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Title: The Mosaic History of the Creation of the World
       Illustrated by Discoveries and Experiments Derived from
       the Present Enlightened State of Science; With Reflections,
       Intended to Promote Vital and Practical Religion

Author: Thomas Wood

Editor: J. P. Durbin

Release Date: January 11, 2014 [EBook #44636]

Language: English

Character set encoding: UTF-8

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THE

MOSAIC HISTORY

OF THE

CREATION OF THE WORLD;

ILLUSTRATED BY DISCOVERIES AND EXPERIMENTS DERIVED FROM THE PRESENT
ENLIGHTENED STATE OF SCIENCE; WITH REFLECTIONS, INTENDED TO PROMOTE
VITAL AND PRACTICAL RELIGION.

BY THOMAS WOOD, A. M.

REVISED AND IMPROVED

BY THE REV. J. P. DURBIN, A. M.

PROFESSOR OF LANGUAGES, AUGUSTA COLLEGE, KENTUCKY.

“Every man has a particular train of thought into which his mind falls,
when at leisure, from the impressions and ideas which occasionally
excite it; and if one train of thinking be more desirable than another,
it is surely that which regards the phenomena of nature with a constant
reference to a supreme intelligent author.”--_Bacon._

FIRST AMERICAN, FROM THE SECOND LONDON EDITION.

NEW-YORK.--M^{C}ELRATH & BANGS.

1831.




[_Entered, according to the Act of Congress, July 27, in the year 1831,
by M^{c}Elrath & Bangs, in the Office of the Clerk of the Southern
District of New-York._]




JOHN T. WEST & CO., PRINTERS.




PREFACE

TO THE SECOND LONDON EDITION.


As God made man with a capacity susceptible of knowledge, so has he
furnished him with the means of acquiring it. The Divine Being is
incomprehensible to all but himself: for a finite capacity can never
fully grasp an infinite object. Neither can he be perceived at all,
only so far as he is pleased to reveal himself. He has given us a
revelation of his nature, perfections, and will; which could never have
been discovered by reasoning and conjecture. He has also favored us
with a revelation of his works, without which the origin, constitution,
and nature of the universe, could never have been adequately known. The
origin, duty, and interest of man, are matters in which we are greatly
concerned. How valuable then are the Sacred Scriptures!

The heathen world by wisdom knew not God. On theological subjects,
the greatest Philosophers and Poets of whom antiquity could boast,
were puerile in their opinions, and absurd and contradictory in their
literary productions. Their progress in many of the sciences, and
the polite arts, was considerable; but in religion they made none:
not because they neglected to investigate the nature of it, as one
observes; for there was not a subject they thought on, nor discoursed
about, more than the nature and existence of the gods; neither was
it for want of natural abilities, nor of learning; for persons who
formed the brightest constellation of geniuses that ever illuminated
the republic of letters, were devoted to the investigation of the
principles and causes of things. Moses, the sacred historian, had
access to the Fountain of knowledge, and has revealed the mystery
that lay hid for ages, because he was taught it by the inspiration of
the Almighty. By the Hebrew Lawgiver we are instructed concerning the
Creation of the World; an illustration of whose account is attempted in
the following pages.

The attention of the reader is called to that era when the elementary
principles of matter were first produced, and the formation of
creatures took place; when vitality was given to a vast variety of
animals, and mind was infused into Man as the peculiar offspring of
God: when motion was impressed on the universe, and the various Planets
began their orbicular revolutions: when Time commenced, and

                    “History, not wanted yet,
    Lean’d on her elbow watching Time, whose course
    Eventful should supply her with a theme.”

What a stupendous fabric is Creation! a marvellous display of
omnipotence! It is infinitely diversified, and magnificently grand. Ten
thousand objects strike the attentive eye, and afford inexpressible
delight to a contemplative mind. The blue ethereal arch is highly
illuminated, and richly adorned with sparkling globes of light--whose
number, distances, magnitudes, motions, and influences, elude the most
diligent research: these millions of suns, the glory of other worlds,
are equally the works of the Creator, and, with rays of dazzling
splendor, irradiate the peculiar systems to which they belong: and,
while they celebrate his wisdom and power, form a brilliant canopy
over our heads. That golden globe of light, which is the center of
our planetary system, shines forth in his glory, and spreads abroad
the lucid day: he does not only emit his cheering rays to surrounding
orbs, some of which revolve at immense distances, but, in running his
prescribed course, measures out our time, renders our hours joyful, and
without whose reviving beams we should dwell in perpetual darkness. The
pale silver Moon gilds the shadows of the evening, and directs the feet
of the benighted and lonely traveller in safety to his abode.

In the lower walks of Nature, we perceive numerous assemblages of
creatures, which, calling forth the exercise of our understanding,
raise our admiration. The vapors arise, unite in the aerial regions,
and descend in rain, snow, or hail, according to the different
temperature of the climates; and thus the valleys are watered, the
green carpet is spread under our feet, delightfully adorned with
fruitful trees and variegated flowers. The vast collections of water,
called seas, are stored with innumerable finny inhabitants, both small
and great, which are amply supplied with necessary food. On earth,
there are the wild beasts of the forest, the roaming cattle of the
desert, the domestic animals of the field, the feathered tribes with
their glossy plumage and delightful notes, beside an incredible number
of living creatures that escape the utmost vigilance of the unassisted
eye: which are all effects of infinite skill, omnipotent energy, Divine
munificence, and conspire to utter his praise. The sultry regions are
fanned with cooling breezes, which revive the numerous classes of
creatures, and without which they would otherwise faint. But of all
the visible effects of omnific power and uncreated goodness, Man has a
claim to the first rank, for in his composition are mysteriously joined
both matter and spirit.

How wonderfully has God displayed his wisdom, power, and goodness, in
the creation of the Universe! What are the most labored and diversified
works of Art, when compared with the majestic grandeur and sublimity
of those of Nature! The things on which the fertile imagination of man
has long been employed, when considered in a detached point of view,
gratify our curiosity, raise our admiration, and gain our applause;
but when compared with the productions of the Divine Hand, they sink
and are deprived of their lustre, like the sparkling glow-worm in the
copse, when the Sun shines forth with the refulgence of his meridian
splendor.

Religious instruction is here mixed with philosophical discoveries. The
works of Nature conduct an enlightened mind to the great Creator. The
celebrated Dr. Watts, with this point in view, says,

    “Part of thy name divinely stands,
      On all thy creatures writ,
    They show the labor of thy hands,
      Or impress of thy feet.”

Mr. Adams, in his Lectures, says, “The two kingdoms of nature and
grace, as two parallel lines, correspond to each other, follow a like
course, but can never be made to touch. An adequate understanding
of this distinction in all its branches, would be the consummation
of knowledge.” Stephens, in his Human Nature Delineated, says, “The
man who would seek after knowledge in this world, and happiness in
the world of spirits, I would advise to pursue his studies without
any other guides than the Word and the Works of God.” And Dr. A.
Clarke, on John iv, 3, affirms, that, “properly understood, earthly
_substances_ are the types, representatives, and shadows of heavenly
things.” St. Paul appears to inculcate this idea where he says, “Now
we see as through a glass, darkly: but then face to face.” The word
αινιγματι, rendered _darkly_, is peculiarly important, and the right
knowledge of which will assist us to understand his meaning. Parkhurst
gives the following definition of the _term_ and the _thing_. “Αινιγμα
from ηνιγμαι, the _perfect passive_, of αινιττω, to _hint, intimate,
signify with some degree of obscurity_; an _enigma_, in which one thing
_answers_ or stands in _correspondence to_, or as the _representative_
of another; which is, in _some respects, similar_ to it, occurs 1 Cor.
xiii, 12. _Now_, in this life, _we see by means of a mirror_ reflecting
the images of heavenly and spiritual things, εν αινιγματι, _in an
enigmatical manner_, invisible things being represented by visible;
spiritual, by natural; eternal, by temporal; _but then_, in the eternal
world, _face to face_; every thing being seen in itself, and not by
means of a representative or similitude.”

The idea thus suggested, induced the author to engage in the following
work: he thought that if the Mosaic account of the Creation were given
in detail, each day apart, using the aid afforded by the present
enlightened state of science, and directing the reader to look

    “Through Nature, up to Nature’s God.”

the work would be instructive, and might tend to cultivate the mind
and amend the heart. And he is happy that he has it in his power to
say, that the plan has obtained not only the general approbation of
orthodox and pious Christians, but the warm encomiums of many Ministers
of the Gospel, both of the Establishment and among the Dissenters. He
has received very flattering Epistolary Communications from persons of
piety, literature, and science.

