. The primitive rocks,
+    and other classes in succession, _may have been deposited in
+    mountain masses_, and the upper rocks being _softer_ and more
+    _exposed_, have yielded to the ravages of the elements, and
+    to the demolishing force of the deluge, and thus laid the
+    primitive rocks bare. The _first_ seems to be the most probable
+    supposition.
+
+    8. It is beyond a doubt, that in some instances, an
+    upheaving force has operated, and elevated the granitic summits
+    of mountains; and so powerful was the upheaving force that the
+    blocks of granite have broke at the apex of the elevation, and
+    some of them hang over perpendicularly in awful grandeur; and
+    others have rolled down the sides far into the plains below.
+
+    This theory of the formations of some of the principal
+    mountains would be firmly established in every mind, if every
+    one could have an opportunity of inspecting them without
+    prejudice. The primitive rocks would be seen shooting up from
+    the centre of the mountain, into lofty pyramidal elevations,
+    resembling, sometimes, lofty spires, or cupolas; and sometimes
+    the summit is rounded off as a dome. The rocks are in a
+    _verticle_ position, which proves they could not have been
+    _deposited there_ from a state of quiet repose.
+
+    Sometimes two summits project from the same common base,
+    having an intervening valley or depression between them. In
+    this case, the rocks which lay uppermost before the mass was
+    upheaved, upon upheaving, broke and glided down the sides, on
+    which they depend in magnificent drapery; but the portion of
+    them which was situated _between_ the uprising summits, not
+    being able to escape, is found in the valley which is formed
+    between the peaks.
+
+    In some instances, as the mass is elevating itself it bears
+    up upon it a large mass of the over-laying rock, which forms
+    the apex of the mountain, crowning it as a stately castle
+    crowns the summit of the hill on which it is built. In this
+    case the crowning mass is entirely different, and perfectly
+    distinct from the subjacent materials. _For some further
+    remarks on the structure, and formation of mountains, and
+    mountain masses, and the deluge, see Theory of the Earth, end
+    of Sect. 2, chap. iv._
+
+    9. As there was a rapid and irresistible chemical action,
+    at a very high temperature, going on during this first great
+    geological period, and the whole globe in almost omnipotent
+    fermentation, there is no difficulty in accounting for the
+    irregularities, contortions, dislocations and fractures which
+    we observe in the earth. This whole process was anterior to the
+    existence of organized being.
+
+
+    _Transition Rocks._
+
+    1. _This class was deposited subsequently to the primitive
+    rocks, and after they had consolidated._ This is evident
+    from the fact that, in their natural order, they _overlay_
+    the primitive, which could not be the case, unless they were
+    deposited subsequently, any more than the roof of the house
+    could be put on before the foundation was laid.
+
+    2. _Their structure is evidently the result both of
+    chemical action, and mechanical deposition._ These principles
+    appear to have acted sometimes conjointly; and at other times
+    to have alternated. Hence the crystallization is more imperfect
+    than in the primitive, and occasionally seems to disappear.
+
+    3. _From the complex action under which they were
+    deposited, they are generally, neither verticle nor horizontal,
+    but inclined about between these two positions._
+
+    4. _They were deposited as the primitive chaotic ocean
+    was subsiding, and the elevations of the new-born earth had
+    recently emerged._ Hence they are found next to the summits of
+    the primitive mountains, _on their flanks_.
+
+    5. _The transition rocks contain some fragments of all the
+    primitive class._ This would be the natural consequence of the
+    summits of primitive rock formations being exposed to the fury
+    of the elements; which would rend portions of them, and thus
+    deposit the fragments mechanically in the floods subsiding
+    below on the flanks of the mountains.
+
+    6. _In these rocks we meet with the first traces of
+    organized being._ (SILLIMAN.) This fact is irresistible proof
+    that these rocks were deposited _subsequently_ to the existence
+    of the enclosed remains. The probability is, that the animals
+    and vegetables found in transition rocks, were created at the
+    _commencement_ of the transition period, and their remains
+    deposited as the rocks were successively deposited.
+
+    It is remarkable that these organized beings belonged to
+    genera now extinct. They were of an inferior class, having
+    neither the delicacy, complexity, or sensibility of those which
+    we now see. They were crude, and gross, corresponding to the
+    condition of the earth at the time of their existence.
+
+    It is also evident that they lived, and died, and were
+    inhumed in the same places; as they present, generally, no
+    marks of violence, and their most delicate parts are well
+    preserved.
+
+    These organic remains occupy vast districts of country, and
+    constitute, principally, large masses of marbles, sometimes
+    many hundreds of feet in the interior of mountains. They are
+    identified with the rock, and frequently impart to it its
+    beauty.
+
+    7. The reader will readily perceive that this class of
+    rocks marks the _commencement_ of _sensitive_ existence. And it
+    would seem, from an examination of fossil remains generally,
+    that the creation of animals and vegetables was _progressive_,
+    produced with structures and functions adapted to the condition
+    of the globe, at the time of their creation.
+
+
+    _Secondary Rocks._
+
+    1. _These rocks are so called, because they are the second
+    great deposit, after the grand foundation of the primitive
+    rocks were laid._ Of course they point out the third great
+    geological period.
+
+    2. _Their position is horizontal, corresponding to the
+    general curve of the earth._ This regards their natural
+    position. They are found, under particular circumstances,
+    inclined to the horizon. They occupy a lower position on the
+    sides of mountains, resting on the transition class, which is
+    immediately subjacent _in natural order_.
+
+    3. _This class is much less chemical, indeed very little
+    so, in its structure._ It is the result of mechanical
+    deposition, after the chemical action had nearly ceased in the
+    great primitive and retiring abyss.
+
+    4. _These rocks abound more in fragments of other rocks,
+    and in the remains of organized beings, than the preceding
+    class._ This would be natural, as a greater extent of the
+    earth's surface would be exposed to the elements, and thus the
+    destruction would be greater: and as the condition of the earth
+    was better for sustaining sensitive beings, these would of
+    course be more abundant both in _kind_ and _number_.
+
+    It is also well ascertained, from the fossil remains found
+    in this class of rocks, that during their deposition, there
+    existed many species of animals and plants which do not now
+    exist: that many of the animals were _monsters_ of incredible
+    size and voracity; of such hugeness, grossness, and ferocity as
+    were suitable to the then prevailing condition of the earth.
+
+    The researches of the last ten or fifteen years, in
+    England, have brought to light the skeletons of animals,
+    approaching the _lizard genus_, from _sixty to seventy feet
+    long_!! They are abundant in England, and occasionally found
+    on the continent. Who can say, but that the other genera
+    of animals then existing, were also as much more vast, and
+    misshapen than their present existing types? A single glance
+    at the _geological reminiscences_ of this ancient period must
+    convince any observer, that the vegetable, and specially the
+    animal genera then existing were really astonishing both in
+    _size_, _shape_, and _nature_.
+
+    It becomes a question of some interest, whether these huge
+    animals ceased to exist, having found their graves in this
+    secondary class of rocks, before the existence of man?
+
+    There are many reasons which induce a supposition they did
+    cease to exist. Man could scarcely have been safe in the land
+    of these wonderful creatures. Moreover, it is probable their
+    constitutions were adapted to the condition of the world at
+    this period, which we suppose to have been more gross in its
+    air, and water, and more ardent in its climate; as it had not
+    yet settled, and dried; and the waters had not yet sufficiently
+    subsided, to render the earth the abode of the more delicate
+    land-animals, birds, and specially man. It is probable the
+    earth was marshy, with numerous inland lakes, to a considerable
+    extent; the waters still somewhat turbid; the air gross and
+    moist; and the temperature still very high. Such a state of the
+    planet would suit the constitutions of such monsters as the
+    _ichthyosaurus_, and _plesiosaurus_, which would perish as the
+    condition of the globe became more pure, and its temperature
+    reduced.
+
+
+    _Tertiary Rocks._
+
+    1. _These rocks were deposited as the earth was actually,
+    and finally redeemed from water, and became fit for the abode
+    of the more delicate and gentle land-animals and birds._ Hence,
+    it is very rare, if ever, the fossil remains of animals which
+    live wholly on land, are found below this class of rocks. But
+    man's companion animals are found, as elephants, deer, horse,
+    sheep, &c.
+
+    2. This class is not so extensively spread as the preceding
+    classes. It includes the _diluvial_ and _alluvial_ formations,
+    and indicate an alternation of fresh and sea waters in its
+    deposition. This class covers the low countries as they slope
+    from primitive districts towards the sea. Such grand vallies
+    are called _diluvial_, because deposited chiefly by the great
+    primitive ocean, as it retired through its last stages to
+    its resting beds. The deposites at the mouths of rivers, or
+    any other deposites from causes now in operation, are called
+    _alluvial_.
+
+    3. Some of the principal members of this class are: 1.
+    Argillaceous, and sandy depositions from the sea. 2. Marl,
+    and gypsum, from fresh water. 3. Sand, and sandstone, with or
+    without shells, from sea water. 4. Limestone, and silicious
+    millstone grit, from fresh water.
+
+
+    _Conclusion._
+
+    From what has been said above we may clearly deduce the
+    following particulars.
+
+    1. The crust of the earth is constructed of four great
+    general classes of rocks: the _primitive_ at the foundation;
+    the _transition_, laying immediately over the primitive; the
+    _secondary_ immediately above these; and the _tertiary_ at the
+    surface. In this arrangement we consider the rocks in their
+    natural position.
+
+    2. The _position_, _structure_, and _organic remains_ of
+    these classes, clearly point out a grand geological epoch,
+    corresponding to the time of the deposition of each class,
+    and thus indicate their relative ages. They indicate also the
+    successive conditions of the globe as it passed from its gross
+    chaotic state, to a state suitable for the habitation of man,
+    and his companion animals.
+
+    3. _The natural history of the_ PRIMITIVE WORLD, _as
+    deduced from_ GEOLOGICAL FACTS, CORRESPONDS _expressly in the_
+    ORDER _and_ NATURE OF THE EVENTS, WITH THE ACCOUNT GIVEN BY
+    MOSES.
+
+    4. The gradual retiring of the primitive chaotic ocean,
+    would give sufficient time for the production of those immense
+    beds of marine animals which are found in the most solid and
+    elevated mountains. During the prevalence of the sea, these
+    beds would form at the bottom, and when it retired they would
+    consolidate, with the mineral deposites, into rocks.
+
+    In this case the process is supposed to go on in a _quiet_
+    ocean, peaceably retiring, and leaving the deposition in
+    layers. But we must not suppose the waters were always still,
+    and peacefully retiring. If so, there could not have been
+    such distinct and different deposites, in which different
+    substances sometimes alternate. Moreover, in this case there
+    would have been but one deposition, which would have been
+    regular and continuous, changing its character simply by almost
+    imperceptible degrees, and extending all round the globe, as
+    the globe was at first wholly immersed in water. But this is
+    not the case. There is every reason to believe there were
+    violent agitations, earthquakes, volcanos, tempests, deluges,
+    &c, _occasionally_, during the subsidence of the primitive
+    waters. Hence the _dislocations_, _contortions_, _protrusions
+    of lower rocks through upper ones_, and the _upheaving
+    of the bottom of the seas in various places into ridges,
+    and mountains_, producing a tremendous _deflux of waters_
+    frequently, which would wash out channels and vallies, and
+    carry off fragments of rocks, &c, into the waters below.
+
+    Hence it is evident that the elevations on the earth's
+    surface have been _partly_ caused by subterranean force
+    upheaving them; and _partly_ by currents of water wearing away
+    channels, defiles, vallies, &c.
+
+    The natural result of upheaving, _in mass_, the bed of
+    the ocean, would be to protrude a body in which were embedded
+    the marine exuvi� throughout the whole depth of the marine
+    deposites. Hence mountain masses are sometimes composed of
+    limestone, in which are found immense quantities of sea
+    shells, throughout the mass, and entering intimately into the
+    composition of the rock. This, without doubt, is the true
+    origin of these marine mountain remains.
+
+    Some have been disposed to attribute them to the _deluge_
+    in the days of Noah; but this is impossible for two reasons.
+    1. The deluge did not continue a sufficient length of time to
+    allow these animals to be produced in such quantities, or to
+    bury them so deeply in the earth. 2. The _rising_ waters could
+    not have carried them to their present places; because, in
+    that case they would be found at the _surface_ of the earth, or
+    near it _exclusively_; whereas they are found buried thousands
+    of feet in mountains, and embedded in solid rocks. They could
+    not have been _transported_ by the waters, because they would
+    have suffered violence, and been fractured, and compressed;
+    which is not generally the case. They are found perfectly
+    preserved, though of such delicate structure as would seem
+    to have been destroyed by the least violence. Hence it is
+    evident they are buried where they lived and died in perfect
+    tranquillity.
+
+    It is true, there are instances in which the _position_ and
+    _nature_ of the animals clearly prove that they were inhumed
+    by some _sudden_ catastrophe. For instance: when we see the
+    fossil remains of delicate, and very active fish so placed as
+    to indicate they were _caught_, we are convinced they perished
+    _suddenly_. But this case is always _local_, and may have been
+    produced by an earthquake, or volcanic action.
+
+    That the primitive chaotic ocean occupied the earth a
+    long time, _generally_ in a state of tranquillity, though
+    occasionally, strongly agitated, and rising into overwhelming
+    deluges and gradually retired, is evident also, from the fact,
+    that the most delicate _plants_, _leaves_, and _flowers_ are
+    found inhumed, as the marine animals above, _in a state of
+    perfect preservation_.
+
+    All the above phenomena took place prior to the creation of
+    man.
+
+
+    _Appendix._
+
+    There is another class of rocky substances which obey no
+    settled laws, and, therefore, are noticed here in an appendix:
+    _They are rocks and substances of evident igneous origin_: as
+    _basalt_, _obsidium_, _lavas of all textures_, and _trap_ rocks
+    _frequently_, perhaps generally. These have one common origin:
+    they are also of similar composition generally; and in this
+    approach the composition of primitive rocks. They have been
+    evidently _ejected from the bowels of the earth in a melted
+    state_. They are found in almost all countries; and in some
+    cases form mountains, and cover the surfaces of large districts
+    to an astonishing depth: as in the north of Ireland, more than
+    500 feet thick, and over an area of 800 square miles. (URE.)
+
+    Being _protruded_ from beneath in a melted state they are
+    found injected through the superincumbent rocks in _shafts_ or
+    _veins_ of various sizes, from several inches to several feet.
+    Sometimes being unable to rend the solid rocks above they are
+    injected _between their strata_. They are generally somewhat
+    crystalline in structure, because deposited on the same
+    principles as granite, when undisturbed. From their _position_,
+    _superficial extent_, and _quantity_, we infer they are the
+    products of all ages, and of immense igneous action, seated at
+    an unknown distance beneath the surface of the earth. Hence we
+    may have some idea of the vast amount of igneous action which
+    operated in the early ages of our planet. It must have been
+    violently shaken from the centre to the surface.]
+
+We may well ask, in the language of a German philosopher, Who can
+enumerate all the blessings which the vegetable kingdom affords? It
+is at least manifest that all the arrangements of Providence, in this
+respect, have for their grand object the advantage of the creatures.
+God has provided for the wants of each individual. He has assigned
+to each that plant, which is most proper for its nourishment and
+support. There is not a plant on the earth, but what has its particular
+destination and use. What sentiments of veneration and gratitude
+should we feel, at the sight of lawns, gardens, fields, and meadows!
+Here his beneficent care has collected all that is necessary for the
+comfort and preservation of the inhabitants of the earth. Here, oh
+God! thou openest thy hand, and satisfiest the desire of every living
+creature! Here every herb, ear of corn, flower, and tree, proclaims thy
+goodness! How closely might our modern geologists walk with God, if,
+like a Boyle, and a Ray, every new discovery led them to an increasing
+admiration of Divine wisdom and omnipotent power![103] for
+
+            "Philosophy, baptiz'd
+    In the pure fountain of eternal love,
+    Has eyes indeed; and viewing all she sees
+    As meant to indicate a God to man,
+    Gives him his praise, and forfeits not her own."
+
+To meet God in the immensity of his works, and trace him in the
+operations of his hand, gives expansion to intellect, opens new sources
+of enjoyment, and greatly exalts the character of man. The sacred
+writers conduct us to the _forest_, and, after selecting particular
+trees, press on our attention their emblematical uses.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+_Section_ III.--MINERALS.
+
+    Gold -- Silver -- Platina -- Mercury -- Copper -- Iron
+    -- Tin -- Lead -- Nickel -- Zinc -- Palladium -- Bismuth --
+    Antimony -- Tellurium -- Arsenic -- Cobalt -- Manganese --
+    Tungsten -- Molybdenum -- Uranium -- Titanium -- Chromium --
+    Columbium or Tantalium -- Cerium -- Oxmium -- Rodium -- Iridium
+    -- Religious Improvement.
+
+Some parts of the earth's surface are barren and unfruitful, yielding
+no pleasant herb for cattle, nor vegetable for the service of man.
+But the bowels of the earth in such places are commonly stored with
+rich mines, and useful minerals. Without these what could we do in
+the field, the house, the market, or crossing the seas? Surely, the
+infinitely wise Architect has not made any thing in vain! It is
+deserving of notice, says Mr. Parkes, that if minerals had been placed
+on the _surface_ of the globe, they would have occupied the greatest
+part of the earth, and prevented its cultivation. Their being deposited
+_below_, is a proof of management and design worthy of that Being who
+could furnish so great a variety of this class of bodies.
+
+There are twenty-seven distinct metals, which possess properties very
+different and distinct from each other. For a knowledge of most of
+these, we are indebted to the more perfect modes of analysis, which
+modern chemistry has afforded. The ancients were acquainted with only
+seven. The properties of these were tolerably well known to the early
+chemists, who acquired their knowledge from the alchemists. Metals
+are divided into two classes, by modern chemists. The one contains
+the malleable, and the other the brittle metals. This last class is
+sometimes subdivided into those which are easily, and those which are
+difficultly fused. The malleable metals are eleven, namely, Gold,
+Silver, Platina, Mercury, Copper, Iron, Tin, Lead, Nickel, Zinc,
+and Palladium. The brittle metals are Bismuth, Antimony, Tellurium,
+Arsenic, Cobalt, Manganese, Tungsten, Molybdenum, Uranium, Titanium,
+Chromium, Columbium or Tantalium, Cerium, Oxmium, Rodium, and Iridium.
+
+_Gold_ is the heaviest of all metals excepting platina; it is neither
+very elastic nor hard; but so malleable and ductile, that it may be
+drawn into very fine wire, or beaten into leaves so thin as to be
+carried away by the slightest wind. Dr. Black has calculated, that it
+would take fourteen millions of films of gold, such as is on some fine
+gilt wire, to make the thickness of one inch: whereas fourteen million
+leaves of common printing paper make near three quarters of a mile.
+According to Fourcroy, the ductility of gold is such, that one ounce
+of it is sufficient to gild a silver wire more than thirteen hundred
+miles long. Such is the tenacity of gold, that a wire 1-16th of an inch
+in diameter will support a weight of 500 pounds without breaking. Gold
+may be known from all other metals by its bright yellow color, and its
+weight. Its specific gravity is 19.3; when heavier, it must be combined
+with platina; when lighter, and of a deep yellow color, it is alloyed
+with copper; and if of a pale color, with silver.
+
+Arabia had formerly its gold mines. The gold of Ophir, so often
+mentioned in Scripture, must be that which was procured in Arabia,
+on the coast of the Red Sea. We are assured by Sanchoniathon, and by
+Herodotus, quoted by Eusebius, that the Phoenicians carried on a
+considerable traffic in gold, even before the days of Job, who thus
+speaks of it, "Then shall thou lay up gold as dust, and the gold of
+Ophir as stones of the brooks." Gold is found in Peru, as well as in
+several other parts of the world. It generally occurs in a metallic
+state, and most commonly in the form of grains. It frequently is
+met with in the ores of other metals, but is chiefly found in the
+warmer regions of the earth. It abounds in the sands of many African
+rivers, in South America, and in India. Several rivers in France
+contain gold in their sands. It has also been discovered in Hungary,
+Sweden, Norway and Ireland. Near Pamplona, in South America, single
+laborers have collected upwards of �200 worth of wash-gold in a day.
+In the province of Sonora, the Spaniards discovered a plain, fourteen
+leagues in extent, in which they found wash-gold at the depth of only
+16 inches; the grains were of such a size that some of them weighed
+72 ounces, and in such quantities, that in a short time, with a few
+laborers, they collected 1,000 marks, (equal in value to �31,219
+10_s._ sterling,) even without taking time to wash the earth which
+had been dug. They found one grain which weighed 132 ounces; this is
+deposited in the royal cabinet at Madrid, and is worth �500.[104] The
+native gold found in Ireland was in grains, from the smallest size to
+upwards of two ounces. Only two grains were found of greater weight,
+one of which weighed 5, and the other 22 ounces.[105] Gold mines were
+formerly worked in Scotland; and indeed now, grains of this metal are
+often found in brooks after a great flood. It has been said, that at
+the nuptials of James V, covered dishes filled with coins of _Scotch
+gold_ were presented to the guests by way of dessert. Standard gold
+of Great Britain is twenty-two parts pure gold, and two parts copper;
+it is therefore called gold of "twenty-two carots fine." Some have
+thought that Moses made use of sulphuret of potass to render the calf
+of gold adored by the Israelites soluble in water. Stahl wrote a long
+dissertation to prove that this was the case.
+
+_Silver_ is a heavy, sonorous, brilliant, white metal; exceedingly
+ductile, and of great malleability and tenacity. It possesses these
+latter properties in so great a decree, that it may be beaten into
+leaves much thinner than any paper, or drawn into wire as fine as a
+hair without breaking. Fifty square inches of silver leaf weigh not
+more than a grain. The specific gravity of silver is 10.500. When
+perfectly pure, it is a very soft metal. To know when it is pure, heat
+it in a common fire, or in the flame of a candle: if it be alloyed,
+it will become tarnished; but if it be pure, it will remain perfectly
+white. Our standard silver is formed with fifteen parts pure silver,
+and one part copper.
+
+Silver is found in various parts of the world in a metallic state; also
+in the states of a sulphuret, a salt, and an oxide. Native silver is
+found chiefly in the mines of Potosi. Sulphuret of silver occurs in the
+silver mines of Germany, Hungary, Saxony and Siberia. Oxides of silver
+are also common in some of the silver mines in Germany. Silver has
+lately been found in a copper-mine in Cornwall.[106] Most of our lead
+mines also afford it, particularly some in Scotland. In the county of
+Antrim, in Ireland, there is a mine so rich, that every thirty pounds
+of lead ore is said to produce one pound of silver. By the silver which
+was produced from the lead mines in Cardiganshire, Sir Hugh Middleton
+is said to have cleared two thousand pounds a month, and that this
+enabled him to undertake the great work of bringing the New River from
+Ware to London.
+
+Silver was used in commerce eleven hundred years before the foundation
+of Rome. Moses, says, "And Abraham weighed to Ephron the silver, which
+he had named in the audience of the sons of Heth, four hundred shekels
+of silver, current money with the merchant." At this period silver was
+not coined, but being only in bars, or ingots, in commerce was always
+weighed. In the museum of the Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburgh,
+is a piece of _native_ silver from China of such firmness, that
+coins have been struck from it without its having passed through the
+crucible.[107]
+
+_Platina_, the heaviest of all metals, is nearly as white as silver,
+and difficultly fusible, though by great labor may be rendered
+malleable, so as to be wrought into utensils like other metals. It
+will resist the strongest heat of our fires without melting, and, like
+iron, is capable of being welded when properly heated. It is found in
+grains, in a metallic state, at St. Domingo: and also at Santa Fe, in
+Peru, in the language of whose inhabitants it means _little silver_. It
+has recently been discovered in an ore of silver found in Estremadura,
+existing in its metallic form. This metal was first introduced into
+England by Charles Wood, who brought it from Jamaica in the year 1741.
+It has been drawn into wire less than the two thousandth part of an
+inch in diameter. The specific gravity of hammered platina is 23.66,
+which is more than double that of lead.
+
+_Mercury_, in the temperature of our atmosphere, is a fluid metal,
+having the appearance of melted silver: in this state it is neither
+ductile nor malleable; very volatile when heated; extremely divisible;
+and is the heaviest of all metals except platina and gold. We see it
+always in a fluid state, because it is so fusible that a small portion
+of caloric will keep it in a state of fluidity; but when submitted
+to a sufficient degree of cold, is similar to other metals, and may
+be beaten into plates. It has been determined, that at 39 degrees
+below zero of Fahrenheit's thermometer is the point at which the
+congelation of mercury takes place. In the winter of 1799, Mr. Pepys
+froze 56 pounds of it into a solid and malleable mass. At Hudson's Bay,
+frozen mercury has lately been reduced to sheets as thin as paper, by
+beating it upon an anvil that had previously been reduced to the same
+temperature. It is a substance so volatile that it may be distilled
+like water; and is sometimes purified in this way from mixture with
+other metals, being often adulterated with lead and bismuth. It is also
+so elastic when in a state of vapor, that it is capable of bursting the
+strongest vessels. According to Mr. Biddle, its specific gravity at 47
+degrees above zero is 13.545; but when frozen into a solid at 40 below
+zero, 15.612.
+
+This metal is brought to Europe from the East Indies and Peru; but is
+found in greater abundance at Almaden in Spain, where it is extracted
+from the ore by distillation. The quicksilver mine of Guanca Velica,
+in Peru, is 170 fathoms in circumference, and 480 deep. In this
+profound abyss are streets, squares, and a chapel where religious
+mysteries on all festival occasions are celebrated. Millions of
+flambeaux are continually burning to enlighten this subterranean abode.
+This mine generally affects those who work in it with convulsions.
+Notwithstanding this, the unfortunate victims of an insatiable avarice
+are crowded all together, and plunged _naked_ into this abyss. Tyranny
+has invented this refinement in cruelty, to render it impossible for
+any thing to escape its restless vigilance.
+
+    "Thus in the dark Peruvian mine confin'd,
+    Lost to the cheerful commerce of mankind,
+    The groaning captive wastes his life away,
+    For ever exil'd from the realms of day;
+    While, all forlorn and sad, he pines in vain
+    For scenes he never shall possess again."
+
+Mercury is raised in such abundance in Spain, that in the year 1717
+there remained above 1,200 tons of it in the magazines at Almaden,
+after the necessary quantity had been exported to Peru for the use of
+the silver mines there. The quicksilver mines of Idria, a town in the
+circle of Lower Austria, have been wrought constantly for 300 years,
+and are thought on the average to yield above 100 tons of quicksilver
+annually. Mercury is found also in Hungary and China; it occurs most
+commonly in argillaceous schistus, lime-stones, and sand-stones. It
+is likewise found in Sweden, amalgamated with silver, and frequently
+combined with sulphur. Running mercury is seen in globules, in some
+earths and stones in America, and is collected from the clefts of
+rocks. Cinnabar, or sulphuret of mercury, is also generally found in
+those countries which produce the fluid metal.[108]
+
+_Copper_ is of a red color, very sonorous and elastic, and the most
+ductile of all metals, except gold. A wire 1-10th of an inch will
+support near 300 pounds. Its specific gravity is 8.66. It will not
+burn so easily as iron; which is evident from its not striking fire by
+collision. Copper-mines have been worked in China, Japan, Sumatra, and
+in the north of Africa. Native copper is generally found in Siberia,
+Sweden, Hungary, and some parts of France. Copper is found in several
+parts of England and Wales, particularly in Cornwall, and the Isles of
+Man and Anglesea. The copper pyrites found in Cornwall are _sulphuret_
+of copper. Anglesea formerly yielded more than twenty thousand tons
+of copper annually: the vein of metal was originally more than seventy
+feet thick. Copper mines have not been worked in England above 160
+years. Before that period, whenever the workmen met with copper ore in
+the tin mines of Cornwall, they threw it aside as useless, no English
+miner at that time knowing how to reduce it to a metallic state. To
+chemical science, therefore, we are indebted for such an ample supply
+of this valuable metal. It is asserted, that a large copper mine has
+been worked for some time in the state of New-Jersey in America, and
+that the ore raised there is brought to this country to be smelted.
+Native oxides of copper are found in Cornwall and in South America.
+Carbonate of copper occurs as a natural production in two varieties,
+called _malachite_ and _mountain green_. Sulphate of copper, of a very
+rich quality, is also found in the state of Connecticut. The stream
+in its course destroys vegetation; and where it settles in places
+near the spring, large lumps of metallic salt are collected. Bishop
+Watson relates, that the waters which issue from the copper mines in
+the county of Wicklow, in Ireland, are so impregnated with sulphate of
+copper, that one of the workmen having accidentally left a shovel in
+this water, found it some weeks after so incrusted with copper, that
+he imagined it was changed into copper. The proprietors of the mines,
+in pursuance of this hint, made proper receptacles for the water,
+and now find these streams of as much interest to them as the mines.
+When miners wish to know whether an ore contains copper, they drop
+a little nitric acid upon it; after a short time they dip a feather
+into the acid, and then wipe it over the polished blade of a knife;
+and if there be the smallest quantity of copper in it, the copper will
+be precipitated on the knife.[109] A mass of _native_ copper has been
+found in a valley in the Brazils, containing 2,666 pounds weight. The
+description of it in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
+Lisbon is said to be very interesting, as the largest specimen ever
+found before this weighs only ten pounds. In the museum of the Academy
+of Sciences at St. Petersburgh, is a piece of native malleable copper
+of extraordinary magnitude, found on the copper island lying to the
+east of Kamschatka.[110] The Romans were acquainted with this metal;
+for the only money used by that people, till the 485th year of their
+city, was made of it, when silver began to be coined. In Sweden, houses
+are covered with copper.[111]
+
+_Iron_ is of a livid blueish color, and one of the hardest and most
+elastic of all metals. When dissolved, it has a nauseous styptic taste,
+and being strongly rubbed emits a peculiar smell. It is attracted by
+the magnet, and has the property of becoming itself magnetic. It is
+fused with great difficulty, but gives fire by collision with flint. An
+iron wire only one-tenth of an inch in diameter, will carry a weight of
+450 pounds without breaking; and a wire of tempered steel, of the same
+size, will carry one of about 900 pounds. Iron becomes softer by heat,
+and has capability of being welded to another piece of the same metal
+so as to form one entire mass; and this may be done without melting
+either of the pieces. No other metal, except platina, possesses this
+singular properly, which renders it most suitable for every common
+purpose. Its specific gravity varies from 7.6 to 7.8.
+
+This valuable metal is plentifully diffused throughout nature,
+pervading almost every thing, so as to be detected even in plants and
+animal fluids, and is the chief cause of color in earths and stones.
+It is found in large masses, and in various states, in the bowels of
+the earth. In the museum of the Academy of Sciences at Petersburgh is a
+mass of native iron twelve hundred pounds weight. In the northern parts
+of the world whole mountains are formed of iron ore, and many of these
+ores are magnetic. Of the English ores, the common Lancashire hematite
+produces the best iron. This metal is found in solution in many natural
+springs, and gives the character to all our chalybeate waters: besides
+which, there are some springs which contain iron in combination with
+sulphuric acid. These are called vitriolated waters. There are several
+in this land; but those at Chadwell near London, and at Swansea in
+Glamorganshire, are probably the most important.
+
+As this metal possesses so many properties, exists in so many different
+states, and is capable of being applied to such a variety of excellent
+purposes, it is certainly the most useful of all the products of the
+mineral kingdom. It was used in the time of Moses, in whose writings
+Canaan is mentioned as "a land whose stones were iron." The Greeks
+understood the method of tempering it. Homer, in the ninth book of his
+Odyssey, describes the fire-brand driven into the eye of Polyphemus,
+as hissing like hot iron immersed in water. The advantages which we
+derive from the magnetic property of iron are incalculable. To this
+we are indebted for the _mariner's compass_, by which man is enabled
+to traverse the ocean, open a friendly or commercial intercourse with
+every quarter of the globe, and to steer his course with the utmost
+accuracy.
+
+    "Tall navies hence their doubtful way explore,
+    And ev'ry product waft from ev'ry shore;
+    Hence meagre want expell'd, and sanguine strife,
+    For the mild charms of cultivated life."
+
+Iron may be moulded by the hammer into any form, and united into as
+many parts as the workman pleases, without rivets or solder. Were
+it not for this peculiar quality, many works of great importance
+could never have been executed. A most stupendous fabric, achieved
+by means of welded iron is the Chinese bridge of chains, hung over a
+dreadful precipice in the neighborhood of Kingtung, to connect two
+high mountains. The chains are twenty-one in number, stretched over
+the valley, and bound together by other cross chains, so as to form a
+perfect road from the summit of one immense mountain to that of the
+other.
+
+Some idea of the extent and importance of the iron trade may be
+conceived from the following account, abridged from Malkin's Scenery,
+&c, of South Wales. "Merthyr Tydvill was a very inconsiderable village
+till the year 1755, when the late Mr. Bacon obtained a lease of the
+iron and coal-mines of a district at least eight miles long, and four
+wide, for 99 years. Since then these mines have been leased by him
+to four distinct companies, and produce to the heirs of Mr. Bacon a
+clear annual income of ten thousand pounds. The part occupied by Mr.
+Crawshay contains now the largest set of iron works in the kingdom.
+He constantly employs more than two thousand workmen, and pays weekly
+for wages, coal, and other expenses of the works, twenty-five thousand
+pounds. The number of smelting furnaces belonging to the different
+companies at Merthyr is about sixteen. Around each of these furnaces
+are erected forges and rolling-mills, for converting pig into plate
+and bar-iron. These works have conferred so much importance on the
+neighborhood, that the obscure village of Merthyr Tydvill has become
+the largest town in Wales, and contains more than twelve thousand
+inhabitants."
+
+_Tin_ is white, a little elastic, and so exceedingly soft and ductile,
+that it may be beaten out into leaves thinner than paper. It is much
+more combustible than many of the metals; and is soluble in all the
+mineral acids. Its specific gravity is 7.291, or about 516 pounds to
+the cubic foot. This metal is found in Germany, Saxony, South America,
+the East Indies, and in England, chiefly in Cornwall and Devonshire.
+It must have been known very early, as it is mentioned in the books of
+Moses. Homer in his Iliad mentions the use of tin.
+
+Pliny says, that the Romans learned the method of tinning their
+culinary vessels from the Gauls. They used tin to alloy copper, for
+making those elastic plates which they employ in shooting darts from
+their warlike machines. The addition of tin to copper renders that
+metal more fluid, and disposes it to assume all the impressions of the
+mould. It was probably with a view to this, that it was used by the
+ancient Romans in their coinage. Many of the imperial _large brass_, as
+they are called, are found to consist of copper and tin alone. Antique
+coins frequently occur, made by forgers in the different reigns,
+in imitation of the silver currency, which contain a very large
+proportion of tin. There are coins of Nero which are of a most debased
+and brittle brass.
+
+According to Aristotle, the tin mines of Cornwall were known and worked
+in his time. Diodorus Siculus, who wrote about forty years before the
+Christian era, gives an account of working these mines: he says, that
+their produce was conveyed to Gaul, and thence to different parts of
+Italy. The miners of Cornwall were so celebrated for their knowledge
+of working metals, that, about the middle of the seventeenth century,
+the renowned Becher, a physician of Spire, and tutor of Stahl, came
+over to this country on purpose to visit them; and it is reported of
+him, that, when he had seen them, he exclaimed, He who was a _teacher_
+at home, was a _learner_ when he came there. About 3,000 tons of tin
+are furnished annually in Cornwall, two-fifths of which are usually
+exported to India by the East India Company. There are two kinds of tin
+known in commerce, namely, _block_ tin, and _grain_ tin. Block tin is
+procured from the common tin ore, and usually cast in blocks of about
+320 pounds weight. It is taken to the proper offices to be assayed,
+where it receives the impression of a lion rampant, being the arms of
+the Duke of Cornwall, pays a duty of four shillings per hundred weight
+to the Duke, and then becomes legally salable. Grain tin is found in
+small particles, in what is called the _stream tin ore_. It appears to
+have been washed from its original bed in remote ages. This kind of tin
+owes its superiority, not only to the purity of the ore, but to the
+care with which it is washed and refined.
+
+_Lead_ is of a blueish white color, scarcely sonorous, unelastic,
+and, being the softest of all metals, yields readily to the hammer.
+It generally contains a small quantity of silver. An alloy of this
+metal with tin forms pewter, and in different proportions soft solder.
+Its specific gravity is 11.35. Lead ore is very abundant in Scotland,
+the western parts of Northumberland and Durham, Derbyshire, and many
+other parts of the world. The lead found in these counties occurs
+on the estates of Colonel Beaumont, and of those of the late Lord
+Derwentwater: the last of these were forfeited to Government; and are
+now in the possession of Greenwich Hospital. Lead was known in the time
+of Moses, and was in common use among the ancients. The Romans sheathed
+the bottoms of their ships with it, fastened by nails made with bronze.
+During the first century, at Rome, it was twenty-four times the price
+it is now in Europe; whereas tin was only eight times its present price.
+
+_Nickel_ is white, ductile and malleable, but of difficult fusion. It
+is attracted by the magnet, and has itself the property of attracting
+iron: but as the nickel of commerce always contains iron, this may
+disguise its properties, and prevent its nature being exactly known,
+Richter, in his Annales de Chimie, asserts, that this metal, in its
+pure state, is nearly as brilliant as silver, and more attractable by
+the loadstone than iron; that it is not liable to be altered by the
+atmosphere; and that its specific gravity when forged is 8.666. The
+ore of nickel is procured from various parts of Germany, and is often
+found with cobalt. It is chiefly used in China; and it is said, that
+the manufacturers of Birmingham combine it with iron, and melt it with
+brass, with great advantage.
+
+_Zinc_ possesses but a small degree of malleability and ductility,
+except under certain circumstances. When broken, it appears of a
+shining blueish white; and when exposed to the air, becomes covered
+with a pellicle which reflects various colors. If beaten out into thin
+leaves, it will take fire from the flame of a common taper. Its filings
+are mixed with gunpowder, to produce those brilliant stars and spangles
+which are seen in the best artificial fire-works. It is also one of the
+metals employed to form Galvanic batteries. It is the most combustible
+metal we have. It will decompose water without the assistance of heat.
+Next to manganese, it has the strongest affinity for oxygen of all
+the metals. Its specific gravity is 6.861. Its nature is such, that
+it seems to form the link between brittle and malleable metals. Some
+mineralogists consider zinc to be the most abundant metal in nature,
+excepting iron. Calamine, or lapis calaminaris, which is a native oxide
+of zinc, combined with carbonic acid, is found both in masses and in
+a crystallized state, and is generally combined with a large portion
+of silex. Zinc is also found in an ore called _blend_, in which state
+it is mineralized by sulphur. The miners call it Black Jack--a mineral
+employed till lately in Wales for mending the roads. Zinc is generally
+called by our artists _spelter_; and in England and elsewhere it is
+extracted from calamine, and other ores, by distillation. This metal
+abounds in China, where it is used for current coin, and for that
+purpose is employed in the utmost purity. These coins have frequently
+Tartar characters on one side, and Chinese on the other. They have
+generally a square hole in the centre, that they may be carried on
+strings, and more readily counted.
+
+_Antimony_ is of a dusky white color, brilliant, brittle, and destitute
+of ductility. Though seemingly hard, it may be cut with a knife.
+Its specific gravity, according to Bergman, is 6.86. It is procured
+from an ore which is found chiefly in Hungary and Norway. Native
+antimony, alloyed with a small portion of silver and iron, has been
+found in Sweden. And it is said, that it has been found in the state
+of Connecticut, in America, nearly in a pure metallic form. There are
+five distinct ores of antimony, but the grey is the only one found
+in sufficient quantity for the manufacturer; it is a sulphuret of
+antimony. Perhaps we have no metal more valuable as a medicine than
+this, or one which is applied in such various ways.
+
+_Bismuth_ is of a yellowish white color, lamellated texture, and
+moderately hard, but not malleable. It is so brittle that it breaks
+readily under the hammer, and may be reduced to powder. It has the
+singular property of _expanding_ as it cools. Hence, probably, its use
+in the metallic composition for printers' types; as from this expansive
+property are obtained the most perfect impressions of the moulds in
+which the letters are cast. In manufactories this metal is known to
+the workmen by the name of _tin glass_. It is one of the metals which
+will inflame when suspended in oxymuriatic acid gas. It is generally
+found with cobalt in the cobaltic ores of Saxony and England. Native
+bismuth, and sulphuret of bismuth, are found on the continent; and a
+sulphuret of bismuth has been discovered in Cornwall; but this is not
+an abundant metal. If 8 parts of bismuth, 5 of lead, and 3 of tin, be
+melted together, the mixed metal will fuse at a heat no greater than
+212�. Tea-spoons made of this alloy are sold in London, to surprise
+those who are unacquainted with their nature. They have the appearance
+of common tea-spoons, but melt as soon as they are put into hot tea.
+
+_Arsenic_, when reduced to its pure metallic state, is a friable
+brilliant metal, of a blueish white color, easily tarnishing, or
+oxidizing, by exposure to the air. In all its states it is extremely
+poisonous. It may be known by the smell of garlic, and by the white
+fumes which it exhales when thrown upon a piece of red-hot coal. Its
+specific gravity is 8.310. It is found in Bohemia, Hungary, Saxony, and
+other places on the continent; and in combination with acids, sulphur,
+or oxygen. The arsenic of commerce is prepared in Saxony, in the
+operation of roasting the cobalt ores for the manufacture of zaffre.
+The reverberatory furnace in which the ores are roasted terminates in a
+long horizontal chimney; and in this chimney the arsenical vapors are
+condensed, forming a crust, which at stated times is cleared off by
+criminals, who are condemned to this work.
+
+_Cobalt_ is a whitish-grey, brittle metal, nearly resembling fine
+hardened steel; is difficult of fusion, but obedient to the magnet.
+According to Bergman, its specific gravity is about 7.700; though
+Tassaret makes it 8.538. Formerly all our cobalt came from Saxony. The
+cobalt ores of Hesse produce a nett profit of �14,000 a year, as stated
+in Born's Travels; though once they were used for no other purpose than
+to repair the roads. But now cobalt is found abundantly in the Mendip
+hills in Somersetshire, and in a mine near Penzance in Cornwall. Zaffre
+is now made from the cobalt ores found in these hills. Had it not been
+for the rapid promulgation of chemical science in these kingdoms, this
+important metal might have lain in the bowels of the earth undiscovered
+for ages yet to come. Formerly miners not only threw cobalt aside as
+useless, but they considered it so troublesome when they found it among
+other ores, that, as stated in Beckmann's History of Inventions, a
+prayer was used in the German church, that God would preserve miners
+from _cobalt_ and from _spirits_. It is now very valuable to the
+manufacturers of porcelain.
+
+_Manganese_ is of a dark grey color, brilliant, very brittle, of
+considerable hardness, and difficult fusibility. Its specific gravity
+has been estimated by Bergman at 6.850, and by Hielm 7.00. It is
+never found native. It was first procured in its pure metallic form
+by Kaim and Gahn between 1770 and 1775. It abounds in America, and
+in various parts of the continent. The manganese which is used in
+England, is obtained in a state of black oxide from Somersetshire and
+Devon. It is found either in the state of an oxide or a salt. But the
+discovery of mines of it in this country is a new acquisition, owing
+to the spirit of chemical research. Dr. William Dyce, of Aberdeen, has
+lately communicated to the Society for the Promotion of Arts, &c, the
+discovery of a mine of great extent, and very fine quality, in the
+vicinity of that town: for which the gold medal of the Society was
+sent him. Professor Beattie, of the same place, has also discovered
+manganese in his neighborhood, on the river Don, of good quality.
+Scheele discovered this metal in the ashes of burnt vegetables. Proust
+has lately announced the discovery of a native sulphuret of manganese.
+That from the Bristol and the Mendip hills generally contains lead.
+
+_Tungsten_ is a heavy metal, but its properties are not much known.
+It is procured from a mineral found in Sweden, and from an ore called
+_wolfram_, found in Cornwall, Germany, &c. It has been used in France
+for making vegetable lakes; but is not used here. Though it has been
+recommended as a proper basis for colors, it shows in some instances a
+strange fugacious disposition. Its specific gravity is 17.60.
+
+The same may be said of the other metals, their properties not being
+much known. _Molybdenum_ was first procured in a metallic state by
+Hielm, in the year 1782; and, it is believed, has been employed in
+some processes of dyeing in Germany. As the ore may be had in great
+plenty, it will probably, some time hence, come into general use here.
+At present it is not used in any of the arts. Its specific gravity
+is 8.61. _Uranium_ was discovered by Klaproth in 1789, in a mineral
+called pechblend; and has since been found combined with carbonic acid,
+in the common green mica. _Titanium_ was first noticed in the year
+1781, by Mr. Macgregor, in a greyish black sand, found in the vale of
+Menachan in Cornwall; but has since been discovered by Klaproth in
+several other minerals. An ore of it occurs in Transylvania, which
+very much resembles yellow sand. This metal has been used in France
+for painting porcelain. _Tellurium_ was discovered by Klaproth in the
+year 1798, in a particular kind of gold ore. It has hitherto been
+found in quantities too small to allow of its being employed in the
+arts. Its specific gravity is only 6.115. _Chromium_ received its
+name from a property it has of imparting a lively color to a variety
+of other bodies. The emerald is colored by an oxide of this metal.
+_Columbium_ was discovered in a mineral sent from Massachusetts in
+North America. _Tantalium_ was found in an ore from Swedish Lapland:
+but Dr. Woollaston has lately discovered that this and columbium are
+identically the same metal. _Cerium_ had not been seen in a metallic
+form till Sir Humphrey Davy procured it from some oxide discovered by
+Hissinger and Berzelius in 1804. Its scarcity will prevent its being
+applied to any useful purpose.
+
+The metals are simple substances, distinguishable from all other bodies
+by their lustre, great specific gravity, perfect opacity, and superior
+power of conducting electricity. They are the great agents by which
+we are enabled to explore the bowels of the earth, and examine the
+recesses of nature. Their uses are so multiplied, that they are become
+of prime importance in every occupation of life.
+
+The reason why one metal possesses such opposite and specific
+differences from those of another, is not to be attributed to chance,
+but must certainly be the effect of consummate wisdom and contrivance.
+These metals differ so much from each other in their degrees of
+hardness, lustre, color, elasticity, fusibility, weight, malleability,
+ductility, and tenacity, that the Author of nature appears to have had
+in view all the necessities of man coming within the range of their
+operation.[112]
+
+    [It is now generally admitted that there are FORTY
+    _distinct metals_.
+
+    Some of these metals are the _bases_ of the _alkalis_,
+    _alkaline earths_, and _earths_. And as _this_ class of metals
+    is but little known to the great mass of readers, some remarks
+    will be acceptable: they are recommended to his special
+    attention, as they form the base of the only satisfactory
+    theory of _volcanos_ and _earthquakes_. The number of metals in
+    this class are _twelve_.
+
+    1. The bases of the three alkalis, _potash_, _soda_, and
+    _lithia_.
+
+    The base of _potash_ is POTASIUM. This metal was discovered
+    in 1807 by Sir H. Davy. Its texture is crystalline; color
+    and lustre similar to mercury. It is solid at the ordinary
+    temperature of the atmosphere; somewhat fluid at 70�, melts
+    at 150�. Its affinity for oxygen is so great that it oxidizes
+    rapidly in the air; and decomposes water instantly upon
+    contact, emitting heat, flame, and light, as it swims on the
+    surface of the water, being the _lighter_ substance. In these
+    cases it oxidizes and becomes potash, by abstracting oxygen
+    from the air and water.
+
+    The base of _soda_ is SODIUM. This metal was discovered
+    by the same chemist the same year. It has the strong metallic
+    lustre of silver. It fuses at 200�, and evaporates at a full
+    red heat. It decomposes both air and water, but not so rapidly
+    as potasium. When thrown on water it effervesces strongly; and
+    inflames with light, when thrown on boiling water. In these
+    cases soda results, which is the _oxide of sodium. This metal
+    is the base of common salt._
+
+    The base of _lithia_ is LITHIUM. This metal was discovered
+    in Sweden in 1818, by Arfwedson. It is of a white color, like
+    sodium; but oxidizes so rapidly as not to be kept in its pure
+    metallic state. Its peculiar properties are, therefore, not so
+    certainly known. Its alkaline quality is well ascertained, when
+    in combination with oxygen, in which form it commonly appears.
+
+    2. The bases of the four alkaline earths, _baryta_,
+    _strontia_, _lime_ and _magnesia_.
+
+    The base of _baryta_ is BARIUM. This metal was discovered
+    by Sir H. Davy, in 1808. It is of a dark gray color, very
+    heavy, and attracts oxygen very strongly from the air, and from
+    water, with effervescence, caused by the escape of hydrogen
+    gas, and thus becomes an oxide which is the pure earth baryta,
+    of a white color, and very heavy. Its intimate properties are
+    not yet well known.
+
+    The base of _strontia_, is STRONTIUM. This metal is very
+    much like barium, in color, weight, and power of decomposing
+    air and water, and thus becoming an oxide, which is the earth
+    strontia. Yet it is satisfactorily distinguished from barium.
+
+    The base of _lime_ is CALCIUM. This metal was
+    satisfactorily obtained first by Sir H. Davy. It is of a
+    whiter color than the two last mentioned metals; and like them
+    decomposes the air and water, and thus becomes lime, which is
+    an _oxide of calcium_. The _base_ of common _limestone is_, of
+    course, _a metal_.
+
+    The base of _magnesia_ is MAGNESIUM. This metal was
+    discovered by Sir H. Davy, but in very small quantities;
+    sufficient, however, to determine its strong affinity for
+    oxygen, so as to decompose water, and thus oxidize, and become
+    the earth magnesia, which is a metallic oxide. The base of
+    common magnesia is, of course, a metal.
+
+    3. The bases of the five earths, _alumina_, _glucina_,
+    _yttria_, _zirconia_, and _silica_.
+
+    The base of _alumina_ is ALUMINIUM. The existence of this
+    metal was pretty satisfactorily ascertained by Sir H. Davy,
+    and subsequently _established_ by W�hler. It is very difficult
+    to obtain it, as the preparation is attended with intense heat
+    and light. When obtained it is generally in small scales of
+    a metallic lustre. It requires a great heat to fuse it; and
+    when heated to redness in the open air, it burns with a bright
+    light, and the product is an _oxide of aluminium_, which is
+    _pure clay_, of a white color, and quite hard.
+
+    This oxide, or pure clay, is very abundant in the
+    composition of the earth, though generally very much
+    adulterated. It is found in all countries and used for making
+    bricks, porcelain ware, pipes, &c. When pure it sometimes
+    crystallizes. Hence it is capable of forming some of the most
+    beautiful _gems_: as the sapphire and ruby, which are pure
+    crystallized clay. _Clay, then, has a metallic base._
+
+    The base of _glucina_, is GLUCINIUM. Glucina was first
+    discovered by Vauquelin in 1798, and by analogy its base was
+    _supposed_ to be metallic, which has since been confirmed by
+    Dr. W�hler, who has obtained the base in the form of a metal.
+    _An. de ch. et de ph. Sept. 1828, as quoted by Dr. Bache,
+    Turner's Chem. p. 303._
+
+    The base of _yttria_ is YTTRIUM. This metal was obtained in
+    a separate state by Dr. W�hler, (See last quoted authority,)
+    though its existence was inferred by Godolin who discovered the
+    earth which is an oxide of this metal.
+
+    The base of _zirconia_ is ZIRCONIUM. The earth was
+    discovered by Klaproth in 1789, and its metallic base clearly
+    established by Berzelius 1824.
+
+    The base of _silica_ is SILICIUM. There exists some doubts
+    among chemists whether this base is indeed a _metal_; but
+    there is no doubt but that it is _combustible_, and that the
+    earth silica, (or silex,) is an _oxide_. From _analogy_ it
+    would be inferred this base is metallic, and the _evidence_
+    preponderates on this side. This oxide, or earth, is very
+    abundant. It is more commonly called _silex_. It is the base
+    of the whole class of primitive rocks, and almost altogether
+    constitutes quartz, flint, &c.
+
+    The reader is now desired to recollect that this class of
+    metals constitutes the _bases of the alkalis, and earths_;
+    which are simply _metallic oxides_ or a combination of oxygen
+    with the metals. Recollect also that _all these metals are
+    inflammable_, and some of them simply upon exposure to air and
+    water. Now as the earths at the surface of our globe are the
+    results of _chemical action_, in which the oxygen combined with
+    the metals, it is beyond a doubt that these substances were
+    created in their elementary and uncombined state; and that
+    the act of combining would produce an inconceivable amount of
+    heat, so as to fuse completely the whole mass of our earth; and
+    in this state of fusion the oxides would commence forming at
+    the _surface chiefly_; and thus by oxidizing the metals would
+    form the earths, rocks, &c, which constitute, principally,
+    the _crust_ of our globe. When this crust became sufficiently
+    thick it would protect the _interior_ parts of the earth from
+    oxidation, by preventing the access of air and water; and they
+    would of course remain in a pure metallic state. But, (as is
+    most probable,) if the materials, being promiscuously mixed
+    throughout the mass at the commencement of the chemical action,
+    should oxidize throughout, then the indurating of the crust,
+    by cooling, would inclose the _interior_ parts _in a state of
+    fusion_, and in that state they remain to the present time. Nor
+    is this astonishing when we recollect the _earths_ are almost
+    perfect _non-conductors of caloric_: of course it could not
+    escape at all through the _crust_ of the earth, formed of many
+    strata of earths, in the shape of rocks, which, taken together,
+    may be about eight miles thick.
+
+    If, by any concussion, or by percolation, water, or air
+    should reach these metals in the interior, or these fused
+    masses of matter, the consequence would be _decomposition_,
+    and the production of a great amount of gas, and heat, which
+    operating conjointly, first produce earthquakes by struggling
+    to escape from the caverns in which they are generated; and
+    when they find a passage, they would break forth into volcanos.
+    This is the only true and satisfactory theory of earthquakes
+    and volcanos.
+
+    It may be added, that this action would naturally bring to
+    its aid the astonishing powers of electricity and galvanism.
+
+    The _forty_ metals mentioned above, may be classed
+    scientifically into _two_ classes.
+
+    1. _The bases of the alkalis, alkaline earths, and earths._
+    These are twelve: potasium, sodium, and lithium; bases of the
+    alkalis--barium, strontium, calcium, and magnesia; bases of the
+    alkaline earths--aluminium, glucinium, yttrium, zirconium, and
+    silicium; bases of the earths.
+
+    2. Metals, the oxides of which are neither alkalis, or
+    earths. These are _twenty-eight_ in number, and may be set down
+    in the following order: gold, silver, iron, copper, mercury,
+    lead, tin, antimony, zinc, bismuth, arsenic, cobalt, platinum,
+    nickel, manganese, tungsten, tellurium, molybdenum, uranium,
+    titanium, chromium, columbium, palladium, rhodium, iridium,
+    osmium, cereum, and cadmium.
+
+    Not only the _first_ class of metals are _combustible_,
+    but the _last_ also. _All_ the metals are now well known to
+    be combustible bodies, _and may be made to burn as really as
+    wood_.]
+
+_Gems_ are of a higher order than metals, of a more refined nature, and
+consist of two classes, the pellucid and semi-pellucid. Those of the
+first class are bright, elegant, and beautiful fossils, naturally and
+essentially compound, ever found in small detached masses, extremely
+hard, and of great lustre. Those composing the second class are stones
+naturally and essentially compound, not inflammable nor soluble in
+water, found in detached masses, and composed of crystalline matter
+debased by earth: however, they are but slightly debased, are of great
+beauty and brightness, of a moderate degree of transparency, and
+usually found in small masses.
+
+The knowledge of the gems depends principally on observing their
+hardness and color. Their _hardness_ is commonly allowed to stand in
+the following order: the diamond, ruby, sapphire, jacinth, emerald,
+amethyst, garnet, carneol, chalcedony, onyx, jasper, agate, porphyry,
+and marble. This difference, however, is not regular and constant, but
+frequently varies. In point of _color_, the diamond is valued for its
+transparency, the ruby for its deep red, the sapphire for its blue,
+the emerald for its green, the jacinth for its orange, the amethyst
+for its purple, the carneol for its carnation, the onyx for its tawny,
+the jasper, agate, and porphyry, for their vermillion, green, and
+variegated colors, and the garnet for its transparent blood-red.
+
+There is not a unity of opinion concerning the cause of this
+difference. "Their colors," says Cronstedt, "are commonly supposed to
+depend upon metallic vapors; but may they not more justly be supposed
+to arise from a phlogiston united with a metallic or some other earth?
+because we find that metallic earths which are perfectly well calcined
+give no color to any glass; and that the manganese, on the other hand,
+gives more color than can be ascribed to the small quantity of metal
+which is to be extracted from it." M. Magellan is of opinion, that
+their color is owing chiefly to the mixture of iron which enters their
+composition; but approves the sentiment of Cronstedt, that phlogiston
+has a share in their production, it being well known that the calces
+of iron when dephlogisticated, produce the red and yellow colors of
+marble, and when phlogisticated to a certain degree produce the blue or
+green colors.
+
+With regard to the texture of gems, M. Magellan observes, that all of
+them are foliated or laminated, and of various degrees of hardness.
+Whenever the edges of these lamin� are sensible to the eye, they have
+a fibrous appearance, and reflect various shades of color, which
+change successively according to their angular position to the eye.
+These are called by the French _chatorantes_; and what is a blemish
+in their transparency, often enhances their value on account of their
+scarcity. But when the substance of a gem is composed of a broken
+texture, consisting of various sets of lamin� differently inclined to
+each other, it emits at the same time various irradiations of different
+colors, which succeed one another according to their angle of position.
+This kind of gems has obtained the name of _opals_, which are valued
+in proportion to the brilliancy, beauty, and variety of their colors.
+Their crystallization, no doubt, depends on the same cause which
+produces that of salts, earths, and metals: but as to the particular
+configuration of each species of gems, we can hardly depend upon any
+individual form as a criterion to ascertain each kind; and when we
+have attended with the utmost care to all that has been written on the
+subject, we are at last obliged to appeal to chemical analysis, because
+it very often assumes various forms.[113]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The rich treasures of the earth are within it, observes a worthy
+author, so that they cannot be discovered and brought to the surface
+without the labor of man; yet they are not placed so deep, as to render
+his exertion ineffectual. Thus nothing but what is comparatively
+worthless is to be found by the indolent on the surface of life. Every
+thing valuable must be obtained by diligent research and sedulous
+effort. All wisdom, science, art and experience, are hidden at a proper
+depth for the exercise of intellect, and they who bend their attention
+to any of these objects shall not be disappointed in their pursuit.
+
+The treasures of wisdom, which are displayed in the redemption of
+mankind by Jesus Christ, and recorded in the Divine Oracles, do not
+lie upon the surface of the letter, for every superficial reader to
+observe them: therefore our Lord says, "Search the Scriptures." The
+word <<ereunate>>, compounded of <<ere�>>, _I seek_, and <<eun�>>,
+_a bed_, is, says St. Chrysostom, "a metaphor taken from those who
+dig deep and search for metals in the bowels of the earth. They look
+for the bed where the metal lies, and break every clod, and sift and
+examine the whole, in order to discover the ore." In Leigh's Critica
+Sacra, we meet with these observations, illustrative of the Greek
+word--"_Search_; that is, shake and sift them, as the word signifies:
+search narrowly, till the true force and meaning of every sentence,
+yea, of every word and syllable, nay, of every letter and yod therein,
+be known and understood. Confer place with place; the scope of one
+place with that of another; things going before with things coming
+after: compare word with word, letter with letter, and search it
+thoroughly."
+
+The Holy Scriptures contain the most invaluable treasures, a complete
+collection of doctrines, precepts, and promises, necessary to
+everlasting happiness. In this respect they have a peculiar advantage
+above all the writings of the most distinguished philosophers in the
+heathen world. The Bible presents an exact model of religion, for the
+instruction and common benefit of mankind. Here we have, in a narrow
+compass, all the things necessary to be known, believed, and practised,
+in order to our salvation; for it is, "a lamp to our feet, and a light
+to our path." We are taught the knowledge of the only living and
+true God, his spiritual nature, adorable perfections, and endearing
+relations to his rational creatures: so that the meanest Christian
+who can read, may arrive at more true and just notions of him, than
+the wisest heathen sages could attain, who as the Apostle intimates,
+did only grope after him in the dark.--We are informed how Adam was
+created, how he fell, and what is the consequence of his transgression
+to all his posterity: the most celebrated heathens were not able to
+account for the origin of moral evil, as affecting the human race. The
+glorious plan of redemption by Jesus Christ is set before us, in its
+commencement, progress, and completion; which is the highest display
+of the moral perfections of God, and attended with the most beneficial
+advantages to man.--The rules of duty, all the agenda of religion, or
+things to be done, are plainly stated, and properly enforced. Promises,
+containing pardon, adoption, sanctification, and eternal life, are
+every where interspersed, and are "yea, and amen, in Christ."
+
+Our obligation to search the Scriptures, and by that means acquaint
+ourselves with their valuable contents, appears from the _necessity_
+and _design_ of committing them to writing. St. Paul says, "All
+scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable
+for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in
+righteousness: that the man of God may be perfect, thoroughly furnished
+unto all good works." But how can they contribute to these important
+ends without being read? What effect could the mere writing of them
+have on mankind, to inform the judgment and regulate the life? How
+could Christian motives have proper influence, if the Sacred Volume
+were neglected? Is it not an insult to common sense, to assert that
+the Scriptures were written for our instruction and admonition, but
+it is not necessary to peruse them to learn what they teach? To have
+a Bible, and not to read it, for direction in the way of truth and
+holiness, would not be attended with any peculiar advantage. Precious
+metals, deposited in the earth, must be procured to be rendered
+beneficial. The Holy Scriptures contain the revelation of God to
+mankind, declare his will with certainty, and are the prescribed means
+of salvation: the Apostle says, "they are able to make us wise unto
+salvation, through faith that is in Christ Jesus."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Footnotes - Chapter IV
+
+    [74] Benson on Gen. i, 9, 10.
+
+    [75] Contemplative Philosopher, vol. ii, pp. 177-179.
+
+    [76] M. Savary, in his instructive and entertaining Letters
+    on Greece, has the following pertinent reflections: "We enjoy
+    the finest weather imaginable; not a cloud obscures the sky,
+    and a south-east wind wafts us directly towards the port to
+    which our wishes tend. We have now entirely lost sight of land,
+    and, as far as the eye can reach, only view the immense abyss
+    of the waters, and the vast expanse of the heavens. How awful
+    is this sight! How does it inspire the mind with great ideas!
+    How adventurous is man, who trusts his fortune and his life
+    to this frail vessel he has built, which a worm may pierce,
+    or a single blast dash to pieces against a rock. Yet in this
+    he braves the fury of the ocean! But how admirable is his
+    ingenuity! He commands the winds, enchains them in the canvas,
+    and forces them to conduct him where he pleases. He sails from
+    one end of the world to the other, and traverses the immense
+    liquid plains without any signals to direct him. He reads his
+    course in the heavens. A needle, which wonderfully points
+    perpetually to the pole, and the observation of the stars,
+    inform him where he is. A few lines and points mark out to him
+    the islands, coasts, and shoals, which his skill enables him
+    to approach or avoid at pleasure. Yet has he cause to tremble,
+    notwithstanding all his science and all his genius! The fire
+    of the clouds is kindling over his head, and may consume his
+    dwelling. Unfathomable gulfs are yawning beneath his feet,
+    and he is separated from them only by a single plank. His
+    confidence might make us imagine he knew himself immortal; yet
+    he must die--die never to revive again, except in another state
+    of being."
+
+    [77] As it is sometimes necessary to preserve sea water
+    in casks for bathing and other purposes, it is of importance
+    to know how to keep it from putrefaction. Dr. Henry from
+    many experiments made by him for the preservation of sea
+    water from putrefaction, has concluded, that two scruples of
+    quick-lime are sufficient to preserve a quart of sea water.
+    The proportions, however, may vary a little according to the
+    strength of quick-lime employed.
+
+    [78] "Frosts often occasion a scantiness of water in our
+    fountains and wells. This is sometimes erroneously accounted
+    for by supposing that the water freezes in the bowels of
+    the earth. But this, as Dr. Robison remarks, is a great
+    mistake: the most intense cold of a Siberian winter would not
+    freeze the ground two feet deep; but a very moderate frost
+    will consolidate the whole surface of a country, and make
+    it impervious to the air; especially if the frost have been
+    preceded by rain, which has soaked the surface. When this
+    happens, the water which was flittering through the ground is
+    all arrested, and kept suspended in its capillary tubes by the
+    pressure of the air." Ha�y's Nat. Phil. p. 198.
+
+    [79] Dr. Black's Lectures, vol. i. p. 69.
+
+    [80] See Ellis's voyage to Hudson's Bay.
+
+    [81] St. Pierre's Studies, vol. i, pp. 129-132.
+
+    [82] See 21st volume of the Philosophical Magazine.
+
+    [83] The specific gravity of water is as follows; a
+    wine-pint measure weighs one pound; consequently a cubic foot
+    of water weighs about 1,000 ounces, or 62� pounds, avoirdupois.
+    It is 816 times heavier than atmospheric air.
+
+    [84] Parkes's Chemical Catechism, p. 108.
+
+    [85] Ha�y's Natural Philosophy, vol. i. pp. 197, 198.
+
+    [86] Parkes's Chemical Catechism, pp. 94, 95.
+
+    [87] Parkes's Chemical Catechism, p. 92.
+
+    [88] Driessen on the Nature of Snow.
+
+    [89] Thomson's Chemistry, vol. i, p. 365.
+
+    [90] "The English word _hail_, in Latin _grando_, in Greek
+    <<chalaza>>, gives us no information about the nature of the
+    thing: but, if we take the word **brd** BeReD in Hebrew, it
+    resolves itself into **brd**, which signifies _in descensu_,
+    and so describes to us the physiological formation of hail:
+    which, as philosophers agree, is first formed into drops of
+    rain, and, _as it falls_, is frozen into hail." Jones's Letter
+    on the Use of the Hebrew Language.
+
+    [91] Dr. Clarke on Exod. ix, 18.
+
+    [92] See Dr. Paley's Natural Theology, p. 407.
+
+    [93] There are hot spouting springs of water in Iceland, of
+    which a traveller says, "Near Laugervatan, a small lake about
+    two days' journey distant from Mount Hecla, we beheld the steam
+    of the hot springs rising in eight different places, one of
+    which of which continually threw up into the air a column of
+    water from eighteen to twenty-four feet high. The water was
+    extremely hot, so that a piece of mutton and some salmon trouts
+    were almost boiled to pieces in it in six minutes.
+
+    At Gyser, not far from Skallholt, one of the Episcopal
+    sees in Iceland, within the circumference of three English
+    miles, forty or fifty boiling springs are seen together; and
+    the largest, which is in the middle, particularly engaged our
+    attention the whole of the day that we spent here. The aperture
+    through which the water arose is nineteen feet in diameter; and
+    round the top is a basin nine feet higher than the conduit.
+    Here the water does not continually, but only by intervals
+    several times a day; and, as I was informed by the Icelanders,
+    in wet weather higher then at other times.
+
+    On the day we were there the water spouted ten different
+    times, between the hours of six and eleven in the morning, each
+    time the height of fifty or sixty feet. Before, the water had
+    not risen above the margin of the pipe; but now it began by
+    degrees to fill the upper basin, and at last to run over. Our
+    guides told us that the water would soon spout up much higher
+    than it had done.
+
+    Soon after four o'clock we observed that the earth began
+    to tremble in three different places; as well as the top of a
+    mountain which was about three hundred fathoms distant from the
+    mouth of the spring. We also frequently heard a subterraneous
+    noise, like the discharge of a cannon; and immediately
+    afterwards a column of water spouted from the opening, which at
+    a great height divided itself into several rays, and according
+    to our observation was ninety-two feet high. Our great surprise
+    at this uncommon force of the air and fire was increased, when
+    many stones which we had flung into the aperture wore thrown up
+    again with the spouting water." _Troil._
+
+    [94] Savary, Newcomen, Cawley, Watt, and Boulton,
+    Englishmen; and Betancourt and the brothers Perrier, Frenchmen;
+    are names well known in the history of steam-engines. And
+    those persons who wish to acquaint themselves with the
+    principles and manner of operation of this most important
+    class of machines, says Dr. O. Gregory, may be referred to
+    the following work:--The Repertory of Arts and Manufactures,
+    the Philosophical Journal, and the Philosophical Magazine, in
+    various places; the second volume of Mr. Brewster's edition
+    of Ferguson's Select Lectures, the second volume of Gregory's
+    Mechanics, and the second volume of Prony's treatise entitled
+    Nouvelle Architecture Hydraulique.
+
+    [95] Plymouth Chronicle.
+
+    [96] Whitehurst's Inquiry into the Original State and
+    Formation of the Earth.
+
+    [97] Examination of Dr. Burnet's Theory of the Earth, pp.
+    92, 93.
+
+    [98] The substances of which vegetables are composed, now
+    amount to fifteen in number; but almost the whole of vegetable
+    substances are composed of four ingredients, namely, carbon,
+    hydrogen, oxygen, and azote. Of these, the last, namely, azote,
+    forms but a small proportion even of those vegetable substances
+    of which it is a constituent part, while, into many, it does
+    not enter at all.--Contemplative Philosopher, vol. i. p. 150.
+
+    [99] Of the efficacy of water in vegetation, we have
+    on record some remarkable instances. That vegetables will
+    grow in woollen cloth, moss, and in other insoluble media,
+    besides soils provided they be supplied with water, has been
+    repeatedly shown since the days of Van Helmont and Boyle: but
+    the experiments of a modern author, says Mr. Parkes, from
+    their apparent correctness, seem more highly interesting and
+    conclusive.
+
+    Seeds of plants were sown in pure river-sand, in litharge,
+    in flowers of sulphur, and even among metal, or common leaden
+    shot; and in every instance nothing employed for their
+    nourishment but distilled water. The plants throve, and
+    passed through all the usual gradations of growth to perfect
+    maturity. The author then proceeded to gather the entire
+    produce, the roots, stems, leaves, pods, seeds, &c. These were
+    accurately weighed, dried, and again weighed, then submitted to
+    distillation, incineration, lixivation, and the other ordinary
+    means used in a careful analysis. Thus he obtained from these
+    vegetables all the materials peculiar to each individual
+    species, precisely as if it had been cultivated in a natural
+    soil--viz. the various earths, the alkalies, acids, metals,
+    carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, nitrogen, &c. He concludes this
+    very important paper nearly in these extraordinary words:
+    "Oxygen and hydrogen, with the assistance of solar light,
+    appear to be the only elementary substances employed in the
+    constitution of the whole universe; and Nature, in her simple
+    progress works the most infinitely diversified effects by
+    the slightest modifications in the means she employs."--See
+    Recherches sur la Force assimilatrice dans les V�g�taux, par M.
+    Henri Braconnot, Annales de Chimie, Fev. et Mars, 1808.
+
+    [100] He was born at Verona, of an illustrious family; and
+    at the foot of Vesuvius, while attempting to ascertain the
+    cause of an extraordinary cloud issuing therefrom, was, by the
+    sulphureous exhalation from the burning lava, suffocated, A.D.
+    79.
+
+    [101] The _Tabacum_, or common Tobacco plant, was first
+    discovered in America, by the Spaniards, about the year
+    1560, and by them imported into Europe. It had been used
+    by the inhabitants of America long before; and was called
+    by the inhabitants of the islands, _yoli_, and by those of
+    the continent, _p�tux_. It was sent into Spain from Tabaco,
+    a province of Yucatan, where it was first discovered, and
+    from whence it takes its common name. Sir Walter Raleigh is
+    generally said to have been the first who introduced it into
+    England, about the year 1585, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth,
+    and who taught his countrymen how to smoke it. The following
+    anecdote is related of him. He having imitated the Indians in
+    smoking this plant, at length so much delighted in it, that
+    he was unwilling to disuse it on his return to England; and
+    therefore supplied himself with several hogsheads, which he
+    placed in his own study, and generally indulged himself with
+    smoking secretly two or three pipes a day. He had a simple man,
+    who waited at his study door, to bring him up daily a tankard
+    of old ale and nutmeg, and he always laid aside his pipe when
+    he heard him approaching. One day, being earnestly engaged in
+    reading some book which amused him, the man abruptly entered,
+    and, surprised at seeing his master enveloped in smoke, (a
+    sight perfectly new to him) the smoke ascending in thick vapors
+    from his mouth and the bowl of the tobacco-pipe, immediately
+    threw the ale in his master's face, ran down stairs, and
+    alarmed the family with repeated exclamations, that his master
+    was on fire in the inside, and that if they did not make haste,
+    before they could get up stairs, he would be burned to ashes.
+
+    [102] Taylor on remarkable Trees, Plants, and Shrubs.
+
+    [103] Evangelical Magazine, January, 1814.
+
+    [104] Dr. Black, ii. 694.
+
+    [105] Phil. Trans. for 1796.
+
+    [106] See Mr. Hitchen's Paper, in Phil. Trans. vol. xci. p.
+    159.
+
+    [107] Storch's Picture of Petersburgh, p. 330.
+
+    [108] Several salts are formed by art with this metal for
+    medicinal purposes. One of the most valuable is _calomel_,
+    which is made by triturating fluid mercury with corrosive
+    sublimate, and then submitting the mixture to sublimation. As
+    this medicine is much used in private families, and as dreadful
+    consequences might ensue if it were improperly prepared, it
+    ought to be generally known, says Mr. Parkes, that if it be
+    not perfectly insipid to the taste, and indissoluble by long
+    boiling in water, it contains a portion of oxymuriate of
+    mercury, or corrosive sublimate, and consequently is poisonous.
+
+    [109] Monthly Review, Appendix, vol. xxvii. N.S. p. 551.
+
+    [110] Storch's Picture of Petersburgh, p. 319.
+
+    [111] In domestic economy, the necessity of keeping copper
+    vessels always clean is generally acknowledged; but it may
+    not perhaps be so well known, that fat and oily substances,
+    and vegetable acids, do not attack copper while _hot_; and,
+    therefore, if no liquor be ever suffered to grow _cold_ in
+    these utensils, they may be used for every culinary purpose
+    with perfect safety.--Dr. Percival gives an account of a
+    young lady who amused herself, while her hair was dressing,
+    with eating samphire pickle impregnated with copper. She soon
+    complained of pain in the stomach, and in five days vomiting
+    commenced, which was incessant for two days. After this her
+    stomach became prodigiously distended: and in nine days after
+    eating the pickle, death relieved her from her sufferings.
+    Medical Transactions, vol. iii, p. 80.
+
+    [112] The materials forming nearly the whole of this
+    Section have been selected and arranged from the _seventh_
+    Edition of Parkes's _Chemical Catechism_: a work of peculiar
+    interest, and which was confidently recommended to the Author
+    by a physician and chemist of distinguished celebrity.
+
+    [113] See Encyclop�dia Britannica.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+FOURTH DAY.
+
+_Section_ I.--THE SUN.
+
+    Signs -- Names -- Nature -- Motions -- Form -- Magnitude --
+    Distance -- Suspension -- Idolatrous worship of the Sun -- The
+    Sun an Emblem of Christ.
+
+
+On the _fourth day_, "God said, Let there be lights in the firmament of
+the heaven to divide the day from the night, and let them be for signs,
+and for seasons, and for days, and years: and let them be for lights in
+the firmament of the heaven to give light upon the earth: and it was
+so. And God made two great lights; the greater light to rule the day,
+and the lesser light to rule the night: he made the stars also. And God
+set them in the firmament of the heaven, to give light upon the earth,
+and to rule over the day and over the night, and to divide the light
+from the darkness." The light which had hitherto been scattered and
+confused, was now collected and formed into several luminaries, and so
+rendered more glorious and of greater utility.
+
+A sensible and pious author observes, that not only the two great
+lights, which were made after a special manner to rule the day and
+the night, but, in general, all the lights in the firmament of the
+heaven, are said to be for signs and for seasons; or, as some render
+the words, "for signs of the seasons." And indeed this seems to be the
+meaning of the inspired writer. As for the manner of expression, "for
+signs and for seasons," it is very common in the Hebrew, as well as in
+many other languages, and is a figurative way of speech, expressing
+those things disjunctively, which must by the understanding be joined
+together. First, these lights are said to be _for signs_, and then the
+things are mentioned which they are to signify, namely, the _seasons_,
+the _days_, and the _years_: whereas, if we understand the word _signs_
+in an indefinite sense, and not confined to what follows, we are
+through the whole text left in great uncertainty; seeing that there are
+_signs_ appointed _in the heaven_ for some purpose or other, but not
+knowing for what. Besides, if we must take all the parts of the text
+disjunctively, then "the lights in the firmament" must be taken for
+_seasons_, and for _days_, and for _years_, as well as for _signs_.
+But we know, that the celestial bodies are not themselves _seasons_,
+and _days_, and _years_, but only _signs_ of them, by such particular
+motions and aspects, as God, according to the laws of nature, has
+ordained them. Neither can I see reason to believe, that every motion
+or position of the heavenly bodies has a special signification in it:
+though serving in general to display the wisdom and power of God, in
+their regular courses. The sun, indeed, which is called the _greater
+light_, is said _to rule the day_, as it is by the appearance of
+his light, increasing and decreasing, that we measure the length of
+the day; and the moon likewise _to rule the night_, partly on the
+like account. Thus likewise the sun's course (if we may so call it)
+is a determining sign of the beginning and ending of the year, and
+of its various seasons. And in general, the sun, the moon, and the
+other lights, are necessary signs of the seasons of sowing, reaping,
+planting, and are useful in navigation, as well as other arts.
+
+Costard, in his History of Astronomy, makes some critical remarks on
+the name of this greater light. He says, The sun is, by the Greeks,
+called <<H�lios>>: which is nothing more than the Hebrew word **'l**
+_El_, modelled after the Greek manner of pronunciation, and signifies
+_Lord_; the first idolatrous worship being paid to this planet. In the
+Hebrew language it is called **shmsh** _Shemesh_, and in the Chaldee
+**shmsh'** _Shimsha_, from **shmsh** _Shamesh_, to _minister_, on
+account of its administering light and heat to this world. From this
+property of communicating heat, it is also called **hmh** _Hammah_.
+By the Phoenician idolaters it seems to have been called **b`l**
+_Baal_, or **b`l shmym** _Baal-Shamim_, the _Lord of Heaven_. And on
+account of the supposed swiftness of its diurnal motion from east to
+west, it had a chariot dedicated to it at Sidon, an ancient town of
+Phoenicia. Such a chariot is still seen on the coins of that place.
+This superstition was likewise imitated by the idolatrous Jews:
+for we read of _the horses which the kings of_ Judah _had given_,
+or dedicated, _to the sun_. By the Chaldeans it seems to have been
+called **bl** _Bel_, and by the Assyrians **pl** _Pul_; and, with the
+addition, sometimes of **'b** _ab_, or **'p** _ap_, i.e. _father_,
+**'p-pl** _Ap-Pul_, or _Father-Lord_; from whence the Greeks formed
+their <<Apoll�n>>, another name given by them to the sun. The name of
+this luminary, among the Romans, was _sol_; given more probably, on
+account of his scorching heat in the summer, or from his determining
+the length of the year by his course, than because he appeared _solus,
+alone_, according to the derivation given by Macrobius.
+
+The _nature_ of the sun is a subject which has not only excited the
+most diligent inquiry among men of scientific knowledge, but the
+opinions concerning it have passed through a variety of vicissitudes.
+The sun being evidently the source of light and heat, was by the
+ancients considered to be a globe of fire. But Dr. Herschell's
+discoveries, by means of his immensely large telescopes, tend to prove,
+that what we call the _sun_ is only the _atmosphere_ of that luminary:
+"that this atmosphere consists of various _elastic fluids_, which are
+more or less transparent; that as the clouds surrounding our earth are
+probably decompositions of some of the elastic fluids belonging to the
+atmosphere itself, so we may suppose that in the vast atmosphere of the
+sun similar decompositions may take place, but with this difference,
+that the decompositions of the elastic fluids of the sun are of a
+_phosphoric_ nature, and are attended by lucid appearances, by giving
+out light." The body of the sun this celebrated astronomer considers as
+hidden generally from us, by means of this luminous atmosphere; that
+what are called _macul�_, or _spots_ on the sun, are real openings in
+this atmosphere, through which the _opaque body_ of the sun becomes
+visible; that this atmosphere itself is not _fiery_ nor _hot_, but
+is the instrument which God designed to act on the caloric or latent
+heat; and that heat is only produced by the solar light acting on and
+combining with the caloric or matter of fire contained in the air, and
+other substances which are heated by it.
+
+This indefatigable investigator of the heavenly phenomena shows, by
+many substantial proofs, drawn from natural philosophy, that _heat_ is
+produced by the sun's rays only when they act on a calorific medium;
+and that they cause the production of heat by uniting with the matter
+of fire which is contained in the substances that are heated,--as the
+collision of flint and steel will inflame a magazine of gunpowder,
+by uniting with its latent fire, and bring the whole into action.
+This point is capable of a very clear elucidation. "On the tops of
+mountains, and at heights to which the clouds seldom reach to shelter
+them from the direct rays of the sun, we always find regions of ice and
+snow. Now if the sun's rays themselves conveyed all the heat we find
+on the earth, it would of course be hottest in situations similar to
+the tops of mountains, where their course is least interrupted. But
+all those who have ascended in balloons confirm the coldness of the
+upper regions of the atmosphere; and, therefore, since even on the
+earth the heat of the situation depends on the facility with which the
+medium yields to the impression of the sun's rays, we have only to
+admit, that, on the sun itself, the fluids composing its atmosphere,
+and the matter on its surface, are of such a nature as not to be
+capable of any excessive heat from its own rays. It is also a well
+known fact, that the focus of the largest burning lens thrown into
+the air, will occasion no heat in the place where it has been kept
+for a considerable time, although its powers of exciting heat, when
+proper bodies are exposed to it, should be sufficient to melt or fuse
+the most refractory metals." That the sun is a luminous, and not an
+igneous body, has met with the general consent of modern philosophers;
+an opinion to which every new discovery in philosophy gives additional
+support.
+
+The telescope, said to have been invented by the children of a
+spectacle-maker at Middleburgh, in the year 1590, but first brought
+to such a degree of perfection by Galileo as to make any considerable
+discoveries in the celestial regions, has led to the most important
+results in the science of astronomy. Among which are the _spots_ in
+the sun's disk, by whose motion from west to east the sun is perceived
+to revolve upon his own axis in 25 days, 14 hours, 8 minutes. This
+revolution of the sun round his own axis is probably not the only
+motion which this luminary experiences. There is great reason to
+believe that he has another motion, either rectilinear, or round some
+indefinitely remote centre of attraction. In this last course, he
+carries along with him, through space, the entire system of planets,
+satellites, and comets; in the same manner in which each planet
+draws his satellites along with him in his motion round the sun. He
+communicates light and heat to at least twenty opaque bodies, which
+revolve round him, at different distances, in ellipses that differ but
+little from circles.
+
+From the motion of the spots, which is sometimes straight and sometimes
+curved, we learn that the sun's axis is not perpendicular to the plane
+of his ecliptic, but inclined to it, or the plane of the earth's
+annual orbit, so as to form an angle of about 83 degrees. Christopher
+Scheiner, a most diligent observer of these spot's in the sun's disk,
+published a treatise concerning them in A.D. 1626. These spots are
+sometimes seen to increase to a very large size, and to continue for
+a considerable time. In the year 1779, there was a spot on the sun's
+disk which was large enough to be seen with the naked eye: it was
+divided into two parts, and must have been 50,000 miles in diameter:
+this, and other phenomena of the same kind, may be accounted for from
+some natural change of the atmosphere. For if some of the fluids which
+enter into its composition be of a shining brilliancy, while others are
+merely transparent, then any temporary cause removing the lucid fluid,
+will permit us to see the body of the sun through the transparent ones.
+Dr. Herschell supposes that the spots in the sun are mountains on
+its surface, which, considering the great attraction exerted by this
+luminary upon bodies placed at its surface, and the slow revolution it
+has about its axis, he thinks may be more than 300 miles in height, and
+yet not be rendered unstable by the centrifugal force.
+
+    [There appears to be a _discrepancy_ between this last
+    statement--"Dr. Herschell supposes that the spots in the sun
+    are _mountains_ on his surface;"--and the statement made a
+    few paragraphs preceding--"that what are called _macul�_,
+    or _spots_ on the sun, Dr. Herschell thought to be _real
+    openings_ in his atmosphere, through which the opake body
+    of the sun becomes visible." These statements must have been
+    made at different periods of his observations on the sun,
+    which continued about fifteen years. The last statement was,
+    doubtless, Dr. Herschell's mature opinion.
+
+    As this seems to be a settled question among philosophers;
+    and as it has induced the enlightened world to regard the sun
+    as a _habitable globe_, it will not be out of place to enlarge
+    a little on this point.