The author has availed himself of various sources of information: some
of the best works published on different illustrative subjects have
been consulted: and those on Natural History and Chemical Science
were found of considerable service. That part which treats on the
Anatomical structure of Man, the reader will perceive is written
by a gentleman deeply versed in Physiological science. It is from
the pen of the late Benjamin Gibson, Esq. who filled the important
situations of _Vice-President of the Literary and Philosophical Society
of Manchester, and Surgeon to the Infirmary of that town_: and who,
unexpectedly, and in the most obliging manner, offered to prepare a
Manuscript for this work, which gives it a peculiar excellence it
otherwise would not have had.

The favorable reception which the former large edition has met with
from the public, and the consequent demand there was upon the author to
prepare a new one, produced a considerable excitement in his mind; and,
under these circumstances, it was not less his wish, than it has been
his endeavor, to make the second edition more worthy to meet the public
eye, as well as more extensively useful. The _whole_ of the work, with
the exception of that part by Mr. Gibson, therefore, has been written
anew, and such important additions and arrangements made, as will, he
trusts, meet the approbation of his readers. He has received assistance
from a writer of eminence, whose name, were he at liberty to mention
it, would do honor to his work, and whose corrections have increased
its value. The Religious Improvements he believes to be natural and
scriptural, and hopes they may be read with advantage by all Christians
who have received the truth as it is in Christ. He can say, that he
has endeavored to make the whole work both instructive and useful, so
far as his leisure from arduous ministerial duties would allow him: by
directing the attention of the reader to God, through the medium of
his visible works, and by that means to inculcate true religion and
genuine piety. May the Divine blessing render this additional effort
successful!




PREFACE

TO THE AMERICAN EDITION.


This work, which is now presented to the public, has not been reprinted
in America heretofore, notwithstanding it passed through _two_ editions
in England, with honorable approbation, in a short space of time. This
first American edition, it is confidently believed, will be received
with approbation; because the work will be found, on perusal, to answer
to its title; and surely no subject can interest the Christian and
intelligent reader more deeply, than the _illustration of the creation
of the world, as recorded by Moses, the servant of God_.

This volume inspires a deeper interest when the reader is promised that
the illustration of this splendid subject shall be _by means of the
discoveries drawn from the present enlightened state of science_. Thus
the reader will see clearly confirmed this glorious truth: _Religion
and Literature are mutual helpmates to the knowledge, love, and glory
of God._

This important truth has been strangely obscured for several ages; but
is now emerging to light with increased splendor. Nor is it important
to inquire, at this stage of mental improvement throughout the
civilized world, the cause of its obscuration, but rather to rejoice,
that it is now assuming its place as a fundamental principle in sound
philosophy. It is the duty of every benevolent individual to contribute
according to his ability, to an inseparable union of sound literature
and vital religion. The one will secure the interests and success of
the other, and both combined, the glory of God.

Our author, in this respect, has been very happily successful. He has,
generally, illustrated the various parts of the Mosaic Creation, with
perspicuity and precision, and then applied the whole to the production
and support of vital piety in the heart of the reader. So that while
the astonishing magnificence, glory, and wisdom of creation, fills the
contemplative mind with admiration, the heart also is fired with an
ardent and rational devotion.

The character of this volume is, therefore, neither _purely_
scientific, nor _purely_ devotional; but both wisely and happily
combined, under the high and direct sanction of revelation.

It will be apparent to every person, by a mere glance at the size
of the volume, that it is not intended to contain all the _minutiæ_
connected with the Mosaic Creation, but the principal, and most
important facts, so as to make the work suitable to the great mass of
intelligent and thoughtful readers. This object it will be found to
have well accomplished.

The _improvements_, which are mentioned in the title-page, have been
added to the American edition, with design to adapt the work more
nearly to the wants of the American public. They are found incorporated
in the body of the volume, in smaller type, and enclosed in brackets;
which was judged to be the best method.

These additional papers are written at some length, principally on
topics which have become more prominent since our author finished his
work, and which are now exciting intense interest in this country. They
are, therefore, considered to be real and interesting improvements to
the American edition.

Finally, the author of these additional papers, would respectfully
commend this American edition of the Mosaic Creation, illustrated by
means of the present enlightened state of science, _to the friends of_
LITERATURE AND RELIGION COMBINED _for the instruction and salvation of
mankind, and for the glory of God_.

                                                          J. P. DURBIN.




CONTENTS.


CHAPTER I.

ON THE CREATOR OF THE WORLD.

    Distinguished by his name _Jehovah_ -- His essence and
    self-existence expressed by the words I AM --His attribute
    of goodness the glory of all his other perfections -- Elohim
    signifying a Trinity of Persons in a Unity of Essence -- The
    Creation ascribed to one God, the Father, the Son, and the Holy
    Spirit -- The first production of matter -- The creatures made
    for the manifesting of God’s attributes, that he might impart
    happiness to them.                                    p. 13-40.


CHAPTER II.

FIRST DAY.

_Section_ I.--CHAOS.

    Inquiry into the origin of things natural to man --
    Character of Moses as a sacred historian important --
    Explanation of the term Created -- Chaotic state of the
    elementary principles of matter -- Influence of the Spirit
    of God upon the chaotic mass -- Opinions of the ancients --
    Similitude between the first and second creation -- Agency
    of the Holy Spirit in the work of regeneration asserted and
    proved.                                               p. 41-51.


_Section_ II.--FIRE.

    Omnific word -- Moving principles in Nature -- Criticism on
    the original word איר _aur_ -- Creation of Fire -- Its nature
    -- Friction exciting the action of fire -- Fire attracted by
    bodies -- Fire conducted -- Fire in a state of combination --
    Fire elastic -- Expansive force of fire -- Subterraneous fires
    -- Earthquakes and volcanic Eruptions -- Air a storehouse of
    fire -- General and final dissolution of nature by fire --
    Fire a symbol of the Deity, in his gracious presence, vital
    influence, transforming energy, and destructive operation. p.
    51-74.


_Section_ III.--LIGHT.

    Motion of luminous and fiery particles the first cause
    of light -- Light the most simple body -- Velocity of light
    -- Light diffusive -- Light the medium through which objects
    become visible -- Light beautiful, or its rays of different
    colors -- Light a visible resemblance of its Divine Author,
    in his spirituality, simplicity, purity, energy, goodness,
    manifestation, glory.                                 p. 75-89.


_Section_ IV.--DAY AND NIGHT.

    Original terms of Day and Night -- Motion the effect of
    a Divine power -- Commencement of Time -- Utility of Day and
    Night -- Religious Improvement of Time -- Sin moral Darkness --
    The Gospel a Light to dispel it -- A Christian the subject of
    a transition from the one state to the other.         p. 89-95.


CHAPTER III.

SECOND DAY.

ON THE ATMOSPHERE.

    Composition of Atmospheric Air -- Atmosphere divided
    into three regions -- Air a fluid -- Its compressibility
    and elasticity -- Weight and pressure -- Equilibrium --
    Transparency -- Wind -- Causes of Wind -- Variety of Winds
    -- Velocity of Winds -- Destructive Winds -- Wind under the
    control of God -- Wind a similitude of the Holy Spirit’s
    operations.                                          p. 95-114.


CHAPTER IV.

THIRD DAY.

_Section_ I.--THE SEA.

    Water and Land separated -- Formation of the Sea -- Its
    restrictions -- Extent -- Depth -- Composition -- Saltiness
    -- Motion -- Tides -- Four states of water -- Circulation --
    Religious Improvement.                              p. 114-135.


_Section_ II.--THE EARTH.

    Surface of the Earth -- Mountains -- Fertility of Plants --
    Dissemination of seeds -- Preservation of Plants -- Adaptation
    to different Climates -- Number of Vegetables -- Succession of
    Vegetables -- Remarkable Trees -- Sensitive Plants -- Kitchen
    Vegetables -- Garden Flowers -- Religious Improvement.
                                                        p. 136-165.


_Section_ III.--MINERALS.

    Gold -- Silver -- Platina -- Mercury -- Copper -- Iron
    -- Tin -- Lead --Nickel -- Zinc -- Palladium -- Bismuth --
    Antimony -- Tellurium --Arsenic -- Cobalt -- Manganese --
    Tungsten -- Molybdenum --Uranium -- Titanium -- Chromium --
    Columbium or Tantalium -- Cerium -- Oxmium -- Rodium -- Iridium
    -- Religious Improvement.                           p. 165-183.


CHAPTER V.

FOURTH DAY.

_Section_ I.--THE SUN.

    Signs -- Names -- Nature -- Motions -- Form -- Magnitude --
    Distance -- Suspension -- Idolatrous worship of the Sun -- The
    Sun an emblem of Christ.                            p. 183-198.


_Section_ II.--THE MOON.

    Names -- Dimensions -- Motions -- Seasons -- Phases --
    Harvest Moon -- Moon’s Surface -- Aerial Stones -- Eclipses --
    Moonlight -- Epithets -- Religious Improvement.     p. 198-214.