+
+    The spots on the sun's surface has led to the conclusion
+    above, and also to a determination of the motion of the sun
+    around his own axis. They appear to have been observed, for
+    the first time, in A.D. 1610, by Fabricius and Harriot; the
+    first in Germany, the second in England. It is uncertain
+    which noticed them first; but it is certain the discovery was
+    _original with both_.
+
+    After the observations of these two fortunate persons
+    were known, the attention of the scientific was directed to
+    this phenomenon. Scheiner supposed the spots to be _planets_
+    which revolved very near the sun. In process of unwearied
+    observations, it was ascertained that these spots changed their
+    positions. Sometimes two would blend together, and thus run
+    into each other. Sometimes one large one would divide into
+    two or three smaller ones. They were observed to dilate, and
+    contract; and to have umbr�, or shades attending them.
+
+    From these phenomena Galileo and others supposed the solar
+    spots were _schoria floating on the burning liquid matter_, of
+    which they supposed the sun composed. M. de la Hire, and La
+    Lande supposed them to be eminences which occasionally rose
+    above the rolling tides of fire, as islands rise above the sea.
+    All these theories were on the supposition that the sun was an
+    igneous body, in a high state of combustion, by which means he
+    dispenses heat and light to the surrounding planets.
+
+    Dr. WILSON, Professor of practical astronomy in the
+    University of Glasgow, was the first to conjecture that these
+    spots were _depressions_ rather than elevations. This was
+    about the year 1769. The Doctor rendered this conjecture very
+    probable, by his close and lucid observations and illustrations.
+
+    These spots attracted the attention of the celebrated
+    Dr. Herschell in 1779, who continued to observe them closely
+    until 1794, and by means of his immensely large and powerful
+    telescopes, he clearly established Dr. Wilson's conjectures,
+    _that these spots are openings in the luminous surface of the
+    sun, through which his opake body appears_.
+
+    Dr. Herschell regards the real body of the sun to be
+    an _opake nucleus_, fit for the habitation of intellectual
+    creatures: that he has an atmosphere suited in density and
+    height to his own magnitude: that in the higher regions of
+    this atmosphere there are _two_ sets of clouds surrounding the
+    sun, which are permanently and essentially luminous, being
+    _phosphoric_ in their nature. The lower set of these clouds,
+    which are _next_ the sun, are less bright, and more dense than
+    the upper set. They are designed to serve as a _curtain_ to the
+    sun's body, to prevent a too great intensity of light at his
+    real surface; the higher set of clouds, which are visible to
+    us, being the principal source, or rather _agent_, of light.
+
+    It is plain from the foregoing theory, that _we_ never see
+    the real body of the sun, except when we see the spots on his
+    surface: that what we commonly call the sun, are only those
+    bright, luminous phosphorescent clouds, which permanently
+    surround his body, and which give light _outwards_ to the
+    planets, and also _inwards_ to his own inhabitants.
+
+    It will be obvious also to any one, that the inhabitants
+    of the sun _cannot see_ any heavenly body, as the stars, and
+    planets; because they are inclosed by those clouds, which are
+    impenetrable to vision. They may catch a glimpse of a passing
+    star through these openings as we do of the sun's body.
+
+    It is highly probable (see _our_ paper on light, attached
+    to our author's chapter on the same,) that these luminous
+    phosphoric clouds _do not actually emit light, or heat_; but
+    only _excite_ them at the surfaces of the different planets.
+    That is: it is very probable there is a _matter of light_ or
+    a _luminiferous ether_, diffused through all existing matter,
+    as caloric is, which is _excited by these clouds_, and _thus_
+    becomes _visible_, which is light, as latent caloric is
+    excited, and becomes sensible, by becoming _free_. Indeed it is
+    very probable _that the matter of heat and light is the same_,
+    and that heat and light are only _different modifications_ of
+    the action of the same substance, excited in a different, or
+    higher degree.]
+
+The sun has two _apparent_ motions, namely, the diurnal and annual.
+By the _former_ he appears to move round the earth in twenty-four
+hours: and by the latter he appears to traverse that circle in the
+heavens, called the ecliptic, in the course of a year. These motions,
+are, however, only apparent: the sun does not travel round the earth
+in twenty four hours: he does not change his place in the heavens at
+different seasons of the year. His apparent motions are occasioned
+by the earth's real motions. The sun's apparent diurnal motion is
+occasioned by the earth's real rotation about its axis: and the sun's
+apparent annual motion is caused by the earth's real motion in her
+orbit, through the whole of which she travels in a little less than 365
+days, and 6 hours.
+
+The fixed stars appear every twenty-four hours to make an entire
+revolution about the earth. The sun makes the same apparent circuit;
+but the apparent diurnal motion of the sun is evidently slower than
+that of the fixed stars. This appearance is occasioned by the daily
+rotation of the earth on its axis; for while it is turning once on its
+axis it advances in its orbit a whole degree; therefore it must make
+more than a complete rotation before it can come into the same position
+with the sun that it had the preceding day. In the same way, as when
+both hands of a watch set off together at any hour, as twelve o'clock,
+the minute hand must travel more than the whole circle before it can
+overtake the hour hand: hence the difference between solar and sidereal
+days, which it is important to understand in explaining the equation of
+time.
+
+Though the sun appears to us merely as a circular disk, yet he is
+a _spheroid_, higher under his equator than about his poles. The
+deception arises from this; that all the parts of his surface are
+equally luminous, and consequently there is nothing which can suggest
+to us, at the great distance he is from the earth, that the central
+parts are more prominent than the sides, although in reality, they are
+nearer by half a million of miles.
+
+This luminous body is supposed to be 886,473 English miles in diameter,
+about 2,700,000 in circumference, in solid bulk 24,000,000 times as
+big as the moon, and 1,384,462 times as big as the earth, and its
+superficies in square miles, about 2,236,603,000,000. This _magnitude_
+of the sun may appear exaggerated; for our eyes can discover nothing so
+large as the earth which we inhabit; and as to this alone we compare
+the sun, so we are tempted to believe the testimony of sense rather
+than our reason. But what confirms this prodigious size, is his visible
+magnitude, notwithstanding the vastly remote point which he occupies
+in space. And, concerning this subject, no doubt can remain, if we
+admit the calculations of astronomers, which are made on principles
+indubitably correct.
+
+The sun does not appear large; but this is owing to his _distance_
+from the earth, which is 95,513,794 miles: this is so prodigious, that
+a cannon-ball, which is known to move at the rate of eight miles in a
+minute, would be something more than twenty-two years in going from
+the earth to the sun. If a spectator were placed as near to any of the
+fixed stars as we are to our sun, he would see our sun as small as
+we see a common star, divested of its circumvolving planets; and in
+numbering the stars he would reckon it one of them. But the earth's
+orbit being an ellipse, the sun is not always at an equal distance from
+it. When he is in his apogee, that is, furthest from the earth, the sun
+is full two millions of miles further from us than when he is in his
+perigee, or nearest the earth: nevertheless, we feel greater heat than
+when he is in our winter. The difference of temperature between summer
+and winter does not depend chiefly upon our nearness to the sun, but
+upon the following causes. 1. In summer, the solar rays strike upon the
+earth more perpendicularly than in winter, and therefore they act with
+greater force than when they strike it obliquely. 2. The rays of the
+sun coming more perpendicularly in summer than in winter, have less of
+the atmosphere to pass through. 3. In the summer, the sun continues a
+longer time above the horizon than below it; and consequently there is
+time for the earth to accumulate a greater portion of heat than in the
+days of winter. We know, in the longest days, that the sun to us is
+above the horizon 16 hours; whereas, in the shortest days, it is not
+more than 8 hours visible.[114]
+
+The miraculous suspension of the natural powers of the heavenly
+bodies, as recorded in the book of Joshua, shows that they are
+upheld, controlled, and directed in their operations, by a Being who
+is infinitely wise and powerful. To account for this miracle, and to
+ascertain the _manner_ in which it was wrought, has employed the pens
+of the ablest _divines_ and _astronomers_, especially of the last
+two centuries. For the elucidation of this important fact, I shall
+transcribe the view which Dr. Adam Clarke has given of it, which he
+considers to be strictly philosophical, consonant to the Pythagorean,
+Copernican, or Newtonian system, which is the system of the universe,
+laid down in the writings of Moses.
+
+He assumes, as a thoroughly demonstrated truth, that the sun is in
+the _centre_ of the system, moving only round his own axis, and the
+common centre of the gravity of the planetary system, while all the
+planets revolve round _him_; and that his influence is the cause of the
+_diurnal_ and _annual_ revolutions of the earth.
+
+"Joshua's address is in a poetic form in the original, and makes the
+two following hemistichs:
+
+    **shmsh bgb`yn dwm**
+    **vyrch b`mq 'ylvn**
+    Shemesh, be-Gib�on dom:
+    Vyareach, be�mek Aiyalon.
+    Sun! upon Gib�on be dumb:
+    And the moon on the vale of Aiyalon.
+
+"The effect of this command is related in the following words: **vydm
+hshmsh vyrch `md** _vayiddom ha_-SHEMESH _ve_-YAREACH _�mad; And the
+sun was dumb, or silent, and the moon stood still_. And it is added,
+_And the sun stood still in the midst of heaven, and hasted not to go
+down about a whole day._
+
+"I consider, that the word **dvm** _dom_, refers to the _withholding_
+or _restraining_ this influence, so that the cessation of the earth's
+motion might immediately take place. The desire of Joshua was, that
+the sun might not sink below the horizon; but as _it_ appeared now
+to be over Gibeon, and the _moon_ to be over the valley of Ajalon,
+he prayed that they might continue in these positions till the
+battle should be ended; or, in other words, that the day should be
+miraculously lengthened out.[115]
+
+"Whether Joshua had a correct philosophical notion of the true system
+of the universe, is a subject that need not come into the present
+inquiry; but whether _he spoke_ with strict propriety on this
+occasion, is a matter of importance, because he must be considered as
+acting _under the Divine influence_, in requesting the performance of
+such a stupendous miracle: and we may safely assert, that no man in
+his right mind would have thought of offering such a petition, had he
+not felt himself under some Divine afflatus. Leaving, therefore, his
+philosophical knowledge out of the question, he certainly spoke as if
+he had known that the solar influence was the cause of the earth's
+_rotation_, and therefore, with the strictest philosophic propriety,
+he requested, that that influence might be for a time restrained,
+that the diurnal motion of the earth might be arrested, through
+which alone, the sun could be kept above the horizon, and the day be
+prolonged. His mode of expression evidently considers the sun as the
+great _ruler_ or _master_ in the system; and all the planets, (or at
+least the _earth_) moving in their respective orbits at his _command_.
+He therefore desires him, (in the name and by the authority of his
+Creator) to suspend his _mandate_ with respect to the earth's motion,
+and that of his satellite, the moon. Had he said, _Earth, stand thou
+still_--the cessation of whose diurnal motion was the _effect_ of
+his command, it could not have obeyed him; as it is not even the
+_secondary_ cause either of its annual motion round the sun, or its
+diurnal motion round its own axis. Instead of doing so, he speaks to
+the sun, the _cause_ (under God) of all these motions, as his great
+archetype did, when, in the storm on the sea of Tiberias, he rebuked
+the _wind_ first, and then said to the _waves_, Peace, be still!
+<<Si�pa, pephim�so>>, be _silent_! be _dumb_! And the effect of this
+command was, a cessation of the agitation in the _sea_, because the
+_wind_ ceased to _command_ it, that is, to exert its influence upon
+the waters.
+
+"The terms in this command are worthy of particular note: Joshua does
+not say to the sun, _Stand still_, as if he had conceived _him_ to be
+_running his race round the earth_; but, be _silent_, or _inactive_;
+that is, as I understand it, _restrain thy influence_; no longer act
+upon the earth, to cause it to revolve round its axis; a mode of
+speech which is certainly consistent with the strictest astronomical
+knowledge: and the writer of the account, whether Joshua himself, or
+the author of the Book of _Jasher_, in relating the consequence of
+this command, is equally accurate, using a word widely different, when
+he speaks of the _effect_, the retention of the solar influence had
+on the moon: in the first case, the sun was _silent_, or _inactive_,
+**dvm** _dom_; in the _latter_, the moon _stood still_, **`md**
+_�mad_. The _standing still_ of the moon, or its continuance above
+the horizon, would be the natural effect of the cessation of the
+solar influence, which obliged the earth to discontinue her diurnal
+rotation, which, of course, would arrest the moon; and thus both it
+and the sun were kept above the horizon, probably for the space of
+a whole day. As to the address to the _moon_, it is not conceived
+in the same terms as that to the _sun_, and for the most obvious
+philosophical reason: all that is said is simply, _and the moon on the
+vale of Ajalon_, which may be thus understood: 'Let the sun restrain
+his influence, or be inactive, as he appears now upon Gibeon, _that_
+the moon may continue as she appears now over the vale of Ajalon.'
+It is worthy of remark, that every word in this poetic address is
+apparently selected with the greatest caution and precision.
+
+"At the conclusion of the 13th verse, a different expression is used
+when it is said, _So, the sun stood still_, it is not **dvm**
+_dom_, but **`md** _�mad_; **vy`md hshmsh** _vai-ya�mod
+ha-shemesh_, which expression, thus varying from _that_ in the command
+of Joshua, may be considered as implying, that in order to _restrain
+his influence_, which I have assumed to be the _cause_ of the earth's
+motion, the sun himself became _inactive_, that is, ceased to revolve
+round his own axis; which revolution is, probably, one cause, not only
+of the revolution of the earth, but of all the other planetary bodies
+in our system, and might have effected all the planets at the time
+in question: but this neither could, nor did produce any disorder in
+nature; and the delay of a few hours in the whole planetary motions,
+dwindles away into an imperceptible point in the thousands of years of
+their revolutions. I need scarcely add, that the _command of Joshua
+to the sun_, is to be understood as a _prayer to God_ (from whom the
+sun derived his being and continuance) that the effect might be what
+is expressed in the command; and therefore it is said, verse 14, 'that
+the LORD HEARKENED UNTO THE VOICE OF A MAN, _for the Lord fought for
+Israel_.'"
+
+How glorious an object is the sun! too dazzling for mortal eye long to
+gaze on: the brightest visible emblem of its adorable Creator. This
+luminary rejoices to run his prescribed course, makes our day joyful,
+and without his reviving beams we should dwell in perpetual darkness.
+He, as the great source of day, distributes light and life through all
+nature. Seeds, in the bosom of the earth, feel his vegetative presence,
+and unfold themselves. By his diffusive influence he causes the vital
+juice to ascend in the tubes of trees, plants, and vegetables; and
+clothes them with their various and beautiful foliage. He nourishes the
+young fruits, gives them their fine tints, and brings them to maturity.
+At his approach, millions of insects awake into life, shine, collect
+themselves, and sport in his rays. Animals partake of his benefits,
+and without his animating beams they would sink into insensibility
+and death: even in caves and dens of the earth, his visitation gives
+life. His heat has a pleasing effect on all the juices and fluids in
+the human body, which, without his directive or impulsive energy,
+would soon become stagnant and useless. He is, by the Divine wisdom
+and goodness, placed at such a proper distance from us, that, were he
+much nearer, the blood would boil in our veins, and our bodies soon be
+either dissolved or calcined: or, were he at a much greater distance,
+we should become torpid, and presently be congealed to statues of ice.
+The very bowels of the earth partake of his influence, thus producing
+many valuable and useful metals. He penetrates the highest mountains,
+though composed of stones and rocks. He darts his beams even into the
+depths of the ocean, where the watery tribes live and play at his
+command.
+
+                                "---- O SUN;
+    Soul of surrounding worlds! in whom best seen
+    Shines out thy Maker!----
+    'Tis by thy secret, strong, attractive force,
+    As with a chain indissoluble bound,
+    Thy system rolls entire.----
+    INFORMER of the planetary train!
+    Without whose quick'ning glance their cumbrous orbs
+    Were brute unlovely mass, inert, and dead,
+    And not, as now, the green abodes of life!
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+As the sun is the greatest visible glory in the natural world, so it
+is selected by the pen of Divine inspiration as the brightest emblem
+of the Supreme Being--"The Lord God is a sun." This great luminary has
+been considered by the Heathen as the representative of the Deity,
+and as such received religious adoration. According to Mr. Bryant's
+system of Ancient Mythology, the worship of fire is nearly as old as
+the flood, having been propagated by the posterity of Ham, in Egypt,
+who called themselves Ammonians, and carried this worship with them
+wherever they went, erecting their _puratheia_, or fire-temples, in
+all their settlements. It is stated, that fire was the primitive,
+or at least the principal object of idolatrous worship, and common
+to all idolaters from the first apostasy at Babel. For the original
+institution of this sacred fire among the Chaldeans, we must go back
+to Nimrod, concerning whom the Alexandrian Chronicon asserts, that
+"the Assyrians called Nimrod, Ninus; this man taught the Assyrians to
+worship fire." From the Greeks we may trace it backwards to the Ur of
+the Chaldeans; on which the learned Classius remarks, that "Ur is the
+name of a city wherein the sacred fire was conserved and worshipped
+by the Chaldeans, whence it was called _Ur_, which otherwise
+signifies _fire_." Plutarch confesses that the Romans, in the days
+of Numa, borrowed their worship of fire from the Greeks at Athens
+and Delphi. Numa built a temple of an orbicular form, to represent,
+as Plutarch interprets, the system of the heavens; which temple was
+the conservatory of a holy and perpetual fire, kindled at first by
+the reflections of the sun-beams, and placed in the centre of the
+building; the astronomy of that early period placing the sun in the
+centre of the world. Fire has such an affinity to light, that the same
+word has sometimes comprehended them both. The _Ur_ of the Chaldeans
+was _fire_; the _Horus_ of the Egyptians was _light_: and the reason
+is plain, because fire and light are united at the body of the sun,
+and by him diffused over the world. If, therefore, we consider fire
+as called into action by the sun, and bear in mind that the ancient
+Pythagoreans used the same term <<PYR>> to denote both fire and the
+sun,[116] we shall get at the root of most of the heathen mythologic
+divinity.
+
+So universal was the attachment to this fire, that Macrobius undertook
+to reduce the names of all the heathen deities to the one object of the
+sun and its attributes. He says, "The Egyptians consecrated a lion in
+that part of the heavens where the heat of the sun is most powerful,
+because that animal seems to derive his nature from the sun, excelling
+all other creatures in fire and force, as the sun exceeds the other
+lights of heaven. His eyes, likewise, are bright and fiery, as the
+sun with a bright and fiery aspect surveys the world. The Lybians
+represented their Jupiter Hammon, which was the setting sun, with the
+horns of a ram, with which that animal exerts its strength, as the sun
+acts by its rays. The worship of Egypt abundantly shows, that the bull
+is to be referred to the sun; which is plain from the worship of a bull
+at Heliopolis, the city of the sun; and of the bull Apis at Memphis,
+where it was an emblem of the sun; and of the other bull called Pacis,
+consecrated in the magnificent temple of Apollo at Hermunthis."[117]
+
+Wheresoever fire was worshipped in the puratheia of antiquity after
+the manner of Numa, we may suppose that there the true solar system
+prevailed, which places the solar fire in the centre; and that this
+was really the universal opinion of the most ancient Heathens.
+This doctrine agrees with the name which they gave to the sun in
+his physical capacity, calling him _cor coeli_, the heart of the
+heaven;[118] which illustration and allusion is probably of very great
+antiquity, because it cannot with any propriety be applied to the more
+modern Ptolemaic hypothesis. The analogy is very striking; for as the
+heart is the centre of the animal system, so is the sun in the centre
+of our world: as the heart is the fountain of the blood, so is the sun
+the source of light and fire: as the heart is the life of the body, so
+is the sun the life and heat of animated nature, and the first mover
+of the mundane system: when the heart ceases to beat, the circuit
+of life is at an end; and if the sun should cease to act, a total
+stagnation would take place throughout the whole frame of nature.
+Macrobius, pursuing this analogy, says, "We have before observed,
+that the sun is called the fountain of the ethereal fire; therefore
+the sun is in the heavens, what the heart is in animals." Since the
+circulation of the blood has been known, this analogy has been taken
+up with advantage by the celebrated Hervey himself, who, first of all
+the moderns, explained to us with sufficient accuracy this branch of
+natural philosophy. He observes, that the heart of animals is the
+foundation of life, the chief ruler of all things in the animal
+system, the sun of the microcosm, from which flows all its strength
+and vigor. The philosophers of antiquity called the sun the heart of
+the microcosm; the moderns call the heart the sun of the microcosm.
+There must be something very striking in the analogy which is thus
+convertible, and has been taken up at both ends by such different
+persons, at such remote periods of time.
+
+The savage philosophy of America seems to have comprehended in it the
+relation, which we have already noticed, between the animal system and
+the frame of nature. Acosta, in his History of the Indies, reports,
+that in the human sacrifices of the Mexicans, the high priest pulled
+out the heart with his hands, which he showed smoking to the sun, to
+whom he offered this heat and fume of the heart, and presently he
+turned towards the idol, and cast the heart at his face. A very highly
+esteemed correspondent in Ceylon writes, There is a cast of people
+inhabiting this island who live wild in the woods, and worship fire
+as an emblem of purity; they are called Vandals, and several English
+officers have met a premature death by intruding near the holy fire,
+which is under a tamarind tree.
+
+With the Persians fire was an object of worship from the earliest
+times, under the name of _Amanus_, and _Mithas_; and it is retained as
+such at this day by the Geberrs, Gaurs, Guebres, or Ghebers, a sect of
+Indian philosophers. Pottinger says, "At the city of Yezd, in Persia,
+which is distinguished by the appellation of the Dar�b Abadut, or
+seat of Religion, the Guebres are permitted to have an Atush Kudu, or
+Fire Temple (which, they assert, has had the sacred fire in it since
+the days of Zoroaster), in their own compartment of the city; but for
+this indulgence they are indebted to the avarice, not the tolerance
+of the Persian government, which taxes them at twenty-five rupees
+each man." Hanway informs us, that the Ghebers suppose the throne of
+the Almighty is seated in the sun, and hence their worship of that
+luminary. "As to fire," says Grose, "the Ghebers place the spring-head
+of it in that globe of fire, the sun, by them called Mithras, or
+Mihir, to which they pay the highest reverence, in gratitude for the
+manifold benefits flowing from his ministerial omniscience. But they
+are so far from confounding the subordination of the servant with the
+majesty of the Creator, that they not only attribute no sort of sense
+or reasoning to the sun or fire, in any of its operations, but consider
+it as a purely passive blind instrument, directed and governed by the
+immediate impression on it of the will of God; but they do not even
+give that luminary, all glorious as it is, more than the second rank
+among his works, reserving the first for the stupendous production of
+the Divine power, the mind of man." The temples are generally built
+over subterraneous fires. Rabbi Benjamin observes, "Early in the
+morning, they (the Parsees or Ghebers of Ouham) go in crowds to pay
+their devotions to the sun, to whom upon all the altars are spheres
+consecrated, made by magic, resembling the circles of the sun; and,
+when the sun rises, these orbs seem to be inflamed, and turn round with
+a great noise. Every one has a censer in his hands, and offers incense
+to the sun."
+
+It is not a little surprising that the descendants of faithful Abraham,
+taken into covenant with God, should fall under the influence of this
+idolatrous worship! The apostasy of the Israelites in the wilderness
+from the true God to the golden calf, was occasioned by a previous
+attachment to the sacred rites of the Egyptian idolatry. And the
+calves which were afterwards set up in Dan and Bethel, were probably
+derived from the same source. The Israelites were not only cautioned
+against this worship, but, if the charge of idolatry brought against
+an Israelite was proved by unequivocal facts and competent witnesses,
+it affected his life. Such was the progress of this idolatrous worship
+among this people at one period, that Josiah, king of Judah, took away
+out of the temple of the Lord the horses, and burned the chariots,
+which the kings, his predecessors, had consecrated to the sun. Job,
+in allusion to this vile worship, says, "If I beheld the sun when
+it shined, or the moon walking in brightness; if my heart hath been
+secretly enticed, or my mouth hath kissed my hand:[119] this also were
+an iniquity to be punished by the judge: for I should have denied the
+God that is above." Ezekiel, in a vision, saw "at the door of the
+temple of the Lord, between the porch and the altar, about five and
+twenty men, with their backs toward the temple of the Lord, and their
+faces toward the east: and they worshipped the sun toward the east," in
+imitation of the Egyptians, Persians, and other Eastern nations.
+
+While the heathen have thus paid idolatrous worship to the sun, some
+persons, believing in the truth of revealed religion, have entertained
+strange notions concerning this luminary. It is remarkable, observes
+a polite writer, that whilst some of the ancients imagined the _sun_
+to be the seat of future blessedness, from Psal. xix, 14, "He set his
+tabernacle in the sun," a Mr. Swinden, among the moderns, endeavors
+to prove that _hell_ is seated in the sun, chiefly pleading that this
+is the grand repository of fire; that its horrible face, viewed by a
+telescope, suits the description given of the burning lake; and that
+being in the _centre_ of the system, it might be properly said that
+wicked men were _cast down into it_. But these are mere hypotheses, and
+unworthy of serious consideration.
+
+Notwithstanding this idolatrous worship of the sun, there is a sober
+and religious use to be made of this luminary; for being the greatest
+visible glory in the natural world it is selected as the brightest
+emblem of the Supreme Being--"The Lord God is a sun." An object thus
+illustrious and useful in the regular and wise economy of nature, is
+mentioned in the sacred volume as a metaphor fraught with truths of
+infinite moment, imparting wisdom to the simple, and instruction to the
+ignorant. He admirably represents the unity, glory, and bounty of God.
+
+Viewing our sun in all his paramount qualities to every material
+object in nature, how is he eclipsed and surpassed by the Sun of
+Righteousness, of whose splendor, grace, and energy this is but a faint
+emblem, and from whom issues, in bright and gentle beams, all the
+light, life, joy, and hope received and enjoyed in the Christian world.
+The one is the most magnificent creature among the vast variety of
+objects which surround us, but the other is the source of all that is
+excellent, attractive, and beneficial, in the whole range of material
+causes and effects, as well as in the nature, extent, and perpetuity of
+the kingdom of grace. The material sun runs its course from day to day,
+with unwearied regularity, activity, and ardor, and thus completes its
+circuit according to its original destination. And did not our adorable
+Saviour also finish the great career of our redemption, after he held
+performed all those miracles, and published his own everlasting gospel,
+which are the sublime and interesting themes of the sacred writers, by
+offering himself on the consecrated altar a sacrifice for the sins of
+mankind? The former diffuses light, vitality, vegetation, and felicity
+through the whole mass of animated nature in our planetary system. And
+does not the other likewise dissipate the ignorance which darkens the
+intellectual regions, enlighten our minds in all saving knowledge, and
+produce in the human heart every grace and virtue?
+
+Were our natural sun to withdraw his beams, or absent himself from
+the centre of our system for any given time, the planets would start
+out of their orbits; darkness, black as night, would instantly spread
+itself over the whole mass, and "chaos come again." And if the glorious
+Luminary of the moral world were to hide his face behind a thick cloud
+of gathering vengeance and judicial desertion, this would introduce
+into the soul alarming fears and tumultuous passions, which would exist
+in a state of opposition and conflict. Those who have been brought out
+of the darkness of ignorance, wickedness and misery, into the light
+of knowledge, holiness and happiness, by Christ, who is the light of
+the world, should be careful to walk in the light of his countenance
+all the days of their life. Does not the earth return the fructifying
+warmth of the sun, and all his genial effects, in a profusion of
+verdure, foliage, and flowers? Do not all the irrational tribes
+joyfully greet his rising every morning, and bask in his presence
+through the day with great delight? All the orbs which revolve round
+him, and are preserved and cherished in their respective spheres by his
+ministry, pay him perpetual homage by maintaining invariable harmony
+and order. And being thus taught by natural objects, what is due for
+the reception of so many mercies, surely it is an unquestionable duty
+that we guard against every thing which would prevent us doing the will
+of our best benefactor.
+
+Christian believers, rich in the bloom of holiness, and ripening for
+the harvest of glory, are said to be "clothed with the sun." It is the
+gracious promise, on which all their hopes and wishes confidently rely,
+that the "righteous shall" ultimately "shine as the sun in the kingdom
+of their Father."[120] Thus it is written, "The path of the just is as
+the shining light, that shines more and more unto the perfect day."
+In the path of the just there is a progress from a less to a greater
+light: it does not only grow clearer, but increases in clearness till
+it is light in perfection; advancing from the break of day to the sun
+rising, and then to the brightness of noon-day.
+
+    "JESUS, let all thy lovers shine,
+      illustrious as the sun,
+    And bright with borrow'd rays divine,
+      Their glorious circuit run.
+
+    Beyond the reach of mortals, spread
+      Their light where'er they go;
+    And heavenly influences shed,
+      On all the world below.
+
+    As giants, may they run their race,
+      Exulting in their might:
+    As burning luminaries, chase
+      The gloom of hellish night.
+
+    As the bright Sun of Righteousness,
+      Their healing wings display;
+    And let their lustre still increase
+      Unto the perfect day."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+_Section_ II.--THE MOON.
+
+    Names -- Dimensions -- Motions -- Seasons -- Phases --
+    Harvest Moon -- Moon's Surface -- A�rial Stones -- Eclipses --
+    Moonlight -- Epithets -- Religious Improvement.
+
+
+The _moon_ is called a _great light_, but _less_ than the sun. Moses
+does not here speak philosophically, according to her bulk, but to the
+proportion of light she affords us, which is more than all the planets
+in the solar system and all the fixed stars put together.
+
+    "He smooth'd the rough-cast moon's imperfect mould,
+    And comb'd her beamy locks with sacred gold;
+    Be thou, said he, Queen of the mournful night,--
+    And as he spoke, she rose o'erclad wish light,
+    With thousand stars attending on her train."
+
+The moon is not a primary planet, but only a satellite, or secondary
+planet, attendant on our earth, round which she revolves, and along
+with which she is carried round the sun.
+
+"The moon," says Dr. O. Gregory, "is a dark, or opake body, shining
+principally with the light she receives from the sun. If she shone by
+a light of her own, we should feel a sensible warmth from her rays;
+but it is a light reflected from the sun with which she shines, and
+is so exceedingly weak and languid, that the greatest burning glass
+will not collect enough to make any sensible degree of heat. This has
+been accounted for, and those who have gone through the computation
+assert that the light of the full moon is ninety thousand times less
+than day-light." The ancients early discovered, that the moon had no
+light of its own, but shone with that which it reflected from the sun.
+This, after Thales, was the sentiment of Anaxagoras and Empedocles, who
+thence accounted not only for the mildness of its splendor, but the
+imperceptibility of its heat, which our experiments confirm.
+
+In the Hebrew language the moon is called **yrh** _Yarah_, or, more
+strictly speaking, says Parkhurst, the _lunar light_, or _flux of
+light, reflected from the moon's body_, or _orb_. That this is the
+true sense of the word is evident from several passages of Scripture,
+one of which is, "For the precious (produce) **nrsh yrchym** _put
+forth by_--what? Not the _orbs_ of the moon surely (for the orb is but
+_one_), but _by the fluxes_ or _streams of light_ reflected from it,
+which are not only _several_ but _various_, according to the moon's
+different phases and aspects in regard to the sun and the earth. And
+this may lead us to the radical idea of the word **yrch**; for as
+**ychr** and **'chr**, **ychd** and **'chd** &c., are very nearly
+related to each other respectively, so likewise I conjecture that
+**yrch** is to **'rh**, in sense as well as in sound, and consequently
+that it signifies _to go in a track_ or _in a constant customary
+road or way_; and this affords us a good descriptive name of the
+_lunar light_; for, _Behold_, says _Bildad_ in Job, chap. xxv, 5,
+_even to the_ **yrch** or lunar light **vl' y'hyl** _and he_ (God)
+_hath not pitched a tent_ (for it); as he has for the **shmsh** or
+_solar light_. No! The _lunar_ stream has _fixed station_ from whence
+it issues, but together with the orb which reflects it, and which
+like a human _traveller_ moves now a quicker, now a slower pace, is
+continually _performing its appointed journey_, and _proceeding in a
+constant_, though regularly irregular _track_."
+
+The Greeks called the moon <<m�n�>>, which may be considered as a
+derivative from <<m�n>>. Parkhurst says, This word may be derived
+either from <<m�n�>>, _the moon_, by the phases of which the month is
+reckoned, or else it may be deduced from the Hebrew **mnh** _manah_,
+_to number_, _compute_, as being computed by the lunar phases. And it
+is probable that the first _computations_ of time were made by the
+_revolutions_ of the moon. It is obvious to remark, that not only
+these two Greek words, but also the Latin _mensis_, a month, and
+the English _moon_, _month_, are ultimately derived from the same
+Hebrew **mnh**. Leigh observes, that "the Hebrews call the moon and
+a month by the same name, because the moon is renewed every month.
+The Greeks also call <<sel�n�>>, from <<selas>>, because it every day
+renews its light." Parkhurst on the word <<sel�n�>> says, "The Greek
+etymologists, and particularly Plato, deduce it from <<selas neon>>,
+_new light_, because its light is continually renewed." But the
+learned Goguet says; "The Greeks gave to the _moon_ the name _selene_,
+which comes from the Phoenician word (**ln** or **lvn** namely) which
+signifies _to pass the night_; whence also we may observe is plainly
+derived the Latin name of the moon, _luna_." From _lun_ with the
+termination _a_, comes _luna_, and this name is given to the planet
+from her _changing_ or appearing under different phases.
+
+As to the _dimensions_ of the moon, according to the most accurate
+calculations, her diameter is 2,175 miles, the circumference 6,831
+miles, the surface contains 14,898,750 square miles, and its solidity
+5,408,246,000 cubical ones. Her bulk is equal to about a fiftieth part
+of our earth, and her mean distance from the earth is about 240,000
+miles.
+
+The _motions_ of the moon are most of them very irregular. The only
+equable motion she has, is her revolution on her own axis. The time in
+which she moves round her axis is about 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes,
+5 seconds; and her revolution through an elliptical orbit is performed
+in the same time as her rotation on her axis, moving about 2,290 miles
+every hour. Her revolution round her axis exactly in the same time
+that she goes round the earth, is the reason she always turns the same
+face towards us: she has only one day and one night in the course of a
+month. From a long series of observations, it has been ascertained that
+the moon makes a complete revolution in 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, 5
+seconds; this is called the periodical month; but, if we refer to the
+time passed from new moon to new moon again, the month consists of 29
+days, 12 hours, and 44 minutes, which is called the synodical month.
+This difference is occasioned by the earth's annual motion in its
+orbit. Thus, if the earth had no motion, the moon would make a complete
+round in 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, and 5 seconds; but while the
+moon is describing her journey the earth has passed through nearly a
+twelfth part of its orbit, which the moon must also describe before
+the two bodies come again into the same position that they before held
+with respect to the sun: this takes up so much more time as to make
+her synodical month equal to 29 days, 12 hours, and 44 minutes. The
+motions of the hour and minute hands of a watch may serve to give some
+idea of the periodical and synodical revolutions of the moon; for when
+the minute hand has performed a complete revolution, it has yet some
+distance to go to obtain a coincidence with the hour hand, similar to
+that which it had the preceding hour.
+
+We have observed that the same face is turned towards us during
+the whole of the moon's revolution, and that the other half of her
+surface is never visible to us. This arises from the two motions we
+have noticed, which, with regard to our view of the moon, appear to
+counteract each other. Her revolution round the earth is performed
+towards the _east_; while the revolution upon her own axis is performed
+towards the _west_: so that, one of these motions turns as much of her
+face from us, as the other turns towards us. And from the moon's axis
+being inclined to the plane of her orbit, sometimes one of her poles
+is inclined towards the earth, and sometimes the other: in consequence
+of which, we see more or less of her polar regions in different periods
+of her revolution. When the moon is in _perigee_, or nearest distance
+from the earth, her motion is quickest; and when in _apogee_, or most
+remote distance, her motion is slowest.
+
+The length of the day is equal to our lunar month, for all that time
+is included in one revolution round her axis. Her days and nights,
+therefore, will constantly be of the same length, or almost fifteen
+of our days each. The year will be exactly the same with our year;
+because, being an attendant on the earth, she must go round the sun
+in the same time as that does. Her difference of seasons will be much
+less than on our earth, having only a small inclination of her axis
+of six degrees and a half; so that the variation between her summer's
+heat and her winter's cold must be comparatively inconsiderable. Hence
+there will be only thirteen degrees of Torrid Zone, on some parts
+most opposite the sun, and thirteen degrees of Frigid Zone on those
+contiguous to her poles; which consequently must leave seventy-seven
+degrees for what we should call her Temperate Zones, both in the north
+and south parts from her Equator. Our earth, unquestionably, performs
+the office of a moon to the moon, waxing and waning regularly, but
+appearing thirteen times as large, and, of course, affording her
+thirteen times as much light as she does to us. When she changes to us,
+the earth appears full to her; when she is in her first quarter to us,
+the earth is in its third quarter to her; and _vice vers�_. To the moon
+the earth seems to be the largest body in the universe, and must indeed
+be a most magnificent sight.
+
+On the supposition that the moon is inhabited, it may be observed, that
+those who are placed about the middle of the surface, or face next to
+us, will constantly see our earth over their heads, and increasing and
+decreasing in light, like as the moon itself appears to us. Those who
+are situated near the borders, whether on the right or left, or upon
+the top or bottom, will also constantly have the same appearance in the
+opposite part of the horizon. But those who live on the side of the
+moon which is not presented to us, will know nothing of our earth, or
+at least, they will never have an opportunity of seeing this large and
+wonderful moon, without travelling perhaps more than 1,500 of our miles
+on the surface of that luminary. To those who live on this side of the
+moon, or travel to it on any account, as we may pass from the northern
+into the southern hemisphere of our globe, the earth, indeed, when at
+full to them, will appear to be more than three times as broad as the
+moon does to us, and to communicate, as has been already mentioned,
+about thirteen times as much light to her, as she does to us when at
+the full.
+
+The moon, possessing no native light, shines entirely by light received
+from the sun, and which is reflected to us from her surface. That half
+of her which is towards the sun is enlightened, and the other half is
+dark and invisible: hence, when she is between us and the sun, she
+disappears, because her dark side is then towards us. Whilst making
+her revolution round the heavens, she undergoes a continual change of
+appearance. She is sometimes on our meridian at midnight, and therefore
+in that part of the heavens which is opposite to the sun; when she
+appears with a face completely circular, which is called a _full
+moon_. As she moves eastward, a part of her dark side comes forward
+on the western side, and, in a little more than seven days, reaches
+to the meridian, at about six in the morning, having the appearance
+of a semi-circle, with the convex side turned towards the sun: this
+crescent gradually becomes more slender, till, about fourteen days
+after the full moon, being so near the sun, and in a line between that
+luminary and our earth, she is rendered invisible to us, from the
+superior splendor of that orb of light. About four days after this
+disappearance, she may be seen in the evening, a little to the eastward
+of the sun, in the form of a fine crescent,[121] as before, but having
+her convex side turned from the sun. Travelling still towards the
+east, the crescent becomes wider; and when advanced to the meridian,
+about six in the evening, she again bears the appearance of a bright
+semi-circle, with the same difference that we observed of the crescent,
+that is, its convex side is now turned _from_ the sun. Advancing still
+more eastward, the semi-circular moon widens into an oval shape, till
+at last, in about twenty-nine days and a half from the last opposition
+to the sun, she is again in the same situation, and appears a full moon.
+
+The following account of the _harvest moon_, so called, taken from
+the Pantalogia, will no doubt be acceptable to the reader.--It is
+remarkable that the moon, during the week in which she is full about
+the time of harvest, rises sooner after sun-setting than she does in
+any other full moon week in the year. By this means, she affords an
+immediate supply of light after sun-set, which is very beneficial for
+the harvest and gathering in the fruits of the earth; and hence this
+full moon is distinguished from all the others in the year, by calling
+it the harvest-moon.
+
+To conceive the reason of this phenomenon, it may first be considered,
+that the moon is always opposite to the sun when she is full; that she
+is full in the signs Pisces and Aries in our harvest months, those
+being the signs opposite to Virgo and Libra, the signs occupied by the
+sun about the same season; and because those parts of the ecliptic
+rise in a shorter space of time than others, as may easily be shown
+and illustrated by the celestial globe: consequently, when the moon is
+about her full in harvest, she rises with less difference of time, or
+more immediately after sun-set, than when she is full at other seasons
+of the year.
+
+In our winter, the moon is in Pisces and Aries about the time of her
+first quarter, when she rises about noon; but her rising is not then
+noticed, because the sun is above the horizon. In spring, the moon is
+in Pisces and Aries about the time of her change; at which time, as she
+gives no light, and rises with the sun, her rising cannot be perceived.
+In summer, the moon is in Pisces and Aries about the time of her last
+quarter; and then, as she is on the decrease, and rises not till
+midnight, her rising usually passes unobserved. But in autumn, the moon
+is in Pisces and Aries at the time of her full, and rises soon after
+sun-set for several evenings successively; which makes her regular
+rising very conspicuous at that time of the year.
+
+And this would always be the case, if the moon's orbit lay in the plane
+of the ecliptic. But as her orbit makes an angle of 5� 18' with the
+ecliptic, and crosses it only in the two opposite points called the
+nodes, her rising when in Pisces and Aries will sometimes not differ
+above 1h. 40min. through the whole of seven days; and at other times,
+in the same two signs, she will differ three hours and a half in the
+time of her rising in a week, according to the different positions of
+the nodes with respect to these signs; which positions are constantly
+changing, because the nodes go backward through the whole ecliptic in
+18 years 225 days.
+
+This revolution of the nodes will cause the harvest moons to go through
+a whole course of the most and least beneficial states, with respect to
+the harvest, every nineteen years. The following table shows in what
+years the harvest-moons are least beneficial as to the times of their
+rising, and in what years they are most beneficial, from the year 1790
+to 1861: the column of years under the letter L are those in which the
+harvest-moons are least of all beneficial, because they fall about
+the descending node; and those under the letter M are the most of all
+beneficial, because they fall about the ascending node.
+
+HARVEST MOONS.
+
+     L     M     L     M     L     M     L     M
+    1790  1798  1807  1816  1826  1835  1844  1853
+    1791  1799  1808  1817  1827  1836  1845  1854
+    1792  1800  1809  1818  1828  1837  1846  1855
+    1793  1801  1810  1819  1829  1838  1847  1856
+    1794  1802  1811  1820  1830  1839  1848  1857
+    1795  1803  1812  1821  1831  1840  1849  1858
+    1796  1804  1813  1822  1832  1841  1850  1859
+    1797  1805  1814  1823  1833  1842  1851  1860
+          1806  1815  1824  1834  1843  1852  1861
+                      1825
+
+When the moon is viewed through a good telescope, there appear vast
+cavities and asperities on various parts of her face, some of them
+extremely resembling deep caverns and vallies, and others mountains.
+
+    "Turn'd to the sun direct, her spotted disk
+    Shows mountains rise, umbrageous vales descend,
+    And caverns deep, as optic tube descries."
+
+The cavities, it is conjectured, do not contain water; hence it is
+concluded that there can be no extensive seas and oceans, like those
+which cover a great part of our earth. It is, however, imagined that
+there may be springs and RIVERS. The moon seems, as a learned author
+has observed, in almost every respect to be a body similar to our
+earth, to have its surface diversified by hill and dale, mountains
+and vallies, rivers and lakes. With regard to a lunar atmosphere, the
+existence of which has long been a subject of much dispute, it is
+now generally admitted.[122] The irregularity of the moon's surface,
+arising from hills and vallies, renders her more capable of reflecting
+the sun's rays to us. Though philosophers have differed widely in their
+ideas concerning the materials of the moon's mountains, some from their
+brilliancy even supposing them to be rocks of diamonds, there is no
+diversity of opinion as to their use. If smooth and polished, like a
+mirror, or covered with water, she would not reflect and distribute
+the light received from the sun. In some positions she would show us
+his image no larger than a single point, and with a lustre that would
+injure our sight: but roughened by these hills and vallies, her surface
+returns the sun's light to us in an equable and pleasant manner, and
+enables us to examine her with ease and precision.
+
+That the moon is a planet similar to our earth, is a sentiment very
+early adopted. Orpheus is the most ancient author, whose opinion on
+this subject has come down to us. Proclus presents us with three verses
+of that philosopher, wherein he positively asserts, that the moon
+was another earth, having in it mountains, vallies, &c. Pythagoras,
+who followed Orpheus in many of his opinions, taught likewise, that
+the moon was an earth like ours, replete with animals, whose nature
+he presumed not to describe, though he was persuaded they were of a
+more noble and elegant kind than ours, and not liable to the same
+infirmities. Stob�us gives us the opinion of Democritus about the
+nature of the moon, and the cause of those spots which we see upon
+its disk. That great philosopher imagined, that "those spots were
+no other than shades, formed by the excessive height of the lunar
+mountains," which intercepted the light from the lower parts of that
+planet, where the valleys formed themselves into what appeared to us
+as shades or spots. Plutarch went further, alleging, that there were
+embosomed in the moon, vast seas and profound caverns: he says, those
+deep and extensive shades which appear upon the disk of that planet,
+must be occasioned by _the vast seas_ it contains, which are incapable
+of reflecting so vivid a light, as the more solid and opake parts; "or
+by caverns extremely wide and deep, wherein the rays of the sun are
+absorbed," whence those shades and that obscurity which we call the
+spots of the moon. And Zenophanes said, that those immense cavities
+were inhabited by another race of men, who lived there just as we do
+upon earth.
+
+        "And oft I think, fair planet of the night,
+        That in thy orb the wretched may have rest."
+
+    [The height of the moon's atmosphere is supposed to be
+    1.622 miles; or a little more than a mile and a half.
+
+    The observations on the moon have been so accurate, and
+    so often repeated, by means of the best glasses, that the
+    _map of the moon_ is now considered nearly perfect. On this
+    map is laid down the position of _spots_, _cavities_, and
+    _mountains_, representing their _size_, _height_, _depth_, and
+    _peculiarities_. They are very numerous.
+
+    Some of these mountains are full _five miles high_. They
+    descend in height, from the highest to small elevations.
+
+    Several astronomers, particularly Herschell, has distinctly
+    observed and described _volcanos_ in the moon, _actually
+    flaming_; and others in an _expiring state_. _Craters_ of
+    extinct volcanos are visible, and so numerous as to indicate
+    very clearly, that volcanic action was once very extensive and
+    powerful in the moon.
+
+    Some of the _cavities_ are more than _three miles and a
+    half deep_, and sixteen broad at the surface. _Ferguson's
+    Astronomy, additional chapters by Dr. Brewster._]
+
+That stones have fallen from the _clouds_ or from much _higher
+regions_, is a fact which has recently been very closely investigated,
+and also fully demonstrated. A table, constructed by M. Izarn, a
+foreign chemist, exhibits a variety of facts of this kind, from which
+the following is an extract.
+
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  |                     |    _Places where_    |      _Period of_     |
+  |   _Substances._     |     _they fell._     |     _their fall._    |
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  |  Shower of stones.  |        At Rome.      |     Under Tullus     |
+  |                     |                      |      Hostilius.      |
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  |  Shower of stones.  |        At Rome.      | Consuls, C. Martius, |
+  |                     |                      |   and M. Torquatus.  |
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  | A very large stone. |    Near the river    |    Second year of    |
+  |                     |    Negos, Thrace.    |  the 78th Olympiad.  |
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  | Three large stones. |      In Thrace.      | Year before J.C. 452.|
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  |  Stone of 72 lbs.   |     Near Larissa,    |    January, 1706.    |
+  |                     |      Macedonia.      |                      |
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  | About 1,200 stones; |      Near Padua,     |       In 1510.       |
+  |    one 120 lbs.     |       in Italy.      |                      |
+  | Another of 60 lbs.  |                      |                      |
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  | Another of 59 lbs.  |   On Mount Vasier,   |  November 27, 1627.  |
+  |                     |       Provence.      |                      |
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  |  Two large stones,  |       Liponas,       |   September, 1753.   |
+  |  weighing 20 lbs.   |      in Bresse.      |                      |
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  |    A stony mass.    |   Niort, Normandy.   |       In 1750.       |
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  |  A stone of 7� lbs. | At Luce, in Le Maine.| September 13, 1768.  |
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  |      A stone.       |  At Aire, in Artois. |       In 1768.       |
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  |      A stone.       |    In Le Contenin.   |       In 1768.       |
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  |  Extensive shower   |   Environs of Agen.  |    July 24, 1790.    |
+  |     of stones.      |                      |                      |
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  |  About 12 stones.   |   Sienna, Tuscany.   |     July, 1794.      |
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  |    A large stone    |     Wold Cottage,    |  December 13, 1795.  |
+  |     of 56 lbs.      |       Yorkshire.     |                      |
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  | A stone of 10 lbs.  |     In Portugal.     |  February 19, 1796.  |
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  | A stone of 120 lbs. |   Sal�, Department   |   March 17, 1798.    |
+  |                     |     of the Rhone.    |                      |
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  |  Shower of stones.  | Benares, East Indies.|  December 19, 1798.  |
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  |  Shower of stones.  |    At Plann, near    |    July 3, 1753.     |
+  |                     |    Tabor, Bohemia.   |                      |
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  |    Mass of iron,    |       America.       |    April 5, 1800.    |
+  |   70 cubic feet.    |                      |                      |
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  |     Mass of do.     |  Abakauk, Siberia.   |      Very old.       |
+  |    14 quintals.     |                      |                      |
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  | Shower of stones.   |      Barboutan,      |     July, 1789.      |
+  |                     |    near Roquefort.   |                      |
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  |     Large stone,    |      Ensisheim,      |  November 7, 1492.   |
+  |       260 lbs.      |     Upper Rhine.     |                      |
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  |     Two stones,     |     Near Verona.     |       In 1762.       |
+  |  200 and 300 lbs.   |                      |                      |
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  | A stone of 20 lbs.  |      Sales, near     |   March 12, 1798.    |
+  |                     |    Ville Franche.    |                      |
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  |     Several do.     |     Near L�Aigle,    |   April 26, 1803.    |
+  | from 10 to 17 lbs.  |       Normandy.      |                      |
+  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
+
+The stones generally appear luminous in their descent, moving in
+oblique directions, with very great velocities, and commonly with a
+hissing noise. They are frequently heard to explode, or burst, and
+seem to fly in pieces, the larger parts falling first. They often
+strike the earth with such force, as to sink several inches below the
+surface. They are always different from the surrounding bodies, but is
+every case are similar to one another, being semi-metallic, coated with
+a thin black encrustation. They bear strong marks of recent fusion.
+Chemists have found, on examining these stones, that they very nearly
+agree in their nature and composition, and in the proportions of their
+component parts.
+
+Their specific gravities are generally about three or four times that
+of water, being heavier than common stones. From the above account,
+it is reasonable to conclude, that they have all the same origin. I
+believe it is generally agreed among philosophers, that all these
+a�rial stones, chemically analysed, evince the same properties;
+and that no stone, found on our earth, possesses exactly similar
+properties, nor in the same proportions: this is an extraordinary
+circumstance, and deserves particular notice. At the sitting of the
+Society of Natural History at Halle, July 6, 1816, M. Chladni submitted
+to the inspection of the members present, a collection of meteoric
+stones, or stones fallen from the atmosphere; and to the exhibition, he
+added his own observations on their nature and formation. Dr. K�stner,
+taking up the subject in the same point of view which M. Chladni had
+given of it, admitted that these stones are not natives of this earth,
+but of other celestial bodies; to which he added, that the chemical
+analysis of them proves, that many of the same substances as are found
+in our mountains, and among the solids of our globe, are also component
+parts of the solids and mountains of other globes; certainly of those
+celestial bodies which are nearest to us; and probably of the others
+which form our planetary system.
+
+That these stones are projected from lunar volcanos, very strong
+reasons have been assigned to prove. As 1. Volcanos in the moon have
+been observed by means of the telescope. 2. The lunar volcanos are
+very high, and the surface of that globe suffers frequent changes,
+as appears by the late observations of Schro�ter. 3. If a body be
+projected from the moon to a distance greater than that of the point
+of equilibrium, between the attraction of the earth and the moon,
+it will, on the known principles of gravitation, fall to the earth.
+4. That a body may be projected from the lunar volcanos beyond the
+moon's influence, is not only possible, but very probable; for on
+calculation it is found, that four times the force usually given to a
+twelve pounder, will be quite sufficient for this purpose: it is to
+be observed, that the point of equilibrium is much nearer; and that a
+projectile from the moon will not be so much retarded as one from the
+earth, both on account of the moon's rarer atmosphere, and its less
+attractive force.[123]
+
+Of all the phenomena of the heavens, there are none which engage the
+attention of mankind more than _eclipses_ of the sun and moon; and to
+those who are unacquainted with the principles, nothing can appear more
+extraordinary than the accuracy, even to a second of time, with which
+they are predicted. Eclipses of the sun are occasioned by the shadow of
+the intervening new moon falling on the earth, and those of the moon
+are caused by the shadow of the earth falling on the full moon, the
+earth at the full moon being always in a direction between the sun and
+moon.
+
+It is ascertained that, for an eclipse of the sun to be annular, the
+most favorable circumstances will be when the sun is in perigee, and
+the moon in apogee; and, for an eclipse to be total, the most favorable
+case is when the sun is in apogee, and the moon in perigee. The motion
+of the moon being much swifter than that of the earth, and the motions
+of both being directed from west to east, an eclipse of the sun must
+always begin in the western edge of the sun; and as the moon is a great
+deal less than the earth, her shadow forms a cone, the section of which
+is much less than the earth, so that a small portion of the earth only
+can, at any time, be involved in the shadow at one time. Hence it is,
+that an eclipse of the sun is not perceived, at the same instant, in
+every part of the hemisphere that is turned towards the sun, and that,
+in some parts, it will not be seen at all. For instance, a friend of
+mine, writing from Ceylon in the month of May, (1817,) says, "On the
+16th of this month, we had a fine sight of an eclipse of the sun about
+noon: I think about 3-4ths of the surface were covered." But in this
+country we had no solar eclipse at the same time. Again, in different
+situations, different parts of the sun's disk will appear eclipsed;
+but, on the contrary, an eclipse of the moon is perceived, at the same
+moment, in every part of the earth where this planet is visible, and
+appears every where to occupy the same portion of her disk. Hence,
+eclipses of the sun are much less frequent in any particular place than
+eclipses of the moon.
+
+If the nodes of the moon constantly corresponded with the same points
+in the heavens, the eclipses of the sun or moon might be expected in
+the same months, and even on the same days; but as the nodes shift
+backwards, or contrary to the earth's annual motion, about 19� degrees
+in a year, the same node will come round about nineteen days sooner
+every year than in the preceding. From the time, therefore, when the
+ascending node passes by the sun, as seen from the earth, there will be
+only 173 days before the descending node passes by him. If, then, at
+any time of the year, we have eclipses about either of the nodes, their
+return may be expected in about 173 days, in or near the other.
+
+It may be further observed, that, after the sun, moon, and nodes, have
+been once in a line of conjunction, they will return nearly to the same
+state again in 228 lunations, or eighteen years and ten days; so that
+the same node which was in conjunction with the sun and moon at the
+beginning of the first of these lunations, will be within less than
+half a degree of the line of conjunction with the sun and moon again,
+when the last of these lunations is completed. In that time, therefore,
+there will be a regular period of eclipses for many ages.
+
+These things being properly considered, it will not be difficult to
+conceive how astronomers are able to foretell the exact time when any
+phenomenon of this kind will happen; for, as an eclipse can only take
+place at the time of a new or full moon, the principal requisites are,
+to determine the number of mean conjunctions and oppositions that
+will happen every year, and the true places of the sun and moon in
+their orbits at each of those times. And, if from this, when proper
+calculations have been made, it appears that the two luminaries are
+within the proper limits of the node, there will be an eclipse.
+To facilitate these operations, we have astronomical tables ready
+computed, by which the places of the heavenly bodies, and every other
+particular required, may be easily found for any given instant of
+time.[124]
+
+With delight we reflect on the invaluable benefits which this _lesser
+light_ confers on our globe. She sometimes appears visible in the
+presence of the sun; but how faint and pale is her shining! God has
+appointed her to _rule the night_, and give light to men. How cheerless
+and uncomfortable would our nights be, were we destitute of the light
+which this faithful and inseparable companion of our earth dispenses!
+How strange are her eclipses, occasioned by the earth interposing
+and shading her face! but, they are highly useful in astronomical,
+geographical, and chronological calculations. How salutary, too, is her
+attractive influence, which sways the ocean, and actuates the world
+of waters; causing the swelling of the tides, and perpetuating the
+regular returns of ebb and flow; by which the liquid element itself
+is preserved from putrefaction, and the surrounding continents from
+infection and disease.
+
+A moonlight night has led the greatest poets in every age to vie with
+each other in attempting to describe its beauty and use. Among all
+the treasures of modern poetry, I know not one superior, for pleasing
+imagery, and variety of numbers, to that of Milton:
+
+    "Now came still evening on, and twilight grey
+    Had in her sober livery all things clad.
+                    Now glowed the firmament
+    With living sapphires: Hesperus, that led
+    The starry host, rode brightest, till the Moon,
+    Rising in clouded majesty, at length,
+    Apparent queen, unveiled her peerless light.
+    And o'er the dark her silver mantle threw."
+
+Homer, in the eighth book of the Iliad, gives us a description of a
+fine moonlight night, which is esteemed a master-piece of nocturnal
+painting. Milton's pencil leaves off where that of Homer begins:
+
+    "As when the Moon, refulgent lamp of night,
+    O'er heaven's clear azure sheds her sacred light;
+    When not a breath disturbs the deep serene,
+    And not a cloud o'ercasts the solemn scene;
+    Around her throne the vivid planets roll,
+    And stars unnumbered gild the glowing pole;
+    O'er the dark trees a yellower verdure shed,
+    And tip with silver every mountain's head;
+    Then shine the vales; the rocks in prospect rise;
+    A flood of glory bursts from all the skies;
+    The conscious swains rejoicing in the sight,
+    Eye the blue vault, and bless the useful light."
+
+The wise Son of Sirach, although his writings are not admitted into
+the sacred canon, deserves to be heard on this subject. He says, "The
+Lord made the moon also to serve in her season, for a declaration of
+times, and a sign of the world. From the moon is the sign of feasts,
+a light decreaseth in her perfection. The month is called after her
+name, increasing wonderfully in her changing, being an instrument of
+the armies above, shining in the firmament of heaven; the beauty of
+heaven, the glory of the stars, an ornament giving light to the highest
+places of the Lord. At the commandment of the Holy One they will stand
+in their order, and never faint in their watches." This is paraphrased
+with great elegance and spirit by Mr. Broome:
+
+    "By thy command the moon, as day-light fades,
+    Lifts her broad circle in the deep'ning shades;
+    Arrayed in glory, and enthroned in light,
+    She breaks the solemn terrors of the night;
+    Sweetly inconstant in her varying flame,
+    She changes still, another, yet the same!
+    Now in decrease, by slow degrees she shrouds
+    Her fading lustre in a vale of clouds;
+    Now of increase, her gathering beams display
+    A blaze of light, and give a paler day;
+    Ten thousand stars adorn her glittering train,
+    Fall when she falls, and rise with her again;
+    And o'er the deserts of the sky unfold
+    Their burning spangles of sidereal gold:
+    Through the wide heavens she moves serenely bright,
+    Queen of the gay attendants of the night:
+    Orb above orb in sweet confusion lies,
+    And with a bright disorder paints the skies."
+
+Many striking epithets have been given to this refulgent lamp of the
+night, some of which are noticed by Nichols in his Conference with
+a Theist. Tully asserts, that the moon was called _Diana_, because
+she made a day of the night, whilst all other stars did not make a
+twilight. �schylus, a tragic poet, born at Athens 397 before the
+Christian era, calls her <<presbyston astr�n>>, the ancient, the
+governess, or mother of the stars. Apollinaris, bishop of Hierapolis,
+in Phrygia, about A.D. 171, denominates her, <<nychi�n basileia
+atarp�n>>, the queen of the nightly paths. Tynesius, who flourished
+A.C. 400, styles her, <<poim�n nychi�n the�n>>, the princess of
+the nocturnal gods: which is consonant to Horace's lucidum coeli
+decus--syderum regina. Virgil likewise calls her, astrorum decus, the
+ornament of the stars. Seneca terms her, obscuri dea clara mundi, the
+bright goddess of the obscure world; and also clarumque coeli sydus et
+noctis decus, the bright star of heaven, and the grace of the night.
+Statius, who lived at Rome in the reign of Domitian, in his Thebais,
+terms her, arcan� moderatrix Cynthia noctis, the moon the governess of
+silent night. "Fair as the moon," was an ancient manner of describing
+beauty, and, it is said, still prevails in the East.
+
+Among the ancients, observes Mr. Butler, the moon was an object of
+prime respect. By the Hebrews, she was more regarded than the sun,
+and they were more inclined to worship her as a deity. The _new_
+moons, or first days of every month, were observed as festivals among
+them, which were celebrated with sound of trumpets, entertainments,
+and sacrifice. The moon was the goddess of the Phoenicians, whom
+they worshipped under the name Ashtoreth, or Astarte. The moon is
+sometimes in Scripture styled, the "queen of heaven." She is likewise
+styled, "the goddess of the Zidonians," and "the abomination of the
+Zidonians," as she was worshipped very much in Zidon, or Sidon, a
+famous city of the Phoenicians, situated upon the eastern coast of
+the Mediterranean. Solomon, who had many wives that were foreigners,
+was prevailed upon by them to introduce the worship of this goddess
+into Israel, and he built her a temple on the mount of Olives,
+which, on account of this and other idols, is called "the mount of
+corruption."[125] Milton says,
+
+                              "There stood
+    Her temple on th' offensive mountain, built
+    By that uxorious king, whose heart, though large,
+    Beguil'd by fair idolatresses, fell,
+    To idols foul."
+
+The _full_ moon was held favorable for any undertaking by the Spartans;
+and no motives could induce them to enter upon an expedition, march
+an army, or attack an enemy, till the _full_ of the moon. It is usual
+with the modern Arabians to begin their journeys at the _new_ moon; a
+practice which, indeed, appears to be very ancient. When the Shunammite
+proposed going to Elisha, her husband dissuaded her by observing that
+it was neither _new_ moon nor sabbath.
+
+1. The _moon_ is an emblem of the _church_ of God, which receives
+its light from Christ as the moon does from the sun. Especially, of
+the Jewish dispensation, which consisted much in the observation
+of new moons, its solemn feasts being governed by them. The Jewish
+dispensation was a veiled and shadowy one: Christ and the blessings
+of the covenant of grace were revealed in dark promises, obscure
+prophecies, types and ceremonies, which were all significant figures of
+that grace which should be displayed, with fulness and evidence, under
+the Christian dispensation. The Jewish economy exhibits such marks of
+imperfection, as show the necessity of some new revelation to supply
+its defects. Its rites and precepts seem to be particularly suited to
+the condition, capacity, temper and genius of that particular people,
+for whom they were first formed, but not to be calculated for general
+use. It consisted chiefly of external performances, such as washings,
+sacrifices, and oblations, which could not purify the conscience, nor,
+indeed, satisfy the reason of man. The provision for sin, by way of
+atonement, was partial, and not thoroughly effectual: for some sins no
+sacrifice was admitted; and though sacrifice, where it was appointed,
+might atone for ceremonial impurity, yet the inward guilt and
+defilement still remained, and the justice of God was not satisfied.
+Yet the observance of these was enjoined in a very awful manner. The
+omission of what was prescribed by these laws, or even a defect in
+observing the minute circumstances of them, was made a capital crime,
+or rendered the delinquents liable to be cut off from the congregation.
+The Apostle styles the whole code of these laws, "a yoke of bondage;"
+and says, that, previous to the coming of Christ, the Jews were in
+bondage under what he terms "the beggarly elements of the world."
+
+There were indeed wise reasons for such a dispensation: to keep the
+Jews a distinct people, and preserve them from idolatry, while they
+were continually employed in the service of God; to remind them of
+their obligations to purity, inward and outward holiness; and, as a
+schoolmaster, to bring them to Christ; the law being a type and shadow
+of that "truth and grace which came by Jesus Christ," who was "the end
+of the law for righteousness." On which account, the law of Moses was
+not perpetual, but a temporary institution: thus the Apostle reasons,
+"There is verily a disannulling of the commandment going before for
+the weakness and unprofitableness thereof; for," as he says in another
+place, "the law could not in any wise make the comers thereunto
+perfect." He calls the law, "a shadow of good things to come." The
+Levitical ceremonies led the Jewish church into the knowledge of the
+promised Messiah, and what he was to do, suffer, purchase, and apply.
+Hence the words of St. Peter, "Of which salvation the prophets have
+inquired and searched diligently, who prophesied of the grace that
+should come unto you: searching what or what manner of time the Spirit
+of Christ which was in them did signify, when it testified beforehand
+the sufferings of Christ, and the glory that should follow. Unto whom
+it was revealed, that not to themselves, but unto us they did minister
+the things which are now reported unto you by them that have preached
+the gospel unto you, with the Holy Ghost sent down from heaven." The
+Christian dispensation is attended with greater clearness. We have
+a far more comprehensive knowledge of the glorious Redeemer, in his
+person, natures, offices, and blessings; of the spiritual nature of his
+kingdom, and the way of salvation through faith in him, than what the
+Jews had. Thus the Apostle says, "But we all with open face beholding
+as in a glass the glory of the Lord, are changed into the same image,
+from glory to glory, even as by the Spirit of the Lord."
+
+In the Revelation, we have this representation given of the Christian
+church: "And there appeared a great wonder in heaven; a woman clothed
+with the sun, and the moon under her feet, and upon her head a crown of
+twelve stars." An author, quoted by Dr. A. Clarke, gives the following
+elucidation of this passage.--That the woman here represents the true
+church of Christ, most commentators are agreed. In other parts of the
+Apocalypse, the pure church of Christ is evidently pourtrayed by a
+woman. In chapter xix, verse 7, a great multitude are represented as
+saying, "Let us be glad and rejoice, and give honor to him; for the
+marriage of the Lamb is come, and his _wife_ hath made herself ready."
+In chapter xxi, 9, an angel talks with St. John, saying, "Come hither,
+I will show thee the _bride_, the Lamb's wife." That the Christian
+Church is meant will appear also from her being "clothed with the
+sun," a striking emblem of Jesus Christ, the Sun of Righteousness,
+the light and glory of the Church; for the countenance of the Son of
+God is, as "the sun shineth in his strength." The woman has the "moon
+under her feet." Bishop Newton understands this of the Jewish typical
+worship; and, indeed, the Mosaic system of rites and ceremonies could
+not have been better represented. The moon is the less light, ruling
+over the night, and deriving all its illumination from the sun: in like
+manner, the Jewish dispensation was the bright moonlight night of the
+world, and possessed a portion of the glorious light of the gospel.
+At the rising of the sun the night is ended, and the lunar light no
+longer necessary as the sun which enlightens her shines full upon the
+earth: exactly in the same way has the whole Jewish system of types
+and shadows been superseded by the birth, life, crucifixion, death,
+resurrection, ascension, and intercession of Jesus Christ. Upon the
+head of the woman is "a crown of twelve stars;" a very significant
+representation of the _twelve apostles_, who were the first founders of
+the Christian church; and by whom the gospel was preached in a great
+part of the Roman empire with astonishing success.
+
+2. The phenomenon of the moon is _mutability_. This beautiful luminary,
+whose gentle beams render the summer evenings still more agreeable, and
+in the winter nights cheer the abodes of solitude, and aid the midnight
+traveller, is perpetually changing. In this, and in nothing but this,
+observes Mr. Basely, she is invariable, and a perfect index to all
+within her orbit. This should teach us, says Mr. Browne, that there is
+not any thing permanent in the present scene. Mutability is engraved in
+legible characters upon every earthly object. Every thing is in motion,
+and assuming a different appearance, whilst vicissitude and change wait
+on the affairs of mortals. Such is the fluctuating state of the present
+world, whether we view kingdoms in general, or the personal concerns of
+men in particular.
+
+But while these things are fortuitous as to man, we should reflect that
+they are under the direction and control of a Divine providence. The
+prosperous issue of all our designs and enterprises depends entirely
+on the sovereign disposer of events. "Except the Lord build the house,
+they labor in vain that build it; except the Lord keep the city, the
+watchman waketh but in vain." "A man's heart deviseth his way; but the
+Lord directeth his steps;" the result of his designs and projects being
+under the dominion and direction of God. Whether his undertaking shall
+succeed or fail, belongs alone to the Most High to determine. Let as
+arrange our worldly concerns in the most prudent and politic manner,
+so that there shall appear the greatest probability of success, yet
+God has the ordering of the event. Solomon has long since observed,
+that, amongst the many vanities under the sun, one is, "the race is
+not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to
+the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favor to men
+of skill: but time and chance happeneth to them all." Some unforeseen
+circumstance may interrupt our pursuit, and disappoint our expectation.
+So great is the uncertainty which attends all human affairs, and all
+future events are concealed in such thick darkness, that we can never
+positively affirm that this or the other scheme, however wisely laid,
+cannot be frustrated, or that it is impossible the success should be
+otherwise than as we calculate. No man knows what shall be on the
+morrow; the only thing we know previously is, that every event shall be
+as God is pleased to settle it.
+
+This consideration, that it is not by our own choice and foresight, but
+the will and wisdom of God, our affairs are directed and determined,
+we should apply to ourselves. We are not competent to mark out our own
+ways, nor can we seriously imagine that matters should be arranged
+exactly according to our imperfect views and secret inclinations; but
+we should refer ourselves to his guidance who cannot err, and willingly
+acquiesce in his providential decisions: saying, "I know, oh Lord, that
+the way of man is not in himself: it is not in man that walketh to
+direct his own steps." We are commanded by the Apostle James to say,
+"If the Lord will, we shall live, and do this, or that." And Solomon's
+advice is, "Trust in the Lord with all thine heart; and lean not unto
+thine own understanding. In all thy ways acknowledge him, and he shall
+direct thy paths." Concerning all our lawful designs, enterprises, and
+projects, we may pray, "Establish thou the work of our hands upon us;
+yea, the work of our hands establish thou it."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+_Section_ III.--THE SEASONS.
+
+    Seasons: Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter -- Displaying
+    Divine Power, Wisdom, Goodness, Faithfulness -- Religious
+    Improvement.
+
+The Divine Architect appointed the sun and moon the places of their
+rising, the circuits they were to run, and where they were to go down:
+he marked out the line in which they were to move through all the
+different climates of the earth. They instantly obeyed his all-powerful
+word, and have ever since acted faithfully to his command. In their
+operations, they measure out our days and nights, distinguish between
+different periods of time, and produce the several seasons of the year.
+
+    "With what an awful world-revolving power
+    Were first th' unwieldy planets launched along
+    Th' illimitable void! Thus to remain
+    Amid the flux of many thousand years,
+    That oft has swept the toiling race of men
+    And all their labored monuments away,
+    Firm, unremitting, matchless in their course;
+    To the kind tempered change of night and day,
+    And of the seasons ever stealing round,
+    Minutely faithful."
+
+God is the supreme ruler in the kingdom of nature, and the constant
+changes of day and night, summer and winter, seed-time and harvest, are
+appointed and regulated by his providential influence. This wonderful
+and stupendous system, consisting of matter, is preserved by motion.
+Deprive it of motion, and, as a system, it must expire. Who, then,
+breathed into this amazing combination of things acting together, the
+life of motion? What power impelled the planets to move, since motion
+is not a property of the matter of which they are composed? Did not
+annual observation familiarize it to us (to speak unphilosophically),
+who that observes the sun going in appearance further from us during
+six months in succession, and all that time decreasing in light and
+heat, could ever think that he would again return to us? What hinders
+his projection into boundless space, till he should appear no larger
+than a star, or get beyond the reach of our powers of vision? What,
+but the immediate control of God! for this is a work superior to all
+created strength, and only to be effected by almighty energy.[126]
+
+When we have seen that glorious lamp of heaven, the great ruler of the
+day, gone so far from us that we scarcely knew how to stand before
+the cold, how has his return revived and cheered us, visiting the
+frozen earth with his friendly beams, infusing a genial warmth into
+every creature, and inspiring us with the pleasing hope of once more
+enjoying those various fruits of the earth, which are the liberal gifts
+of an indulgent Providence! It is the Divine Being who commands the
+sun to rise, who, "coming out of his chamber" in the east, rejoices
+as a strong man to run a race. Again, he bids this glorious orb to
+withdraw, and obscure his beauty behind thick clouds, or sink below
+the western ocean; when, behold, the day is covered with darkness, and
+night succeeds. At his sovereign command, the glowing summer recedes,
+and winter approaches with chilling aspect. "He sends his snow like
+wool, and scattereth his hoar frost like ashes. He casteth forth his
+ice like morsels: who can stand before his cold?" He then recalls the
+solar influence, scatters the inauspicious clouds, thaws the frozen
+ridges of the field; the corn springs up and flourishes, and the heart
+of man rejoices with the pleasing hope of a plenteous harvest. Thus
+does the almighty Creator, and beneficent Governor of the world, order
+and regulate the constant succession of the seasons; his Providence
+over-rules and directs the whole movement, and nothing can come to pass
+without his superintendence.
+
+Reason, as well as supernatural revelation, asserts the reality of a
+Divine providence. The happiest inquirers into the phenomena of nature
+have discovered that every thing is made with the justest proportion,
+and that the whole machine is directed according to the most exact
+rules: but they have also perceived a power above and beyond the energy
+of natural principles, and which could not possibly be accounted for
+any other way than by admitting an immediate act or influence of the
+supreme Being. In the revolving of the celestial orbs, we observe an
+exact agreement with the established laws of mechanism: but, yet, there
+is a force demonstrable in them which is altogether immechanical; and,
+consequently, immediately issuing from God himself.
+
+The remarks made by Dr. A. Clarke on this point, will, it is presumed,
+gratify the intelligent reader. "The _double motion_ of a primary
+planet, namely, its _annual_ revolution and _diurnal_ rotation, is
+one of the greatest wonders the science of astronomy presents to our
+view.--The laws which regulate the latter of these motions are so
+completely hid from man, notwithstanding his present great extension
+of philosophic research, that the times which the planets employ in
+their rotations can only be determined by observation. How is it that
+two motions, so essentially different from each other, should be in
+the same body, at the same time, without one interfering at all with
+the other?--No astronomer, since the foundation of the world, has been
+able to demonstrate that the earth's motion in the heavens is at all
+accelerated or retarded by the diurnal rotation; or, on the other hand,
+that the earth's motion on its axis experiences the least irregularity
+from the annual revolution."
+
+The rotation of the earth round its own axis, from west to east, once
+in 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4 seconds, is the cause of the distinction
+between day and night, by bringing the different parts of the earth's
+surface successively into, and from under the solar rays. And the
+revolution of the earth round the sun, from any equinox or solstice to
+the same point again, in 365 days, 48 minutes, 48 seconds, produces
+the agreeable vicissitudes of the seasons, and measures the length of
+our year. For though the revolution is that of the earth, yet both
+the hours of the day and night, the different lengths of the days
+and nights, and the seasons of the year, cannot be determined but by
+the heavenly bodies. Thus the earth has a two-fold motion, like a
+chariot-wheel; for while it goes forward on its annual journey, it is
+still in its diurnal motion turning upon its own centre. But it differs
+from the motion of a chariot-wheel in this: that its hourly motion in
+its orbit is 75,222 miles; and that by the motion upon its axis, the
+inhabitants on the equator are carried after the rate of 1,042 miles an
+hour, and those upon the parallel of London 580 miles.
+
+The Dr. proceeds, "How wonderful is this contrivance! and what
+incalculable benefits result from it! The uninterrupted and equable
+diurnal rotation of the earth gives us day and night in their
+succession, and the annual revolution causes all the varied scenery of
+the year. If one motion interfered with the other, the return of the
+day and night would be irregular; and the change of seasons attended
+with uncertainty to the husbandman. These two motions are, therefore,
+harmoniously impressed upon the earth, that the gracious promise of the
+great Creator might be fulfilled, 'While the earth remaineth, seed-time
+and harvest, and cold and heat, and summer and winter, and day and
+night, shall not cease.'
+
+"The double motion of a secondary planet is still more singular than
+that of its primary; for (taking the moon for an example) besides its
+particular revolution round the earth, which is performed in 27 days,
+7 hours, 43 minutes, 4� seconds; it is carried round the sun with the
+earth once a year. Of all the planetary motions, with which we have a
+tolerable acquaintance, that of the moon is the most intricate: upwards
+of twenty equations are necessary, in the great majority of cases, to
+reduce her mean to her true place; yet not one of them is derivable
+from the circumstance that she accompanies the earth in its revolution
+round the sun. They depend on the different distances of the earth
+from the sun in its annual revolution, the position of the lunar nodes,
+and various other causes, and not on the annual revolution itself,
+a motion which, of all others, might be expected to cause greater
+irregularities in her revolution round the earth than could be produced
+on that of the latter by the planetary attractions. Who can form an
+adequate conception of that influence of the earth which thus draws the
+moon with it round the sun, precisely in the same manner as if it were
+a part of the earth's surface, notwithstanding the intervening distance
+of about 240,000 miles; and, at the same time, leaves undisturbed the
+moon's proper motion round the earth? And what beneficent purposes are
+subserved by this harmony? In consequence of it, we have the periodical
+returns of new and full moon; and the ebbing and flowing of the sea,
+which depend on the various lunar phases, with respect to the sun and
+earth, (as if demonstrable from each of these phases being continually
+contemporaneous with the particular phenomenon of the tides,) always
+succeed each other with a regularity necessarily equal to that of the
+causes which produce them. Thus we see that God is continually present,
+supporting all things by his energy, and that, while his working is
+manifest, his ways are past finding out."
+
+Thomson, in his descriptive, philosophical, moral, and religious poem,
+admirably well delineates the revolving seasons.
+
+    "These, as they change, ALMIGHTY FATHER, these
+    Are but the _varied_ God. The rolling year
+    Is full of thee. Forth in the pleasing spring
+    THY beauty walks. THY tenderness and love
+    Wide flush the fields; the softening air is balm;
+    Echo the mountains round; the forest smiles;
+    And every sense, and every heart is joy.
+    Then comes THY glory in the summer-months,
+    With light and heat refulgent. Then THY sun
+    Shoots full perfection through the swelling year:
+    And oft THY voice in dreadful thunder speaks;
+    And oft at dawn, deep noon, or falling eve,
+    By brooks and groves, in hollow-whispering gales.
+    THY bounty shines in Autumn unconfin'd,
+    And spreads a common feast for all that lives.
+    In Winter awful THOU! with clouds and storms
+    Around THEE thrown, tempest o'er tempest roll'd.
+    Majestic darkness! on the whirlwind's wing,
+    Riding sublime, THOU bidst the world adore,
+    And humblest nature with THY northern blast.
+    Mysterious round! what skill, what force divine,
+    Deep felt, in these appear! a simple train,
+    Yet so delightful mix'd, with such kind art,
+    Such beauty and beneficence combin'd;
+    Shade, unperceiv'd, so softening into shade;
+    And all so forming an harmonious whole;
+    That, as they still succeed, they ravish still."
+
+He who governs the whole frame of nature, and directs and regulates
+these successive changes, must possess almighty _power_, without
+which, he would be infinitely inadequate to the task. He who made the
+celestial orbs of such a prodigious bulk, and whirls them round with
+an almost incredible swiftness, causing the regular return of day and
+night, summer and winter, what can he not do? None among the mighty
+host of heaven, or among the inhabitants of the earth, can resist his
+power, or stay his arm when lifted up. He who created all things out
+of nothing, could, if he pleased, extinguish the lights of heaven,
+and shake the solid earth to atoms. How easily, then, can he stop our
+breath, break the slender thread of life, dissolve our feeble frame, or
+hurl guilty and impenitent sinners into the pit of destruction! He who
+brought darkness for the space of three days upon the Egyptians, and a
+dreadful tempest of forty days and forty nights upon the inhabitants
+of the old world, can make the days of the ungodly darkness, and their
+nights full of horror. He can strike them with "the arrow that flieth
+by day," his swift pointed lightning; or with the pestilential vapors
+of the night, which "walk in darkness," and give the deadly stroke
+unseen.
+
+    "Lord, when my thoughtful soul surveys
+    Fire, air, and earth, and stars and seas,
+      I call them all thy slaves;
+    Commissioned by my father's will,
+    Poison shall cure, or balm shall kill;
+    Vernal suns or zephyr's breath,
+    May burn or blast the plants to death,
+      That sharp _December saves_.
+
+    What can winds or planets boast
+      But a precarious power?
+    The sun is all in darkness lost,
+    Frost shall be fire, and fire be frost,
+    When he appoints the hour."
+
+Shall not, then, such a frail creature as man, think and speak of this
+omnipotent Being with the greatest reverence and profound humility?
+Oh God, fill the minds of all men with just and enlarged views of thy
+majesty and greatness! for thou killest, and thou makest alive; thou
+woundest, and thou healest: neither is there any that can deliver out
+of thy hand.
+
+Divine _wisdom_ also shines forth in the regular and uninterrupted
+succession of the seasons. "The Lord by wisdom hath founded the earth,
+and by understanding established the heavens." Not only the different
+magnitudes of the heavenly orbs, but their particular distances, and
+the harmonious laws by which they move, do loudly proclaim, that he
+who formed, ranges, and actuates them all, must be infinitely wise.
+Without looking into boundless space, where shine many thousand globes
+of light, or fixed stars, supposed to be suns like our own, and to
+have planets revolving round them, we may discover luminous displays
+of Divine wisdom in our own system, in the constant succession of the
+seasons, that may justly excite our wonder and adoration. How wise
+must he be who has so exactly proportioned the different magnitudes
+of the earth and the sun, and placed them at a proper distance from
+each other! Is not equal wisdom discovered in that equable, steady,
+swift, and complicate motion of the earth, by which the delightful
+and necessary succession of the seasons return? It is the wisdom of
+God that at first arranged the motion of the celestial bodies, and
+that preserves them in their rapid and yet regular progressions and
+rotations, with so much order and harmony. "How manifold, oh Lord, are
+thy works! in wisdom hast thou made them all. Thy understanding is
+infinite, for thou tellest the number of the stars, and callest them
+all by their names."
+
+The _goodness_ of God to the inhabitants of the earth, is also
+displayed in the revolving seasons. When the almighty Creator took
+a survey of all the works his hands had made, he saw that they were
+good; not only conformable to eternal reason, but proper to answer the
+end for which he designed them. And this goodness manifested in the
+formation of the world, is not more clearly discovered in any thing
+than in the return of day and night, heat and cold, summer and winter.
+We are pleased with the light in the morning, but it is after we have
+rested well in the night: when a few hours are spent, we grow weary
+of the light, and wish for the return of the silence and darkness of
+the nocturnal season. After a long cold winter, we joyfully welcome
+the approach of summer; but when scorched a few months with its heat,
+and ready to faint, the return of winter is not so unpleasant to us
+as it appeared more early in the spring. But whatever effect these
+successions may have upon us, it is certain they are very beneficial.
+The light of the day is advantageous for managing the toils and
+business of life; and the coolness and stillness of the night are
+as suitable for rest and sleep. The summer's heat is necessary for
+ripening the fruits of the earth, and hastening the harvest: but the
+winter's cold and hoary frost are subservient to prepare the earth for
+the seed, and render it fertile. Nay, this dreary season is serviceable
+both to man and beast; it tends to remove distempers contracted in the
+summer's unwholesome air, and gives a new spring and vigor to nature.
+How great, then, is the Divine goodness in preserving the constant and
+regular revolution of these seasons, so pleasant and beneficial to
+mankind! "Oh that men would praise the Lord for his goodness, and for
+his wonderful works to the children of men."
+
+We cannot but perceive the _faithfulness_ of God in continuing these
+seasons, according to his promise, to this period. We still see day
+succeeding day, and year succeeding year: this covenant made with
+mankind is inviolably kept. The husbandman cultivates his land,
+ploughs up the furrows, casts in the seeds, in hope of the ensuing
+harvest, when he expects that his expense, labor, and patience, will
+be recompensed with a rich and large increase. But should God, in
+anger, open the bottles of heaven, pour down the rain in torrents,
+cause swelling floods to arise, and, rolling with alarming impetuosity
+forward, to sweep away at once the fruit of all his toil, how great
+must be his grief and astonishment! Such were the consternation and
+confusion that seized mankind at the time of the flood. The husbandman
+had tilled his land, thrown his seed into the ground; he saw it with
+pleasure springing up, and promised himself a plentiful harvest: when
+quickly, all the flood-gates of heaven were opened, all the fountains
+of the great deep were broken up, and a rapid current overflowed the
+springing corn, swept away numerous flocks of cattle, overthrew the
+habitations of the people, and drowned man and beast to the very
+tops of the mountains! But in this general ruin, Noah found favor
+with God, and he and his family were preserved in the Ark. When the
+waters had abated, and the earth became dry, this pious patriarch,
+being much affected with the awful judgment inflicted upon mankind,
+especially with the distinguishing mercies conferred upon himself
+and family, offered sacrifice, in testimony of his gratitude, to his
+great Deliverer, who was well-pleased with it. And on this, he made a
+covenant with him, and with all his posterity, in which he promises
+that he will not again curse the ground for man's sake, nor any more
+smite every living thing, but that, "while the earth remaineth,"
+the successive seasons of the year shall be continued. The awful
+disobedience of the inhabitants of the old world rendered it necessary
+to inflict so dreadful a judgment; but as soon as it had subsided, God
+promised never to punish mankind again so universally. And, in token of
+his faithfulness, he set the rainbow in the cloud, to be a sign of his
+covenant, which has not been broken, but faithfully kept even to this
+day. However the Almighty may contend in anger with particular nations
+or provinces, he will no more do so with mankind in general.
+
+How happy is the situation of our native isle! There are few countries,
+if any, that exceed it. The climate is temperate; neither days nor
+nights are ever of immoderate length; the summer and winter are neither
+extremely hot, nor excessively cold; the seed-time and harvest are
+generally favorable, and the produce of the land is plenteous. The
+inhabitants of some countries endure a long and severe winter, seeing
+not the sun for many weeks: nay, there are some places where it rises
+not for several months; but these parts are not inhabited in the winter
+season. In other countries, the inhabitants are scorched with the rays
+of a vertical sun, and wish in vain for the cooling winter's snow.
+Some know not what is meant by the heat of summer, and others are as
+ignorant of the cold of winter. Some see the sun, but comparatively
+feel not his warming influence; while others are penetrated with his
+burning rays all the year. But the people of this country have moderate
+summer, heat sufficient for ripening the most useful fruits, and winter
+that may be well endured. The days are not so hot in the summer, but
+the nights are sufficiently cool for allaying the heat; and they are
+long enough in winter for managing the business that is requisite to
+be done. Some warmer climates produce more delicious fruits: but no
+country under the canopy of the heavens does more abound with all the
+substantial supports of life; not only equal to our own consumption,
+but frequently to enable us to assist our neighbors. Happy are the
+people that are in such a case: yea, thrice happy are they whose God is
+Jehovah. All his works praise him: may we join the grand chorus, and
+bless his holy name. Surely, if the works of creation were attentively
+viewed, and seriously considered, they would not only be truly admired,
+but their glorious Author would be sincerely regarded, diligently
+worshipped, and practically obeyed.
+
+The following table has been ascribed to the illustrious astronomer,
+Dr. Herschell. It is constructed upon a philosophical consideration
+of the attraction of the sun and moon in their several positions
+respecting the earth, and confirmed by the experience of many years:
+actual observation will, without trouble, suggest to the observer what
+kind of weather will most probably follow the moon's entrance into any
+of her quarters; and that so near the truth, that in very few instances
+will it be found to fail.
+
+  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
+  |   _New or Full Moon._    |     _Summer._      |      _Winter._     |
+  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
+  |If it be new or full moon,|    Very rainy.     |   Snow and rain.   |
+  |or the moon enters into   |                    |                    |
+  |the first or last quarters|                    |                    |
+  |at the hour of 12         |                    |                    |
+  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
+  | Between hours of 2 and 4 |    Changeable.     |   Fair and mild.   |
+  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
+  |                  4  -  6 |       Fair.        |        Fair.       |
+  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
+  |                  6  -  8 | Fair, if wind N.W. |  Fair and frosty,  |
+  |                          |Rainy, if S. or S.W.|   if N. or N.E.    |
+  |                          |                    |Rainy, if S. or S.W.|
+  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
+  |                  8  - 10 |       Ditto.       |       Ditto.       |
+  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
+  |          10 and Midnight |       Fair.        |  Fair and frosty.  |
+  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
+  |           Midnight and 2 |       Ditto.       | Hard frost, unless |
+  |                          |                    |   wind S. or S.W.  |
+  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
+  |                  2  -  4 |     Cold, with     |  Snow and Stormy.  |
+  |                          |  frequent showers. |                    |
+  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
+  |                  4  -  6 |        Rain.       |       Ditto.       |
+  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
+  |                  6  -  8 |   Wind and rain.   |       Stormy.      |
+  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
+  |                  8  - 10 |     Changeable.    |  Cold, rain if W.  |
+  |                          |                    |     snow if E.     |
+  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
+  |              10 and Noon |  Frequent showers. |Cold with high wind.|
+  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
+
+Hence, the nearer the time of the moon's entrance, at full and change,
+or quarters, is to midnight (that is, within two hours before or after
+midnight), the more fair weather is in summer, but the nearer to
+noon the less fair. Also, the moon's entrance, at full, change, and
+quarters, during six of the afternoon hours, viz. from four to ten,
+may be followed by fair weather; but this is mostly dependant on the
+wind. The same entrance, during all the hours after midnight except the
+two first, is unfavorable to fair weather; the like, nearly, may be
+observed in winter.[127]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It is an easy and excellent method of conveying instruction, and
+impressing it upon the heart, to take occasion from natural objects to
+raise the mind to things spiritual and divine. The day and night, and
+their alternate changes, may suggest such thoughts as the following, to
+a serious mind engaged in meditation.
+
+What a glorious creature is light! How beneficial to this world! How
+useful, nay, how necessary for managing those employments which could
+not be done in the night! How unwise, then, is he who postpones the
+necessary business of the day till night overtake him?--So beneficial,
+so requisite, is the light of life in the important work of human
+salvation. Does God allow men a day, a gracious season, and the light
+of his word, for the good of their souls? Of what extreme folly shall
+they be guilty, if they neglect the necessary business till the night
+of death come, and they drop into the grave, where there is neither
+work, nor wisdom, nor device! Now is the day of grace, and God is
+favoring them with the light of reason and revelation. May he give
+them wisdom to improve these advantages, to his glory, and their own
+happiness! They know not how soon their sun may set, and the night of
+death come upon them. If it should be before their everlasting interest
+is secured, they will be lost for ever. Oh Lord, teach us so to number
+our days, that we may apply our hearts to wisdom!
+
+Night comes on apace; I must soon undress, and lie down to sleep. And
+it cannot be long before I must put off this body, lie down in the
+grave and sleep in the dust. What shall I do that my soul may not be
+found naked, but be clothed and adorned with the glorious robes of
+righteousness? Jesus, to whom shall I go but to thee, for thou hast
+the words of eternal life!--How awful, and full of horror, is this
+approaching darkness! If the imperfection of man did not require the
+rest of sleep, surely it would be a pleasant thing always to dwell in
+the light. Will it not then, be unspeakably delightful to abide in the
+light of God's countenance, to see the Divine Majesty with a strong and
+open eye? and to behold his unutterable glories without any fear of
+being deprived of the beatific vision, or of returning night? But oh!
+how dismal must that place of darkness be where the light never shines!
+where the miserable inhabitants never see one beam of Divine light,
+one ray from God's reconciled face! where the grossest darkness reigns
+for ever, without the least hope of returning day! and where nothing
+remains for them, but a black, a horrible, an eternal night!
+
+    "Is light so grateful to the human sense?
+    Created light? a faint, refracted ray?
+    One, distant sun? the shadow, but, of God!
+    Dark adumbration of the DEITY?
+    Oh! what is heav'n! that day of endless light?
+    Where saints shall from th' essential fountain drink
+    Of radiance! in God's full, paternal shine?
+    Ah! what is Hell? of ever-absent day,
+    A night all hopeless!--and all endless too!"
+
+The successive changes of day and night may suggest what is frequently
+the condition of good people in this world. Their day of prosperity
+is sometimes followed with a night of adversity; and then, when
+sorrow and weeping have endured for a night, light and joy spring up
+in the morning.--Is the light of the day pleasing? rejoice in it with
+trembling, for the night is advancing. Is the darkness of the night
+solemn and awful? rejoice in hope that the day is approaching. Hence
+be instructed, oh my soul, in the concerns of thy eternal welfare. Are
+prosperity, health, and relatives, agreeable? rejoice in them as one
+that rejoices not: these must have an end; and adversity, sickness, and
+death, will come. Are losses, affliction, and pain, not joyous, but
+grievous? mourn as one that weeps not: ease, health, and gladness, are
+in prospect, and will continue for ever. And how happy and glorious
+will that world be, where light and joy shall never cease! But how
+dreadful is that abode where darkness, despair, and anguish shall never
+end!
+
+The succession of cold and heat, winter and summer, will always suggest
+pious and useful reflections in retirement. How pleasing it is to see
+the sun return, and to feel his cheering rays, after a long, cold,
+and tempestuous winter! So it is delightful to the humble penitent
+sinner, after a long season of darkness and sorrow, when the Sun of
+Righteousness arises with his reviving influences, and God lifts upon
+him the smiles of his reconciled countenance. All misery, and clouds of
+doubt and fear, are then dispersed, and heavenly light breaks into the
+soul, and fills it with gladness. And does the want of the light of God
+cause the serious Christian to mourn and weep, and taste no sweetness
+in any of the comforts of life? How extremely miserable, then, must a
+person be, who is driven to an everlasting distance from the presence
+of God, and from the glorious Sun of Righteousness; only to see his
+glory very remote, but never to feel the reviving beams of his love;
+and to be punished in hell, far "from the presence of the Lord, and the
+glory of his power."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+_Section_ IV.--THE PLANETS AND FIXED STARS.
+
+    Mercury -- Venus -- The Earth -- Mars -- Ceres -- Pallas --
+    Juno -- Vesta -- Jupiter -- Saturn -- Georgium Sidus -- Comets
+    -- Fixed Stars -- Religious Improvement.
+
+Moses, after stating that God created the sun and the moon, says,
+"he made the stars also." A learned author explains it, "he made the
+lesser light, with the stars, to rule the night." It is very probable
+that the whole _solar system_ was created in six days: but as the
+design of the sacred historian was to relate what especially belongs
+to our globe and its inhabitants, he therefore passes by the planetary
+system, leaving it simply included in the plural word, **shmym**
+_shamayim_, _heavens_. In a work of this nature, it is proper to
+take a concise view of all the planets, their number, distances,
+magnitudes, revolutions, &c.
+
+_Wandering Stars_, says Baseley, is one of the many appellations by
+which our solar system has been sometimes designated. And the figure
+it makes in the heavens is not unaptly expressed by the phraseology.
+For we distinguish the planets from the fixed stars by the lustre
+of the former, which is only from that side which faces the sun,
+and by their motion, which is seldom, and then but apparently,
+interrupted. Their brightness seems more uniform, has the cast of
+reflected rather than direct illumination, and is altogether free from
+scintillation or twinkling. Their connection with the globe we inhabit
+is more perceptible, and their relative situation to one another
+less stationary. Their distance from us is not so remote, and more
+susceptible of calculation. The latter occupy a certain region situated
+in our neighborhood between us and the former.
+
+The planets are opake bodies, and nearly spherical. Being opake in
+themselves, they become visible only by reflecting the light, which
+they receive from the sun. The laws by which they are governed were
+discovered by Kepler, who demonstrated that they must necessarily
+revolve in elliptical, and not in circular orbits. Astronomers have
+divided them into classes: the _primary_ planets are Mercury, Venus,
+the Earth, Mars, Ceres, Pallas, Juno, Vesta, Jupiter, Saturn, and the
+Georgium Sidus; and the second class includes the satellites which
+belong to some of the primary planets, such as the Moon, the attendant
+on the Earth, the four moons or satellites that revolve about Jupiter,
+the seven that attend Saturn, and the six that wait on the Georgium
+Sidus.
+
+_Mercury_ is the smallest of the seven primary planets, and nearest
+to the sun; he appears as a small star, and emits a very vivid white
+light. He was called by the Greeks <<Stilb�n>>, plainly alluding to
+his brightness. Costard observes, "**brq 'vr** _Bark-oor_, **brq
+'vry** _Bark-oori_, or, changing the letter **beth** into **mem** as
+letters of the same organ frequently are, **mrq 'vry** _Mark-oori_, we
+have in another dialect, with a Latin termination _us_, another name
+of this planet, Mercurius; and from whence comes _Mercury_, as he is
+called by us." This planet never goes to a greater distance from the
+sun than about 27� 50'; so that he appears only a little after sunset,
+and again a little before sunrise; he is never longer in setting after
+the sun than an hour and fifty minutes nor does he ever rise more than
+an hour and fifty minutes before that luminary: he is then about as
+far as the moon appears to be from the sun on the second day after
+the change. His mean distance from the sun says Dr. O. Gregory, is to
+that of the earth from the sun as 387 to 1,000: hence his distance is
+about thirty-seven millions of miles. To an inhabitant of Mercury, the
+sun appears almost three times broader than we see him from the earth;
+because the planet is almost three times nearer to the sun than the
+earth. Whence also the solar disk, seen from Mercury, is seven times
+greater than the disk as it appears to us, and Mercury has seven times
+more light than the earth.
+
+                  "---- Mercury the first,
+    Near bordering on the day, with speedy wheel
+    Flies swifter on, inflaming where he comes
+    With seven-fold splendor."
+
+The diameter of this planet is more than one-third of the diameter
+of the earth, or 3,180 miles. Hence his surface is about 1/7th; and
+his magnitude 1/16th of that of the earth. His period of revolution
+round the sun is 87 days, 23 hours, 14 minutes, 33 seconds, which is
+his year, and falls short of three of our months: hence he moves in
+his orbit round the sun at the rate of more than 95,000 miles in an
+hour. According to some astronomers, it has not been ascertained by
+observation, whether Mercury turns upon his own axis, and therefore it
+cannot be certainly affirmed that he has the vicissitude of day and
+night, neither the return of summer and winter: because they depend
+upon the inclination of the axis of his rotation, which is unknown,
+to the plane of the orbit which he describes about the sun; though
+there is very little doubt entertained on the subject. But Schro�ter
+affirms that he "has distinguished spots and mountains, which he
+has assiduously followed, till he has arrived at the subsequent
+conclusions: that the apparent diameter of the planet is about 6";
+that it does not present any sensible ellipticity; that the mountains
+it contains are proportionably larger than those of Venus and the
+Earth; that the highest are, as in these two bodies, in the southern
+hemisphere; that the angle which the equator makes with its orbit is
+very considerable; that the difference of days and seasons ought to be
+much greater in Mercury than it is on the earth; that its atmosphere,
+like that of Venus, is very dense; and lastly, that its rotation about
+its axis is 24 hours, 5 minutes, 30 seconds." When examined by means
+of a telescope magnifying about 200 or 300 times, he appears equally
+luminous throughout his whole surface, without the least dark spot. He
+exhibits the same difference of phases with the moon, being alternately
+horned, gibbous, and shining almost with a round face, though not
+entirely full because his enlightened side is never turned directly
+toward us; but at all times perfectly well defined without any ragged
+edge, and completely bright; and, like the moon, the crescent is always
+turned toward the sun. Mercury has no inferior planet known to us, and
+if that be actually the case, a spectator on his body will want the
+argument taken from the horned phases of the planets, to establish
+the true system of the world. But though we do not see any planets
+inferior to Mercury, it does by no means follow that there are none:
+for we seldom see Mercury himself, he being buried in the rays of the
+sun; and a planet much nearer the sun could never be seen from the
+earth. The first observation that was ever made of a transit, was by
+Gassendi, who saw Mercury on the sun, A.M. November 7, 1631. Since his
+time there have occurred seventeen other transits of this planet, the
+last of which was at his ascending node on the 9th of November, 1802.
+The ascending and descending nodes are in the 16� of Taurus, and 16�
+of Scorpio. Other transits are expected in the years 1822, 1832, 1835,
+1845, and 1848.
+
+_Venus_, the second planet from the sun in the order of the system,
+is the most beautiful star in the heavens, being easily distinguished
+by her brightness and whiteness, which exceeds that of all the other
+planets, and is so considerable, that in a dusky night she projects
+a sensible shadow. Concerning her name, Costard remarks, "From the
+Chaldee **hn** _Han_, or _Hen_, which signifies _gratia_, _decor_,
+_elegantia_, with the �olic digamma F, comes _Fen_, or _Ven_, and
+with the additional termination _us, Venus_; the name by which this
+planet was known among the Romans, and by which, from them, it has
+been transmitted to us." The mean distance of Venus from the sun is
+about 69,000,000 miles; her diameter is 7,630 miles; she performs
+her revolution round the sun in 224 days, 16 hours, 41 minutes,
+27 seconds; her diurnal motion on her axis, according to some
+observations accurately made by Schro�ter, is performed in 23 hours,
+21 minutes; and she moves at the rate of 81,398 miles an hour.
+
+This planet constantly attends the sun, and never departs from him more
+than forty-seven degrees, and consequently is never seen at midnight,
+nor in opposition to that luminary; being visible only for three or
+four hours in a morning or evening, according as she is before or
+after the sun. Venus is a _morning star_ when she appears westward
+of the sun, for she then rises before him, and is among poets called
+Phosphorus or Lucifer--
+
+                  "----Fair morning star,
+    That leads on dawning day to yonder world,
+    The _seat of man_."
+
+but when eastward of the sun, she is an _evening star_, shining after
+he is set, and then the poets give her the name Hesperus or Vesper.
+
+              "---- Her lovely beams adorn
+    As well the dewy eve, as opening morn."
+
+She is in each situation, alternately, between nine and ten months,
+or about 290 days. Pythagoras is said to have first discovered that
+Hesperus and Phosphorus were one and the same star. "From the name
+Phosphorus," says Costard, "it seems as if this is the same star that
+in Isaiah is called **hyll bn shhr** _Helal-ben-shahar_, or _Helal,
+son of the morning_; a name given it on account of its remarkable
+brightness. If so, that is the oldest record of a planet that occurs
+in any author whatever now extant: this was about the year before
+Christ 710."
+
+Venus is frequently seen in the day-time, when in the inferior part of
+her orbit, at about forty degrees distant from the sun.
+
+    "No stars besides their radiance can display
+    In Phoebus' presence the dread Lord of day;
+    Ev'n Cynthia's self, though regent of the night,
+    Is quite obscur'd by his emergent light;
+    But VENUS only, as if more divine,
+    With Phoebus dares in partnership to shine."
+
+To quiet the minds of some superstitious people, greatly alarmed at
+the appearance of Venus in the day-time, Dr. Halley wrote a small
+piece, published in the Philosophical Transactions (No. 349) to show
+that this was nothing extraordinary, and might be expected every eight
+years. Venus, when viewed through a good telescope, is rarely seen to
+shine with a full face, but has phases just like those of the moon,
+being now gibbous, now horned, &c, and her illuminated part constantly
+turned towards the sun, looking toward the east when a morning star,
+and toward the west when an evening star. M. de la Hire, in 1700,
+through a telescope of sixteen feet, discovered mountains in Venus,
+which he found to be larger than those in the moon. These observations
+have recently been confirmed by M. Schro�ter, who, in the year 1780,
+commenced a course of observations on this planet, the results of which
+were published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1792.
+
+Venus, as well as Mercury, is sometimes seen to transit the sun's
+disk, in form of a dark round spot; but these transits seldom happen.
+The first that was ever observed, was seen by our countryman Jeremiah
+Horrox, at Hool, an obscure village fifteen miles north of Liverpool:
+his account of which was published by Hevelius at Dantzic in 1661,
+under the title, "Venus in sole visa, anno 1631, November 24." Mr.
+Horrox's friend, William Crabtree, according to his direction, saw
+this transit at the same time, at Manchester. Two have occurred in the
+last century, namely, one June 6th, 1761, seen by many astronomers,
+which excited particular attention by a dissertation published by
+Dr. Halley in the Philosophical Transactions (No. 348) in which he
+proposed finding, from that transit, the sun's parallax, and thence the
+distance of the earth from the sun: and the other, June 3d, 1769, at
+10^{h}. 10', according to M. de la Lande, and consequently invisible
+at Paris and London; but by comparing together two observations made,
+one at Mexico, and the other to the north of Petersburgh, we perceive
+the sun's parallax, was determined with great precision. The transits
+of Venus, occurring between the years 1631 and 2110, according to the
+calculations of persons most eminent in astronomical science, are as
+follow:
+
+    1631      December  6
+    1639      December  4
+    1761      June      5
+    1769      June      3
+    1874      December  8
+    1882      December  6
+    2004      June      7
+    2109      December 10
+
+The _Earth_ is the next planet in order; called by the Greeks <<G�>>,
+and by the poets <<Gaia>>, from <<ga�>> to _generate_, _produce_,
+which, says Parkhurst, is from the Hebrew, **g'h** _to grow_ as a
+plant, because it produces, or is the mother of all terrestrial
+things; or in the poetic language of the Orphic hymn to the earth,
+
+        "---- Brings forth her various fruits,
+    With throes maternal."
+
+The word used by Moses is **h'rts** _haarets_, translated _earth_,
+whence in the Anglo-Saxon, _eard_ and _eord_; Danish _jord_, _jorden_;
+Dutch _erd_ and _aerd_; and Teutonic _erd_, _erde_.
+
+The distance of the earth from the sun is about 95,000,000 miles:
+her orbit round the sun is 597,000,000 miles, and she performs her
+revolution round the sun, from any equinox or solstice to the same
+point again, in 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes, 57 seconds; of course,
+her hourly motion in her orbit is 68,000 miles. Her diameter is 7,964
+miles, her circumference is 25,000 miles, and the time of rotation upon
+her axis, from west to east, is 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4 seconds: by
+which the inhabitants upon the equator are carried after the rate of
+1,042 miles an hour, and those upon the parallel of London, 580 miles,
+as we have already noticed. The annual and diurnal motion of the earth
+is thus described by Milton:
+
+    "She from the West her silent course advances
+    With inoffensive pace, that spinning sleeps
+    On her soft axle, while she paces even,
+    And bears us soft with the smooth air along."
+
+From this circumstance arises the _apparent_ diurnal revolution of all
+the heavenly bodies from east to west.
+
+"The motion of the earth," says an intelligent writer, "has so long
+ceased to be a disputed question, that the arguments on each side are
+nearly forgotten; and those who do not scruple to adopt the hypothesis
+of the earth's motions, are often less acquainted with the arguments
+on which it is supported, than they would have been in former times,
+when their opinions must have been the subjects of fierce contention."
+La Place observes, "that if the earth be at rest, and the stars move,
+the velocity of these latter must be immense; and yet all the purposes
+thereof might have been answered by a moderate motion of the earth
+alone. The moon's distance from the earth is 240,000 miles; of course,
+the length of the tract which it traverses, if it moves round the
+earth in 24 hours, is about 1,500,000; that is, at the rate of 62,500
+miles an hour, instead of 2,290 miles, which is really the case:
+consequently, in each second of time, the moon, known to be the slowest
+of all the heavenly bodies, must move more than seventeen miles. Again,
+the sun's mean distance from the earth is about 95,000,000 miles;
+consequently, the diurnal path of that luminary, if it revolve about
+our globe in twenty-four hours, must be 580,000,000: and therefore, in
+a single second, the beat of a clock, he must move nearly 7,000 miles.
+Upon the same principle; that is, supposing the earth to be the centre
+of the system, and not the sun, the planet Mars, in a second of time,
+must travel at the rate of more than 10,000 miles, Jupiter 36,000, and
+Saturn 62,000. And, lastly, the fixed stars being yet indefinitely more
+remote from the earth than the sun or Saturn, their motion in or near
+the equator must be vastly swifter than this. If the earth does not
+move round the sun, the sun must move with the moon round the earth;
+now; the distance of the sun to that of the moon is nearly 400 to 1,
+and the period of the moon being about twenty-eight days, the sun's
+period should be, by the law above mentioned, full 600 years, whereas,
+it is, in fact, but a single year. This consideration was, of itself,
+thought of weight enough to determine the controversy between the two
+opinions, and to establish the motion of the earth in its orbit for
+ever."
+
+That the shape of the earth was an extended plane, and the visible
+horizon its utmost bounds, was the opinion of the ancients. But that
+it is globular, a little raised at the equator, and flattened at the
+poles, being about thirty-seven miles shorter than at the equator, so
+as nearly to resemble an orange, is demonstrable on the most evident
+and unquestionable principles. 1. All the appearances of the heavens,
+both at land and at sea, are the same as they would be if the earth
+were a globe. Mariners first begin to lose sight of the lower parts of
+objects, and then gradually of the higher parts; also, persons on shore
+first discover the masts before the hull of approaching vessels, and
+on leaving a port the masts are seen when the hull is out of sight,
+which must be owing to the convexity of the water between the eye and
+the object, otherwise the largest and most conspicuous parts would have
+been visible the longest.
+
+    "Behold, when the glad ship shoots from the port
+    Upon full sail, the hulk first disappears,
+    And then the lower, then the higher sails;
+    At length the summit of the towering mast
+    Alone is seen; nor less, when from the ship
+    The longing sailor's eye in hope of shore:
+    For then, from the top-mast, though more remote
+    Than either deck, the shore is first beheld."[128]
+
+2. Navigators sailing round the globe, as Magellan, Drake, Lord Anson,
+Cook, and others, have steered their course directly south and west
+till they came to the Magellanic sea, and from thence to the north
+and west, till they returned to their port from the east; and all the
+phenomena which should naturally arise from the earth's rotundity,
+happened to them. Beside, their method of sailing was also founded
+upon this hypothesis, which could not have succeeded so happily, if
+the earth had been of any other figure. 3. In all lunar eclipses, the
+shadow of the earth falling upon the moon is always circular; and a
+body can be no other than a globe, which in all situations casts a
+circular shadow. It is true, the surface of the earth is not an exact
+geometrical globe: but what the earth loses of its sphericity by
+its inequalities, as writers on this subject have remarked, is very
+inconsiderable: the highest mountains bearing so little proportion to
+its bulk, as scarcely to be equivalent to the minutest protuberance on
+the surface of an orange, or a grain of dust to a common globe.
+
+    "These inequalities to us seem great;
+    But to an eye that comprehends the whole,
+    The tumor, which to us so monstrous seems,
+    Is as a grain of sparkling sand that clings
+    To the smooth surface of a sphere of glass;
+    Or as a fly upon the convex dome
+    Of a sublime, stupendous edifice."
+
+It is not so easy as some imagine, says a German philosopher and
+divine, to determine exactly the size of the earth. It is true, there
+is but one longitude; but there are two latitudes, the north and the
+south. Both of these begin at the equator; the one extends northward,
+the other southward, as far as the arctic and antarctic poles. But, no
+one has yet been able to reach either pole. The mountains of ice in
+Greenland and the Northern Sea, have always obstructed the passage to
+the north pole: and immense fields, mountains, and islands of ice, have
+rendered the passage to the south pole impossible. Thanks, however, to
+the geometricians, we can at present know very nearly the size of our
+globe. According to the most exact calculations, the surface of the
+earth is 199,512,595 square miles. The seas and unknown parts of the
+earth, by a measurement of the best maps, contain 160,522,026 square
+miles. The inhabited parts contain about 38,990,559 square miles,
+in the following proportion: Europe--4,456,065; Asia--10,768,823;
+Africa--9,654,807; America--14,110,874: Hence it appears that scarcely
+one-third of the globe is habitable. It has been calculated, that
+there might be at least _three thousand millions_ of men upon the
+earth at once: but in reality there are no more than about a _thousand
+and eighty millions_: of which there are, in Asia--650 millions; in
+Africa--150; in America--150; in Europe--130.
+
+The path traversed by the earth, which, in astronomical language, is
+called its orbit, is the apparent path of the sun: it is called the
+_ecliptic_, because eclipses, both solar and lunar, always happen in
+this circle--also _via solis_, or the sun's path, because the sun
+never departs from it; and, therefore, at any time to denote the sun's
+place in the heavens, astronomers have divided the whole circle of the
+earth's motion in 360 equal parts, which they term _degrees_, and every
+thirty of these a _sign_, of which there are twelve. In this circle
+the sun advances nearly one degree every twenty-four hours, and thirty
+degrees every month; thus passing through the whole 360 degrees in a
+year. The signs are called by different names, and, with regard to
+their situations and corresponding seasons and months, they stand in
+the following order:
+
+    _Northern Signs; so denominated as being north of the Equator._
+
+              {Aries [Sign], the Ram, part of March and April.
+    Spring.   {Taurus [Sign], the Bull, April and May.
+              {Gemini [Sign], the Twins, May and June.
+
+              {Cancer [Sign], the Crab, June and July.
+    Summer.   {Leo [Sign], the Lion, July and August.
+              {Virgo [Sign], the Virgin, August and September.
+
+    _Southern Signs; so called as being south of the Equator._
+
+              {Libra [Sign], the Balance, September and October.
+    Autumn.   {Scorpio [Sign], the Scorpion, October and November.
+              {Sagittarius [Sign], the Archer, November and December.
+
+
+              {Capricornus [Sign], the Goat, December and January.
+    Winter.   {Aquarius [Sign], the Water-bearer, January and February.
+              {Pisces [Sign], the Fishes, February and March.
+
+The order of the signs is thus poetically described by Dr. Watts.
+
+    "The Ram, the Bull, the heavenly Twins,
+    And next the Crab the Lion shines,
+        The Virgin and the Scales:
+    The Scorpion, Archer, and Sea-goat,
+    The Man that holds the Water-pot,
+        And Fish with glittering tails."
+
+Dr. Long observes, that [Aries symbol] represents the horns of the
+ram; [Taurus symbol] the head and horns of the bull; [Gemini symbol]
+the figure of gemini, the twins joining hands and feet; the character
+cancer [Cancer symbol] represents the changes of the sun's declination
+from north to south, by two lines or figures drawn so as to point two
+contrary ways; [Leo symbol] is the tail of the lion; [Virgo symbol] was
+originally the three ears of corn which Virgo held; [Libra symbol] is
+the beam of the balance; [Scorpio symbol] was at first the picture of
+the scorpion; [Sagittarius symbol] the arrow of the Archer; [Capricorn
+symbol] represents capricorn, the goat-fish; [Aquarius symbol] is a
+natural representation of the water's undulating surface; [Pisces
+symbol] is the picture of two fishes tied together back to back.
+
+The figures of the twelve signs are supposed by Dr. Jennings, and other
+astronomers, to be Egyptian hieroglyphics, by which they designed to
+exhibit some remarkable natural occurrence in each month, as the sun
+passed through these signs. Thus the first three months, beginning
+from the vernal equinox, were remarkable for the production of those
+animals which they most valued, namely, sheep, kine, and goats. The
+lambs came first, which are represented by their parent, the Ram; next
+the calves, represented by the Bull; and the kids, which commonly come
+in pairs, and which, therefore, gave the name to Gemini, the third
+constellation; which was not at first represented by Two Boys, but by
+Two Beasts; as referring to the fruitfulness of goats, in producing
+_twin kids_ about the time when the sun was in that constellation.
+When, in the fourth month, the sun is arrived at the summer solstice,
+he discontinues his progress towards the north pole, and begins to
+go back again to the southward; this retrograde motion the Egyptians
+expressed by the Crab, which is said to go backwards. The excessive
+heat that usually follows in the next month, is signified by the Lion;
+an animal remarkable for his strength and fierceness; or, as others
+observe, when that animal, driven by thirst from the desert, made his
+appearance on the banks of the Nile. Nothing could be more proper
+than the symbol for the harvest: namely, the Virgin reaper or gleaner
+with an ear of corn in her hand. The seventh constellation, when the
+sun arrives at the autumnal equinox, is expressed by the Balance or
+Scales, in equilibrio, because the days and nights, being then of the
+same length, seemed to indicate an equilibrium like that instrument.
+October is often a sickly season, when the surfeits acquired in the
+hot months of the summer produce their fatal effects; the symbol is
+therefore the Scorpion, who wounds with a sting in his tail, as he
+recedes; or, according to others, when certain regular winds brought
+forth a burning vapor like the poison of the scorpion. The diversion
+of hunting, which is chiefly followed after the fall of the leaf, is
+designated by Sagittarius, or the archer. The Goat, which is an animal
+that delights to browse up hill and to climb the highest rocks, is the
+emblem of the winter solstice, when the sun begins to ascend from the
+southern tropic, and is continually mounting higher and higher for the
+ensuing half year. Aquarius, or the Water-bearer, fitly represents the
+rains, or snows, of the winter. And the Two Fishes in a band, had, it
+is imagined, reference to the prime fishing season, which began in
+February.
+
+The names given to our months originated as follows:
+
+The name given to the month of _January_ by the Romans was taken
+from _Janus_, one of their divinities, to whom they gave two faces;
+because on the one side, the first day of this month looked towards
+the new year, and on the other towards the old one. It was called
+_wolf-monat_ by our Saxon ancestors, on account of the danger they
+then experienced from wolves. Some etymologists derive _February_ from
+_Februa_, an epithet given to Juno, as the goddess of purification;
+while others attribute the origin of the name to _Februa_, a feast
+held by the Romans in this month, in behalf of the manes of the
+deceased. The Saxons named February _sprout kele_, on account of the
+sprouts of the cole-wort which began to appear in this month. Among
+the Romans, _March_, from Mars, was the first month, and marriages
+made in this month were accounted unhappy. The Saxons called March
+_lent-monat_, or _length-moneth_, "because the days did first begin,
+in length, to exceed the nights."--_April_ is derived from _Aprilis_,
+of _aperio_, I open; because the earth, in this month, begins to open
+her bosom for the production of vegetables. The Saxons called this
+month _oster-monat_, from the goddess Eoster, or because the winds
+were found to blow generally from the east in this month.--_May_ is
+so called from _Maia_, the mother of Mercury, to whom sacrifices were
+offered by the Romans on the first of this month; or, according to
+some, from respect to the senators and nobles of Rome, who were named
+_Majores_, as the following month was termed Junius, in honor of the
+youth of Rome. The Saxons called May, _tri-milki_, because, in that
+month, they began to milk their kine three times in the day.--The
+Saxons called June _weyd-monat_, because their beasts did then _weyd_
+or feed in the meadows.--The word _July_ is derived from the Latin
+_Julius_, the surname of C. C�sar, the dictator, who was born in it.
+Mark Antony first gave to this month the name of July, which was before
+called _Quintilis_, as being the fifth month in the year, in the old
+Roman calender established by Romulus. July was called by the Saxons,
+_hew-monat_, or _hey-monat_, because therein they usually mowed, and
+made their hay-harvest.--_Sextilis_ was the ancient Roman name for
+_September_, it being the sixth month from March. The Emperor Augustus
+changed this name, and gave it his own, because in this month C�sar
+Augustus took possession of his first consulship, celebrated three
+triumphs, reduced Egypt under the power of the Roman people, and put
+an end to all civil wars. "The Saxons called August _arn-monat_ (more
+rightly _barn-monat_,) intending thereby the then filling of their
+barnes with corne." _September_ is composed of _septem_, seven, and the
+termination _ber_, like _lis_ in _Aprilis_, _Quintilis_, _Sextilis_.
+This rule will also apply to the three following months, Octo-ber.
+Novem-ber, Decem-ber. Our Saxon ancestors called it _Gerst-monat_,
+"for that barley which that moneth commonly yielded was anciently
+called gerst."--_October_ was called _Domitianus_ in the time of
+Domitian: but, after his death, by the decree of the senate, it took
+the name of October, every one hating the name and memory of so
+detestable a tyrant. It was called _wyn-monat_, or wine month, by the
+Saxons--The Saxons called _November wint-monat_, or wind-month, on
+account of the prevalence of high winds in this month.--_December_ was
+called _winter-monat_ by the Saxons; but, after they were converted
+to Christianity, it received the name of _heligh-monat_, or holy
+month.[129]
+
+The names of our days are of Heathen origin. The seven planets were
+anciently looked on as presiding over the affairs of the world,
+and to take it by turns each one hour at a time, according to the
+following order: Saturn first, then Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus,
+Mercury, and last of all, the Moon. Hence they denominated each day
+of the week from the planet whose turn it was to preside the first
+hour of the nychthemeron, a term compounded of <<nyx>>, _night_, and
+<<h�mera>>, _day_, which implies both night and day, and is divided
+into twenty-four parts, called _hours_. Thus, assigning the first hour
+of Saturday to Saturn, the second will fall to Jupiter, the third to
+Mars, and so the twenty-second of the same nychthemeron will fall to
+Saturn again, and therefore the twenty-third to Jupiter, and the last
+to Mars: so that on the first hour of the next day, it will fall to
+the Sun to preside; and by the like manner of reckoning, the first
+hour of the next will fall to the Moon, of the next to Mars, of the
+next to Mercury, of the next to Jupiter, and the next to Venus: hence
+the days of the week came to be distinguished by the Latin names
+of _Dies Saturni_, _Solis_, _Lun�_, _Martis_, _Mercurii_, _Jovis_,
+and _Veneris_. The ancient Saxons had a great many idols, seven of
+which were appropriated to the seven days of the week, because of
+some worship that was offered to each idol on its respective day.
+The northern nations substituted, for the Roman Divinities, such of
+their own as most nearly resembled them in their peculiar attributes,
+and hence the derivation of the names now in use. These were Seater,
+the Sun, the Moon, Tuisco, Woden, Thor, Friga: hence among us the
+names of Saturday, Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, and
+Friday. For, as Saturday, Sunday, and Monday, plainly denote the day
+of Saturn, the Sun, and the Moon; so Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday,
+and Friday, denote the day of Tuisco, Woden, Thor, and Friga, which
+are the Saxon names respectively answering to Mars, Mercury, Jupiter,
+and Venus. Verstegan, in his "Restitution of Decayed Intelligence,"
+describes the Saxon deities who presided over each day of the week,
+and gives plates of the idols, pp. 74-85.
+
+How amazing it is that this ponderous globe should be suspended in
+the fluid air, without any visible support, and upheld only by the
+sovereign will of its almighty Creator! His power, who "hangeth the
+earth upon nothing," is inconceivably great; and the revolutions of
+this globe produce the most beneficial effects. The daily rotation of
+the earth causes the uniform succession of light and darkness; and
+its annual motion occasions the difference of the length of the days
+and nights, and the beautiful diversity of the seasons. Many pious
+Christians, who read the Scriptures to great personal advantage,
+but who are unacquainted with the science of astronomy, are apt to
+doubt the truth of the astronomical principles concerning the shape
+and motion of the earth, because, as Dr. O. Gregory judiciously
+observes, they think them contrary to divine revelation. Such persons
+would do well to consider for what purpose the Holy Scriptures were
+written, whether as a measure of faith, or as a rule to regulate our
+philosophical notions? Gassendus, though he does not give a direct
+answer to the question, has made the following very pertinent
+observations on the subject. "There are," says he, "two sacred volumes,
+the one written, called the Bible; the other Nature, or the World;
+God having manifested himself by two lights, the one of revelation,
+and the other of demonstration; accordingly the interpreters of the
+former are divines; of the latter mathematicians. As to matters of
+natural knowledge, the mathematicians are to be consulted; and as to
+objects of faith, the prophets; the former being no less interpreters,
+or apostles, from God to men than the latter. And as the mathematician
+would be judged to wander out of his province, if he should pretend
+to controvert, or set aside any article of faith from principles of
+geometry; so it must be granted, the divines are no less out of their
+limits, when they venture to pronounce on a point of natural knowledge,
+beyond the reach of any not versed in geometry and optics, merely
+from Holy Scripture, which does not pretend to teach any thing of the
+matter."
+
+_Mars_ is the first of the four superior planets in order from the
+sun, his orbit being immediately beyond that of the earth. He was
+called by the Greeks <<Ar�s>>, the supposed god of war, which, says
+Parkhurst, comes from the Hebrew **`ryts** _violent_, _destructive_.
+Costard remarks, "This planet, I suppose, was called **`r`** _Ara_,
+**`rts** _Aretz_, <<Ar�s>>, and, in another dialect, **m`rts**
+_Ma-aretz_, or _Mars_, in a softer pronunciation, from his _strong
+glowing brightness_." He is distinguished from the other planets by
+the red and fiery appearance, of his disk: whether his ruddy troubled
+color arises from a natural disposition to reflect the red rays
+of light best, or from a thick atmosphere attending it, is rather
+uncertain; but it is generally attributed to the density of his
+atmosphere.
+
+    "In larger circuit rolls the orb of Mars,
+    Guiltless of stern debate, and wasteful wars,
+    As some have erring taught: he journies on,
+    Impell'd and nourish'd by the attractive sun;
+    Like us, his seasons and his days he owes
+    To the vast bounty which from Phoebus flows."
+
+His figure, like that of the earth, is an oblate spheroid. His mean
+distance from the sun is 145,000,000 miles, and he travels round that
+common centre of gravity in about 687 of our days, or 1 year, 321 days,
+22 hours, 18 minutes, 27 seconds, which is nearly equal to two of
+our years; and therefore his velocity in his orbit is at the rate of
+55,000 miles an hour. He has likewise a rotation upon his axis, which
+is performed in 1 day, 39 minutes, 22 seconds. This was discovered
+by means of spots seen on his surface. Dr. Hook, in 1665, observed
+several spots, which, having a motion, he concluded that the planet
+revolved upon its axis. In 1666, M. Cassini saw several spots in the
+two hemispheres of Mars, which, by continuing his observations very
+diligently, he found to move from east to west, and to return in the
+space of 24 hours, 40 minutes, to their former situation. Whence both
+the motion and period, or natural day of this planet, were determined.
+In 1781, Dr. Herschell observed the spots of Mars very minutely, from
+the motion of which he has found his rotation upon his axis to be
+performed in 24 hours, 39 minutes, 21-2/3 seconds; and he says that
+there cannot be more than two seconds of uncertainty in this result.
+The different seasons will take place on this planet very much like
+what they are known to do upon our earth, with this difference, that
+the seasons there will be almost as long again as with us, on account
+of the time he takes in moving round the sun being nearly twice as long
+as our year. The diameter of Mars being 4,135 miles, he is about 2/11,
+or less than a fifth, and more than a sixth part as large as the earth;
+and if any moon attend him, she must be very small, for it has not yet
+been discovered by the best telescopes of our most eminent astronomers;
+if without a moon, walking his round in perpetual solitude, he must
+consequently want that division of time, which, from the moon's
+revolution round the earth, is called a month.
+
+From the greater distance of Mars in his orbit than our earth is,
+the inhabitants there will scarcely see Mercury, unless it be when
+he appears on the sun's face, and passes over him like a dark spot,
+in the same manner as he sometimes does to us. Venus will to them
+appear somewhat similar to the appearances of Mercury to our earth,
+the apparent distance from the sun being nearly the same to them as
+Mercury is to us. Our earth to them, also, will be an inferior planet,
+or within his orbit, being nearer to the sun, in a way similar to what
+Venus appears to us, and will alternately be a morning or evening star;
+and our moon, which will always be seen to accompany her, when in a
+position to have the benefit of the sun's light, will not be seen at a
+greater distance, than about a semi-diameter of the sun or moon from it.
+
+This planet being half as far again from the sun as our earth is, his
+light and heat are not half so much as our own. When in opposition
+to the sun, he is found to be five times nearer to us than when in
+conjunction; and, therefore, he appears so much bigger and brighter at
+one time than another. In 1719, his apparent magnitude and brightness
+were so much increased, that, by the uninformed, he was taken for a new
+star.
+
+The telescopic appearance of Mars is very variable. This planet
+exhibits larger and more remarkable spots than any of the others.
+The belts and cloudy appearances are found to change their shape and
+arrangement frequently. The predominant brightness of the polar regions
+leads to the supposition that those parts of his surface, like the
+poles of the earth, are intensely frozen, or always covered with snow;
+and Dr. Herschell imagines that the changes in brightness are connected
+with the summer and winter seasons on that planet. The phases of Mars
+were first discovered by Galileo. Having his light from the sun, and
+revolving round it, he has an increase and decrease like the moon.
+At his quadratures, he appears gibbous, but never horned, like Venus,
+Mercury, and the Moon; which shows, that his orbit includes that of the
+earth, and that it is from the sun that he receives his light.
+
+Between the orbit of Mars and that of Jupiter, the smaller planetary
+bodies, lately discovered, revolve. _Ceres_ was discovered on the 1st
+of January, 1801, by M. Piazzi, astronomer at Palermo, in the island
+of Sicily. When viewed through a good telescope, it is of a ruddy
+color, appears to be of the size of a star of the eighth magnitude,
+and surrounded with a dense atmosphere. Her mean distance from the sun
+is 260,000,000 miles; and her revolution is performed in 4 years, 7
+months, 10 days. Dr. Herschell and Schro�ter differ very much as to
+the magnitude of this planet; the former says the diameter is only 160
+miles, but the latter makes it more than ten times greater, or 1,624
+miles. _Pallas_ was discovered on the 28th of March, 1802, by Dr.
+Olbers, of Bremen. Its mean distance from the sun 270,000,000 miles;
+its diameter 80 miles; and it performs its revolution in about 4 years,
+280 days. _Juno_ was discovered on the 1st of September, 1804, by M.
+Harding, of Lilienthal. Its mean distance from the sun is 290,000,000
+miles; and its diameter is 119 miles, and the time of revolution round
+the sun 5 years, 181 days. _Vesta_ was discovered by Dr. Olbers, on
+the 29th of March, 1807. It is nearer to Mars than either of the other
+newly discovered planets; and the revolution through its orbit is
+performed in less time. The size of this planet is not known. Its light
+is more intense, pure, and white, than any of the other three.
+
+A century and half ago it was conjectured, says a very intelligent
+author, that there must be a planet between the orbits of Jupiter
+and Mars, on account of the distance subsisting between those two
+planets. The discovery of Ceres confirmed this happy conjecture; but
+the opinion which it seemed to establish respecting the harmony of the
+solar system, appeared to be completely overturned by the discovery
+of Pallas and Juno. Dr. Olbers, willing to find a theory that should
+account for the facts newly ascertained, imagined that these small
+celestial bodies were merely the fragments of a larger planet, which
+had burst asunder by some internal convulsion, and that several more
+might yet be discovered between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. He
+therefore concluded, that though the orbits of all these fragments
+might be differently inclined to the ecliptic, yet, as they must
+have all diverged from the same point, they ought to have two common
+points of re-union, or two nodes in opposite regions of the heavens,
+through which all the planetary fragments must sooner or later pass.
+One of these nodes Dr. Olbers found to be in Virgo, and the other in
+the Whale; and it was actually in the latter of these regions that M.
+Harding discovered the planet Juno. With the intention, therefore, of
+detecting other fragments of the supposed planet, Dr. Olbers examined,
+thrice every year, all the little stars in the opposite constellation
+of the Virgin and the Whale, till his labors were crowned with success,
+by the discovery of a new planet in the constellation of Virgo, to
+which he gave the name of Vesta.
+
+The existence of four planets between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter,
+(continues the same author,) revolving round the sun at nearly the
+same distances, and differing from all the other planets in their
+diminutive size, and in the form and position of their orbits, is
+acknowledged to be one of the most singular phenomena in the history of
+astronomy. The discordance of these phenomena with the regularity of
+the planetary distances, and with the general harmony of the system,
+naturally suggests the opinion, that the inequalities in this part
+of the system were produced by some great convulsion, and that the
+four planets, as we have already hinted, are the fragments of a large
+celestial body, which once existed between Mars and Jupiter. To suppose
+them independent planets, as they must necessarily be if they did not
+originally form one, their diminutive size, the great eccentricity
+and inclination of their orbits, and their numerous intersections,
+when projected on the plane of the ecliptic, are phenomena absolutely
+inexplicable on every principle of science, and subversive of that
+harmony and order which before the discovery of these bodies, seemed
+to pervade the planetary system. Admitting, however, the hypothesis
+that these planetary bodies, are the remains of a larger body, which
+circulated round the sun, nearly in the orbit of the greatest fragment,
+the system resumes its order, and we discover a regular procession in
+the distances of the planets, and a general harmony in the form and
+position of their orbits. But, independently of analogical reasoning,
+the elements of the new planets furnish several direct arguments, drawn
+from the eccentricity and inclination of their orbits, and from the
+position of their perihelia and nodes; and all concurring to show, that
+the four new planets have diverged from one point, and have, therefore,
+been originally combined in a larger body.
+
+_Jupiter_ is the largest of all the planetary bodies, and, next to
+Venus the brightest. He was called by the Greeks <<Zeus>>, which
+is from <<ze�>>, _to be hot_, or, says Parkhurst, immediately from
+the Hebrew **zy** _to shine_, compounded, perhaps, with **ysh**
+_substance_, q.d. _the shining substance_; a name very justly given to
+this planet, on account of his strong and clear light.
+
+                      ----"In distant skies
+    Revolves the mighty magnitude of Jove,
+    With kingly state, the rival of the sun."
+
+His mean distance from the sun is 490,000,000 miles, and his diameter
+is 89,170 miles, or more than 11 times that of the earth, and therefore
+his magnitude is 1,400 times greater than our earth; of course, as the
+surface of a globe increases according to the square of its diameter,
+our earth will, to the inhabitants of Jupiter, appear 121 times less
+than this noble planet appears to us. His revolution round the sun,
+from east to west, is performed in 11 years, 315 days, 14 hours, 39
+minutes, 2 seconds, which is nearly twelve of our years; and his motion
+in his orbit is 29,000 miles an hour. He performs his diurnal rotation
+upon his axis in 9 hours, 55 minutes, 33 seconds, by which motion his
+equatorial parts are carried round at the amazing rate of 26,000 miles
+an hour, which is about twenty-five times the velocity of the like
+parts of our earth. He has, of course, a rapid succession of days, as
+the poet observes,
+
+    "In ample compass Jove conducts his sphere,
+    And later finishes his tedious year;
+    Yet swiftly on his axle turn'd, regains
+    The frequent aid of day to warm his plains."
+
+The axis of Jupiter is nearly perpendicular to his orbit, so that he
+has no sensible change of seasons. This is not the work of chance, as
+Dr. O. Gregory observes, but wisely ordered by the Divine Architect;
+for if the axis of this planet were inclined any considerable number
+of degrees, so many degrees round each pole would be almost six years
+together in darkness. And as each degree of a great circle on this
+planet contains more than 700 miles, it is natural to conceive, that
+vast tracts of land would be rendered uninhabitable by any considerable
+inclination of his axis.
+
+The appearance of this planet, through a telescope, opens a vast
+field for interesting inquiry. His surface is not equally bright, but
+variegated with certain bands, or belts, of a dusky appearance: they
+run parallel to each other, and are continued round the body of the
+planet. They are not regular or constant in their appearance: sometimes
+only one is seen; at other times six or eight. The breadth of them
+is likewise variable; one belt is sometimes becoming narrow, while
+another, in its neighborhood, grows broader as if one had flowed into
+the other: in these cases, an oblique belt has been observed to be
+between them, as if for the purpose of establishing a communication.
+Sometimes, one or more spots are formed between the belts, which
+increase till the whole is united in a large dusky belt. There are also
+bright spots to be discovered on Jupiter's surface; these are rather
+more permanent than the belts, and re-appear after unequal intervals of
+time. The remarkable spot, by whose motion the rotation of Jupiter upon
+his own axis was first ascertained, disappeared in the year 1694, and
+was not seen again till 1708, when it re-appeared exactly in the same
+place, and has been occasionally seen ever since.
+
+Jupiter is enlightened by four moons, or satellites, each of them
+larger than that with which we are supplied, and which revolve at
+different distances from that planet. In the solar system the moons,
+or satellites, revolve round their respective primary planets as
+centres, in the same manner as the primary planets revolve round the
+sun. By means of Jupiter's satellites, a method has been obtained
+for demonstrating that the motion of light is progressive, and not
+instantaneous, as was formerly supposed; which discovery is important
+to the interests of science. M. Huygens, in his Treatise on Light,
+concludes from these eclipses, that light transmits itself about
+600,000 times faster than sound.
+
+Distances and Revolutions of Jupiter's Satellites.
+
+                                      Revolution.
+                      Distance.     _d._ _h._ _m._
+    1st Satellite      250,000        1   18   36
+    2d                 401,000        3   13   15
+    3d                 648,000        7    3   59
+    4th              1,128,000       16   18   30
+
+They are thus referred to by Mallet:
+
+    "About him round _four_ planetary moons,
+    On earth with wonder all night long beheld,
+    Moon above moon, his fair attendants dance."
+
+To a spectator placed on the surface of Jupiter, each of the satellites
+would put on the phases of the moon; but as the distance of any of
+them from Jupiter is but small, when compared with the distance of
+that planet from the sun, the satellites are therefore illuminated by
+the sun very nearly in the same manner with the primary itself; hence
+they appear to us always round, having constantly the greatest part
+of their enlightened half turned towards the earth: and indeed they
+are so small, that were they to put on the phases of the moon, these
+phases could scarcely be discerned through the best telescopes. When
+the satellites pass through their inferior semicircles, they may cast
+a shadow upon their primary, and thus cause an eclipse of the sun to
+his inhabitants; and in some situations this shadow may be observed
+going before or following the satellite. On the other hand, in passing
+through their superior semicircles, the satellites may be eclipsed in
+the same manner as our moon by passing through the shadow of Jupiter:
+and this is actually the case with the first, second, and third; but
+the fourth, by reason of the extent of its orbit, passes sometimes
+above or below the shadow, as is the case with our moon.
+
+These satellites were first discovered on the 7th of January, 1610,
+by the celebrated Galileo, who called them _Medician Stars_, in honor
+of the family of the Medici, dukes of Tuscany, his patrons. These
+satellites, revolving about Jupiter at different distances, from west
+to east, when viewed through a telescope, make a beautiful appearance.
+As our moon revolves round the earth, enlightening the nights, by
+reflecting the light she receives from the sun; so these satellites,
+revolving round Jupiter, may also be supposed to enlighten the nights
+of that planet.
+
+_Saturn_ is a very conspicuous planet, though he shines with a pale
+and feeble light, very unlike that of Jupiter and the other planets.
+He was called by the Greeks <<phain�n>>. "From the account given
+by Diodorus Siculus," says Costard, "it seems as if the Chaldeans
+called this planet by some name not widely different from this of
+the Greeks. In the language of Chaldea, the verb **phn'** _phana_,
+or **phnh** _phanah_, signifies _convertere se_, _divertere se_,
+_declinare_. And whatever _vanishes_, or _disappears_, very properly
+_declines_, or _turns aside_, from our view. This planet, therefore,
+was most probably called **phn** _phen_, or **phyn** _phain_, and,
+with a Greek termination, <<phain�n>>, on account of his _withdrawing_
+himself, by reason of his distance. And this conjecture is yet further
+confirmed from his name in another dialect, or among another people.
+For from **str** _sater, latuit, abscondit se_, with the paragogic
+**nun** _nun_ which is not unusual in the formation of Eastern words,
+comes the word **strn** _Saturn_, and with the Latin termination _us,
+Saturnus_."
+
+His mean distance from the sun is 900,000,000 miles, consequently his
+motion in his orbit is proportionably slow; and his annual revolution
+round the sun, from west to east, being so much longer likewise than
+that of the other planets, he takes 29 years, 164 days, 7 hours,
+21 minutes, 50 seconds, which is almost _thirty_ of our years, to
+accomplish it, in his orbit travelling with a velocity of 22,000 miles
+an hour. His diameter is 79,000 miles; and his magnitude is about 1,000
+times that of the earth. The time of rotation upon his axis is 10
+hours, 17 minutes.
+
+    "Still further off, scarce warm'd by Phoebus' ray,
+    Through his wide orbit, Saturn wheels away;
+    How great the change, could we be wafted there!
+    How slow the seasons! and how long the year!"
+
+There is a singular and curious appendage to Saturn, namely, a thin,
+broad, opake ring, encompassing the body of the planet, without
+touching it; like the horizon of an artificial globe; it appears to be
+suspended round the planet, and to keep its place without any immediate
+connection with it. The distance of this prodigious circle from the
+body of the planet is usually stated to be about 21,000 miles.
+
+The dimensions of the ring, or of the two rings with the space between
+them, Dr. Herschell has given as follows:
+
+                                                  Miles.
+    Inner diameter of the smaller ring           146,345
+    Outside diameter of ditto                    184,393
+    Inner diameter of the larger ring            190,248
+    Outside diameter of ditto                    204,883
+    Breadth of the inner ring                     20,000
+    Breadth of the outer ring                      7,200
+    Breadth of the vacant space, or dark zone      2,839
+
+It puts on different appearances to us, sometimes being seen quite
+open, or as a wide oval, and at others, only as a single line. When
+our eye is in the plane of the ring, or looking at it directly on
+the edge, it is invisible to us; and it is in this situation twice
+in each revolution of the planet; that is, once in about fifteen
+years: at these times, he appears quite round, for nine or ten months
+together. The ring was invisible to us on the 15th of June, 1803, and,
+since that time, gradually increased in light and breadth for about
+seven years: and, after which, has again decreased, till, as before,
+after an interval of fifteen years, in the present year 1818, the
+ring is again edgewise to us, and invisible. With telescopes of great
+magnifying power, two belts or stripes have been discovered on Saturn;
+they appear parallel to the ring, and are supposed to be permanent. Of
+what component materials this ring is composed, or by what means it is
+suspended, we as yet remain ignorant: but of its use, it is supposed to
+supply light and heat to the planet, agreeably to the observation of a
+poet who has evinced an extensive acquaintance with philosophy.
+
+    "Muse! raise thy voice, mysterious truth to sing,
+    How o'er the copious orb a lucid ring,
+    Opake and broad, is seen its arch to spread,
+    Round the big globe at stated periods led;
+    Perhaps (its use unknown) with gather'd heat
+    To aid the regions of that gelid seat,
+    The want of nearer Phoebus to supply,
+    And warm with reflex beams his summer sky;
+    Else might the high-plac'd world, expos'd to frost,
+    Lie waste, in one eternal winter lost."
+
+Besides the ring, Saturn is also furnished with seven attendant moons,
+or satellites, which move around him at different distances, in a way
+similar to those of Jupiter.
+
+Distances and Revolutions of Saturn's Satellites.
+
+                                      Revolution.
+                     Distance.    _d._ _h._ _m._ _s._
+    1st Satellite     172,000       1   21   18   26
+    2d                217,000       2   17   44   51
+    3d                315,000       4   12   25   11
+    4th               705,000      15   22   41   14
+    5th             2,126,000      79    7   53   42
+    6th               137,000       1    8   53    9
+    7th               107,000       0   22   37   30
+
+The sixth and seventh satellites were discovered by Dr. Herschell in
+1787 and 1788: they are nearer to Saturn than any of the other five;
+but, to prevent confusion, they have been called the 6th and 7th. The
+5th satellite has been observed by Dr. Herschell to turn once round its
+axis, exactly in the time in which it revolves round Saturn: in this
+respect it resembles our moon. Their distance from us is so far, as not
+to be easily visible, even with a good telescope, unless the air be
+exceedingly clear.
+
+It was for ages that astronomical science limited the solar system to
+six planets, and Saturn was considered as its utmost extent. Vitruvius,
+speaking of the planet Saturn, says, that star "is near the extremity
+of the world, and touches the frozen regions of heaven." He did not
+understand the extent of our planetary system.
+
+It is to the indefatigable application of Dr. Herschell that we are
+indebted for the discovery of a new planet, which is the fourth of the
+superior ones then known, and, being at twice the distance of Saturn
+from the sun, has quadrupled the bounds formerly assigned to the solar
+system. This planet was discovered on the 13th of March, 1781, and
+is called by different names: the discoverer bestowed upon it that
+of _Georgium Sidus_, in honor of our present venerable and beloved
+sovereign; by the French it is called _Herschell_, and by the Italians,
+_Uranus_. This important discovery is very deservedly noticed by the
+Poet Laureat, in his Ode entitled "Carmen Seculare for the year 1800."
+
+          "Mathesis with uplifted eye,
+          Tracing the wonders of the sky,
+          Beholds new constellations rise,
+          New systems crown the argent skies;
+    Views with new lustre round the glowing pole,
+    Wide his stupendous orb the _Georgian Planet_ roll."
+
+On the 11th January, 1787, Dr. Herschell discovered the second and
+fourth satellites which attend his own planet the Georgium Sidus; and
+in the following years, previously to 1791, he observed four others
+revolving round the same body. Though this celebrated astronomer was
+the first who discovered the Georgium Sidus to be one of the planets
+of the solar system, yet no doubt can be entertained of its having
+been before observed and considered as a fixed star. Flamsteed in
+1690, Mayer in 1756, and Monnier in 1769, determined the places of
+three stars which cannot now be found. And M. La Place, according to
+his theory of Jupiter and Saturn, has found that the Georgium Sidus
+was _exactly_ in those three points at those very times. These truly
+singular occurrences leave no doubt of the identity of these three
+stars with the new planet. The lines which Mallet applied to Saturn are
+now, with a little alteration, more applicable to the Georgium Sidus,
+or Herschell planet.
+
+    "Last, outmost Herschell walks his frontier round,
+    The boundary of worlds; with his pale moons,
+    Faint-glimmering through the darkness night has thrown,
+    Deep-dy'd and dead, o'er this chill globe forlorn:
+    An endless desert, where extreme of cold
+    Eternal sits, as in his native seat,
+    On wintry hills of never-thawing ice;
+    Such Herschell's earth."
+
+His mean distance from the sun is about 1,800,000,000 miles, and he
+performs his revolution from west to east round the sun in 83 years,
+294 days, 8 hours, 39 minutes; and in his orbit he moves with a
+velocity of 15,846 miles an hour. His diameter is 4� times larger than
+that of the earth, being more than 35,000 miles; and his magnitude
+is 80� times larger than that of the earth. The orbit in which he
+revolves is nineteen times further from the sun than the earth's
+orbit; consequently he has 361 times less light and heat from the
+sun than we have. Notwithstanding this, his proportion of light is
+considerable; for having been calculated, it is found to be equal to
+the effect of 284 of our full moons. When the sky is very serene and
+clear, and the moon absent, this planet may be perceived with the naked
+eye, unassisted by a telescope: and it appears as a star of the fifth
+magnitude, with a blueish white light, and a brilliancy between that of
+Venus and the Moon.
+
+The want of light arising from the great distance of this planet from
+the sun, is supplied by six satellites, which revolve at different
+distances round their primary.
+
+Distances and Revolutions of the Satellites of the Georgium Sidus.
+
+                                       Revolution.
+                      Distance.    _d._ _h._ _m._ _s._
+    1st Satellite      226,450       5   21   25    0
+    2d                 293,053       8   17    0    0
+    3d                 342,784      10   23    0    0
+    4th                392,514      13   11    0    0
+    5th                785,028      38    1   49    0
+    6th              1,570,057     107    7   35   10
+
+All these satellites, it has been said, perform their revolutions in
+their orbits contrary to the order of the signs; that is, their real
+motion is retrograde, but probably, as suggested by Dr. Hutton, this
+is an optical illusion.[130] As the indefatigable Dr. Herschell has
+already discovered six satellites belonging to this planet, does not
+its immense distance from the sun leave some ground for conjecture,
+that there may remain some undiscovered, and that his attendants are as
+numerous, if not more so, than those of Saturn?
+
+    Characters used for the Sun, Moon, and Planets.
+
+    [Symbol: Sun] The Sun
+    [Symbol: Moon] The Moon
+    [Symbol: Mercury] Mercury
+    [Symbol: Venus] Venus
+    [Symbol: Earth] The Earth
+    [Symbol: Mars] Mars
+    [Symbol: Jupiter] Jupiter
+    [Symbol: Saturn] Saturn
+    [Symbol: Uranus] Herschell, or Georgium Sidus.
+
+The mark which characterises the planet Herschell is the initial of the
+discoverer's name, intersected by a cross bar to represent a cross, by
+which to denote that the discovery of the planet took place after the
+birth of Christ.
+
+Astronomy produces calculations concerning the magnitudes, distances,
+and revolutions of the planets, and their respective satellites,
+which, to the uninformed, appear absurd, chimerical, and presumptuous;
+while, probably, they laugh at such notions as were received among men,
+when even the wisest of them were weak enough to believe, that the
+earth was an immense plain, situated in the centre of the universe;
+that the vault of heaven was of crystal; and that the sun was no other
+than a plate of red hot iron, about as large as the Peloponnessus. The
+following thoughts, communicated by my much esteemed friend Thomas
+Exley, A. M. may assist such persons to entertain more favorable
+sentiments of the science of astronomy, and also serve to enlarge their
+views of the Supreme Being.
+
+"Many persons who have not had the advantages of proper instruction
+in mathematical science, cannot be persuaded that it is in the power
+of man to ascertain the distances of the sun, moon, and planets,
+and, of course, pay little regard to the assertions of astronomers
+on this subject. Sometimes, they are bold enough to say the thing is
+impossible, because no one has ever been to any of those bodies. Let
+such persons consider, that it is not necessary to go to a remote
+object in order to measure its distance; for that purpose, it will be
+sufficient to know the length of a line at the place of the spectator,
+and the inclination of this line to two others directed from its
+extremities to the object; for, on the length of this line, and the
+position of the two others, depends the distance of the object from the
+ends of that line.
+
+"Thus, if I wish to know the distance of a neighboring tower, or
+other object beyond a river, or in some other way inaccessible; I
+measure any convenient line terminating in my station, and by some
+instrument proper for measuring angles, I ascertain the position of
+my measured line to the lines connecting its extreme points and the
+object. On these data depends the distance, and from this line and
+these angles accurately measured, the exact distance may be with
+great ease truly found. It is on similar principles that astronomers
+investigate the distances of the heavenly bodies. They take as the
+given or measured line, which may be called the base, some line on the
+earth, the semi-diameter for instance, as being the most convenient.
+The angle formed, or rather contained by two lines drawn from the sun
+or planet to the ends of the semi-diameter of the earth, is called the
+parallax, because it shows the difference of the apparent situation
+of the object as seen from the extremities of the semi-diameter, that
+is, it measures the arc of a great circle in the heavens contained
+between its two apparent places. Hence to ascertain its parallax, or
+difference of the apparent place when the object is viewed from the
+other end of the semi-diameter, becomes a problem of great importance
+in astronomy; for this being truly discovered, the distance of the
+planet will be obtained with the utmost exactitude. If any other line
+besides the semi-diameter of the earth, whose length and position are
+known, be used as a base, and the parallax in respect of this line be
+found, the same conclusions will follow. The chief difficulty in this
+affair arises from the smallness of the angle to be measured, which
+is a consequence of the greatness of the distance in respect of the
+earth's semi-diameter. Several ingenious methods have been proposed
+and employed by astronomers to discover the distances of the sun and
+planets, but nothing serves this purpose so well as the transits of
+Venus over the sun's disk. At certain periods, which can be foretold
+by astronomers, this planet passes exactly between us and the sun, and
+is seen as a dark round spot for some hours, moving in a line across
+the sun's face or disk. The observer should be furnished with a good
+chronometer, or pendulum clock with seconds, to note the time of the
+transit; and good instruments, to take the apparent diameters of the
+sun and Venus, and her greatest distance from the sun's limb while
+passing over his disk: from these observations, and the known phenomena
+of the motions of the earth and Venus, the parallax may be found. But
+if two observers, at very distant places of the earth properly chosen,
+make these observations, the parallax may be obtained with much greater
+ease and nicety; because the distance of the apparent tracks of Venus
+across the sun as seen from the two places, and also the difference of
+the time of the passage, arises from the parallax of Venus and that
+of the sun. The two last transits, which happened in the years 1761
+and 1769, were carefully observed for this purpose; and it is to the
+results of these observations that the present astronomers are indebted
+for their more accurate knowledge of the distances of the planets, and
+the dimensions of the solar system.
+
+"It should be observed, that if the parallax, and consequently the
+distance of any one of the planets by any means becomes known, the same
+is easily obtained for each of the other planets, from the relation
+which has been clearly discovered to subsist between the periodical
+times of revolution of the planets round the sun, and their distances
+from that central luminary. Astronomers have most decidedly proved that
+the square of the time in which any planet revolves is to the square
+of the time in which any other revolves, as the cube of the distance
+of the first, is to the cube of the distance of the other; and since
+all the times are known from observation, if the distance of any one be
+determined, there is no difficulty at all to find the distances of all
+the other planets from the sun.
+
+"It has also been matter of great surprise to the unlearned, that
+astronomers should pretend to tell the magnitudes of the sun and
+planets. But this is no difficult problem when the distance is known.
+The _apparent_ diameter is readily found from observation, and on this
+and the distance depends the _true_ diameter. If the apparent diameters
+of two objects be equal, the true diameter of the one will be greater
+as it is more remote; and the apparent diameter of any object will
+increase as the distance of it from the observer diminishes. From this
+every one sees, that a knowledge of the distance of the object is an
+indispensible element for finding its bulk; and, according to the
+accuracy of the measure of the distance, will be that of the measure of
+the magnitude, provided the apparent distance be truly taken; and this,
+in the present improved state of our instruments, presents no obstacle.
+There can be no doubt but that astronomers are very near the truth in
+the numbers which they now give us for expressing the distances and
+magnitudes of the sun and planets.
+
+"The telescope has been of singular use to the astronomer; it has
+shown him many phenomena of the heavenly bodies, concerning which he
+would otherwise have been totally ignorant. It is by the assistance of
+this noble instrument that we have attained to the knowledge of the
+rotations of the sun and planets, the phases of Venus and Mercury,
+Saturn's ring, and many other particulars exceedingly interesting. The
+telescope has discovered several planets which otherwise would have
+revolved in their courses unknown and unnoticed by the inhabitants of
+this globe; it has informed us that several of the planets have moons
+moving round them, as our moon revolves round the earth; besides, it
+has presented to our view an innumerable multitude of fixed stars which
+without this assistance we should never have seen.
+
+"It is no wonder that great efforts have been made to improve this
+excellent instrument; these efforts have been attended with great
+success, and what may be further done in this respect we cannot tell;
+however, there is a limit to the improvements of the telescope, for
+after it has attained a certain degree of magnifying power, the motes
+and vapors in the atmosphere would be so magnified as to occupy its
+whole field of view, and thus render it a useless incumbrance."
+
+Who can contemplate the power which produced the solar system, at once
+so magnificent, beautiful, and delightful, without astonishment and
+admiration? The planets are kept in a regular motion, and retained in
+an invariable course round the sun, by the power of this luminary's
+attraction or gravity. These bodies have a projectile force, being
+propelled forwards in a right line, which is the nature of all simple
+motion; but the sun's attraction combining with their own projectile
+force, withdraws them from their rectilineal courses, and preserves
+the most perfect harmony in the system. This wonderful mechanism
+was originally impressed on the system by its infinitely wise and
+omnipotent Creator; to which primary impulse it has with undeviating
+uniformity adhered, having never suffered in its operations from the
+greatest distance of space, or intervals of time!
+
+Surely no power less than that which at first gave existence and
+modification to matter, is equal to the government of the world. The
+solar orb and the planetary bodies could no more subsist in their
+present form and order, without a Divine, supporting, and directing
+hand, than they could at the beginning make themselves. What is that
+general law or force called _gravitation_, without which the whole
+frame of nature would soon be dissolved? Is it not a power constantly
+issuing from the Deity, and which if he should suspend but for one
+moment, the whole creation would sink into ruins? How inconceivably
+great and operative must that power be, that is present throughout the
+universe, with all the heavenly orbs to preserve them in their courses;
+and on this earth, with every creature, and every particle of matter,
+to preserve its present form!
+
+In addition to the planets and their satellites, there are _Comets_,
+which revolve round the sun, and, consequently, are a part of the
+solar system. They have often a long tail, in appearance resembling
+hair, issuing from that side which is turned away from the sun. Comets
+are popularly divided into three kinds, namely, bearded, tailed, and
+hairy: but this arrangement seems to apply rather to the different
+circumstances of the same comet, than to the phenomena of several.
+Thus, when a comet is eastward of the sun, and moves with him, it is
+said to be bearded, because the light precedes it in the manner of a
+beard: but when it is westward of him, it is said to be tailed, because
+the train of light follows it in the manner of a tail: and, lastly,
+when the sun and comet are diametrically opposite, the earth being
+between them, the train is hid behind the body of the comet, excepting
+the extremities, which being broader than the body of the comet, appear
+round it like a border of hair (_coma_), from which circumstance it is
+said to be hairy, and is denominated a comet.
+
+Without attending to the variety of opinions which philosophers and
+astronomers have entertained concerning the nature and use of comets,
+we may affirm, that they have been considered as alarming phenomena,
+displayed by the Divine Being to warn mankind of the near approach of
+some dreadful calamity, such as wars, pestilence, and famine. This
+opinion prevailed during the dark ages between the decline of the Roman
+empire, and the dawn of the Reformation. To this apprehension some of
+our modern poets have alluded in strong and descriptive language. Young
+says,
+
+    "Hast thou ne'er seen the comet's flaming light?
+    Th' illustrious stranger passing, terror sheds
+    On gazing nations, from his fiery train
+    Of length enormous; takes his ample round
+    Through depths of ether; coasts unnumber'd worlds
+    Of more than solar glory; doubles wide
+    Heaven's mighty cape; and then revisits earth,
+    From the long travel of a thousand years."
+
+Milton uses still greater strength of language when he compares his
+hero to a comet:
+
+    "Incensed with indignation, Satan stood
+    Unterrified, and like a comet burn'd
+    That fines the length of Ophiucus huge
+    In the arctic sky, and from his horrid hair
+    Shakes pestilence and war."
+
+Similar ideas are finely expressed by Savage:
+
+    "In fancy's eye encount'ring armies glare,
+    And sanguine ensigns wave unfurled in air!
+    Hence the deep vulgar deem impending fate,
+    A monarch ruined, or unpeopled state.
+    Thus comets, dreadful visitants! arise,
+    To _them_ wild omens, science to the _wise_,
+    These mark the comet to the sun incline,
+    While deep red flames around its centre shine!
+    While its fierce rear a winding trail displays,
+    And lights all ether with a sweeping blaze!
+    Or when, compell'd, it flies the torrid zone,
+    And shoots by worlds unnumbered and unknown;
+    By worlds, whose people, all aghast with fear,
+    May view that minister of vengeance near."
+
+Notwithstanding the present improved state of astronomical science, it
+is evident that the philosophy of comets is very imperfect. Kepler,
+though in other respects a very great genius, and to whose useful
+labors astronomy is deeply indebted, indulged in the most extravagant
+conjectures; he imagined that the planets were large animals, swimming
+round the sun: and that the comets were animals still more huge and
+monstrous, which had been generated in the celestial spaces. Jean
+Bodin, a learned Frenchman of the 16th century, entertained an opinion,
+if possible, still more absurd and ridiculous. He maintained that the
+comets are spirits, which having lived on the earth innumerable ages,
+and being at last arrived on the confines of death, celebrated their
+last triumph, or are recalled to the firmament like shining stars! Mr.
+Whiston was of opinion, that comets are so many hells, appointed in
+their orbits alternately to carry the damned into the confines of the
+sun, there to be scorched by its violent heat, and then to return with
+them beyond the orb of Saturn, there to starve them in those cold and
+dismal regions. Thus
+
+    "Born in an age more curious than devout;
+    More fond to fix the place of heaven or hell,
+    Than studious this to shun, or that secure."[131]
+
+James Bernoulli, in his Systema Cometarum, says, that comets are no
+other than the satellites of some very distant planet, which is itself
+invisible to us on account of its vast distance, as are also the
+satellites, unless when they are in that part of their orbits which
+is nearest the earth. Comets, according to Des Cartes, were formerly
+fixed stars: but which becoming gradually covered with macul�, and
+at length wholly deprived of their light, cannot keep their places,
+but are carried off by the vortices of the circumjacent stars; and in
+proportion to their magnitude and solidity, moved in such a manner as
+to be brought nearer the orb of Saturn; and thus, coming within reach
+of the sun's light, are rendered visible.
+
+Aristotle, Seneca, Plutarch, and others, testify, that the
+Pythagoreans, and the whole Italian sect, maintained, that a comet
+was a kind of planet or wandering star, which appeared again after a
+long interval of time. Hippocrates Chius was of the same opinion as
+Aristotle informs us. Democritus held also the same opinion, as Seneca
+tells us in his "Natural Questions;" book vii, chap. 3, "For," says he,
+"Democritus, the most curious and subtle of all the ancients, suspected
+that there were many more stars which moved, meaning by this expression
+the comets; but he neither established their number, or their names,
+the courses of the five planets not having as yet been discovered."
+Again, Seneca assures us, that Apollonius Myndius, one of the most
+skilful philosophers in the search of natural causes, asserted, that
+the Chaldeans reckoned comets among the other wandering stars, and
+that they knew their courses. Apollonius himself maintained, that a
+comet was a star of its own kind, as the sun and moon are, but that its
+course was not yet known; that by its motions it mounts very high in
+the heavens, and only appears when it descends into the lower part of
+its orbit. And Seneca himself embraces this opinion in the following
+truly philosophical words: "I cannot believe," says he, "that a comet
+is a fire suddenly kindled, but that it ought to be ranked among the
+eternal works of nature. A comet has its proper place, and is not
+easily moved from thence; it goes its course, and is not extinguished,
+but runs off from us. But you will say, if it were a wandering star
+it would keep in the zodiac. But who can set one boundary to all
+the stars? Who can restrain the works of the Divinity to a narrow
+compass? For each of those bodies, which you imagine to be the only
+ones that have motion, have very different circles; why, therefore,
+may there not be some that have peculiar ways of their own, wherein
+they recede far from the rest? But that their courses may be known,
+it is necessary to have a collection of all the ancient observations
+about comets; for their appearances are so rare, that their orbits are
+not yet determined; nor can we as yet find whether they have their
+periods, or whether they return again in a certain order."--"The time
+will come," continues he, "wherein these things which are now hid from
+us will be discovered; which observation, and the diligence of after
+ages, will find out. For it is not one age that is sufficient for so
+great matters: the time will be when posterity will wonder that we were
+ignorant of things so plain; one will arise who will demonstrate in
+what regions of space the comets wander, why they recede so far from
+the other planets; how great and what sort of bodies they are."[132]
+The period, predicted by Seneca, in the first century of the Christian
+era, is not yet arrived. "After all that has been done and written on
+the subject of comets," says a late writer, "we must confess, that
+our knowledge of these wandering bodies is still very imperfect."
+"It appears to me," says La Lande, "that almost every thing depends
+on comets. The only thing that I recommend to my correspondents, is
+to look after and attend to comets: the knowledge of comets is alone
+wanting to complete the science of astronomy."
+
+Several ages elapsed before this prediction of Seneca seemed likely to
+be fulfilled. Tycho Brah� was the first who attempted to restore the
+comets to their proper rank in creation. Having diligently observed the
+comet of 1577, and finding that it had no sensible diurnal parallax,
+he very properly determined its true place to be among the other
+revolving bodies in the planetary regions, as appears by his book De
+Cometa, 1577. And Sir Isaac Newton, from his amazing discoveries, gives
+the following theory of comets: "They are," says he, "compact, solid,
+fixed, and durable bodies; in fact, a kind of planets, which move in
+very oblique and eccentric orbits, every way with the greatest freedom;
+persevering in their motions even against the course and direction of
+the planets: and their tail is a very thin and slender vapor, emitted
+by the head or nucleus of the comet, ignited or heated by the sun."
+
+Various conjectures have been formed concerning the nature of the tails
+of comets. Dr. Hamilton, of Dublin, in the second of his Philosophical
+Essays, urges several objections against the Newtonian hypothesis: he
+remarks, that, since the tail of a comet, though exceedingly rare,
+meets with no resistance in its rapid motion round the sun (except so
+slight a one as can only cause a very small condensation on that side
+of it which moves foremost, and thereby may make it a little brighter
+than the other side), it cannot possibly move in a medium denser and
+heavier than itself, and therefore cannot be raised up from the sun
+by the superior gravity of such a medium. And since the stars seen
+through all parts of a comet's tail appear in their proper places,
+and with their usual colors, he infers that the rays of light suffer
+no refraction in passing through the tail; therefore, since bodies
+reflect and refract light by one and the same power, he concludes
+that the matter of a comet's tail has not the power of refracting or
+reflecting light, and is, of consequence, a lucid or self shining
+substance. Also from what astronomers say of the splendor of comets'
+tails, it is manifest they do not shine with such a dull light as would
+be reflected to us by the clouds or vapors at so great a distance, but
+with a brisker though a glimmering light, such as would arise from a
+very thin, volatile, burning matter. Dr. Halley, speaking of the great
+streams of light in the remarkable aurora borealis seen in 1716, says,
+"they so much resembled the long tails of comets, that at first sight
+they might be taken for such:" and afterwards, "this light seems to
+have a great affinity to that which the effluvia of electric bodies
+emit in the dark." Dr. Hamilton improves upon these hints: and since,
+as he shows, the tails of comets, the aurora borealis, and the electric
+fluid, agree remarkably, not only in their appearance, but also in such
+properties as we can observe of each of them, he concludes that they
+are substances of the same nature. And, because the electric matter,
+from its vast subtility and velocity, seems capable of making great
+excursions from the planetary system, he imagines that the several
+comets, in their long excursions from the sun in all directions, may
+overtake this matter; and by attracting it to themselves may come back
+replete with it, and being again heated by the sun, may disperse it
+among the planets, and so keep up a circulation of this matter, which
+there is reason to think is necessary in our system.[133]
+
+Comets, descending from the remote parts of the system with great
+rapidity become visible to us in the lower parts of their orbits; and
+after a short stay, go off again to vast distances, and disappear. They
+move about the sun in very eccentric ellipses; and the velocity with
+which they seem to move is variable in every part of their path round
+the sun; when near to which they appear to move with great swiftness,
+and, when very remote, their motion is slow. They are opake bodies, but
+of a much greater density than the earth; for some of them are heated
+in every period to such a degree, as would vitrify or dissipate any
+substance known to us. Sir Isaac Newton computed the heat of the comet,
+which appeared in the year 1680, when nearest the sun, to be 2,000
+times hotter than red hot iron, and that, being thus heated, it must
+retain its heat till it comes round again, although its period should
+be more than 20,000 years; and it is computed to be only 575.
+
+The number of the comets is much greater than that of the planets
+belonging to our system. From the beginning of the Christian era, till
+now, there have appeared about five hundred. Before that time, we
+have accounts of about one hundred others. But, when it is considered
+that there may have been many that have not been seen, from being too
+near the sun, from appearing in moon-light, from being in the other
+hemisphere, or from being too small, or from not being recorded, the
+number is probably much greater. Miss Herschell, by means of the
+telescope, has, within the last twenty years, discovered several
+comets. The orbits of about one hundred comets have been calculated
+with sufficient accuracy for ascertaining their identity on any future
+appearance. Many of these orbits are inclined to the plane of the
+ecliptic in large angles, and many of them approach much nearer the sun
+than the earth does. Their motions are also different from those of the
+planets, some of them being direct and others retrograde, nearly half
+the number moving each way. The different motions of the comets, and
+the various inclinations of their orbits to the plane of the ecliptic,
+must not be regarded as the work of chance, but as calculated to answer
+beneficial purposes, or avoid baneful consequences; for if these orbits
+had been nearly coincident with that of the earth, both bodies might
+have arrived at the common point of intersection of their orbits at
+the same time; in which case a derangement of both motions must, at
+least, have been the necessary result.[134] But, according to all the
+observations that have been made respecting their present distribution
+and direction, there is not the least reason to apprehend any such
+consequence.
+
+The following table contains a list of the last twenty-three of the
+principal comets that have been observed, with the time of passing
+their perihelia, and their nearest approach to the sun.
+
+                            Nearest distance
+            Passage of the   from the Sun in  Direction of
+    Years.    Perihelion.    English Miles.   their Motion.
+    ------  --------------  ----------------  -------------
+    1790     January   15      71 millions     Retrograde.
+    1790     January   28     101              Direct.
+    1790     May       21      75              Retrograde.
+    1792     January   13     122              Retrograde.
+    1792     December  27      91              Retrograde.
+    1793     November   4      38              Retrograde.
+    1793     November  18     142              Direct.
+    1795     December  15      23              Direct.
+    1796     April      2     149              Retrograde.
+    1797     July       9      50              Retrograde.
+    1798     April      4      46              Direct.
+    1798     December  31      73              Retrograde.
+    1799     September  7      79              Retrograde.
+    1799     December  25      25              Retrograde.
+    1801     August     8      22              Retrograde.
+    1802     September  9     103              Direct.
+    1804     February  13     101              Direct.
+    1805     November  18      35              Direct.
+    1805     December  31      84              Direct.
+    1806     December  28     102              Retrograde.
+    1807     September 18      61              Direct.
+    1811     August    20      25              Direct.
+    1815     April     26     121              Direct.
+
+But of all the comets, the periods of three only are known with any
+degree of certainty, being found to return at intervals of 75, 129,
+and 575 years; and of these, that which appeared in 1680 is the most
+remarkable. This comet, at its greatest distance, is about 11,200
+millions of miles from the sun, while its least distance from the
+centre of the sun is about 490,000 miles; being less than one third
+part of the sun's semi-diameter from his surface. In that part of its
+orbit which is nearest the sun, it flies with the amazing velocity of
+880,000 miles in an hour; and the sun, as seen from it, appears 100
+degrees in breadth, consequently 40,000 times as large as he appears
+to us. The astonishing distance that this comet runs out into empty
+space, naturally suggests to our imagination the vast distance between
+our sun and the nearest of the fixed stars, of whose attractions all
+the comets must keep clear, to return periodically and go round the
+sun. How wonderful that, though this body travelled almost two thousand
+times faster than a cannon ball, yet it drew after it a tail of fire,
+or of phosphoric gas, eight millions of miles in length! How amazing
+to consider, that this stupendous body, traversing the immensity of
+the creation with such rapidity, and at the same time wheeling about
+in that line which its great Creator prescribed to it, should move
+with such inconceivable velocity, and at the same time with such
+exact regularity! How spacious must the universe be, that, gives such
+bodies as these full play, without suffering the least disorder or
+confusion by it! With what a glorious exhibition must those beings
+be entertained, who can look into this great theatre of nature, and
+see myriads of these tremendous objects wandering through those
+immeasurable depths of �ther, and running their appointed courses!