_Section_ III.--THE SEASONS.

    Seasons: Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter -- Displaying
    Divine Power, Wisdom, Goodness, Faithfulness -- Religious
    Improvement.                                        p. 214-223.


_Section_ IV.--THE PLANETS AND FIXED STARS.

    Mercury -- Venus -- The Earth -- Mars -- Ceres -- Pallas --
    Juno --Vesta -- Jupiter -- Saturn -- Georgium Sidus -- Comets
    -- Fixed Stars -- Religious Improvement.            p. 223-278.


CHAPTER VI.

FIFTH DAY.

_Section_ I.--FISHES.

    Of Fishes in general -- The Cetaceous kind -- Cartilaginous
    -- Spinous -- Crustaceous -- and Testaceous -- Animalcules --
    Religious Improvement.                              p. 279-296.


_Section_ II.--ON FOWLS.

    Number of Species -- Superiority and peculiar construction
    -- Skill in building their Nests -- Power and Season of
    Propagation -- Dexterity in providing Food -- Instinct --
    Migrations -- Insects -- Religious Improvement.     p. 296-317.


CHAPTER VII.

SIXTH DAY.

_Section_ I.--ON QUADRUPEDS AND REPTILES.

    Quadrupeds in general -- Motion -- Habits -- Rumination --
    Proportion -- Tastes -- Clothing -- Weapons -- Proportionate
    Number -- Faculties -- Reptiles -- Religious Improvement.
                                                        p. 318-344.


_Section_ II.--MAN.

    _Body_: -- Its Creator -- Formation -- Vitality -- Blood
    -- Heart -- Arteries and Veins -- Digestion -- Respiration --
    Glands -- Absorbents -- Nervous System -- Organs of Sense --
    Bones -- Sinovia -- Muscles -- Tendons -- Cellular Membrane --
    Skin. _Soul_: Its Immateriality -- Freedom -- Immortality --
    Moral Image -- Adam’s dominion over the Creatures -- Woman --
    Paradise.                                           p. 344-398.


CHAPTER VIII.

SEVENTH DAY.

ON THE SABBATH.

    Sabbath instituted -- Blessed and sanctified -- Given to
    Adam as a General Precept for his Posterity -- Renewed before
    and at the giving of the Law -- A sign between God and his
    people -- Worldly Business prohibited -- Works of Necessity
    and Mercy excepted --Advantages resulting from observing it
    -- A Seventh Day regarded by the Heathens -- The Sabbath of
    universal and perpetual obligation -- The Lord’s Day.
                                                        p. 399-410.




THE

MOSAIC HISTORY, &c.




CHAPTER I.

ON THE CREATOR OF THE WORLD.

    Distinguished by his name JEHOVAH -- His essence and
    self-existence expressed by the words I AM -- His attribute
    of goodness the glory of all his other perfections -- Elohim
    signifying a Trinity of Persons in a Unity of Essence -- The
    Creation ascribed to one God, the Father, the Son, and the Holy
    Spirit -- The first production of matter -- The creatures made
    for the manifesting of God’s attributes, and that he might
    impart happiness to them.


As it is proposed, in the following pages to give the Mosaic account
of the creation of the world, it is very natural that the mind should
come to the meditation of this interesting subject, by contemplating
the character of the Great Creator, according to his own revelations.

It is evident that God made himself gradually known, as the state and
condition of mankind required. In the earlier ages of the world, while
revelation was but dawning on the human race, he was but little known,
in comparison of the subsequent diffusion of his glory and perfections.
When he, according to his promise, came to deliver the children of
Israel out of Egypt, he revealed himself to them by his name JEHOVAH.
He had before declared himself by this name to Abraham, Isaac, and
Jacob; but not as it imports the performance of his promises; in
which sense, their posterity afterwards, in the time of Moses, well
understood it.

Of all the names which the Divine Being has been pleased to designate
himself by, that of JEHOVAH is the greatest. It comes from a root
which imports his eternity, independency, efficacy, and truth. In the
Hebrew it is written with four letters, י _yod_, ה _he_, ו _vau_,
ה _he_, thus יהוה i.e. JHVH:[1] the points used in that language,
make our English word consist of seven letters, J_e_H_o_V_a_H. God
himself gives the interpretation of this name. “And the Lord passed
by before him, and proclaimed יהוה YEHOVAH, the LORD GOD, merciful
and gracious, long-suffering, and abundant in goodness and truth,
keeping mercy for thousands, forgiving iniquity, and transgression,
and sin, and that will by no means clear the guilty.” These different
names have been considered as so many attributes of the Divine
Nature. Commentators divide them into eleven, thus: 1. יהוה JEHOVAH.
2. אל EL, the strong or mighty God. 3. רחום RACHUM, the merciful
Being, who is full of tenderness and compassion. 4. חנין CHANUN, the
gracious One: He, whose nature is goodness itself--the loving God.
5. ארך פיםא EREC APAYIM, long-suffering, the Being who, because of
his goodness and tenderness, is not easily irritated, but suffers
long and is kind. 6. רב RAB, the great or mighty One. 7. חסד CHESED,
the bountiful Being: He who is exuberant in his beneficence. 8. אמת
EMETH, the Truth, or true One: He alone who can neither deceive nor
be deceived--who is the Fountain of truth, and from whom all wisdom
and knowledge must be derived. 9. חסד נצר NOTSER CHESED the preserver
of bountifulness: He whose beneficence never ends, keeping mercy for
thousands of generations--showing compassion and mercy while the
world endures. 10. נשא עון ופשע וחטאה NOSE _âvon vapeshâ vechataah_:
He who bears away iniquity and transgression and sin; properly the
REDEEMER, the Pardoner, the Forgiver, the Being whose prerogative
alone it is to forgive sin, and save the soul. נקה (לו) לא ינקה NAKEH
_lo yinnakeh_, the righteous Judge, who distributes justice with an
impartial hand; with whom no innocent person can ever be condemned. 11.
And פקד עון PAKED _âvon_, &c. He who visits iniquity; he who punishes
transgressors, and from whose justice no sinner can escape. The God of
retributive and vindictive justice. These eleven attributes, as they
have been termed, are all included in the name _Jehovah_; and are the
proper interpretation of it.[2]

The Jews had a superstitious respect for this name; and, after the
Babylonian captivity, discontinued the use of it, which caused
them soon to forget its true pronunciation. They called it the
_Tetragrammaton_, or four-lettered name of God, which, to the present
day, the Jews will neither write nor pronounce. They deemed it to be
ineffable; and therefore when it occurred in reading the Scriptures;
substituted אדני _Adonai_.

The Jews tell us that the woman’s son, mentioned in Lev. xxxiv, 11, was
accused of blasphemy and stoned to death, because he pronounced the
name _Jehovah_. But I conceive, that he had spoken contemptuously of
God. We read, verse 10, that he and a man of Israel strove together,
and it is probable that the Israelite, in the heat of contention, would
deny his being a member of the church of God, because he was the son of
an Egyptian father who was an idolater; whereupon, no doubt, the son
of the Israelitish woman spoke scornfully and opprobriously of the God
of Israel, despising the privilege of being one of his people. This, I
imagine, was the blasphemy of which he was accused, and for which he
was condemned and stoned to death; and not for pronouncing the name of
_Jehovah_ only.

The Seventy who translated the Old Testament into Greek, at the desire
of Ptolemy Philadelphus, King of Egypt, about the 124th Olympiad, were
also very sparing in the use of this name _Jehovah_; and therefore did
not render it according to the sacred import of the Hebrew, but changed
it into the word Κυριος, _Lord_, which is of the same signification
with _Adonai_ in the Hebrew. Origen, Jerome, and Eusebius, testify,
that, in their time, the Jews left the name _Jehovah_ written in their
copies with Samaritan characters, instead of the common Chaldee or
Hebrew characters. And those divines, who at the command of King James
translated the Scriptures anew into English, have very rarely used the
word _Jehovah_, but rendered it _Lord_. Yet we may observe, that when
this word _Lord_ is substituted for _Jehovah_, it is printed in large
Roman letters. It is to be wished, that the name _Jehovah_ had been
preserved in the English translation of the Scriptures, and especially
in those passages whose sense entirely depends on the meaning of the
word.