+Our eyes may hereafter be strong enough to command this magnificent
+prospect, and our understandings able to find out the several uses of
+these immense parts of the universe. In the mean time, they are most
+suitable objects for our imagination to contemplate, that we may
+form more extensive notions of infinite wisdom and power, and learn
+to think humbly of ourselves, and of all the little works of human
+invention.[135]
+
+The _Fixed Stars_ are objects of peculiar interest, and are so
+denominated, because they are observed always to preserve the same
+distance from each other; and are distinguished from the planets by
+their twinkling, which seems to depend on the atmosphere; for we are
+assured, that where the air is exceedingly pure and dry, the stars
+appear with a light altogether free from scintillation. All the
+heavenly bodies, the sun, moon, and stars, appear to move round the
+earth, in circles parallel to the equinoctial, once in the compass of
+twenty-four hours; though these _apparent_ motions are almost entirety
+to be accounted for by the _real_ motions of the earth: but by far
+the greater number of them never change their relative situations,
+each (so long as an observer continues in the same place) rising and
+setting at the same interval of time, and at the same points of the
+horizon;--these are called the _fixed stars_.
+
+The fixed stars, as appears from several considerations, are placed
+at immense distances from us. Mr. Exley, in a friendly communication,
+says, "It should be noticed, that the distances of the fixed stars have
+never yet been discovered; not indeed so much for want of a method,
+as for want of a base line sufficiently large for this admeasurement.
+The diameter of the earth's orbit is about one hundred and ninety
+millions of miles; and the fixed stars, viewed from the opposite ends
+of this extensive base line or diameter, have no sensible parallax, but
+all appear in the very same situations, and of the same magnitudes;
+and as this is the greatest line to the extremities of which we can
+have access, it is very probable we shall ever remain in ignorance of
+the true distances of the fixed stars. One thing, however, is fully
+ascertained by the observations which have been made to find the
+parallax of the stars, which is, that they are so immensely distant
+from our planetary regions, that the whole solar system, consisting
+of the sun and planets, with their satellites, and the comets, would,
+if viewed from the nearest fixed star, appear as crowded into one
+single point of space, which is also known from other observations.
+How astonishingly extensive is the view of the universe which such
+observations furnish!"
+
+Our earth is at so great a distance from the sun, that if seen from
+thence, it would appear no bigger than a point, although its diameter
+is 7,954 miles. Yet that distance is so small, compared with the
+earth's remote situation from the fixed stars, that if the orbit in
+which the earth moves round the sun were the circumference of a globe,
+that globe, seen from the nearest star, would likewise appear no bigger
+than a point, although, it is at least 190,000,000 miles in diameter.
+For the earth in going round the sun is 190,000,000 miles nearer to
+some of the stars at one time of the year than at another, and yet
+their apparent magnitudes, situations, and distances from one another
+still remain the same; and being viewed through a telescope which
+magnifies above 200 times, they still appear as mere points: which
+proves them to be at least 400,000 times further from us than we are
+from the sun.
+
+It is not to be imagined, that all the stars are placed in one concave
+surface, so as to be equally distant from us; but that they are
+scattered at immense distances from one another through unlimited
+space. So that there may be as great a distance between any two
+neighboring stars, as between our sun and those which are nearest
+to him. Therefore an observer, who is nearest any fixed star, will
+look on it alone as a real sun; and consider the rest as so many
+shining points, placed apparently at equal distances from him in the
+firmament. The star nearest to us, or the largest in appearance,
+is Sirius, or the Dog Star, and astronomers have calculated from
+indubitable principles, that its distance from us is considerably
+more than two millions of millions of miles! The apparent magnitude
+of Sirius has been computed at 27,000 times less than the sun, and,
+therefore, supposing their magnitudes equal, is 27,000 times more
+distant. If so, as our earth is ninety-five millions of miles from
+the sun, that multiplied by twenty-seven thousand, will give two
+millions of millions, and an addition of 565 thousand millions, for
+the distance of this star from the sun.[136] Our earth, in moving
+round the sun, is 195,000,000 miles nearer to this star in one part
+of its orbit, than in the opposite one; and yet the magnitude of
+the star appears not to be in the least altered or affected by it.
+A cannon-ball flying from thence at the rate of 400 miles in an
+hour, would not reach us in 732,000 years! The distance of the star
+<<gamma>> Draconis appears, by Dr. Bradley's observations, to be at
+least 400,000 times that of the sun, and the distance of the nearest
+fixed star not less than 80,000 diameters of the earth's annual
+orbit; that is, the distance of the earth from the former is = to
+400,000 � 95,000,000 = 38,000,000,000,000, and the latter not less
+than 7,600,000,000,000. As these distances are much too great to be
+comprehended by the human imagination, we shall, perhaps, obtain a
+better idea of them by comparing them with the velocity of some moving
+body, by which they may, in some way, be estimated. The swiftest
+motion we know of is that of light, which passes from the sun to the
+earth in about eight minutes, or, at the rate of 200,000 miles nearly
+in a second of time: and yet even light would be more than six years
+in traversing the first space, and a year and a quarter nearly, in
+passing from the nearest fixed star to the earth. Again, a cannon
+ball, moving with its initial or greatest velocity of about ten miles
+in a minute, would be more than seven millions of years in passing
+from the star <<gamma>> Draconis to the earth. The celebrated M.
+Huygens carried his thoughts so far upon this subject, as to believe
+that there might be stars at such inconceivable distances from our
+earth, that their light, though it is known to travel at the rate
+of 12,000,000 miles in a minute, has not yet reached us, since the
+creation of the world!
+
+    "How distant some of the nocturnal suns!
+    So distant, says the sage, 'twere not absurd
+    To doubt, if beams, set out at nature's birth,
+    Are yet arrived at this so foreign world;
+    Though nothing half so rapid as their flight."
+
+And Mr. Addison observes, that this thought of Mr. Huygens is far from
+being extravagant, when we consider that the universe is the work of
+infinite power, prompted by infinite goodness, having an infinite space
+wherein to exert itself, so that our imaginations can set no bounds to
+it.
+
+The magnitudes of the stars appear to be very different from one
+another; which difference may probably arise, partly from a diversity
+in their real magnitude, but chiefly, no doubt, from their different
+distances. Hence it is, that the fixed stars have been divided, for the
+sake of distinction, into six orders or classes. Those which appear
+largest, are considered as stars of the first magnitude; the next to
+them in lustre, stars of the second magnitude; and so on, through the
+different gradations, to the smallest that are visible to the naked
+eye, which are said to be of the sixth magnitude. This distribution
+having been made long before the invention of telescopes, the stars
+which cannot be seen without the assistance of these instruments,
+are distinguished by the name of telescopic stars. Bayer, besides
+accurately distinguishing the relative size and situation of each star,
+marked the stars in each constellation with the letters of the Greek
+and Roman alphabets, setting the first Greek letter to the first or
+principal star in each constellation, to the second in order; then,
+when the Greek alphabet was gone over, he passed to _a_, _b_, _c_, of
+the Roman, and so on. This useful method of noting and describing the
+stars has been adopted by all astronomers since the time of Bayer; and
+they have further enlarged it, by adding the ordinal numbers 1, 2, 3,
+&c, when any constellation contains more stars than can be marked by
+the two alphabets.
+
+As it would be impossible to furnish names for all the fixed stars,
+and retain those names in the memory; it became necessary not only to
+ascertain their exact relative situations, but to invent some method
+by which the principal part of the stars which can be seen may be
+known, without having recourse to a separate name for each. Ancient
+astronomers formed a commodious plan of arranging the fixed stars
+in constellations under names and figures of various personages,
+celebrated in antiquity, and even of birds, beasts, fishes, &c.
+This division of the heavens into constellations is obviously very
+ancient; for some of them are mentioned by Hesiod and Homer, both of
+whom probably flourished nearly 1000 years before the Christian era.
+Arcturus, Orion, and the Pleiades, are twice mentioned in the book
+of Job: and in the prophecy of Amos, composed about 400 years before
+Christ, the _seven stars_ and _Orion_ are mentioned. As the knowledge
+of the stars became more extensive, the number of the constellations
+was increased; and at the same time more stars were introduced into
+each constellation. Such of the stars as were not comprehended under
+any constellations, were by the ancient astronomers, called unformed
+stars. The modern astronomers have reduced not these unformed stars
+only, but many other stars, into new figures; and it is probable that
+other constellations will still continue to be invented.[137]
+
+With respect to the number of fixed stars, there have been several
+accounts, given by different persons, at various times. The celebrated
+Hipparchus, of Rhodes, 120 years before Christ, formed a catalogue
+of 1,022 stars; to which Ptolemy added four more. Ulug Beigh, the
+grandson of Tamerlane, formed a catalogue of 1,017 stars. Tycho Brah�'s
+catalogue only extended to 777; but he took care to ascertain all their
+places. Kepler's catalogue amounted to 1,163, which Ricciolus enlarged
+to 1,468. Bayerus extended his catalogue further than any of his
+predecessors, having described the places of 1,725. Hevelius increased
+the catalogue to 1,888. Flamsteed enlarged these catalogues to the
+number of about 3,000. But by means of the telescope, which affords
+us a glimpse of infinite space, and presents to our view myriads of
+worlds, and systems of worlds, by which it is filled, the number of
+the stars is astonishingly increased. Galileo found eighty stars in
+the space of the belt of Orion's sword, and F. de Rheita observed more
+than 2,000 in the whole constellation of Orion, of which not more than
+seventy or eighty can ever be seen without glasses. Dr. Hook reckoned
+seventy-eight stars in the single constellation of the Pleiades; and F.
+de Rheita, with a better telescope, discovered 188: whereas we cannot
+reckon above seven or eight seen by the naked eye. At the present
+period, the positions of 60,000 fixed stars have been exactly recorded,
+and they are generally arranged according to the size they appear; 20
+of the largest are called stars of the first magnitude; 65 are of
+the second magnitude; 205 of the third; 485 of the fourth; 648 of the
+fifth; and about 1,500 of the sixth magnitude; the remainder, being
+invisible to the naked eye, are called telescopic stars.
+
+Where the stars are in great abundance, Dr. Herschell supposes they
+form primaries and secondaries, that is, suns revolving about suns, as
+planets revolve about the sun in our system. He considers that this
+must be the case in what is called the _milky way_, the stars being
+there in prodigious quantity. Of this he gives the following proof:
+on August 22, 1792, he found that in forty-one minutes of time, not
+less than 258,000 stars had passed through the field of view in his
+telescope! Dr. Chalmers observes, If we ask the number of suns and of
+systems--the unassisted eye of man can take in a thousand, and the
+best telescope which the genius of man has constructed can take in
+eighty millions. Thus, by the help of telescopes, we discover a vast
+multitude of stars which are invisible to the naked eye; and the better
+the glasses are, still the more become visible; so that we can set no
+limits either to their number, or to their distances.
+
+    "Myriads beyond with blended rays inflame
+    The _milky way_, whose stream of vivid light,
+    Poured from innumerable fountains round,
+    Flows trembling, wave on wave, from sun to sun,
+    And whitens the long path to heaven's extreme:
+    Distinguished tract!"
+
+From an attentive examination of the stars with good telescopes, many
+that appear only single to the naked eye, are found to consist of two,
+three, or more stars. The late Dr. Maskelyne observed the <<alpha>>
+Herculis to be a double star, and other astronomers have discovered
+many more to be double. Dr. Herschell has found 700; of these about
+forty had been observed before. The following will serve as a
+specimen, and afford the observer a few objects for his attention.
+<<alpha>> Herculis is a beautiful double star: the two bodies are
+apparently unequal: the largest is red, and the smallest of a blueish
+color inclining to green. <<gamma>> Andromed�, double, very unequal:
+the larger of a reddish white color; the smaller a fine bright sky
+blue, inclining to green. <<beta>> Lyr�, quadruple, unequal white, but
+three out of the four inclined to red. <<epsilon>> Bootis, double,
+very unequal, larger, of a reddish color; the smaller is blue, or of
+a faint lilac color. <<alpha>> Lyr�, double, very unequal; the larger
+is a fine brilliant white, the smaller dusky.
+
+New stars sometimes appear, while others disappear. Several stars
+mentioned by ancient astronomers are not now to be found: several
+are now visible to the naked eye, which are not mentioned in ancient
+catalogues; and some stars have suddenly appeared, and again after
+a considerable interval vanished. Fortunio Liceti, a celebrated
+physician, who died in 1656, in Padua, published a treatise, entitled,
+"De novis Astris et Cometis." In it he gives us an ample account
+of the several new stars spoken of by the ancients, among which
+he mentions that remarkable one which appeared A.D. 389, near the
+Eagle. It was as bright as the planet Venus, for the space of three
+weeks, but afterwards entirely disappeared. In the ninth century, the
+Arabian astronomers, Massahala, Haly, and Albumazar, observed a new
+star in the 15th degree of Scorpio, whose light equalled that of the
+moon in her first octant: it was visible for four months. Cyprianus
+Leovitius relates, that in the reign of the emperor Otho, A.D.
+946, a new star was seen between the constellations of Cepheus and
+Cassiopeia; and also that another was seen A.D. 1264, very near the
+same part of the heavens, which had no proper motion. One of the most
+celebrated of the new stars is that discovered by Cornelius Jansen,
+November 8, 1572, in the chair of Cassiopeia: it exceeded Sirius in
+brilliancy, and Jupiter in apparent magnitude; it gradually decayed;
+and, after sixteen months, disappeared. On the 13th of August, 1596,
+David Fabricius observed a new star in the neck of the Whale, and it
+disappeared after October in the same year, but was supposed to be
+again discovered in the year 1637. In the year 1600, William Jansen
+discovered a changeable star in the neck of the Swan. It was seen by
+Kepler, who wrote a treatise upon it, and determined its place to be
+16� 18' [symbol: approximately], and 55� 30' or 32' north latitude.
+Ricciolus saw it in 1616, 1621, and 1624. Cassini saw it again in
+1655; it increased till 1660; then decreased, and at the end of 1661
+it disappeared. In November, 1665, it appeared again, and disappeared
+in 1681. In 1715 it appeared, as it does at present, and is of the
+sixth magnitude. In 1686, Kircher observed <<chi>> in the Swan, to be
+a changeable star in the neck of that constellation; and, from twenty
+years' observations, the period of the return of the same phases was
+found to be 405 days. In 1604, Kepler discovered a new star near
+the heel of Serpentarius, so very brilliant that it exceeded every
+fixed star, and even Jupiter, in apparent magnitude. For more recent
+discoveries, see Dr. Herschell's paper, "On the proper Motion of the
+Sun and the Solar System, with an account of the several changes that
+have happened among the fixed stars since the time of Mr. Flamsteed,"
+vol. lxxiii, of the Philosophical Transactions, or the fifteenth of
+the Abridgment.
+
+All the stars seem to have a common and general motion about the
+pole of the ecliptic, at the rate of a degree in seventy-two years;
+this is occasioned by the precession of the equinoctial points. In
+consequence of this apparent motion, the constellations change their
+positions in regard to the equinoctial points. Hence it is, that the
+constellation Aries now is in the sign Taurus, and Taurus occupies the
+sign Gemini. It has been the common opinion that the fixed stars have
+no real motion, but the accurate observations of modern astronomers
+show, that some of them have a motion peculiar to themselves, by which
+they slowly change their places. Thus Arcturus is found to approach
+the ecliptic about four minutes in 100 years; and its distance from a
+small star near it has been sensibly changed during the last century.
+Sirius seems to recede from the ecliptic about two minutes per century.
+Similar motions have been observed in Aldebaran, Rigel, the eastern
+shoulder of Orion, the Goat, the Eagle, &c. Other stars have been
+observed to have a motion in different directions. Perhaps all the
+stars have similar motions, which are performed by certain fixed laws
+in spaces, which, though very large in reality, yet, because of their
+immense distance, subtend at the earth angles so very small, as in
+some cases to be quite imperceptible, while in other cases they may
+be observed, as in the stars above-mentioned; and on this rational
+supposition the appearance and disappearance, and variations in
+magnitude, of some stars may be accounted for.
+
+The fixed stars do not appear to be all regularly disseminated through
+the heavens, but the greater part of them are collected into clusters;
+and it requires a large magnifying power, with a great quantity
+of light, to distinguish separately the stars which compose these
+clusters. With a small magnifying power, and small quantity of light,
+they only appear as minute whitish spots, much like small light clouds,
+and thence they are called nebul�. The number of nebul� was formerly
+imagined to be about 103; but Dr. Herschell, early in the year 1784,
+had discovered 469 more, and since then has given a catalogue of
+2,000 nebul� which he has discovered. The most careful and accurate
+observations give great reason to conclude, that they all consist
+of large masses or clusters of stars at prodigious distances from
+our system. Dr. Herschell is of opinion the starry heaven is replete
+with these nebul�, and that each of them is a distinct and separate
+system independent of the rest. The milky way he supposes to be that
+particular nebul� in which our sun is placed; and, in order to account
+for the appearance it exhibits, he supposes its figure to be much more
+extended towards the apparent zone of illumination, than in any other
+direction; which is a supposition that he thinks allowable, from the
+observations he has made on the figures of other nebul�.
+
+That there are other worlds, beside our earth, inhabited by rational
+beings, endued with bodily constitutions adapted to the nature and
+economy of the respective planets for which they are destined, is a
+conjecture that approaches the nearest to certainty. There is scarcely
+any doubt now remaining amongst philosophers, that our moon is a
+habitable globe. The most accurate observations that have been made
+with the most powerful telescopes, have confirmed the opinion. The
+surface of the moon seems to be diversified by high mountains, large
+valleys, and small and larger collections of water; consequently she
+resembles our earth; and there can be no doubt that our earth serves
+as a moon to the moon, whose inhabitants, comparing it with the sun,
+may well say,
+
+        ----"gives us his blaze again
+    Void of its flame, and sheds a softer day;"
+
+which similarity existing between them, is a presumptive proof that
+the moon, like our earth, is a commodious habitation for creatures
+endowed with capacity for knowing and adoring their beneficent Creator.
+By a very correct analogy we are led to infer, says a learned author,
+that all the _planets_ and their _satellites_ or attendant moons, are
+_inhabited_; for matter seems only to exist for the sake of intelligent
+beings. And Dr. Herschell's discoveries have, by the general consent
+of philosophers, added, besides the Georgian planet, a _new habitable
+world_ to our system, which is the SUN.
+
+To an attentive mind it will appear highly probable, that the planets
+of our system, and their moons, are much of the same nature with our
+earth, and destined for the like purposes; for they are solid opaque
+globes, capable of supporting animals and vegetables. Some of them
+are bigger, some less, and others about the size of our earth. They
+move round the sun, as the earth does, in a shorter or longer time,
+according to their respective distances from him: and have, where
+it would not be inconvenient, regular returns of summer and winter,
+spring and autumn. They have warmer and colder climates, as the various
+productions of our earth require: and, in such as afford a possibility
+of discovering it, we observe a regular motion round their axis like
+that of our earth, causing an alternate return of day and night; which
+is necessary for labor, rest, and vegetation, and that all their
+surfaces may be exposed to the rays of the sun.
+
+Can a person who attends to the vast magnitude of the three planets,
+Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschell or the Georgium Sidus, and compares the
+systems of moons together which belong to them, bring himself to think,
+that an infinitely wise Creator should dispose of all his animals and
+vegetables here, leaving the other planets destitute of living and
+rational creatures? To suppose that he had any view to our benefit
+in creating these moons, and giving them their motions round their
+respective primaries; to imagine, that he intended these vast bodies
+for any advantage to us, when he well knew, that they could not be seen
+but by a few astronomers looking through telescopes; and that he gave
+to the planets regular returns of day and night, and different seasons
+to all where they would be convenient, but of no manner of service to
+us, except only what immediately concerns our own planet, the earth; to
+imagine, I say, that, he did all this on our account, would, I presume,
+be charging him with having done much in vain: and be as absurd, as to
+fancy that he has created a little sun, and a planetary system within
+the shell of our earth, and intended them for our use.
+
+    "As well might the minutest emmet say,
+    That Caucasus was raised to pave his way
+    The snail, that Lebanon's extended wood
+    Was destin'd only for his walk and food.
+    The vilest cockle, gaping on the coast,
+    That rounds the ample seas, as well may boast,
+    The craggy rock projects above the sky,
+    That he in safety at its foot may lie;
+    And the whole ocean's confluent waters swell,
+    Only to quench his thirst, and move and blanch his shell."
+
+These considerations amount to little less than a positive proof, that
+all the planets are inhabited: for if they are not, why all this care
+in furnishing them with so many moons, to supply those with light
+which are at the greater distances from the sun? Do we not see, that
+the further a planet is from the sun, the greater apparatus it has for
+that purpose? Such of the planets as are most remote from the sun, and
+therefore enjoy least of his light, have that deficiency made up by
+several moons, which constantly accompany, and revolve about them, as
+our moon revolves round our earth. So that if the more distant planets
+have the sun's light in less proportion by day than we, they have an
+addition made to it morning and evening by one or more of their moons,
+and a greater proportion of light during the night. We know that the
+earth goes round the sun, and turns round upon its own axis, to produce
+the vicissitudes of summer and winter by the former, and of day and
+night by the latter motion, for the benefit of its inhabitants: may we
+not then fairly conclude, by parity of reason, that the end or design
+of all the other planets is the same? And is not this agreeable to the
+beautiful harmony which exists throughout the works of nature? Surely
+it is! and it raises in us the most magnificent ideas of the supreme
+Being, who is every where, and at all times present; displaying his
+power, wisdom, and goodness, among all his creatures; and distributing
+happiness to innumerable beings of various ranks!
+
+When we consider the infinite power and goodness of God; the latter
+inclining, the former enabling him to make creatures suited to all
+states and circumstances; that matter exists only for the sake of
+intelligent beings; and that wherever we see it, we always find it
+pregnant with life, or necessarily subservient thereto; the numberless
+species, the astonishing diversity of animals in earth, air, water, and
+even on other animals; every blade of grass, every tender leaf, every
+natural fluid, swarming with life; and every one of these enjoying
+such gratifications as the nature and state of each requires: when
+we reflect also, that some centuries ago, till experience undeceived
+us, a great part of the earth was judged uninhabitable; the Torrid
+Zone, by reason of excessive heat, and the two Frigid Zones because of
+their intolerable cold; it seems highly probable, that these numerous
+and large masses of the planets are not destitute of beings capable
+of contemplating with wonder, and acknowledging with gratitude, the
+wisdom, symmetry, and beauty of the creation. It is an undoubted
+truth, that wherever God exerts his power, there also he manifests his
+wisdom and goodness.
+
+From what we know of our own system, it may be reasonably concluded,
+that all the rest are with equal wisdom contrived, situated, and
+provided with accommodations for rational inhabitants. Taking a survey
+of the system to which we belong; the only one accessible to us; from
+thence we are the better enabled to judge of the nature and end of the
+other systems of the universe. For although there is almost an infinite
+variety in the parts of the creation which we have opportunities
+of examining, yet there is a general analogy running through and
+connecting all the parts into one scheme, one design, one whole!
+
+The stars, being at such immense distances from the sun, cannot
+possibly receive from him so strong a light as they seem to have; nor
+any brightness sufficient to make them visible to us. For the sun's
+rays must be scattered and dissipated before they reach such remote
+objects, that they can never be transmitted back to our eyes, so as to
+render these objects visible by reflection.
+
+    "I launch into the trackless deeps of space,
+    Where, burning round, ten thousand suns appear
+    Of elder beam, which ask no leave to shine
+    Of our terrestrial star, nor borrow light
+    From the proud regent of our scanty day."
+
+The stars, therefore, shine with their own native and unborrowed
+lustre, as the sun does; and since each particular star, as well as the
+sun, is confined to a particular portion of space, it is plain, that
+the stars are of the same nature with the sun.
+
+It is not probable that the Almighty, who always acts with infinite
+wisdom, and does nothing in vain, should create so many suns, fit for
+so many important purposes, and place them at such distances from
+one another, without proper objects near enough to be benefited by
+their influences. Whoever imagines they were created only to give a
+faint glimmering light to the inhabitants of this globe, must have a
+very superficial knowledge of astronomy, and a mean opinion of the
+Divine wisdom: since, by a much less exertion of creating power, God
+could have given to our earth considerably more light by one single
+additional moon. Since the fixed stars are prodigious globes of light
+and heat, like our sun, and at inconceivable distances from one
+another, as well as from us, it is reasonable to conclude they are made
+for the same purposes that the sun is; each to bestow light, heat, and
+produce vegetation, on a certain number of inhabited planets, kept by
+gravitation within the sphere of its activity.
+
+Instead then of one sun, and one world only, in the universe, as the
+unskilful in astronomy imagine, that science discovers to us such an
+inconceivable number of suns, systems, and worlds, dispersed through
+boundless space, that if our sun, with all the planets, moons, and
+comets belonging to it, were annihilated, they would with difficulty be
+missed, by an eye that could take in the whole creation; the space they
+possess being comparatively so small that it would scarce be a sensible
+blank in the universe, although Herschell, or the Georgium Sidus, the
+most remote of our planets, revolves about the sun in an orbit whose
+mean distance from the sun is 1,822,575,228 miles, and some of our
+comets make excursions to an amazing distance beyond the bounds of that
+planet: and yet, they are incomparably nearer to the sun than to any
+of the stars; as is evident from their keeping clear of the attractive
+power of all the stars, and returning periodically by the virtue of the
+sun's attraction.
+
+"In the immensity of God's creation," says a learned author, "we may
+readily conceive one system of heavenly bodies, and others beyond them,
+and others still in endless progression, through the whole vortex of
+space! Every _star_ in the vast abyss of nature being a _sun_, with its
+peculiar and numerous attendant worlds. Thus there may be systems of
+systems, in endless gradation, up to the throne of God!"
+
+    "Oh, for a telescope HIS THRONE to reach!
+    Tell me ye learn'd on earth, or blest above!
+    Where your great Master's orb? His planets where?
+                      On nature's Alps I stand
+    And see a thousand firmaments beneath!
+    A thousand systems as a thousand grains!
+    _Each_ of these STARS is a _religious house_;
+    I saw their altars smoke, their incense rise,
+    And heard Hosannas ring through _ev'ry sphere_;
+    A seminary fraught with future gods!
+    Oh, what a root! Oh, what a branch is here!
+    Oh, what a Father! What a family!
+    Worlds, systems, and creations!---- And creations
+    In one agglomerated cluster hung,
+    Great _Vine_! on THEE; on THEE the cluster hangs;
+    The filial cluster! infinitely spread
+    In glowing globes, with various being fraught;
+    And drinks (nectareous draught!) immortal life!"
+
+What an august! what an amazing conception, if human imagination can
+conceive it, does this give of the works of the Creator! Thousands
+of thousands of suns, multiplied without end, and ranged all around
+us, at immense distances from each other, attended by ten thousand
+times ten thousand worlds, all in rapid motion, yet calm, regular,
+and harmonious, invariably keeping the paths prescribed them; and
+these worlds peopled with myriads of intelligent creatures, formed
+for endless progression in perfection and felicity. If so much power,
+wisdom, goodness, and magnificence, is displayed in the material
+creation, which is the least considerable part of the universe,
+how great, how wise, how good must He be, who made and governs the
+whole![138]
+
+The persuasion that rational beings inhabit other worlds, has a
+powerful tendency to excite our curiosity.
+
+    "Ye sparkling isles of light that stud the sea
+    Of empyrean ether! Ye abodes
+    Of unknown myriads, spirits, or in bands
+    Held of corporeal frame! Fain would my soul
+    A thirst for knowledge unreveal'd to man,
+    Question your habitants, and fain would hear
+    A voice responsive from your distant bourn.
+    Tell, tell me who possess your radiant climes;
+    What are their forms, their faculties, their hopes,
+    Their fears, if subject or to hope or fear?
+    What fond pursuits, what animating toils
+    Diversify existence with delight?
+    Rove they in course a�rial unconfined
+    From sphere to sphere, with interchange of joy
+    Heightening their mutual bliss; or dwell they fix'd,
+    Each in his native solitary orb,
+    Unconscious of the lot of neighboring worlds?
+    What homage, what returns of grateful love
+    Yield they to Him who made them? Stand they fast
+    In undecaying blessedness, secure
+    From risk of loss: or tread they yet the stage
+    Of perilous probation? Hath sin won
+    Conquests through disobedience o'er those hosts
+    In your bright regions yawn the gates of Death?
+    Falls he, who falls, for ever?--Power supreme
+    Pardon the aspiring thoughts that would presume
+    To pierce the veil which shrowds from mortal eye
+    The wonders of thy realms! Enough, to know
+    That Thou art Lord! Thy universal love
+    Pervades Creation; on each living form
+    Showers down its proper happiness; and, when guilt
+    Wakes thy reluctant vengeance, stays the bolt
+    Of wrath, and pales its mitigated fire!"[139]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Stars are the hieroglyphics used to express both rulers and teachers;
+therefore they may with great propriety be applied to the pastors of
+the church. The Jews, says Dr. Doddridge, are said to have called
+their teachers _stars_. They are represented under that emblem in
+the Revelation, where St. John, speaking of our Lord, says, "He had
+in his right hand seven stars;" and the allegorical explanation is,
+"The seven stars which thou sawest in my right hand are the angels
+(or ministers) of the seven churches," namely, in Ephesus, Smyrna,
+Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, Laodicea. By <<angeloi>>,
+_angels_, we are to understand the _messengers_ or persons whom God
+sent to preside over these churches. "Angel of the church," in this
+place, says a learned author, answers exactly to that officer of the
+synagogue among the Jews, called **shlych tsybvr** _sheliach tsibbor_,
+the messenger of the church, whose business it was to _read_, _pray_,
+and _teach_, in the synagogue. The ministers of the gospel bear this
+allegorical designation.
+
+1. Because, like stars in the firmament, they are placed in a _high
+situation_ in the church. Eliphaz says, "Behold the height of the
+stars, how high they are!" The sacred office is the highest that men
+can occupy, both in point of rank and importance; and therefore the
+views, dispositions, and deportment of ministers, should accord with
+it. They should not be sordid in their attachments, nor grovelling
+in their pursuits. A predilection for lucrative places, and worldly
+honors, is inconsistent with the sanctity of their character, and the
+design of their profession. As they are in a station above others, so
+their minds should have a high elevation, contemplating spiritual and
+divine things, with intense application, and holy delight. The glories
+of the new Jerusalem, and the felicities of the celestial Paradise,
+are subjects which should engross their thoughts, and be exhibited
+in their official ministrations. They should look on all debasing
+pleasures, fleeting honors, and perishing riches, as things vastly
+below the dignity of their character, and contrary to the objects of
+their professional engagements. They have higher considerations to
+excite their solicitude, and more important affairs to employ their
+powers, than to spend their time in things, which neither can afford
+them any rational satisfaction, nor are of long duration. St. James
+calls their attention to what is of most interest to them, where he
+says, that "he who converteth a sinner from the error of his way shall
+save a soul from death, and shall hide a multitude of sins." Success is
+the most valuable remuneration, and should actuate ministers both in
+their private studies, and their public labors.
+
+2. Because of the _beneficial effects_ of their ministerial labors,
+being useful to men, in affording them light, direction, and comfort;
+and, consequently, the need the church has of them. Gospel ministers
+are as necessary to the moral world, during the present state of
+things, as the sun, moon, and stars are in the universe. A church
+without such helps, would be like a firmament deprived of globular
+lights. Ministers, with the bright rays of heavenly doctrine, dispel
+the darkness of ignorance, chase away the clouds of error, scatter
+the mists of prejudice, disperse the fogs of vice, from the human
+mind. As stars engage the attention, and draw the eyes of persons
+toward heaven, presenting in themselves astonishing displays of the
+infinite perfections of wisdom, power, and goodness: so it is the work
+of ministers to endeavor to excite people to the contemplation of
+Divine things--to behold through the medium of the sacred Writings,
+the mediatorial character of Christ, the results of his passion, the
+prevalence of his intercession, the happiness of his subjects, and the
+glories of his kingdom. As the stars serve for guides to seafaring
+men, while traversing the untrodden paths of the swelling ocean; so
+these symbolical stars are guides to those who embark in the vessel
+of the church, directing her course, through the inconstant sea of
+this tumultuous and fluctuating world, to the harbor of everlasting
+rest. And as an extraordinary star in the east directed the wise men
+to Bethlehem, where Christ was born; so it devolves upon ministers, as
+stars of the church, to conduct inquiring sinners to Jesus, who is able
+and willing to save them from their sins, and bless them with holiness
+and eternal life. They may with propriety adopt the language of an old
+poet:--
+
+    "Oh that his light and influence
+      Would work effectually in me
+      Another new Epiphany,
+    Exhale and elevate me hence:
+
+    That as my calling doth require,
+      Star-like I may to others shine;
+      And guide them to that Sun divine,
+    Whose day-light never shall expire."
+
+3. All the light that ministers communicate to mankind, or to
+the members of the church, is derived from Christ, the Sun of
+Righteousness, as the light of the planets is from the natural sun.
+The pastors of the church have neither light nor grace of themselves:
+they receive all from the "Father of lights," in whose light only they
+can see light; and it pleased him that in Christ should "all fulness
+dwell." Both ministers and people must be enlightened with emanations
+from him, or remain in darkness. St. Paul frankly acknowledges, "By the
+grace of God I am what I am." Without him, the most eminent minister
+would be like a dark lamp. Hence they have no reason to be proud of
+their qualifications; for they have received all their gifts and
+graces from Christ. Their fitness for the ministerial work is not to
+be ascribed either to their natural powers, the force of a superior
+genius, a liberal education, intense study, or even to goodness and
+piety, but to the gratuitous bounty of God only. So likewise, whatever
+success in the exercise of those gifts and graces they may have had,
+it flowed not from such sources, but from Christ. "I have planted,"
+says St. Paul, "and Apollos watered; but God gave the increase." The
+largest planets are inconsiderable in comparison of the sun, which is
+the great natural fountain of light and heat. The holy prophets are
+nothing when brought into contrast with Jesus Christ. And John the
+Baptist, though superior to all his predecessors, conscious of his own
+vast inferiority, confessed, "He it is who coming after me is preferred
+before me, whose shoe's latchet I am not worthy to unloose."--As the
+planets shine with no other light than that derived from the sun;
+so ministers are to be resplendent only with the radiance of Divine
+truth, received from the eternal Fountain of illumination. They are
+not to shine with the glimmering light of fallable reason, the sparks
+of human wisdom, the glow-worm rays of vain philosophy; not with the
+subtlety of Aristotle, the penetration of Cartes, the eloquence of
+Cicero, the speculations of Plato, the propositions of Euclid; but
+with the correct and comprehensive knowledge of the Scripture, which
+is "given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for
+reproof, for correction, and for instruction in righteousness; that
+the man of God may be perfect, thoroughly furnished unto all good
+works." In a lower sense, it must be acknowledged, that human learning
+is of considerable use, affording ministers certain qualifications
+for their work. The knowledge of the languages, moral and natural
+philosophy, sacred and profane history, mathematical science, the art
+of speaking, particularly those branches of logic which teach us to
+range our thoughts in a right method, to form propositions distinctly,
+and to draw just conclusions from acknowledged premises: I say, the
+knowledge of these different branches of literature and science, may
+very much assist ministers to discover and defend the truth, and refute
+its adversaries with their own weapons. But they must derive all their
+peculiar lustre and excellence from the volume of Divine inspiration,
+whence, as chosen instruments, they can make people wise to salvation.
+
+4. Ministers are like the stars of heaven, because of the difference
+that is among them, in respect of gifts and ability. The stars differ
+from one another in situation, magnitude, influence, and glory. "There
+is one glory of the sun, another glory of the moon, and another glory
+of the stars: for one star differeth from another star in glory."
+The gradation extends from stars of the first to those of the sixth
+magnitude. Some are so dazzling, that they appear with a peculiar
+splendor among the shining beauties of the night: others are obscure
+and nebulous; and there are many which can only be seen with the
+help of telescopes. The stars of the moral hemisphere are not all
+enlightened, "by the Day-spring from on high," with the same degree of
+intellectual and Divine radiance. They have not all the same gifts, nor
+gifts in the same measure. Profound knowledge, excellency of speech,
+solidity and firmness of judgment, prudence and dexterity of conduct,
+are not usually the portion of one, but distributed among several
+ministers. One excels in a talent for preaching, another is eminent
+for utterance and power in prayer, and another is distinguished by
+wisdom and stability for government. Paul was sublime and cogent in
+reasoning; Apollos was copious, eloquent, and mighty in the Scriptures;
+John soars high in mysteries, and yet excels in sweetness; Isaiah is
+pompous and magnificent in his style; David charms and surprises us at
+the same time, with his ecstatic raptures and poetic strains. In the
+largest assembly of ministers there are not two alike, far less equal
+in all things. Some, like stars of the first magnitude, shine with
+great brilliancy: others have rays which are weak and obscure. Some are
+prudent, but not eloquent. Some have the gift of preaching, but are not
+remarkable for prudence and moderating their passions. Some have the
+art of affecting the passions: others have the skill of enlightening
+the mind, and informing the judgment. Some, appearing as if formed
+in a finer mould, have a talent of politeness and address, in their
+intercourse with people of character. Some, like skillful physicians,
+know how to deal with afflicted souls, and relieve wounded consciences.
+Some are sons of thunder, while others are sons of consolation. Though
+every minister should have a competency of each of these gifts, yet
+some excel in one, and some in another. Thus "there are diversities of
+gifts, but the same Spirit;" and God, in diversifying his gifts, makes
+his manifold wisdom appear. The Christians at Corinth not understanding
+this, or too emulous for the first-rate talent, without sufficiently
+regarding Divine agency, which can render the meanest useful, became
+clamorous, and their indecorous conduct is held up to all succeeding
+ages, with the censure they deservedly merited. However, to calm their
+perturbation, he says, "Therefore let no man glory in men. For all
+things are yours; whether Paul, or Apollos, or Cephas; and ye are
+Christ's; and Christ is God's."
+
+5. While some stars disappear, others arise that were not previously
+observed. "Your fathers, where are they? and the prophets, do they live
+forever?" Many, "of whom the world was not worthy," who were bold to
+suffer for the name of Christ, not only the spoiling of their goods,
+the loss of liberty, and banishment from their native country, but
+even death itself, have rested from their labors and afflictions, and
+are now enjoying a glorious reward. The Lord also sometimes raises
+up extraordinary lights, for asserting and propagating the truth,
+when his church is overwhelmed with the dark clouds of heresy and
+superstition. Of this Moses, Joshua, Elijah, and Elisha, as well as
+many other prophets, whom the Lord called in an extraordinary manner,
+were remarkable instances, in the Old Testament: and, in the New
+Testament, John the Baptist, and the apostles of Christ, whose voices
+were heard, and whose rays extended to the ends of the earth. When the
+Christian church was covered with the dark superstition and idolatry
+of antichrist, God raised up some eminent lights, from time to time,
+to diffuse the pure doctrines of the Gospel, and lead the people out
+of mystic Babylon. Such were John Wickliffe in England, John Huss and
+Jerome of Prague in Bohemia; and, a hundred years afterwards, Luther
+in Germany, Zuinglius in Switzerland, Calvin in France and Geneva,
+and John Knox in Scotland, whom Beza calls the apostle of the Scots.
+Then did the Gospel run, and was glorified, like a mighty torrent
+carrying before it not only cities and provinces, but whole nations
+and kingdoms.[140] Actuated by zeal for religion, says a clergyman of
+the Establishment, "Wickliffe, Jerome, and Huss, roused the slumbering
+clergy to opposition. The zeal of Luther and his associates alarmed all
+Germany, and shook the Papal throne itself. Gilpin alone, in a dark
+period, evangelized a large part of the northern counties of England.
+Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley, by their steady perseverance unto death,
+illuminated the British Isles. The zeal of Whitefield and the two
+Wesleys has, even in our day, made England, Scotland, Ireland, and
+America, experience very important consequences." Missionaries actuated
+by primitive zeal, and sent out by different societies to preach the
+Gospel among Heathen nations, like burning luminaries are chasing away
+the darkness of ignorance, gross superstition, and degrading idolatry,
+and, on their ruins, establishing the kingdom of Christ, and the reign
+of truth, peace, righteousness, and benevolence, in the earth.
+
+6. Ministers, considered as stars placed in the moral firmament, should
+shine with purity of doctrine, fervency of zeal, and holiness of life,
+both in the summer of prosperity, and in the winter of adversity. 1st.
+In the _solemn assemblies_ of God's people. Jerome says, Our pulpit
+should be as Mount Tabor, where we should converse with Moses and the
+Prophets, Christ and his Apostles, minding that we have to do with a
+holy God, and with the immortal souls of people, which must be shortly
+either in heaven or hell. 2d. Amongst _their flocks_, by an innocent,
+instructive, and pious conversation, giving them no encouragement, by
+their example, to sin; but alluring them to better worlds, and pointing
+out the way thither. Their whole life should be a transcript of the
+holy life of the blessed Jesus, a living epistle in which the people
+may read the way wherein they ought to walk. 3d. In _their families_.
+A minister should be "one that ruleth well his own house," properly
+presiding over and governing his own family: "for if a man know not how
+to rule his own house, how shall he take care of the church of God?"
+Eli's conduct brought heavy judgments on himself and family, and a
+great scandal on the church.
+
+
+_Theory of the earth._
+
+    [Such intimations and analogies as can be drawn from nature
+    may, with propriety, be applied to the explanation of natural
+    phenomena, in the absence of direct and satisfactory proof.
+    Allowing this assumption, we conclude that the intimations
+    and analogies in nature are sufficiently strong and clear to
+    authorize a belief, _that all heavenly bodies are similar in
+    their great constitutional principles, and designs, and that
+    our earth may be taken as a fair and satisfactory sample of
+    them all_.
+
+    The only probable departure from this strong analogy in
+    the heavenly bodies, seems to be this: the _suns_, or _centres
+    of systems_, have a peculiar collection of phosphorescent
+    clouds, which are designed to be the great exciting causes, or
+    dispensers, of light to the planets which move round them. The
+    planets have not these phosphorescent clouds.
+
+    This does not interfere with the _general_ analogies
+    between the heavenly bodies; and establishes the _strict
+    analogies_ between the planets of all systems; and the suns, or
+    centres of all systems.
+
+    From all this we conclude, that a theory of _our earth_
+    which is satisfactory, will also be deemed satisfactory in
+    regard to the other heavenly bodies. We therefore lay down,
+    as authorized by the intimations and analogies of nature, the
+    following positions.
+
+    1. _There is a general analogy between the constitutional
+    principles and designs of the heavenly bodies; i.e. the suns
+    and their planets._
+
+    2. _That the sun, or center of each system, with all
+    the planets and satellites revolving about it, were created
+    simultaneously, as it regards their substances._
+
+    3. _That they were created at their relative distances from
+    the centre which they now preserve._
+
+    4. _That they were stationary when first created, having no
+    motion either on their axis, or in their orbits._
+
+    5. _That the materials of each body, when first created,
+    were solid, frozen, and lifeless._
+
+    6. _That the materials of each body were created in their
+    simple, uncombined, or elementary states._
+
+    7. _That it is most probable these elementary materials
+    were promiscuous in the mass, without regard to specific
+    gravity, or any other principle or law._
+
+    8. _That the arrangement of the materials of which our
+    earth is composed was effected by the operation of the laws
+    of nature, as they are called, which were simultaneously
+    impressed upon the matter of the Solar System, and is continued
+    impressed, by the direct agency of the Divine Being._
+
+    9. _That this reference of the commencement, and
+    continuance of the energies of the laws of nature, directly
+    to the Almighty, is both philosophical and scriptural; and is
+    noted by Moses in these words: "And the spirit of God moved
+    upon the face of the waters (or deep.")_
+
+    Reasoning from these data, let us now see whether the
+    phenomena of the structure and arrangement of our planet are
+    explicable to a satisfactory degree.
+
+    1. Immediately upon the impress of the laws of nature, by
+    the direct effort of the Divine Being, the whole mass would
+    commence revolving on its own axis, and moving around its
+    centre in its orbit. At the same time a quickening impulse
+    would be felt, from the operation of the laws of nature, which
+    would impart life and animation to the mass. The first effect
+    of this impulse would be to call the _caloric_, light, and
+    electricity into action throughout the body. This would raise
+    its temperature instantly, and call into action all the other
+    powerful agents, as soon as formed: such as the acids, alkalis,
+    &c.
+
+    2. There will be no difficulty, to those who know the power
+    of these agents, in believing _that the consequence of their
+    united action would be an immediate fusion of the whole mass_.
+    This would establish a state of _chemical mobility_; i.e. the
+    various materials, owing to their fusion, would be at liberty
+    to _combine_, according to the laws of chemical affinity; and
+    to take their relative positions, according to the laws of
+    gravitation.
+
+    3. The result of this process would be binary, and ternary,
+    and other combinations. Oxygen would enter into combination
+    with the bases of the various acids, and thus form the acids;
+    and with the various metals and thus form oxides; and the acids
+    and oxides would unite and thus form other compounds, commonly
+    called _salts_.
+
+    4. As such combinations as these would commence forming
+    first, water and air would be gradually and subsequently
+    formed, by the three gasses, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen,
+    escaping from the mass and rising to the surface, where the
+    oxygen combining with the hydrogen would form water; and with
+    the nitrogen would form air.
+
+    5. It is evident that the very small specific gravity of
+    the gases would cause them to escape from the interior parts of
+    the earth, rapidly, and to accumulate at the surface in immense
+    quantities. The consequence of this would be, _an immense
+    amount of water would be generated at the earth's surface; but
+    the oxidizable bodies in the interior of the mass would not,
+    all of them, be completely saturated with oxygen_.
+
+    6. The condition of the earth, at this stage of the action,
+    would be an inconceivably high state of ignition, specially
+    in the interior, and a rapid chemical action still going on;
+    the combinations still forming, and the bodies thus formed
+    arranging themselves. In a very little time the various classes
+    of bodies would have obtained, generally, their natural
+    relative positions, according to their specific gravities; and
+    all the combinable elements, in the same neighborhood, having
+    combined, a state of comparative rest would ensue of course.
+
+    7. In the mean time, large quantities of different
+    substances would be held in solution by the acids, alkalis, and
+    water, whose solvent powers would be very much increased by the
+    presence of intense heat.
+
+    8. If we examine the whole mass at this stage of the
+    natural process, we will find it is in a condition to
+    _crystallize_ whenever it can be _reduced_ to a sufficiently
+    low temperature to admit of crystallization. We know that the
+    reduction of temperature would commence at the surface, where
+    the caloric would be conducted upwards through the waters, and
+    would fly off into the celestial spaces. Of course, the first
+    crystallized depositions would take place _at the junction of
+    the waters with the oxides or earths, in a state of fusion, on
+    which the lower stratum of water was resting_.
+
+    9. This first deposition would extend all around the globe,
+    as the waters _entirely invested_ the earth, and would lay the
+    _foundation of the primitive family of rocks_, which are well
+    known to be crystalline in their structure, and the result
+    of chemical action. It is, however, evident that there were
+    occasional tremendous agitations, and concussions during the
+    deposition of the primitive rocks, which altered the state of
+    the fluids, and caused successive, and, sometimes, alternating
+    strata to deposit.
+
+    10. The period of the deposition of the primitive rocks
+    continued until the elevations on the earth's surface were
+    uncovered, became dry, and were subject to the disintegrating,
+    and rending powers of the elements: at which time some marine
+    animals, and some vegetables, adapted to warm and moist
+    climates, were created. The consequence of this state of
+    things would be that fragments of rocks, and marine animal and
+    vegetable remains would be found in the composition of the
+    strata deposited at this period, and subsequently. The family
+    of rocks thus deposited is called _transition_ rocks.
+
+    11. This is the proper place to institute an inquiry into
+    the origin of these _primitive elevations or mountains_.
+
+    12. It will be very obvious, that a mass of materials
+    thrown into chemical action, and raised to a very high
+    temperature, as explained above, would naturally, and
+    necessarily be upheaved at different points on its surface,
+    by the gases, and other bodies escaping from the interior.
+    And though the general softness of the mass would cause these
+    elevations to sink back again _at first_, upon the escape
+    of the gaseous bodies upheaving them; yet, when the surface
+    of the earth, which would cool by coming into contact with
+    the water, would thus begin to become solid, _the elevations
+    would maintain themselves, and consolidate_, and thus lay
+    the foundations of the irregularities which, subsequently,
+    would rise into mountains, and mountain chains, and sink into
+    vallies, by the combined action of the internal heat, and the
+    occasional rapid rise and subsidence of the waters, which would
+    alter the shape and appearance of the mountains, and deepen the
+    vallies.
+
+    13. But it becomes very natural to inquire into the cause
+    of the rapid rise, and subsidence of the waters at particular
+    times; which will also explain the cause of the distinctions
+    so obvious in the nature and ages of the different families of
+    rocks.
+
+    14. It will be recollected that the interior parts of
+    the earth are in a state of high ignition, and an immense
+    quantity of water surrounds the globe, the crust of which
+    is consolidating. By the natural pressure of the water, by
+    an occasional eruption of gas from the interior, and by
+    percolation, &c, the water would have access to the interior
+    materials in a heated state. In this case there would be an
+    immense production of steam, and decomposition of water, which
+    would of course produce an earthquake, until it broke forth in
+    a volcano under the waters. In this case an _elevation_ would
+    be produced on the surface, and, in all probability, a _cavity_
+    in the interior from whence the elevated materials came.
+
+    15. These phenomena would happen in quick succession, and
+    very extensively in the first period of the world; and every
+    time they happened, they would _reduce_ the quantity of water
+    at the surface, by admitting some into the interior cavities;
+    and by decomposing much; the oxygen and hydrogen of which would
+    enter into other combinations.
+
+    16. This will account for the rise and subsidence of the
+    waters, the formation of vallies, and mountains, and the
+    alterations in the fluids, so as to deposit the different
+    strata in succession.
+
+    17. During this process above, cavities sufficiently
+    numerous and capacious, filled with water, would be formed
+    in the earth to relieve the surface, in a great measure. But
+    it seems pretty evident that the waters thus retired into
+    those cavities were occasionally thrown back on the earth,
+    by the same means with which earthquakes and volcanos are
+    produced; and thus tremendous currents would ensue, which would
+    successively bury the vegetable materials in the adjoining
+    lakes, out of which the coal basins are formed; and also bury
+    those immense forests of trees, with the bones of animals, and
+    fishes also, which have been so clearly and satisfactorily
+    described by geologists.
+
+    18. Each successive deluge, in proportion to its power and
+    extent, would alter the quantity and quality of the materials
+    held in solution, and thus cause a corresponding deposition
+    subsequently. Hence, as remarked above, the distinction in
+    the strata, and the alternations of different substances
+    successively.
+
+    19. It may not be amiss here to say, it is very probable,
+    that many deluges preceded the formation of man, produced on
+    the same principles as the deluge of Noah, though for different
+    purposes, according to the wishes of the Divine Being.
+
+    20. To what has been said above, it is only necessary
+    to add, that all depositions, or formations of rocks took
+    place _at the bottom of the ocean_, or waters which held
+    the materials in solution, or suspended; and that this
+    ocean maintained its dominion for long periods together, in
+    comparative tranquility, and during such times the different
+    rock formations were deposited. The marine animals would
+    multiply, die, and their exuvi� quietly fall to the bottom: at
+    the same time carbonate of lime would be copiously deposited
+    from the sea waters, and thus would consolidate into a stratum
+    of rock, the thickness of which would bear some proportion to
+    the length of the period of its deposition. If this stratum
+    _remained in its place_, upon the retiring of the sea, it would
+    appear at the surface at first; until it was covered with
+    mould, and the ruins of other rocks disintegrated into earth,
+    or soil. But if it were _upheaved_ by the force of the internal
+    fire, it would become a _limestone mountain_, containing the
+    organic remains as they were first quietly deposited. The same
+    may be said of primitive mountains, or any other kind.
+
+    21. The _transition_ rocks, the formation of which was
+    barely noticed above, (No. 10) were deposited successively
+    in strata, indicating their relative ages by the increase of
+    rocky fragments, and fossil remains in their composition,
+    from the oldest of the family to the newest: and also by the
+    gradual change in their structure, which is more crystalline
+    in the oldest, and becomes less so in the newest, owing to the
+    decrease of chemical action, and the increase of mechanical
+    deposition.
+
+    22. From the fossil remains in the different strata of the
+    transition rocks, we have good evidence of successive deluges,
+    which swept away the animals existing at the time, and buried
+    their remains which are now found in a fossil state; and others
+    succeeded them. This will account for particular animals being
+    peculiar to particular strata of rocks.
+
+    23. During the transition period the chemical action ceased
+    almost entirely, and the succeeding family of rocks, i.e. the
+    _secondary_, was deposited _mechanically_, their materials
+    being merely _suspended_ in the waters. This class, therefore,
+    is not crystalline in its structure, and is nearly horizontal
+    in position and contains greater quantities of fossil remains,
+    both of animals and vegetables. These remains are, also, the
+    relics of beings more delicately organized, and approach much
+    nearer to the genera and species of animals now existing.
+
+    24. During the deposition of this class of rocks, and also
+    of the _tertiary_ class which succeeded it, the sea retired far
+    from the up-lands, and well nigh into its permanent beds. The
+    up-lands would, by the disintegrating power of the elements, be
+    worn away at their surface, and thus afford the matter of soil,
+    which would naturally be carried down towards the final retreat
+    of the sea, by the waters, and be deposited in the vallies,
+    and low countries. The same process would furnish fragments of
+    rocks in abundance, and of all kinds, which would be rolled
+    down the declivities of the up-lands, and become more or less
+    rounded, and thus be found entering into the rocks of the
+    secondary and tertiary classes; or in beds of sand and gravel,
+    or in the channels of rivers in the form of _pebbles_. If these
+    fragments were thrown together in sufficient quantities, and a
+    suitable cement deposited among them they would consolidate and
+    form _pudding-stone_, or breccia marble; such as the Potomac
+    marble, of which the columns in the Capitol at Washington City
+    are made.
+
+    25. It is very evident that this process would deposit
+    the heavier fragments, and materials nearest the highlands
+    whence they originated; and carry the finer and richer matter
+    further away towards the sea, and deposit it nearer the mouths
+    of the rivers. This is well known to be the case, as in the
+    Mississippi. Here the phenomena are doubtless, from the mouth,
+    along all its tributaries to their sources.
+
+    26. While these successive depositions were making,
+    modified by tremendous eruptions from the force of subterranean
+    fire, the same agent of these modifications would produce
+    another very striking phenomena. The immense quantity of matter
+    thrown from the interior to the surface in a melted state,
+    would either shoot up in the form of cones, or columns, and
+    by cooling crystallize and consolidate; or would flow in its
+    melted state over the surface of the upper rocks, and thus
+    cover them. This is the case with a class of rocky substances
+    which may be called by the general name of _basalt_. Sometimes
+    when the force below was not sufficient to protrude the
+    melted matter through the superincumbent rocks, it drove it
+    in _between_ the strata, or shot it up _through_ some of the
+    strata; frequently upheaving the rocks on one side of the
+    protruding body, or depressing them on the other. In this case
+    the injected matter constitutes what is called a _fault_,
+    _shaft_, or _dike_, by miners.
+
+    27. It is not improbable, nay, it is pretty certain, that
+    many of these basaltic ejections took place under the ancient
+    chaotic abyss of waters, and have become visible by the
+    retiring of the sea.
+
+    28. In this theory we have a satisfactory explanation
+    of the formation of _metallic veins_, and the _dispersion_
+    of metallic grains in sands, and soil. The metals being in
+    a pure state, or nearly so, in the bowels of the earth when
+    _projected_ upwards by the force of subterranean power,
+    would be _injected_ into the rocks in the direction of the
+    operating force. Hence they are found in veins in solid rocks,
+    running in all directions, and descending to unknown depths.
+    Sometimes the whole of the vein appears to be _insulated_ by
+    the rock. In this case, the whole mass was _fused_, at least
+    partly, and when the force ceased to act, it would consolidate
+    around the injected metal, leaving no trace of its injection.
+    Sometimes the metallic vein evidently entered the rock _from
+    above_. In this case the metal in a _melted_ state was thrown
+    to the surface, and _meeting with a chasm, ran into it and
+    consolidated into a vein_. When the metal was raised from
+    below in a state of fusion in conjunction with an immense
+    mass of rocky matter in a state of fusion, they would appear
+    at the surface mixed throughout. When this rocky mass yielded
+    to the disintegrating power of the elements, the particles
+    of the metal and rock would be carried off together into the
+    lower positions, and be found in the form of _dust_, in the
+    secondary, or lower countries.
+
+    29. The shape of the earth, in regard to which it is said
+    the polar diameter is less than the equatorial, would be the
+    same on the above theory, as it has been shown to be, on the
+    supposition that the earth was in a soft state by the solvent
+    powers of water, as commonly supposed.
+
+    30. It is a matter of peculiar pleasure to the Christian
+    philosopher, to observe the strong tendency in the Science of
+    Geology, to confirm the account of the creation of the world,
+    as given by Moses in the Bible. By a careful comparison of the
+    account of Moses with well established geological positions,
+    it will be found that _they agree expressly, in the_ ORDER
+    _and_ NATURE _of the events_. This is a splendid evidence in
+    favor of revelation. There can be no doubt, but, that if the
+    phenomena of nature, and the teachings of the Bible were better
+    understood, more striking and unexpected agreements would be
+    found. Religion and Science will one day be inseparable.
+
+
+    _Remarks._
+
+    1. It will be necessary for the reader to peruse the above
+    theory very attentively, in order to form a correct judgment
+    of it, as it is merely an _outline_, very briefly drawn up,
+    yet it is hoped, pretty clearly. Whether it be well calculated
+    to explain the great leading geological phenomena which we
+    observe, the reader will determine for himself. It was not
+    drawn up _in view_ of such explanation, but was constructed
+    by _induction_ from those well ascertained phenomena. It was
+    drawn up _out of view_ of any ultimate object, or system,
+    _previously_ embraced, and is even _different_ from the
+    writer's previous opinions, before he had diligently compared
+    all the facts within his reach. It is therefore entitled to the
+    merit of having been drawn up with a sincere desire to attain
+    to truth on this interesting subject, and not to support a
+    favorite theory.
+
+    2. Upon examination it will be found to reconcile, in a
+    great measure, the _Vulcanian_ and _Neptunian_ theories which
+    have so long divided the principal writers on Geology. It
+    will be found that both _fire_ and _water_ were concerned in
+    producing the great geological phenomena. It cannot be doubted
+    but that subterranean force _commenced_ the irregularities on
+    our earth's surface, and continued the action, probably with
+    occasional intermissions, in upheaving the mountains, and
+    mountain chains: but as this was commenced, and principally
+    accomplished, _under_ the ancient sea, there can be no doubt
+    but that the water has had a powerful and extensive agency
+    in modifying the structure and composition of mountain, and
+    moderate elevations. And while we have every reason to believe
+    the force of subterranean fire was the principal agent in
+    rending, dislocating, and confusing the rock formations of the
+    crust of our earth; we have no less reason to acknowledge the
+    agency of water in depositing the various strata; contributing
+    to the disintegration of the exposed uplands; and carrying down
+    the _alluvion_ which form the fertile tracts of vallies, and
+    low countries; and the sand bars, and banks at the outlets, of
+    rivers, bays, gulfs, &c.
+
+    3. This view will be more clearly explained by examining
+    the _shape_ of continents, islands, and countries, which will
+    be found to correspond, pretty nearly with the shape of the
+    mountain ranges in each. That is: the _length_ of a continent,
+    island, or country will be found to be _in the direction of the
+    mountain range_; and the _breadth across_ the mountain range.
+
+    4. This would be the shape which would naturally result
+    from the transition, secondary, and tertiary formations arising
+    principally from the disintegration of the materials of the
+    mountain range. This is evident from a single reflection: if a
+    _conical_ body stood in the midst of a plain, and was equally
+    exposed to a power which wore it away, the portions thus torn
+    from the body would roll down the declivity towards the base of
+    the cone, and would occupy a circle, generally speaking, of the
+    plane at the base equidistant from the body. In the same manner
+    the wasting away of the primitive elevations would deposit the
+    detritus equidistant from the foot of the range.
+
+    5. It will be obvious, however, that the conformity of
+    a country, _in shape_, to the mountain ranges which run
+    through it, will be more or less modified by adventitious
+    circumstances. If one side of the mountain range was originally
+    more precipitous than the other: or if some tremendous
+    collection or current of water lashed or swept one side, and
+    not the other, the shape of the country would be modified; but
+    not so much as to destroy the general conformity in shape. The
+    above remarks will be confirmed by an inspection of accurately
+    drawn maps.
+
+    6. Finally: Some formations are entirely owing to the
+    agency of water; as sand banks, bars, shoals, &c, and some
+    entirely owing to the action of fire, as the deposites of lava;
+    the upheaving of volcanic mountains, even in the memory of man.
+    These are _adventitious_ formations, and do not even _modify_
+    a general theory.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Footnotes - Chapter V
+
+    [114] Time's Telescope for 1815, Introduction.
+
+    [115] Dr. Robert Wittie, in his Survey of the Heavens,
+    makes the following observations concerning this miraculous
+    interposition of Divine providence. "We read that Joshua, in
+    his zeal against the enemies of God and his people, in the heat
+    of battle, called to the sun and moon to stand still, &c. The
+    design was that the light might be lengthened, till he might
+    destroy the army of the Amorites, and the day was accordingly
+    prolonged, as the sun went not down for the whole day, and the
+    moon also staid.--But why should Joshua call to the moon to
+    stand still, as well as the sun, which I could be of no use
+    to him, while the sun was up? To this I answer with all due
+    modesty; I do believe Joshua did call thus by inspiration, and
+    a special impulse from God upon his spirit: for that which
+    would make the sun stand still, would stay the moon. He that
+    from the hasty zealous call of this great general, shall think
+    to form an argument to prove the philosophical notion of the
+    sun's diurnal motion about the earth, by taking the words in
+    a proper literal sense, may as well go on, and eke it out a
+    little further, and then he may prove the sun to have been in
+    the next great town, Gibeon, and the moon in the valley; but if
+    to all men this latter shall be judged a weak inference, I dare
+    say, to many wise men, so will the former." P. 12, 13.
+
+    [116] Aristotle de Coel. lib. ii, cap. 13.
+
+    [117] Macrob. Sat. lib. i, cap. 21.
+
+    [118] Macrob. in Somn. Scip. lib. i, cap. 20.
+
+    [119] That is, in adoration; from _ad ore_, to the mouth,
+    i.e. _hand_ to the mouth.
+
+    [120] Baseley's Glory of the Heavens, pp. 73-76.
+
+    [121] The new moon is often styled a _crescent_; a word
+    formed from the Latin _crescere_, to _grow_; and though it is
+    used from the same figure of the moon in her wane or decrease,
+    when her horns are turned towards the west, yet these horns
+    always point to the east in the just crescent.
+
+    [122] M. Schro�ter, of the Royal Society of Gottingen,
+    has recently published a very curious and elaborate work
+    in German, entitled, Selenotographische Fragmente, &c, or
+    Selenotopographical Fragments, intended to promote a more
+    accurate knowledge of the moon's surface: a valuable extract
+    from which may be seen in the Pantologia, article _Moon_.
+
+    [123] See Mr. Howard's valuable paper on the Philosophical
+    Transactions for 1802, Dr. Hutton's Dissertation in the New
+    Abridgment, part xxi, and Dr. Adam Clarke on Josh. x, 11.
+
+    [124] The principal eclipse of the sun, for the present
+    century, has been already calculated, and it is fully
+    determined that it will take place in the year 1847. It will
+    be annular in this country, and several other places. Time's
+    Telescope for 1815.
+
+    The Athenians, according to Plutarch, entertained very
+    terrific ideas of eclipses of the moon. Nicias and his army,
+    when they were on the point of withdrawing secretly from
+    Sicily, without being observed or suspected by the enemy,
+    refused to embark, because the moon became suddenly eclipsed;
+    this ignorant and superstitious conduct proved fatal, for they
+    were all, shortly after, either slain or taken prisoners.
+
+    [125] A valuable correspondent writing from Matura, in
+    Ceylon, May 7, 1817, says, "A festival was lately celebrated
+    here, principally on the river. A large boat was rigged for the
+    purpose, somewhat after the manner of a ship, which carried a
+    number of dancers and other persons in disguise, accompanied
+    with the music of pipes and drums. I particularly inquired into
+    the meaning of the ceremonies; and, as far as I could learn, it
+    was a celebration of the birth of the sun and moon. The world
+    is believed to have been once inhabited by holy brahmins, whose
+    bodies were transparent, and afforded sufficient light. When
+    these fell into sin, they lost their splendor, and other lights
+    became necessary."
+
+    The African negroes, in the West Indies, on seeing the new
+    moon, take out of their pocket a piece of whatever money they
+    have, and, holding it up in their hand, say, "God bless the new
+    moon, this is all I can give you; take this, and give me good
+    luck:" and then throw it up toward it. After this action, they
+    believe that prosperity will attend them during the time that
+    moon continues. On embracing the Christian religion, they lay
+    aside this heathenish practice.
+
+    [126] On the dial of the cathedral at Bruges, the sun is
+    represented directing the hours, with this motto, _Non rego,
+    nisi regar_: signifying, that the sun could not rule the
+    day, if it was not first ruled itself. Had the Pagan world
+    known this truth, the greatest part of it had not fallen into
+    idolatry.
+
+    [127] Literary Panorama, for January, 1814, pp. 954, 955.
+
+    [128] "At what time the earth began to be considered,
+    or rather suspected, to be spherical," says Costard, "is
+    uncertain, but probably not before the undertaking long
+    voyages; the first of which, it may be, were down the Arabian
+    Gulf, and out of the Straits of _Bab-Al-mandub_, by Europeans
+    corruptly called _Babelmandel_. What opinion was commonly
+    entertained of those who undertook those long voyages, may be
+    learned, in some measure, from this word. For _Mandub_ is one
+    that is lamented at his funeral; therefore _Bab-al-mandub_ is
+    the _gate_, or _strait_, of one lamented at his funeral; as if
+    a person sailing beyond that point, was considered as going to
+    certain death, or never to return."
+
+    [129] See Verstigan's "Restitution of Decayed
+    Intelligence," Edit. 1673, pp. 64-68; and Time's Telescope.
+
+    [130] On June 14, 1815, was published the following
+    astronomical notice. The Georgium Sidus is now visible to
+    the naked eye any clear night. It souths now a little before
+    midnight, is paler and less vivid than the fixed stars near it
+    in Scorpio; it will remain in company with Arcturus for two or
+    three years, passing north of it about the middle of the year
+    1816, and veering to the east, or left hand, at the rate of 4�
+    18' annually, being near seven years in passing one sign, and
+    near 84 in making an entire revolution.
+
+    Dr. Herschell assumes, that the eclipses of the satellites
+    of the Georgium Sidus will, in the year 1818, be visible to
+    those who possess telescopes of high magnifying powers, when
+    they will appear to ascend through the shadow of the planet in
+    the direction almost perpendicular to the ecliptic.
+
+    [131] In the year 1712, Mr. Whiston having calculated
+    the return of a comet, which was to make its appearance on
+    Wednesday, the 14th of October, at five minutes after five in
+    the morning; he gave notice to the public accordingly, with
+    this terrifying addition, that _a total dissolution of the
+    world by fire was to take place on the Friday following_. The
+    reputation Mr. Whiston had long maintained, both as a divine
+    and a philosopher, left little or no doubt with the populace
+    of the truth of his prediction. Several ludicrous events
+    took place in consequence. A number of persons in and about
+    London seized all the barges and boats they could lay their
+    hands on in the Thames, very rationally concluding, that when
+    the conflagration took place, there would be the most safety
+    on the water. A gentleman who had neglected _family prayer_
+    for longer than five years, informed his wife that it was
+    his determination to resume that laudable practice the same
+    evening; but his wife having engaged _a ball at her house_,
+    persuaded her husband to put it off till they saw whether the
+    comet appeared or not. The South-sea stock immediately fell to
+    _five per cent._, and India stock to _eleven_. The captain of a
+    Dutch ship threw all his powder into the river, that the ship
+    might not be endangered.
+
+    The next morning the comet appeared according to the
+    prediction, and before noon the belief was universal, that
+    _the day of judgment was at hand_. About this time of the
+    day 123 clergymen were ferried over to Lambeth, it was said,
+    to petition that a short prayer might be penned and ordered,
+    there being none in the church service on that occasion.
+    Three maids of honor burnt their collections of novels and
+    plays, and sent to a bookseller's to buy each of them a Bible,
+    and Bishop Taylor's Holy Living and Dying. The run upon the
+    Bank was so prodigious, that all hands were employed from
+    morning till night in discounting notes, and handing out
+    specie. On Thursday, considerably more than _seven thousand
+    kept mistresses were legally married_! in the face of several
+    congregations. And to crown the whole, Sir Gilbert Heathcote,
+    at that time head director of the Bank, issued orders to all
+    the fire-offices in London, requiring them "to keep a good look
+    out, and have a particular eye upon the Bank of England."
+
+    The comet which might have put the earth in most hazard,
+    was that of 1680. By Halley's calculation it passed, November
+    11, within 60 semi-diameters of the earth's orbit: and if, at
+    that time, the earth had been in that part of her orbit, there
+    is no conjecturing at the consequences.--Literary Panorama, for
+    December, 1811.--Probably the above was only a hoax upon Mr.
+    Whiston on account of the singularity of his opinion concerning
+    comets.
+
+    [132] Dr. Keill's Astronomy, 5th Edit. pp. 189, 190.
+
+    [133] Dr. O. Gregory's Treatise on Astronomy, p. 413.
+
+    [134] The celebrated Buffon supposed, that our earth was
+    originally formed by a comet's sweeping off and receiving in
+    his train a portion of the exterior part of the sun; which,
+    after having been sufficiently cooled, in the lapse of time,
+    perhaps hundreds of thousands of years, had gradually assumed
+    its present form! When we reflect that this eminent French
+    naturalist was an infidel and a libertine, his many strange
+    theories confirm the remark of the Poet,
+
+        "An undevout astronomer is mad."
+
+    When a person through the pride of intellect, will not
+    submit his fallible understanding to the sure light of Divine
+    revelation, he is liable to embrace the greatest absurdities,
+    which a sober and well-regulated mind would prevent.
+
+    [135] Guardian, No. 103.
+
+    [136] The distances of the fixed stars have never been
+    absolutely determined, and what is here stated is not given
+    as the true distance of Sirius; but from what has been
+    ascertained, the distance cannot be less than as above. Dr.
+    Bradley, after another method of calculation, makes it to
+    be more than ten times greater, or twenty-five millions of
+    millions, and 650 thousand of millions.
+
+    [137] In 1627, Schiller published a work, entitled Coelum
+    Stellatum Christianum, containing the ancient catalogue,
+    with new constellations. In this work he rejected the
+    old designations, and substituted new figures for the
+    constellations, and names taken from the sacred Scriptures;
+    thus Aries he changed into St. Peter; Taurus, into St. Andrew;
+    Andromeda, into the holy sepulchre; Lyra, into the manger
+    of Christ; Hercules, into the wise men of the east; Canis
+    Major, into David; and so on. This he is said to have done in
+    imitation of the venerable Bede, who, instead of the profane
+    names and figures adopted by pagans, substituted the names of
+    the twelve apostles for those of the twelve constellations
+    in the zodiac: but these innovations were disregarded by
+    astronomers. Weigelius, professor of mathematics at Jena,
+    attempted to make an innovation of another kind; he wished to
+    change the starry heavens into a kind of Coelum Heraldicum,
+    by introducing the arms of all the princes and states of
+    Europe, by way of constellations; but his project experienced
+    the same fate as those of Bede and Schiller.
+
+    [138] See Ferguson's Astronomy.
+
+    [139] Gisborne's _Walks in a Forest_, sixth edit. pp. 44,
+    45, 46.
+
+    [140] The author thankfully acknowledges his obligations
+    for many of the above thoughts to an old sermon preached "at
+    the opening of the Synod of Lothian and Tweeddale;" but cannot
+    say of what date, or by whom delivered, as his copy of it is
+    without title-page.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+FIFTH DAY.
+
+_Section_ I.--FISHES.
+
+    Of Fishes in general -- The Cetaceous kind -- Cartilaginous
+    -- Spinous -- Crustaceous -- and Testaceous. -- Animalcules. --
+    Religious Improvement.
+
+On the _fifth day_ were created fishes, and the fowls of heaven,
+whatsoever flies in the expansion above us, or swims in the watery
+element: these were produced from the waters. "God said, Let the waters
+bring forth abundantly the moving creature that hath life, and fowl
+that may fly above the earth in the open firmament of heaven. And God
+created great whales, and every living creature that moveth, which the
+waters brought forth abundantly, after their kind, and every winged
+fowl after his kind: and God saw that it was good. And God blessed
+them, saying, Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the waters in the
+seas, and let the fowl multiply in the earth."
+
+    "See through this air, this ocean, and this earth,
+    All matter quick, and bursting into birth;
+    Above how high progressive life may go,
+    Around how wide, how deep extend below!
+    Vast chain of being, which from God began,
+    Nature's ethereal, human, angel, man,
+    Beast, _bird_, _fish_, _insect_, what no eye can see,
+    No glass can reach; from infinite to THEE,
+    from THEE to _nothing_!"
+
+It is generally granted that life is the highest perfection of
+corporeal beings, the most inestimable jewel of the creation. Life,
+though but in an insect, is more glorious than the sun. Solomon, making
+a comparison between living and lifeless things, prefers the meanest
+of living creatures before the best and noblest of dead things, "A
+living dog is better than a dead lion." How much soever we may be
+astonished at the stupendous mass of inactive matter, yet the least
+animated particle is still an object of greater admiration. God, in
+creating the first individual of each species of living creatures, not
+only gave a form to matter, but also a principle of life; inclosing in
+each a greater or less quantity of organical particles, indestructible
+and common to all organized beings. These pass from body to body,
+perpetuating this life, and ministering to the nutrition and growth
+of each. Thus every production, or increase by generation, is a
+continuance of this life, of which every succession of creatures is
+always full. The total quantity of life remains the same; for whatever
+death seems to destroy, it does not affect that primitive life, which
+is diffused through all organized beings.
+
+However much the nature of life may perplex the most able, acute, and
+diligent inquirers into the subject, or exceed the utmost reach of
+human comprehension; yet we see that it enables creatures to act, as
+it were, of themselves, and to seek and obtain such enjoyments as give
+them a sensible pleasure. The creatures on which this amazing property
+has been conferred, have also an inclination and ability to communicate
+it to their own species, which will succeed one another till time
+shall be no more! If we exercise our understanding on this remarkable
+instance of creating energy, it will tend to excite in us the most
+august thoughts of that almighty Being, who is the boundless source of
+existence, vitality, and motion to all his creatures!
+
+In the work of creation, observes a learned author, after the formation
+of light, air, water, and earth, the originals of all material objects,
+God proceeded from creatures less excellent to those of a superior
+order. Such was his progress in the work of creation. Fish and fowl
+were both formed out of the water. Hence there is a nearer alliance
+and greater resemblance between the form and motions of creatures that
+swim and those that fly, than between such as creep and those that walk
+on the earth; and their bodies being intended to be lighter, and their
+motion swifter, the wise Creator saw fit to form them from a light and
+fluid element.
+
+The number of the different species of fish to which names are
+given, and with whose figure at least we are a little acquainted,
+is, according to Linn�us, above four hundred. The majority of these
+are confined to the sea, and would expire in the fresh water, though
+there are a few which annually swim up the rivers, to deposit their
+spawn. Among the various sizes, some have monstrous shapes, and amazing
+qualities. Fishes are usually classed into three general divisions: the
+_cetaceous_, or those of the whale kind; the _cartilaginous_, or those
+which have gristles instead of bones; and the _spinous_, or bony kind,
+called so from their bones resembling the sharpness of thorns.
+
+In the cetaceous species are included all the various kinds of
+Whales, the Norwhal, or Sea-Unicorn, the Dolphin, the Grampus, and
+the Porpoise. Though "God created great whales,"[141] the words of
+Moses, according to the original, **htnynm hgdlym** _ha-tan-neenin
+ha-gedoleen_, says Dr. A. Clarke, must be understood rather as a
+general than a particular term, comprising all the great aquatic
+animals, such as these now mentioned. All these resemble quadrupeds
+in their internal structure, and in some of their appetites and
+affections. Like quadrupeds, they have lungs, a midriff, a stomach,
+intestines, liver, spleen, bladder, and parts of generation; their
+heart also resembles that of quadrupeds, with its partitions closed
+up as in them, and driving red and warm blood in circulation through
+the body; and to keep these parts warm, the whole kind are also
+covered between the skin and the muscles with a thicker coat of fat or
+blubber. The _aorta_, or principal artery, in that stupendous animal
+the _whale_, measures about a foot in diameter; and it is computed
+that the quantity of blood thrown into it, at every pulsation of the
+heart, is not less than from _ten to fifteen gallons_.
+
+    "Nature's strange work, vast Whales of differing form,
+    Toss up the troubled floods and are themselves a storm;
+    Uncouth the sight, when they, in dreadful play
+    Discharge their nostrils, and refund a sea;
+    Or angry lash the foam with hideous sound,
+    And scatter all the watery dust around.
+    Fearless the fierce destructive monsters roll,
+    Ingulph the fish, and drive the flying shoal.
+    In deepest seas these living isles appear,
+    And deepest seas can scarce their pressure bear:
+    Their bulk would more than fill the shelvy strait,
+    And fathom'd depths would yield beneath their weight."
+
+These animals possessing finer organs and higher sensations than
+others, show an eminent superiority. They have all the tenderness of
+birds or quadrupeds for their young, nurse them with constant care, and
+protect them from every injury. The female never produces more than
+one young, or two at the most; and this she suckles entirely in the
+manner of quadrupeds, her breasts being placed, as in the human kind,
+above the navel. The ends of these she protrudes at pleasure, to afford
+nutriment to her offspring. Perhaps the prophet Jeremiah has an eye to
+this when he says, "The sea-monsters draw out the breast, they give
+suck to their young ones." Those of the cartilaginous kind, though not
+capable of nursing their young, yet bring them alive into the world,
+and defend them with courage and activity; while the spinous kind, a
+fierce, unmindful tribe, deposit their spawn, and leave the success to
+accident, without affording any protection.
+
+As this first class of sea animals breathe the air, it is obvious they
+cannot bear to be a long time at once under water. They necessarily,
+every two or three minutes, emerge to the surface to take breath, as
+well as to spout out through their nostril (for they have but one),
+that water which they sucked in while gaping for their prey.
+
+    "Hugest of living creatures, on the deep,
+    Stretched like a promontory, sleeps or swims,
+    And seems a moving land, and at his gills
+    Draws in, and at his trunk spouts out, a sea."
+
+Their tails therefore are different from those of all other fish: they
+are placed so as to lie flat upon the surface of the water; while
+the other kinds have their tails, as we frequently see, upright or
+edge-ways. This position of the tail enables them to force themselves
+suddenly to the surface of the water, at pleasure. How well is it that
+animals of this enormous size do not approach our shores, for their
+presence would fright the other valuable fish from our coasts: they
+are therefore kept in the abysses of the ocean: just as wild beasts,
+impelled by the same over-ruling Power, which hide themselves in the
+recesses of the forest.[142]
+
+The cartilaginous tribe, which have gristles instead of bones, unite
+the principal of both the other classes in their conformation: like the
+cetaceous, they have organs of hearing, and lungs: like the spinous,
+they have gills, and a heart without a partition. From the structure
+of their gills, these animals are enabled to live a longer time out
+of water than other fishes. The cartilaginous Shark, or Ray, lives
+some hours after it is taken; while the spinous Herring, or Mackarel,
+expires a few minutes after it is brought on shore. Some of this
+class bring forth their young alive; and others produce them by eggs,
+which are afterwards brought to maturity. Most fishes having cold
+blood, have not heat sufficient to produce the foetus. The all-wise
+Creator therefore has ordained, that many of them shall propagate their
+species by eggs, and this they do near the shore; where, by means of
+the solar rays, the water is warmer, and fitter for that purpose; and
+also because water-insects abound more there, which afford the young
+fry nourishment. To the fish of the ocean, which cannot reach the
+shores by reason of the distance, the Creator has given eggs that swim,
+and these are hatched amidst the floating fucus, called _sargazo_.
+In all, however, the manner of gestation is nearly the same: for,
+on dissection, it is ever found, that the young, while in the body,
+continue in the egg till a very little time before they are brought
+forth; and as soon as they leave the shell, they also begin to quit
+the womb. It is confidently asserted, that the young of the several
+species of the Shark, when pursued, will take refuge in the belly of
+its mother, by swimming in at her mouth. Of the same class of fishes
+are the Ray, the Torpedo,[143] the Lamprey, the Sturgeon, the Diodon,
+the Angler, the Lump-Sucker, the Pipe Fish, the Hippocampus, or Sea
+Horse, the Sea Porcupine, and the Galley Fish.
+
+Of the spinous, or bony kind of fishes, these are obviously
+distinguished from the rest, by having a complete bony covering to
+their gills; by their being furnished with no other method of breathing
+than through the gills only; by their bones which are sharp and thorny;
+and by their tails, which are placed in a situation perpendicular to
+the body. The history of any one of this order very much resembles
+that of all the rest. They propagate not by bringing forth their young
+alive, as do the cetaceous tribes, nor by distinct eggs, as do the
+generality of the cartilaginous tribes, but by spawn, or pease, as they
+are generally called, which they produce by hundreds of thousands. The
+bones of this order of fishes, when examined slightly, appear to be
+entirely solid; yet, when viewed more closely, every bone is seen to be
+hollow, and filled with a substance less rancid and oily than marrow.
+These bones are very numerous, and pointed; and, as in quadrupeds,
+are the props or stays to which the muscles are fixed, which move the
+different parts of the body. The number of bones in all spinous fishes
+of the same kind is always the same. As this species partake less of
+the quadruped in their formation than any other, so they can bear to
+live out of their own element a shorter time. Some, indeed, are more
+vivacious in air than others: the eel will live several hours out of
+water; and the carp has been known to be fattened in a damp cellar. The
+method is, by placing the fish in a net well wrapped up in wet moss,
+the mouth only out, and hung up in a vault; then fed with white bread
+and milk, and the net sometimes plunged into the water.
+
+The spinous class of fishes is more prolific than any other animal.
+Although their usual way of propagation is by spawn, yet there are
+some, such as the eel and the blenney, which produce their young
+alive. Their power of increasing is such, that if they were suffered
+to multiply unmolested, and remain undiminished for only a few years,
+the progeny of an individual would far exceed all human calculation.
+It is asserted, that a single herring, in the space of twenty years,
+would yield an offspring greater in bulk than ten such globes as this
+we inhabit. A female herring deposits at least 10,000 eggs, in the sea
+near to Great Britain![144] A tench lays 1,000 eggs. There have been
+200,000 ova or eggs found in a carp; and in one of eighteen inches,
+342,144: in a perch, weighing one pound two ounces, 69,216; and in
+a sturgeon of one hundred and sixty pounds, there was the enormous
+number of 1,467,500. Leewenhoeck counted in a middling-sized cod, _nine
+million_ 384,000.
+
+This multiplication of fishes is very astonishing; but the fact is,
+as they are obliged to devour one another for necessary subsistence,
+the whole natives of the deep without these extraordinary supplies,
+would soon be totally extinct. Were they to bring forth no more
+at a birth than land animals, the increase would be far too small
+for the consumption. The weaker species would soon be destroyed by
+the stronger, and the latter would soon after perish. Therefore to
+supply millions of animals with food, and yet not depopulate the
+watery realms, the issue produced by some of their species is almost
+incredible. The spawn is not by scores, but by millions: and by this
+amazing expedient, constant reparation is made proportionable to the
+immense havoc.
+
+As the different species of fishes are designed to occupy the waters,
+and range to and fro in that element, so they are wonderfully formed
+for that purpose. The chief instruments of the motion of a fish are
+the fins, which in some fishes are more numerous than in others. The
+fish in a state of repose, spreads all its fins, and seems to rest on
+its pectoral and ventral fins near the bottom: on folding the right
+pectoral fin, its body inclines to the right side; and on folding the
+left fin, it inclines to that side.--When the fish desires to have
+a retrograde motion, striking with the pectoral fins, in a contrary
+direction, effectually produces it. When the fish desires to turn, a
+blow from the tail sends it round; but if the tail strike both ways,
+then the motion is progressive. If the dorsal and ventral fins be cut
+off, the fish reels both to the right and left, and endeavors to supply
+its loss by keeping the rest of the fins in constant action. If the
+right pectoral fin be cut off, the fish leans to that side; if the
+ventral fin on the same side be cut off, then it loses its equilibrium
+entirely. When the tail is cut off, the fish loses all motion, and is
+carried wherever the water impels it.
+
+In addition to the fins, an aquatic animal is furnished with an air
+bladder, a philosophical apparatus in its body; this sustains and
+enables it, at will to raise itself to the surface of the water, or,
+otherwise, to descend. When any accident has burst this air bladder,
+or it has been punctured by way of experiment, the fish remains at the
+bottom of the vessel or river, totally unable to ascend. Flounders,
+Soles and Skates, which are without this appendage, seldom rise in
+the water, and when they do, require a great effort. The simple
+action of the fins is not sufficient to raise the fish, its specific
+gravity being greater than the fluid in which it is immersed. The
+bag containing the air is supposed to be muscular, and when the air
+is compressed into a smaller compass by the action of this muscular
+power, the bulk of the fish is contracted with it; whereby, since the
+absolute weight remains the same, the specific gravity, which is the
+sinking force, is increased, and the fish sinks; when, on the contrary,
+this compression is removed, the air bladder expands, the fish is
+specifically lighter, and it ascends.
+
+In fish, we find the arrangement of the teeth nicely adapted to the
+habits of the different species. For instance, in the Pike, the teeth
+are placed with their points projecting backwards towards the throat,
+by which an easy ingress is afforded, but which at the same time
+prevents all egress, and retains most effectually the prey when seized.
+The alarm excited among smaller fishes at the approach of the Pike, is
+thus poetically expressed:
+
+    "_Beware_, ye harmless tribes, the _tyrant comes_,
+    Exclaims the silver mantled naiad of the pond;
+    _Beware_, ye flirting _gudgeons_, _barbles_ fair,
+    And ye, quick-swimming _minnows_, gliding _eels_,
+    And all who breathe the lucid crystal of the lake,
+    Or lively sport between the dashing wheels
+    Of river mills, _beware_; the _tyrant comes_!
+    Grim death awaits you in his gaping jaws,
+    And lurks behind his hungry fangs--_beware_!"
+
+The Sword-Fish is distinguished by the upper jaw, which runs out in the
+figure of a strong and sharp sword, sometimes to the length of three
+feet, with which he scruples not to engage the whale himself.[145] The
+Sun-Fish is one round mass of flesh; only it has two fins, which act
+the part of oars.
+
+The great Creator has beautified the innumerable myriads that swim
+in the vast ocean, giving the greatest proportion to their shapes,
+the gayest colors to their skins, and a polished surface to their
+scales. The eyes of some are surrounded with a scarlet circle; while
+the backs of others are diversified with crimson stains. View them
+when they glance along the stream, or when they are fresh from their
+native brine; the silver is not more bright, nor the rainbow more
+glowing than their vivid, glossy hues! But we are lost in wonder at the
+exquisite contrivance and delicate formation of their gills: by which
+they are accommodated, even in that dense medium, with the benefits of
+respiration! A piece of mechanism this, possessed by the meanest of
+the watery tribe; yet infinitely surpassing, in the fineness of the
+structure of its operation, whatever is curious in the works of art,
+or commodious in the palaces of princes.
+
+As the spinous order of fishes is extremely numerous, various modes of
+classing them have been followed by different naturalists. The simplest
+is that of Linn�us, who ranks them in four divisions, according to
+the positions of the fins. The 1st division is what that celebrated
+naturalist terms _Apodal_; and includes the most imperfect of the
+order, namely, those which want the ventral or belly fins, and it
+consists of the following genera:--The Eel, the Wolf-Fish, the Launce,
+or Sand-Eel, and The Sword Fish.--The 2d division consists of the
+_Jugular_ fishes, or those which have ventral fins before the pectoral,
+or nearer to the gills; and includes the Dragonet, the Weever, the
+Cod, and the Blenny. The 3d division is called the _Thoracic_, or
+those fishes which have the belly fins immediately under the pectoral;
+and includes the Goby, or Roch-Fish, the Bull-head, the Doree, the
+Flounder, the Wrasse, the Perch, the Stickleback, the Mackerel,
+the Surmulet, and the Gurnard. The 4th division consists of the
+_Abdominal_, or those which have the ventral fins behind the pectoral,
+nearer the tail, and includes the Loach, the Salmon, the Pike, the
+Argentine, the Atherine, the Mullet, the Flying-Fish, the Herring, the
+Carp, &c. To the fishes, included in these four divisions, must be
+added, all the several species belonging to each, some of which are
+numerous.
+
+There are two classes of animals inhabiting the water, which commonly
+receive the name of fishes, entirely different from the preceding ones,
+and also very distinct from each other. They are divided by naturalists
+into crustaceous and testaceous: both of which, being totally unlike
+fishes in appearance, seem to invert the order of nature. As those of
+the cetaceous, cartilaginous, and spinous orders, have their bones on
+the inside, and their muscles externally placed for the purpose of
+life and motion; so these, on the contrary, have all their bony parts
+on the outside, and their muscles within. For instance, persons who
+have seen a Lobster, or an Oyster, perceive that their shells bear a
+strong analogy to the bones of other aquatic animals; and that by these
+coverings they are sustained and defended.
+
+Crustaceous fishes, such as the Crab and Lobster, have shells
+resembling a firm crust, and in some measure capable of yielding to
+pressure or strength. Testaceous fishes, such as the Oyster or Cockle,
+are furnished with shells of considerable hardness, very brittle,
+and susceptible of yielding to compressure like the others. Of the
+crustaceous kinds, are the Lobster, the Crab, and the Turtle:[146]
+and the testaceous, includes the numerous tribes of Oysters, Muscles,
+Cockles, and Sea Snails. Some of these are extremely prolific. Under
+the tail of a Lobster, Dr. Baster says, he counted 12,444 eggs, besides
+those that remained in the body unprotruded. The female Turtle lays
+about eighty or ninety eggs at a time, each the size of a pigeon's egg,
+in a hole prepared with her fore feet in the sand, a little above the
+high-water mark, which she covers so dexterously, that it is no easy
+task to find the place; and then returns to the sea, leaving them to
+be hatched by the solar rays. At the end of fifteen days, she deposits
+about the same number of eggs again: and in fifteen days more, repeats
+the same; three times in all, using the same precautions every time for
+their safety.
+
+Among shell-fish, how various is their figures? The shells of some seem
+to be the rude production of chance, rather than of skill or design.
+Yet, even in these, we find the nicest dispositions. Though uncouth,
+they are exactly suited to the exigencies of their respective tenants.
+Some, on the other hand, are extremely neat; their structure is all
+symmetry and elegance; no enamel is comparable to their polish. Not
+a room in all the palaces of Europe is so adorned as the tenement of
+the little fish that dwells in Mother of Pearl. Where else is such a
+mixture of red, blue, and green, so delightfully staining the most
+clear and glittering ground? But what is more admirable than all
+their beauty, is the provision made for their safety. As they have
+no speed to escape, so they have no dexterity to elude their foe: so
+that, were they naked, they must be an easy prey to every free-booter.
+To prevent this, what is only clothing to other animals, is to them
+clothing, habitation, and castle. They have a fortification which grows
+with them, and is part of themselves. And by means of this, they live
+secure amidst millions of ravenous jaws. The dark inky fluid, which the
+Cuttle-Fish emits when alarmed, not only tinges the water, but, at the
+same time, is so bitter, as immediately to drive off its enemies.
+
+    "Th' endangered _cuttle_ thus evades his fears,
+    And native hoards of fluid safely bears.
+    A pitchy ink peculiar glands supply,
+    Whose shades the sharpest beams of light defy.
+    Pursued he bids the sable fountain flow,
+    And, wrapt in clouds, eludes th' impending foe.
+    The fish retreats unseen, while self-born night,
+    With pious shade, befriends her parent's flight."
+
+The Nautilus, when he means to sail, discharges a quantity of water
+from his shell, by which it is rendered lighter than the surrounding
+medium, and, of course, rises to the surface. The shell forms a kind of
+boat, and he extends two of his arms upward, which are each furnished
+at their extremity with an oval membrane, that he unfurls to the wind
+for a sail. The other six arms hang over the sides of the shell, and
+supply the place of either oars or rudder, with which he rows himself
+along. When disposed to dive, he strikes sail, and at once sinks to
+the bottom. When the weather is calm, he ascends again, and performs
+his voyage without chart or compass.
+
+    "Two feet they upwards raise, and steady keep;
+    These are the masts and rigging of the ship.
+    A membrane stretched between supplies the sail,
+    Bends from the masts, and swells before the gale.
+    The other feet hang paddling on each side,
+    And serve for oars to row, and helm to guide.
+    'Tis thus they sail, pleased with the wanton game,
+    The fish, the sailor, and the ship the same.
+    But, when the swimmers dread some danger near,
+    The sportive pleasure yields to stronger fear:
+    No more they wanton drive before the blasts,
+    But strike the sails, and bring down all the masts.
+    The rolling waves their sinking shells o'erflow,
+    And dash them down again to sands below."
+
+Thus, we see, according to the beneficent purpose and blessing of God,
+the "waters bring forth abundantly." The finny tribes are numerous
+beyond all calculation; they crowd to our shores in vast abundance,
+from which our markets are regularly and plentifully supplied. And, as
+one judiciously observes, what a merciful provision is this for the
+necessities of man! Many hundreds of thousands of mankind live, during
+a great part of the year, on fish only. Fishes, which are liable to few
+diseases, afford not only a wholesome, but a very nutritive diet; and
+generally come in vast quantities to our shores, when in their greatest
+perfection. In this also we may perceive that the kind providence of
+God goes hand in hand with his creating energy; for, while manifesting
+his wisdom and power, he is making a permanent provision for the
+sustenance of man through all his generations. The Mackerel, the
+Herring, and various other kinds, when lean, wander up and down the
+ocean: but when fat they throng our creeks and bays, or haunt the
+running streams. Who bids these creatures leave our shores when they
+become unfit for our service? Who rallies and recalls the undisciplined
+vagrants, as soon as they are improved into desirable food? Surely
+the furlough is signed, the summons issued, and the point of re-union
+settled, by a Providence ever indulgent to mankind, and loading us with
+benefits.
+
+By the invention and assistance of magnifying glasses, the two extremes
+of the creation, as Mr. Baker intimates, which were out of the reach of
+former ages, have been brought under our observation: the telescope is
+directed to the heavenly bodies, and the microscope to unknown species
+of animals, &c. The first appearance of the microscope was about the
+year 1621; since which period it has been very much improved. It is to
+this valuable optical instrument that we are indebted for a great part
+of our present philosophy: we are brought into a kind of new world.
+
+Numberless animals are discovered, which, from their minuteness, must
+otherwise for ever have escaped our observation. How many kinds of
+these invisibles there may be, says Mr. Adams, is still unknown; as
+they are discerned of all sizes, from those which are barely invisible
+to the naked eye, to such as resist the action of the microscope, as
+the fixed stars do that of the telescope, and with the greatest powers
+hitherto invented appear only as so many moving points.
+
+The smallest living creatures our instruments can show, are those which
+inhabit the waters; for though animalcules, equally minute, may fly in
+the air, or creep upon the earth, it is scarcely possible to get a view
+of them; but as water is transparent, and confines the creatures in it,
+we are able, by applying a drop of it to our glasses, to discover, to
+a certain degree of smallness, all that it contains.
+
+                                "Where the pool
+    Stands mantled o'er with green, invisible,
+    Amid the floating verdure millions stray.
+    Each liquid, too, whether it pierces, soothes,
+    Inflames, refreshes, or exalts the taste,
+    With various forms abounds. Nor is the stream
+    Of purest crystal, nor the livid air,
+    Though one transparent vacancy it seem,
+    Void of their unseen people. These, concealed
+    By the kind art of forming Heaven, escape
+    The grosser eye of man: for, if the worlds
+    In worlds inclosed should on his senses burst,
+    From cates ambrosial and the nectared bowl,
+    He would abhorrent turn; and in dead night,
+    When silence sleeps o'er all, be stunned with noise."
+
+Leewenhoeck calculates, that a thousand millions of animalcules, which
+may be discovered in common water, are not altogether so large as a
+common grain of sand! Eminent naturalists have discovered not less
+than 30,000 in a single drop of water! What a display is this of the
+manifold wisdom of God! While he makes some of the aquatic tribes so
+large, that they seem to require almost a whole sea to float in, he
+forms others so astonishingly minute, that several thousands will
+adhere to the point of a needle.[147]
+
+Every animalcule being an organized body, how delicate and subtile
+must the parts be that are necessary to constitute it, and to preserve
+its vital actions! How inconceivably small must it be, and yet a
+perfect animal. In animalcules, we discover the same multiplication
+of parts, diversity of figures, and variety of motions, as in the
+largest animals. How amazingly curious must be the internal structure
+of these creatures! how minute the bones, joints, muscles, tendons!
+how exquisitely delicate the veins, arteries, nerves! What a number of
+vessels and different circulations must be contained in one of these
+little creatures, and yet all have sufficient room for the performance
+of their several functions, without interfering with each other! It
+is difficult to conceive how in so narrow a compass, there should be
+contained a heart as the fountain of life propelling the circulating
+fluid, veins and arteries as the conductors of the blood, a brain to
+supply nerves in every part of the minute structure, muscles necessary
+to its motions, glands for the secretion of its fluids, stomach, and
+bowels to digest its food, eyes to direct its progress, a mouth to take
+in its nourishment, and organs of generation to propagate its kind!
+
+    "How sweet to muse upon His skill display'd
+    (Infinite skill!) in all that he has made.
+    To trace in Nature's most minute design,
+    The signature and stamp of Power Divine;
+    Contrivance exquisite expressed with ease,
+    Where unassisted sight no beauty sees;
+    The shapely limb and lubricated joint,
+    Within the small dimensions of a point;
+    Muscle and nerve miraculously spun;
+    His mighty work, who speaks, and it is done;
+    Th' invisible in things scarce seen revealed;
+    To whom an atom is an ample field."
+
+Animalcules in general, continues Mr. Adams, are observed to move in
+all directions with equal ease and rapidity, sometimes obliquely,
+sometimes straight forward; sometimes moving in a circular direction,
+or rolling upon one another, running backwards and forwards through
+the whole extent of the drop, as if diverting themselves; at other
+times greedily attacking the little parcels of matter they meet with.
+Notwithstanding their extreme minuteness, they know how to avoid
+obstacles, or to prevent any interference with one another in their
+motions: sometimes they will suddenly change the direction in which
+they move, and take an opposite one; and, by inclining the glass on
+which the drop of water is, as it can be made to move in any direction,
+so the animalcules appear to move as easily against the stream as with
+it. When the water begins to evaporate, they flock towards the place
+where the fluid is, and show a great anxiety and uncommon agitation
+of the organs with which they draw in the water. These motions grow
+languid as the water fails, and at last cease altogether, without a
+possibility of renewal if they be left dry for a short time. They
+sustain a great degree of cold as well as insects, and will perish in
+much the same degree of heat that destroys insects. Some animalcules
+are produced in water at the freezing point, and some insects live in
+snow.
+
+    [In the American Journal of Science and Arts for April,
+    1830, there is a letter to the editor, from _Dr. Joseph E.
+    Muse_, from which the following is an extract:
+
+    "When the winter had made considerable progress, without
+    much frost, there happened a heavy fall of snow; apprehending
+    that I might not have an opportunity of filling my ice house
+    with ice, I threw in snow, perhaps enough to fill it; there was
+    afterwards severely cold weather, and I filled the remainder
+    with ice; about August the waste and consumption of ice,
+    brought us down to the snow; when it was discovered that a
+    glass of water which was cooled with it, contained hundreds
+    of animalcules, I then examined another glass of water, out
+    of the same pitcher, and with the aid of a microscope, before
+    the snow was put in it, found it perfectly clear and pure; the
+    snow was then thrown into it, and on solution the water again
+    exhibited the same phenomenon; hundreds of animalcules, visible
+    to the naked eye with acute attention, and when viewed through
+    the microscope resembling most diminutive shrimps; and wholly
+    unlike the eels discovered in the acetous acid, were seen in
+    the full enjoyment of animated nature.
+
+    "I caused holes to be dug in several parts of the mass of
+    snow in the ice house, and to the centre of it; and in the most
+    unequivocal and repeated experiments had similar results."]
+
+There is one remarkable circumstance, says Mr. Lobb, that we must not
+pass over in our contemplation of these minute animals: which is, that
+they are found proportionably much stronger, more active and vivacious,
+than large ones. The spring of a flea in its first leap, how vastly
+does it outstrip any thing of which animals are capable! A mite, how
+vastly swifter does it run than a racehorse! M. de L'Isle has given
+the computation of the velocity of a little creature scarcely visible
+by its smallness, which he found to run three inches in half a second:
+now, supposing its feet to be the fiftieth part of a line, it must make
+500 steps in the space of three inches; that is, it must shift its legs
+500 times in a second, or in the ordinary pulsation of an artery!
+
+The modes of propagation among these animalcules are various, and the
+observation of them is extremely curious. Some multiply by a transverse
+division; and it is remarkable, that though in general they avoid
+one another, it is not uncommon, when one is nearly divided, to see
+another push itself upon the small neck which joins the two bodies in
+order to accelerate the separation. Others, when about to multiply,
+fix themselves to the bottom of the water; then becoming first oblong,
+and afterwards round, turn rapidly as on a centre, but perpetually
+varying the direction of their rotatory motion. In a little time, two
+lines forming a cross are perceived: after which the spherule divides
+into four, which grow, and are again divided as before.[148] A third
+kind multiply by a longitudinal division, which in some begins in the
+fore part, in others in the hind part; and from others a small fragment
+detaches itself, which in a short time assumes the shape of the parent
+animalcule. Lastly, others propagate in the same manner as the more
+perfect animals.
+
+The same rule seems to hold good in these minute creatures, which is
+observable in the larger animals, namely, that the larger kinds are
+less numerous than such as are smaller, while the smallest of all are
+found in such multitudes, that there seem to be myriads for one of the
+others. They increase in size, like other animals, from their birth,
+till they have attained their full growth: and when deprived of proper
+nourishment, they in like manner grow thin and perish.
+
+And, if the extreme minuteness of the parts of animalcules is not
+merely surprising, but far above our utmost conception, what shall
+we say to those various species, to which the mite itself, in point
+of size, is, as it were, an elephant? Naturalists suppose another
+species, or order, of invisible animalcules; namely, such as escape
+the cognizance even of the best microscopes, and give many probable
+conjectures concerning them. Reason and analogy give some support to
+the existence of an infinite number of these imperceptible creatures.
+The naked eye, say some, takes in from the Elephant to the Mite; but
+there commences a new order, reserved only for the microscope, which
+comprehends all these from the Mite to those twenty-seven millions of
+times smaller; and this order cannot be said to be exhausted, if the
+microscope be not arrived at its last degree of perfection.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Among the Egyptians, all the natives of the water were in some degree
+esteemed sacred. In many parts the people did not feed upon them. The
+priests in particular never tasted this kind of food; and the reason
+why they abstained from it, was the sanctity imputed to this class of
+creatures. For they were sometimes considered as sacred emblems: at
+other times worshipped as real deities. One species of fish called
+Oxurunchus, had, according to Strabo, a temple, and divine honors paid
+to it. A fish called Phagrus, was, according to Clemens Alexandrinus,
+worshipped at Syene. The Lepidotus and Eel, were, as we find from
+Herodotus, objects of adoration; being each, sacred to the god Nilus.
+This is ridiculed by Antiphanes, who says, that an Eel among the
+Egyptians was reverenced equally with their gods.
+
+The Jews were under a divine prohibition not to make an idolatrous
+graven image or likeness of any aquatic animals. However strange this
+idolatry may appear, yet, such was its extent, that it prevailed
+not only in Syria, but in the borders of Lebanon, also at, Ascalon,
+Ashdod, and Joppa, cities within the precincts of the tribes of Dan
+and Judah. Hence we see the propriety of the judgments inflicted upon
+the Egyptians. "And the Lord spake unto Moses, Say unto Aaron, Take
+thy rod, and stretch out thine hand upon the waters of Egypt, upon
+their streams, upon their rivers, and upon their ponds, and upon all
+their pools of water, that they may become blood.--Against all the
+gods of Egypt I will execute judgment.--And the fish that was in the
+river died: and the river stunk." This was a punishment particularly
+well adapted to the state of that blinded and infatuated people: as
+it showed them the baseness of those elements which they reverenced,
+and the insufficiency of the gods in which they trusted. And this
+remarkable display of the Divine displeasure was the means of affording
+knowledge very salutary to the Israelites; as it served to warn them
+not to fall into the same or any similar act of idolatry, when they had
+seen it thus debased and exposed, and attended with such instances of
+accumulated evil.[149]
+
+Father Lamy remarks, that the principal parts of Fishes are the gills,
+scales, and fins. Some have scales, and no fins; others have neither
+scales nor fins. Upon which is founded the distinction which Moses
+makes of clean and unclean fishes. Such as have neither scales nor
+fins are thought unclean. The authority for this is what the Lord
+commanded Moses to communicate to the children of Israel. "These
+shall ye eat of all that are in the waters: whatsoever hath fins and
+scales in the waters, in the seas, and in the rivers, them shall ye
+eat. And all that have not fins and scales in the seas, and in the
+rivers, of all that move in the waters, and of any living thing which
+is in the waters, they shall be an abomination unto you: they shall
+be even an abomination unto you; ye shall not eat of their flesh, but
+you shall have their carcases in abomination." The physical reason
+for this distinction may be, because those which have fins and scales
+are the most nourishing; and the others, which are without fins and
+scales, being, in general, very difficult of digestion,--such as the
+Conger, Eel, &c, which are too gross and fat for many stomachs. Among
+the Romans, no fishes were suffered to be offered up in sacrifice, or
+served up to the table of the gods, but such as were scaly.
+
+In this distinction, direction, and prohibition, concerning fishes,
+there is a further meaning. Dr. Spencer says, "God ordained this
+distinction of meats, that the puerile nation of the Hebrews might be
+led by an application of this law to the first elements of sanctity
+and actual purity. And this conjecture is founded upon the reason
+God himself has assigned for this institution; for after he had
+delivered the law about separating the clean from the unclean animal,
+he immediately adds, 'Be ye holy, for I the Lord your God am holy.'
+Which words St. Peter applies not to legal but to evangelical sanctity,
+such as we should aspire to through the whole course of our lives.
+I must not deny that the text of Leviticus, in the outward letter,
+requires only a sort of legal sanctity, extending merely to corporeal
+purification: but it is agreeable to the umbratic nature of that law,
+that we should believe those words to have contained a more sacred
+meaning at the bottom, and to have directed the Jews to a sort of
+purity properly so called, and conformable to that of the Divine nature
+itself, under the figure of external purification." Indeed without
+a view to the moral purification of the soul, an institution merely
+affecting the body would be but of minor importance.
+
+This distinction then being founded upon the moral principles of good
+and evil, no doubt the peculiarities of the animals themselves will
+serve to furnish instruction. A celebrated writer on this subject
+remarks:--The progressive motion of fishes is owing to the tail: for
+so may a boat be driven forward by the agitation of a single oar from
+the stern. The fins serve to keep a fish upright, and support it while
+it is stationary in any part of the water. The centre of gravity being
+above the middle region of the body, a fish floats unnaturally with
+its back downwards, when the fins are taken off. The scales of fishes,
+which are very hard, bright, and radiated, compose a sort of armor,
+which serves for their defence, and adds at the same time an appearance
+of light and purity. The fishes thus distinguished differ as much in
+their way of life from the smooth and slimy inhabitants of the waters,
+as in their color and appearance; for they are generally disposed to
+raise themselves from the bottom, and swim about with agility in the
+superior regions of the water; while the Eel buries itself in the mire,
+and all the crustaceous tribe lie scrabbling upon the ground. Fishes
+of the Eel or snake kind are disturbed by thunder and storms, and swim
+about when the waters are thick and turbulent: but as soon as the
+elements are at rest again, they presently slide down to their native
+mud.
+
+Thus the mind, when polluted with impiety, and bowed down with
+unbelief, cannot be raised to the contemplation of evangelical truth,
+unless it is alarmed by the fear of Divine judgments; on which
+occasion profligate sinners are sometimes most violently agitated,
+hurrying themselves as fast as they can into a state of repentance.
+But as this is a temporary repentance, excited merely by a fear of
+suffering, the effect abides no longer than the cause continues to
+operate; and so their terrors and their penitence vanish together.
+When there was alarming thunder and destructive hail in the land of
+Egypt, and fire from the Lord ran along the ground, even Pharaoh could
+recollect himself, and say, "I have sinned this time: the Lord is
+righteous, and I and my people are wicked. But when he saw that the
+rain, and the hail, and the thunders were ceased, he sinned yet more,
+and hardened his heart, he and his servants." Such is the fruitless
+issue of that involuntary repentance, which has no principle of Divine
+grace to support it. The moral of this distinction is obvious: the
+whole being a figurative monition, that a sordid and groveling way of
+life was to be abhorred by those who professed to serve God; whose
+mind being under the direction of revealed truth, and influence of the
+Holy Spirit, their affections were to be raised from vice to virtue,
+from pollution to purity, from things temporal to things eternal.
+There are many persons who bury themselves in the mud like the Eel,
+drown their senses in eating and drinking, or waste their precious
+time in sleep and idleness;[150] utterly disregarding all serious
+reflection, devotional elevation, holy rectitude, and spiritual
+enjoyment. Our Saviour, who spake many things to the Jews in parables,
+says, "The kingdom of heaven is like unto a net that was cast into
+the sea, and gathered of every kind: which, when it was full, they
+drew to shore, and sat down, and gathered the good into vessels, but
+cast the bad away." This was spoken to fishermen, who had been called
+from their employment by our Lord, and to whom he said, "I will make
+you fishers of men." They had hitherto been laboring to catch fish,
+but hereafter they were to catch men: thus their secular calling is
+turned into a spiritual channel. The word <<s�g�n�>> is said to mean
+_a drag-net_, the particular use of which is to drag fishes up from
+the bottom of the water. The similitude between that occupation from
+which, and that employment to which our Saviour called them, consists
+in these particulars:--the sea in which they were now to fish is the
+world, the fishes they were to catch are Jews and Gentiles, the net
+with which they were to catch them is the Gospel, and they themselves
+were to be fishermen. Or thus:--by the _net_ may be understood the
+Gospel; by the _sea_ into which it is cast, the unconverted world;
+by _casting_ the net into the sea, the preaching of the Gospel; by
+_those_ that cast the net into the sea, ministers; by the _fishes_
+enclosed, the hearers; by the net _gathering of every kind_ of fishes,
+profane persons as well as sincere Christians; by the net being
+_full_ and _drawn to shore_, a set time coming when the Gospel shall
+have fulfilled that for which it was sent, the mystery of God being
+finished; by the _good_ being _gathered into vessels_ as valuable
+and precious, and the _bad cast away_ as vile and contemptible, that
+separation which shall be made at the final close of time between
+merely nominal and real Christians, casting the former into hell, and
+bringing the latter to heaven.
+
+This parabolical method of conveying important instruction, by which
+heavenly things are represented and set forth by expressions borrowed
+from earthly things which are familiar to us, was very ancient, as
+appears from Jotham's parable, and much in use among the Jews. It
+engaged the attention, because it was pleasant; it assisted the
+memory, which is apt to retain what is conveyed in this form; it
+excited inquiry after the meaning of what was thereby intended: and,
+consequently, was likely to be rendered beneficial to the hearers.
+Father Quesnel remarks, The net of God's word, animated by his Spirit,
+draws souls out of the abyss of sin and error, to Christian faith and
+piety. The net and vessel of the visible church receives both the good
+and bad fishes, true Christians and hypocrites. This is neither the
+time, nor the place of distinction; all must continue mixed together
+till the great day of separation. A man's being in the church will not
+infallibly assure him of salvation: as yet there is time to become
+such as we ought to be. But the moment will come, when all desires and
+endeavors to this purpose will be attended only with despair. And who
+knows but this moment may be just at hand. Our faith is very weak if
+we can think of being separated from the righteous without shuddering.
+Our love of salvation is very faint, if we do not endeavor earnestly to
+separate ourselves in this world from the wicked, by the holiness of
+our lives and conversation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+_Section_ II.--ON FOWLS.
+
+    Number of Species -- Superiority and peculiar Construction
+    -- Skill in building their Nests -- Power and season of
+    Propagation -- Dexterity in providing Food -- Instinct --
+    Migrations -- Insects -- Religious Improvement.
+
+Not any part of nature is destitute of inhabitants. The woods, the
+waters, the depths of the earth, have their respective tenants; while
+the transparent and elastic air, and those regions where man can never
+soar, but with much art and at considerable risk, are occupied with
+the most beautiful creatures. Every order of animals is fitted for
+its situation in life; but none more apparently so than birds. Though
+inferior to beasts in the scale of nature, yet they hold the next rank,
+and far surpass fishes and insects, both in the structure of their
+bodies, and in their sagacity.
+
+The number of species in this order of animals is very numerous,
+amounting to above eight hundred. As some degree of classification
+appears necessary, they have therefore been arranged into eight orders.
+The 1st is the _Struthious_, or Ostrich order, or those which never
+rise from the earth. This includes the Ostrich, the Cassowary, the
+Dodo, the Solitary, and the Nazarene. The 2d is the _Rapacious_ order.
+This includes the Eagle, the Condor, the Vulture, the Falcon, the
+Shrike, or Butcher-Bird, and the Owl. The 3d is the _Gallinaceous_, or
+Poultry order, which is without both the talons and the hooked bill of
+the rapacious kind. This includes the Bustard, the Cock, the Turkey,
+the Pintada, or Guinea-Hen, the Grous, the Peacock, the Pheasant, the
+Curassow, the Partridge, and the Quail. The 4th is what some authors
+have termed the _Columbine_ order. This includes the Dove, or Pigeon,
+with its varieties. The 5th is the order of _Pies_. This includes the
+Crow, the Roller, the King-Fisher, the Cuckoo, the Wood-Pecker, the
+Oriole, the Nuthatch, the Bee-Eater, the Wryneck, the Creeper, the
+Hornbill, the Parrot, the Ani, the Wattle Bird, the Grackel, the Bird
+of Paradise, the Beef-Eater, the Curucui, the Barbets, the Jacamer,
+the Tody, and the Humming Bird. The 6th is the _Passerine_, or Sparrow
+kind. This includes the Starling, the Thrush, the Chatterers, the
+Grosbeaks, the Bunting, the Finch, the Fly-Catchers, the Lark, the
+Wagtail, the Warblers,[151] the Titmouse, the Swallow, the Goatsucker,
+the Coly, the Tanager, and the Manakins. The 7th is the _Cloven-footed_
+Water-Fowl, including those with pinnated feet. This includes the
+Heron, the Ibis, the Curlow, the Snipe, the Sandpiper, the Plover, the
+Oyster-Catcher, the Pratincole, the Rail, the Gallinule, the Boatbill,
+the Umbre, the Jacana, the Sheathbill; and with pinnated, or finned
+feet, the Phalarope, the Coot, and the Grebe. And the 8th is the
+_Web-footed_ Water-Fowl. This includes the Avoset, the Courier, the
+Flamingo, the Auk, the Guillemot, the Diver, the Tern, the Petrels, the
+Gull, the Mersanger, the Duck, the Pelican, the Albatross, the Skimmer,
+the Penguin, the Tropic Bird, and the Darter. These eight orders take
+in the several species belonging to each, some of which are very
+numerous; the Duck genus alone embraces one hundred species, differing
+much both in size and plumage. Thus we see in birds also, that God has
+shown his wisdom and his power, in the gradation from the vast Ostrich,
+and Cassowary, to the Humming-Bird, which, in size is not much larger
+than the Bee.
+
+    "The _ourissia_, bee-like in its size,
+    _Humming_ from flower to flower delighted flies,
+    And in a wondrous living rainbow drest,
+    Shifts all its colors on its wings and breast."
+
+Of all animated beings, this little bird is the most elegant in form,
+and superb in colors. The emerald, the ruby, and the topaz, sparkle in
+its plumage, which is never soiled by the dust of the ground. In Mr.
+Bullock's Museum, Piccadilly, there is a case containing more than one
+hundred _Humming-birds_; and in the "Companion" to this delightfull
+repository of natural history, an interesting account is given of this
+little creature, that flutters from flower to flower, breathes their
+freshness, wantons on the wings of the cooling zephyrs, sips the nectar
+of a thousand sweets, and resides in climes where reigns the beauty of
+eternal spring.
+
+The legs, the wings, the bones, even all parts of their bodies,
+are much lighter, firmer, and more compact in birds than in other
+animals. Their lungs are extended over all the cavities of their
+bodies. Carniverous birds, like carniverous quadrupeds, have but one
+stomach, where their food is moistened or swelled; a gizzard, which
+is a very hard muscle, almost cartilaginous, and which they commonly
+fill with small stones, where the food is afterwards ground, in order
+to facilitate its complete digestion. In birds there is no ruminating:
+but in such as are not carniverous, the food is immediately swallowed
+into the crop, or anti-stomach (which is observed in many, especially
+piscivorous birds,) where it is moistened by some proper juice, and
+then transferred to the gizzard, by the working of whose muscles,
+assisted by small pebbles, swallowed for that purpose, it is ground
+small, and so transmitted to the intestines.
+
+Birds we find supplied with a corney substance, instead of teeth
+and lips. Their bills are cut into various shapes, adapted to their
+different habits. The sharp edge and tempered point of the Sparrow's
+beak, enables it to pick every seed from its concealment; breaking the
+grain to obtain the kernel. The hooked beak of the Hawk separates, like
+a dissector's knife, the flesh from the bones of the animals on which
+it preys. The spoon-bill of the Goose enables her to graze, and collect
+food from the bottoms of the pools. Birds of the Crane kind, which seek
+their food among the waters, having no web-feet, are supplied with long
+legs for wading, or long bills for groping, and usually both: these are
+admirably adapted to the shallow pools of water, or sides of rivers,
+which they frequent. But in birds living by suction, they are serrated,
+or tooth-like; these do not serve the purpose of teeth, but act as a
+sieve, or strainer, separating nicely from mud some nutriment conducive
+to the preservation of life.
+
+The sense of seeing in birds is remarkably acute; and though their want
+of external ears is supplied by only two small orifices or ear-holes,
+yet they do not appear deficient in hearing. The scent of some species
+is exquisitely delicate. Men who attend decoys where ducks are caught,
+generally keep a piece of turf lighted, on which they breathe, lest the
+fowls should smell them and fly away. The voice of birds is much louder
+in proportion to their size, than that of other animals; for in fact,
+the bellowing of an Ox is not heard at a much greater distance than the
+scream of a Peacock.
+
+The covering of birds is perhaps one of the most beautiful. Their
+feathers are light, smooth, and warm, inclining backward, downy at the
+stem, overlapping at their tips, beautifully variegated, and forming
+a raiment, varying in circumstances, so as always to suit the habits
+of the bird. The construction of a single feather is "a mechanical
+wonder." We see at the stem, a tough, light, pliant, and elastic
+material, only found in feathers; also the pith, which feeds the
+feathers, a substance peculiar to that purpose; likewise the beard,
+which grows on each side of the stem, and is stripped off when making
+pens, the separate threads of which are called filaments, or rays.
+These appear stronger when pressed perpendicularly to their plane, than
+when rubbed either up or down in the line of the stem; and this arises
+from the lamin�, of which these beards are composed, being flat, and
+placed with their flat sides towards each other. Hence, though they are
+easily made to approximate each other, yet they require more force in a
+contrary direction, having to encounter the impulse of the air, which
+requires more strength. We find also, that these threads, in their
+natural state, unite; and cannot, be parted without force, although
+not joined by any glutinous adhesion, but by a mechanical contrivance.
+And, if separated by force or accident, when brought together they
+immediately reclasp, resuming their former smoothness. These threads
+are interlaced with each other, by means of a vast number of fibres,
+or teeth, which they protrude on each side; fifty of these have been
+counted in 1-20th of an inch: they are curved after a different manner
+from the filaments on which they grow. Those which proceed from the
+side toward the beginning of the quill-end, are shorter, firmer, and
+turn upward. Those on the side toward the extremity of the feather, are
+longer, more flexible, and bent downward. They therefore act thus; when
+the two lamin� are pressed together, so that the long fibres are forced
+far enough over the short ones, their crooked parts fall into the
+cavity made by the crooked parts of the others, just as a latch enters
+the cavity of a catch on the door post. All this beautiful structure
+may be seen by the microscope. In the Ostrich, whose feathers, or other
+filaments, hang loose like down, this mechanism is wanting. But as this
+bird does not fly, and requires assistance only in running, perhaps
+this formation is best adapted for that purpose. Small birds, which do
+not migrate in the winter season, have the inner side of their feathers
+black, because this is the warmest color: hence the heat of the bird is
+prevented from escaping.
+
+The feathers of birds appear to be nourished and preserved in a
+remarkable manner; especially those that much frequent waters, for
+they have a larger supply of oily substance, with which to trim them.
+Lest the feathers should be injured by exposure to the air, every bird
+is furnished with a gland situated on the rump, containing a proper
+quantity of oil, which it presses out with its beak, and with which it
+occasionally anoints them. In water fowls, this oil is so plentiful,
+that it even imparts a degree of rancidity to the flesh; and by it,
+their plumy coat is rendered completely waterproof.
+
+As God made the fowls "that they might fly in the firmament of heaven,"
+so has he adapted the form of their bodies, and the structure and
+disposition of their plumage, for that very purpose. The head and neck
+in flying, are drawn principally within the breastbone, so that the
+whole underpart exhibits the appearance of a ship's hull. The wings are
+used as sails, or rather oars, and the tail as a helm or rudder. By
+means of these, the creature is not only able to preserve the centre
+of gravity, but also to accelerate its speed through the air, either
+straight forward, circularly in any kind of angle, as well as upward or
+downward. Though the greatest part of the a�rial creation are adorned
+with feathers, yet has the Deity enabled several to fly without them;
+such as the Bat, one species of Lizard, two sorts of fishes, and
+numberless kinds of insects.
+
+The skill with which birds erect their houses, and adjust their
+apartments, is inimitable. The caution with which they conceal them
+from the searching eye, or intruding hand, is admirable. They fix
+their nests on the pliant branches that wave aloft in the air, or are
+suspended over the flowing stream: by these means the vernal gales rock
+their cradle, and the murmuring waters lull their young; while both
+concur to terrify their enemies, and have a tendency to prohibit their
+approach. Some hide their downy offspring from view, amidst the shelter
+of entangled furze. Others, with wary solicitude, place them in the
+centre of a thorny thicket. And thus, by a variety of expedients, they
+are generally as secure, as if intrenched behind an impregnable mound.
+
+                              "Some to the holly-hedge
+    Nestling repair, and to the thicket some;
+    Some to the rude protection of the thorn
+    Commit their feeble offspring: the cleft tree
+    Offers its kind concealment to a few,
+    Their food its insects, and its moss their nests.
+    Others apart, far in the grassy dale,
+    Or roughening waste, their humble texture weave.
+    But most in woodland solitudes delight,
+    In unfrequented glooms, or shaggy banks,
+    Steep, and divided by a babbling brook,
+    Whose murmurs soothe them all the live-long day,
+    When by kind duty fixed. Among the roots
+    Of hazel, pendent o'er the plaintive stream,
+    They frame the first foundation of their domes;
+    Dry sprigs of trees, in artful fabric laid,
+    And bound with clay together. Now 'tis nought
+    But restless hurry through the busy air,
+    Beat by unnumbered wings. The Swallow sweeps
+    The slimy pool, to build his hanging house
+    Intent. And often, from the careless back
+    Of herds and flocks, a thousand tugging bills
+    Pluck hair and wool; and oft, when unobserved,
+    Steal from the barn a straw: till soft and warm
+    Clean and complete, their habitation grows."
+
+If the Swan has large sweeping wings, and a copious stock of feathers,
+to spread over his callow young; the Wren supplies by contrivance
+what is wanting in her bulk. Though small, she has to nurse a very
+numerous issue; therefore with surprising sagacity designs, and with
+wonderful diligence finishes her nest, being a neat oval, bottomed
+and vaulted over with a regular concave, within made soft with down,
+without thatched with moss, and having only a small aperture left for
+her entrance.
+
+                    "It wins my admiration,
+    To view the structure of that little work,
+    _A bird's nest_. Mark it well within, without.
+    No tool had he that wrought, no knife to cut,
+    No nail to fix, no bodkin to insert,
+    No glue to join: his little beak was all,
+    And yet how neatly finished!"
+
+By this means, the animating heat of her body is greatly increased
+during the time of incubation. And her young no sooner burst the shell,
+than they find themselves screened from the annoyance of weather, and
+comfortably reposed, till they gather sufficient strength and plumage
+in their warm recess, to make their first essay into the wide expanse.
+
+As to the succession of this class of animals, some are endued with
+a remarkable power of propagating, while others are confined within
+narrow limits. In general, the least animals, and those which are
+useful and serve for nourishment to the greatest number of other
+animals, are the most prolific. The Hawk kind generally lay not more
+than two eggs, or at most four; while the Poultry species produce from
+50 to 100. The Diver, or Loon, which is eaten by a few animals, lays
+also two eggs; but the Duck kind, the Moorgame, Partridges, &c, and
+small birds, lay a very great number. If we suppose two pigeons to
+hatch nine times a year, they may produce in four years 14,760 young!
+
+Birds generate in that particular season which supplies them with a
+stock of provisions, sufficient, not only for themselves, but for their
+increasing families. They hatch their young when new-born insects swarm
+on every side. So that the caterer, whether it be the male or female
+parent, needs only alight on the ground, or make a short excursion into
+the air, to find a repast ready dressed for the tender charge at home.
+The love they have for their offspring, while helpless, is invincibly
+strong.[152] They nurse them with the greatest care, caress them with
+affectionate notes, put food into their mouths, cherish and keep them
+warm, teach them to pick, eat, and gather food: whereas, the moment
+they are able to provide for themselves, this anxious care vanishes
+as though it had never been. The Hen, while catering for her little
+brood, would fly at a mastiff in their defence: yet, in a few weeks,
+leaves them to their own protection, not regarding them any more than
+others of the same species.
+
+They also provide their food with admirable art, which dexterity they
+bring into the world with them. Some birds, though not aquatic, live
+on fish: and must necessarily find it more difficult to seize their
+prey than Water-fowl. From whence do they derive this natural instinct?
+They stand on the brink of the liquid element, and when a shoal of
+fish comes (which they can discover at a distance,) they pursue them,
+skim along the surface, suddenly dive into the water, and carry off a
+fish.[153] Who gave the birds of prey their piercing sight, undaunted
+courage, and the destructive weapons, without which they could not
+possibly subsist? Who points out to the Stork the place where she
+may find frogs[154] and insects for her support? In order to procure
+these, she must seek them not only in meadows, but also in the furrows
+of fields; and continue her search till the approach of morning, when
+the other birds awake and begin to quit their places of retreat. What
+amazing strength must the Condor have, seeing it can carry away a
+sheep, a deer, and even prey on the ox itself! How can we reconcile
+that maternal instinct which causes the quail to adopt little birds
+of every species, which she not only takes under her protection, but
+bestows on them her tenderest cares! What cunning does the Crow use
+to secure the prey, which she cannot devour at once? She hides it in
+places such as other Crows do not frequent, and when hungry again, how
+well does she know where she has deposited it![155]
+
+There are also several birds, which, when food begins to fail, hide
+themselves in the earth, or in caves, in a torpid state, during
+the winter. We are assured, at least, that before the approach of
+this season, the Strand-Swallows conceal themselves in the earth;
+the Wall-Swallows repair to the holes of trees and old buildings;
+and the House, or Common Swallows seek for ponds, where they fasten
+themselves in pairs, cling to roots or weeds, continue without motion,
+and apparently without life, till the return of spring, when they are
+re-animated, and return from that state of torpidity.
+
+The infinitely wise Creator has given different instincts to birds;
+none of which is superfluous, or useless, but each is indispensably
+necessary to the preservation and well-being of the animal. The motion
+of birds not only requires strength and well-formed pliant limbs, but
+also instinct to direct their movements. They have each two feet; but
+their bodies do not rest perpendicularly on them, for they project
+both before and behind; and yet a chick will stand upright and run
+about almost as soon as it leaves the shell. Young Ducks, just hatched
+by a Hen, know their own element, and swim about in the water without
+example or instruction. Other birds know how to rise up from their
+nests into the air, balance themselves, pursue their course, make
+equal strokes with their wings in true time, stretch out their feet
+to equipoise their bodies, use their tails like an oar or rudder, to
+direct their flight, and make long journeys from their native country
+to unknown regions.
+
+The migration of birds is truly astonishing! Very few spend the winter
+with us: the Yellow-Hammer, the Chaffinch, the Crow, the Raven, the
+Sparrow, the Wren, the Partridge, the Robin, and the Fieldfare, are the
+principal. Most of the others either retire to some invisible resort,
+or leave us entirely. Some kinds of birds, without taking any high
+flight, or setting off in troops, draw gradually towards the south, to
+seek those seeds and fruits which are most congenial to their taste;
+but they speedily return. Others, which are termed "birds of passage,"
+collect at certain seasons in large flocks, and fly off to other
+climates; they even cross the seas, and make excursions of a surprising
+length. The best known birds of this description are, the Quail, the
+Swallow, the Wild-Duck, the Plover, the Snipe, and the Crane, with some
+others, which subsist on worms. In spring, the Cranes pass from Africa
+into Europe, in order to enjoy a more temperate climate. They migrate
+in flocks like clouds; and sometimes, their strength being nearly
+exhausted, alight on ships, and are taken without any difficulty.
+Swallows act in a different way: while some continue in Europe, and
+seclude themselves from our view as already observed, others cross the
+seas. Wild-Ducks and Cranes also repair at the approach of winter to
+milder climates. They all assemble on a certain day, and take their
+flight together. They commonly arrange themselves in two lines, united
+in one point like an inverted [inverted V], with a bird at the head,
+and others following in the lines: whose beaks always rest on the tails
+of those preceding. The leader holds only a temporary commission:
+and having relinquished his charge, rests himself, and is replaced
+by another. But all birds of passage do not take their departure in
+flocks: for there are some which travel alone; and others with their
+females and young. It has been computed that they may easily go 200
+miles in six hours each day, supposing they can take rest at intervals,
+or during the night. According to this calculation, they may pass from
+our climates to the Equinoctial line in seven or eight days! This
+conjecture has been verified; for Swallows have been seen on the coast
+of Senegal on the 9th of October, which was eight or nine days after
+their leaving Europe.
+
+These migrations are wonderful in every point of view! Doubtless the
+difference of heat and cold, and want of food, apprize them of the
+necessity of changing their abode. But what reason can be assigned for
+their departure at the appointed time, when the season is sufficiently
+mild, and food still in abundance, to invite their continuance among
+us? How do they know that other climates will afford them necessary
+food and warmth? By what operative power are they impelled to make this
+exit at the same period, as if preconcerted by mutual agreement? How
+can they, notwithstanding the darkness of the nights, the perplexity
+of the road, and the remoteness of the countries to which they are
+destined, still hold on in a direct course? Nature does not teach them
+all this art, industry, and penetration, which so much surprise us: if
+we separate nature from its great Author, it is then a word destitute
+of meaning.
+
+    "Nature is but a name for an effect,
+    Whose cause is God."
+
+It is He alone who gives wisdom to the fowls of the air.
+
+God's superintendence over birds is particularly noticed by our
+Saviour. "Behold the fowls of the air; for they sow not, neither do
+they reap, nor gather into barns; yet your heavenly Father feedeth
+them." God extends his providential care to all his creatures, not
+only to those which are domesticated and receive their supplies from
+men, but also to the fowls of the air. By a natural instinct they know
+how to select that kind of food which is suitable for aliment, and
+where to procure it; but they are without any particular solicitude
+and forecast: nor have they need of these, because God takes care to
+provide for them. St. Luke mentions the Ravens, which are carniverous
+creatures. "Consider," says he, "the ravens: for they neither sow nor
+reap; which neither have storehouse nor barn: and God feedeth them."
+God asks Job, "Who provideth for the raven his food?" There are but
+three things which concern such creatures; how their craving appetites
+may be satiated, where they may repose, and by what means they may be
+protected from the incursions of their enemies: and for all these God
+has amply provided. He takes care of their food: "he giveth food to the
+young ravens which cry," and are the most helpless of all creatures.
+Naturalists observe, that the Raven exposes her young ones as soon as
+they are hatched, leaves them to provide for themselves, and struggle
+with hunger as soon as they emerge into life; so they certainly would
+perish, if Providence did not interfere in their behalf. But God makes
+them his charge, and supplies their voracious cravings in due time,
+whether by the insect, the reptile, or the dew from heaven. He protects
+their rest, and renders their habitations places of refuge and safety.
+"The trees of the Lord are full of sap: the cedars of Lebanon which he
+hath planted; where the birds make their nests: as for the Stork, the
+fir-trees are her house."
+
+The meanest classes of sensitive beings are endued with the faculty
+of instinct: a sagacity which is neither derived from observation,
+nor awaits the finishing hand of experience; which without a tutor
+teaches them all necessary skill, and enables them, without a pattern,
+to perform every needful operation. And what is more remarkable, it
+never misleads them, either into erroneous principles, or pernicious
+practices: nor ever fails to aid them in the most nice and difficult of
+their undertakings.--The inhabitants of the hive subsist as a regular
+community.
+
+                                    ----"As _bees_
+    In Spring-time, when the sun with Taurus rides,
+    Pour fourth their populous youth about the hive
+    In clusters; they among fresh dews and flowers
+    Fly to and fro, or on the smoothed plank,
+    The suburb of their straw-built citadel,
+    New rubbed with balm, expatiate and confer
+    Their state affairs: so thick the a�ry crowd
+    Swarmed and were straitened."
+
+Their indulgent Creator has given them all implements necessary
+either for constructing combs, or composing honey. Bees have each a
+portable vessel, in which they bring home their collected sweets: and
+have the most commodious storehouses, wherein to deposit them. They
+readily distinguish every plant, which affords materials for their
+business; and are complete practitioners in the arts of separation
+and refinement. Aware that the vernal bloom and summer sun are but
+for a season, they improve to the utmost every shining hour, and lay
+up a stock sufficient to supply the whole society, till their flowery
+harvest shall return.
+
+Insects, which some persons may consider as so many rude scraps of
+creation, ought to be classed among the most polished pieces of Divine
+workmanship.
+
+    ----"In the vast and the minute
+    The unambiguous footsteps of the God,
+    Who gives its lustre to an insect's wing,
+    And wheels his throne upon the rolling worlds."
+
+"The first state in which insects appear, is that of the _ovum_ or egg;
+from the egg is hatched the insect in its larva or caterpillar state.
+The larva, or maggot, crawls on many feet, and is extremely voracious,
+devouring the herbage, and stripping trees of their leaves. When the
+time arrives in which the larva or caterpillar is to change into the
+next state, namely, that of chrysalis, or _pupa_, it ceases to feed;
+and having placed itself in some quiet situation for the purpose,
+lies still for several hours; and then by a kind of laborious effort,
+frequently repeated, divests itself of its external skin, or larva
+coat, and immediately appears in the very different form of a chrysalis
+or _pupa_. From this state emerges, at length, the insect, in its
+complete or ultimate form, from which it can never change; nor can it
+receive any further increase of growth. This last stage is denominated
+_imago_."
+
+    "Waked by his warmer ray, the reptile young
+    Come winged abroad; by the light air upborne,
+    Lighter, and full of soul. From every chink,
+    And secret corner, where they slept away
+    The wintery storms; or rising from their tombs,
+    To higher life; by myriads, forth at once,
+    Swarming they pour; of all the varied hues
+    Their beauty-beaming parent can disclose.
+    Ten thousand forms! ten thousand different tribes!
+    People the blaze."
+
+Many of them are decked with the richest finery. Their eyes are an
+assemblage of microscopes. The common Fly, for instance, perpetually
+surrounded with enemies, having neither strength to resist, nor a
+retreat to secure herself, has need to be very vigilant, and always
+on her guard: but her head is so fixed that she cannot turn it to see
+her danger; Providence, therefore, to supply this apparent defect, has
+given her more than a legion of eyes, insomuch that a single Fly is
+supposed to have no less than eight thousand. Nay, it is asserted that
+the common Dragon-fly is furnished with 25,000 of these diminutive
+lenses! By the help of this truly amazing apparatus, she sees on every
+side, with the utmost ease and speed, though without any motion of the
+eye, or inflection of the neck. The dress of insects is a vesture of
+resplendent colors, bespangled with an arrangement of the brightest
+gems.
+
+    "The little _gnat_, in beauties, may compare
+    With all his rival brothers of the air;
+    Transparent feathers, purple, green and gold,
+    His wings, small feet, and gay-fringed tail enfold.
+    Four sharpened spears his head with weapons arm,
+    And his pearled eyes with liveliest graces charm.
+    In down of ev'ry variegated dye
+    Shines, fluttering soft, the gaudy _butterfly_,
+    That powder which thy spoiling hand disdains,
+    The forms of quills and painted plumes contains;
+    Nor courts can more magnificence express,
+    In all their blaze of gems and pomp of dress."
+
+The expansion of their wings displays the finest texture imaginable,
+compared to which lawn is as course as sackcloth. The cases, which
+inclose their wings, glitter with the finest varnish, are scooped into
+ornamental flutings, studded with radiant spots, or pinked with elegant
+holes. Not one but is endued with weapons to seize his prey, and
+dexterity to escape his foe, to despatch the business of his station,
+and enjoy the pleasure of his condition. It is affirmed that the female
+of the common house-fly is capable of producing 20 millions 80 thousand
+320; hence we cannot wonder at their swarming so much in autumn.
+
+    [Our author has devoted very few remarks indeed to
+    _insects_; yet the history of this class of creatures is as
+    interesting as any other, and is attracting considerable
+    attention. Their history is very far from being complete:
+    their _number_ is not known. They inhabit the air, water, and
+    earth. This family of creatures is called _insects_, because of
+    the _articulations_ of the body, so as to appear notched, or
+    intersected. A brief notice of some of their principal parts
+    follows, which is chiefly taken from No. VIII, of the Family
+    Library, published by J. & J. Harper, New-York.
+
+    _Mouth._--All insects either _divide_ their food, or _suck_
+    it. In those which divide their food, the parts of the mouth
+    are, an upper lip, and an under lip fixed to a piece called the
+    chin; between these two there are four lateral pieces, two on
+    each side; the two upper are called mandibles, the two lower,
+    jaws. The mandibles, or upper jaws cut the food: the lower jaws
+    divide and masticate it.
+
+    The mouth of those insects which suck their food, is
+    elongated into a tongue or proboscis. This is a tube attached
+    to the head. In some it is composed of two pieces connected by
+    a joint; for if it were constantly extended it would be too
+    much exposed to accidental injuries: therefore, in its indolent
+    state it is securely doubled up by means of this joint. In
+    some species, as the butterfly, the proboscis, when not in
+    use, is coiled up like a watch-spring. In some it is shut up
+    in a sharp-pointed sheath, which is of firmer texture than the
+    proboscis, and by which the insect pierces the food, and then
+    opens it within the wound to allow the proboscis to perform
+    its office by extracting the juice.
+
+    _Antenn�._--These are very slender arms resembling hairs,
+    which project from the heads of almost all insects. There are
+    generally two to each insect, which diverge somewhat. The
+    insects can move them in all directions, and when they are seen
+    doing this it commonly suggests the idea that these antenn� are
+    _feelers_. However, their functions are not certainly known:
+    some suppose them to be organs of sense.
+
+    _Eyes._--These are generally found in the head of insects.
+    Their real number is, usually, two: the surfaces of which are
+    cut into many small faces; more than seventeen thousand have
+    been counted in the butterfly. Each face on the insect's eye is
+    considered as a crystalline lens, concave within, and convex
+    without. They have no eye-lids.
+
+    _Thorax, or throat._--This is the second division of the
+    body, and is placed directly behind the head. To the thorax
+    are attached the wings and legs: commonly three legs on each
+    side. Two membranes compose the wing, placed one above the
+    other. Cords, or small nerves, are found in the upper one.
+    The expansion of the wing is owing, as is supposed, to the
+    introduction of a fluid, at the will of the insect, into hollow
+    vessels which are detected in the composition of the wing.
+
+    _Abdomen._--This is the third division of the insect, and
+    is immediately connected with the thorax by articulation: it is
+    composed of rings from one to fifteen. Most of these rings have
+    an open pore placed laterally, through which air has access to
+    the fluids in the body. In some insects the last ring contains
+    the anus; in others, the organs of generation; or the means of
+    defence, as a sting.
+
+    _Muscles._--These are said to be disposed in bundles, the
+    fibres of which are not connected by a cellular membrane: they
+    are fixed to the hard parts, which are to be moved by horny
+    tendons.
+
+    The thorax contains the muscles which move the head up or
+    down, and those also which move the wings and the feet. In some
+    the muscles amount to four thousand. The muscular power of
+    some of these insects is astonishing, as may be known by the
+    distance they can leap: as the flea, and others, which leap two
+    hundred times their own length. If man could do this he would
+    leap at a single effort, more than one thousand feet.
+
+    All insects are supposed to have a knotted nervous system.
+    The knot nearest the head is composed of two lobes, from which
+    nerves pass to the eyes, antenn�, and mouth.
+
+    These are the principal common parts of insects. It would
+    be a delightful task to enter into a minute description of
+    their genera, species, habits, modes of life, subsistence,
+    defence, attack, &c. Only two or three can be noticed, which
+    must be taken as a specimen of the whole.
+
+    _The_ BEE.--This insect has attracted the attention of the
+    observing in all ages. On a pleasant summer's day the hive
+    presents the appearance of a busy, and populous city--the gates
+    appear to be crowded with many workmen--some going to search
+    for food, and others returning with it--some building--some
+    tending the young--some cleansing the dwelling, and others
+    carrying out the dead, and, apparently, performing some
+    honorable sepulchral rites, &c.
+
+    _The hive._--The interior of a bee-hive is itself a world
+    of wonders. It is not, as is commonly supposed, the same in
+    the form of its construction in all hives, it varies according
+    to circumstances. Yet there are some general principles which
+    seem to be common to all honeycombs: they do not touch each
+    other, but always are sufficiently far apart to allow room to
+    work on the opposite faces of each comb. The combs are placed
+    vertically in the hive, and each complete comb is composed of
+    two layers of six-sided cells, united by a common base. These
+    two layers of six-sided cells are not united by a common base
+    with a _flat_ bottom to each cell: but the hexagonal tube
+    terminates at the bottom in a _three-sided pyramidal cavity_.
+    The angle, formed at the apex of this pyramidal cavity, is
+    70� 32'--and the angle formed at the base of the hexagonal
+    tube, or cell, is 109� 28'. By this construction Reaumur has
+    demonstrated, that the bee has formed his comb on the only plan
+    which could produce cells of a determinate size, equal and
+    similar, in the strongest manner, occupying the least space,
+    and requiring the least quantity of matter.
+
+    The wax, out of which the cells are formed, is not the same
+    simple substance as honey, extracted from the flowers: it seems
+    to be elaborated by the bees in their bodies, and deposited
+    under their bellies in the form of scales. It is produced from
+    a nectar obtained from flowers, which is swallowed by the bee
+    in the greatest possible quantity, after which the bee hangs
+    motionless in the hive for twenty-four hours, during which time
+    the wax is elaborated and deposited under the belly in thin
+    scales resembling talc.
+
+    Some of the cells are filled with honey, and some are found
+    to contain the young bee in the condition of larva.
+
+    The bees which inhabit a hive may be regarded as a
+    community, which is found to be divided into three classes: the
+    queen--the males--and the workers, which are of no sex.
+
+    _The Queen._--She is the common mother of the hive, and
+    deposits all the eggs from which the young ones come: she
+    appears to be in size between the males and workers, but longer
+    than either.
+
+    The attention or reverence, with which the queen-bee is
+    regarded, is very remarkable. Upon withdrawing the queen from
+    a hive the workers are thrown into the greatest consternation;
+    they desist from work, run wildly through the hive, and refuse
+    all nourishment. This they do for twenty-four hours, after
+    which time a new queen will be received kindly, if offered
+    them; but previously, they pay no attention to a strange queen,
+    though introduced among them.
+
+    If no queen can be found, Schirach discovered, and Huber
+    has confirmed it, _that the bees have power to create a queen_,
+    in the following manner. They build some _royal_ cells (for
+    there are different kinds) into which they put the common
+    worker-worm, i.e. the grub which produces the work-bee, and
+    feed the insect with royal food, which is more pungent than
+    the common bee-food; and in a few days they have a queen-bee
+    produced, instead of a work-bee; then all is well.
+
+    The queen is always attended with a train, which wait upon
+    her, do her homage, caress and feed her, by presenting her
+    with honey. If they lose their own queen, and a stranger queen
+    is introduced, after twenty-four hours, they commence their
+    reverence for the new sovereign by surrounding her, caressing
+    her, feeding her, and opening a way for her when she moves.
+
+    Their devotions to their queen do not cease if she become
+    sterile, or die. Their veneration and tender attentions appear
+    to increase towards the dead body of their queen. It is a well
+    known fact, that the community perishes if they cannot procure
+    a queen by any means.
+
+    _The combats of the queens._--The bees seem to be purely
+    monarchial in their constitution of government. This will
+    appear from the following extraordinary facts:
+
+    If a strange queen be introduced into the hive where there
+    is a queen, the working-bees immediately seize upon her, and
+    detain her a prisoner: as soon as this is done, another party
+    hastens away to the reigning queen and surround her. They
+    then force the queens towards each other, in order to make
+    them decide the sovereignty of the hive in mortal combat. The
+    conquerer is cheerfully taken for the reigning sovereign.
+
+    Nor is it difficult to bring the rival queens to an
+    engagement: so soon as they recognize each other they rush
+    furiously to the combat, and the one or the other quickly
+    inflicts a mortal wound by piercing the belly of the antagonist
+    between the rings, by means of the sting.
+
+    So exclusive is the passion of the queen for sovereignty,
+    that she puts to death the young queens, so soon as she
+    ascertains them to be such. This she does even in the cells,
+    before they have come forth.
+
+    _The male bees._--These seem not to have attracted much
+    interest. They are not very numerous in the hive; generally not
+    exceeding an hundred or two. They are the largest in size, and
+    live perfectly idle.
+
+    _The working bees._--These, as their name imports, perform
+    the labors of the hive. The details of their labors cannot be
+    admitted here.
+
+    There is one question, in regard to bees, which
+    is difficult and curious: their senses. From the best
+    observations, and experiments, it would seem as if the antenn�,
+    or feelers, were the principal organs of sense. Upon taking
+    away the queen, in about an hour some one bee discovers it,
+    and becomes instantly agitated, and runs furiously about the
+    hive: the first companion he meets they cross their feelers
+    mutually, the discoverer giving his neighbor a gentle tap with
+    the feeler, and he in turn commences running furiously about
+    the hive, communicating the intelligence in a similar manner;
+    until the whole hive is in an uproar.
+
+    Huber introduced a queen to a hive, after twenty-four hours
+    absence of their own queen. The working bees which were nearest
+    immediately approached and touched her with their feelers, and
+    passing their trunks over every part of her body, gave her
+    honey. Then these gave place to others which treated her in
+    a similar manner; and all, with a vibration of their wings,
+    arranged themselves around their new sovereign.
+
+    From some experiments of Huber, it seems that the antenn�,
+    or feelers of bees are the organs of communication. He thinks
+    they have no organ for hearing. Their power of vision is very
+    clear and strong. Anciently, in New-England, the honey-hunters
+    are said to have found the nest of wild bees in the following
+    manner: they placed a plate of honey in the woods, and when
+    the bees came to get it, they caught two or three of them,
+    the bee-hunter would let one go, and observe his course, by a
+    pocket compass, as he flew to the nest: he would then walk off
+    at a right angle a few hundred yards, and let another bee go,
+    and observe the course: the angle, or point at which these two
+    lines, described by the flights of the bees, met, the hunter
+    knew to be the place where the bee-nest was.
+
+    The manner in which bees take their rest is a matter of
+    curiosity. Some attach themselves to a part of the hive, by
+    their fore-feet, and extend their hind-feet down: the next
+    bee by his fore-feet takes hold of the hind-feet of the first
+    bee, and thus suspends himself; others attach themselves in
+    like manner, until they form clusters, or festoons. In this
+    condition they take their rest.
+
+    It will be interesting to learn something of the _sting_ of
+    the bee. It is situated in the lower end of the ringed-body:
+    it is composed of three parts: the sheath, and two darts which
+    are enclosed in it, very small and penetrating. The darts are
+    barbed. When the bee strikes with its sting, the sharp and hard
+    point of the hollow sheath strikes and penetrates first, and
+    the two darts are immediately thrust into the incision made by
+    the sheath; and at the same time the bee injects a poisonous
+    liquor into the wound, which causes the pain and inflammation.
+    In some instances the sting is struck in so deeply the bee
+    cannot extricate it: in that case the wound is more painful,
+    but the loss proves fatal to the bee.
+
+    Destructive combats frequently take place between different
+    hives; and many perish on both sides. Occasionally single
+    combats, or duels, take place, which always prove fatal to
+    one or the other. Instances are known, in which the bees
+    of one hive plunder the bees of another. In this case a
+    battle generally ensues. And what is more astonishing still,
+    sometimes the hive-bees will, five or six of them, surround an
+    _humble-bee_, and rob him of his honey, as he is returning home
+    of an evening. Indeed a whole volume might be written, and the
+    natural history of the bee not be exhausted.
+
+    ANTS.--This insect has justly rivalled the bee in the
+    admiration of the philosopher, and, on some accounts, is
+    considered a more interesting creature. The instinct of this
+    creature does not appear so strikingly as that of the bee:
+    but it exhibits other and higher qualities, approaching to
+    the cardinal virtues of man: such as love, courage, patience,
+    perseverance, &c. The proof of all these will be found in the
+    few brief remarks which follow.
+
+    There are various kinds of ants: the fallow ant; the
+    sanguine ant; the legionary ant; the white ant, &c. There are
+    some traits common to all: They live in communities; build
+    cities, or ant-hills; and are divided into general classes,
+    with their appropriate grades and employments, somewhat similar
+    to bees; there are males, females, and neuters, or workers.
+
+    They also resemble the bees in their respect for their
+    matrons or queens; though they differ in this respect; they
+    admit of the presence of an indefinite number of queens, which
+    produces no ill consequences whatever. They all are equally
+    caressed, and attended.
+
+    There is a very marked difference between the ant and bee.
+    The queens, or matrons of the bees remain in their respective
+    hives, and their presence is necessary to the industry and
+    contentment of the communities. But the matrons or queens of
+    the ants act differently. The male and female ants have wings;
+    the neuters or workers have not. These generally swarm together
+    between July and September. They rise from the ant-hill
+    together, in immense numbers; sometimes the ants of a whole
+    district collect together and rise in the air, and seem only to
+    be sporting; but at this time the females become fecundated.
+    The quantity of ants with wings is so great sometimes, as, says
+    Dr. Bromley, to form a column on the water five or six miles
+    long, eight or ten feet broad, and six inches deep, when they
+    happened to fall into the river.
+
+    In this general destruction of the winged ants, some
+    females escape, which quickly divest themselves of their wings,
+    form an ant-hill, and found a new colony by depositing their
+    eggs in it.
+
+    It is also well ascertained that the working ants do not
+    permit all the females or queens to escape, but detain some as
+    prisoners, by cropping their wings. They pay every attention
+    to these royal prisoners guarding them diligently, and feeding
+    them liberally. When these females drop their eggs, the workers
+    take them up carefully, and deposit them in their proper places.
+
+    These are some of the principal traits common to the ant
+    tribe. A few brief remarks may be made on the principal species.
+
+    _The fallow ant._--The wars of this insect is the principal
+    thing which can be noticed here. We have a minute detail, of
+    one long and disastrous battle, by Huber. This battle took
+    place between the inhabitants of two neighboring ant-hills:
+    they met half way: the battle was commenced by single
+    combatants; then they fought in pairs on elevated ground; and
+    finally the battle became general. The attack is generally made
+    by seizing each other by the mandibles, and rearing up on their
+    hind feet so as to bring their abdomens forward, from which
+    they eject a pungent poison upon their adversaries, in order to
+    destroy them. This circumstance gives rise to a pungent smell
+    on the spot. During the combat they are frequently grappled so
+    closely together as to fall on their sides; and others coming
+    to their assistance the group is locked fast in the struggle.
+
+    During the action some are found leading away prisoners;
+    others going as couriers to bring fresh troops to the fight,
+    and some in the immediate vicinity of the hills keeping guard,
+    and transacting the common business of the community.
+
+    The battle occupied a space of about three feet square,
+    and lasted until the approach of night: then each party
+    retired; but was on the spot next morning at dawn of day, and
+    re-commenced the battle with greater fury, and carnage. It
+    finally terminated without subverting either republic.
+
+    It was very remarkable, says Huber, that these ants, in
+    promiscuous combat, should know their own party. In a few
+    cases, for a moment, friends assailed, but rectified the error,
+    instantly, by caressing.
+
+    _The legionary ant._ Though the natural history of this
+    insect, throughout, is very interesting, there is place for but
+    one principal fact: i.e. their practice of making the _formica
+    fusca_, or negro ant, a slave. This curious fact was first
+    discovered by Huber, and has since been confirmed by Latreille,
+    and is now admitted readily by naturalists.
+
+    A campaign, for the purpose of procuring slaves, was
+    observed closely by Huber on the 17th of June, 1804. The column
+    was first seen crossing the road, being about ten inches long
+    and four broad. He followed them until they approached the
+    nest of the negro ant. The centinels on duty gave the alarm,
+    and the ants rushed out, and made a spirited resistance to
+    the invaders, but were finally driven into their house. The
+    legionary ants then rushed forward, attacked the hill, and
+    took the little city by assault. They remained in it but a few
+    minutes, and returned, each one carrying in his mouth a larva,
+    or young negro ant, and scampered home in confusion.
+
+    They never take the old ants captive, but the young, in a
+    state of infancy, and thus raise them in a state of slavery.
+    The consequence is that they are submissive and affectionate,
+    and perform with cheerfulness and fidelity all the domestic
+    duties of a legionary city. They provide house and food for
+    their masters, attend them, and serve them in every possible
+    way.
+
+    _The sanguine ant_ is also a slave dealer, and in the same
+    manner as the legionary. Nor is the negro ant the only victim:
+    the _mining ant_ is also reduced to a state of slavery by the
+    legionary, and sanguine ants.
+
+    There remains to be stated another circumstance connected
+    with the natural history of ants, which would scarcely be
+    credited, were it not tested by such names as Linn�us, Huber,
+    and Latreille: that is, _they keep milch-cows_. There are
+    certain insects, from which they extract a sweet saccharine
+    fluid for food, as we do milk from cows. The principal insects
+    which are thus used, are the plant-louse, and the gall-insect.
+    Linn�us, and after him other naturalists, call these insects
+    the _milch-cows of the ants_.
+
+    The fluid issues from the body of the insect through little
+    tubes placed above the abdomen on either side. When no ants are
+    present the plant-lice emit this liquor from their bodies by a
+    jerking motion: when they are in attendance they suck the juice
+    with great avidity. But what is still more astonishing, the
+    ants compel their milch-cattle to yield their milk, by gently
+    patting them on each side with their antenn�, or feelers. This
+    is properly milking them.
+
+    In addition to this the ants take care to appropriate
+    these milch-cattle to themselves, by collecting them in herds,
+    guarding and feeding them. They sometimes make an enclosure
+    around them, or around the tree or plant on which they find
+    them, and thus secure them. Some herds are owned in common by
+    the ant-hill; and others appear to belong to individuals.
+
+    The _yellow ant_ is known to remove these plant-lice from
+    the plants, and domesticate them in their hillocks for service
+    in winter.
+
+    In conclusion, in regard to ants we may mention their
+    ravages committed on property. In the East and West Indies
+    they are very destructive. They undermine houses in such a
+    manner as to cause them to fall. Some species will devour the
+    wood of a building of small size, in a single night. And it is
+    remarkable that they make their ravages _internally_. One would
+    not observe that they had assailed a beam of timber, unless he
+    should take means to examine its interior. They will devour
+    even the exterior of the timber when they have first coated
+    it over with mud or clay in order to conceal their work. They
+    devour furniture of all kinds, and completely consume the trees
+    which fall in some countries. The extent of the damage which
+    they can do, is incalculable.
+
+    These remarks will show what interest the natural history
+    of insects can inspire. It is not permitted to extend the
+    subject further in a note.]
+
+The distinction between _clean_ and _unclean_ Fowls, made in the
+Scriptures, serves to point out the difference between the two classes
+of _saints_ and _sinners_ among the human race. Those Fowls were
+accounted clean, which are gentle in their nature, as the Dove, and
+musical in their notes, as the Lark; which qualifications are not
+to be found among birds of prey, as the Ostrich, Eagle, Vulture,
+Hawk, Cormorant, Raven, Owl, Bat, &c. All these, so far as their
+instincts and properties are discovered to us, agree so well with
+the different characters of men, to whom in Scripture they have a
+symbolical allusion, that none but the infinitely wise Creator could
+have distinguished and applied their several peculiarities with so much
+simplicity, brevity, and propriety.
+
+Several of the unclean Fowls feed on filth and dead carcases; whose
+"young ones" also "suck up blood, and where the slain are, there
+are they." Dr. Buchanan, when at the distance of fifty miles from
+Juggernaut, says, "We know that we are approaching Juggernaut, by the
+human bones which we have seen for several days strewed by the way.
+The Vultures seem to live here on human prey: they exhibit a shocking
+_tameness_. The obscene animals will not leave the body sometimes till
+we come close to them. Yesterday a woman devoted herself to the idol:
+this morning, as I passed the place of skulls, nothing remained of her
+but her bones." The unrenewed nature of man is no more offended with
+evil, than a vulture is with human flesh, or a crow is with carrion, on
+which it feeds with delight.
+
+The unclean Fowls persecute and devour those of a more gentle nature.
+The Eagle, **nshr** _nesher_, is from _nasher_ to _lacerate_, _cut_,
+or _tear to pieces_; hence the _Eagle_, a most rapacious bird of
+prey, has its name from tearing the flesh of animals it feeds on:
+and for this purpose, birds of prey have, in general, strong crooked
+talons and a hooked beak. The Eagle is a cruel bird, exceedingly
+ravenous, and almost insatiable. This propensity in birds of prey to
+seize, tear, and devour, is expressive of the violent and malevolent
+dispositions of some persons, who hate and endeavor to injure those
+who live in the fear of God, and keep his commandments. Such were the
+heathens, whom St. Paul has described as "cruel" and "unmerciful, full
+of envy, murder, and debate," given up to the vilest passions, and all
+the uncleanness of "dead works."
+
+The want of _natural affection_, and a _right understanding_ of Divine
+things, among ungodly persons, is strikingly exhibited in the character
+of the Ostrich. This foolish bird, though it has wings, is not able
+to raise itself from the earth, and is void of that instinctive
+tenderness, which other creatures feel for their offspring: "which
+leaveth her eggs in the earth, and warmeth them in the dust, and
+forgetteth that the foot may crash them, or that the wild beast, may
+break them. She is hardened against her young ones, as though they
+were not hers; her labor is in vain without fear; because God hath
+deprived her of wisdom, neither hath he imparted to her understanding."
+The Ostrich lays from thirty to fifty eggs, not placed, like those of
+some other birds, upon trees, or in the clefts of rocks, but in the
+sand, forgetting the danger to which they are exposed from the feet of
+travellers or wild beasts. On the most trivial occasion, she forsakes
+her eggs, or her young ones, to which, perhaps, she never returns;
+or, if she does, it may be too late, either to restore life to the
+one, or preserve the lives of the other. The prophet, applying this
+want of affection, says, "The daughter of my people is cruel, like the
+Ostriches in the wilderness." She is likewise inconsiderate and foolish
+in her private capacity, says Dr. Shaw, particularly in her choice of
+food, which is frequently highly detrimental and pernicious to her; for
+she swallows every thing greedily and indiscriminately, whether it be
+pieces of rags, leather, wood, stone, or even iron. To secure herself,
+she will thrust her head into the shrubs, though her body, which, when
+standing upright, is from six to eight feet in height, from the top of
+the head to the ground, be exposed. She has a little head, and scarcely
+any brain: hence historians tell us, that the emperor Heliogabalus,
+to gratify his luxurious taste, together with other delicacies, such
+as the combs of Cocks, the tongues of Pheasants and Nightingales, the
+eggs of Partridges, the heads of Parrots and Peacocks, the brains of
+Thrushes, had likewise served up to him, at one entertainment, the
+heads of six hundred Ostriches for the sake of the brains; because,
+being so very small, a less number would not have been sufficient to
+make a dish. What an affecting emblematical representation is this
+singular bird of the moral qualifications and habits of ignorant and
+wicked men! not to mention the superstitious practice of offering
+children to Moloch and other diabolical deities; the custom of exposing
+new-born infants in the woods to perish with hunger, or be devoured by
+wild beasts; a practice still tolerated among the idolaters of China.
+
+The heathen, who "did not like to retain God in their knowledge,
+but became vain in their imaginations, and their foolish heart was
+darkened," were in this respect, symbolically represented by the tribe
+of Owls and Bats, and other birds of night, all of which the law
+pronounced to be unclean. In the Owl we have a striking image of the
+sceptic, who loves darkness rather than light, and is more proud of
+his artificial ignorance than any man ought to be of the most useful
+knowledge: who could never find Divine truth, because he never loved
+it; as the Owl is offended with that glory which the sun diffuses over
+the natural creation. As the day has no charms for the Owl, so revealed
+religion has nothing wise or wonderful in its nature and design with
+the unbelieving philosopher; who brings with him to the word of God all
+that prejudice with which the Owl flies out of its retreat into the
+sun-shine. Yet he has his admirers; as the hooting of the Owl is music
+in the ears of another of the same species. This emblematical bird,
+when exposed to the light of the sun against his will, lets down a
+conspicuous membrane over his eyes, to guard them from the inconvenient
+splendor of the orb of day; as the infidel draws a dark veil of evil
+reasonings and blasphemous objections over his heart, to intercept and
+weaken the effulgent rays of heavenly truth. The Owl has a natural
+aversion from the light; and if he breaks through his ordinary rule,
+and settled habit, so as to appear in the day-time, he is pursued and
+reprimanded by other birds, as one that is a disgrace to their kind.
+But the birds which thus express their indignation against the Owl,
+never kill him, being unarmed and inoffensive in their nature.[156]
+So an infidel should not be put to death for his detestable and
+demoralizing principles; but all Christians should agree in giving
+public notice of him, and showing the world what he is. For internal
+realities do not always comport with external appearances. The outward
+appearance of the Owl seems to promise a great degree of gravity and
+wisdom, while its principles and manners are opposite to the common
+sense of other birds, and its office in the creation reduces it to
+the rank of a common mouse-trap. So the philosophers it represented
+made a pompous display of reason and learning, all of which, so far
+as they applied these to divinity, were no better than ignorance and
+folly. "Professing themselves to be wise, they became fools;" and by
+an unaccountable fatality chose this very bird as the emblem of their
+wisdom; which was accordingly held in great veneration at Athens, the
+principal seat of heathen learning, as the symbol of Minerva, the
+tutelar goddess of that city.
+
+The Bat is a sort of monster, partaking of the nature of both a
+bird and a beast, having feet or claws growing out of its pinions,
+and contradicts the general order of nature by creeping with the
+instruments of its flight. What a contrast between this creature and
+the Lark!
+
+                      "Up-springs the Lark,
+    Shrill-voiced and loud, the messenger of morn;
+    Ere yet the shadows fly, he, mounted, sings
+    Amid the dawning clouds, and from their haunts
+    Calls up the tuneful nations."
+
+Nothing can be more pleasing, observes Goldsmith, than to see the
+Lark warbling upon the wing; raising its note as it soars, till it
+seems lost in the immense heights above us; the note continuing, the
+bird itself unseen; to see it then descending with a swell as it
+comes from the clouds, yet sinking by degrees as it approaches its
+nest, the spot where all its affections are centered--the spot which
+has prompted all this joy. While the Lark thus mounts on triumphant
+wings, soaring up into the heavens with a song of praise to its
+Creator, this little black animal lies sleeping in holes and cracks
+of decayed edifices; and if disturbed by any accident, drops down and
+crawls upon the earth. When darkness prevails, it comes forth from
+its concealment to haunt the cemeteries of the dead, and desolate
+places; as if it purposely avoided the society of all cheerful birds,
+and took a delight in associating with Owls and Beetles in dark and
+solitary abodes. "The bat is called **`tlph** _�talaph_," according
+to Parkhurst, "from **`t** _�t_ to _fly_, and **`lph** _�laph_,
+_darkness_ or _obscurity_, because it flies about in the _dusk of the
+evening_, and in the _night_; so the Septuagint <<nykteris>>, from
+<<nyx>>, the _night_, and the Vulgate, _vespertilio_, from _vesper_,
+the evening."
+
+These birds of the night but too appropriately symbolize with persons
+who love darkness rather than light, because their deeds are evil.
+Dr. Shaw, speaking of Ostriches, says, "In the lonesome part of the
+night they frequently make a very doleful and hideous noise, sometimes
+resembling the roar of the Lion; at other times the hoarser voices of
+other quadrupeds, particularly the Bull or Ox." He adds, "I have often
+heard them groan as if in the greatest agonies." Thus--
+
+    "The slaves of excess, Their senses to please,
+        Whole nights can bestow,
+    And on in a circle of riot they go;
+    Poor prodigals, they The night into day
+        By revellings turn,
+    And all the restraints of sobriety scorn.
+
+    The drunkards proclaim At midnight their shame,
+        Their sacrifice bring,
+    And loud to the praise of _their_ master they sing:
+    The hellish desires Which satan inspires,
+        In sonnets they breathe,
+    And shouting descend to the regions of death."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Footnotes - Chapter VI
+
+    [141] The great Greenland Whale is a large, heavy animal,
+    usually found from sixty to seventy feet long. The head alone
+    is equal to a third of its bulk; and the cleft of the mouth
+    is above twenty feet long. The upper jaw is furnished with
+    barbs, that lie like the pipes of an organ, the greatest in
+    the middle, and the smallest on the sides; these compose the
+    whale-bone, the longest spars of which are found to be not less
+    than eighteen feet. The fins on each side are from five to
+    eight feet, consisting of bones and muscles, and sufficiently
+    strong to give speed and activity to the great mass of body
+    which they move. The tail is about twenty-four feet broad; and,
+    when the fish is on one side, its blow is tremendous. The skin
+    is smooth and black, and in some places dappled with white and
+    yellow: which, running over the surface, have a very beautiful
+    effect. The outward or scarf skin is no thicker than parchment;
+    but this removed, the real skin appears of about an inch thick,
+    and covers the fat or blubber that lies beneath: this is from
+    eight to twelve inches in thickness; and, when the fish is in
+    health, of a beautiful yellow. The muscles lie beneath: and
+    these, like the flesh of quadrupeds, are very red and tough.
+
+    [142] A variety of opinions we meet with concerning the
+    _whale_ which swallowed Jonah, and in whose belly he was
+    _three days and three nights_. The following is offered by
+    Dr. A. Clarke. "That a fish of the _shark_ kind, and not a
+    _whale_, is here meant, _Bochart_ has abundantly proved, vol.
+    iii, col. 742, &c, edit, Leyd. 1692. It is well known, that
+    the throat of a whale is capable of admitting little more
+    than the _arm_ of an ordinary man; but many of the shark
+    species can swallow a whole man; and men have been found whole
+    in the stomachs of several. Every natural history abounds
+    with facts of this kind. Besides, the shark is a native of
+    the _Mediterranean Sea_, in which Jonah was sailing, when
+    swallowed by what the Hebrew terms **dg gdvl** _dog gadol, a
+    great fish_; but every body knows that _whales_ are no produce
+    of the Mediterranean Sea, though some have been by _accident_
+    found there, as in most parts of the maritime world: but let
+    them be found where they may, there is none of them found
+    capable of swallowing a man."
+
+    [143] The _Torpedo_ is formidable, being well known by
+    the effect it produces when touched: but the manner of its
+    operating is to this hour a mystery to mankind. Such is the
+    unaccountable power it possesses, that, the instant it is
+    touched, it benumbs not only the hand and arm, but sometimes
+    also the whole body. The shock received, by all accounts, much
+    resembles the stroke of an electrical machine; being sudden,
+    tingling, and painful. "The instant," says Kemfer, "I touched
+    it with my hand, I felt a terrible numbness in my arm, and as
+    far up as the shoulder. Even if one tread on it with the shoe
+    on, it affects not only the leg, but the whole thigh. Those who
+    touch it with the foot, are seized with a stronger palpitation
+    than even those who touch it with the hand. This numbness bears
+    no resemblance to that which we feel when a nerve is a long
+    time pressed, and the foot is said to be asleep: it rather
+    appears like a sudden vapor, which, passing through the pores
+    in an instant, penetrates to the very springs of life; whence
+    it diffuses itself over the whole body, and gives real pain.