After the appointment of Moses, by Jehovah, to deliver the children of
Israel from the tyranny and oppression under which they groaned, and
to conduct them from Egypt to worship God at Horeb, he was anxious to
obtain a particular revelation of the Divine nature and attributes,
that he might be able to regulate, direct, and superintend their
worship; and this he deemed necessary on account of the Israelites
having been long conversant among the Egyptians, who were idolaters
and polytheists, and called their gods by a variety of names. Hereupon
he said to God, “Behold, when I come unto the children of Israel, and
shall say unto them, The God of your fathers hath sent me unto you;
and they shall say unto me, What is his name? what shall I say unto
them?” Intimating, that it was expedient God should call himself by
an appropriate name, to distinguish himself from all the gods of the
heathen. For men did not, at this time, as Dr. Shuckford observes,
know the works of creation well enough to demonstrate from them the
attributes of God; nor could they, by speculation, form proper and
just notions of his nature. Though he had revealed himself to Abraham,
Isaac, and Jacob, by the name אני אל שדי _Ani El shaday_, “I am God
all-sufficient,” and likewise that of יהוה _Jehovah_; yet a further
knowledge of him was sincerely desired and earnestly requested.[3]

Whereupon, says God to Moses, I AM _that_ I AM, אהיה אשר אהיה EHEYEH
_asher_ EHEYEH. The Vulgate translates these words--EGO SUM QUI SUM,
_I am who am_. The Septuagint--Εγω ειμι ὁ Ων, _I am he who exists_.
The Arabic paraphrases them--_The Eternal, who passes not away_. Not
_I was_, but I AM and WILL BE: a name that expresses his own essence,
and signifies independency, immutability, and necessary existence. As
if he had said, You may inquire who I am, and by what name I would
be distinguished: know then that I AM HE who has being from himself,
and has no dependence on any other.[4] This contains in it the whole
plenitude and possibility of being, all that is, or can be, or, as the
Apostle expresses it, παν το πληρωμα της Θεοτητος “all the fulness of
the Godhead.” By this name he is distinguished not only from all false
gods, but from all other beings whatsoever; implying, that he exists
after some very eminent and peculiar manner, and that nothing else
besides him truly and essentially is.[5]

The self-existence of God proves that he always was, and evidently
shows that he cannot cease to be. “He is, and was, and is to come.” His
necessary existence comprehends a duration which has neither beginning,
succession, nor end. He can have no succession in his duration, because
wherever this is there must be priority, and wherever there is a
priority there must be a beginning. He is in the complete possession
of an endless life, all at once. He exists in one eternal _now_. He
is unchangeable in his essence or manner of existence, so that no
perfection can be added to him, nor any excellency taken from him, but
he remains invariably the same.

All natural perfections are essential to him as an infinite being, such
as eternity, omnipotence, immensity, omniscience, spirituality, and
immutability; and all moral perfections belong to him as a good Being,
such as wisdom, holiness, justice, goodness, truth, faithfulness.
These latter are communicable, because there are some rays of them
in his creatures, but none of them in that transcendent degree that
are in him, nor ever can be. The former we call his _natural_ and
_incommunicable_ perfections, for the sake of distinction; though it is
certain the latter are equally as natural to him, and incommunicable,
in that infinite degree possessed by himself.

God being unchangeable in his essence, must also be so in all his
perfections, because they are no other than his essence, and are not
distinguished in him, either from his essence, or from one another;
but are one and the same Being, revealed and manifested to us, under
various notions, which we call _attributes_, to help us the better to
conceive of him, who are not able to apprehend what may be known of
him, under any one name, or by any one act of our understanding.

The combination of all his perfections renders him a glorious Being;
and that fixed and invariable state of contentment and satisfaction,
complacency and delight, which result from the secure possession and
enjoyment of all that is good and desirable, or, in other words, of
all possible excellencies and perfections in the highest degree,
constitutes him infinitely blessed.

Moses was favored with another remarkable and interesting manifestation
of the Divine Being; for perceiving God’s merciful condescension in
answer to his prayers offered up for his people, he persevered in the
holy exercise, and even asked him for a manifestation of his glory:
“Show me,” said he, “I beseech thee, thy glory,” or, according to the
original, “make me see it.” He could not mean an open view of the
unclouded majesty of God, but only such a display of the Divine glory
as a mortal is capable of beholding. God answered, “I will make all
my _goodness_ to pass before thee:” intimating, that his _goodness_
is his glory, and that he could not bear the infinite splendor of his
holiness and justice. _Goodness_ is the true and genuine character of
God, and the glory of all his other perfections, and by it they are
all rendered engaging. Without this they would be terrible: for wisdom
without goodness degenerates into insidious cunning; and power without
it is the character of a tyrant. Were God destitute of this amiable
perfection, he would have such a defect in his nature, as infinite
perfection itself, in every other attribute, could not sufficiently
compensate.

All nations have acknowledged this perfection of the Divine Being.
Plato calls him the ιδεα του αγαθου, the idea or essence of goodness.
In the three principles of the Platonic Trinity--το αγαθον _goodness_,
νους _intelligence_, and ψυχη _vitality_.--The first place is assigned
to the το αγαθον _goodness_, which the Platonists conceive to be like
an immense and most pure light, continually diffusing and communicating
its invigorating beams. To this the Platonist Boctius alludes, in that
celebrated description of God, where he calls him _Fons Boni Lucidus_,
the lucid fountain of goodness.--There is an ancient cabalistical
table, supposed to be borrowed from the Pythagoreans, which represents,
in a visible scheme, the order of the Divine perfections: wherein it is
observable that _goodness_ presides over, and gives laws and measures
to all the other attributes of God.

Philo says, God is the name of _goodness_; and our English word, adds
a late author, seems to be a contraction of the word _good_; or,
however, is the same with the German _Got_, or _Godt_, which came, as
is thought, from the Arabic word _Gada_, of the same signification. So
that the German and the English name of the Supreme Being, in common
use, is taken from the attribute of his _goodness_. “The word itself
is pure Anglo-saxon,” says Dr. Adam Clarke, “and, among our ancestors,
signified not only the Divine Being, now commonly designated by the
word, but also _good_; as in their apprehension it appears, that _God_
and _Good_ were correlative terms; and when they thought or spoke of
him, they were ever led from the word itself to consider him as THE
GOOD BEING a fountain of infinite benevolence and beneficence towards
his creatures.” The word GOD, expressed in the old Saxon, is _bona
res_, a good thing.

That God is _good_, is the constant language of Divine revelation;
for this attribute is every where celebrated, both in the Old and
New Testament. It may be distinguished as _natural_, _moral_, and
_communicative_. The first of these is the absolute perfection of his
nature, which is goodness itself in its very essence. He is originally
good, and that of himself; which is a property peculiar to no other
creature, for all the goodness of the creature is derived from God. He
is infinitely and therefore incomprehensively good to men and angels;
hence his goodness knows no limits. We read of the “riches of his
goodness,” which are as “unsearchable,” as is his “greatness.” He is
immutably good, for “the goodness of God endureth continually.” And as
his dependence on no one admits not of his being changed by others,
so neither does his immutability admit of it by himself; for if he
alter for the better he was not God before, and if for the worse, he
then would not be God. Thus he is essentially, originally, infinitely,
incomprehensibly, and unchangeably good.

The _moral_ goodness of God is his perfect purity or holiness;
therefore his goodness and holiness are united--“good and upright is
the Lord.” According to any rational opinion we can form of him, he
is a Being possessed, not only of every natural power and perfection,
but of every moral excellence. The holiness of his nature removes
him to the greatest possible distance from all moral evil, and makes
him necessarily approve of moral good. All his designs are pure and
upright, and worthy of himself: he always acts according to the perfect
rectitude of his own nature. Though he is not under the direction of
any superior, yet his own rectitude always determines him to pursue
what is right to be done towards his creatures. This property of
the Divine Being greatly heightens our idea of his excellence, and
naturally points him out as the Governor of mankind. And as he adheres
to it in his own conduct and administration, and likewise approves and
loves it in his rational creatures, whom he governs; so he disapproves
and hates the reverse in them, and will most certainly animadvert
upon the temper and behavior of those who act contrary to his divine
admonitions, and make them most sensibly feel the effects of their
wickedness.

The _communicative_, or relative goodness of God, or his goodness to
his creatures, is his inclination or self-propension to deal well and
bountifully with them. As the notion of God includes goodness, so
the idea of goodness implies holy diffusiveness. Therefore, says the
Psalmist, “Thou art good, and doest good.” All that we are, have, or
hope for, that is good, proceeds from God as its fountain; hence he is
called, “the fountain of living waters.” This communicative goodness
implies, that, from his all-sufficiency, he is ready to impart to
his creatures whatever their necessities require. This attribute is
universal: “he is good to all” his creatures from the highest angel
to the meanest reptile; especially, to his people, “Truly,” says the
Psalmist, “God is good to Israel, even to such as are of a clean
heart.” But, though God is good to all his creatures, yet he is not
equally so in the same kind and degree of blessings. His munificence is
regulated by his wisdom, and the different capacities with which he has
formed his creatures makes this inequality necessary.

    [There is one vast and awful question which must occur to
    every reflecting mind--_What is God?_

    As it regards his _Nature_, the Scriptures say, He is a
    _Spirit_. We must therefore, conceive the Creator to be, a
    _Living_, _Rational_, _Benevolent_, and _Spiritual_ ESSENCE;
    absolutely, necessarily, and naturally _perfect_, and,
    therefore, _immaterial_, _uncompounded_, _indivisible_, and
    _eternal_.