+    The nerves are so affected, that the person struck imagines
+    all the bones of his body, and particularly those of the limb
+    that received the blow, are driven out of joint. All this
+    is accompanied with an universal tremor, a sickness of the
+    stomach, a general convulsion, and a total suspension of the
+    faculties of the mind."
+
+    We are in possession of some facts which relate to the
+    manner of its acting. Reaumur, who made several trials on
+    this animal, has at least convinced the world that it is not
+    necessarily, but by an effort, that the Torpedo benumbs the
+    hand of him that touches it. He tried several times, and could
+    easily tell when the fish intended the stroke, and when it
+    would continue harmless. Always before the fish meditated
+    the stroke, it flattened the back, raised the head and the
+    tail; and then by a violent contraction in the opposite side,
+    struck with its back against the pressing finger; while the
+    body, which before was flat, became humped and round. The
+    most probable solution of this phenomenon is, that it depends
+    on electricity. When the fish is dead, the whole power is
+    destroyed, and it may be handled, or eaten with perfect
+    security.
+
+    [144] A large herring-fishery is carried on at Douglas, in
+    the Isle of Man. Herrings are so abundant in the neighborhood
+    of Gottenburgh, that 200,000 barrels, on an average, are salted
+    there every year, and about 400,000 are employed in making
+    train oil. Besides these, 50,000 barrels are consumed fresh in
+    the country, or sent to Denmark. Allowing 1,200 fish to each
+    barrel, in this district alone, about 780,000,000 of herrings
+    are caught in a season. In the year 1776, 56,000 barrels were
+    sent to Ireland, and thence exported to the West Indies.
+
+    [145] The Indians of Jamaica and Cuba (says Oviedo) go a
+    fishing with the Remora, or Sucking-Fish, which they employ as
+    falconers employ hawks.--This fish, which is not above a span
+    long, is kept for the purpose, and regularly fed. The owner,
+    on a calm morning, carries it out to sea, secured to his canoe
+    by a small but strong line, many fathoms in length; and the
+    moment the creature sees a fish in the water, though at a great
+    distance, it darts away with the swiftness of an arrow, and
+    soon fastens upon it. The Indian, in the mean time, loosens
+    and lets go the line, which is provided with a buoy that keeps
+    on the surface of the sea, and serves to mark the course which
+    the Remora has taken, and pursues it in his canoe until he
+    conceives his game to be nearly exhausted and run down: he
+    then, taking up the buoy, gradually draws the line towards the
+    shore; the Remora still adhering with inflexible tenacity to
+    its prey; and it is with great difficulty that he is made to
+    quit this hold. By this method (adds Oviedo) I have known a
+    turtle caught, of a bulk and weight which no single man could
+    support.--Edward's West Indies, vol. i. p. 100.
+
+    [146] A species of sea turtle, weighing 840 lb. was
+    harpooned and caught on the 27th of September, 1811, off Sandy
+    Hook, near New-York. It measured three feet two inches round
+    the neck, was seven feet long, eight feet in circumference,
+    and seven feet and a half from the extremity of one fin to the
+    other: of a coal black color, with five black ridges on the
+    back resembling the sturgeon. It is said to be a trunk turtle,
+    a native of the East Indies, and was the first ever seen in
+    the American seas. The proprietor of a museum purchased it for
+    fifty dollars.
+
+    [147] Sir W. Jones, when in India, formed en acquaintance
+    with an intelligent and respectable Brahmin. The religion of
+    these men permits them not to destroy life, nor to swallow any
+    creature which has possessed it; and so strict are some, that
+    in the season when insects abound, they cover their mouths and
+    nostrils, and sweep the ground on which they walk with a soft
+    broom, that they may not tread on them. Sir William had a solar
+    microscope sent from England, and showing it to his Hindoo
+    friend, demonstrated the impossibility of his eating even fruit
+    and vegetables without swallowing the animalcules which adhere
+    to them. The Brahmin was astonished and seemed gratified; but
+    begged importunately for the microscope, _so_ importunately,
+    that, at length, Sir William reluctantly resigned it to
+    him. A momentary gleam of joy flashed across the Brahmin's
+    countenance; and, grasping the instrument, he immediately
+    descended from the viranda, where they were conversing, into
+    the garden, when, seizing a stone, he instantly smashed it to
+    pieces. On assigning his reason for this act, which he did a
+    few days afterwards, when his friend's anger had subsided, he
+    said, "Oh that I had remained in that happy state of ignorance
+    wherein you first found me! Yet will I confess, that, as
+    my knowledge increased, so did my pleasure, until I beheld
+    the last wonders of the microscope. From that moment I have
+    been tormented by doubt, and perplexed by mystery: my mind,
+    overwhelmed by chaotic confusion, knows not where to rest,
+    nor how to extricate itself from such a maze. I am miserable,
+    and must continue so to be, until I enter on another stage of
+    existence. I am a solitary individual, among fifty millions of
+    people, all educated in the same belief with myself, all happy
+    in their ignorance! So may they ever remain! I shall keep the
+    secret within my own bosom, where it will corrode my peace, and
+    break my rest; but I shall have some satisfaction in knowing
+    that I alone feel those pangs which, had I not destroyed
+    the instrument, might have been extensively communicated,
+    and rendered thousands miserable! Forgive me, my valuable
+    friend, and, oh, _convey no more implements of knowledge and
+    destruction_!" These religious prejudices, which cannot bear
+    the light of sound philosophy, we perceive to be the results of
+    lamentable ignorance and degrading superstitions, and it may
+    be hoped will soon be removed by the cultivation of science,
+    and especially the dissemination of the Scriptures. The
+    missionaries now in the East will certainly be of very singular
+    use to the natives.
+
+    [148] M. de Saussure, in a letter to Bonnet, says,
+    "Infusion-animalcules multiply by continued divisions and
+    sub-divisions. Those roundish or oval animalcules that have
+    no beak or hook on the fore part of their bodies, divide
+    transversely. A kind of stricture of strangulation begins about
+    the middle of the body, which gradually increases, till the
+    two parts adhere by a small thread only. Then both parts make
+    repeated efforts, till the division is completed. For some time
+    after separation, the two animals remain in seemingly torpid
+    state. They afterwards begin to swim about briskly. Each part
+    is only one half the size of the whole: but they soon acquire
+    the magnitude peculiar to the species, and multiply by similar
+    divisions. To obviate every doubt, I put a single animalcule
+    into a drop of water, which split before my eyes. Next day, I
+    had five; the day after, sixty; and, on the third day, their
+    number was so great, that it was impossible to count them."--La
+    Palingenesie Philosophique, par C. Bonnet, tom. i. pp. 428, 429.
+
+    [149] See Bryant's Observations upon the Plagues inflicted
+    upon the Egyptians, Part I.
+
+    [150] See Jones's Disquisition concerning clean and unclean
+    Animals.
+
+    [151] Nicholas, in his voyage to New-Zealand, vol. i, p.
+    334, says, "The morning of the 10th of January, 1815, was
+    announced to our enraptured ears by the swelling notes of the
+    woodland choristers, and never either before or since did I
+    hear such delightful harmony. Rising together at an early hour,
+    we fancied ourselves for the moment in some enchanted ground,
+    while the forest seemed to ring with the mellow warblings of
+    nature, and a thousand feathered songsters poured their soft
+    throats in responsive melody. There was, however, one bird that
+    was distinguished from all the rest, as well by the compass and
+    variety of its notes, as by their incomparable sweetness. This
+    bird, which has been brought to Port Jackson, and highly prized
+    there, is called by the colonists the _organ-bird_, and is, I
+    believe, peculiar to New-Zealand: the notes of the Nightingale,
+    however exquisite, are, in my opinion, much inferior to the
+    song of this bird; and I never thought before that either the
+    grove or forest could boast of such a vocal treasure."
+
+    [152] A Martin recently fixed her nest directly over
+    the window of the Inn at Rampside, in Low Farnes. After her
+    young were hatched, she became a very troublesome visitant,
+    by throwing the cleansing of her nest upon the window. The
+    servant-maid, with more attention to cleanliness than humanity,
+    removed the little inconvenience by destroying the nest with
+    a broom. The young birds of course fell to the ground; in
+    the mean time the parents collected a great number of their
+    own species, who quickly built a second nest, sufficiently
+    commodious for the reception of the distressed family, and the
+    young were safely conveyed to their new lodgings by the parents
+    and their assistants.
+
+    [153] Dr. Edmonston, in his view of the Zetland islands,
+    says, "The white-tailed Eagle, or Erne, boldly attacks fishes
+    of the largest size. Several desperate combats have been
+    witnessed between this bird and the Halibut. The former strikes
+    his claws into the fish with all his force, determined not to
+    relinquish his hold, and, although but rarely, is sometimes
+    drowned in the attempt to carry off his prize. When he has
+    overcome the Halibut, he raises one of his wings, which serves
+    as a sail, and if favored by the wind, in that attitude drifts
+    towards the land. The moment he touches the shore, he begins to
+    eat out and disengage his claws; but if discovered before this
+    can be effected he falls an easy prey to the first assailant."
+
+    [154] Bellonius says, "The Storks come to Egypt in such
+    abundance, that the fields and meadows, are white with them.
+    Yet the Egyptians are not displeased with this sight; as frogs
+    are generated in such numbers there, that did not the Storks
+    devour them, they would over-run every thing. Besides, they
+    also catch and eat Serpents. Between Belha and Gaza, the fields
+    of Palestine are often desert on account of the abundance of
+    Mice and Rats; and were they not destroyed by the Falcons that
+    come here by instinct, the inhabitants could have no harvest."
+
+    [155] Dr. Edmonston says:--"The crows generally appear in
+    pairs, even during winter, except when attracted to a spot
+    in search of food, or when they assemble for the purpose
+    of holding what is called the _Crow's court_. This latter
+    institution exhibits a curious fact in their history. Numbers
+    are seen to assemble on a particular hill or field, from many
+    different points. On some occasions the meeting does not appear
+    to be complete before the expiration of a day or two. As soon
+    as all the deputies have arrived, a very general noise and
+    croaking ensue, and, shortly after, the whole fall upon one or
+    two individuals, whom they persecute and beat until they kill
+    them. When this has been accomplished, they quietly disperse."
+
+    On the subject of Gulls, Dr. Edmonston says:--"In the
+    affectionate care of their offspring, these Gulls display great
+    sagacity and even foresight. When the cradle at Noss is about
+    to be slung, the gulls, aware of the approaching capture of
+    their young, are unremitting in their efforts to carry them
+    off. From the first moment that they observe preparations
+    making to enter the holm, they become noisy and restless,
+
+        ---- 'and chide, exhort, command,
+        Or push them off,'
+
+    so that if bad weather delay the arranging of the cradle,
+    but for a few days, scarcely any are left to be taken away.
+
+    "This bird is a great enemy to the fowler, by intimating
+    to other birds his approach. One of them is an inseparable
+    attendant on the _Scarfs_, when they assemble on the rocks
+    for the purpose of drying and resting themselves; and they
+    seem sensible of the good offices of this voluntary guardian,
+    by quietly receiving it among them, and obeying its friendly
+    admonitions.--On the approach of a person from the shore, or
+    of a boat, the Gull having first testified marks of anxiety
+    and apprehension, flies off before either have approached
+    within gunshot, and all the Scarfs, except those who are young
+    and inexperienced, follow. It not merely contents itself with
+    giving them warning in due time, but urges their departure by
+    repeated calls, and sits down in the water, at a considerable
+    distance from the spot from which it fled, as if intending
+    to point out the place where they may consider themselves in
+    safety; and they generally all repair to the same place. To
+    the Seal this bird is of essential service. These animals
+    frequently lie upon the rocks for hours in succession, and so
+    well acquainted are some sportsmen with their haunts, that they
+    raise small bulwarks, or _rests_, to conceal their approach,
+    or wait their arrival behind a rock. The Gull, however,
+    frustrates all these precautions, by first flying over the head
+    of the hunter, and then screaming close to the Seal; and, when
+    the latter is not disposed to avail himself at once of this
+    friendly intimation, I have known them _strike him on the head_
+    with their feet. As soon as he slips into the water they appear
+    to be perfectly satisfied, as if they then conceived him in a
+    situation to protect himself.
+
+    "The Gull seems to consider itself the natural guardian of
+    the coast. If it spies a person at a distance, walking in a
+    cautious manner, in the neighborhood of any bird, it instantly
+    repairs to the spot, and by a keen acute cry, different from
+    the common note, endeavors to inform it of the approaching
+    danger. Ducks and Curlews know the hint quite well, and almost
+    always take advantage of it, and fly off long before the fowler
+    can arrive within gun-shot of them. On these occasions it often
+    comes with a sweep, as if intending to strike the person,
+    who by that means is kept in a state of constant alarm and
+    irritation; but if it do not immediately fly off, after having
+    succeeded in accomplishing the object of its mission, this
+    officious interference not unfrequently draws the vengeance of
+    the fowler on itself, and it falls the victim of its own good
+    intentions. This Gull is not satisfied with having alarmed
+    birds on any particular occasion. It does indeed fly to a
+    distance and sit down, but after its anxiety has been once
+    roused, it never loses sight of the fowler, but follows him at
+    a distance wherever he goes, and unless by pretended inactivity
+    the sportsman can quiet the apprehension of his enemy, it is
+    in vain to think of getting within reach of any bird that is
+    naturally shy and of a timid disposition. The scream of this
+    bird is peculiarly wild, and indicative of anxious impatience."
+
+    [156] Hasselquist, speaking of the _Strix Orientalis_,
+    or Oriental Owl, says, "It is of the size of the common owl,
+    living in the ruins of old deserted houses of Egypt and Syria;
+    and sometimes in inhabited houses. The Arab in Egypt calls it
+    _Massasa_, the Syrians _Bana_. It is very ravenous in Syria,
+    and in the evenings, if the windows be left open, it flies into
+    houses, _and kills infants_, unless they are carefully watched;
+    wherefore the women are much afraid of it."--Travels, p. 196.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+SIXTH DAY.
+
+_Section_ I.--ON QUADRUPEDS AND REPTILES.
+
+    Quadrupeds in general -- Motion -- Habits -- Rumination --
+    Proportion -- Tastes -- Clothing -- Weapons -- Proportionate
+    Number -- Faculties -- Reptiles -- Religious Improvement.
+
+On the _sixth day_ all terrestrial animals were formed. "And God
+said, Let the earth bring forth the living creature after his kind,
+cattle, and creeping thing, and beast of the earth after his kind, and
+it was so. And God made the beast of the earth after his kind, and
+cattle after their kind, and every thing that creepeth upon the earth
+after his kind." According to Dr. A. Clarke, the words **nphsh chyh**
+_nephesh chaiyah_, translated _living creature_, are a general term
+used to express all creatures endued with animal life, in any of its
+infinitely varied gradations; from the half-reasoning elephant down to
+the stupid potto, or lower still, even to the polype,[157] which seems
+equally to share the vegetable and animal life. The word **chytv**
+_chaiyeto_, translated _beast_, and by Mr. Parkhurst, rendered _wild
+beasts_, seems to signify all wild animals, as the Lion, the Tiger,
+the Panther, the Lynx, the Hy�na, &c, and especially such as are
+_carnivorous_, or subsist on flesh. **bhmh** _behemah_, which we
+translate _cattle_, probably means those of the domestic species, such
+as are _graminivorous_, or live on grass and other vegetables; and are
+capable of being tamed, and applied to domestic purposes. The word
+properly means _beasts_, and is so understood by the Seventy, whose
+interpretation of the words of Job is, "Behold the beasts with thee,
+they eat grass like oxen." According to Ab, Ezra, and the Targum, it
+is the "name of any great beast." But R. Levi says, that it is "an
+animal peculiarly called by that name."
+
+The Hebrew _behemah_, says Buxtorf, is taken in the singular number
+for the Elephant, because of its vast greatness. Ainsworth says, the
+word generally implies all large beasts; and of this classification the
+Elephant is called Behemoth. "Behold now _Behemoth_, which I made with
+thee; he eateth grass as an ox." The word here is plural, and signifies
+beasts; but in this passage one particular beast is meant, for it is
+usual with the Hebrews or Jews to express great and excellent things by
+words in the plural number. Though some later and very learned men take
+the Leviathan to be the Crocodile, and the Behemoth to be a creature
+called the Hippopotamus, or river-horse, yet says Henry, "I confess
+I see no reason to depart from the opinion, that it is the Elephant
+that is here described, which is a very strong, stately creature, of a
+very large stature, above any other, and of wonderful sagacity, and of
+such reputation in the animal kingdom, that, among so many four-footed
+beasts as we have had the natural history of, Job chap. xxxviii, xxxix,
+we can scarce suppose this should be omitted."[158]
+
+The Elephant may be thus denominated from its great bulk and strength.
+He is the largest of all land animals. Pliny tells us, that the
+Elephants in India are thirteen feet and a half high, and have two
+teeth of such enormous size that the Indians use them for posts to
+their houses: those of the male being six or seven feet long, while
+those of the female do not exceed one foot.
+
+    "Peaceful, beneath primeval trees that cast
+    Their ample shade o'er Niger's yellow stream,
+    And where the Ganges rolls his sacred wave,
+    Or mid the central depth of blackening woods,
+    High rais'd in solemn theatre around,
+    _Leans the_ HUGE ELEPHANT."
+
+His strength is also equal to that of many beasts. "His bones are as
+strong as pieces of brass; his bones are like bars of iron." Some
+historians say, that in time of war people used to erect wooden
+towers on the backs of Elephants, and from these elevated forts men
+combated with their enemies. It is said that Antiochus had a great
+number of these huge animals with towers constructed upon them, in
+each of which were thirty-two men armed. "He is the chief of the ways
+of God:" that is, a signal instance of Divine power and wisdom, the
+most excellent of all mere animals, in size, strength, understanding,
+and sagacity. None of the beasts is more prudent, says Strabo: none
+of them approaches nearer to man in his capacity, says Pliny. "He
+moveth his tail like a cedar." As his tail is not proportional to
+the bulk of his body, many understand by this term his proboscis or
+trunk. The original word **znb** here rendered _tail_, signifies
+properly the extreme part of a thing; hence it is as applicable to
+his trunk, which hangs like a tail, though placed at the opposite
+extremity of his body. This he "moveth" with amazing dexterity, and,
+at pleasure, can stretch it out, and erect it like a "cedar" growing
+out of a mountain.--"Behold, he drinketh up a river, and hasteth
+not: he trusteth that he can drink up Jordan into his mouth." He
+being naturally of a hot constitution, and generally inhabiting hot
+climates, requires much liquid. His "drinking up a river," is a
+hyperbolical expression implying his ardent thirst: and "hasteth not,"
+signifies his reluctance to quit the stream till his parching desire
+be fully satiated. His "trusting" that he can drink the river "Jordan"
+dry, is also an hyperbolical term to express his copious draughts. "He
+eateth grass as an ox, the mountains bring him forth food;" which he
+gathers, collects, and conveys to his mouth with his long trunk. He
+resides "where all the beasts of the field play." So harmless is this
+strong animal, that the inferior part of the brute creation are not
+intimidated at his presence, but graze with him upon the mountains,
+and sport themselves about him in the plain, apprehending no danger
+from him. How wondrous are the works of God! in which are no less
+evinced the effects of his power, than the displays of his wisdom. The
+word _cattle_, also includes Horses, Kine, Sheep, Dogs, &c.
+
+Quadrupeds enjoy many advantages above the lower tribes of the animal
+creation. They rank higher than the class of Birds, by bringing forth
+their young alive; they are superior to that of Fishes, by respiration
+through their lungs; they are exalted above the order of Insects, by a
+circulation of red blood through their veins; and they differ almost
+from every other description of creatures, being either wholly or in
+part covered with hair.
+
+What admirable wisdom is displayed in the _motion_ of animals, suited
+to their various occasions! Reptiles, to which a clod, a plant, a
+tree, or a hole, will afford the means of supporting life, and which
+protracted privations of food do not materially affect, require no legs
+to make extensive excursions, but their vermicular motion is adequate
+to every essential purpose. Beasts, whose necessities call for a larger
+sphere, possess accordingly a swifter motion; and this is imparted
+in various degrees, suitable to their range for food, and adapted to
+accelerate their speed in escaping from their enemies.
+
+In the motion of animals, from the largest Elephant to the smallest
+Mite, the whole body is exactly balanced. The head is not too heavy,
+nor too light for its kindred parts, nor they for it. The bowels hang
+not loose, nor are so placed as to over-balance, or upset the system;
+but well-braced, and accurately distributed to maintain an equipoise.
+The most active members also are admirably well fixed, in respect to
+the centre of gravity, being placed in the very point which best serves
+to support and convey the body. Every leg bears its share of the weight.
+
+The _mouths_ of animals are nicely adapted to their different habits
+of life. The Ox, the Deer, the Horse, and the Sheep, have full lips,
+rough tongues, broad cutting teeth, corrugated cartilaginous palates,
+which qualify them for browsing, either by gathering large mouthfuls
+where the grass is long, or biting close where it is short. In those
+which subsist on flesh, the teeth are sharp, and calculated to hold
+and divide their food. The bore of the gullet in animals is answerable
+to their necessities. In a Fox, which feeds on bones, it is very
+large. But in a Squirrel it is exceedingly small, which prevents him
+from disgorging his meat in his descending leaps: and it is equally
+contracted in Rats and Mice, which run along walls with their heads
+downward.
+
+In all animals, the strength and size of their _stomachs_ are
+proportioned to the nature and quantity of their food. Those whose
+aliment is more tender and nutritive, have them smaller, thinner, and
+weaker: whereas they are large and strong in those whose food is less
+nutritive, and whose bodies require greater supplies. Carnivorous
+beasts have their stomachs small and glandular, as flesh is the most
+nutritious. Those that derive their support from fruits and roots have
+them of a middle size: while on the contrary, Sheep and Oxen, which
+feed on grass, have the largest stomachs; and those which ruminate
+have in general no less than four; in Africa, where the plants are
+nutritive, some of this class have only two. Yet the Horse, Hare, and
+Rabbit, though graminivorous, have comparatively small stomachs. The
+Horse is made for labor, and both he and the Hare are constructed for
+quick and continued motion; for these the most easy respiration, also
+the freest action of the diaphragm, is requisite. But this could not
+be, did the stomach lie heavy and cumbersome upon it, as in Sheep and
+Oxen.
+
+Another very remarkable circumstance is, that those animals which have
+teeth on both jaws, possess but one stomach; whereas most of those
+which have no _upper teeth_, or no teeth at all, have three stomachs.
+For the meat which is first chewed, is easily digested; but that which
+it swallowed whole, requires a stronger concoctive power.
+
+The Horse eats night and day, slowly, but almost continually: whereas
+the Ox eats quickly, and takes, in a short time, all the food nature
+requires; and then lies down to ruminate. This difference arises
+from the different conformation of these animals. The Ox, of whose
+stomachs the first two form but one capacious bag, can, at the same
+time, receive grass into both of them, without inconvenience, which he
+afterwards ruminates and digests at leisure. The Horse, whose stomach
+is small, and can receive but a small quantity of grass, is filled
+successively in proportion as he digests it; and it passes into the
+intestines, where is performed the principal decomposition of the
+food. Chewing the cud is but a vomiting without straining, occasioned
+by a re-action of the first stomach on the food which it contains.
+The Ox fills the first two stomachs, the paunch, and the bag, which
+is but a portion of the paunch. This membrane acts with force on the
+grass it contains; it is chewed but a little, and its quantity is
+greatly increased by fermentation. Were the food liquid, this force of
+contraction would occasion it to pass by the third stomach, which only
+communicates with the other by a narrow conveyance, and cannot admit
+such dry food, or, at least, can only admit the moistened parts. The
+food must, therefore, necessarily pass up again into the oesophagus,
+the orifice of which is larger than the orifice of the conduit, and the
+animal again chews and macerates it, and moistens it afresh with its
+saliva: he reduces it to a paste, sufficiently liquid to enter into
+this conduit, through which it passes into the third stomach, where it
+is again macerated before it goes into the fourth; and it is in this
+last receptacle that the decomposition of the hay is finished, which is
+reduced to a perfect mucilage. What chiefly confirms this explication
+is, that as long as the animals suck, and are fed with milk and other
+liquid aliments, they do not chew the cud; and that they chew the cud
+much more in winter, when they are fed with dry food, than in summer,
+when they eat tender grass.
+
+All the parts of the same animal are adopted to each other. So, for
+instance, the length of the neck is always proportioned to that of the
+legs. Though the Elephant has a short neck, because the weight of his
+head and teeth would otherwise have been insupportable; but, then, he
+is provided with a trunk, which abundantly supplies the defect. In
+other beasts, the neck is always commensurate to the legs; so that they
+which have long legs have necks proportioned; and so vice versa, as is
+observable in Lizards of all kinds, even from the Eft to the Crocodile.
+And creatures that have no legs, as they want no necks, so they
+have none. This equality between the length of the neck and legs is
+peculiarly seen in beasts that feed on grass, in which these are very
+nearly equal; because the neck must necessarily have some advantage,
+for it cannot hang perpendicularly, but must incline a little.
+
+These creatures, while feeding, bend their heads downward for a
+considerable time, which would be very laborious and painful to the
+muscles, were it not for a very stiff, strong cartilage, placed on each
+side of the neck, capable of stretching and shrinking again as need
+requires, which butchers call pax-wax. The one end of this is attached
+to the head, and the next vertebr� of the neck; and the other is knit
+to the middle vertebr� of the back: and by the assistance of this,
+animals are able to hold the head in that inclining posture all day
+long. The head being placed at the end of a long lever, in a direction
+nearly perpendicular to the joints of the neck, would be in constant
+danger of dislocation from its own weight, had not such a substance
+been added, which, by its great strength and toughness, retains the
+parts together, while, by its pliancy, it offers no obstruction to the
+free motion of the neck and head.
+
+The members of animals are exactly adapted to their manner of living.
+A Swine, whose natural food is chiefly the roots of plants, is provided
+with a snout; long, that he may thrust it to a convenient depth in the
+ground without injuring his eyes; and strong and suitably formed, for
+rooting and turning up the earth: therefore the retiring under-jaw
+works after the manner of a plough-share, and makes its way to the
+food: and besides, his scent is extremely acute in discovering such
+roots as are fit for him. Hence in Italy, the usual way of finding
+truffles, or subterraneous mushrooms, is by tying a cord to the hind
+leg of a pig, and driving him into pastures. They who attend then mark
+where he stops and begins to root, and digging there, are sure to find
+a truffle. So in pastures where there are earth-nuts, though their
+roots are deep in the ground, and the leaves are quite gone, the Swine
+will find them by their scent, and root only in the places where they
+grow.[159]
+
+In some animals the head is long, in order to give room for the
+olfactory nerves, as in Dogs, which hunt by scent. In others, it is
+short, as in the Lion, to give him the greater strength. In beasts of
+prey, as Lions, Tigers, Wolves, they have the trumpet-part or concavity
+of the ear standing forward, to meet the sound of the animals before
+them, which they pursue or watch. The ears of animals of flight are
+turned backward, to apprize them of the approach of the pursuing
+enemy, lest he should assail them unseen. Beasts of prey have their
+feet armed with claws, which some can sheath and unsheath at pleasure.
+The Babyrouessa, or Indian Stag, a species of Wild-Boar, found in
+the East Indies, has two _bent_ teeth more than half a yard long,
+growing upward, and, which is very singular, from the upper jaw. These
+instruments are not wanted for defence, that service being provided
+for by two tusks issuing from the under jaw, and resembling those of
+the common Boar: nor does the animal thus use them. They might seem
+therefore both superfluous and cumbersome: however, they have their
+utility; for this animal sleeps standing, and, in order to support its
+head, hooks its upper tusks upon the branches of trees.
+
+In the Mole we find a most scrupulous attention to the habits of the
+animal. It has short legs, feet armed with sharp nails, a pig-like
+nose, a velvet coat, a small external ear, a sunk protracted eye, all
+which are conducing to utility and safety. Its feet are like so many
+shovels, placed in so peculiar a manner as to enable the animal to
+remove the earth on each side, and throw it backwards. The cylindrical
+figure of the Mole, as well as the compactness of its form, arising
+from the terseness of its limbs, proportionably lessen its labor;
+because its bulk requires the least possible quantity of earth to
+facilitate its progress. The structure of its face and jaws is similar
+to those of a Swine, and equally adapted to work in the ground. The
+nose is sharp, slender, tendinous, and strong. The plush covering,
+which, by the smoothness, closeness, and polish of the short piles that
+compose it, rejects the cohesion of almost every species of earth,
+defends the animal from cold and wet, and from the impediment which it
+would otherwise experience by the adhesion of mould to its body. Being
+subterraneous, of all animals it comes out from soils of all kinds
+the brightest and cleanest. But its eyes are most to be admired. This
+animal occasionally visiting the surface of the earth, self-security
+required a perception of light. The Mole did not need large eyes
+to compass a great range of vision; and prominent eyes would have
+been less easily defended, whilst working under ground. To reconcile
+these inconveniences, these eyes are scarcely larger than the head
+of a corking pin; and these globules are so sunk in the skull, and
+sheltered with the velvet of their covering, that any contraction of
+the eye-brows, not only closes up the apertures, but offers a cushion
+to prevent any sharp or protruding substance from injuring them. These
+apertures in their open state, are like pin-holes in velvet, scarcely
+pervious to loose pieces of earth.[160]
+
+The different _tastes_ of animals show the wise economy of nature. Oxen
+delight in low grounds, because they afford the most palatable food.
+Sheep prefer barren hills, on which is produced a particular kind of
+grass called festuca, which they highly relish. Goats climb up the
+precipices of mountains, that they may browse on the tender shrubs; and
+accordingly have their feet constructed for jumping. Horses, not in
+a state of domestication, chiefly resort to woods, and feed on leafy
+plants. Nay, so various are the appetites of animals, that there is
+scarcely any plant which is not chosen by some, and left untouched by
+others. The Horse resigns the Water-Hemlock to the Goat; the Cow gives
+up the Monks-Hood to the Horse; for that on which some animals grow
+fat, others abhor as poison.--Hence no plant is absolutely poisonous,
+but only respectively. Thus the Spurge, that is noxious to man, is a
+most wholesome nourishment to the Caterpillar. That animals may not
+destroy themselves for want of knowing this law of nature, they are
+guarded by such a delicacy of taste and smell, that thus they can
+easily distinguish what is pernicious from what is wholesome; and when
+different animals subsist on the same plants, one kind always leaves
+something for the other, as the mouths of all are not equally adapted
+to lay hold on the grass; hence there is sufficient food for all.[161]
+The leaves and fruits of trees are intended as food for some animals,
+such as the Sloth and Squirrel; the latter of which has feet adapted
+for climbing. The Camel frequents the sandy and burning deserts, in
+order to obtain the barren produce of those soils. How wisely has the
+Creator provided for him! he is obliged to traverse those trackless
+wastes where frequently no water is found for many miles. Other
+animals, so circumstanced, would perish with thirst: but he can endure
+it without much inconvenience; his belly being full of cells, where he
+reserves water for many days.[162]
+
+Quadrupeds are furnished with such _clothing_ as is suitable to their
+various offices. To beasts, hair is a commodious covering, which,
+together with the texture of their skins, fits them in all sorts of
+weather to lie on the ground, and to render service to man. The thick
+and warm fleeces of others are a good defence against the cold and
+wet, and also a soft bed; and to many, a comfortable shelter for their
+tender young. All the animals near Hudson's Bay are covered with a
+close, soft, warm fur; and, what is very surprising, and shows the
+wisdom and goodness of Divine providence, the Dogs and Cats which are
+taken thither from England, on the approach of winter, change their
+appearance, and acquire a much longer, softer, and thicker coat of hair
+than they originally had.
+
+Many animals are armed with _weapons_ of self-defence, some of which
+are used for the destruction of others. Nay, we scarcely know an
+animal which has not some enemy to contend with. Wild beasts are the
+most pernicious and dangerous enemies. But, that they may not, by
+too atrocious a butchery, destroy a whole species, even these are
+circumscribed within certain bounds. As to the most fierce of all, it
+deserves to be noted, how few they are in proportion to other animals.
+The number of them is not equal in all countries. These fierce animals
+sometimes destroy one another. Thus the Wolf devours the Fox. The Dog
+infests both the Wolf and Fox. The Tiger often kills its own male
+whelps. And wild beasts seldom arrive at so great an age, as animals
+which live on vegetables. For they are subject, from their alkaline
+diet, to various diseases, which tend to accelerate their death: while
+the Elephant, which feeds on vegetables, is fifty or sixty years
+before he attains his full strength, is in the highest state of vigor
+at about a hundred, and lives two or three hundred years. But, though
+animals are infested by their peculiar enemies, yet they frequently
+elude their violence by stratagems and force. Thus the Hare, by her
+doublings, often confounds the Dog. When the Bear attacks Sheep and
+Cattle, these flock together for mutual defence. Horses join heads
+together, and fight with their heels. Oxen join tails, and fight with
+their horns. Swine unite in herds, and boldly oppose themselves to any
+attack, so that they are not easily overcome: and, what is remarkable,
+all of them place their young, as less able to defend themselves, in
+the middle, that they may remain safe during the battle. Some animals
+consult their safety by night. When Horses sleep in woods, one by turn
+remains awake, and, as it were, keeps watch. When Monkeys, in Brazil,
+sleep on trees, one of them keeps awake, in order to give the sign when
+the Tiger creeps toward them; and in case the guard should be caught
+asleep, the rest tear him in pieces.
+
+Divine Providence is evidently displayed in keeping a just proportion
+amongst all the different species of animals: this prevents any one
+of them from increasing too rapidly, to the detriment of others. For
+the produce of the ground would be insufficient for the support of the
+animal creation, were their increase not regulated and limited by the
+over-ruling power of God. To which we may add, that, if some animals
+did not feed on others, the earth would be annoyed with putrified
+bodies. Therefore, when an animal dies, Bears, Wolves, Foxes, &c,
+expeditiously take the whole of it away. But if a horse die near a
+public road, in a few days he is swoln, burst, and at last filled with
+innumerable grubs of carnivorous Flies, by which his flesh is soon
+entirely consumed, and so does not become a nuisance to passengers by
+his poisonous stench. Thus the earth is not only kept clean from the
+putrefaction of dead carcases, but at the same time, by this economy of
+nature, the necessaries of life are provided for many animals.
+
+Though animals should not die a violent death, still their powers only
+continue for a limited time: they have their determinate periods of
+growth, perfection, and decay: hence it becomes necessary that one
+race should succeed and replace another, and for this purpose they
+are endowed with a power of procreation. The formation of the foetus,
+the manner of its existence, and the growth of its parts, are great
+secrets of nature; and in all viviparous animals, the _milk_ found in
+the female parent is a maintenance ready for the young animal, the
+moment it enters the world. We have here, the nutritious quality of
+the fluid--the organ for its reception and retention--the excretory
+duct, annexed to that organ--and the determination of the milk to the
+breast, at the particular juncture when it is about to be wanted. The
+advanced pregnancy of the female has no intelligible tendency to fill
+the breasts with milk. The lacteal system is a constant wonder: and it
+adds to other causes of our admiration, that the number of the teats
+or paps in each species is found to bear a proportion to the number
+of the young. In the Sow, the Bitch, the Rabbit, the Cat, the Rat,
+which have numerous litters, the paps are numerous, and are disposed
+along the whole length of the belly: in the Cow and Mare, they are
+few.[163] And the teats of animals which give suck are exactly adapted
+to the mouth, particularly to the lips and tongue, of the suckling
+progeny. Herodotus observes, that the most useful animals are the most
+fruitful in their generation: whereas the species of those beasts that
+are fierce and mischievous to mankind are but scarcely continued.
+The historian instances in a Hare, which is always either breeding or
+bringing forth; and a Lioness, which bears but once and then loses all
+power of conception.
+
+It is evident that animals have not only a principle of self-motion,
+but are endued with a degree of understanding; and have a will,
+including various passions. What then produces the disparity
+between men and brutes, the line which they cannot pass? It is not
+understanding: who can say that brutes have not this? We may as well
+assert that they have not sight, nor hearing. But the difference
+consists in this: man is capable of knowing and enjoying God; the
+inferior creatures are not. This is the specific difference between the
+two: the great gulf which the brute cannot pass over.
+
+We meet with a striking instance not only of industry, but
+_understanding_ in Beavers. In the northern parts of America, during
+the months of June and July, they assemble, and form a society, which
+generally consists of more than two hundred. They always fix their
+abode by the side of a lake or river; and in order to make a stagnant
+water above and below, they erect, with incredible labor, a dam or
+pier, perhaps fourscore or a hundred feet long, and ten or twelve
+feet thick at the base. When this dyke is completed, they build their
+several apartments, which are divided into three stories. The first is
+beneath the level of the mole, and is for the most part full of water.
+The walls of their habitations are perpendicular, and about two feet
+thick. If any wood project from them, they cut it off with their teeth,
+which are more serviceable than saws: and by the help of their tails,
+they plaster all their works with a kind of mortar, which they prepare
+of dry grass and clay, mixed together. In August or September, they
+begin to lay up their stores of food; which consist of the wood of the
+birch, the plane, and of some other trees. Thus they pass the winter,
+in the enjoyment of ease and plenty.[164]
+
+In the Dog we perceive evident marks of sagacity, recollection,
+affection, and revenge. _Sagacity_:--In the year 1760, whilst one
+Richardson, a waterman of Hammersmith, was sleeping in his boat,
+the vessel broke from her moorings, and was carried by the current
+under a west country barge. Fortunately, the man's dog happened to
+be present; and the sagacious animal awaked him, by pawing his face,
+and pulling the collar of his coat, at the instant when the boat
+was filled with water, and on the point of sinking; by which means
+he had an opportunity of saving himself from inevitable death.[165]
+_Recollection_:--A Dog, which had been the favorite of an elderly
+gentlewoman, some time after her death, on seeing her picture, when
+taken down from the wall, and laid on the floor to be cleaned,
+discovered the strongest emotions. He had never been observed, Dr.
+Percival believed, to notice the picture previously to this incident.
+Here was evidently a case of remembrance, or of the renewal of former
+impressions. _Affection_:--A few miles from Aberdeen, as a gentleman
+was walking across the Dee, when it was frozen, the ice gave way in
+the middle of the river, and he sunk; but, by grasping his gun, which
+had fallen athwart the opening, kept himself from being carried away
+by the current. A dog, who attended him, after many fruitless attempts
+to rescue his master, ran to a neighboring village, and took hold of
+the first person he met. The man was alarmed, and would have disengaged
+himself: but the Dog regarded him with a look so kind and significant,
+and endeavored to pull him along with so gentle a violence, that he
+began to think there might be something extraordinary in the case, and
+suffered himself to be conducted by the animal; who brought him to his
+master in time to save his life.[166] _Revenge_:--A pack of ravenous
+Fox-Hounds were half starved in their kennel, to render them more
+furious and eager in the chace: and were severely lashed every day by
+a merciless keeper, that they might be disciplined to the strictest
+observance of his looks and commands. It happened that this petty
+tyrant entered the kennel without his scourge. The dogs observed his
+defenceless state; and, instantly seizing him, at once satisfied their
+hunger and revenge by tearing him to pieces.[167]
+
+The Monkey tribe is very numerous, and usually divided by naturalists
+into three classes. Those which have no tails are termed Apes, and
+such as have very short ones, Baboons; but by far the most numerous
+class consists of those which have long tails, and are known by the
+general name of Monkeys. Were we to dissect and examine the several
+component parts of any one creature which God has made, we should
+find a perfection among its several powers, and an adaptation of its
+construction to its situation in the grand scale of existence, far
+surpassing human wisdom.
+
+At the Cape of Good Hope, Baboons are under a sort of natural
+discipline, and go about whatever they undertake with surprising skill
+and regularity. When they undertake to rob an orchard or vineyard
+(for they are extremely fond of grapes and apples,) they go in large
+companies, and with preconcerted deliberation. Part of them enter the
+inclosure, while one is set to watch: the rest stand without the fence,
+and form a line reaching all the way from their fellows within to their
+rendezvous without, which is generally in some craggy mountain. Every
+thing being thus disposed, the plunderers within the orchard throw
+the fruit to those that are without as fast as they can gather it;
+or, if the wall or hedge be high, to those that sit on the top; and
+these hand the plunder to those next them on the other side. Thus the
+fruit is pitched from one to another all along the line, till it is
+safely deposited at their head-quarters. They catch it with amazing
+dexterity; and while the business is going forward, a profound silence
+is observed. Their sentinel, during the whole time, continues on the
+watch, and when he perceives any one coming, instantly sets up a loud
+cry, on which signal the whole company scamper away. Nor are they
+willing to go empty-handed; for if they are plundering a bed of melons,
+for instance, they go off with one in their mouths, one in their hands,
+and one under their arms. If the pursuit be vigorous and close, they
+drop first that from under their arms, then that from their hands; and
+if it be continued, they at last let fall that which they had kept
+in their mouth.[168] There is another species of Monkey in the West
+Indies, of the size of a Fox. These are in great numbers in the woods,
+and make aloud and frightful noise. But it is common for one only to
+make a noise, and the rest to form a mute assembly round him. Marcgrave
+says, "I have frequently seen great numbers of them meeting about noon:
+at which time they formed a large circle, and one placing himself above
+the rest, began to make a loud noise. When he had sung thus by himself
+for some time, the rest all remaining silent, he lifted up his hand,
+and they all instantly joined in the chorus. This intolerable yell
+continued, till the same Monkey, who gave the signal for the beginning,
+lifted up his hand a second time. On this they were all silent again,
+and so finished the business of the assembly."
+
+Thus we see, wherever we turn our eyes, the various species of
+creatures which God has made. Every element is stocked with
+inhabitants, the sea with fishes, the air with fowls, and the earth
+with quadrupeds and creeping things. All these different provinces are
+richly replenished with food for the support of all the innumerable
+creatures that live in them. And what surprising skill and sagacity
+do some in the brute creation discover; such as might make many, who
+pride themselves in their reason, to blush and be confounded! Who does
+not admire the exquisite contrivance of birds in building their nests?
+the subtlety of several creatures in seeking their proper food? and of
+others in securing and defending themselves? The art of the Spider in
+weaving and spreading her nets, to ensnare and entangle her prey? the
+sapience and industry of the Bee in building her combs, and filling
+them with pleasant food? and the care and foresight of the Ant, in
+laying up her store against winter? In the meanest reptile, the Divine
+wisdom and power are conspicuously displayed.
+
+The word **rmsh** _remes_, translated _creeping thing_, and rendered
+_reptile_ by Parkhurst, includes all the different genera of serpents,
+worms, and such animals as are not pedaneous. What a disparity among
+animals! While some are of an enormous size, and stalk about in the
+greatness of their strength, others are of a delicate and diminutive
+appearance, bordering on comparative insignificance. But Divine
+"skill and power are not less displayed in the beautiful Chevrotin,
+or Tragulus, a creature of the Antelope kind, and smallest of all
+_bifed_ or cloven-footed animals, whose delicate limbs are scarcely
+as large as an ordinary goose quill; nor the Shrew Mouse, perhaps the
+smallest of the many-toed quadrupeds. In the _reptile_ race we see
+also the same skill and power; not only in the immense snake called
+Boa Constrictor, the mortal foe and conqueror of the Royal Tiger, but
+also in the Cobra de Manille, a venomous serpent, not much larger than
+a common sewing needle."
+
+The Lizard tribe are distinguishable at first sight from other
+oviparous animals. They have no shields, like the Tortoises, and are
+furnished with tails, which are wanting in Toads and Frogs. They are
+covered with scales, of greater or less rigidity, or with a kind of
+warts or tubercles. Some of the species are scarcely more than two
+inches in length, whilst others extend even the length of twenty-six
+feet. The larger ones live on animals, which they seize by stratagem,
+and the smaller ones on insects. The aquatic species undergo a
+metamorphosis, from a tadpole to a perfect state. Most of them are
+produced from eggs, but some are brought forth alive. In many of the
+species the color and form are exceedingly beautiful. They principally
+inhabit the warmer regions of the globe, and many of them serve mankind
+for food.
+
+As according to the economy of nature, the Lion seems appointed to
+the dominion of the immense deserts of the torrid zone, the Eagle to
+rule as sovereign of the air, and the Whale to have the pre-eminence
+in the seas; so the Crocodile[169] and the Alligator appear to rule
+over the shores of the large rivers of tropical climates. All the
+rivers of Guinea are pestered with vast shoals of the former, M.
+Adanson having seen in the great river Senegal more than two hundred
+swimming together; and the latter are natives of the warmer parts of
+America.--The Guana, which grows to the length of four or five feet,
+is very common in Surinam, the woods of Guiana, Cayenne and Mexico,
+and in many parts both of Africa and Asia; but is now become scarce
+in the West Indies, in consequence of being much sought after for
+the table.--The Nimble Lizard, measuring from the tip of the nose to
+the end of the tail about six inches, is known in almost every part
+of the temperate regions of Europe. The Green Lizard and the Nimble
+Lizard, are considered by Dr. Shaw as varieties of the same species.
+The Green Lizards are considered by the inhabitants of Carolina as
+very useful animals, in consequence of destroying flies, and other
+troublesome and noxious insects. They will sometimes remain motionless
+for half a day, waiting for insects; and when one appears, they spring
+at it with the swiftness of an arrow. They are so familiar as to enter
+the houses without fear, and, in pursuit of prey, ascend the tables
+whilst families are eating, and even leap on their clothes. They are so
+beautiful and cleanly, as to be suffered to run across the tables, and
+even the plates, without exciting the least alarm or disgust.
+
+The Chameleon is a native of India, the Indian Islands, Africa, some of
+the warmer parts of Spain and Portugal, and several of the countries
+of South America. Its usual length is about ten inches, and the tail
+nearly the same. All the motions of this creature are extremely slow,
+so that when travelling from one branch of a tree to another in pursuit
+of food, it may rather be said to lie in ambush among the leaves,
+in order to catch such insects as may come within the reach of its
+long adhesive tongue, than go in search of prey. When walking on the
+ground, it steps forward in a cautious, groping manner, seeming never
+to lift one foot till it is well assured of the firmness of the rest.
+From these precautions, its motions have a singular appearance of
+gravity, when contrasted with its diminutive size, and the activity
+that might be expected in an animal so nearly allied to some of the
+most active in the creation. Each of its eyes is covered with a rough
+membrane, which is divided by a narrow horizontal slit, through which
+the bright pupil, as if bordered with burnished gold, is seen. The
+eyes have this singular property, of looking at the same instant in
+different directions. One of them may frequently be seen to move when
+the other is at rest; or one will be directed forward, whilst the other
+is attending to some object behind; or in the same manner upward and
+downward. The property of changing its color is singular, and has led
+to various conjectures as to the cause.
+
+Serpents are distinguishable from those already mentioned, by their
+total want of feet. The banded Rattle-Snake, found both in North and
+South America, is the most dreaded of all serpents. Providence has
+given to man a security against its bite; for it generally warns the
+passenger by the rattling of its tail, as well as by its odor, which
+is extremely fetid. When it has been irritated, or the weather is very
+hot, its poison being introduced into a wound, often proves fatal in a
+short time. If not provoked, it is inoffensive, being so much alarmed
+at the sight of men, as always, if possible, to avoid them, and never
+commencing an attack. The Great Boa, which is the largest of all the
+serpent tribe, is frequently from thirty to forty feet in length, and
+of a proportional thickness. It is a native of Africa, India, the
+largest Indian Islands, and South America, where it chiefly resides
+in the most retired situations in woods and marshy retreats. We are
+assured, that one of these serpents killed and devoured a buffalo, in
+the island of Java. It is happy for mankind that their rapacity is
+often the means of their own punishment; for whenever they have gorged
+themselves in this manner, they seek a retreat where they may lurk for
+several days and digest their meal, become unwieldy, stupid, helpless,
+sleepy, and may be approached and destroyed with safety.[170]
+
+The snake tribe comprises nearly two hundred species, which differ from
+each other both in size and habit, and about one-fifth of the whole
+have been discovered to be poisonous. "The deserts of Arabia," says
+Adanson, "are entirely barren, except where they are found to produce
+serpents; and in such quantities, that some extensive plains are almost
+entirely covered with them." The apparatus of poison in the Viper is
+very similar to that of the Rattle-Snake, and all the other poisonous
+serpents. The _fang_ of a Viper is a wonderful instance of contrivance.
+It is a perforated tooth, loose at the root: in its quiet state, lying
+down flat on the jaw, but furnished with a muscle, which with a jerk,
+and by the pluck, as it were, of a string, suddenly erects it. Under
+the tooth, close to its root, and communicating with the perforation,
+lies a small bag containing the venom. When the fang is raised, the
+closing of the jaw presses its roots against the bag underneath; and
+the force of this compression sends out the fluid, with a considerable
+impetus, through the tube in the middle of the tooth. By this singular
+apparatus, the animal is enabled to inflict on its enemies a most
+deadly bite, and infuse into the wound the most deleterious liquid.
+Yet, though in the mouth, this, in the quiescent state of the reptile,
+does not interfere with its ordinary office in taking its food.[171]
+
+No less curious is the clothing of Reptiles. How well adapted are the
+rings of some, and the contortions of the skins of others, not only to
+guard the body sufficiently, but enable them to creep, perforate the
+earth, and perform all the functions of their stations, better than any
+other covering! Virgil gives the following description of a Sicilian
+serpent:
+
+    "Scarce had he finish'd, when, with speckled pride,
+    A serpent from the tomb began to glide;
+    His hugy bulk on sev'n high volumes roll'd;
+    Blue was his breadth of back, but streak'd with scaly gold;
+    Thus riding on his curls, he seem'd to pass
+    A rolling fire along, and singe the grass.
+    More various colors through his body run,
+    Than Iris, when her bow imbibes the sun."
+
+Even the tegument of the Earthworms is made in the completest manner,
+for effecting a passage in the earth, wherever instinct directs their
+motions. Their bodies are composed of small rings, and have a curious
+apparatus of muscles, which enables them with great strength to extend
+or contract the whole body. Each ring is likewise armed with stiff,
+sharp prickles, which they can open or close at pleasure. And under
+their skins is a shining juice, which they emit, as occasion requires,
+to lubricate their bodies, and facilitate their passage into the
+earth. By all these means they are enabled, with ease and speed, to
+work themselves into the ground, which they could not do, if they were
+covered with hair, feathers, scales, or such clothing as any of the
+other creatures.--One of the most singular properties of the serpent
+tribe is that of casting their skins from time to time. The beauty and
+lustre of their colors are then highly augmented. The old skins have a
+tarnished and withered appearance, and are forced off by the growth of
+the new. When this takes place, so complete is the spoil or coat-skin,
+that even the external coat of the eyes themselves make a part of it.
+
+Among creeping things, the Spider engaged the attention of Solomon who
+observes, that he is one of those "little things on the earth, that are
+exceeding wise." This creature subsists on flies, wasps, and similar
+insects, without having wings to pursue them; a circumstance apparently
+of great difficulty, yet provided for by a resource, which no stratagem
+nor effort of his own could have produced, had not both the external
+and internal structure of this animal been specifically adapted to the
+operation. What surprising skill and sagacity does the Spider discover
+in weaving and spreading her nets to ensnare and entangle her prey!
+How wonderfully artificial is her web, or _house_! How astonishingly
+curious its architecture! With the fine and delicate threads she spins
+out of her bowels, how thin a web does she weave, constructed for
+the purpose of procuring food! It is fastened according to the rules
+of mathematics, for its lines are drawn exactly from the centre at
+parallel distances.[172] When this net is spread, that she may the more
+effectually secure her prey, she cunningly conceals herself in her
+covert, to evade the discovery of flies. It is from the accuracy of
+this geometrical workmanship, that this cunning artist is immediately
+apprized of the approach of a fly, or any other insect of the like
+nature, when she sallies forth and seizes on her prey. She is furnished
+with a very sharp hooked forceps, placed near the mouth. With this
+weapon she seizes and pierces the flesh of such insects as entangle
+themselves in her web; and, at the same instant, by means of a small
+white proboscis, she infuses a deadly juice into the wound, which,
+in a moment, kills the animal. This poison must be very deleterious;
+for flies, and many other insects, may be mutilated by depriving them
+of their legs, wings, and even cutting their bodies through the very
+middle of their abdomen, and, in that condition, will survive several
+days.--The Centipeds, the Scorpion, and the Tarantula, are all provided
+with poisonous weapons.
+
+
+_Appendix to the Chapters on Plants, Fishes, Fowls and Quadrupeds._
+
+    [If we will attentively examine the _fossil remains
+    of fishes, animals, birds, and vegetables_, so abundantly
+    preserved entombed in the crust of our earth, we shall easily
+    see the necessity of looking into the sepulchres of these
+    primitive creatures if we would freely describe the "Mosaic
+    Creation." Many of their genera and species are now extinct:
+    and those which remain seem to have dwindled down to mere
+    _dwarfs_ in comparison with their prototypes.
+
+    It is a matter of great satisfaction, that these
+    interesting remains of the primordial world are so well
+    preserved. They are called by one _the medals of creation_:
+    they reveal the ancient condition of our earth; the successive
+    events; and the attending organic appendages of sensitive
+    beings: and it is a matter of great pleasure to the Christian,
+    that what they disclose so clearly on this subject agrees
+    expressly with the Bible.
+
+    The class of animated beings called _pisces_, or _fishes_,
+    is not so well known in regard to their _genera_, and
+    _species_, as the classes of quadrupeds and birds.
+
+    From the fossil remains of each, and their position in the
+    crust of the earth, it is well ascertained, that their genera
+    were created successively, and that the most ancient genera
+    are extinct. The same is true in regard to vegetables. It is
+    equally true, that, connected with the successive creation,
+    was a _successive improvement_ in the delicacy and complexity
+    of their structure and parts. There was also a reduction in
+    the _size_ of fishes, and quadrupeds, and a great reduction in
+    the _amount_ of vegetation, as well as the size of many of the
+    plants.
+
+    These periodic variations in all early organized bodies,
+    were evidently owing to the variations of the state of the
+    surface of our earth, and the surrounding atmosphere. The
+    Divine Being appears to have created the different genera
+    suited in constitution to the condition of the world at the
+    time. The cause of their successive extinction appears to have
+    been successive catastrophes, which altered the constitution of
+    our earth and atmosphere.
+
+    All these facts taken together indicate, that, in the
+    early periods of the earth, the soil, water, and air were
+    better calculated to sustain the simply huge, and inconceivably
+    powerful and fierce creatures of the animal kingdom, than the
+    delicate and beautiful beings of the present period. The same
+    is eminently true in regard to vegetables, specially their
+    _quantity_. They were of trunks, and spreading branches so huge
+    as to exceed belief, did we not see them well preserved in a
+    fossil state. Their quantity also was immense; hence the amount
+    of vegetable coal found in the earth.
+
+    These facts clearly indicate that, in the early periods of
+    our earth, the surface was moist, perhaps, marshy for a long
+    time, gradually drying, and passing to a habitable state: the
+    air was very moist and gross, and the temperature of the earth
+    was much higher than at present. Hence the huge and abundant
+    vegetable productions. These general facts shall be confirmed
+    by a few remarks in regard to each class.
+
+    _Fishes._--Under this class is included, here,
+    _testaceous_, and _crustaceous_ creatures, as well as
+    _fishes_ commonly so called. The most ancient of this family
+    seem to be entirely extinct, and their remains are found in
+    great abundance in the lower transition rocks. There are
+    many localities where fossil fish, of various kinds, are
+    found abundantly. They are sometimes found in the heart of
+    mountains, thousands of feet above the level of the sea. Their
+    localities are so numerous they need not be mentioned. They
+    are found in all possible _positions_, and in every degree of
+    _preservation_--some are _contorted_, and _crushed_; indicating
+    sudden violence. Others are inhumed in the very act of
+    swallowing their prey, and in every easy and natural position;
+    indicating that they expired without violence. Some of these,
+    which are thus quietly buried, are of the most active species;
+    thus proving the suddenness of the catastrophe.
+
+    So extensive are the depositions of _shell-fish_, that
+    whole beds of rock, in some cases, appear to be composed of
+    them; and, indeed, in some instances, mountains are composed
+    principally of these rocks filled with organic remains.
+
+    From these facts, it is allowed by all, that the sea once
+    covered these localities; and when it is recollected that some
+    of the rock strata, composed of the exuvi� of these marine
+    creatures, are _hundreds_ of feet thick, the conclusion will
+    be irresistible, that the sea covered them for a long time,
+    and that these rocks which contain them _were deposited at
+    the bottom of the sea_, which have since become dry, by the
+    retiring of the waters, or by some subjacent force upheaving
+    the bed of the sea, and of course these deposits which had
+    been made at its bottom--when these fossil remains are found
+    in mountain masses they have been upheaved--when in low lands,
+    where the rocks lie _in situ_, the sea has exposed them by
+    retiring.
+
+    _Amphibious Creatures._--There are yet a few animals of
+    this class; but they can scarcely be called the types of the
+    ancient races, now extinct, whose remains have lately been
+    discovered, and attracted so much attention in Europe. They
+    are principally of the _crocodile_, and _saurian_ (or lizard)
+    families. Their size, and indicated power, ferocity, and
+    fierceness, are astonishing beyond measure. Their structure
+    clearly indicates their proper element was wet, marshy, and
+    reedy places, such as the crocodile delights in at this time:
+    thus indicating that they were in the earth as the ancient
+    chaotic seas retired, and was leaving the earth dry.
+
+    If a _single_ skeleton only, of any one of these creatures
+    had been found, naturalists would have pronounced it a _lusus
+    natur�_. But many have been found, of different genera and
+    species: only two or three shall be mentioned here.
+
+    One of the crocodile family, as is supposed, had a spine
+    composed of 133 vertebr�, or joints, taken together 21� feet in
+    length. The head was nearly 4 feet. Its species are extinct;
+    some refer even this huge animal to the lizard family.
+
+    _The Megalosaurus._ The skeleton of this huge creature has
+    been satisfactorily examined, and ascertained to belong to the
+    _lizard family_. Its thigh bone is 32 inches long. It is said
+    some have been found 4 feet. At 32 inches, the animal must
+    have been 48 feet in length. Dr. Buckland, from some fossil
+    remains, calculates some of them were as high as our largest
+    elephants, and sixty or seventy feet in length. And yet this
+    was a _lizard_ of the ancient world!
+
+    _The Pterodactyle._ This is a species of the saurian family
+    as those above. Its distinctive character is the _elongation of
+    its fourth toe_, so as to support a membrane for the purpose
+    of _flying_: hence its name, _wing-toed_. It is indeed a
+    curiosity. Its species is extinct.
+
+    _The Ichthyosaurus._ This is also a reptile of the lizard
+    kind: but because it so much resembles a _fish_; it has this
+    name, i.e. _fish-lizard_. It has a moderate tail--long pointed
+    muzzel armed with sharp pointed teeth; two huge eyes; breathed
+    air; swam in the water; crawled in marshy, reedy places, but
+    could not walk or run on land, having flat fins, or bony
+    paddles, somewhat like seals. The skeletons indicate some of
+    them to have been 25 feet long.
+
+    _The Plesiosaurus._ This animal, as its name imports,
+    was rather akin to lizards, than decidedly of the genus. Its
+    very peculiar characteristic is the immoderate length of its
+    neck, and the unexampled number of _vertebr�_ of which it is
+    composed. In other respects it approaches the ichthyosaurus.
+    Its remains indicate an animal, according to Cuvier, at least
+    30 feet long.
+
+    _The Iguanodon_, was of the lizard genus, three or four
+    times as large as the largest crocodile; having jaws equal in
+    size to the incisors of the rhinoceros, and crested with horns.
+    (DR. BUCKLAND.)
+
+    Many more creatures of the early periods of our earth might
+    be mentioned, which would come expressly under the title of
+    this volume; and the knowledge of which is durably preserved
+    in the fossils of the earth, all of which would confirm the
+    facts stated in the commencement of this paper, viz: that
+    during the first and grossest periods of our earth previously
+    to the creation of man, great numbers of genera and species
+    of huge and misshapen animals existed, which are now extinct.
+    For instance: the skeletons of animals of the _frog and
+    toad_ families, have been found so large, as to induce some
+    naturalists at first to call them _human remains_. A tapir has
+    been found the _size of an elephant_; and a species of the
+    _sloth tribe_ as long as a _rhinoceros_!!
+
+    These things will indeed appear incredible to the reader
+    at first; but let him recollect that the evidences of these
+    astonishing facts are contained in the solid crust of the
+    earth, and cannot be deceptive. They may be _seen, measured,
+    weighed, and put up so as to form the whole animal_, an object
+    of inspection to thousands.
+
+    There are but few fossil remains of _birds_ found in the
+    earth, and these are principally in the upper tertiary strata,
+    and in company with the fossil remains of such animals as are
+    companionable and serviceable to man. The reason of this is
+    obvious: the earth was not suitable for the habitation of birds
+    until it had become comparatively dry, and the seas had retired
+    in a great measure, and vegetation abundant. The aquatic genera
+    appeared first, of which there are a few remains. Moreover this
+    class of creatures could not be overtaken with any violent
+    catastrophe, so as to bury them in a body, or in particular
+    strata. It is, therefore, probable that birds, as a class, have
+    preserved their genera and species from the first; and are now
+    nearly the same in this respect, as well as in size, as in the
+    earlier periods of the world.
+
+    _Vegetables._--In the vegetable kingdom we are if possible,
+    more astonished than in the animal, of the ancient periods
+    of our earth. From their fossil remains, well and abundantly
+    preserved, it is very evident that the vegetation of the first
+    periods of our earth was abundant and heavy, beyond any thing
+    which we can conceive at this time. It cannot be doubted but
+    that the vegetative powers of the earth was very much greater
+    than at this time, or within the memory of man. This is evident
+    from the immense production of _vegetable coal_.
+
+    This statement may be rendered somewhat more credible when
+    it is recollected, that the earth, in its first periods, was
+    of a much higher temperature than now; and of course not only
+    produced more abundantly, but _all parts_ of the earth produced
+    vegetation in abundance. This is evident from the fact, that
+    within the arctic circle, where now reigns eternal winter, and
+    no vegetation can be found, there was anciently successive
+    products of heavy vegetation. (See appendix to our paper on
+    volcanos.) This is proven by plants being found fossilized
+    _on the spot, and in the position in which they grew; as
+    also the leaves and fruits of plants, which are known now to
+    be tropical, so well preserved, and in such a natural, easy
+    position as to prove clearly they grew on the spot on which
+    they were fossilized_.
+
+    The _flora_ of the primordial world was expressly a part
+    of the 'Mosaic creation,' and which is but little understood
+    as yet. Some of the principal plants were of the _fern_ and
+    _palm_ genera; but their size very far exceeded those now found
+    growing. By closely examining these fossil plants, it will be
+    found, _that they increase in size and quantity as the period
+    of their growth is distant from the time in which man was
+    created_: thus indicating _an increasing temperature of the
+    earth as we ascend in time_. This also corresponds with the
+    well known fact, _that the size of these plants now increases
+    progressively from the polar regions to the equator_.
+
+    Our author has given a concise and edifying description of
+    the principal families and individuals which now exist, and are
+    found in the earth. The above remarks are intended to direct
+    the attention to those _which have long since passed away_.]
+
+The propriety of the distinction between clean and unclean beasts,
+mentioned in the Scripture, will appear on the first hearing of their
+names; for we find amongst the clean creatures, Oxen, Sheep, Goats,
+and Lambs: and on the other side, Lions, Tigers, Wolves, Foxes, Swine,
+Moles, and Serpents. It is evident that there is a wide difference
+between these two parties, with respect to their manners and ways of
+life.
+
+Those only are admitted among clean animals, which "divide the hoof
+and chew the cud." Animals which divide the hoof are more inoffensive
+with their feet, than the several tribes of wild beasts, whose paws are
+armed with sharp claws, to seize their prey. Quadrupeds with a divided
+hoof tread surer than those whose hoof is entire; there being a plain
+mechanical reason why a foot, which presents several angles and edges,
+should take faster hold on the ground. They are not only surer footed,
+but also more orderly and regular in their progress. Sheep have a
+natural tendency to follow each other's steps. They approach the fold,
+or return from it, in a train; as well as traverse their pastures in
+the like order. Oxen tread in the very footsteps of their predecessors:
+so that a drove of them, on passing through a deep and narrow road,
+leave the surface divided into a regular succession of ridges and
+furrows, as if it were the work of art. If animals could reason and
+dispute as men can, this plodding practice of the Ox might possibly
+be ridiculed by the Ass; as the orthodox believer, who is content to
+tread in the steps of his forefathers, is scoffed at by the rambling
+freethinker, who uses it as the privilege of his nature, to deviate
+into by-ways, untrodden by those who were much wiser than himself.
+_Sure footing_ is an image not improperly applied to elementary truth
+and science: whence it will not be unnatural to suppose, that this
+first character of the clean animals was intended to be expressive of
+rectitude and certainty of principle in moral agents. Error is various
+and changeable in its nature: but truth, being uniformly the same in
+all ages, will always be productive of sobriety and regularity in those
+who follow it.
+
+The other character of clean animals is that of "chewing the cud;"
+a faculty expressive of that act of the mind, by which it revolves,
+meditates, and discourses on what it has laid up in the memory; and
+the word _ruminate_ has the same metaphorical meaning. An animal
+thus employed has the appearance of abstraction in its countenance,
+as if it were engaged in deep meditation; and it ruminates more
+particularly when lying in an horizontal position, for then the food
+is more easily recalled into the mouth from its temporary lodgment in
+the stomach. This character then, is expressive of devout thought and
+holy conversation: for the word of God is the food of the mind, which,
+being laid up in the heart, should be frequently revolved; so that
+being properly applied to the inward man, it may contribute to a daily
+increase in faith, purity, and goodness.
+
+The clean animals were also _sacred_; that is, set apart by the law
+for the purpose of sacrifice. The propriety of which is evident: for
+if the worshipper, who offered an animal to God, meant by that act to
+devote himself, using the animal as his substitute or proxy; then
+certainly it was not fit that he should represent himself by an unclean
+creature, whose instincts and habits would convey an odious idea of his
+own person and character, and consequently make his devotion appear
+ridiculous. In order to make a sacrifice acceptable, it was requisite
+that the qualifications of the offerer should correspond with those
+of the offering. The innocent manners of a clean victim, were a tacit
+reflection on an unclean offerer. When the worshippers of the true
+God were corrupt in their principles or morals, their oblations were
+no longer either proper or acceptable: which was signified to them
+in those words of the prophet--"He that killeth an ox, as if he slew
+a man: he that sacrificeth a lamb, as if he cut off a dog's neck:
+he that offereth an oblation, as if he offered swine's blood." The
+reason is added: "They have chosen their own ways, and their soul
+delighteth in their abominations." But there is another sense in which
+the institution of sacrifice is to be understood: for every sacrifice
+had its prophetic use, and was prefigurative of the true sacrifice of
+Jesus Christ; with respect to whom it was necessary that every animal,
+preferred to this sacred application, should be recommended by every
+possible character of innocence, purity, and perfection: therefore the
+sacrifices were taken from the tribes of Sheep, Goats, and Oxen.
+
+The diet of the Jews being thus immediately connected with the most
+solemn acts of religious adoration, the daily course of their living
+carried with it an exhortation to purity of mind and body, and directed
+their faith to its supreme object, the vicarious sacrifice of the
+Messiah. The moral necessities of man can only be supplied by the death
+and benefits of a propitiatory sacrifice, the common substitute of all
+mankind: whence God has mercifully ordained, as well by the present
+condition of creation itself, as by the appointment of revelation, that
+the life of his body should be sustained in like manner: thereby to
+remind us every day, that the life of man is in a state of forfeiture;
+and that there can be neither the preservation, nor the remission
+of sins, without the shedding of innocent blood. Thus does mankind
+conspire in offering up a daily sacrifice, and attesting the truth of
+the Christian doctrine, and many persons with the same insensibility
+that Caiaphas uttered a similar prophecy in its favor, "It is necessary
+that one man should die, that the whole people perish not."
+
+These clean and unclean animals, with respect to their several ways
+of life, are as opposite as their dispositions. Sheep, Oxen, Goats,
+Deer, &c, are formed into societies, they herd peaceably together, and
+are subject to the laws of government, as well for their own advantage
+as for the service of man. But beasts of prey roam by themselves in
+forests and deserts, incapable of entering into any friendly communion.
+They are so many single tyrants, who acknowledge no superior, but fight
+their way, and live in a state of hostility with the whole creation.
+If they ever unite in gangs, it is with the spirit of thieves and
+murderers, who are banded together only that they may plunder the
+innocent with greater security. And, like other depredators, they are
+all fond of darkness. When the sun goes down, the Lion stalks forth
+from his den: at which time the Sheep, under the direction of the
+shepherd, are retiring to their fold. And when the cattle are climbing
+up the mountains to their pasture, invited by the reviving rays of
+the rising sun, the tyrants of the night are warned back to their
+hiding-places.[173]
+
+The blindness of the Mole, the petulance and immodesty of the Dog,
+the subtlety of the Fox, the poisonous teeth and double tongue of the
+Serpent, afford ample scope for reflection. The Egyptian hieroglyphics
+were certain visible representations of creatures, whose inclinations
+and actions led to the knowledge of those truths which they intended
+for instruction. A profane and voluptuous man was represented by a
+Swine, whose filthy disposition caused it to be hated by all the
+eastern people. A great hypocrite, or a notorious dissembler of
+wicked intentions, was expressed by a Leopard, because this animal
+acts craftily, concealing his head that he may with less difficulty
+catch his unwary prey; for the creatures are as much alarmed at his
+presence, as they are pleased with the agreeable scent of his body:
+when therefore they approach him, delighted with the perfume, he will
+cover his head with his paws, till they come within his reach. An
+incorrigible person was also expressed by a Leopard's skin, because its
+spots no art can remove. A Chamelion likewise was the hieroglyphic of a
+hypocrite, who can accommodate himself to any religion that will serve
+his turn; for this animal can change its color. A stupid, ignorant
+person, an enemy to religion, was signified by an Ass; and one that was
+not acquainted with men and things, or knew not how to acquit himself
+with decency and propriety in the world, was painted with the head
+and ears of an Ass. The Egyptians were accustomed to put the heads of
+animals on the bodies of men, to express the dispositions and conduct
+of those persons they were intended to represent. A Tiger, being a
+most fierce animal, signified a savage, cruel, revengeful disposition,
+opposed to all goodness. A Fox is notorious for his craftiness;
+therefore he is an emblem of a subtile person, under the influence of
+wicked thoughts and intentions.[174]
+
+Rams, and Bullocks of Bashan, Lions, or any animal of prey, are figures
+frequently used by the sacred writers for cruel and oppressive tyrants
+and conquerors. "Hear this word, ye kine of Bashan, which oppress
+the poor." Bashan was a very fruitful place, a fine and fattening
+pasture, in which were the best fed and strongest cattle. To these,
+the prophet compares the great men among the Israelites, especially
+their judges and magistrates, who were proud, insolent, wanton and
+mischievous, like the bulls of Bashan; who oppressed the poor, as high
+fed cattle push and gore the weaker sort. "The Lion is come up from
+his thicket, and the destroyer of the Gentiles is on his way; he is
+gone forth from his place to make thy land desolate: and thy cities
+shall be laid waste without an inhabitant." By this animal is meant
+Nebuchadnezzar, the king of Babylon, so termed on account of his great
+power and fierceness; and as the Lion is commonly in the forest among
+the thicket, so this terrible political ruler had his strong hold and
+principal seat at Babylon, which residence he left to commit awful
+desolation among the cities of Judah and Israel.
+
+The prophet Isaiah, with a boldness and majesty becoming the herald
+of the Most High, begins his prophecy with calling on the whole
+creation to attend, when Jehovah speaks. "Hear, oh heavens; and give
+ear, oh earth; for the Lord hath spoken; I have nourished and brought
+up children, and they have rebelled against me." A charge of gross
+insensibility and ingratitude is then brought against the Jews; by
+contrasting their conduct with that of the Ox, and the Ass, which is
+the most stupid of animals. "The Ox knoweth his owner, and the Ass his
+master's crib: but Israel doth not know, my people do not consider."
+What a cutting reproof! what an indelible reproach! to have been
+favored with the best means of instruction, and yet to be exceeded by
+the herd of the stall! To perish for lack of knowledge, after having
+had the best means to acquire it, evinces the grossest inattention, and
+most censurable insensibility.
+
+The prophet Jeremiah lamented the wickedness of the age in which he
+lived, and the vice and immorality that every where abounded. He saw
+with grief of heart the holy Sabbath profaned, the worship of God
+neglected, and his house and ordinances defiled. While a sorrowful
+witness to their gross abominations, he saw the punishments that
+awaited their immorality, and then wept over what he could not amend.
+He gave them faithful admonitions from God, but they disregarded them,
+and drank in iniquity like water, and drew sin as with a cart-rope:
+because they had been _taught_ to do evil (for so the margin reads,)
+trained up in their evil ways, had learned to sin by precept and
+example, and were great proficients in vicious pursuits: from their
+youth their natural propensity to evil had increased by continued
+practice, till sinning was become habitual, and there was little hope
+left of amendment. Therefore he exclaims, "Can the Ethiopian change
+his skin, or the Leopard his spots? then may ye also do good, that
+are accustomed to do evil." The Ethiopian's skin is of so sable a
+hue, that no water can wash it white. A Leopard's skin is beautifully
+spotted, which is not the result of accident, but nature, and cannot
+be defaced. By these two similes the prophet designs to represent,
+not only the natural impossibility without Divine aid, but also the
+extreme difficulty of habitual sinners learning to do well, after they
+have long accustomed themselves to do evil. The least sin is to be
+avoided, the least growth of sin to be prevented; for sin indulged in
+thought will beget desire, desire will break out into action, action
+will grow into custom, custom will settle into habit, and then, there
+is the utmost danger of both body and soul being irrecoverably lost.
+
+When our Saviour sent forth his apostles to preach the Gospel, he
+informed them of the hardships, dangers, and discouragements they
+would have to encounter, in the faithful discharge of their ministry;
+especially after his resurrection, when they would be deprived of
+his personal presence; for we do not read of any great persecutions
+they endured while he was with them. These sufferings he foretold,
+that they might not be surprised at their approach; and that, by the
+accomplishment of this prediction, their faith might be confirmed.
+"Behold, I send you forth as sheep in the midst of Wolves." Here we
+have a prediction of their perilous condition; they were to be as Sheep
+in the midst of Wolves. And what situation more dangerous! What can
+sheep, that are feeble creatures, and destitute of natural armour to
+defend themselves, expect, in the midst of ravenous wolves, but to be
+rent and torn to pieces? So those, amongst whom the apostles were to be
+sent, would have as great an inclination, arising from their malicious
+dispositions, to destroy them, as wolves have from their nature to
+devour sheep. Wicked men are like wolves, whose nature it is to destroy
+and devour sheep; they are of a diabolical disposition towards the
+ministers of the Gospel.
+
+Our Saviour also gave his apostles advice, how to conduct themselves in
+such very unpleasant and dangerous circumstances. "Be ye therefore wise
+as serpents," not cunning as foxes, whose aim is to deceive others; but
+as serpents, whose policy is only to defend themselves, when they are
+in danger. A serpent's wisdom appears in a care to guard and secure its
+head, that it may not be hurt; in stopping its ears against the voice
+of the charmer, which it does, says a certain naturalist, by laying
+one ear close to the ground, and stopping the other with its tail;
+and in sheltering itself in the clefts of a rock, when in danger. So
+should Christ's ministers, in a time of peril, use all lawful means for
+their own safety and preservation; they should be wary and circumspect
+to keep themselves from harm, either of body or soul. "And harmless
+as doves." Ministers should be meek, do no person any harm, bear no
+ill-will, be without gall, as is said of the dove; though their enemies
+should be fierce and savage, like wolves, yet they must not study how
+to revenge the injuries done them. It should be their continual care
+to be inoffensive, in word and deed: wisdom and innocence should dwell
+together. Ministers must not be altogether doves, lest they fall into
+danger; nor altogether serpents, lest they injure others; but they
+must be both serpents and doves, the one for wisdom, the other for
+innocence.
+
+    "That thou mayst injure no man, dove-like be,
+    And serpent-like, that none may injure thee!"
+
+Our Saviour likewise cautions his followers against false teachers.
+"Beware of false prophets." The term _prophet_ in the Scripture,
+signifies one who foretells things to come; this is the most proper
+signification of the word. It also means one who expounds the
+predictions of the Old Testament. And sometimes we are to understand
+by it, one employed in the ministry of the Gospel; in this sense a
+prophet and a teacher are reciprocal terms. So that by prophet here
+our Saviour means false teachers, who, pretending authority from God,
+exercised themselves in the ministry, and published false doctrine,
+or at least represented truth in a corrupt manner, with a fraudulent
+intention, from base motives, and for vile ends; by whose doctrine
+persons were in no small danger of being seduced from their simplicity,
+and drawn away from the truth, sincerity, and power of godliness; into
+a dead and lifeless formality, and an empty show of religion and piety.
+Now against such men, Christ, in the days of his public ministry,
+warned his hearers, to prevent their deception, apprising them that
+they would "come in sheep's clothing." They disguised their dangerous
+principles and base intentions, under a show of external religion, and
+fair professions of love, that, thereby they might deceive others. "But
+inwardly they are ravening Wolves." They were as dangerous to the souls
+of men, as ravenous Wolves are to Sheep, which watch for an opportunity
+to seize their prey, silently approach the sheep-fold to see whether
+the dogs be asleep, or the shepherd be absent: so false teachers with
+wretched hypocrisy and sophistry, counterfeit sincerity, humility, and
+sanctity; and were it not for this semblance of piety, their efforts
+to injure the church of God would be ineffectual. He compares these
+false teachers to Wolves, especially on account of their cruelty. These
+animals are not content to satisfy their hunger, but will destroy
+multitudes merely to gratify their voracious nature. So false teachers
+strive to injure the whole church of God, and thus destroy souls.
+
+Our Saviour exhorted his auditory to the exercise of Christian
+prudence, in the dispensing of spiritual things. "Give not that which
+is holy unto the Dogs, neither cast ye your pearls before Swine, lest
+they trample them under their feet, and turn again and rend you." The
+deep things of God, relating to doctrines, are not to be divulged to
+those who are wallowing in sin; neither are the great things he has
+done in his people to be declared to profane, furious persecutors:
+but both classes of wicked men may be reproved on proper occasions.
+By Dogs, our Saviour means froward, perverse, malicious, revengeful,
+boisterous, incorrigible, and irreclaimable sinners, who scorn holy
+institutions, mock at every thing sacred, scoff at religion, deride
+the word of God, and all serious reproofs and admonitions, whether
+given by parents, masters, ministers, governors, and others; who are
+ready to persecute those who preach the Gospel, and endeavor to promote
+their salvation. By Swine, he means such sinners as are profane and
+sensual, and like Swine wallow in the mud of sin and wickedness; to
+whom it is as pleasant to live in their beastly lusts, as it is for
+Swine to wallow in the mire; and to disregard, abuse, and trample on
+holy things.
+
+St. Peter, in showing what all men are in the sight of God, before
+they receive his grace, and what those are who turn apostates from the
+truth, alludes to two offensive actions of Dogs and Swine. "It has
+befallen to them according to the true proverb, the Dog is turned to
+his vomit, and the Sow that was washed to her wallowing in the mire."
+Blackwall says, this proverb, with great propriety and strength, marks
+out the sottishness and odious manners of persons enslaved to sensual
+appetites and carnal lusts; and the extreme difficulty of reforming
+vicious and inveterate habits. As a Dog, observe Bishop Patrick, when
+he has vomited up his meat which made him sick, is no sooner well but
+he returns to it, and eats it up again, forgetting how ill it agreed
+with him; so an imprudent person commits the same error over again,
+for which he formerly smarted. The evil nature remaining, and at last
+gaining the ascendency, in a man, who had through grace reformed
+his life, renders him like the loathsome and detestable Sow, as Dr.
+Doddridge remarks; for the Sow that was washed from the filthiness she
+had before contracted, having still the same unclean nature prevailing,
+is returned to wallow in the mire, and so makes herself as filthy as
+she had ever been before. And, adds Dr. Whitby, these two proverbs are
+expressive of the folly of those men who return to those vices they had
+formerly renounced.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+_Section_ II.--MAN.
+
+    BODY: -- Its Creator -- Formation -- Vitality -- Blood
+    -- Heart -- Arteries and Veins -- Digestion --Respiration --
+    Glands -- Absorbents -- Nervous System -- Organs of Sense --
+    Bones -- Sinovia --Muscles -- Tendons -- Cellular Membrane --
+    Skin. SOUL: -- Its Immateriality -- Freedom --Immortality --
+    Moral Image -- Adam's Dominion over the Creatures -- Woman --
+    Paradise.
+
+All things necessary, convenient, and delightful, being prepared
+for the accommodation of Man: light, that he might see; air, that
+he might hear and breathe; dry land, on which he might walk; herbs
+and fruit-trees, for his gratification and sustenance; fish, fowl,
+cattle, and creeping things, for his service: then God proceeded to
+make him, as the last and greatest display of his wisdom and power,
+the master-piece of all sublunary creatures, whose creation alone is
+represented in the sacred History, as an effect resulting from a
+divine consultation. "And God said, Let us make man in our image, after
+our likeness. So God created man in his own image, in the image of God
+created he him; male and female created he them." It appears from the
+ingenious Parable of Protagoras in Plato, it was a very ancient opinion
+that _man_ was last created after the other living creatures.
+
+In all the former works, God only said, Let such and such things be,
+and they were; he spake the word, and it was done. But now, when Man
+was to be made, God is spoken of as calling a council, "Let _us_ make
+man, in _our_ image, after _our_ likeness." This imports that Man
+was to be a creature different from all that had been produced, and
+far more excellent and wonderful in his constitution; a compound of
+flesh and spirit, heaven and earth, put together, the visible image
+of the Divine glory, and dedicated and devoted to his Creator's
+service. Man was the work of ELOHIM, the Divine Plurality, marked
+here more distinctly by the plural pronouns US and OUR; all the Three
+Subsistencies in the Godhead are represented as united in counsel and
+effort to bring into existence this astonishing creature.
+
+Aben Ezra, a Jewish Rabbi, imagined that the souls of all men were made
+on the first day of the creation, and that God consulted them to obtain
+their consent before he would assign them bodies of flesh, hereafter to
+be created. This is a groundless hypothesis, derived from the Platonic
+philosophy; for God says, "Let us make man in our image," which shows
+that Adam's soul had then no existence, for in that case, it doubtless
+would have been in the image of God.
+
+Some other Jewish Doctors, as Manasseh ben Israel, ridiculously
+conceived that God spake to the elements. But this is more absurd than
+the former; for the expression, "Let us make man," implies capacity of
+consultation in those spoken to, and real efficiency. But the elements
+are not intelligent beings, neither efficient, but only material parts
+of man.
+
+Nor does God here speak to the angels, as the authority of the
+Paraphrase, which is called Jonathan's, suggests. The words of the
+Paraphrase are these: "God said to the angels, which ministered before
+him, Let us make man." It is a noted saying of the Jewish Rabbis,
+that God does nothing without consulting his family above: they mean,
+his holy angels. Several heretics, in the first and second centuries
+of Christianity, were of opinion, that this lower world was made by
+angels. This notion is likewise erroneous: God here speaks to those in
+whose image man was to be formed, but he was not made in the image of
+angels.
+
+It is pretended by those who are enemies to the orthodox doctrine
+of the Trinity, that this is a figurative way of speaking, only to
+express the dignity of God, not to denote any plurality in him; that
+he here speaks in the plural number after the manner of princes, who
+say, We will and require, or, It is our pleasure. But this is only a
+far-fetched invention, to evade the doctrine of the Trinity, by persons
+in latter times, and no way agreeable to the first ages of the world,
+or the Hebrew style. Melchizedeck, Abimelech, Pharoah, and Balak, all
+speak in the singular number. The kings of Israel used the same style,
+as did Saul, David, and even Solomon in all his glory. And also the
+Eastern monarchs: "I (Darius) make a decree. I, even I, Artaxerxes the
+king, do make a decree." Nor is there in the Scriptures one example to
+the contrary.
+
+Beside, how absurd it is to suppose that God would borrow his mode
+of speaking from a practice which did not exist! And even granting
+this possible, yet the cases are not parallel. For though a King, or
+Governor, may say _us_ and _we_, there is certainly no figure of speech
+that will allow a single person to say, _one of us_, when he speaks of
+_himself_. It is a phrase that can have no meaning, unless there be
+more persons than one concerned. Yet in addition to US and OUR, this we
+find is the style in which God has spoken of himself.
+
+There are some persons who maintain, in opposition to the clear light
+of revelation, that there is but one Subsistence in the Divine Nature.