    It is necessarily understood that this essence is
    _peculiar_: that there is nothing in its nature which has
    any resemblance to _created_ substances, whether material
    or spiritual; and that it is _underived_, and consequently,
    _independent_.

    This Divine Essence being immaterial, impalpable, simple
    and indivisible, cannot have _body_ or _parts_: nor can it be
    said to be a _whole_, for this would imply an _aggregation_ of
    parts: but is itself a perfect, absolute, single, and eternal
    INDIVIDUALITY, incapable of self-multiplication, or increase;
    or of diminishing itself, or endangering its existence.

    This essence is a _living_ essence; and, therefore, has
    inherently the power and principles of _action_: It is a
    _rational_ essence, and therefore, must act according to
    the eternal principles of _reason_ and _right_: It is a
    _benevolent_ essence, and therefore, all its actions must
    be infinitely _good_ and _kind_. Absolute _perfection_,
    _infinitude_, and _sovereignty_ in all these respects,
    constitute the Being we call God.

    As God is a single, indivisible, independent, and eternal
    UNIT, we cannot ascribe _different_ perfections, or attributes
    to him, so as to suppose one attribute _separate from, and
    independent of_ another, capable of acting _per se_, or
    participating _conjunctively_ with other attributes _as an
    integer_. Nor can we suppose this eternal, and independent Unit
    to act by being _operated upon_ in any degree, by other agents,
    nor can he operate on himself. All his actions, therefore,
    spring from himself, and are performed _without excitement,
    effort, means, or previous ratiocination_.

    It will follow from the preceding reasoning, that every
    action of the Divine Being, in regard to himself, is precisely
    the same in _nature_: so that we cannot say of one act it is
    an effort of his _power_ to the _exclusion_ of his wisdom: nor
    of his wisdom to the exclusion of his goodness: nor of his
    goodness to the exclusion of his holiness: and so of the rest.
    Strictly speaking we cannot say the power _of_ God; the wisdom
    _of_ God; the goodness _of_ God, &c.; because the power of God
    _is_ God; the wisdom of God _is_ God; the goodness of God _is_
    God.

    In contemplating this awful subject _abstractly_, we should
    say there are no such things as _attributes_ in the Divine
    Being, _as they are commonly understood_. What we call his
    attributes, are only different modes of the operations of the
    same eternal, undivided, and independent Unit. Indeed, God is
    one entire perfection which exerts itself in different ways and
    actions.

    But as we cannot comprehend this single entire perfection;
    nor understand _how_ it exerts the whole of itself, as a single
    indivisible agent, _in each particular act_, as it really
    does, mankind have always been in the habit of assisting their
    contemplations by regarding the _nature_ of the acts of this
    single, indivisible, and eternal agent, and thus _infering_
    the nature of the Divine Being. And as these acts appear
    to differ in _quality_, we infer a quality in the agent,
    corresponding with the quality of the actions which we see: we
    call this quality by a _name_, and _thus derive the doctrine of
    attributes_.

    For example: When we see this single, indivisible agent
    manifesting himself in such a manner as to give us the idea
    of _unlimited power_, we ascribe _omnipotence_ to him, as an
    attribute. When we see a manifestation indicating _infinite
    wisdom_, we ascribe _omniscience_ to him as an attribute.
    In the same manner in reference to the manifestations
    which indicate justice, goodness, mercy, truth, holiness,
    faithfulness, righteousness, kindness, &c, all of which we
    ascribe to him upon such indications.

    Although _this rationale_, in contemplating the Divine
    Being, is necessary to _creatures_, yet it is calculated to
    lead the mind into error. We am insensibly inclined to ascribe
    the divine actions to those attributes _exclusively_ which
    we suppose they indicate. This, probably, has been the most
    fatal error of mankind, and, doubtless, laid the foundation
    of darkness and idolatry. We must never conceive that any act
    of the Divine Being proceeds from _one_ or more attributes to
    the _exclusion_ of others; or that one attribute participates
    _more_ in one act than another. This is the fatal mistake.
    Hence theologians have become blind and foolish, bewildering
    the multitude by building up theories on the consideration of
    a single attribute; thus making the Divine Being to consist
    of parts, and these parts independent too. Instances of this
    awful mistake might be given, but it scarcely comes within the
    design of this paper. It is sufficient to say; if we conceive
    correctly of the divine acts, _we will ascribe each equally to
    all the Divine Attributes_.

    As we conceive this single, indivisible, underived,
    independent, and eternal agent, or perfection to be absolutely
    infinite, and illimitable in all possible ways, or manner, of
    exerting Himself, we, of course, conceive all the qualities,
    indicated by the divine acts, which we call attributes, to be
    absolutely infinite, perfect, and eternal: and thus we derive
    the doctrine of the absolute perfection, and infinitude of all,
    and each of the Divine Attributes.

    From the foregoing reflections, the reader will readily
    conceive of the Divine Being, as a Living, Rational,
    Benevolent, and Spiritual Essence, existing as a single,
    underived, independent, Unit: a Unit, not in reality consisting
    of attributes, or perfections, but itself one single, entire
    perfection: exerting itself not by attributes, but as an
    individual Unit or Agent, in such a manner that each action
    is the action of the Divine Being, and not of one or more of
    his attributes: that the existence of this single, underived,
    independent, and eternal Agent, was, and is _necessary_, and,
    therefore, he could not but have existed, and cannot cease to
    be; that He is absolute, and infinite in all possible ways and
    manner of acting, and consequently we conceive Him possessed of
    all possible perfections in an infinite degree.]

By the assistance of Divine revelation we are enabled further to pursue
our inquiries concerning this very important subject; and without
which, we should be involved in great darkness and uncertainty, not
only respecting his moral perfections, but the _mode_ of his existence.
And this must be a matter of superior interest to mankind, or our
adorable Creator would not have communicated it, which he evidently
has done through the medium of the Scriptures, written by Divine
inspiration.

Moses, having received by Divine revelation instruction concerning the
origin and formation of the world, conducts us at once to its great
and adorable Architect. “In the beginning GOD created the heavens and
the earth.” Here he adopts a phraseology to express the supreme Being,
which is generally used in the Old Testament for the same purpose,
and is very important and necessary to be understood, as it gives us
information after what _manner_ he exists. ‘The original word אלהימ
_Elohim_, God,’ says a great linguist, ‘is certainly the plural form
of אל _el_, or אלה _eloah_, and has long been supposed, by the most
eminently learned and pious men, to imply a _plurality_ of persons in
the divine nature.’ As this plurality appears in so many parts of the
sacred writings to be confined to _three_ Persons, namely, the Father,
the Son, and the Holy Spirit, hence the doctrine of the TRINITY.

It is very remarkable that we no sooner open the Bible, than this
doctrine is presented to our view. The laws and ordinances established
among the Jews were designed to guard that people from idolatry, which
in Abraham’s time had become very general. On the recollection of this
circumstance it appears extraordinary that Moses, when he is describing
the creation of the world, should, in order to express his conceptions
of the Divine Being, introduce a term which implies _plurality_; and,
frequently connecting it with verbs and persons singular, should use
that term _thirty_ times in the short account of the creation, when the
language afforded other words in the singular number that would have
answered his purpose equally well; nay, if he did not wish to express
a _plurality_, that grammatical accuracy should have led him to adopt.
When he made use of a plural noun for the name of God, which he has
done, perhaps, _five hundred_ times more in one form or other in the
five books of his writings, this _plurality_, I apprehend, was the idea
he meant to convey to mankind. He, or rather the HOLY SPIRIT, by whom
he was inspired to write his history, meant to give some hints and
intimations of a doctrine more clearly to be revealed in future ages.[6]

The ancient Jews understood _Elohim_ as conveying the idea of a
plurality in the Godhead. “Come,” says one of them, “and see the
mystery of the word _Elohim_: there are _three degrees_, and each
degree by itself _alone_, and yet notwithstanding they are all _one_,
and joined together in one, and are not _divided_ from each other.”[7]

R. Bechai, a celebrated author among the Jews, discoursing of the
word _Elohim_, and of the import and signification of it, adds these
words:--“According to the cabalistical way, this name _Elohim_ is two
words, namely, _El him_, that is, _they are God_. But the explanation
of the Yod is to be fetched from Eccles. xii, 1, _Remember thy_
CREATORS. He that is prudent will understand it.” These words do
sufficiently prove the Cabala among the Jews, says Bishop Kidder, that
though the Divine Nature was but _one_, yet there was some kind of
_plurality_ in this Divine Nature; and this is fairly insinuated in the
_Bara Elohim_, which we find in the beginning of Genesis.[8]

John Xeres, a Jew converted in England some years ago, published a
sensible and affectionate address to his unbelieving brethren, wherein
he says, that “the word _Elohim_, which we render GOD in Gen. i, 1, is
of the plural number, though annexed to a verb of the singular number;
which,” says he, “demonstrates as evidently as may be, that there are
several persons partaking of the same Divine nature and essence.”[9]

It is clear too, how sensible the Jews have been that there is a
notion of _plurality_ plainly imported in the Hebrew text, since they
have forbidden their common people the reading of the history of the
creation, lest, understanding it literally, they should be led unto
heresy.[10] When the Scriptures are suppressed, or the common people
denied the use of them, it may with propriety be presumed that their
superiors, who act in an arbitrary and unjust manner, have embraced
anti-scriptural notions, and, in order to prevent detection, lay
aside the only infallible _test_ of truth; and, to conceal their base
motives, and make their deleterious conduct appear not only plausible,
but necessary and proper, they boldly assert the incompetency of
the people to judge of scripture doctrines for themselves, and wish
to be considered compassionate and friendly in judging and deciding
for them. The fact is, the common people are denied the use of the
Scripture, lest understanding it in a certain sense, which their
superiors call heresy, it should lead them into the understanding of
plain and unequivocal facts stated therein, and which are of the utmost
importance for them to know.

It may be observed here likewise, that the Hebrew doctors always
supposed the first verse of Genesis to contain some latent mystery. The
Rabbi Ibba indeed expressly says it does, and adds, “This mystery is
not to be revealed, till the coming of the Messiah.”

Mr. Parkhurst, who has greatly distinguished himself in Hebrew
literature, and to whose pious and learned labors most Biblical
students are indebted, says, “Let those who have any doubt whether
אלהימ _Elohim_, when meaning the true God, Jehovah, be _plural_ or not,
consult the following passages, where they will find it joined with
adjectives, pronouns, and verbs _plural_:” he refers to twenty-five
texts in the Old Testament on this occasion.[11]

If Moses and the Jews held the doctrine of the Trinity, and the word
_Elohim_ imports _plurality_, it is natural to ask, How comes it to
pass that the Septuagint version renders the plural name Elohim, when
used for the true God, by the singular one Θεος, and never by the
plural Θεοι? The learned Ridley,[12] after Allix, has answered this
question. He says, “The Talmudists own that the LXXII Interpreters
did purposely change the notion of _plurality_ implied in the
Hebrew _Elohim_ into the Greek singular, lest Ptolemy Philadelphus
should conclude that the Jews, as well as himself, had a belief
of Polytheism.” And Bishop Huntingford adds, “Of all the Greek
appellations of Divinity, Θεος was the only simple and direct term
which they could adopt, to counteract idolatrous misconceptions.”

This phraseology, as to its signification, is not peculiar to Moses,
but is used by the other sacred writers also, and exactly accords
with the whole tenor of Divine revelation. The creation of the world
is ascribed to the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, as joint,
concurring, equal, and efficient causes thereof, in the Scriptures. It
will not surely be presuming too much, says Bishop Huntingford, if we
suppose Joshua and Solomon to be more deeply instructed in the Jewish
Religion, than to be capable of using improper language respecting the
Deity. Yet the former says, “Ye cannot serve the Lord: for he is the
Holy Gods;” and the latter says, “The fear of Jehovah is the beginning
of wisdom; and the knowledge of the Holies is understanding.”[13]
Such is the phraseology of the Hebrew text. In these passages, and
others that might be produced, the word in the Hebrew is in the plural
number, because of the _plurality_ of persons in the Godhead; but in
our translation it is in the _singular_ number, because of the unity of
their essence.

But more particularly. The creation of the world is ascribed to
JEHOVAH: “I have made the earth, and created man upon it: I, even
my hands, have stretched out the heavens, and all their host have
I commanded. I am the Lord that maketh all things, that stretcheth
forth the heavens alone, that spreadeth abroad the earth by myself.”
He had no _moving causes_ exciting him to create matter and produce a
universe, but his own will, goodness, wisdom, and power. He created
all things himself, without the assistance of _any instruments_. The
prophet ascribes to God alone the framing and stretching out of the
heavens and the earth without the counsel, direction, or ministry of
any subordinate agency. “Who hath measured the waters in the hollow
of his hand, and meted out heaven with a span, and comprehended the
dust of the earth in a measure, and weighed the mountains in scales,
and the hills in a balance? With whom took he counsel, and who
instructed him, and taught him in the path of judgment, and taught him
knowledge, and showed to him the way of understanding?” He created
all things without any _toil_, _labor_, _change_, or _alteration_ in
himself. There was not in him any transition from rest to labor, from
idleness to business, from strength to weariness. Though “every good
and perfect gift is from above, and cometh down from the Father of
lights,” yet “with him there is no variableness, neither shadow of
turning.” The Prophet says, “Hast thou not known? hast thou not heard,
that the everlasting God, the Lord, the Creator of the ends of the
earth, fainteth not, neither is weary?” And he proceeded in the work
of creation without _any delay_: it was not a successive forming of
things by alteration, which required much time to render them perfect,
but was as in a moment, as quickly and readily as a word is spoken,
produced in the rapid succession as recorded by Moses. This work then
God is said to have done _alone_, to the exclusion, not of the Son and
the Spirit, but of all that are not God by nature; and by himself, to
the exclusion of all second causes or inferior agents.

It is ascribed also to the SON of God. The evangelist John asserts
in very express terms the Divinity of Jesus Christ, of the truth
of which he designed his whole Gospel should be a proof. “In the
beginning was the Λογος Word.” By the εν αρχη _beginning_, here, we
are to understand the beginning of the creation, not the beginning
of the gospel state, as the Socinians say. We have the authority of
Grotius, that εν αρχη is taken from בראשית _Bereshith_, Gen. i, 1,
translated by the Septuagint εν αρχη, and consequently must signify,
from _the beginning of the creation of God_. It is not said, that
_he_ was _made_ in the beginning, but that he _was_ in the beginning,
did exist when the world began, which is of the same import as if he
said, he was from eternity; for he that did exist in the beginning,
never did himself begin to be. The personal Wisdom of God says, “The
Lord possessed me in the beginning of his way, before his works of
old.”--“And the Logos,” or “Word, was with God.” He could be with no
creature, because there was no creature in being; and therefore it
is very properly said, that he “was with God,” the Father; and his
being with him shows, that he is a distinct person or subsistence
from the Father.--“And the Logos,” or “Word was God.” Though he is a
person distinct from that of the Father, yet he is of the very same
essence with him. He that was with God, was God; and if he was God in
the beginning, that is from eternity, he is the same still, he cannot
cease to be what he was. Here then the evangelist asserts the eternal
existence of Christ, his personal co-existence with the Father, and
that he is of the very same undivided nature and essence with him.
Though he is a person distinct from the Father, yet he is of the same
substance, equal with him in all divine perfections; not a _secondary_
God, inferior to the Father, as the Arians assert. “All things were
made by him.” All things, from the highest angel to the meanest worm,
were made by him, not as a subordinate instrument, but as a co-ordinate
agent, as a joint efficient cause, co-operating with the Father in this
work. ‘To say that Christ made all things by a delegated power from
God, is _absurd_; because the thing is impossible. Creation means,
causing that to exist that had no previous being: this is evidently
a work which can be effected only by _omnipotence_. Now God cannot
delegate his _omnipotence_ to another: were this possible, he _to_ whom
this omnipotence was delegated, would, in consequence, become God; and
he _from_ whom it was delegated, would _cease to be such_: for it is
impossible that there should be _two_ omnipotent beings.’ “And without
him was not any thing made that was made.” This is added for the more
certainty, it being usual with the Hebrews, when they would affirm that
a thing is so indeed, to confirm by a particular negative what they
had before affirmed. Our Lord said to the Jews, “My Father worketh
hitherto, and I work.” The phrase ὡς αρτι signifies “to this time,” “to
the present,” that is, in all works whatever. Hence he is no creature,
or he must have created himself; and if he created himself, he must
have been in existence and not in existence at the very same time,
which is both contradictory and absurd. And if every work performed
by the Father was equally performed by the Son, the Son must, in all
respects, be equal to the Father, in nature and perfections. This our
Lord’s words signify and imply, and in this sense the Jews understood
him--as “making himself equal with God.”[14] “He is the image of God,”
the πρωτοτοχος “FIRST PRODUCER of every creature: for by him were all
things created, that are in heaven, and that are in earth, visible and
invisible, whether they be thrones, or dominions, or principalities,
or powers:” all the angels, however diversified in rank or employment
in the heavenly world; and all the rational, animal, vegetable, and
inanimate creatures, belonging to this terrestrial abode: “all things
were made by him,” as the efficient cause, “and for him,” as the last
end.--“God hath in these last days spoken unto us by his Son, whom he
hath appointed heir of all things, by whom also he made the worlds,”
i.e. the heavens and the earth. The Father does all by the Son, and the
Son does all from the Father. Whatsoever the Father does, that also
does the Son likewise. “Unto the Son he saith, Thy throne, oh God, is
for ever and ever; a sceptre of righteousness is the sceptre of thy
kingdom. Thou, Lord, in the beginning hast laid the foundation of the
earth; and the heavens are the works of thy hands.” In these passages
the _Divinity_ of Christ is plainly asserted, and the operations of his
power are proofs of his Godhead. He that is the Creator of all things
is God: but Christ is the Creator of all things; therefore Christ is
God. He calls himself “the Beginning of the creation of God,” where the
word αρχη means the Creator, the efficient Cause of all things, he by
whose power the creation had its beginning and perfection. And “he that
built all things is God.”