+This was the opinion of the Sabellians, a denomination which arose in
+the third century; and, certain persons, in modern times, have embraced
+the same. These contend that God here speaks to himself, as consulting
+with himself, to create man, and that, though the words be plural, yet
+the sense is singular, as if he had said, Let _me_ make man.
+
+One of the Persons, or Subsistencies in the Godhead, here speaks to the
+other Two, and who more likely than the Father, who is first in the
+order of arrangement, as given by the sacred Writers. The Father, not
+the Son, is the first; the Son, not the Holy Spirit, is the second;
+and the Holy Spirit, not the Father, is the third. Hence, the Father,
+when he said, "Let us make man," addressed himself to the Son, and to
+the Holy Spirit, who were therein joint and equal Creators with him.
+"None saith, Where is God my Maker?" in the Hebrew, _Makers_, is the
+language used in the Book of Job, implying a Plurality of Persons in
+a Unity of Essence: a phraseology like that of Solomon, "Remember thy
+Creator," in the original, _Creators_. The prophet Isaiah adopts the
+same style, "Thy Maker is thine husband," in the Hebrew, _thy Makers
+are thy Husbands_. Thus it evidently appears, that this consultation
+was among the Persons in the Godhead; that all the Three, the Father,
+the Son, and the Holy Spirit, were concerned in man's creation; and
+were therein joint Creators, equal in nature, power, and efficiency.
+
+Dr. Waterland says, that this text, _Let us make man_, has been
+understood of Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, or at least of Father and
+Son, by the whole succession of Christian writers, from the times of
+the apostles; which is a circumstance of considerable importance, and
+will impress the minds of sincere and impartial men. That the Christian
+Fathers were unanimous in their judgment, that these words were spoken
+by the Father to the Son, or Spirit, or both, appears in their works,
+from which we shall adduce a few proofs.
+
+_Barnabas_ says:--"And for this the Lord was contented to suffer for
+our souls, though he be the Lord of the world; to whom God said, the
+day before the formation of the world, Let us make man after our image
+and similitude."[175]
+
+_Hermas_:--"He was present in counsel with his Father for the forming
+of the creature."[176]
+
+_Theophilus_ of Antioch:--"He directed these words, _Let us make man_,
+to none other than his own Word and his own Wisdom."[177]
+
+_Iren�us_:--"His Word and Wisdom, his Son and Spirit, are always
+present with him, to whom also he spake, saying, _Let us make man_,
+&c."[178] Again:--"Man was fashioned after the image and likeness of
+the uncreated God, the Father willing his creation, the Son ministering
+and forming him, the Holy Ghost nourishing and increasing him."[179]
+
+_Tertullian_:--"Nay, because his Son is ever present with him, the
+second person, his Word; and the third, the Spirit in the Word;
+therefore he spake in the plural, _Let us make man in our image_."[180]
+
+_Novatian_:--"Who does not acknowledge the Son to be the second person
+after the Father, when he reads that it was said to the Son by the
+Father, _Let us make man_."[181]
+
+_Origen_:--"To him also spake he (the Father,) _Let us make man after
+our image_."[182]
+
+_Athanasius_:--"Who is this that God converses with here? To whom are
+these notifications and determinations of his pleasure directed? Not
+to any of the creatures already made; much less to those things which
+were not yet created; but, undoubtedly to some person, who was then
+present with the Father, to whom he communicated his councils, and of
+whose agency he made use in the creation of them. And who could this
+be but his eternal Word? With whom can we conceive the Father holding
+his conference, but with his Son, the divine LOGOS, that Wisdom of God,
+that was present with him, and acted with him, in the creation of the
+world, who was in the beginning with God, and was God? and who saith of
+himself, _When he prepared the heavens, I was there; when he appointed
+the foundations of the earth, then was I by him, as one brought up with
+him_."
+
+_St. Augustine_:--"Had God said no more than, Let _us make man_, it
+might, with some color, be understood as spoken to the angels, whom
+the Jews pretend he employed in framing the body of man, and other
+creatures; but seeing it immediately follows, _after our image_, it is
+highly profane to believe, that man was made after the similitude of
+angels; and that the similitude of God and angels is one and the same."
+
+_St. Ambrose_ speaks to the same purpose:--"God would not speak thus
+to his servants, because it is not to be thought, that servants were
+partners with their Lord, in his works of creation; or the works with
+their Author. And, supposing this should be admitted, that the work was
+common to God and angels, yet the image was not common."
+
+Nay, the second Council of Sirmium, which was held in 351, pronounced
+an anathema on all those who denied this. The words of the Council are
+these:--"If any say, that the Father did not speak to the Son, when
+he said, _Let us make man_, but that he spake to himself, let him be
+accursed."[183]
+
+_Epiphanius_:--"This is the language of God to his Word, and
+Only-begotten, as all the faithful believe."[184] And again he says,
+"Adam was formed by the hand of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy
+Ghost."[185]
+
+I observe more at large from _Iren�us_, that he rejects the notion
+of the Jews and Heretics, who supposed God spake to his angels.
+For disputing against Heretics, who attributed the creation of the
+world to angels, and powers separate from the one true God, he says
+thus:--"Angels did not make us, nor did they form us; neither was it
+in their power to make the image of God: none but the Logos could do
+this; no powers distinct from the Father of all things: for God did not
+want their assistance in making the things which he had ordained. For
+his Word and his Wisdom, the Son and the Holy Ghost, are always with
+him; by whom and with whom, he made all things freely, and of his own
+accord; to whom also he spake in these words, _Let us make man in our
+image and likeness_."[186]
+
+The testimony of Dr. Kennicott will be respected by those who are
+lovers of the truth. "God, says he, being about to create man, is
+introduced saying--_Let_ US _make man in_ OUR _image, after our
+likeness_; in consequence of which the historian tells us--_so God
+created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him_.
+It is evident then, that God created man in his own image; this is
+mentioned thrice by way of emphasis, and to prevent, if possible, all
+possibility of misconstruction. Now what God did, was certainly what
+he proposed to do; God created man in his own image, that is, in the
+image of the Godhead, and therefore God proposed to create him in the
+image of the Godhead. But if God proposed to create him in the image of
+the Godhead, the proposal must have been made to the Godhead; because
+the words are--_Let us make man in_ OUR _image_. And if the proposal be
+here made by God to the Godhead, it is absurd to suppose it made to the
+same Person that makes it; and consequently reasonable to think it made
+to the other two persons in the Unity of the Godhead."[187]
+
+The creature now to be made is man.[188] _And God said, Let us make
+man._ It is evident that God, by introducing the creation of man with
+this peculiar phraseology, intends to impress the mind with a sense
+of something extraordinary in his formation. The word **'dm** _Adam_,
+which is translated _man_, is intended to designate the _species_ of
+animal, which is vastly superior to all the rest. Though the same
+kind of organization may be found in Man, as appears in the lower
+animals, yet, as one observes, there is a variety and complication in
+the parts, a delicacy of structure, a nice arrangement, a judicious
+adaptation of the various members to their great offices and different
+functions, a dignity of mien, and perfection of the whole, which are
+sought for in vain in all other creatures.
+
+Man is a compound creature, consisting of two distinct essential
+parts, body and soul. The union of these constitutes man, for neither
+of them when separated can be so denominated. The body was made
+before the soul, and formed out of the earth, or, as **`phr** _�pher_
+implies, the _dust_. "The Lord God formed man of the dust of the
+ground." He afterwards pronounced, _Dust thou art_. This led Solomon
+to affirm, "All are of the dust." The Apostle adds, "The first man
+was of the earth, dusty," as Ainsworth renders it. And we are said to
+"dwell in houses of clay," and to have our "foundation in the dust."
+Of the soul it is said, "God breathed into his nostrils the breath
+of life:" **rvch chyym** _ruach chayim_, the breath of LIVES; i.e.
+animal, intellectual, and spiritual. While this breath of God expanded
+the lungs, and set them to play, his inspiration gave both spirit,
+understanding, and felicity. Thus we see that the soul and the body
+are not the same thing; the one is of the earth, the other is from
+God. The Rabbins say, "The form of the soul is not compounded of the
+elements, &c, but is of the Lord from heaven. Therefore when the
+material body, which is compounded of the elements, is separated, and
+the breath perishes because it is not found, but with the body, and is
+needful for the body in all its actions; this form (i.e. the soul) is
+not destroyed, &c, but continues for ever. This is that which Solomon
+by his wisdom said, 'Then shall the dust return unto the earth as it
+was; and the spirit shall return unto God who gave it.'"
+
+As the formation of man's body was effected previously to the infusion
+of his soul, we shall attend to the same order, in attempting to
+elucidate this important and very interesting subject. The word
+**yytsr** _jitzer_, rendered _he formed_, observes Mr. Benson, is not
+used concerning any other creature, and implies a gradual process in
+the work, with great accuracy and exactness. It is properly used of
+potters forming vessels on the wheel; and Rabbi D. Kimchi says, that,
+when used concerning the creation of man, it signifies the formation
+of his members. Bishop Patrick intimates, that the body of man was
+made not of _dry_, but _moist_ dust; and that this agrees with the
+Hebrew JITZER, _formed_, which is used concerning potters, who make
+their vessels of _clay_, not of _dry_ earth. Diodorus Siculus says,
+"Man was made out of the _slime_, or _mud_, of the Nile." The word of
+the Lord once came to Jeremiah, saying, "Arise, and go down to the
+potter's house, and there I will cause thee to hear my words. Then I
+went down to the potter's house, and, behold, he wrought a work on the
+wheel. And the word of the Lord came to me, saying, Behold, as the
+clay is in the potter's hand, so are ye in mine hand!" A scene like
+this is presented to our imagination by the words of Moses; the Lord
+God _formed_, moulded, or modelled man, as a potter does; we see the
+work, observes Bishop Horne, as it were upon the wheel, rising and
+growing under the hands of the Divine Artificer!
+
+But, to give the thing a stronger impression on the mind, we will
+suppose, says Judge Hale, that this figure rises by degrees, and is
+finished part by part, in some succession of time; and that, when
+the whole is completed, the veins and arteries bored, the sinews and
+tendons laid, the joints fitted, and liquor (transmutable in blood
+and juices) lodged in the ventricles of the heart, God infuses into
+it a vital principle, whereupon the liquor in the heart begins to
+descend, and thrill along the veins, and a heavenly blush arises in the
+countenance, such as scorns the help of art, and is above the power of
+imitation. The image moves, it walks, it speaks; it moves with such
+a majesty, as proclaims it the lord of the creation, and talks with
+such an accent and sublimity, as makes every ear attentive, and even
+its great Creator enter into converse with it: were we to see all this
+transacted before our eyes, I say, we could not but stand astonished at
+the thing; and yet this is the exact emblem of man's formation.
+
+The human body is an excellent piece of workmanship, the shape and
+contexture of it admirable, evidently superior to that of all other
+animals, and the brightest visible display of the wisdom of the Divine
+Architect. The erect posture, figure, stature, use of every part, and
+symmetry of the whole, cannot but excite admiration. The fabric of the
+eye, the texture of the brain, the configuration of the muscles, the
+disposition of the nerves, the construction of the bones; the veins and
+arteries, spread throughout the system, the former to return the blood
+to the heart, and keep that mysterious engine playing, which throws
+the vital fluid through the latter with prodigious force, to animate
+and invigorate every part; and many other important particulars, which
+we shall now proceed to mention and illustrate, are not only manifest
+proofs of the great excellence of this system, but also of the skill,
+contrivance, and consummate wisdom of God.
+
+When we take a general view of the animal world, we find the numerous
+individuals which compose it, differing considerably in the phenomena
+which their economy exhibits. Man, and the higher orders of animals,
+are characterized by the constant performance of many complex and
+active functions; as respiration, digestion, circulation, &c. Torpid
+or hibernating animals display this singular peculiarity, that these
+functions are performed for several months, and suspended for several
+months, alternately. In another modification of animated matter, namely
+the egg, the evidences of vitality would not be exhibited, were not
+certain agents applied to evolve them, and, when thus called forth,
+they cannot be resumed after long suspension.
+
+Although we are ignorant of the nature of the cause which regulates
+the uniform performance of this series of phenomena, thus more or less
+extensively displayed in the economy of different animals, we are
+nevertheless convinced that such a cause must exist, and are hence
+naturally led to distinguish the phenomena by some appropriate term.
+Thus observing that the human body, and the bodies of animals which
+bear it resemblance, possess locomotive powers, can regulate their
+actions, and are capable not only of resisting the laws which govern
+inanimate substances, but are enabled to act upon these substances in
+direct opposition to these laws, we employ the terms life, vitality,
+and vital power, to express the phenomena which thus distinguish
+animate from inanimate matter; and in order simply to determine the
+import of those terms, we may take a general view of those powers which
+a living animal body possesses, and which cease with its existence.
+
+When we compare the living with the dead body, the most striking
+circumstance we observe is, that the former was surrounded by the same
+chemical agents which are capable of producing the decomposition and
+destruction of its soft parts after death; hence it becomes evident,
+that its component elements must have been sustained and preserved
+by some superior power, which ceases to act at the moment of its
+dissolution.
+
+Of all the phenomena which enter into the general idea of life, this
+power of self-preservation, or the capability of resisting the laws
+which govern inanimate matter, appears the most essential. Without
+this principle we can form no conception of life, since it evidently
+exists without interruption till the moment of dissolution. It is
+this principle which, communicated to an egg, enables it to resist
+for a certain period the powers of heat, cold, and putrefaction; a
+principle of which the addle or barren egg is entirely devoid. Thus
+we find from Mr. J. Hunter's experiments, that an impregnated egg
+is longer in freezing than an addle egg, and every one knows that
+the former remains sweet or free from putrefaction much longer. This
+principle, which we may consider the most simple state of existence,
+is limited in its duration; and for its maintenance, the performance
+of no active function is necessary. Hence it continues in the egg
+either quiescent for a certain time, and is gradually destroyed; or,
+by the agency or stimulus of heat, it acquires the accession of the
+power of action, which assimilates inanimate matter into a living
+form, and, at length, exhibits in the chick all the phenomena of a
+more perfect state of existence, which may be distinguished by the
+term active life. In this state, many other phenomena of vitality
+are exhibited. Besides the power of self-preservation, an internal
+principle of support and reparation, and the power of performing the
+important actions of circulation, respiration, digestion, &c, which
+are subservient to this principle, is given to animals. These form the
+features of what we call life, as it appears in man, and the higher
+orders of animals, and certainly constitute its most useful, though not
+most essential part. For how little superior is an egg, or a torpid
+animal, to vegetable or inanimate matter, till the former contain a
+living chick, the latter become an active animal? Thus, though life
+may subsist under the quiescent form of self-preservation, it requires
+the accession of certain principles, and a power of performing various
+important actions, to display its chief characters. The economy then
+of an egg, and of a perfect animal, such as man, may be considered
+as examples of the most simple and extensive phenomena of vitality.
+These, however, are more or less perfectly exhibited in the different
+orders of animals. It belongs, for instance, to the economy of certain
+animals, which at one time of the year perform active functions,
+to become torpid at the approach of winter. In these creatures,
+respiration, digestion, and every function which characterizes active
+life, is suspended; as in the egg, the principle of self-preservation,
+that latent spark of vitality, alone remains, by which we distinguish
+torpidity from death. This condition, however, is not of long
+continuance; at the approach of summer's warmth, the power of action is
+again called forth, active functions are superadded to the principle of
+self-preservation, and life, before quiescent and obscure, now resumes
+its most perfect form; or, in other words, the animal just now inert
+and motionless, respires again; its heart beats, its blood circulates,
+its muscles resume their accustomed motions, and it leaves its winter
+quarters in search of food. Having now assumed the nature of an active
+animal, the performance of the functions characteristic of that state
+(which we shall now proceed to describe) becomes requisite; and, first,
+the circulation of a fluid which we call _blood_.[189]
+
+This fluid differs in its appearance in the different orders of
+animals, though, in its essential properties there is little variety;
+the appearance of the blood in man, and the more perfect animals, is
+that of a red fluid, having a certain degree of viscidity, not being
+limpid like common water. Though it appears to be a homogenous fluid
+whilst circulating, or at the moment it escapes from its vessels, it
+is composed of three parts, essentially differing from each other; of
+_particles_, upon which the color of the blood depends; of _coagulating
+lymph_, which has the property of becoming spontaneously solid under
+certain circumstances, and from which various structures in the body
+are formed; and of a limpid fluid called _serum_, which dilutes the
+coagulating lymph, and fits it for circulating through blood vessels of
+a very minute size. In some of the lower orders of animals, however,
+the color of the particles of the blood is green, in others white,
+corresponding with the color of the animal; in others there is no
+color whatever in the blood, so that it is either void of particles,
+or they are transparent, so as not to be seen. But this deficiency
+must be considered as making no great difference in the blood itself,
+as its particles do not appear to be its most essential part. Many
+microscopical observations have been made to determine the size of a
+single particle of the blood, and according to the observations of
+several philosophers, the diameter of a single particle in man has been
+computed at the 3,000th part of an inch. The size of the particles in
+red blooded animals, is found not to correspond with the size of the
+animal. They are as large in the mouse as the elephant, larger in some
+insects than in man, smaller in the ox. They are in prodigious numbers,
+so as to give color to the blood, and of all its parts appear to be
+renewed the most slowly; thus when animals are frequently bled, the
+flesh becomes paler and paler.[190]
+
+The next part of the blood, or coagulating lymph, is of the greatest
+importance. This constituent part becomes apparent, when blood is drawn
+from a vein into a cup, from its power of spontaneously coagulating
+into a solid mass, which appears red from a mixture of red particles:
+the color of the lymph however is transparent. This coagulation of
+the blood differs very essentially from the coagulation of inanimate
+substances, and is considered by many physiologists to be the last
+exertion of a living principle, which the blood is supposed to possess.
+This opinion, although not capable of absolute proof, is rendered
+extremely probable from a variety of facts, and by none more than the
+analogy between the coagulation of the blood, and the contraction of
+the muscles at death. These two actions appear to be influenced in
+some degree by the same causes. Thus, sudden death from lightning,
+or a blow upon the stomach, prevents the muscles from becoming rigid
+after death, and prevents also the coagulation of the blood. Under
+these circumstances it remains fluid. Besides violent death, several
+circumstances influence its tendency to coagulate and become solid,
+such as a great loss of blood--inflammation--pregnancy in females, and
+other causes.[191]
+
+The third important part of the blood is the serum. This is limpid like
+water, and remains permanently fluid, unless certain substances are
+employed to coagulate it, such as alcohol, alum, or a certain degree
+of heat. It dilutes the other parts of the blood, so as to reduce the
+whole to a proper state of fluidity. It is secreted, or naturally
+separated from the blood, and poured out by exhalent vessels in various
+cavities and parts of the body, as the chest, abdomen, cellular
+membrane, &c. It facilitates the easy motion of the various organs upon
+each other, and, when accumulated in large quantities, forms the fluid
+of dropsies.
+
+Besides these constituent parts, a quantity of water always circulates
+with the blood, varying according to the quantity of fluids taken
+in, and regulated in its proportion by the kidneys. Thus if a large
+quantity of water is taken into the stomach, particularly if it contain
+a little spirit in the form of punch, the kidneys are stimulated to
+an increased action, so as to separate from the blood the redundant
+quantity. A variety of other substances also are occasionally
+introduced into the blood, along with the aliment, alkaline substances
+producing their effect upon the nature of the urine, rhubarb on bile
+giving it a yellow color, and turpentine or asparagus altering its
+odor; all these substances, before passing off by urine, must have been
+mixed with the blood, from whence the urine is formed, being in fact
+its excrementitious part.[192]
+
+It is necessary for the blood thus formed, to pass to every part of
+the body, that it may be converted into the nature of these parts, and
+thus become subservient to their growth; that fluids, serving important
+purposes in animal bodies, may be separated or secreted from it; and
+that the temperature of the body may be equably maintained. The blood,
+however, has no power of motion in itself; if it be not propelled by
+certain parts of the body, it remains quiescent like any extraneous
+fluid.
+
+In two very numerous classes of animals, insects and zoophites, the
+motion of the blood is very simple; they are nourished like vegetables,
+by the absorption of the fluid, which is prepared in their alimentary
+canal, and have no circulation properly so called.
+
+But in man, and the higher orders of animals, a complex apparatus for
+the motion of the blood becomes necessary, consisting of an heart,
+arteries, and veins. The _heart_ may be considered as the chief agent
+in circulation, the general reservoir, and source from whence the blood
+flows. It is composed of two principles, one a principle of reception,
+the other a principle of propulsion. That cavity of the heart, which
+is called its auricle, receives the blood from the veins; the cavity
+called its ventricle, propels it through the arteries.
+
+Although the heart in all animals is formed on the same general
+principle, and for the same purpose, yet the economy of some animals
+admits of a greater simplicity in the conformation of this organ, than
+others. The most simple kind of heart is composed of one cavity, with
+a tube entering into it, by which it receives the blood, and another
+passing out of it, by which the blood is conveyed over the body. The
+next simple heart is composed of two cavities, an auricle, which
+receives the blood, and propels it into a ventricle, which diffuses it
+over the body. Another kind of heart is composed of three cavities;
+two auricles, and one ventricle; one auricle receiving the blood from
+the lungs, the other from the body generally; the blood from these two
+sources is mixed together in a single ventricle. This structure we
+find in some amphibious animals, in which it is not necessary that the
+blood should circulate with so much influence from the oxygenous part
+of the atmosphere, as in other animals. Accordingly we find the heart
+adapted to transmit only one half of the blood through the lungs at
+each circulation, whilst in more perfect animals the whole mass passes
+by this route. The last kind of heart is formed of four cavities, two
+auricles and two ventricles, and is the most perfect apparatus as
+it is found in man, and quadrupeds generally.--It must, however, be
+considered as composed of two distinct parts, or two simple hearts
+adhering together, and performing distinct parts of the circulation;
+and one part intended to receive the blood from the body, and circulate
+it through the lungs; the other part to receive the blood from the
+lungs, and propel it over the rest of the body. It is better suited
+to the economy of some animals, as the cuttle fish, that these parts
+should be separated to a considerable distance from each other. The
+reason why the heart is formed of two parts in most animals is, that
+it is necessary that the blood should receive the impulse of the heart
+twice, first to propel it through the lungs, next to propel it over the
+rest of the body.
+
+The blood is conveyed from the heart to every part of the body, by
+means of elastic tubes, called _arteries_. These arise from the
+ventricles of the heart by two large trunks, which branch out in
+every part of the body, into arteries of great minuteness, conveying
+the blood from the heart to its most distant parts, so that it is
+impossible to wound any part of the body with the finest point,
+without opening one of these vessels. This gives a good idea of their
+minuteness.
+
+From the minute termination of the arteries, begins a second set of
+vessels, the _veins_, which, having a contrary course, return the blood
+from every part of the body into the auricles of the heart.
+
+The larger arteries and veins, near the heart, differ very much
+from each other in their structure and action. This difference,
+however, does not descend to their minute ramifications, which must
+be considered as having the same structure, and performing the same
+office, the one passing into the other by such imperceptible degrees,
+that we cannot mark where the one terminates or the other begins.
+
+If we consider these tubes as subservient to the circulation of the
+blood, we shall see the necessity of certain principles entering into
+their structure. As the blood is forcibly thrown from the heart, these
+vessels must be distended; one of their properties therefore, must be a
+capability of being distended, which is given to them by elastic matter
+entering into their composition. As the vessels, however, are not to
+remain in a distended state, a power of reaction is added, which arises
+also out of their elasticity, and assists in propelling the blood
+forwards.
+
+Thus the elastic matter allows the vessels to be distended to a certain
+degree, and also reduces them to a smaller size. But it is necessary
+that the heart shall be assisted considerably, in the circulation
+of the blood, by a contractile power of the vessels themselves; and
+the same quantity of blood is not to circulate in the same body at
+all times, for animals are liable to frequent injuries, by which the
+quantities of blood in their bodies may be very suddenly reduced. Hence
+the vessels have given to them a further power of contraction to assist
+the heart, and accommodate themselves, under certain circumstances, to
+a smaller quantity of blood. For this purpose, a muscular structure is
+added to them, which is present in largest proportion in the smaller
+arteries; by this means, they are enabled so far to withstand the
+power of the heart, as to shut their cavities, and prevent the escape
+of blood when divided, forming one of the means by which the effusion
+of blood is spontaneously checked in living animals. And it may be
+remarked, that this power, for the purpose of self-preservation, is
+extended to larger arteries in the brute creation; for Mr. Hunter
+found, that the flow of blood from the large artery in the neck of an
+ass was checked by an exertion of this power, whilst every one knows
+that its division in man is fatal.
+
+Besides these parts, arteries have an internal lining, which is
+perfectly smooth, and of considerable density, that the blood may
+circulate with as little resistance, and be contained as completely as
+possible within its proper channels.
+
+The same observations will apply to the veins, though some of their
+properties are less strongly marked. They possess an elastic power
+capable of distension and reaction, a muscular structure endowed with
+contractility, and an internal lining over which the blood circulates
+with as little resistance as possible. By these powers the blood
+is circulated through every part of the body with great velocity.
+According to the best calculations, the heart alone exerts a power
+equal to the pressure of 51� pounds, which propels the blood through
+the arteries at the velocity of 149 feet in a minute; in which time it
+expels from its cavities about 160 ounces.
+
+Thus all animals are provided with an organ for propelling the blood,
+by certain channels, to the different parts of the body; but, as the
+functions of these parts are various, they require to be visited by
+very different proportions of blood, according to their activity or
+powers of life. Some parts of the body may be said to be inert, and
+merely possessed of a principle of life, to connect them with the
+other organs of the body, as parts of a living system, and to enable
+them to go through certain processes in their healthy and diseased
+states. Other parts are formed for active functions, and possess great
+sensibility. It is accordingly observed, that a smaller quantity of
+blood is distributed to bones, tendons, and similar inert parts, than
+to muscles and glands, whose exertions are more considerable.
+
+This then is the general apparatus in perfect animals, by which the
+blood performs its circulation through the various parts of the body,
+but during its course it is subject to constant exhaustion from various
+sources. It is converted in its passage into the nature of all the
+component parts of the body, and has the different secreted fluids
+derived from it, and these processes go on with more activity in a
+young, than an adult person: hence we see the necessity of a constant
+supply of materials to the blood, and this in the greatest proportion
+at an early period of life.
+
+Animals are furnished with the means of this supply, by their power of
+converting animal and vegetable substances into the nature of blood, by
+a process called _digestion_. Some animals are led by their nature to
+live on vegetable food, others on animal food only, whilst others can
+subsist on either, or any mixture of both.[193] The digestive powers
+of man fit him for any proportion of animal or vegetable foods, and
+are the most perfect of all animals. Other creatures may be said to be
+confined to a certain district, but the curiosity of man is to lead him
+over the whole world, and frequently place him in situations where only
+one kind of food is attainable.
+
+The first change which takes place in the food, in order that it shall
+be converted into the nature of the blood, is its division into smaller
+parts, by the teeth or gizzards of animals. It is then passed into
+the stomach, where it remains for some time exposed to the action of
+a fluid, formed in the stomach, which is called gastric juice. This
+possesses a very strong power of coagulating and dissolving various
+animal and vegetable substances. As far as we know, it acts on the
+principle of any other solvent, for it produces the same change in
+substances out of the body, or even within the body after death. It
+frequently happens, for instance, when a person has been killed, by
+accident, in full health, that, on inspection, the stomach is found
+dissolved, and reduced to a gelatinous mass in several parts, arising
+from the action of the gastric juice, which had been formed in it
+before death. The gastric juice, however, cannot act upon living
+substances: hence the stomach resists its action, and worms sometimes
+reside and are even generated in the stomach. Every substance capable
+of being acted upon in the stomach, is reduced, by the solvent power
+of the gastric juice, into a pulpy mass, which has been called chyme,
+the exact chemical properties of which have not been ascertained; in
+this state it is by degrees transferred into the beginning of the small
+intestines, where it is mixed with the bile and pancreatic fluid, and
+undergoes a change into a milky fluid, which is called chyle. It is
+then diffused by an undulating motion of the intestines over their
+inner surface, that it may be absorbed, and carried into the general
+mass of blood.
+
+As far as has yet been ascertained by experiment, the chyle of animals,
+most opposite to each other in their food, structure, and habits of
+life, is so much alike as to have no distinguishable difference. The
+chyle of a Dog, or Wolf, differs in nothing from that of a Sheep or
+an Ox. This would appear surprising, were it not ascertained that
+almost every alimentary matter undergoes a chemical change before it
+is converted into chyle, and that the ultimate analysis of either
+animal or vegetable matter presents us with the same elements as those
+of the blood, which, though only three or four in number, are capable
+of forming the various substances of which the body is composed, by
+combining with each other, and in different proportions. There is,
+however, this difference observable in the chyle, that in reptiles and
+insects it is transparent like lymph.
+
+The lacteals are the vessels by which the chyle is absorbed from the
+intestines: they form small processes on the internal surface of the
+intestines like the pile of velvet, which are hence called villi.
+A small portion of chyle being received into their open mouths, is
+propelled by successive contractions of these vessels into their large
+trunk, the _thoracic duct_, from whence it is poured into a great
+vein near the heart, and, by circulating through the lungs, probably
+receives its final change into blood; and this change would seem to
+be easily effected, as the chyle already possesses the principal
+properties of blood, being formed of particles swimming in a thinner
+fluid, and having a power of coagulating spontaneously.[194]
+
+This is the apparatus by which the food is digested in man so as to
+replenish the blood; but the digestive organs of different animals
+exhibit considerable varieties, some being more simple, others more
+complex in their structure, adapted to the kind of food with which the
+animal is nourished. Ruminating animals, or animals which chew the
+cud, such as the Cow, have several stomachs, and the food undergoes
+mastication several times, at each time being passed into a different
+stomach, before being finally acted upon by the gastric juice, after
+which it is transmitted through a long tract of intestines. This is an
+example of the most complex digestive organ fitted to act upon hard
+and fibrous food, which must be subjected to the action of several
+menstrua preparatory to its being acted upon by the gastric juice.
+
+In birds who live on grain as has been noticed, we meet with a
+different apparatus to prepare it to be acted upon by the gastric
+juice. The food first passes into the crop, which forms a kind of
+reservoir from whence it may pass by degrees into the gizzard, by which
+the grain is ground into small particles, before it is transmitted into
+the stomach: and it is surprising with how great power the gizzard acts
+for this purpose. The Abb� Spallanzani introduced a garnet, which is a
+very hard and angular stone, into the gizzard of a Wood-Pigeon, and, in
+the course of a day, it was ground perfectly smooth, by the action of
+the gizzard. He also introduced a leaden ball stuck full of tin points,
+and another with fine lancets, into the gizzard of a Turkey, and in
+about 18 hours, the whole of the points were rubbed down. The gizzard
+also possesses an amazing power of compression. Raumeur introduced into
+the gizzard of a Turkey tubes of tinned iron, seven lines in length,
+and two in diameter, closed with solder at each end; some were indented
+by the action of the gizzard, and others crushed flat. Similar tubes,
+introduced into the teeth of a vice, required the weight of about 440
+lb. to produce the same effect. The gizzard thus reduces into small
+particles whatever food the animal selects, that it may be more readily
+acted upon by the gastric juice in the stomach; for the gastric juice
+acts like any other solvent, and therefore acts most advantageously
+when the food is reduced into small parts.--The digestive organs
+of some of the lower orders of animals form a striking contrast to
+these. In the most simple apparatus with which we are acquainted, the
+stomach and the intestines are composed of a simple bag which has but
+one opening, which serves both to receive the food, and discharge the
+excrement. It composes in fact the whole bulk of a fresh-water Polypus.
+In these animals the chyle is absorbed by small vessels in the sides of
+the bag, and is conveyed to every part of the body.
+
+Thus we find that the supply of materials to the blood is commensurate
+to its exhaustion, that in young animals where a more active process
+of formation is going on, a larger proportion of food is requisite,
+and more chyle formed; this, however, is not all that is necessary
+to prepare the blood for its important purposes within the body. The
+blood, by passing through the various parts of the body, is so changed
+by the abstraction of certain properties, as to render it unfit for
+circulation, which implies the necessity of an organ, which may restore
+to the blood its requisite qualities. This office is performed by
+_respiration_, that function in animals by which the blood receives the
+influence of atmospherical air.
+
+There is a great variety in the structure of the organ for exposing the
+blood to the air, suited to the mode of life in different animals. In
+man and quadrupeds generally the lungs serve this purpose; they are
+composed of a number of blood vessels spread out upon minute air cells,
+which communicate with and receive the air by means of the trachea
+or windpipe, in consequence of the expansion of the chest by certain
+muscular powers. These vessels and cells are connected together by
+cellular membrane, so as to form a spongy mass called lungs, which are
+commonly placed in the chests of animals.--But besides this kind of
+organ, which in birds is very large, they have air bags, or appendages
+to the lungs, diffused through various parts of the body; even some
+of their long bones contain nothing but air, and communicate with the
+lungs. It was from a knowledge of this fact that Mr. J. Hunter made
+a Turkey breathe by its wings, by making an opening into their large
+bones, and closing the animal's mouth.
+
+In Fish, the gills serve the purpose of lungs. They are composed of
+a number of processes arising from cartilages, having distributed
+upon them minute blood-vessels, which receive the influence of air
+contained in water: and hence distilled water, which contains little
+air, destroys fish, in the same manner as the exhausted receiver of an
+air pump does a breathing animal.
+
+There is another mode of conveying air for the use of the blood in many
+insects, by means of a number of tubes or spiracula: these receive
+the external air, and, by ramifying in the body of the animal, convey
+its influence to the blood. Thus these animals may be said to respire
+like vegetables, throughout the whole of their surface, by vessels
+which introduce the air at different points into their bodies. In some
+insects the rectum forms the principal organ of respiration, and, in
+the class of animals called Zoophites, there are no visible organs of
+respiration.
+
+These different modifications, in the respiratory organs of the higher
+and lower orders of animals, are all formed with the same intention,
+viz. that the blood may be exposed more or less to atmospherical
+air. In consequence of this the blood undergoes a process similar to
+combustion, which extracts from it a part of its carbon, in the form of
+carbonic acid, and by this means increases the relative proportion of
+its remaining elements. The inspired air at the same time is deprived
+of a part of its oxygen, which is the elastic fluid which commonly
+supports respiration. All the corresponding effects produced upon
+the blood are not yet fully explained. But by this means the color
+of the blood is changed from a dark to a florid red, it acquires the
+power of exciting the action of the heart, and is fitted for its
+various purposes within the body.[195] By these organs, respiration
+is performed more or less extensively in the different orders of
+animals, corresponding in a great degree, to their activity, digestive
+powers, and the heat maintained in their bodies. Birds, whose extensive
+respiratory organs consume a larger quantity of air, are capable
+of greater exertion; make more frequent meals than quadrupeds, and
+maintain a superior temperature. Quadrupeds hold a middle place between
+birds and reptiles. Respiration appears in the class of reptiles, as
+Frogs and Toads, to be a subordinate function only; they can exist
+without it nearly as long as they please; at the same time they make
+very long fasts, and the heat of their bodies is more variable and
+lower than quadrupeds; hence they are called cold blooded animals.
+Their other habits accord well with their organs of respiration. They
+generally live in impure air, their motions are languid, and they pass
+a great part of their existence in a state of torpidity.
+
+A subordinate use of respiration in most animals, is the formation of
+the voice: for this purpose there are membranes stretched across the
+narrow part of the windpipe, which are thrown into a state of vibration
+by the current of air: the vibrations thus produced, being modified by
+other accessory parts, produce the voice. In many animals, however,
+it is produced by a very different mechanism. Some animals employ the
+friction of certain elastic parts of the body, as Grasshoppers and
+Crickets; others employ the vibration of certain parts in the air,
+whilst others impress a rapid motion on portions of air inclosed in
+certain parts of their bodies.
+
+There is a particular part of the heart in man, intended merely to
+propel the blood, which passes through the lungs to receive the
+influence of the air; this is the right ventricle; from whence the
+blood passes, by the pulmonary artery, through the minute vessels
+expanded on the air cells, and is changed from a dark to a florid
+color: it is then returned back to the left ventricle, by the pulmonary
+veins, and is propelled over the rest of the body, where it is again
+changed (by the abstraction of certain properties) to the dark color
+peculiar to venous blood: the blood is lastly conveyed by the veins
+to the right side of the heart from whence it set out, having passed
+through two circles.
+
+The blood thus prepared by the lungs for circulation, passes in
+different quantities to different parts of the body, according to
+their activity, and has various fluids formed from it, which are
+called secreted fluids, as gastric juice, milk, bile, &c. The parts
+of the body forming many of these fluids, are very peculiar in their
+structure, and are called _glands_. They consist in an arrangement of
+vessels, endowed with a mode of action, with which we are unacquainted,
+by which the component parts of the blood are disposed to enter into
+new combinations, and to form compounds differing from the blood
+itself. Thus the vessels are arranged on the inside of the stomach, in
+such a way, as by their action to form gastric juice from the blood; on
+the same principle, milk is produced from the blood which circulates
+in the breast, or bile in the liver. As gastric juice, milk, and bile,
+differ very much from each other in their properties, we must infer,
+that there is a considerable variety in the action, by which these
+vessels form these fluids from the blood; and this is necessarily
+connected with a variety in arrangement, which is the case in all the
+glands of the body. In one gland, for example, the blood-vessels form a
+minute net-work; in another, are convoluted at their extremities; in a
+third, a large branch suddenly divides into a number of small branches,
+like the hairs of a painter's brush; in a fourth, they are disposed in
+an arborescent form, each gland differing from every other in the mode
+of distribution of its blood-vessels, and forming different products
+from the blood.
+
+The substances formed by many of the glands of the body, are applied
+to useful purposes, within or without the body. An instance of the
+former we have in the bile formed by the liver, or the gastric juice
+formed by the stomach; and of the latter, in the milk.--Other secreted
+fluids are rejected as excrementitious: the best example of this is
+the urine formed by the kidneys. This gland separates from the blood
+a great variety of substances, which might otherwise prove noxious by
+circulating along with it; many of these have occasionally very curious
+chemical properties, and under a certain state of the body, the altered
+secretion of this organ is very remarkable, in as far as it produces
+a large quantity of a familiar substance, which in this instance is
+composed within the body. In the disease called diabetes, for example,
+a patient sometimes makes four or five gallons of urine in the 24
+hours, in which is dissolved a considerable quantity of matter, like
+common sugar or treacle, probably to the amount of two or three pounds.
+
+Besides these fluids formed from the blood, each by an appropriate
+glandular apparatus, there are watery fluids constantly secreted in
+various parts of the body; and, that these may not accumulate, or
+remain after they have performed their office, it is necessary for the
+body to be furnished with vessels, whose powers of removal may keep
+pace with the deposition of these fluids. This introduces the system
+of vessels called _absorbents_, which are distinct in their office
+and nature from the blood-vessels, and are widely diffused over the
+whole body. In every part of the body a limpid fluid is thrown out for
+the purpose of easy motion, moistening the cellular membrane, which
+connects the various parts of the body to each other, and lubricating
+the contents of all the cavities of the body; this fluid is thrown out
+in the form of vapor by the exhalents, which belong to the arterial
+system, whilst the lymphatic absorbent vessels, by their action,
+remove what is not convenient for the function of the part; and these
+two actions, of deposition, by the exhalents, and absorption, by the
+lymphatics, go on during health, so nicely balanced, that when we open
+into any of the great cavities of the body, as the belly or chest,
+the quantity of fluid we find is extremely small. When, however, the
+balance between these two orders of vessels is destroyed, when the
+exhalents throw out more fluid than usual, and the lymphatics only
+absorb their natural quantity; or the exhalents deposit their natural
+quantity, whilst the lymphatics absorb less than natural, accumulation
+of water in the cellular membrane, or great cavities of the body, takes
+place, and produces dropsies.
+
+There is another set of vessels, which have been already mentioned,
+a part of the same system of absorbents, which from their office of
+absorbing a white fluid, the chyle, have been denominated lacteals;
+these arise from the inner surface of the intestines, in great numbers,
+and convey the chyle into the general mass of blood.--Whilst the
+minute beginnings of the lacteal vessels, from the internal surface
+of the intestines, is a matter of ocular demonstration, we have only
+presumptive proof of the origin of the lymphatics, which make the
+greatest part of the absorbent system. We have, however, good grounds
+for concluding, that they arise from every external and internal
+surface of the body. We find, for example, that certain remedies, as
+mercurial ointment, or turpentine, rubbed on the skin of any part of
+the body, produce effects on distant parts; the mercury by removing
+affections of various parts of the body, the turpentine increasing
+the flow of urine, and giving it a peculiar odor: these effects are
+explained by presuming the absorption of these substances, by the
+lymphatics, arising from the surface of the skin. We have further proof
+of this from the occasional absorption of watery fluids, under peculiar
+circumstances. Sailors at sea, in want of fresh water, have quenched
+their thirst by dipping their clothes in salt water, and applying them
+to the surface of the body, from which only the elementary part was
+absorbed by these vessels. A jockey, after reducing himself to a great
+degree has become in a short time too heavy to ride his match, merely
+by drinking a glass of wine, which had stimulated the absorbents of
+the skin to take up a large quantity of aqueous matter from the air.
+Or a person gibbeted alive, has been observed to make a considerable
+quantity of urine as long as he lived, without any liquid being taken
+by the mouth. These are all considered as evidences that the lymphatic
+absorbent vessels arise from every external surface of the skin, and
+are capable of taking up substances applied to them.
+
+We find next that water accumulated in the large cavities of the chest
+or abdomen, or underneath the skin in the cellular membrane, of every
+part of the body, is occasionally removed from these situations, by
+remedies which have the power of increasing the action of the absorbent
+vessels. We hence conclude, that these vessels arise from every
+internal part, and are, in short, widely diffused over the whole body,
+though their beginnings are too minute to be detected by any mode of
+examination with which we are acquainted.
+
+The absorbent vessels, from whatever part they arise, terminate in the
+blood-vessels, principally by one vessel or trunk, which is called the
+_thoracic duct_. This commences in the cavity of the abdomen, passes
+through the chest on the right side of the spine, and, at length,
+enters a large vein situated on the left side of the neck. Through
+this vessel, besides the fluids taken up in various parts of the body,
+the whole of the nourishment from digested aliment passes into the
+blood; it may therefore be said to be the most important vessel in the
+body,[196] and it is situated in one of the safest positions in the
+body, so that an injury done to it is a very rare occurrence.
+
+Thus the absorbent system is formed of two sets of vessels, having the
+same structure, the same absorbing office, and the same termination,
+but differing in the fluids they convey, and the parts of the body they
+occupy. The one widely diffused over the whole body, and from their
+office of usually absorbing limpid fluids, called lymphatics; the other
+arising only from the intestines, and denominated lacteals, from the
+milky whiteness of the chyle they absorb.
+
+Thus far the absorbent vessels have been described, as employed in
+taking up fluids only. The action of the absorbent system, however,
+is not considered as confined to the fluid parts of the body; there
+are a variety of instances, in which the most solid parts appear to be
+removed by the absorbents. Thus when a tooth is extracted, or drops out
+in old age, its bony socket is removed by the action of the absorbents.
+The pressure of a pulsating tumor, called aneurism, against the ribs,
+or thigh bone, has produced their removal in the same way. These are
+considered as instances of solid matter being removed by the absorbent
+vessels, from internal parts of the body, without any external opening.
+It is, however, a matter of doubt, which we cannot at present discuss,
+whether a bone is broken down by the absorbents themselves, so as to
+be removed in small particles; or whether, as is more probable, its
+presence or irritation (as an extraneous body) produces the secretion
+of a fluid, similar in its properties to the gastric juice, by which
+it is first reduced into minute particles, or entirely dissolved, so as
+thus to enter the absorbent vessels.
+
+Another important part of the office of these vessels, is to
+model the shape of the body, and to concur with the action of the
+blood-vessels in regulating its growth. For the human body does
+not, like a marble statue, constantly contain the same identical
+particles in its composition. As the stream of a river is formed of
+a constant succession of aqueous particles, sometimes increasing,
+sometimes diminishing its natural bulk; so the human body is constantly
+undergoing an imperceptible change of parts. The absorbents, by their
+action, remove exhausted particles, whilst the arteries form from the
+blood an adequate supply of new parts. When these two powers are equal,
+the body continues of the same bulk; when from disease or contingent
+circumstances, the one or the other predominates, the body increases in
+growth, becomes corpulent, or emaciated.
+
+Thus we have seen a variety of organs necessary to carry on the
+functions of perfect animals: these, however, are inert, and incapable
+of motion in themselves. Hence a _nervous system_ becomes requisite,
+which may excite and influence the whole. We find in man, and
+quadrupeds generally, the nervous system placed principally in the
+brain and spinal marrow; from these sources, the nerves are distributed
+like white cords, and pass in various proportions to the different
+parts of the body, conveying the excitements of the brain.
+
+One of the most important excitements conveyed from the brain, through
+the medium of the nerves, is volition; by this means the muscles become
+obedient to the will, and perform the voluntary actions of animals.
+If, for instance, I wish to take up a pen, I exert my volition towards
+the action, and the consequence of this is, that the muscles employed
+in the action, are stimulated to contract, from a peculiar excitement
+being conveyed to them from the brain, through the medium of the
+nerves. We are totally ignorant, however, of the state of the brain,
+whilst giving out the excitement, or the change which takes place in
+the nerves whilst conveying it. We know, however, that the brain may
+be rendered incapable of giving rise to the excitement, and it may be
+arrested in its progress down the nerves by artificial means. If a
+ligature be applied upon a nerve by tying a piece of thread round it,
+the nerve is rendered incapable of transmitting the excitement, so as
+to produce motion in muscles. The same state is frequently produced in
+the brain and nerves, by the disease called palsy, or by fractures of
+the skull. There are also various excitements passing from the brain
+to the vital organs of the body, whose actions are not regulated by
+the will, and are therefore called involuntary, or automatic actions,
+as circulation, parturition, &c. Thus if a person have ever so strong
+a desire, he cannot make his heart beat more frequently; nor can he
+prevent it from beating more frequently, if any one should put him in
+bodily fear; although the heart is formed of muscular flesh, similar to
+the muscles, which he can command in his arm. The reason of this is,
+that the nerves of the heart cannot convey the influence of volition;
+for the wisest reasons the heart acts without it.
+
+It is also necessary for various influences to be communicated from
+external objects to the brain, to keep up a correspondence between
+animals, and the material world around them, and to communicate
+those impressions from which the brain is afterwards to carry on its
+functions. As the parts formed for this purpose differ from ordinary
+parts of the body, in having a larger share of nervous influence given
+to them, they have been called the _organs of sense_, which in an
+anatomical point of view, may be said to be five in number, the eye,
+the ear, the tongue, the nose, and the skin.
+
+In the _eye_, we discover a most accurate optical instrument, adapted
+to converge the rays of light at its posterior part. It is composed of
+a spherical box, containing transparent media of different densities,
+by which the rays of light are conveyed to a point, so as to impress
+a minute image of the visible appearance of external objects upon
+the retina or expansion of the optic nerve, by which the impression
+is conveyed to the brain, so as to bring us acquainted with external
+objects.
+
+The _ear_ is formed to receive impressions from bodies in a state of
+vibration, which are conveyed to the brain by an apparatus composed of
+various substances, and eminently calculated to transmit the slightest
+tremors. The vibrations of the air, for instance, first strike the drum
+of the ear; are thence communicated to a delicate chain composed of
+four minute bones. By these the vibration is increased, and transmitted
+to a fluid, contained in several small winding canals, in which the
+delicate filaments of the nerves of hearing are arranged, so as to
+transmit the impressions they receive from the surrounding fluids,
+and produce in the brain the perception of sound; these two senses,
+by the infinitely varied modification of their impressions, convey a
+prodigious supply of materials for the action of the mind.
+
+The organ of _touch_ is next in point of importance; it has its seat
+in the extremities of the nerves distributed over the skin, and is the
+only sense which belongs to every class of animals. This organ gives
+rise to sensations, which have no natural alliance with each other.
+By this sense we compare different degrees of temperature with each
+other; from this we derive our idea of distance between bodies; of
+their tangible figure, of their roughness, smoothness, hardness, and
+other qualities, from the relative position with respect to ourselves,
+or the degree or kind of resistance they offer. And, when man has
+been deprived of his communication with many external objects, by the
+loss of vision, we find the organ of touch gradually encroaching upon
+the function of the eye, and from attention to its finer impressions,
+becoming, through the education of necessity, a much more extensive
+source of information. As an instance of this, I may adduce Mr. Gough,
+who can accurately distinguish the color and character of flowers, by
+the nice sense of touch possessed by the tip of the tongue.
+
+The other senses may be said to be of less importance. The _nose_
+affords a passage for the air to the lungs, and is impressed by the
+odorous particles of bodies diffused through it, and, whilst it thus
+occasionally administers to our gratification, it gives us notice of
+the presence of those aeriform fluids which are noxious to respiration.
+Like the organ of _taste_, which is impressed by sapid bodies, it has
+a peculiar sympathy with the stomach; thus the taste, or smell, of any
+disagreeable substance, very commonly excites sickness and vomiting.
+
+Thus each of the organs of sense are formed in a peculiar manner, and
+are supplied with nerves of a peculiar structure, which are capable
+of being excited by certain impressions only, so as to give rise to
+sensation. The odorous particles of bodies, for instance, if applied to
+the nerves of the nose, excite an impression, which, when conveyed to
+the brain, gives rise to the perception of smell; but, every one knows
+that they produce no such effect when applied to the nerves of the
+skin. In the same way, the rays of light applied to the nerves of the
+eye produce vision; but, no such effect takes place when they impinge
+upon the tongue.--Each of the organs of sense then possess a peculiar
+modification of nerves, which are excited by appropriate impressions.
+
+By these organs we become acquainted with what passes around us; but
+the nervous system gives us notice of many changes which take place
+within our bodies. Internal pains point out to us the presence and
+situation of diseases; and the disagreeable sensations of hunger,
+thirst, and fatigue, incline us to give refreshment and repose to the
+body. It is also by means of the nervous system, that we experience the
+passions and emotions of the mind.
+
+There are some animals so simple in their structure, that neither
+brain, nor organs of sense have been detected; yet they are endowed
+with motion, and are capable of selecting and swallowing their
+food, and expelling their excrement; and as these acts appear to be
+voluntary, we must conclude, that they possess nervous matter, though
+it be so interwoven with the rest of their structure that we cannot
+exhibit or detect it.
+
+All these different structures which have been described as entering
+into the formation of a perfect animal, are soft and flexible in
+themselves, and, in order to the right performance of their functions,
+require the support of a substance of considerable firmness, which
+may preserve them in their relative situations, and give a general
+shape to the body. For this purpose, _bones_ are formed in the higher
+orders of animals. They consist of a certain portion of animal matter,
+on which their powers of life depend, mixed with a portion of earthy
+matter, which gives them a degree of solidity. The firmest substance
+in the body, composed entirely of animal matter, is cartilage, which
+possesses, however, too little solidity for the support of animals of
+considerable size, living in so rare a medium as air. Hence it happens
+that when the earthy part is, by disease, abstracted from the bones,
+they become bent and deformed by the weight of the body, or the action
+of its moving powers. In fishes, however, who inhabit a denser medium,
+cartilage becomes a convenient structure, being sufficiently firm
+for their support, and, from its lightness, better suited to their
+condition.
+
+Had the osseous system been merely intended to give shape to animals,
+and preserve the relative position of their parts, it might, for any
+useful purpose, have been as well formed of one piece; and accordingly,
+when almost all the bones of the body have been anchylosed, or
+immoveably united to each other by disease, the functions of life have
+gone on uniformly to an advanced age. There is a remarkable skeleton
+of this kind preserved at Trinity College, Dublin; where all the large
+bones of the body are immoveably united together, except the lower jaw,
+and the joints of the fingers; every joint in the body was immoveable,
+and yet this person lived to an old age. In order, however, that
+animals may enjoy a power of changing their situation, the osseous
+system has been composed of a variety of pieces, and an apparatus added
+by which this may be easily effected. This is accomplished by adapting
+the ends of bones to each other so as to form joints, which vary in
+different parts of the body according to the motion of the part, some
+being formed for strength, others for extent and variety of motion; the
+two being incompatible, and never found in the same joint.
+
+In the formation of a joint, however, it appears that two surfaces
+of bone would move with considerable attrition upon each other, not
+being capable of a sufficient degree of smoothness; it is therefore
+necessary, in order to diminish attrition, that a substance be
+interposed having a high degree of polish; this is supplied by
+cartilage, with which the ends of all bones, performing motion, are
+covered; and as animals, both from the common occurrences of life, and
+from accident, are liable to considerable shocks, in order to guard
+the system, as much as possible, against injury from these sources,
+cartilages are endowed with a considerable degree of elasticity, and
+thus by their reaction are capable of evading certain degrees of
+violence.
+
+The smoothness of cartilage, however, only prevents attrition to a
+certain degree; that joints therefore may move with all possible ease
+and freedom, a fluid is interposed called _sinovia_. This is separated
+from the blood, by the vessels distributed to the inner surface of the
+joint, and is the most slippery of all fluids.
+
+In order that bones may not be separated from each other, but preserve
+their relative situations, with a certain capacity of motion, it is
+requisite that they should be joined together; this is done by the
+ligaments surrounding a joint, which are of two kinds. The one adapted
+to the firm junction of the bones with each other, upon which the
+strength of the joint depends; the other loosely attached round the
+ends of contiguous bones, to secrete sinovia, and retain it in its
+proper situation; and hence called capsular or purse-like ligament.
+
+This kind of structure, endowed with a power of secreting sinovia, is
+not confined to the joints alone; for in many parts of the body, where
+muscles during their action rub on bones, or tendon on tendon, small
+bags are formed for supplying sinovia, which are called burs� mucos�.
+
+As all these parts subservient to motion are inert in themselves,
+that animals may enjoy the means of changing their situations and
+attitudes, a power must be applied to the bones for this purpose, which
+is supplied by muscular action. Thus we find the bones clothed with
+_muscles_, which give, in a great measure, the external shape to the
+body, and act in considerable numbers on the joints, particularly those
+which possess much motion.
+
+All animals have a muscular structure entering into their composition,
+with some variety in its appearance. Muscles are generally fibrous
+to the eye, and in Man and Quadrupeds are of a red color; in some
+animals, however, these circumstances are not at all obvious. Thus in
+many fishes, the muscles are white, and put on a flaky appearance;
+whilst in the fresh water Polypus, which possesses a great degree of
+contractile power, no fibres can be seen. So that it is not necessary
+that these properties should be obvious in the muscles of all animals.
+Thus no person has ever seen the fibres in the muscles of a Flea, yet
+no animal can exert greater muscular power. In the same way, many parts
+of the body possess a contractile power, which have no apparent fibrous
+structure; the best example of this, is the skin of the scrotum. The
+redness of a muscle, in fact, depends in a great measure on the degree
+of exertion it undergoes; thus when a limb becomes motionless from
+palsy, the muscles uniformly become pale.--The function of a muscle
+consists in its contracting or shortening itself, in consequence of
+the application of certain stimuli or excitements; the effect of this
+contraction is, that the different bones to which the muscles are
+attached are moved in various directions. Thus (to give an example) a
+muscle affixed to two contiguous bones, by shortening itself, brings
+those points to which it is affixed nearer to each other; and, from
+this mechanism, arise all the motions of the body. The greatest part
+of the muscles which put the limbs in motion by their contractions,
+are said to act under the excitement of volition, or, in other words,
+are under the control and influence of the will, and are therefore
+called voluntary muscles. There are many muscles, however, which are
+not excited by volition, and are therefore called involuntary. As these
+are directed by influences, and perform the actions on which life
+immediately depends, they, for obvious reasons, are not only put beyond
+the powers of the will, but are enabled to carry on their contractions
+and motions without interruption or fatigue, entirely independent of
+its direction or our consciousness. In this manner the heart performs
+the circulation of the blood, and the stomach and intestines give the
+requisite motion to the food.--There are many other excitements which
+produce contraction in muscles, such as the passions and emotions of
+the mind, and various mechanical and chemical stimuli. Some of them
+occasionally excite the voluntary muscles of the body to a degree
+of action, over which volition has no control. Thus a person in an
+ordinary state of mind, can walk more or less quietly as suits his
+convenience; but it occasionally happens, we shall say in the field of
+battle, that the passion of fear is excited; this excitement frequently
+disregards the power of the will, and strongly excites the muscles
+employed in running away.[197]
+
+In most animals, there is connected with the muscles another kind of
+structure called _tendon_, which consists in a white substance very
+different from muscles, but having a fibrous structure. Although
+tendons are not necessary to the action of muscles, yet there are
+several advantages derived from them; they occupy much less room than
+muscles, and can be placed in greater numbers around the joints, so
+as to preserve the beauty and uniformity of the limbs. They may be
+considered as living cords, joining the muscle to the bone on which it
+is to act, and, being more scantily supplied with blood than muscles,
+make a smaller quantity of blood necessary to the system, which is
+certainly a convenience. Although the different parts of the body
+vary very much in their functions and degree of motion; yet, it is
+convenient, that they should be all united together by a substance of
+considerable elasticity. This is done by the interposition of _cellular
+membrane_, which is the general connecting medium throughout the body,
+attaching each organ to its neighbor, but allowing sufficient play for
+the performance of its function.
+
+It is in the cellular membrane of different parts of the body that fat
+is deposited; and from the seeming caprice of nature, in overloading
+some animals, and entirely denying it to others, its use has been
+thought inconsiderable in the system. When, however, we remark, that
+fat is taken up in some diseases where the appetite is impaired; and
+that torpid animals, before hibernation, have a large quantity of it
+accumulated, and come out of that state quite emaciated: and that
+bees, who have no fat in their bodies, lay up a stock of food, having
+the same chemical properties, against their hibernating season; it
+appears very probable, that one use of fat is to form a reservoir of
+nutriment, which supplies the wants of an animal when food is not
+introduced by the stomach.
+
+If we add the _skin_ to the cellular membrane, we may say, without
+these the beauty and symmetry of the exterior would have been much
+diminished. We should have seen the raw muscles in all their actions,
+and the naked nerves exposed to the air and to injury. There would have
+existed deep fissures between the muscles, cavities in almost every
+part, and the body would have presented the sad appearance it now does
+in consumption.[198] But the cellular substance in some places only
+separates one part from another, or affords a slippery surface for one
+muscle to slide over the other: in others forming membranes or fascia
+to hide, to bind down and strengthen different organs; while in others
+admitting into its cells an oily substance, becomes fat, and fills up
+all the interstices, rounds off all prominences, softens acute lines,
+and gives a graceful softness and contour to the whole. And the skin
+enveloping in a close case, keeps all compact, and hides from the eye
+whatever might be offensive: while, at the same time the cutis or
+true skin serves for a surface for the nerves and exhalent vessels to
+terminate, the cuticle or scarf skin defends them from injury, and
+moderates their excessive sensibility.
+
+As all animals are to live in media where the heat varies, it was
+necessary either to form them in such a way, that their functions
+should not be affected by varieties in temperature, or that they should
+be enabled to keep up the heat of their bodies at a regular point.
+Animals have been endowed with the latter power, and can accordingly
+maintain their heat, whether exposed to a high or low degree of
+temperature, with some exception as to the degree in the lower orders
+of animals, in some of which the temperature varies with that of the
+medium in which they are placed. This is the case with the Frog.--This
+animal, when placed in warm water, has the temperature of its body
+raised several degrees, and, on the other hand, may be reduced to
+the freezing point, without producing death. The heat of the human
+body, however, is little changed, whether it be exposed to intense
+cold, or much above the heat of boiling water. In the experiments
+made in heated rooms by Dr. Fordyce, and Sir Charles Blagden, these
+gentlemen remained several minutes in the heat of 260 degrees, nearly
+50 degrees more than boiling water. At this heat a beefsteak and eggs
+were cooked near the stove, and yet the heated air produced no bad
+effect upon their bodies: it raised the temperature of their bodies
+only a few degrees.--The lungs are the chief agents by which heat is
+introduced into animal bodies. By their means, the blood is exposed to
+the air, and consumes its oxygenous part, which contains the principle
+of heat in a combined state. This, during circulation, is evolved by
+the minute blood vessels, so as to become sensible on every part of
+the body: and it is an important fact, that the quantity of oxygen
+consumed is greater in cold than warm weather; by this wise provision,
+in proportion as the heat is more quickly carried off by the coldness
+of the surrounding medium, the animal receives an increased internal
+supply. Many experiments have been instituted to ascertain the quantity
+of oxygen consumed in a given time by ordinary respiration, and,
+according to the best calculations, it appears that the consumption
+amounts to about 33� ounces troy weight, in 24 hours; and it has been
+computed by philosophers, that the quantity of heat, which the oxygen
+consumes and will supply to the body, is nearly equal to that given out
+by a common candle.[199] I have thus attempted to give a short view of
+the different structures and functions of the body, and have briefly
+pointed out some of their varieties in the different classes of animals.
+
+This corporeal system, which by its uniform and harmonious action
+contributes so essentially and largely to our terrestrial enjoyment,
+exhibits an astonishing display of the infinite wisdom, almighty power,
+and boundless goodness of its glorious Creator. Galen, an ancient Pagan
+physician, on contemplating the different parts of the human body, and
+the disposition of them, fell on his knees in humble adoration of the
+wisdom with which the whole is contrived; and was excited to challenge
+any one, after a hundred years' study, to tell how the least fiber or
+particle could have been more commodiously placed, either for use or
+beauty. His seventeen books on the subject are like so many hymns of
+praise to the almighty and all-wise God, the Creator. Lactantius calls
+his writings on the body of man, a marvellous comment on his creation,
+and Galen himself managed the subject as a full demonstration of a
+Deity which every man carries about with him.
+
+But what is still more deserving of our attention is the _soul_ of man:
+for if the external structure be so admirable a piece of mechanism,
+what shall we say of the immaterial and intellectual spirit resident
+in it? This noble, constituent, essential part of man, is yet a more
+astonishing production of infinite skill and power. Elihu says, "The
+Spirit of God hath made me, and the breath of the Almighty hath given
+me life. There is a spirit in man, and the inspiration of the Almighty
+giveth them understanding." God, by his creating energy, called all
+things out of nothing, but there was neither order, light, nor motion,
+till the Divine Spirit moved on the lifeless chaos; so the same
+all-wise and powerful Architect formed of clay the wonderful fabric
+of man's body, which remained without life and action, till the Holy
+Spirit infused a vital spirit into him, thereby enduing him with sense,
+motion, understanding, will, and active powers. This soul, therefore,
+became a living principle of intelligence, consciousness, and activity,
+in man.
+
+The great Creator said, "Let us make man in _our image_, after _our
+likeness_." Now, as the Divine Being is infinite, he is neither
+limited by parts, nor definable by passions: therefore he can have
+no _corporeal image_ after which he formed the body of man. The
+_image_ and _likeness_ in which he was created must necessarily be
+intellectual: his soul must have been formed after the nature and
+perfections of God. The Creator was now producing a spirit, formed
+after himself. He is the fountain whence it issued; hence the stream
+must resemble the spring which produced it.
+
+The most perfect description of God, given to us in the Scripture,
+is that by our Saviour:--"God is a Spirit." It has been observed by
+expositors, that this assertion is no where else to be found in the
+sacred Writings. That passage, "Now the Lord is that Spirit," sounds
+something like it, but in meaning is different. The word _God_ here
+is not to be understood personally, either for the Father, or the
+Son, or the Holy Ghost, alone, but essentially for the Divine Nature,
+which each of these glorious Persons possesses. The Divine Nature is
+_spirit_. This shows, that, according to the popular and common use of
+the word, he is a Being entirely separated from matter or body, in all
+its properties and affections; that he is a pure mind, and possessed of
+the most excellent powers and perfections, which belong to spiritual
+beings.
+
+It is difficult, for persons of a low understanding, who are
+unaccustomed to abstract reflections, and who have imbibed their
+knowledge by means of the external senses, employed on material
+objects, to raise their minds to the contemplation of the existence
+of immaterial, invisible beings. But that there really are such, and
+particularly that God is such, admits of the clearest proof, and will
+not be called in question by any who on rational grounds acknowledge
+his existence. It is usually granted, that it is much more easy to say
+what a spirit is not, than to define what it is. It is not in the power
+of the wisest and most knowing of men, to declare its nature. Nay, who
+can explain what the consistence of any piece of matter is, which we
+every day see and touch!
+
+But as, notwithstanding our ignorance of the essence of material
+objects, we are not only sure of their existence, but also know many
+of their properties; so in like manner, though we are ignorant of the
+nature of spirits, yet from their manifest operations and effects, we
+are both convinced that such beings exist, and have some notion of
+several of their faculties and powers.
+
+The powers and capacities that we observe in all the operations and
+works of God, are utterly inconsistent with the properties we discern
+in matter. In the works of creation we perceive evident proofs of
+thought, intention, contrivance, and design; which powers, we are sure,
+having no affinity with solidity, figure, and a capacity of being moved
+by the impulse of another, cannot arise from the composition or mixture
+of any of the known properties of matter. Not only the existence, but
+many of the perfections of God, may be discerned in various parts of
+the universe.
+
+In short, we can say nothing higher of God, than that he is a Spirit.
+This notion leads us to conceive of him as a most perfect Being, and
+to reject concerning him whatever would argue any imperfection. It
+leads us to believe him to be perfectly immaterial, free from all the
+imperfections of matter, and from all the infirmities of corporeal
+creatures. But though _spirit_ signifies a being of higher rank than
+body or matter, yet the word is too low to express the essence of God,
+any otherwise than analogically, or metaphorically. He is infinitely
+more excellent than the highest created spirits, being eternal, and
+immutable. But some may inquire, if God be such a Spirit, how is it
+that in Scripture we read of his having bodily members, and natural
+affections, like men; such as head, eyes, ears, mouth, hands, and feet;
+and the affections, or passions, of anger, grief, love, joy, &c? these
+are ascribed to him, or rather assumed by him. I answer; this is done
+in condescension to our narrow capacities; for if God should speak
+to us of himself, as he is in himself, our understandings could not
+comprehend him. As the inconceivable glories of the world to come, are
+explained to us by the honors and pleasures of this life; so the nature
+of God, by a gracious condescension to our weakness, is signified to
+us by a likeness to our own. By human members being ascribed to God,
+are implied the moral excellencies of his spiritual nature, or rather
+his operations, which are more sensible to us than his invisible
+nature. His eyes are emblems of his knowledge, wisdom, omniscience, and
+providence. His face indicates his favor, and sometimes is expressive
+of his displeasure, because both these appear in the countenance of
+a man. His mouth is the symbol of the revelation of his will. His
+hand, or arm, is indicative of the less or greater exercises of his
+power.--Such a _Spirit_ is the Creator of man, whom he made in his
+_image_ or _likeness_.
+
+Whoever reflects with attention on the human soul, may easily
+perceive it to be of a nature entirely different from the body. Being
+immaterial, it is not compounded of material principles, nor consists
+of innumerable parts which may be separated from each other; neither
+is it capable of solidity, figure, extension, and other properties
+of matter; but is a simple, uncompounded substance, though possessed
+of various and distinct powers; and therefore is neither visible nor
+divisible, nor has it any dimensions or shape.
+
+The soul has a power of _thought_, with which mere matter can never
+be endued. If it pass through all the changes, and assume all the
+shapes of which it is capable, thought will never be the result. It may
+be differently modified, framed, and disposed, but cannot think. "I
+find in me something that _thinks_," says a celebrated author, "which
+neither earth, water, air, fire, nor any mixture of them, can possibly
+do. Something which sees, hears, smells, tastes, and feels, all which
+are so many modes of thinking." Thought is the privilege of immaterial
+beings.[200]
+
+This inward principle is capable not only of thinking, but of love,
+desire, hope, joy; hatred, fear, sorrow, anger, and a whole train of
+inward emotions, which are commonly called _passions_ or _affections_.
+A something apprehended to be good in itself, or calculated to be
+beneficial to us, is the object of love. If that good be absent,
+it excites desire: if there be a probability of obtaining it, that
+produces hope; and the possession of the desired object yields delight
+and joy. Evil, whether real, or imaginary only, is the object of
+dislike and aversion. If there be any probability of this evil coming
+in contact with us, it causes fear; and if it unavoidably come upon us,
+it produces sorrow or anger. These passions or affections seem to be
+the only spring of action in the soul.
+
+The soul has received from God a principle of motion, whereby
+it governs at pleasure every part of the body, and directs its
+operations: only with this exception, that all the vital motions,
+which are absolutely necessary for the continuance of animal life,
+are involuntarily going on, whether we advert to them or not; which
+is a marvellous instance of the wisdom and goodness of God. With the
+exception of these, I direct the motion of my whole body. By a single
+act of my will, I put my head, eyes, hands, or any part into motion:
+although the manner of doing this I do not comprehend. Every one feels
+that he has an inherent power to move this or that part of his body or
+not, and to give it a direction this way or the contrary, just as he
+pleases. I can, as I choose, open or shut my eyes, speak or be silent,
+rise up or sit down, stretch out my hand or draw it in, and use any of
+my limbs according to my pleasure, as well as my whole body. Matter may
+be moved, but it can never move itself.
+
+The soul is free in its operations; it possesses this property, which
+is capable of being exerted with regard to all its faculties, as well
+as all the motions of the body. It is a power of self-determination,
+which, though not affecting all our thoughts and imaginations, yet
+extends to our words and actions in general, with but few exceptions.
+I am certain, that I am free to speak or not to speak, to act or not
+to act, to do this or to do the contrary, as I am of my own existence.
+I have not only what is termed a _liberty of contradiction_, but what
+is termed a _liberty of contrariety_, a power to act one way, or the
+contrary: to deny this would be to contradict the uniform experience
+of all human kind. The soul is not necessitated to judge or act by any
+bodily impulse. Let things appear as they may to the senses, the soul
+can suspend its judgment, till it has examined and considered them more
+thoroughly. Let the appetites and inclinations of the body strongly
+urge their own gratification, the soul can refuse their solicitations,
+and maturely weigh what the consequences would be. Let all the
+allurements of sensible objects, the assurance of sensual enjoyments,
+or the influence of custom and example, try to corrupt the integrity
+of the soul, and lead it astray from the paths of peace and purity;
+unless it consent, the attempts will prove ineffectual. We can reason,
+discourse, study, contrive, choose, and refuse with discretion; begin
+a work, and cease again at pleasure. We can reflect on what we have
+done, and either rejoice and delight in it, or be ashamed and grieved
+for it. We distinguish truth from error, moral good and evil; we fear
+punishment on having committed evil, and hope for reward on having done
+well. And, through the grace of God assisting us, we have a power to
+embrace and resolve to do good, as well as evil. We are free to choose
+whom we will serve, and, if we determine in favor of the better part,
+to continue therein.
+
+_Conscience_ is not a faculty of the soul distinct from the
+understanding, memory, will, and affections, but that power by
+which we are conscious of our own state, reflect on our actions,
+and pronounce them either good or evil. This supposes, that we are
+acquainted with the law of God, either natural or written, which
+is the rule of our duty. The name is derived from the Latin word
+_conscientia_, into which the Greek word <<syneid�sis>> is exactly
+translated. Both these words for conscience, signify, that the mind is
+possessed of a consciousness of the actions and thoughts of the man,
+and passes a judgment on them, according to some rule. The Jews have
+no proper word in their language for conscience, and therefore use
+the term _heart_; which is also used in the New Testament. Conscience
+is the journal or diary of the actions of man. Its office is, 1. To
+call, urge, and excite us to duty. 2. To testify and bear witness
+either for or against us, according as we perform or neglect our
+duty. 3. Either to excuse or acquit, or accuse and condemn us, on the
+evidence it gives of the moral nature and quality of our actions: if
+they be conformable to the Divine rule, as to matter and manner, it
+acquits us; if they be contrary to it, conscience accuses, condemns,
+and passes sentence upon us. 4. And if its sentence be true and just,
+conformable to rule, it is ratified by God the Supreme Judge, whose
+deputy and vicegerent it is in the breast of every man.
+
+Though the soul is not under the imperious influence of the body, yet
+for many ages it has been allowed by sensible men, that "there is
+nothing in the understanding which is not first perceived by some of
+the senses." The imagination is the place where the images of things
+are first engendered, and from which they are transferred to the
+understanding. And therefore those who want any sense, cannot have the
+least knowledge or idea of the objects peculiar to that sense: as they
+who never had sight, have not the least conception of light or colors.
+But there is a great difference between our senses, considered as the
+avenues of knowledge. Some of them have a narrow sphere of action:
+others a more extensive one. By _feeling_ we discern only those objects
+which touch some part of our body; and consequently this sense extends
+only to a small number of objects. Our senses of _taste_ and _smell_
+extend to fewer still. But, on the other hand, our nobler sense of
+_hearing_ has a wide sphere of action: especially in the case of loud
+sounds, as thunder, the roaring of the sea, or the discharge of cannon:
+the last of which sounds has been frequently heard at the distance
+of near a hundred miles. Yet the space to which the hearing itself
+extends is small, compared to that through which the _sight_ extends.
+This sense takes in at one view, not only the most unbounded prospects
+on earth, but also the moon, and the other planets, the sun, yea, the
+fixed stars, though at such an immeasurable distance.
+
+But still none of our senses can reach beyond the bounds of this
+visible world. They supply us with such knowledge of the material
+world, as answers all the purposes of life. But as this was the design
+for which they were given, beyond this they cannot go. They furnish
+us with no information at all, concerning the _invisible world_.
+But the wise and gracious Governor of the worlds, both visible and
+invisible, has prepared a remedy for this defect. He has favored us
+with a _revelation_, concerning himself, his existence, perfections,
+and will; and another world, its nature, certainty, and duration: and
+this revelation is contained in the Scriptures. And he has appointed
+_faith_ to supply the defect of sense; to take us up where sense sets
+us down, and help us over the great gulf. Its office begins where that
+of sense ends. Sense is the evidence of things that are seen; of the
+visible, the material world, and the several parts of it. Faith, on
+the other hand, is the "evidence of things not seen," of the invisible
+world: of all these invisible things, which are revealed in the Oracles
+of God.[201] Though eternal things come not within the reach of sense,
+yet, by faith, they are as present to the mind, in their reality,
+excellence, and continuance, as if they were seen with the eye of the
+body. The testimony of the God of truth, is the foundation and reason
+of this faith; for what he says must be true, because he cannot lie:
+this is a principle concerning which all agree who own his existence.
+
+The soul has a vast intellectual capacity; for the knowledge of God,
+nature, providence, the original and present state of man, the visible
+world, sublime speculations, and useful discoveries, come within its
+comprehension. It can reason, infer, reflect, and carry on a chain of
+thoughts, with perspicuity and close connection, concerning things. Its
+powers take in objects of all dimensions; yet they are not situated
+as bodies in a material place, where the greater occupy more space
+than the less: for the thought of a mile, or ten thousand miles, does
+no more fill or stretch the soul, than that of a foot, an inch, or a
+mathematical point. And whereas all matter has its parts, and those
+extended, one without another, into length, breadth, and thickness, and
+so is measurable by inches, yards, or solid measures; there is nothing
+of measurable extension in any thing belonging to the soul, neither
+length, breadth, nor thickness; nor is it possible to form an idea of
+a foot of thought, a yard of reason, a pound of wisdom, or a quart of
+virtue.[202] The soul is capable of abstract notions, mathematical and
+metaphysical conceptions. Its powers are so great, that we can explore
+nature, span the surface of the earth, dive into its capacious seas,
+and there discover the numerous inhabitants of the watery world. We
+can travel to the sun, continue our journey through our own spherical
+system, from planet to planet, tell their dimensions, measure their
+distances, and accompany them through their various revolutions. We can
+pass the boundaries of our own, and enter into other systems; and from
+thence, into eternity itself: ascending from region to region, from
+world to world, from the creature till we reach the abode of the great
+Creator, who is the first cause of all things; and then, with ravished
+eyes, gaze on that glorious Luminary of the moral world, till we are
+amazed, delighted, and overpowered, with the splendor of his infinite
+perfections.
+
+The soul is _immortal_ in its duration: it once began to be, but will
+never cease to exist. When the whole of time is elapsed, it will live
+in the vigorous exercise of its active powers, and its existence run
+parallel with eternity. The death of the soul cannot be effected by the
+operation of second causes; and God, who is the first cause, will never
+annihilate it. The Sadducees denied the immateriality and immortality
+of the soul, saying, that, except God, there was no spirit: they were
+much like the Epicureans among the Gentile philosophers. In refutation
+of this Sadducean notion, our Saviour referred them to the five Books
+of Moses, which they acknowledged as of Divine authority, where God
+says, "I am the God of Abraham, and the God of Isaac, and the God of
+Jacob." Abraham had been dead upwards of 300 years when these words
+were spoken to Moses. Now, says our Saviour, "God is not the God of
+the dead, but of the living." Though the bodies of these renowned
+patriarchs had been long dead, and ceased to exist among mortals, their
+souls were still living, not only in a future state, but with God.
+He also warned his disciples of the opposition they would meet with,
+in the faithful discharge of their religious and ministerial duties,
+from the prejudice, rage, and fury of men; but urged them to take
+courage, and not suffer themselves to be intimidated, so as to neglect
+in any degree the execution of the important commission he had given
+them, saying, "Fear not them which kill the body, but are not able to
+kill the soul." Hence the soul is a principle distinct from the body,
+actually survives it, and can subsist without it, not only retaining
+its vital existence, but its consciousness, reflection, and activity.
+The following lines of Addison are strongly and beautifully descriptive
+of the immortality of the soul:
+
+    "The soul, secure in her existence, smiles
+    At dissolution, and defies its power.
+    The stars shall fade away, the sun himself
+    Grow dim with age, and nature sink in years;
+    But thou shalt flourish in immortal youth--
+    Unhurt, amidst the war of elements,
+    The wreck of matter, and the crash of worlds."
+
+In a word, since the soul is not material, it can have no parts; if it
+have no parts, then it cannot be separated; if it cannot be separated,
+then it cannot be dissolved; if it cannot be dissolved, then it is
+incorruptible; and if it be incorruptible, then it is immortal.
+
+Thus it is evident, from all the perceptions of the soul, that it
+is not compounded like the body. Those powers and affections, such
+as thought and reason, judgment and liberty, love and hatred, joy
+and sorrow, can never be the properties or effects of matter, in any
+possible variation or modification of its parts. Nor can matter ever
+produce those noble and just sentiments, those sublime and generous
+affections, to which the soul sometimes rises in its contemplations of
+God, the phenomena of the universe, and the operation of Providence
+which sustains and governs all things. All this can never be produced
+by matter, which is altogether inactive of itself; and when motion
+is impressed on it, the only change produced is in the situation and
+contexture of its parts. Surely all attempts to account for these
+things, by any laws of nature known in the corporeal world, are
+absolutely ridiculous.
+
+How strange is it then, that such a spiritual being should be united
+so closely to flesh and blood, imprisoned in a tenement of clay,
+and use the body as the instrument of active operations.--Several
+philosophers, among whom is Socrates, have called the body <<t�s
+psych�s oik�t�rion>>, _the habitation of the soul_; yea, <<phylak�
+kai taphos>>, her moveable _prison_, and living _sepulchre_. These
+two essential parts of man, which God, at his creation, united so
+closely together, that both make but one person, is a great mystery;
+considering the different natures that adhere, soul and body, matter
+and spirit. All this is unintelligible to the human intellect,
+however improved and capacious. The disputers of this world will find
+themselves completely perplexed, in attempting to explain by what ties
+a spirit is united to a piece of clay; and what holds it confined to
+its habitation. The adhesion of the material particles in the human
+body, the flame of animal life kindled and burning clear and strong
+within us, and the union of spirit and matter, so that the one is the
+tenement of the other, and the instrument of its operations, are, as
+to their manner, mysterious, and attended with difficulties that would
+perplex and confound the most penetrating and sagacious mind.
+
+Man then was created in the _natural_ image of God, which consisted
+chiefly in the spiritual nature, amazing powers, and immortality of
+his soul; like God, it is a _spirit_, immaterial, invisible, active,
+intelligent, free, and immortal: and partly, in a lower sense, in the
+privilege of his body, which, in his state of innocence, was, by the
+promise of his Creator, entitled to a gratuitous immortality. Some
+make reason or understanding to be the image in which God created man:
+but, though this may be included, yet, it is not the principal thing
+intended by the Divine _image_: for if rationality were the image, it
+could never be lost. Sin, which defaces this beautiful image, does not
+deprive man of intellect: his nature will for ever continue rational;
+he can never, I presume, be deprived of his reason so as not to possess
+it any more. Thought and consciousness are inseparable from the nature
+of man, and therefore this _image_ of God in which Adam was created,
+must be something distinct from reason. Indeed reasonable creatures
+only can be the subjects of it, but reason is not the thing itself.
+To suppose that mere reason is God's image in man, is an hypothesis
+unworthy of a reasonable nature; and with how much confidence soever
+some assert, the assertion is reproachful to our Maker.
+
+The chief thing intended by the Divine _image_, is moral rectitude;
+man was created in the _moral image_ of God; but that image in man
+was only a _likeness_, it did not equal, but resembled its high
+original--a disparity which necessarily exists between a creature
+and its Creator. According to any rational opinion we can form of
+God, we must believe that he is a spiritual Being; which includes the
+simplicity of his nature, his indivisibility, and his immortality;
+possessed not only of every natural perfection, but of all moral
+excellencies. He is not only an intelligent, omnipresent, omniscient,
+almighty Being, but wise, holy, righteous, and good. Without moral
+perfections, his character would not be very interesting to us. If he
+had no radical and constitutional principle in his nature that could
+move him to regard the temper of our minds, and the complexion of our
+actions, or cause him to be either pleased or displeased with our
+behavior, however conducted, we should have no reason to act either
+from motives of love or fear of him. His natural attributes alone, are
+very far from finishing his character; in conjunction with these, his
+moral excellencies complete his glory, exhibit him as the most perfect
+Agent, and render him in the most exalted sense our Governor. His
+holiness, justice, goodness, and truth, are called moral attributes,
+or communicable perfections; because we can trace some resemblance
+in angels and men; though there is an infinite disproportion between
+these perfections as they exist in God, and are faintly displayed in
+the creatures: in him they are infinite, in the creatures finite and
+limited.
+
+These moral perfections constitute God a proper object of religious
+adoration, and without which no worship would be due or could be
+rendered to him. The Divine Nature is the foundation of that worship
+which we, as rational beings, are under obligations to perform; and the
+revelation of the will of God, with which he has graciously favored us
+in the Scripture, is the constant rule of his worship. On believing his
+existence, and cultivating the knowledge of his attributes, especially
+those which are so astonishingly displayed and harmonized in the
+redemption of mankind by Jesus Christ, it very naturally follows, to
+every reflecting mind, that we owe him ourselves, and are bound by the
+strongest ties to present to him the most spiritual worship of which
+our intelligent nature is capable.
+
+The moral image of God, after which man was created, was his greatest
+excellence. His _understanding_ possessed a large capacity for
+improvement, equal to an extensive and accurate acquaintance with
+things both natural and divine, the acquisition of which would
+facilitate his own happiness, by rendering him more competent to
+answer the benevolent design which his Creator projected in calling
+him into existence. This capacity was amply supplied by his Creator;
+for all divine knowledge is given by revelation; which he must either
+communicate to man, or he must remain ignorant of him. The capacity
+is one thing, and its improvement is another; which, as it is not
+naturally inherent in man, so it must be acquired. The knowledge of
+the nature, perfections, and will of God, can, in the first instance,
+only be made known by himself; for there is not a correct notion of him
+in the whole intellectual and moral world, but what has been received
+from either Divine revelation, or his own immediate influence. Adam,
+then, as an intelligent creature, was endued with the knowledge of
+God, so far as was necessary to enable him to fear, love, and serve
+him. Without a perception of his existence and perfections, and the
+knowledge of his will, he could not perform any acts of adoration,
+reverence, reliance, regard, and delight, toward him. If therefore
+man, in his primitive state, was obliged to worship his Creator (of
+which certainly no one can doubt,) it must be granted that he possessed
+knowledge equal to the nature and extent of his obligations. In his
+state of innocence, he did not perform a blind devotion, or worship he
+knew not what. Such ignorance is the consequence of sin; therefore he
+could not be the unhappy subject of it before he transgressed.
+
+Some persons have thought that Adam, in his primeval state, understood
+the doctrine of a Trinity of Persons or Subsistencies in the Godhead.