The learned Jacob Bryant wrote a very valuable Tract entitled, _The
sentiments of Philo Judæus concerning the ΛΟΓΟΣ, or Word of God_;
from which the following are quotations. “Philo Judæus speaks at large
in many places of the Word of God, the second person, which he mentions
as _the second Divinity_, the _great Cause_ of all things, and styles
him as Plato, as well as the Jews, had done before, the LOGOS. Of the
Divine Logos or Word he speaks in many places, and maintains at large
the Divinity of the second Person, and describes his attributes in a
very precise and copious manner, styling him _the second Deity, who
is the Word of the supreme God, his first-begotten Son; and the image
of God_. In his treatise upon _creation_, he speaks of the Word as
_the Divine operator by whom all things were disposed_: and mentions
him as _superior to the angels and all created beings, and the image
and likeness of God_, and says, that _this image of the true God was
esteemed the same as God_. _This_ LOGOS, _the_ WORD _of_ GOD, says he,
_is superior to all the world, and more ancient; being the productor of
all that was produced. The eternal Word of the everlasting God is the
sure and fixed foundation upon which all things depend_.”

Creation is moreover ascribed to the HOLY SPIRIT. That the Holy Spirit
has a _personality_ distinct from that of the Father, and also that
of the Son, and a real and proper _Divinity_, is a doctrine of Divine
revelation. In his personal capacity, he is not the Father, nor the
Son. He neither is nor can be divided either from the Divine essence,
nor from the other two persons, but yet is personally distinct from
them. His relation to, and mission by, the Father and the Son, clearly
evince his personal distinction. He is called the Spirit of the
_Father_, and the Spirit of the _Son_. He is represented as _sent_ by
the Father, and also as _sent_ by the Son. These things show that he is
a Divine person, and has a distinct personality. The Holy Spirit is the
last in the order of subsistence: the Father is the first, the Son is
the second, and the Holy Spirit is the third. Yet we should know, that
the Father is not before the Son, nor the Son before the Holy Spirit,
by a priority of time, nor of dignity and perfections; for the three
persons in the Divine essence are _co-eternal_.

The Holy Spirit was equally concerned with the Father and the Son in
the work of Creation. “By the Word of the Lord were the heavens made,
and all the host of them by the breath (Heb. Spirit) of his mouth.” The
_breath_ or spirit of the Lord’s _mouth_, says an excellent author,
does undoubtedly mean the third person of the Trinity; who is called,
“The Spirit of God, and the Breath of the Almighty.”--“They lift up
their voice to God with one accord, and said, LORD, thou art GOD, which
hast made heaven and earth, and the sea, and all that therein is. WHO,
by the mouth of thy servant David, hast said,” &c. The terms LORD and
GOD are here used to express the Divinity of _him_, says the same able
writer, who spake _by the mouth_ of his servant David. But it was the
HOLY GHOST who _spake by the mouth_ of his servant David--for, saith
St. Peter, “This Scripture must needs have been fulfilled, which the
HOLY GHOST,” by the mouth of David, “spake,” &c. Therefore the terms
LORD and GOD are certainly used to _express the Divinity of the_ HOLY
GHOST.[15] In the work of creation, the “SPIRIT of GOD moved upon the
face of the waters,” by an infinite vitality infusing life, and with
a formative energy giving form. “By his SPIRIT he hath garnished the
heavens” with an incalculable number of luminous stars; all those
glittering worlds, which serve for use as well as beauty, were formed
by the Spirit of God.

As none but the _third_ Person in the Godhead is ever so much as once
in the Scriptures called the _Spirit of God_; so the Holy Spirit’s
agency in the work of creation evinces his distinct personality, and
is a confirmation of his proper Divinity. A cause must be equal to the
effect it produces: but no finite spirit could be a joint, concurring,
efficient cause in the work of the creation: therefore the Holy Spirit
is God. Supposing the matter of which the worlds were made to be called
into being out of nothing by the Almighty power of the Father, or by
the fiat of the Son; yet the animating of the whole lifeless mass, the
putting of every part into motion, the assortment of all the particles,
the assigning of them their proper places, and the completing of the
whole with such astonishing beauty and harmony, which was the peculiar
work of the Holy Spirit, required no less than an almighty power, which
clearly demonstrates that he is God.

Thus we see that the creation of the world is ascribed to one God, the
Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. The Son and the Holy Spirit were
joint Creators, of equal power, and equal efficiency with the Father.
There is no where to be found in the Scriptures the least hint of
different degrees of creating energy, nor of sole efficiency in one of
the Persons in the Godhead, and a bare instrumental compliance in the
other. The creation was the common effect of their joint acting: nor
is it ever said, nor so much as hinted or implied, that the distinct
Persons in the Godhead had different provinces, nor that one creature
was made by one, and another creature was the workmanship of another.
The Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, are never represented as acting
separately, but always in conjunction.

The sacred historian assures us, that, at the commencement of time,
אלהימ _Elohim_, the triune God, caused matter to exist, which, previous
to this astonishing display of his creating energy, had no being.
Moses, as an inspired author, is the only one who could instruct us in
the formation and unfolding of the world. He is not an Epicurus, who
has recourse to atoms; a Lucretius, who believes matter to be eternal;
a Spinoza, who admits a material God; a Descartes, who prates about
the laws of motion; but a legislator, who announces to all men without
hesitation, without fear of being mistaken, how the world was created.
Nothing can be more simple, nor more sublime than his opening: “In the
beginning God created the heaven and the earth.” He could not have
spoken more assuredly, if he had been a spectator; and by these words,
mythology, systems, and absurdities, shrink to nought, and are mere
chimeras in the eyes of reason.[16]

Had Moses been a fictitious writer, how natural and how easy would it
have been for him to have filled up the first part of his history with
marvellous relations about the creation? With what pomp of language,
with what waste of rhetoric, could he probably have embellished that
surprising scene? With what a grand _apparatus_ of celestial machinery
might he have made the omnipotent Architect come forth to build a
universe? How many sub-agents and subalterns would a fabulous poet
or historian have employed in this stupendous and multifarious work?
With what solemnity would every part have been gone about, and with
how many episodes, digressions, and reflections, would the story have
been filled, in order to give it an air of the marvellous? But read
the beginning of Genesis, and observe how differently Moses writes. No
scope is given to fancy or invention. All is narrated with an ease,
plainness, and simplicity, which evidently shows that he kept close
to truth, and laid down the facts just as they were presented to his
mind; a manner of writing rarely, if at all, to be found in any other
historians, but such as had the honor of being the _amanuensis_ of the
SPIRIT of truth.[17]

The description which Moses furnishes concerning the creation, as
relating to circumstances previous to the existence of mankind, could
be derived only from immediate revelation. It was received by the
Jews with full conviction of its truth, on the authority of that
_inspiration_ under which Moses was known to act.[18] And when the
creation of the world began, by the lapse of time, to be removed to
a remote distance, God was pleased thus to provide a contemporary
historian, and appoint a whole nation to be the guardians of his
history; as well that this register might be the most authentic, as
that all mankind might hence be instructed in the knowledge of a fact,
which was so necessary for them to know, and yet so impossible to be
otherwise ascertained.[19]