+Though the knowledge of this important doctrine cannot be attained by
+reasoning on the operations of Divine wisdom, power, and goodness,
+visibly and conspicuously displayed in the universe; yet, as Adam
+received by immediate revelation some truths, why may we not suppose
+that this mystery was not conveyed to him in the same way, that his
+acts of devotion might comport with the honors due to each of the
+Sacred Three? The Divine Nature is without multiplicity, it is one; but
+the Three Subsistencies in that Essence are essential to the Godhead:
+this arrangement is radical, constitutional, and eternal. Therefore why
+should not God be worshipped according to his own natural distinction
+of Persons in his undivided Essence, by man in his primitive state? A
+Trinity in Unity is the most correct view of God; and, consequently,
+the worship that accords with it, being the most accurate, must be
+acceptable to him. The Christian religion has not given existence to
+this doctrine of the Trinity; for independently of the mediatorial
+scheme of redemption and salvation by Christ, God was from eternity the
+same Triune Being, and cannot change. It is not improbable that man,
+while he retained his pristine state, worshipped the Father, the Son,
+and the Holy Spirit, in all his acts of religious worship. Lord Bacon,
+in his Confession of Faith, says,--"I believe that nothing is without
+beginning but God; no nature, no matter, no spirit, but one only, and
+the same God. That God, as he is eternally almighty, only wise, only
+good, in his nature; so he is eternally Father, Son, and Spirit, in
+Persons."
+
+We cannot rationally suppose that Adam was a stranger to his _duty_,
+either in its nature, manner, or extent. If he had not known what
+duties his Creator required him to perform, it would have been
+impossible for him to act agreeably to his will. Obedience to any
+authority necessarily supposes a knowledge of what it enjoins: and,
+consequently, Adam must have known what he ought to practise, in what
+manner, and with what views; for, otherwise, he could not be obedient
+to the will of God in what he did. Hence we must conclude, that he was
+acquainted with the whole compass of his duty. As his understanding was
+not blinded by contracted prejudices, so it was free from any natural
+defect. His mind was furnished with correct views of God, his own
+dependence upon him, relations and obligations to him, and the way to
+please and enjoy him.
+
+Adam, in his primitive state, knew wherein his _happiness_ consisted.
+If he had been ignorant of that happiness to which he was entitled
+so long as he preserved his integrity, how could he have enjoyed it
+while in his possession; for a delight in any present good arises from
+a perception of its nature and value. Neither was he ignorant of the
+misery, into which an action committed against the will of his Creator
+would bring him. He certainly knew that sinning against God would
+inevitably be attended with fatal effects to himself. His unclouded
+reason could not but discern, that rebellion against the dignity and
+sovereignty of his Maker would unavoidably expose him to his righteous
+displeasure.
+
+As the judgment of Adam could not but entirely approve of the supreme
+Good, in all the perfections of its nature, and revelation of the
+Divine Mind; so his _will_, with great freedom following its dictates,
+readily embraced what was right, and exactly harmonized with every
+requisition. He had a holy disposition, such as comported with the
+infinite perfection of holiness, so resplendent in the Divine Nature.
+Some have asserted, that God formed man without any direction in his
+will either to good or evil. But this imagination is irrational, for
+it supposes that he was neither holy nor unholy. It is evident from
+Scripture, that he was created good in an ethical or moral sense,
+for he was made in the _image_ of God, which chiefly consisted in a
+conformity to his moral perfections. He resembled these, particularly
+that of holiness; so that, though in an infinitely lower degree, he was
+holy as God is holy; without the least taint of sin in his nature, or
+any inclination to evil, all his powers and faculties being disposed to
+comply with his utmost requisition.
+
+Adam's _affections_ were subordinate and obedient to the higher
+faculties of his soul, and moved without the least tumult or disorder.
+Being pure and regular, there was no depravity or discord among them.
+No temptation arose from vanity seated in any of the inferior powers:
+neither was there a rebellious disposition among the passions directed
+against his reason. No unlawful love, delight, or aversion had any
+place in his innocent nature, and therefore the dictates of reason
+did not meet with any control from corruption in the affections; and,
+consequently, obedience to his Creator was not rendered difficult by
+unruliness in the passions. Being thus made after the _likeness_ of
+God, he had the moral law written on his heart: that hereby he might
+have a perfect rule of obedience, and be easily apprised of his duty
+to him. And as he was indispensably obliged to yield obedience to this
+law, and the consequence of violating it would be endless ruin, God, as
+a just and gracious Sovereign, gave him ability to keep it. Herein he
+treated him as a rational creature, and a subject of moral government.
+
+The inferior _appetites_ of Adam were in a state of perfect subjection,
+and never indulged to the least excess. The animal structure requiring
+food for its support, there was a great variety provided. But while
+surrounded with plenty, he was strictly temperate; his appetite was
+regular, consistent with purity, and in harmony with his devotions.
+The _senses_ also corresponded to the faculties of the soul, and
+were inlets to wisdom and enjoyment. Thus, as one observes, all his
+faculties both of body and mind were subservient to the glory of God,
+and contributed to his own felicity: a state which we are to regain by
+Christ.
+
+    "Enslav'd to sense, to pleasure prone,
+        Fond of created good;
+    Father, our helplessness we own,
+        And trembling taste our food.
+
+    Trembling we taste; for, ah! no more
+        To thee the creatures lead;
+    Chang'd, they exert a baneful power,
+        And poison, while they feed.
+
+    Curs'd for the sake of wretched man,
+        They now engross him whole;
+    With pleasing force on earth detain!
+        And sensualize his soul.
+
+    Groveling on earth we still must lie,
+        Till Christ the curse repeal:
+    Till Christ descending from on high
+        Infected nature heal.
+
+    Come then, our heavenly Adam, come,
+        Thy healing influence give;
+    Hallow our food, reverse our doom,
+        And bid us eat, and live.
+
+    Turn the full stream of nature's tide:
+        Let all our actions tend
+    To thee their source; thy love the guide,
+        Thy glory be the end.
+
+    Earth then a scale to heaven shall be,
+        Sense shall point out the road;
+    The creatures all shall lead to thee,
+        And all we taste be God."
+
+Man was _happy_ in his original state; he not only was free from pain
+and misery, but enjoyed delight. His pleasure was of a pure nature, not
+only such as God approved, but derived from a Divine source. If his
+mind had not been possessed of correct knowledge, his will disposed
+to obedience, his affections regular and holy, and his appetites and
+senses subject to a rational control, what pleasure could he have taken
+in the contemplation of infinite perfections, and in a compliance to
+the requisitions of the moral law? Happiness necessarily supposes
+delight, and delight as necessarily supposes a concordance between
+the disposition of the soul, and the objects from which its pleasure
+springs. Man was happy while innocent; he therefore enjoyed pleasure,
+which was pure, arising from positive holiness, and the presence
+and blessing of God. Surely it is reasonable to conclude, that Adam
+performed devotional acts with holy reverence and supreme delight. He
+could not but give the tribute of praise to his beneficent Creator, for
+his superabundant goodness toward him; being favored with every thing,
+not only necessary to his sustenance, in the excellent circumstances
+in which he was placed, but with whatever he could desire for the
+entertainment and delight of his innocent and heavenly mind. Above
+all, his grateful soul most certainly adored his Creator, for the
+glorious and beneficial displays of his wisdom, power, and goodness,
+and rejoiced in the interest he had in his approbation, protection,
+and kindness. While he retained his integrity, and enjoyed free access
+to his Maker, intimate communion with him, and was free from his
+displeasure, what serenity, satisfaction, and pleasure must fill his
+soul! He possessed that first and greatest of blessings, mentioned by
+Horace, _mens sana in corpore sano_, a sound mind in a healthy body.
+
+Notwithstanding the excellent state in which Adam was created, and
+advantageous circumstances in which he was placed, yet he was liable
+to fall. By reason of the spiritual and intelligent principle in him,
+he became a moral agent, and a subject of moral government. He knew
+his duty, and had the power of determining his own choice and actions.
+He could choose good, and refuse evil, and be influenced by the hope
+of reward and the fear of punishment. He had no disposition to sin in
+his nature: for God could not create him in a sinful state, since that
+would render him the author of sin. He had full power to stand: but
+God could not interfere with the freedom of his will; and herein he
+acted toward him in a way agreeable to his condition of probation. The
+mutability of his will was essential to him as a rational creature,
+placed in a state of responsibility for his actions to the great
+Governor of the world. Dr. Paley says, "Free agency in its very essence
+contains liability to abuse. Yet, if you deprive man of his free
+agency, you subvert his nature." God answers for himself in Milton:--
+
+                    ----"Man had of me
+    All he could have: I made him just and right,
+    Sufficient to have stood, though free to fall."
+
+The sentiments of Faber are very appropriate. "When the Almighty ceased
+from the work of creation, he pronounced all that he had made to be
+very good. The new world was as yet free from the inroads of sin, and
+from the curse of sterility.
+
+                        ---- 'Nature then
+    Wanton'd as in her prime, and play'd at will
+    Her virgin fancies.'
+
+"The whole creation smiled upon man, and the golden age of the poets
+was realized. Blessed with perfect health, both mental and corporeal,
+our heaven-born progenitor was equally unconscious of the stings
+of guilt and the pangs of disease. His understanding was unclouded
+with the mists of vice, ignorance, and error; his will, though
+absolutely free, was yet entirely devoted to the service of God; and
+his affections warm, vigorous, and undivided, were ardently bent upon
+the great Fountain of existence. Though vested in an earthly body,
+his soul was as the soul of an angel, pure, just, and upright. He was
+uncontaminated with the smallest sin, and free from even the slightest
+taint of pollution. His passions perfectly under the guidance of his
+reason, yielded a ready and cheerful obedience to the dictates of
+his conscience; an obedience, not constrained and irksome, but full,
+unreserved, and attended with sensations of unmixed delight. Such was
+man when he came forth from the hand of his Creator, the image of God
+stamped upon his soul and influencing all his actions."[203]
+
+We may add, the authority and _dominion_ with which God invested Adam.
+This extended "over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air,
+and over the cattle, and over the earth, and over every living thing
+that creepeth upon the earth." God constituted him the ruler, under
+him, of all the inferior creatures. He probably inducted him into this
+office when he caused the creatures to pass in review before him.
+"And the Lord God brought every beast of the field, and every fowl
+of the air, unto Adam to see what he would call them: and Adam gave
+names to all cattle, and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast
+of the field: and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that
+was the name thereof." Man alone, says Smellie, enjoys the power of
+communicating and expressing his ideas by articulate and artificial
+language. This inestimable prerogative is a great source of improvement
+to the human intellect. Without artificial language, though the Author
+of nature has bestowed on every animal a mode of expressing its wants
+and desires, its pleasures and pains, what a humiliating figure would
+the human species exhibit?
+
+Dr. Beattie, in defining the human voice, says, it is air sent out
+from the lungs, and so agitated, or modified, in its passage through
+the windpipe and larynx, as to become distinctly audible. The windpipe
+conveys air into the lungs for the purpose of respiration and speech;
+the top or upper part of which is called the larynx, consisting of
+four or five cartilages, that may be expanded or brought together,
+by the agency of certain muscles which operate all at the same time.
+In the middle of the larynx there is a small aperture, called the
+_glottis_, through which the breath and voice are conveyed, but which,
+when we swallow any thing, is covered by a lid called the _epiglottis_.
+Authors have determined that the voice is produced by two semi-circular
+membranes in the middle of the larynx, which form by their separation
+the aperture that is termed the glottis. The space between them is not
+wider than one-tenth of an inch; through which the breath transmitted
+from the lungs must pass with considerable velocity. In its passage
+it is supposed to give a brisk vibratory motion to the membranous
+lips of the glottis, and so to form the sound which we call _voice_:
+in order to the production of which, it, however, seems necessary,
+that, by an energy of the will, a certain degree of tenseness should
+be communicated to the larynx, or at least to the two membranes in the
+middle of it. The voice, thus formed, is strengthened and mellowed by
+a reverberation from the palate, and other hollow places in the inside
+of the mouth and nostrils; and as these are better or worse shaped
+for this reverberation, it is said to be more or less agreeable. The
+glottis is found to be narrower in women and young persons than in men;
+hence the voices of the latter are deeper, or more grave, than those
+of the former. We can at pleasure dilate or contract this aperture,
+so as to form the tones of the voice to every variety of the musical
+scale. If we consider the many variations of sound, which the same
+human voice is capable of uttering, together with the small diameter
+of the glottis; and reflect that the same diameter must always produce
+the same tone, and, consequently, that to every change of tone a
+correspondent change of diameter is necessary: we must be astonished
+at the mechanism of these parts and the fineness of the fibers,
+producing effects so minute, various, and uniform. For it admits of
+proof, that the glottis is capable of at least sixty distinct degrees
+of contraction and enlargement, by each of which a different note is
+produced.[204]
+
+Concerning the origin of language, numerous conjectures have been
+formed. As an instance how far the human mind, unassisted by a Divine
+revelation, can go, Diodorus Siculus and Vitruvius have asserted, "that
+men at first lived like beasts in woods and caves, forming only strange
+and uncouth noises, till their fears caused them to associate together;
+and that on growing acquainted with each other, they came to correspond
+about things, first by signs, then to make names for them, and in time,
+to frame and perfect a language; and that the languages of the world
+are different, because different companies of men happening thus to
+come together in different places, would, of course, form different
+sounds or names of things; hence would arise the variety observable
+even in ancient languages." Thus we perceive the necessity of the
+Scriptures relative even to this subject.
+
+"The Mosaic History," observes Dr. A. Clarke, "represents man as
+being immediately capable of conversing with his Maker: of giving
+names to the various tribes and classes of animals; and of reasoning
+consecutively, and in perfectly appropriate terms, concerning his own
+situation, and the relation he stood in to the creatures. As in man's
+first attempt at speech, according to this account, there appear no
+crudeness of conception, no barrenness of ideas, and no inexpressive
+or unappropriate terms, it is most rational to conclude, that God who
+made and endued him with corporeal and mental powers, perfectly suited
+to his state and condition in life, endued him also, not only with the
+faculty of speech, but with speech or language itself; which latter was
+as necessary to his comfort, and, indeed, to the perfection and end
+of his being, as any other power or faculty which his Creator thought
+proper to bestow upon him."
+
+Some assert that Adam _gave names_, from an intimate knowledge of the
+nature and properties of each creature: that this shows the perfection
+of his knowledge, for the names affixed to the different animals
+in Scripture always express some prominent feature and essential
+characteristic of the creatures to which they are applied; and that had
+he not possessed an intuitive knowledge of the grand and distinguishing
+properties of those animals, he never could have given them such names.
+Dr. Leland states, that man was immediately endued with the gift of
+language, which necessarily supposes that he was furnished with a stock
+of ideas, a specimen of which he gave in giving names to the inferior
+animals, which were brought to him for that purpose. Dr. Johnson
+affirms, that the origin of language must have come by inspiration.
+But Bishop Warburton conjectures, that God, in this transaction with
+Adam, taught him language. Here, says he, by a common figure of speech,
+the historian, instead of directly relating the fact, that God taught
+man language, represents it, by showing God in the _act_ of doing it,
+in a particular _mode_ of information; and that the most apposite we
+can conceive in elementary instruction; namely, the giving of names
+to substances; things with which Adam was to be conversant, and which
+therefore had need of being distinguished each by its proper name.
+And what a familiar image do these words give one of a learner of his
+rudiments? _And God brought every beast to Adam to_ SEE _what he would
+call them_. But though it appears that God taught man language, yet we
+cannot reasonably suppose it any other than what served his present
+occasions, he being now of himself able to improve and enlarge it, as
+his future necessities should require. The celebrated Cowper, touching
+this subject says:--
+
+    "One man alone, the father of us all,
+    Drew not his life from woman; never gaz'd,
+    With mute unconsciousness of what he saw,
+    On all around him: learn'd not by degrees,
+    Nor aw'd articulation to his ear;
+    But, moulded by his Maker into man
+    At once, upstood intelligent, survey'd
+    All creatures, with precision understood
+    Their purport, uses, properties, assign'd
+    To each his name significant, and, fill'd
+    With love, and wisdom, render'd back to Heaven
+    In praise harmonious the first air he drew.
+    He was excus'd the penalties of dull
+    Minority. No tutor charg'd his hand
+    With the thought-tracing quill, or task'd his mind
+    With problems."
+
+However, by the creatures passing before Adam, probably in pairs,
+and he giving them names as they passed according to the nature and
+properties of each, one thing evidently appears, namely, he was
+convinced that none of these animals could be a suitable companion for
+him; for, among all which he had named, "there was not a help-meet for
+him:" one suitable and proper as an intimate companion and friend.
+
+              "He views the vast creation o'er,
+    Marks his own structure more than e'er before;
+    Sees all the creatures with their co-mates blest,
+    Himself left pensive, far unlike the rest;
+    Without compeer with whom his hours to spend,
+    Or jointly at the sacred altar bend.
+    _Religion_--sacred to the first great Cause:
+    _Philosophy_--the voice of Nature's laws;
+    And _social dictates_, all at once combine
+    To teach their pupil, that the whole design
+    Is not completed, while his lonely life
+    Is left without a helper, friend, and wife.
+    Refulgent Sol, while traversing his way,
+    Has Luna shining with her lucid ray;
+    And though her glory is a borrow'd light,
+    She reigns sole empress of the sable night.
+    Soft purling streams to rivers speed their course,
+    And blend themselves with their capacious source.
+    The spreading branches of uxorious vines,
+    Clasp round each other with encircling twines.
+    The climbing Ivy does the Oak embrace,
+    And meets with verdant wreaths his bending face.
+    The feather'd tribes that wing the firmament,
+    By instinct led, to wedded love consent:
+    They range the neighb'ring meads in quest of food,
+    And guard and cherish their young callow brood.
+    And shall the creatures without just pretence,
+    Alone possess this high pre-eminence?
+    Though with abounding earthly comforts blest,
+    Shall man pre-eminent still want the best:--
+    A bosom friend, than virgin rose more sweet,
+    And whom he can with heart-felt rapture greet;
+    Of pleasing form, equal and tender mind,
+    To whom he can in closest ties be join'd?"
+
+God did not approve of this state of solitude: he said, "It is not good
+that man should be alone," or only himself. The Creator had not yet
+finished his works. He saw it necessary to relieve man in his solitary
+situation; and his goodness and power were ready to concur with the
+dictates of his wisdom. He said, "I will make him a _help-meet_ for
+him;" i.e. his counterpart, one like himself in shape, constitution,
+and disposition; exactly adapted to both his body and mind, the very
+image of himself, _a second self_.
+
+    "Must the fair creature promis'd to be giv'n,
+    Be sent to earth from the abode of heav'n?
+    Angelic nature could not well supply
+    The craving void, remote, and far too high.
+    Will God select amongst the brutal race,
+    One, and refine it for his fond embrace?
+    Nay, that would be too mean for his respect,
+    Beneath his nature, void of intellect.
+    The wise Creator, to complete his plan,
+    Resolves to make a _help-meet_ from the Man,
+    Procure the stamina from him alone,
+    Thus constitute her "bone of his own bone."
+    From Man! but where? what part can he forego,
+    From head majestic to the servile toe?
+    The head imperial would be much too high,
+    Lest she, perchance, should for the mast'ry try.
+    The toilsome feet are base, of low renown,
+    Lest he should trample the fair creature down.
+    In Man's organic structure, mark! the part
+    Is that which lies contiguous to the heart;
+    Main spring of life, whence all the frame looks gay,
+    Centre, where all the lovely passions play;
+    Under the shield of the protecting arm,
+    Which can defend her from impending harm."
+
+Accordingly, God proceeded in his work: not as before, when he made
+man, and formed his body of the dust of the earth; but he took of
+the substance of man, and of that formed an associate for him. The
+process is mentioned by Moses, "And the Lord God caused a deep sleep
+to fall upon Adam, and he slept: and he took one of his ribs, and
+closed up the flesh instead thereof; and the rib, which the Lord God
+had taken from man, made he a woman." The word **trdmh** translated
+_a deep sleep_, signifies such a sleep as renders a man insensible
+of any thing done to him; which was not natural but an extraordinary
+sleep; not occasioned by any act of violence done to nature, but
+the immediate effect of the hand of God upon him. Sleep, says a
+German author, is one of the most remarkable effects of the Divine
+goodness. It is certainly a proof of the wisdom of our Creator, that
+we fall asleep imperceptibly. Sleep comes unsummoned: it is the
+only change in our manner of existence in which reflection bears no
+part; and is alike independent of the understanding and the will.
+Our situation, indeed, during the time of sleep, is wonderful. We
+live, but without knowing or perceiving it! The palpitations of the
+heart, the circulation of the blood, the process of digestion, and,
+in a word, all the animal functions continue to be performed without
+interruption. The mind appears, as it were, to suspend its activity,
+for a time: by degrees, it looses all sensation, every distinct
+idea. The senses are deadened, and stop their wonted operations. The
+muscles, by degrees, are moved more slowly, till all voluntary motion
+ceases. This change begins in the forehead: then the muscles of the
+eye-lids, and of the neck, arms, and feet, are so much deprived of
+their activity, that the man seems to be metamorphosed into a plant.
+The situation of the brain becomes such, that it cannot transmit
+to the soul the same ideas as when we are awake. The soul perceives
+no object, though the nerve of vision is not altered; and it would
+see nothing, were the eyes to be even open. The ears are not shut,
+and yet they hear nothing. In a word, we find an unceasing source of
+admiration, in the wonderful preparations, and the tender care, which
+the Divine Being has employed, to procure us the blessings of sleep.
+The following epigram, translated from the Latin by Dr. Wolcott, is
+beautiful:--
+
+    "Come, gentle sleep, attend thy votary's prayer,
+    And, though death's image, to my couch repair!
+    How sweet, thus lifeless, yet with life to lie,
+    Thus without dying, oh how sweet to die!"
+
+The word **tsl`** _tsela_, and in the Septuagint <<pleura>>, rendered
+a _rib_, most probably means _bone_, and _flesh_, not a naked bone,
+but one with flesh adhering to it. "And the rib which the Lord God
+had taken from man, _made_ he a woman," or, according to the Hebrew,
+_builded it up_ to be a woman; signifying, that the human species was
+perfect when the woman was created, which before was like an imperfect
+building. This implies, an old author intimates, that as children are
+derived from their parents to build up the family, so the woman was
+derived from Adam to build up his great family, mankind, of his own
+nature and substance; and that his posterity might spring wholly from
+him, both in respect of himself, and of his wife, their common mother,
+who was taken out of him. What amazing wisdom is herein displayed;
+not only in producing a creature _like_ man, but out of _a part of
+man himself_! God could have animated and organized the dust of the
+earth, and of it formed the woman; but had he done so, she would have
+appeared in the eyes of man as a distinct being, to whom he had no
+natural relation.[205]
+
+      "Her form completed, lo! she rises fair,
+    Possess'd of beauties far beyond compare!
+    This last production of the Artist's skill,
+    Best effort of his wisdom, might, and will,
+    Gains science' height: the high-wrought features shine,
+    Her form displays a symmetry divine.
+    Her pleasing gesture, as she walks along,
+    Exceeds the powers of harmony and song.
+    Her fine exterior, by her Maker drest,
+    Is but the mansion of a brighter guest,
+    To flesh superior far, howe'er refin'd;--
+    A pure, reflective, comprehensive mind!
+    Expression soft sits sparkling in her eyes,
+    While from her bosom heavenly raptures rise;
+    Intrinsic worth, comprising every grace,
+    Displays its radiance in her roseate face."
+
+When the woman was formed, "God brought her unto the man," i.e. he
+presented her to him to be his wife. We are not to imagine, by
+_bringing her to the man_, is meant, that God merely placed her before
+his eyes, and thus exhibited her: but that he joined the man and the
+woman together in marriage.
+
+      "Attending angels strike the choral lay,
+    And hymn your anthems on this bridal day;
+    While the first Pair unite their willing hands,
+    Whose hearts are join'd in love's eternal bands."
+
+On receiving the woman, Adam said, "This is now bone of my bones, and
+flesh of my flesh." Adam was the common stock and root of all mankind;
+not only all his posterity were wholly contained in him alone, but
+also the first woman, the mother of us all, had her vital life in
+him, and was part of his living flesh and bones: he saw that she was
+of the same nature, the same identical flesh and blood, the same
+constitution in all respects, having the same physical powers, mental
+faculties, and inalienable rights. He added, "She shall be called
+_Woman_, because she was taken out of man;" i.e. she shall partake
+of my name as she does of my nature. A literal version of the Hebrew
+would appear strange, says Dr. A. Clarke, and yet a literal version
+is the only proper one. **'ysh** _Ish_, signifies _man_; and the
+word used to express what we term _woman_, is the same with feminine
+termination, **'shh** _ishah_, and literally means _she-man_. Most
+of the ancient versions have felt the force of the term, and have
+endeavored to express it as literally as possible. The Vulgate Latin
+renders the Hebrew _virago_, which is a feminine form of _vir_, a man.
+Symmachus used <<andris>> _andris_, a female form of <<an�r>>, _aner_,
+a man. Our own term is equally proper, when understood: it is a
+literal translation of the original; and we may thank the discernment
+of our Anglo-Saxon ancestors for giving it. Wombman, of which _woman_
+is a contraction, means the _man with the womb_. Verstegan, in his
+Restitution of Decayed Intelligence, justifies this sense of the word,
+on the ground of antiquity and propriety, and says it should be so
+written. The term _woman_ was not peculiar to her, but common to the
+sex; she differing from man in sex only, not in nature. Afterward Adam
+called her **chvh** _chavah_, which answers exactly to <<z��>> of the
+Septuagint, both signifying _life_, because she was the mother of all
+_living_.
+
+      "Oh blest existence! (now the man exclaims,
+    And higher praises of his God proclaims.)
+    My cup with blessings hast thou amply fill'd,
+    Consummate joys for my great portion will'd:
+    No wants are left, no good hast thou denied,
+    Thy lib'ral hand has all I wish'd supplied.
+    Thou Fount of being! source of pure delight!
+    In thee my comforts center and unite:
+    Thyself I love, thy vast perfections see,
+    And all thy gifts receiv'd enjoy in Thee.
+
+      He turns to Eve, whose charms are all in view,
+    The perfect form which highest wisdom drew:
+    Her sweet attractions touch his yielding mind,
+    As three-fold cords his willing passions bind.
+    Sensations soft with quick transition roll,
+    And raise the transports of his grateful soul:
+    While thrilling raptures through his bosom move,
+    He feels his heart the seat of GOD--and _love_.
+
+      Their minds now glowing with celestial fire,
+    They jointly bend before their gracious SIRE;
+    Devotion's flame with greater ardor burns,
+    And both are vocal in his praise by turns.
+    While thus their pow'rs in pleasing acts employ,
+    The _social_ worship much augments their joy:
+    Their warm addresses to the sacred throne,
+    Ascend as incense, and bring blessings down."
+
+The relation between _husband_ and _wife_ is the strongest union that
+results from the highest obligations of nature. "Therefore," said
+Adam, "shall a man leave his father and mother, and shall cleave unto
+his wife: and they shall be one flesh." Here we perceive, as Dr.
+Delany intimates, that Adam had a perfect idea of father and mother,
+before any existed; that he had clear ideas of the affection arising
+from that relation, before any children were born into the world: and
+yet perceived that the endearment arising from marriage should be
+stronger than these ties, so as to attach a man with warmer affection
+to his wife, than to those very parents to whom he was indebted for
+life. Now if the received doctrines of philosophy be true, that the
+senses are the inlets of ideas, and that we can have no ideas without
+objects: then we must conclude, that as he had these ideas, and
+had them not from nature, he must have received them from express
+revelation. Hence our Saviour, in his answer to the Pharisees, informs
+us, that the words pronounced by Adam on this occasion, were the
+declaration of God himself. "Have ye not read that he which made them
+at the beginning, made them male and female, and said, For this cause
+shall a man leave father and mother, and shall cleave to his wife:
+and they twain shall be one flesh." These two shall be considered as
+_one body_, having no separate or independent interests: or, these
+two shall be _for the production_ of one flesh; from their union a
+posterity shall spring, as exactly resembling themselves as they do
+each other. The Greek word <<proskoll�th�setai>>, translated _one
+flesh_, signifies shall be _glued_ to her.
+
+How happy must such a state be, where the parties married come up to
+the design of this sacred institution! Dr. Hunter observes, "What
+an important era in the life of Adam! What a new display of the
+Creator's power, skill, and goodness! How must the spirit of devotion
+be heightened, now that man could join in _social_ worship! What
+additional satisfaction in contemplating the frame, order, and course
+of nature, now that he possessed the most exalted of human joys, that
+of conveying knowledge to a beloved object! Now he could instruct
+Eve in the wonders of creation, and unfold to her their Maker's
+nature, perfections, and will!" Oh happy state! They are happy in the
+constitution of their nature,--being innocent, upright creatures; and
+in having their pure minds perfectly united in love and kindness to
+each other. They were happy in all their united acts of adoration and
+praise to their Creator,--exact harmony, unmixed delight, and untainted
+piety, residing in each breast! They lived in communion with God,
+enjoyed a transporting sense of his favor, walked in the light of his
+countenance, and were raptured in their meditations on the Divine glory!
+
+We have here the first institution of marriage, and we see in it
+several things worthy of peculiar attention and regard. 1. God
+pronounces the state of celibacy _not a good one_: and the Lord God
+said, "It is not good that man should be alone," **lbdv** _lebaddo_
+only himself. It was neither for his comfort, who was formed for
+society, nor for the accomplishment of God's purpose in the increase
+of mankind. Though he was created in the image of God, and enjoyed
+delightful intercourse with him, his solitary condition required a
+suitable companion. 2. God made the woman _for_ the man; he was not
+made _for her_, but she was made _for him_, and derived, under God,
+her being from him. The apostle says, "Neither was the man created
+for the woman: but the woman for the man," to be a suitable helper
+and comfort to him. And thus God has shown us, that every son of
+Adam should be united to a daughter of Eve to the end of the world.
+3. God made the woman _out_ of the man: as Adam was immediately from
+God, so Eve was immediately from Adam; "the man is not of the woman,
+but the woman of the man:" made of a part of his body, taken out,
+not of his head, to show that she was not to exercise dominion over
+him; nor of his foot, to indicate that she must not be his slave; but
+of his side, to intimate that she needs his counsel and direction;
+from under his arm, to teach him that he must protect her; and near
+his heart, to tell him that he must love her as himself. The closest
+union, and the most affectionate attachment, should subsist in the
+matrimonial connection. The man should ever consider and treat the
+woman as a _part of himself_; and as no one ever hated his own
+flesh, but nourishes and supports it, so should a husband evince the
+greatest tenderness and affection for his wife: and on the other
+hand, considering that the woman derived her being from man, and was
+made _for_ him, therefore the wife should "see that she reverence her
+husband." "For as man is the image and glory of God; so the woman is
+the glory of the man." 4. God himself instituted the marriage union,
+and being appointed and established by him, it must be an honorable
+state. "Marriage is honorable in all," being a Divine institution; and
+consequently suitable for persons of any rank, or employment, either
+civil or sacred. The corruption of manners has strangely perverted
+this original purpose and institution of God. However, he will never
+accommodate his morality to the times, nor to the inclinations of men.
+What was settled at the beginning, he judged most worthy of his glory,
+most profitable for man, and most suitable to his nature. 5. Marriage
+was instituted immediately on the creation of man and formation of
+the woman; whence it is evident that God never designed that mankind
+should be preserved, and the earth peopled any other way. And as
+the marriage union took place while man was in a state of innocence,
+upright and pure, just such as his Creator made him, it is therefore
+suitable to the greatest purity both of heart and life. 6. The design
+of this institution was, that man and woman might be mutually helpful
+to each other, in all the necessities and uses of life partaking of
+the cares and labors of each other, reciprocally sharing in each
+other's delights and pleasures, and combining together to love, serve,
+and please God.
+
+The _situation_ of Adam and Eve is worthy of our attention. The
+sacred historian says, "And the Lord God planted a garden eastward
+in Eden; and there he put the man whom he had formed." The word
+**`dn** _Eden_, signifying _pleasure_ or _delight_, is expressive of
+their excellent residence. The Septuagint render the passage thus:
+<<ephyteusen ho Theos paradeisou en Edem>>, _God planted a Paradise
+in Eden_. The Fathers of the Church; says Huet, both Latin and Greek,
+all the Interpreters of Scripture, ancient and modern, and all the
+Orientals, do agree, that Eden is a local name taken from the beauty
+of the place. The Garden or Paradise was situated in Eden, being
+two different places, as the whole from its part. "And a river went
+out of Eden to water the garden; and from thence it was parted, and
+became into four heads. And the name of the first is Pison; that is
+it which compasseth the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold;
+and the gold of that land is good; there is bdellium and the onyx
+stone. And the name of the second river is Gihon: the same is it that
+compasseth the whole land of Ethiopia. And the name of the third
+river is Hiddekel: that is it which goeth toward the east of Assyria.
+And the fourth river is Euphrates." The most probable account of the
+situation of the terrestrial Paradise, says Dr. A. Clarke, is that
+given by Hadrian Reland. He supposes it to have been in Armenia,
+near the sources of the great rivers, Euphrates, Tigris, Phasis, and
+Araxes. He thinks Pison was the Phasis, a river of Cholchis, emptying
+itself into the Euxine Sea, where there is a city called Chabala,
+the pronunciation of which is nearly the same with that of Havilah,
+or **chvylh** _Chavilah_, according to the Hebrew, the _vau_ **vav**
+being changed in Greek to _beta_ <<beta>>. This country was famous for
+gold, whence the fable of the Golden Fleece, attempted to be carried
+away from that country by the heroes of Greece. The Gihon he thinks to
+be the Araxes, which runs into the Caspian Sea, both the words having
+the same signification, namely, a _rapid motion_. The land of Cush,
+washed by the river, he supposes to be the country of the Cuss�i of
+the ancients; a nation of Asia, destroyed by Alexander to appease the
+manes of Heph�stion. The Hiddekel all agree to be the Tigris; and the
+other river, Phrat, or **Prth** _Perath_, to be the Euphrates. All
+these rivers rise in the same tract of mountainous country, though
+they do not proceed from one head.
+
+Man, says Faber, was placed by the Deity in the garden of Paradise. The
+beauty of its scenery, the salubrity of its climate, the variety and
+excellence of its fruits, all contributed to the beatitude of the first
+pair, and tended to elevate their thoughts to that Being, who was the
+author and contriver of such numerous blessings. Trained, says Bishop
+Horne, in the school of Eden by the material elements of a visible
+world, to the knowledge of one that is immaterial and invisible, Adam
+found himself excited by the beauty of the picture, to aspire after the
+transcendent excellence of the Divine original.
+
+From this, says Dr. A. Clarke, the ancient heathens borrowed their
+ideas of the gardens of Hesperides, where the trees bore golden
+fruit; the gardens of Adonis, a word which is evidently derived from
+the Hebrew **`dn** _Aden_; and hence the origin of sacred gardens,
+or inclosures, dedicated to purposes of devotion, some comparatively
+innocent, others impure. From the holiness of the garden of Eden,
+says Faber, the Pagans probably borrowed their ancient custom of
+consecrating groves to the worship of their various deities. The
+description given by Quintus Curtius of the sacred grove of Jupiter
+Hammon is singularly beautiful, and almost presents to the imagination
+the deep shades and the crystal streams of Eden. "At length," says
+he, "they arrived at the consecrated habitation of the deity, which,
+incredible as it may seem, was situated in the midst of a desert,
+and shaded from the sun by so luxuriant a vegetation, that its beams
+could scarcely penetrate through the thickness of the foliage. The
+groves are watered by the meandering streams of numerous fountains;
+and a wonderful temperature of climate, resembling most of all the
+delightful season of spring, prevails through the whole year with an
+equal degree of salubrity."
+
+This golden age is described by Plato, in a manner which, independently
+of his confession (namely, that he gained his information from the
+Phoenicians, who received it from their ancestors,) proves him to have
+derived it, not from written records, but from traditional reports.
+His mansion of primeval bliss was not in this dark, diminished, and
+deformed, this corrupted globe, but in a pure, ethereal, and lucid orb
+of unlimited extent, where men breathed, not air, but light, drank
+nectar, and partook of fruits spontaneously produced. The inclement
+seasons were unknown, raiment was not yet invented, and nakedness
+produced no distress. When weary, the inhabitants reclined to sleep
+on soft herbage, which received the influence of one eternal spring.
+In these delightful regions no stormy winds interrupted their calm
+repose; no evil passion disturbed their serenity of soul; and reason,
+guided by benevolence, bore a universal sway. Whilst this state
+continued, man conversed freely with those animals, which, now wild,
+avoid his presence, and fly at his approach.
+
+Virgil was no stranger to a golden age; and Seneca has well
+described the peaceful state whilst Saturn reigned. But of all the
+representations, that which we find in Ovid is the most beautiful, and,
+allowing for poetic imagery, is accurately just.
+
+    "The golden age was first; when man, yet new,
+    No rule but uncorrupted reason knew,
+    And with a native bent did good pursue.
+    Unforc'd by punishment, unaw'd by fear,
+    His words were simple, and his soul sincere.
+    Needless was written law where none opprest:
+    The law of man was written in his breast.
+    No suppliant crowds before the judge appear'd;
+    No court erected yet, nor cause was heard;
+    But all was safe, for conscience was their guard."
+
+Such notions of the felicity enjoyed by man in a state of innocence,
+were not confined to Italy and Greece, but have been discovered equally
+among the Persians, Indians, and Chinese. The Brahmins say, that in the
+beginning of the world, plenty was every where diffused, and milk, with
+wine and honey, flowed from fountains. Similar images were used by the
+Persian magi to convey a notion of primeval happiness.[206]
+
+Thus Adam and Eve were happy in their situation, being placed
+in Paradise, which was delightful for agreeable and pleasing
+accommodations of every kind to regale their senses; it was stored with
+the utmost profusion of Divine bounty!
+
+    "O Jesus! at thy feet we wait,
+      Till thou shalt bid us rise,
+    Restor'd to our unsinning state,
+      To love's sweet paradise."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Footnotes - Chapter VII
+
+    [157] The _marine_ Polypus is different in form from the
+    fresh-water Polype; but is nourished, increased, and may be
+    propagated after the same manner. When it produces its young,
+    they issue from its sides, as branches from a tree; these young
+    shoots are no sooner detached from their parents, than they
+    become separate Polypuses, and fish for prey.
+
+    It seems that every part of this animal possesses a
+    principle of life. If it be cut into three pieces, it is so far
+    from being destroyed, that it becomes three polypuses: the head
+    produces a body and tail; the body, a head and tail; and the
+    tail, a head and body. When a Polypus is cut in two lengthways,
+    these close themselves, the wounds are healed in a few moments,
+    and in the course of some hours they will eat greedily. If
+    these Polypuses be again cut into four, or six pieces, these
+    divisions of the animal will also become Polypuses; but they
+    will not be matured, nor capable of eating, for some days.
+    If this creature be turned like a glove, by pushing the tail
+    into the body until it come out of the mouth, after such an
+    operation it will still eat, and continue to produce young
+    ones; so strong and vigorous is the principle of life which it
+    possesses.
+
+    There are other insects which possess similar properties;
+    and it is certain that nearly all plants which are produced
+    from suckers, have no part which may not become either a stem
+    or branch, and which will germinate, and furnish one, or even
+    many plants.]
+
+    [158] For the contrary opinion, see Fragments appended to
+    Calmet's Dictionary, pp. 114-117.
+
+    [159] "Some time ago, a person in the Isle of Wight,
+    digging the ground for the foundation of an out-house,
+    discovered the nest or magazine of a field-mouse. It was of
+    large dimension, and was stored with acorns, which were laid up
+    in the neatest and most compact manner imaginable. These were
+    so numerous that he was induced to count them, and found, in
+    the whole, no fewer than _eight hundred and two_. How wonderful
+    are those faculties with which the beneficent Creator of the
+    world has endowed his creatures, for the purpose of providing
+    for wants which they have no power to foresee, and yet, without
+    which provision, they must, during the severity of winter, be
+    inevitably destroyed!"--New Monthly Magazine, July, 1814, p.
+    531.
+
+    [160] See Dr. Paley's Natural Theology, pp. 296-299.
+
+    [161] To this may be referred an economical experiment
+    well known to the Dutch, that when eight Cows have been in a
+    pasture, and can no longer get nourishment, two horses will do
+    very well there for some days; and when nothing is left for the
+    Horses, four Sheep will live on it.
+
+    [162] The Arabians, when travelling, and in want of water,
+    frequently kill their camels to obtain a supply, which, though
+    taken out of the animal, they find perfectly good.
+
+    [163] Dr. Paley's Natural Theology, p. 278.
+
+    [164] Dr. Percival's Instructions, p. 23.
+
+    [165] See Annual Register, vol. iii, p. 90.
+
+    [166] Dr. Beattie's Dissertations, Moral and Critical.
+
+    [167] Dr. Percival's Instructions, p. 8.
+
+    The Chinese consider the flesh of this animal as a dainty,
+    and public shambles are erected for the sale of it. In Canton
+    particularly, there is a street appropriated to that purpose;
+    and, what is very extraordinary, whenever a dog-butcher
+    appears, all the dogs in the place pursue him in full cry.
+    They know their enemy, and persecute him as far as they are
+    able.--Goldsmith's History of the Earth.
+
+    [168] Wesley's Philosophy, vol. i, p. 233.
+
+    [169] For a description of the _Crocodile_, given by Divine
+    inspiration, see Job chap. xli. It is a great question
+    among learned men, says Mr. Benson, what creature is meant
+    by **lvythn**, _leviathan_. Our translators were evidently
+    uncertain respecting it, and therefore have given us the
+    original term untranslated. The Seventy, however, have
+    rendered it <<drak�n>>, _the dragon_; but that is far from
+    being correct. The dragon is a genus belonging to the order
+    of amphibia reptilia. There are two species, 1. The volans,
+    or flying dragon, with the wings entirely distinct from the
+    fore-legs, which is found in Africa and the East Indies. 2.
+    The pr�pos, with the wings fixed to the fore-legs, which is
+    a native of America. They are both harmless creatures; and
+    feed on flies, ants, and small insects. The word **lvythn**,
+    _leviathan_ is supposed to be derived from **lvy**, _levi_,
+    _joined_, or _coupled_, and **thn**, _than_, or **thnyn**
+    _thannin, a dragon_, that is, a _large serpent_, or _fish_,
+    the word _thannin_ being used both for a land-serpent,
+    and a kind of fish. And "after comparing what Bochart and
+    others have written on the subject, it appears to me," says
+    Parkhurst, "that the compound word **lvythn**, _leviathan, the
+    coupled dragon_, denotes some animal, partaking of the nature
+    both of the land serpents, and fishes, and, in this place,
+    signifies the _crocodile_, which lives as well under water as
+    on the shore."
+
+    [170] Bingley's Animal Biography, vol. ii, p. 410, &c.
+
+    [171] Dr. Paley's Natural Theology, p. 286.
+
+    [172] Aristotle asserts that _spinning_ and _weaving_ were
+    first learned from the spider. Thence it has its Greek name
+    <<arachn�s>>, Latin _Aranea_, French _Araignce_, from the
+    Hebrew _Aragnevit_, _texuit_, or _Arach, textura_. And it
+    is not improbable that our English word _Spider_ is but a
+    corruption of _Spinner_, for _Spinn_ is the German word for
+    _Spider_. With this agrees that poetic fancy, that _Arachne_
+    an excellent _spinster_, was by _Pallas_ turned into a
+    _Spider_. Pallas was the goddess of wisdom, war, weaving,
+    spinning, and the liberal arts; and she was invoked by almost
+    every artist, particularly such as worked in wool, embroidery,
+    painting, and sculpture.--Edward's Demonstration, &c.
+
+    [173] See Jones's Disquisition concerning clean and unclean
+    Animals.
+
+    [174] See D'Assigny on the Hieroglyphics of Egypt.
+
+    [175] Epist. cap. v.
+
+    [176] Simil. ix, sect. 13.
+
+    [177] Ad. Autol. lib. 2, p. 96.
+
+    [178] Lib. iv, cap. 37, et lib. v. c. 15.
+
+    [179] Lib. iv, cap. 75.
+
+    [180] Adv. Prax. c. 12.
+
+    [181] Cap. 21, 25.
+
+    [182] Cont. Cel. lib. i, p. 63.
+
+    [183] Socrat. lib. ii. c. 30, where the Creed may be seen
+    at large.
+
+    [184] H�res. 23, n. 2.
+
+    [185] H�res. 44, n. 4. See Bibliotheca Biblica on the place.
+
+    [186] Lib. iv, cap. 37.
+
+    [187] Two Dissertations, &c. pp. 29, 30.
+
+    [188] Among the numerous traditions of the New-Zealanders,
+    says Nicholas, there is one which is very remarkable. It
+    refers to the creation of man, and has been handed down from
+    father to son, through all generations. They believe the first
+    man to have been created by three gods, Mowheerangaranga, or
+    Toopoonah, or grandfather, Mowheermooha, and Mowheebotakee; but
+    give the greatest share in the business to the first-mentioned
+    of these deities.
+
+    [189] Moses says, "the _life_, **nphsh** nephesh, of the
+    flesh is in the _blood_." And St. Paul affirms, "God hath
+    made of _one blood_ all nations of men." This sentence of
+    Moses, which, in conjunction with that of St. Paul, contains
+    a most important truth, had existed in the sacred Scriptures
+    for 3,600 years, before it arrested the attention of any
+    philosopher. This is more surprising, as the nations in which
+    philosophy flourished, were those which especially enjoyed
+    the Divine oracles in their respective languages. That the
+    blood actually possesses a _living principle_, and that the
+    life of the whole body is derived from it, is a doctrine of
+    Divine revelation, and which the observations and experiments
+    of the most accurate anatomists have served strongly to
+    confirm. The proper _circulation_ of this important fluid
+    through the _whole_ human system, was taught by Solomon in
+    figurative language, Eccles. xii, 6; and discovered, as it is
+    called, and demonstrated by Dr. Harvey in 1628; though some
+    Italian philosophers had the same notion a little before.
+    This distinguished anatomist was the first who fully revived
+    the Mosaic notion of the _vitality_ of the blood; and which
+    correct view was afterwards adopted by the justly celebrated
+    Mr. John Hunter, whose strong reasoning and accurate
+    experiments have served to sanction and give publicity to a
+    fact so long unknown to mankind. The doctrine of Moses and St.
+    Paul proves the truth of the doctrine of Harvey and Hunter:
+    and the reasonings and experiments of the latter, illustrate
+    and confirm the doctrine of the former.--See Dr. A. Clarke on
+    Lev. xvii, 11.
+
+    [190] As an instance of this I may mention the case of
+    a gentleman who was subject to frequent attacks of asthma,
+    to such a degree, that if he were not relieved immediately
+    by bleeding, he was in danger of suffocation: by being so
+    frequently bled in that state, his blood at length became so
+    pale as scarcely to stain a linen cloth, in consequence of the
+    particles of the blood being so slowly renewed.
+
+    [191] Two of these causes are peculiarly important and
+    interesting. When an animal has lost a considerable quantity
+    of blood, and faints in consequence, the power of the blood to
+    coagulate quickly is greatly increased.--When, for example, a
+    sheep is bled to death, if you receive a cupful of the blood
+    which first issues from the throat, and a cupful of the last,
+    you will find that the latter will coagulate sooner, and become
+    much more solid than the first portion. By way of experiment,
+    the large artery of the thigh of a dog has been divided and
+    laid open; the animal bled till he fainted, and on recovering
+    had no return of the bleeding. On examining the artery, its
+    divided end was found plugged up by coagulated blood, and much
+    contracted in its diameter; this natural means, however, of
+    checking h�morrhage, we shall afterwards find, is assisted by
+    the contractile power possessed by the vessel from whence it
+    is effused. Hence it appears that fainting is favorable to
+    checking h�morrhages, as far as it puts a temporary check on
+    the circulation, and should always be encouraged to a certain
+    degree. Another cause which influences the coagulation of the
+    blood, is inflammatory diseases. Under such circumstances it
+    remains much longer in a fluid state, but coagulates at length
+    more firmly. This coagulation of the lymph is the first step
+    towards its conversion into various parts of the body, or the
+    union of divided parts. When, for example, the coagulating
+    lymph is thrown out upon inflamed internal parts of the body
+    which lie in contact, as the intestines or lungs, it becomes
+    solid, and connects them loosely together. Blood vessels shoot
+    into it, and convert it at length into cellular membrane,
+    forming what are called adhesions, and in a similar way it
+    is converted into the nature of various parts of the body.
+    We may therefore say, that the coagulating lymph is the most
+    important part of the blood, inasmuch as it is subservient
+    to the formation of various organs in the body. Many parts,
+    particularly the muscles, very nearly resemble it in their
+    nature.
+
+    [192] Substances may even be introduced into the blood
+    directly. By way of experiment, Ipecacuanha, or a small
+    portion of Emetic Tartar, or Jalap, have been infused into the
+    veins: the result of this has been found to be, that they have
+    produced the same effect as if introduced by the stomach; the
+    former produced vomiting, the latter purging.
+
+    [193] Mr. Hunter, however, found that this natural
+    inclination might be changed by education, for he taught
+    an Eagle, which is a carnivorous animal, to subsist on
+    farinaceous food alone. The plan he adopted was this: he began
+    by abstracting the flesh meat, and substituting bread and
+    butter, till at length the meat was entirely taken away; he
+    then by degrees diminished the quantity of butter, till at
+    length the animal fed on bread alone. It appears, however, from
+    experiment, that this transition cannot be made suddenly, as
+    the gastric juice of the animal is not adapted to act upon an
+    opposite kind of food. It has been found that a quantity of
+    pear or apple introduced into the stomach of a Buzzard Hawk
+    was not digested, but remained unacted upon when the fowl was
+    killed for inspection many hours afterwards; yet the stomach of
+    this animal habitually digested bone.
+
+    [194] Dr. A. Hunter says, "When we consider the delicacy
+    of the internal structure of the stomach, and the high and
+    essential consequence of its office, we may truly say, it is
+    treated with too little tenderness and respect on our parts.
+    The stomach is the chief organ of the human system, upon the
+    state of which all the powers and feelings of the individual
+    depend.
+
+    "The stomach is the kitchen that prepares our discordant
+    food, and which, after due maceration, it delivers over by
+    a certain undulatory motion, to the intestines, where it
+    receives a further concoction. Being now reduced into a white
+    balmy fluid, it is sucked up by a set of small vessels, called
+    lacteals, and carried to the thoracic duct. This duct runs up
+    the back-bone, and is in length about sixteen inches, but in
+    diameter it hardly exceeds a crow quill. Through this small
+    tube, the greatest part of what is taken in at the mouth
+    passes, and when it has arrived at its greatest height, it is
+    discharged into the left subclavian vein; when mixing with the
+    general mass of blood, it becomes, very soon, blood itself."
+
+    [195] Dr. O. Gregory observes, "Animal heat is preserved
+    _entirely_ by the inspiration of atmospheric air! The lungs
+    which imbibe the oxygen gas from the air, impart it to the
+    blood; and the blood, in its circulation, gives out the
+    caloric to every part of the body. Nothing can afford a more
+    striking proof of creative wisdom, than this provision for
+    the preservation of an equable animal temperature. By the
+    decomposition of atmospheric air, caloric is evolved, and
+    this caloric is taken up by the arterial blood, without its
+    temperature being at all raised by the addition. When it passes
+    to the veins, its capacity for caloric is diminished, as much
+    as it had been before increased in the lungs: the caloric,
+    therefore, which had been absorbed, is again given out; and
+    this slow and constant evolution of the caloric in the extreme
+    vessels over the whole body, is the source of that uniform
+    temperature which we have so much occasion to admire. Dr.
+    Crawford ascertained, that whenever an animal is placed in a
+    medium the temperature of which is considerably high, the usual
+    change of arterial venous blood does not go on; consequently,
+    no evolution of caloric will take place, and the animal heat
+    will not rise much above the natural standard. How pleasing it
+    is to contemplate the arrangements which the Deity has made for
+    the preservation and felicity of his creatures, and to observe
+    that he has provided for every possible exigency!"--Lessons,
+    Astronomical and Philosophical, 4th edit. p. 87.
+
+    [196] A London Alderman, who had accidentally heard of the
+    thoracic duct, was so struck with the importance and delicacy
+    of the vessel, that he became very apprehensive lest it should
+    be in the least obstructed; and, being one day caught in a
+    crowd, from whence he could not extricate himself, he most
+    earnestly entreated those who pressed on him, to take care of
+    his thoracic duct.
+
+    [197] This is a good example of muscles, which, under
+    ordinary circumstances, are directed by the will, becoming
+    involuntary from an altered excitement.
+
+    [198] Dr. A. Hunter remarks, "Were it possible for us to
+    view through the skin and integuments, the mechanism of our
+    bodies, after the manner of a watch-maker when he examines
+    a watch, we should be struck with an awful astonishment!
+    Were we to see the stomach and intestines busily employed in
+    the concoction of our food by a certain undulatory motion;
+    the heart working, day and night, like a forcing pump; the
+    lungs blowing alternate blasts; the humors filtrating through
+    innumerable strainers; together with an incomprehensible
+    assemblage of tubes, valves, and currents, all actively and
+    unceasingly employed in support of our existence, we could
+    hardly be induced to stir from our places!"
+
+    [199] Mr. Cruikshank, late Professor of Chemistry at
+    Woolwich, judiciously observes, says Dr. Olinthus Gregory, that
+    the size of the body, the quantity of food taken in, the vigor
+    with which the system is acting, the passions of the mind,
+    and external heat or cold, are circumstances which will ever
+    occasion considerable variety in the quantity of the insensible
+    perspiration. This gentleman, assuming that the surface of the
+    hand is to that of the rest of the body as one to sixty (an
+    assumption which Mr. Abernethy thinks much too small for the
+    body,) and that every part of that surface perspired equally
+    with his hand, concluded that he lost during an hour, by
+    insensible perspiration from the skin, 3 ounces, 6 drams; and
+    in 24 hours, at that rate, would have lost 7 pounds, 6 ounces.
+    Also, that he lost 124 grains of vapor by respiration, in an
+    hour; or 6 ounces, 1 dram, and 36 grains, in 24 hours; which,
+    added to the former cutaneous exhalation, would make the whole
+    insensible perspiration, in 24 hours, equal to 8 pounds, 1
+    dram, and 36 grains: the evaporation from the lungs will be
+    little more than one-fifteenth of the whole.
+
+    Mr. Cruikshank has not the smallest doubt, but that
+    _electric fluid_ is also perspired from the pores of the skin:
+    it appearing to him impossible that an enraged Lion, or Cat,
+    should erect the hairs of the tail on any other principle:
+    indeed he strongly suspects that, as electric fire is now known
+    to be the prime conductor of the variation in the atmosphere,
+    so it is also the grand conductor of insensible perspiration.
+    He likewise states it as a matter beyond doubt, that,
+    independent of aqueous vapor (of fixed air and phlogiston,)
+    emitted from the skin in insensible perspiration, there is
+    an odorous effluvia, which, though generally insensible
+    to ourselves and the by standers, is perceptible to other
+    animals.--Hence it happens, that a Dog follows the footsteps of
+    his master by the smell; and, in like manner, with regard to
+    other animals: the Fox-Hound knows _afar_ the smell of the Fox;
+    the Pointer that of the Partridge, the Snipe, or the Pheasant;
+    and every carnivorous animal that of its prey.--Ha�y's Natural
+    Philosophy, vol. i, p. 27.
+
+    [200] Dr. Priestley has positively asserted, that the
+    doctrine of the soul has no foundation in reason or the
+    Scriptures. But Dr. Jortin, in his sermon on John xi, 25, vol.
+    vi, and Dean Sherlock, in his discourse on the immortality of
+    the soul, completely refute the Doctor's arguments. In the
+    fourth volume of the Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical
+    Society of Manchester, there is a very valuable paper, by Dr.
+    Ferriar, proving, by evidence apparently complete, that every
+    part of the brain has been injured without affecting the act of
+    thought; the reasoning of which memoir, being built on matters
+    of fact and experience, appears to have shaken the modern
+    theory of the materialists from its very foundation.
+
+    [201] See Wesley's Sermon on Heb. xi, 1.
+
+    [202] Dr. Scott's Christian Life, vol. v, p. 14.
+
+    [203] Practical Treaties on the Holy Spirit, pp. 7, 8.
+
+    [204] See Dr. Beattie's Theory of Language, chap. ii.
+
+    [205] It is very singular, says Nicholas, in his very
+    interesting history of New-Zealand, that the natives believe
+    that the first woman was made of one of man's ribs; and, what
+    adds still more to this strange coincidence, their general
+    term for bone is _hevee_, which, for ought we know, may be
+    a corruption of the name of our first parent, communicated
+    to them, perhaps, originally, by some means or other, and
+    preserved, without being much disfigured, among the records of
+    ignorance.
+
+
+    [206] See Townsend's Character of Moses, pp. 66-68.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+SEVENTH DAY.
+
+ON THE SABBATH.
+
+    Sabbath Instituted -- Blessed and Sanctified -- Given to
+    Adam as a General Precept for his Posterity -- Renewed before
+    and at the giving of the Law -- A Sign between God and his
+    People -- Worldly Business prohibited -- Works of Necessity
+    and Mercy excepted -- Advantages resulting from observing it
+    -- A Seventh Day regarded by the Heathens -- The Sabbath of
+    universal and perpetual obligation -- The Lord's Day.
+
+
+When God had made the world, and furnished it with a variety of
+creatures, suited to the different elements of which it is composed;
+had created man after his own image, far superior to all the other
+species of beings, endued with rational faculties, whom he therefore
+constituted lord over them, situated in a residence curiously and
+beautifully adorned, and plentifully stored with every thing adapted
+for sustenance and delight; he exacted a reasonable service, which
+consisted in the worship of himself, the one only true God, in
+celebrating the expressions of his almighty power, infinite wisdom,
+and boundless goodness, displayed in his works. And to perpetuate, as
+well as give a solemnity to this worship, he set apart a portion of
+time for the exercise of it; by the constant and regular observation
+of which, a just sense of his infinite perfections, the recollection
+of his wondrous works, and the true worship of him, might be retained
+among men.
+
+Moses, the sacred historian, says, "Thus the heavens and the earth
+were finished, and all the host of them. And God rested the seventh
+day, and sanctified it: because that in it he had rested from all
+his work which God created and made." Here we have the origin of
+the Sabbath, _because that in it he rested_, says Moses; **shbth**
+_shebath_, from _shabath_, he rested; and hence _sabbath_, the name
+of the seventh day, signifying _a day of rest_. Not that he was
+weary with working, but he ceased to work, or rested from making
+any more creatures, or species of beings, all kinds being already
+either actually or virtually made. When he had finished the works of
+creation, in which he was employed six days, he rested on the seventh,
+and _blessed_ and _sanctified_ it; consecrated it for man to rest
+from all secular labors, and religiously employ this portion of time.
+This _blessing_ and _sanctifying_ the seventh day has the force of a
+law or command. God separated it from a common to a religious use, to
+be a standing memorial of his works of creation; and to be a sign to
+Adam and his posterity, who, by working six days and resting on the
+seventh, should show themselves to be the worshippers of that Being
+who made the world in six days, and rested on the seventh.
+
+The method pursued in creating the world, presenting a regular
+succession of astonishing events, was doubtless intended to convey
+useful instruction to mankind. Considering the almighty power of the
+Creator, his _fiat_ would have been sufficient instantly to produce
+the whole apparatus of nature, in beautiful and regular order. But he
+proceeded by degrees in this work, probably to teach us, that, after
+working six days, we also should rest on the seventh. What other reason
+can be assigned for his procedure, when a more expeditious plan would
+have been as easy to him, and more consonant to his omnipotence: but
+only, that all mankind from this measure should have a perpetual reason
+and obligation to consecrate a seventh day, after six days labor, to
+be a holy rest to the Lord; and it is reasonable to suppose that God
+expressly declared his will to our first parents as to this matter.
+
+As the command for observing the seventh day was given to Adam, as
+a general precept for all his posterity, no doubt he and his sons
+regarded it. Afterwards, through the impiety of the ante-deluvians,
+it might be obliterated in the earth, except in the solitary family
+of Noah; who, being a preacher of righteousness, cannot be supposed
+to have neglected the observation of this day, or to have omitted
+recommending such an important point of religion to the new world after
+the Flood. And though after this, when men were again multiplied on
+the earth, wickedness and idolatry were introduced, and the lapse of
+time had effaced from their minds this and other precepts of religion
+received from Noah; yet, we cannot but suppose that this important
+institution, with other things relating to the worship of God, was
+retained in the family of Abraham, and the succeeding Patriarchs, till
+their bondage in Egypt. But when, through the iniquity and idolatry
+of succeeding generations, the particular time, at first designed and
+allotted for this special service, became forgotten, and Divine worship
+was entirely neglected by the generality of mankind, God then revealed
+and instituted the Jewish religion, prescribed the mode of worship to
+be used, and by a special law appointed a certain season for the more
+solemn exercise of it; and to be a token of the sincere worshippers of
+the true God, who created all things: and the day thus appointed and
+consecrated to public worship, was called the _Sabbath_, on account of
+the rest required to be strictly observed on it, and a command given to
+all that they observe and sanctify it.
+
+This command originally given to Adam, was renewed before the giving
+of either the moral, judicial, or ceremonial law. It is expressly
+taken notice of at the fall of the manna, which was granted to the
+children of Israel in the wilderness of Sin, before they came to
+Sinai, Exod. xvi, 23-27. It was afterwards inserted in the body of
+the moral law. Exod. xx, 8. It is annexed to the judicial laws; i.e.
+the laws determining right between man and man, and the punishment of
+transgressors, Exod. xxiii, 12. And it is added to the first part of
+the ceremonial law, or Levitical rites and ceremonies, Exod. xxxi,
+13-18; in which passage it is repeated four times in the compass of
+four verses. In the fourth command God says, "Remember the Sabbath-day,
+to keep it holy." What day is meant, the following words determine,
+"Six days shall thou labor, and do all thy work: but the seventh is
+the Sabbath of the Lord thy God: in it thou shall not do any work."
+That is after six days of labor, the seventh shall be a day of holy
+rest, set apart for the public worship of God. The reason to enforce
+this is added, "Because in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the
+sea, and all that in them is, and rested the seventh day." The Jews,
+in many of their feasts, were commanded to rest from servile labor,
+on which account these are sometimes called _sabbaths_; but we also
+read of one day, which, by way of eminence, is styled the Sabbath, or
+day of rest. Thus we see, that the precept which God gave the Jews for
+the observation of the Sabbath, appears to be only the repetition or
+renewal of the law given to mankind from the beginning of the world,
+and not the first publication of it. A new reason indeed is added for
+the observation of it, namely, their redemption from Egyptian bondage,
+which was effected on the seventh day of the week, when God overthrew
+Pharaoh and his host in the Red Sea, and thereby delivered them.
+"Remember that thou wast a servant in the land of Egypt, and that the
+Lord thy God brought thee out thence through a mighty hand, and by a
+stretched out arm: therefore the Lord thy God commanded thee to keep
+the Sabbath-day." And the Jews kept their Sabbath on the seventh day of
+the week, in remembrance of their redemption from slavery in Egypt.
+
+It is worthy of remark, that the command for the religious observance
+of the Sabbath, was delivered by Moses at Mount Sinai, in a way
+different from all those ordinances which were only ceremonial. It was
+written by the supreme Being himself on tables of stone, on which every
+other thing written was confessedly moral, and of perpetual obligation:
+but no part of the ceremonial law was written by the finger of God. The
+fourth command was written on tables of stone, to signify that it was
+to continue, as well as the other; and also it was put into the Ark,
+with the rest of the moral precepts, and is referred to Deut. x, 4. as
+being one of the number.
+
+The sanctification of the Sabbath is considered as a _sign_ between
+God and his people. "Verily my sabbaths ye shall keep: for it is a
+sign between me and you, throughout your generations; that ye may know
+that I am the Lord that doth sanctify you:" or, as the original may
+be rendered, a sign to acknowledge that I Jehovah am your sanctifier.
+Again--"And hallow my Sabbaths; and they shall be a sign between me and
+you, that ye may know that I am the Lord your God." Thus God made the
+sanctification of the Sabbath a sign by which it might be known who
+did belong to him. Working six days, and keeping a holy rest on the
+seventh, is a sign of being the worshippers of the one living and true
+God, who made heaven and earth in the space of six days, and rested the
+seventh: consequently, the neglecting and profaning the Sabbath is a
+tacit renouncing of him. Therefore the Jewish Rabbies have this saying
+among them, Whoever breaks the other commands is a wicked Israelite;
+but he who openly and avowedly profanes the Sabbath, is considered as
+an infidel and idolater. Hence we read, that such were to be cut off
+from the people, and put to death: as they would not comply with this
+institution, so God would not own them as his people, but reject them.
+
+To those who religiously observe the Sabbath, there are many particular
+promises made. "If thou turn thy foot from the Sabbath, from doing thy
+pleasure on my holy day; and call the Sabbath a delight, the Holy of
+(or to) the Lord, honorable; and shalt honor him, not doing thine own
+ways, not finding thine own pleasure, nor speaking thine own words:
+then shalt thou delight thyself in the Lord; and I will cause thee to
+ride upon the high places of the earth, and feed thee with the heritage
+of Jacob thy father: for the mouth of the Lord hath spoken it." Here
+God secures to such persons the good of the land of Canaan, which he
+has promised as an heritage to Jacob and his seed. Plenty, honor, and
+security in the enjoyment of temporal blessings, are annexed to a
+religious performance of the duty; he will bless the honest labors of
+those who faithfully serve him, on the six days of the week, which he
+has appointed for secular employments. The more sincere and devout any
+person is in keeping the Sabbath, the more will his business prosper
+on other days. Promises of this nature have been accomplished in all
+ages, to those who have sanctified the Sabbath; and no doubt they will
+continue to be so in every subsequent period of time.
+
+Attending to worldly business on the Sabbath, is a profanation of it,
+and strictly prohibited. God says, "Thou shalt not do any work, thou,
+nor thy son, nor thy daughter, thy man-servant, nor thy maid-servant,
+nor thy cattle, nor the stranger that is within thy gates." Again: "Six
+days shall work be done: but the seventh day is the Sabbath of rest;
+ye shall do no work therein: it is the Sabbath of the Lord in all your
+dwellings." The Sabbath was awfully profaned in the days of Nehemiah.
+He says, "In those days saw I in Judah some treading wine-presses on
+the Sabbath, and bringing in sheaves, and leading asses; as also wine,
+grapes, and figs, and all manner of burdens, which they brought into
+Jerusalem on the Sabbath day: and I testified against them in the day
+wherein they sold victuals. There dwelt men of Tyre also therein,
+which brought fish, and all manner of ware, and sold on the Sabbath
+unto the children of Judah and Jerusalem. Then I contended with the
+nobles of Judah, and said unto them, What evil thing is this that ye
+do, and profane the Sabbath-day? Did not your fathers thus, and did
+not our God bring all this evil upon us, and upon this city? yet ye
+bring more wrath upon Israel by profaning the Sabbath. And it came
+to pass, that when the gates of Jerusalem begun to be dark before
+the Sabbath, I commanded that the gates should be shut, and charged
+that they should not be opened till after the Sabbath: and some of my
+servants set I at the gates, that there should no burden be brought
+in on the Sabbath-day. So the merchants, and sellers of all sorts
+of ware, lodged without Jerusalem once or twice. Then I testified
+against them, and said unto them, Why lodge ye about the wall? if ye
+do so again I will lay hands on you. From that time forth came they no
+more on the Sabbath." This is a noble instance of well-directed zeal,
+and successful effort, in that great and good governor. His example
+ought to be followed by persons in authority, filling high official
+situations. The prophet Jeremiah speaks to the same purpose, "Thus
+saith the Lord, Take heed to yourselves, and bear no burden on the
+Sabbath-day, nor bring it in by the gates of Jerusalem: neither carry
+forth a burden out of your houses on the Sabbath-day, neither do ye any
+work, but hallow ye the Sabbath-day, as I commanded your fathers."
+
+Works of necessity and mercy are here to be excepted: these may be
+done consistently with the sanctification of the Sabbath, though they
+are servile and laborious. But great care must be taken, not to plead
+necessity where there really is none. By such works are meant things of
+importance, which could not be done the day before, nor postponed till
+after the Sabbath. A necessity which is occasioned by negligence, or
+want of thought, or is only necessary to some worldly advantage, will
+not be a sufficient excuse in this case. In seasons when people have
+more than ordinary business in their hands, and therefore are apt to
+plead necessity for encroachments on the Sabbath; yet, even then, God
+has particularly commanded them to rest. "Six days shalt thou work; but
+on the seventh day thou shalt rest: in earing-time and harvest thou
+shalt rest."
+
+The religious observance of the Sabbath is adapted to promote the
+spiritual advantage of God's people. Its exercises tend to wean them
+from this present world, and raise them above the attractions of sense.
+By this holy rest there is a pause made in their earthly pursuits,
+and they are called more solemnly to reflect on the invisible and
+important realities of a better world, in order to excite their devout
+affections. Had they no such intervals, their hearts would soon be
+overcharged with the labors and cares of this life, and they would
+be too regardless of a better state. God has made it even unlawful
+for them to follow any secular employments on this day, on purpose to
+preserve them from the undue influence of the objects of sense, and
+that they might with more intenseness pursue spiritual and eternal
+things. It is certain, as one judiciously observes, that much of
+the power of godliness consists in persons living above the present
+world, in being dead to it, in viewing it with a holy indifference,
+and in setting their affections on things above. But this would be
+very difficult, or next to impossible, if they were to be constantly
+employed in worldly affairs; and therefore he who best knows the
+composition and constitution of man, has wisely and graciously
+appointed one day in seven, as a rest from terrestrial pursuits, and as
+a season wherein he should set himself more intensely to prepare for
+the heavenly world. When thus withdrawn from earthly concerns, persons
+can more impartially examine, weigh, and consider how unsuitable a
+portion they are for an immaterial soul, immortal in its duration.
+They have leisure to meditate with greater freedom on the Author of
+their being, on his end or design in placing them on the earth, and
+on the results of their conduct awaiting them in a future state.
+They, therefore, who are duly informed of the worth of the soul, and
+suitably impressed with the awfulness of that world to which they are
+hastening; who desire the felicity of heaven, and dread the misery
+of hell; will rejoice at the return of the Sabbath, wherein they are
+called diligently to prepare for the one, and most cautiously to avoid
+the other. While thus abstracted from all sublunary things, and engaged
+in the exercise of devotion, they gain a more intimate communion with
+God. "Every one that keepeth the Sabbath from polluting it, and taketh
+hold of my covenant; even them will I bring to my holy mountain, and
+make them joyful in my house of prayer; their burnt-offerings and
+their sacrifices shall be accepted upon mine altar." When persons are
+employed on this sacred day, in meditating on the infinite perfections
+of God displayed in his works; when the desires of their souls are
+after him, and they are engaged in offering up prayers and praises to
+the glorious Author of their being and blessings; then he manifests
+himself to them in a manner he does not to other men, sheds abroad his
+love in their hearts, accepts their persons and services, and fills
+them with joy and peace. This communion is most effectually promoted,
+when they are disengaged from earthly things, and wholly employed in
+the duties of religion: according to that very encouraging promise, "In
+all places where I record my name, I will come unto thee, and I will
+bless thee."
+
+The seventh day was observed by heathen nations, as well as the Jews.
+Josephus ventured to affirm, "There is no city, whether Grecian or
+Barbarian, there is no nation, which does not rest on the seventh
+day." Philo Jud�us stated many years before, that the seventh day
+was a festival, not to one city or one country, but to all; and he,
+therefore, calls it the _universal festival_. The heathen writers speak
+of the Sabbath as a high day among them. Clemens Alexandrinus gives
+quotations from Linus, Homer, Hesiod, and Callimachus, who speak of the
+seventh day as a day on which the work of the creation was finished,
+and call it _the holy day_, and _the birth day of the world_. Lucian
+informs us, in his Pseudologista, that children at school were exempted
+from study on the seventh day. This day Suetonius calls a _sabbath_.
+If any should say, that the Heathen, from the acquaintance they had
+with the Jews and the writings of Moses, knew that the seventh day was
+to be kept holy: I would answer; that is not probable, for some of the
+Heathen writers who speak of the seventh-day Sabbath, lived near the
+time of Moses. Beside, the Greeks were at that time wholly ignorant
+of his writings: the Jews thought it a profanation to communicate any
+part of them to the Heathen. Nor were the writings of Moses translated
+into the Greek language till several hundred years after Homer: the
+translation was made in the days of Ptolemy the second, king of Egypt,
+about three hundred years before the Christian era. And it is not
+of the Jews Saturday-sabbath that the Heathen writers speak, but of
+another day in the week. It was not the seventh day of the week to
+which the ancient heathens confined their rest, but _a_ seventh day,
+_one_ day in seven. Their Sabbath or high festival was that day of the
+week on which they worshipped the sun, their chief god. It remains
+then, that the notice of the seventh day among the Heathen came to
+them originally from the Patriarchs, whose descendants, in their
+several dispersions, carried along with them some impressions of the
+true religion, which partially continued with them afterward, though
+awfully corrupted with idolatry. To cure mankind of this idolatry, and
+secure the worship of him who made the sun, and the whole universe,
+Moses, by Divine direction, appointed the last day of the week to be
+the Jewish sabbath. We may also state, that the reason which God has
+assigned for sanctifying the seventh day to be the Jewish sabbath,
+namely, his creating the world in six days, and resting the seventh,
+not only concerns the Jews, but also the Heathens, who are equally
+bound to remember and adore their Creator. Hence the _Strangers_, or
+Gentiles, who sojourned among the Jews, and were not obliged to keep
+the ceremonial law, were bound to keep holy the Sabbath.
+
+Thus we perceive, that this command is of a moral nature, and,
+therefore, of universal and perpetual obligation. The Sabbath was
+instituted from the beginning of the world, while all things were
+perfectly good, and our first parents were innocent and adorned with
+the beauty of holiness: even then the Creator appointed that the
+seventh day should be employed in his more immediate service. Some have
+thought, that there is no express command for the observance of the
+Sabbath, till after the children of Israel had come out of Egypt; and,
+therefore, that all the obligations to observe it must be derived from
+the law of Moses. But this command was given before sin had infected
+human nature, consequently previous to the ceremonial law, which, in
+all its parts, was contrived on account of sin, and intended to point
+to a Saviour: for in a state of innocence, there could be no propriety
+in the adoption of such shadows and ceremonies. Nay, as Archbishop
+Usher observes, the appointment of the Sabbath was not only before any
+part of the ceremonial law, but before any promise or prediction of
+Christ, to whom all the ceremonies of the law had respect. Therefore we
+may conclude, that a command which was to be observed though man had
+never sinned, and which stood in full force from the creation of the
+world, cannot be made a part of the ceremonial law, which was not given
+till after the expiration of 2,500 years. This is a duty incumbent
+on all mankind, as is evident from the reason and end of its first
+institution; all men being alike God's creatures, and as such equally
+concerned to worship him and commemorate his works. The Sabbath is as
+obligatory on all succeeding generations of men, as it was formerly on
+the Jews, or before the Mosaic economy, on the Patriarchs and their
+contemporaries. Every creature of God on earth, endued with reason, is
+obliged to separate this day from his common time, and to keep it holy
+to the Lord.
+
+When the Jewish ceremonial law was abrogated by Christ, the fourth
+command continued in force, and was observed. Speaking of the moral
+law, our Saviour says, "Think not that I am come to destroy the law
+or the prophets. I am not come to destroy, but to fulfil. For verily
+I say unto you, Till heaven and earth pass, one jot or one tittle
+shall in no wise pass from the law, till all be fulfilled." Now if
+not one **yod** _yod_, the smallest letter in the Hebrew alphabet, or
+_tittle_, or _point_, <<keraia>>, either meaning those _points_, as a
+learned author remarks, which serve for vowels in this language, if
+they then existed; or the _apices_, or points of certain letters, such
+as **resh** _resh_, or **daleth** _daleth_, **he** _he_, or **cheth**
+_cheth_, as the change of any of these into the other would make a
+most essential alteration in the sense; I say, if not one of these was
+to pass from the law, surely not the command which is the longest of
+all the ten, is the only one to which a memento is prefixed, and has
+more reasons to enforce it than any of the other nine! Yea, so far
+from abolishing this command, our Saviour explains it, in the case
+of his disciples plucking the ears of corn on the Sabbath; which is
+a manifest proof that he intended it to be continued for the use of
+the Christian Church. He also enjoined his disciples to pray, when
+Jerusalem should be destroyed, which did not occur till forty years
+after his death, and the consequent abolishing of all the Jewish rites
+and ceremonies, that their _flight_ might not be on the _Sabbath-day_.
+
+From the beginning of the world to the Christian dispensation, the
+seventh day of the week was the Sabbath: ever since the resurrection
+of Christ from the dead, the first day of the week is the Christian
+Sabbath. Our Saviour, who is "Lord of the Sabbath," changed it from
+the seventh to the first day of the week; which does not in the
+least derogate from the honor and glory of God. If one Sabbath had
+been abolished and not another instituted in the room of it, then he
+would lose the honor of public worship, which he has appointed to be
+performed on that day. However, if there be a greater work than that
+of creation to be remembered and celebrated, to appoint a day for that
+special purpose, tends much more to advance the glory of God, than if
+it should be wholly neglected. And if "all men should honor the Son,
+even as they honor the Father," then it is expedient that a day should
+be set apart for this worship, namely, the day on which Christ rested
+from the work of redemption, or, as the apostle expresses it, "ceased
+from his own works, as God did from his." In altering the Sabbath,
+from the seventh to the first day of the week, our Saviour displayed
+his sovereign authority; herein he enjoined what time he would have
+consecrated for his worship under the Gospel dispensation, as well as
+what worship he would have performed on that day. In observing the
+Christian sabbath, we express our faith in a public manner, that Christ
+is come in the flesh, and has completed the work of our redemption;
+and, consequently, that there is a way prepared for our justification,
+access to God, and hope of finding pardon, acceptance, sanctification,
+and eternal life. And as all the ordinances of Gospel-worship have a
+peculiar relation to Christ, it is proper that the time in which they
+are performed should likewise have respect to him; and, therefore, the
+first day of the week is set apart in commemoration of his finishing
+the work of our redemption.
+
+That the Sabbath was actually changed from the seventh to the first day
+of the week, appears from the example of the apostles, who, after the
+resurrection of Christ, celebrated that day as a Sabbath. It was on the
+first day of the week that the Holy Ghost was poured down in a most
+miraculous manner on the apostles, to qualify them for the ministry,
+and render them fit instruments for propagating Christianity in the
+world. While St. Paul was at Troas, we read, that "upon the first day
+of the week, when the disciples came together to break bread," i.e.
+to receive the Holy Sacrament, "Paul preached unto them." This was
+not a private, but a public meeting of the Church; nor was it a day
+occasionally appointed by the apostle, but the stated time of their
+meeting; and it was usual for the Christians on their Sabbath to
+receive the Lord's Supper. The apostle had continued at Troas seven
+days; why did they not meet together, and he preach to them, on the
+seventh day of the week? because it was no longer the Sabbath, but
+changed to the first day. It was on the first day of the week that the
+primitive Christians made collections for the poor.--"Now concerning
+the collection for the saints, as I have given order to the churches of
+Galatia, even so do ye. Upon the first day of the week let every one
+of you lay by him in store as God hath prospered him, that there be no
+gatherings when I come." Every man at the conclusion of the week, was
+to cast up his weekly earnings, and see how much God had prospered him;
+and then to bring a right proportion, on the first day of the week, as
+is most likely, to the church or assembly, that it might be put in the
+common treasury. Thus it appears, as a learned commentator remarks,
+that the first day of the week, which is the Christian sabbath, was the
+day on which their principal religious meetings were held in Corinth,
+and the churches of Galatia; and, consequently, in all other places
+where Christianity had prevailed. The apostle John speaks of the Lord's
+day, "I was in the spirit on the Lord's day." He calls it the _Lord's
+day_, because on it Jesus Christ rose from the dead, and had appointed
+it to be the Christian sabbath: thus one Gospel ordinance is called
+the Lord's Supper, from its having been instituted by Christ.--If any
+should inquire when it was that Christ gave instruction to his apostles
+concerning the change of the Sabbath; we may reply, that it was in
+that interval of time, during which he "showed himself alive after his
+passion by many infallible proofs, being seen of them forty days, and
+speaking of the things pertaining to the kingdom of God;" of which we
+may reckon the change of the Sabbath to have been one. But if this
+should not be deemed sufficiently satisfactory, we have the highest
+reason to conclude, that information was given to the apostles by the
+inspiration of the Holy Spirit, whom Christ had promised to send them,
+and that should guide them into all truth. And surely there could not
+have been a more proper day fixed on for the Christian sabbath; and
+which the Christian church has ever since continued to observe, and of
+which God himself has signified his approbation. And as the reason of
+the change now stands, we can neither observe the Jewish seventh-day
+Sabbath, without disowning the redemption which Christ has accomplished
+for us; nor can we refuse to comply with this alteration, and keep holy
+the Lord's day, without a manifest contempt not only of our Creator,
+but of our gracious and merciful Redeemer, who, on this day of the
+week, rose from the dead, and thereby confirmed our redemption from
+sin, Satan, spiritual thraldom, and everlasting misery.
+
+As the redemption of the Jews out of Egypt was typical of our
+redemption by Christ, and the Jews on their Sabbath were to keep their
+deliverance in remembrance; so surely Christians are under the greatest
+obligations on the first day of the week to remember their redemption
+by Christ. On this day our blessed Saviour rose from the dead, and his
+resurrection is a demonstrative evidence that the Supreme Judge is
+fully satisfied, and become the God of peace. There is no dispensing
+with the honor of the moral law, no receding from the sacred rights of
+justice. The obedience and death of Christ, as our surety, were such as
+the law and justice required; and by which the honor of God is secured,
+and of which he has most expressly declared his acceptance. When Christ
+had laid down his life, in as ignominious death, which was all that
+the law and justice could insist on, God himself unloosed the fetters
+of the grave, threw open the prison door, and in his resurrection from
+the dead, gave an evident and solemn testimony of his approval. This
+was the accomplishment of the words of the prophet, "He was taken from
+prison, and from judgment;" released and discharged, in full evidence
+that he had made satisfaction, and that God had accepted the payment
+at his hands. The apostle remarks on this important point, "Whom God
+hath raised up, having loosed the pains of death: because it was not
+possible that he should be holden of it." Not possible, as it is not
+just or righteous that a prisoner, who has satisfied every demand that
+the law has on him, should be kept longer in prison. The resurrection
+of Christ, therefore, was an open and authentic acknowledgment, that
+God, considered as the moral Governor and Supreme Judge of mankind,
+acquiesced in his death, as a proper, full, and perfect satisfaction
+to Divine justice for sin. Hence he is represented, in raising Christ
+from the dead, as acting under the peculiar character of the God of
+peace. "Now the God of peace, that brought again from the dead our Lord
+Jesus Christ, that great shepherd of the sheep, through the blood of
+the everlasting covenant." What a delightful view does this present
+of the resurrection of Christ--a risen Saviour, and a reconciled God!
+How safely may men trust in the one, and with what humble confidence
+may they apply to the other, for pardon, holiness, and heaven. With
+what holy joy should they on the Lord's day call to remembrance his
+resurrection, and meditate on the greatness of his love in shedding his
+blood for "the remission of sins," and to secure for them everlasting
+happiness.
+
+The ardent desire he manifested for our welfare was not extinguished,
+or even abated, by the most discouraging considerations: not by the
+unworthiness of those who were the objects of his compassion; not by
+the thoughts of obscuring his Divine glory with frail humanity; not by
+the prospect of being exposed to the contempt of men and contradiction
+of sinners; not by the view of meeting with very ungrateful usage from
+his friends, and falling under the most bitter persecutions of his
+enemies; not by the necessity, arising from a covenant engagement,
+of suffering the punishment due to sin, and submitting to a most
+ignominious and painful death. In opposition to these formidable
+obstacles, our blessed Redeemer resolutely and immoveably persevered
+in his benevolent design of dying for us, and thereby effecting our
+salvation; and when suspended on the cross, he cried, "It is finished,"
+and gave up the ghost. For calling this to remembrance, was the
+Christian sabbath instituted; and if the consideration of the love of
+Christ in being "delivered for our offences, and rising again for our
+justification," will not constrain us to sanctify the Lord's day, every
+other motive or reason will fail.
+
+
+
+
+THE END.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+    Transcriber's Notes
+
+
+    Punctuation has been standardised.
+
+    Italic text has been denoted by _underscores_.
+
+    Characters in small caps have been replaced by all caps.
+
+    Non-printable superscripts are represented by a caret
+    followed by the character(s) placed in {}, i.e. x^{23}.
+
+    Non-printable symbols have been presented in square brackets
+    with a description [astrological sign]
+
+    Non-Latin characters have been given an English transliteration:
+                Greek --> <<text>>
+               Hebrew --> **text**
+        'oe' ligature --> oe
+
+    This book was written in a period when many words had not
+    become standarized in their spelling. Numerous words have
+    multiple spelling variations or inconsistent hyphenation in the
+    text. These have been left unchanged while obvious spelling
+    mistakes have been repaired. Non-typical corrections are noted
+    below:
+
+         Pg 57 - Location of footnote 33 was not marked in the
+                 original text
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Mosaic History of the Creation of
+the World, by Thomas Wood
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MOSAIC HISTORY ***
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