It may be proper to notice, that some futile objections have been made
to the period which is assigned by Moses to the creation, as though it
were too recent to be reconciled with reason and philosophical inquiry.
How long matter remained in a quiescent state after its creation, we
have no data to enable us to determine: but, as its resting in an
animate state, so far as we know, could answer no valuable purpose,
we may reasonably conjecture the time would not be long. The creation
of the world began, according to Usher, before the Christian era 4004
years, if we follow the Hebrew text. The Septuagint version places it
5872, and the Samaritan 4700 before the vulgar era.--Sanchoniathon,
the first Phenician historian, according to the most extended accounts
of Porphyry, flourished long after Moses, probably not less than
two hundred years. Manetho, high-priest of Heliopolis, wrote the
Egyptian history only in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, not more
than 300 years before Christ, and professes to have transcribed his
Dynasties from some pillars of Hermes Trismegistus, written in the
Hebrew dialect.--Berosus was the first noted Chaldean historian, and
he was contemporary with Manetho.--The Chinese have not any work in
an intelligible character above 2200 years old. One of the Chinese
emperors, about 213 years before the Christian era, ordered all their
historical records to be destroyed.--The Greeks could produce no dates
beyond 550 years before Christ, and but little historical information
prior to the Olympiads, which began 775 years before the Christian era.
Orpheus and Museus, fabulous poets, were not so remote as Moses; for
it is supposed they lived about 200 years after him, in the days of
Gideon. Daries Phrygius and Dystys Cretensis, fabulous poets, wrote the
history of the Trojan war, about 400 years after Moses. Homer wrote his
poems after David’s time, and about 550 years after Moses. Herodotus,
called the father of history, who flourished about 450 years before
the Christian era, was the first Grecian historian that deserves the
name; yet he begins with fable. Thucydides rejects, as uncertain, all
that preceded the Peloponnesian war; and Plutarch, not one of the least
historians among the Grecians, ventured not beyond the time of Theseus,
who lived a little before the ministry of Samuel.[20] So that all these
poets and historians flourished long after the time of Moses, some of
them nearly a thousand years; for he wrote about A. M. 2460. The works
of the Jewish lawgiver are not only the most ancient, but also the most
authentic, of all the monuments of antiquity.

If the world were some thousands of years older, it must be much better
peopled than it is at present. Population has always increased since
the deluge, and yet there might be three times as many more inhabitants
on the earth than it at present contains. It has been computed that at
least 5000 millions of men might live at once on our globe: and yet it
does not appear that there are really more than 1080 millions. In Asia
are reckoned 650 millions; in Africa and America, 300 millions; and in
Europe, 130 millions.

If we consider the arts invented by men, we shall find that few or none
of them have been discovered more than two or three thousand years.
Man owes not only to his nature and reason the aptitude he has for
acquiring arts and sciences, but he is also led to this by necessity;
by the desire he has to procure himself conveniences and pleasures;
by vanity and ambition; and by luxury, the child of abundance, which
creates new wants. This propensity is evident among all men, in all
ages. History carries us back to the time when men had scarcely
invented the most necessary arts; when those arts which were known were
but very imperfectly understood; and in which they scarcely knew any
thing of the first principles of the sciences.

About four thousand years ago, men were still in a state of great
ignorance concerning most subjects; and if we calculate according to
the progress which they made since that time, and afterwards go back
to the remotest periods, we may with tolerable exactness fix the era
when men knew nothing; which is, in other words, that of the infancy
of the human race. Were their existence to be carried higher, it is
utterly improbable that the most useful and necessary arts should
have continued unknown to them through such a long series of ages. On
the contrary, all that can be discovered by the human mind must have
been known a long time ago. From this circumstance therefore we must
conclude, that the origin of the human race can have no other era than
that which Moses has assigned it in his history of the creation.[21]

If it be asked, What! was God a _solitary_ Being? Did he exist alone,
before this exertion of his glorious power? Formed as we are for
society, we have no conception of any satisfaction arising from a state
of absolute loneliness; nor can we conceive that the Deity should rest
_inactive_ from eternity, and not exert those amazing powers of which
the stupendous creation proves he is amply possessed? There are some
particulars naturally deducible from questions like these, which we
cannot solve. We have no adequate apprehension of eternity; we are
lost in the idea. And when we attempt to contemplate God existing from
eternity without _cause_ or as _beginning_ to exist, we are utterly
lost in the speculation; for among all the objects that come within
the reach of our senses, we see nothing existing that has not had
a cause to produce it. We frequently smile at children, when they
ask their little simple questions, as we deem them; but we are mere
children ourselves, in this profound ocean of wonder. But something
very observable strikes an attentive reader in the Mosaic account
of the creation, which suggests that the Deity is not a solitary
Being, existing in such an absolute _unity_ as to exclude all degree
of personality or communion. For אלהימ _Elohim_, as we have already
observed, the very first name by which Moses calls God, being plural,
shows that though he exists in an undivided unity of nature, yet in a
Trinity of Persons. And this notion of a plurality, so far from being
contrary to reason, is more agreeable to it than any opinion of the
absolute _unity_ of the Divine nature. For conceive we only three
Divine persons mutually to partake of the Divine essence or nature, to
be united by the same perfect will, and to possess the same infinite
powers and perfections; and all our apprehensions of the loneliness of
solitary existence immediately subside; the Father, the Son, and the
Holy Ghost, consummately happy in each other, have been from eternity
reciprocal objects of complacence, and will remain such for ever. Let
this argument be fairly and impartially considered, and the notion of
a Trinity of Subsistences in a Unity of the Divine Nature, will appear
far more consonant to reason, and liable to less objections, than that
of mere solitary and absolute unity.[22]

    [_A further consideration of the suggestion in the close of
    the last paragraph._

    Although nothing can be clearer than that the Divine
    Essence is _one_, simple, and indivisible; _yet_ this does
    not prevent it from subsisting in _personality_, i.e. _in a
    plurality of persons_.

    It must be carefully observed, that the plurality has
    regard to the _persons_, not to the Essence. We cannot say
    there is a plurality of Essences; but we can say, the Living,
    Rational, Benevolent, and Spiritual Essence _subsists in three
    persons_. This then is the MODUS EXISTENDI of the Divine Being.

    Although we are assured this is his _mode of existence_,
    we do not pretend to comprehend the _nature_ of it. We may,
    without any injury to the proposition, affirm, the _nature_ of
    the fact is incomprehensible by _created intellect_. Yet the
    fact itself is sufficiently well attested, and is not repugnant
    to reason, though it is above the comprehension of reason.

    It is believed by many very learned, pious, and eminent
    men, that the doctrine of a _plurality of persons in the
    Godhead_, can be established by an argumentation founded solely
    on the acknowledged nature of the Divine Being.

    The Rev. JAMES KIDD, Prof. of Oriental Languages, Marischal
    College and University, Aberdeen, with the approbation of many
    learned men in England, among whom is Dr. Adam Clarke, in
    whose house he delivered private lectures on his manuscript,
    has published a very able and satisfactory essay on this plan,
    of which a brief clue to the mode of argumentation is here
    attempted.

    A. _The Divine Being is a necessarily existent, and an
    eternally, immensely, and immutably Living, Intelligent,
    Rational, Moral, Benevolent, and Spiritual Essence._

    B. _The very_ LAW _of the nature of such a being, is
    eternal, immense, and immutable_ ACTIVITY, ENERGY, _and_
    EFFICIENCY, _exercised eternally, immensely, and immutably_,
    ACCORDING TO HIS OWN NATURE.

    C. _That such a being_ WAS _as necessarily existent,
    perfect, and happy,_ BEFORE _creation, and providence as since;
    and would forever continue as necessarily existent, perfect,
    and happy, if creation and providence should cease to be_.

    These three propositions are so obviously true, every
    reader will readily and cordially grant them. It is proposed,
    therefore, to show, from the nature of the Divine Being, _that
    his Essence_ MUST _subsist in a plurality of persons_.

    The proposition does not contemplate an explanation of the
    _manner_ of this subsistence; nor, at present, the _number_
    of persons; but the simple fact, _That_ FROM THE VERY NATURE
    OF THE DIVINE BEING, HIS ESSENCE MUST SUBSIST IN PLURAL
    PERSONALITY.

    The existence of a being, or the possession, or exercise of
    any principle, passion or attribute, _implies personality_, or
    individual identity, which is the same thing. The mind cannot
    conceive of existence, passion, principle, or action, without
    conceiving of them inhering in actually existing Essence, which
    _must_ assume in the mind the idea of personality. Therefore,
    _personality_ is strictly, and properly applicable to the
    Divine Essence. But the doctrine of a _plural_ personality is
    to be established at present.

    It will be easily conceived, and readily granted, that
    a being which exists necessarily, eternally, immensely,
    and immutably, as a Living, Intelligent, Rational, Moral,
    Benevolent, and Spiritual Essence, _must have exercised
    Himself, and his perfections, necessarily, eternally,
    immensely, and immutably_. This then is granted. But the mind
    will readily and easily perceive, that the Divine Being could
    not have exercised Himself THUS, _in the works of Creation
    and Providence_. Because, it is readily admitted, there _was_
    a time when Creation and Providence _began_: during a whole
    eternity _beyond_ this period, there was no existence except
    God Himself. Consequently, He _cannot_ have been exercised
    according to his own nature and perfections, _eternally_, in
    reference to Creation and Providence.

    Again: He cannot have exercised his perfections
    _immensely_, in reference to Creation and Providence: because,
    however extensive we may conceive the empire of Creation and
    Providence to be, it is not _immense_; it is actually limited,
    and, therefore, could not admit of an _immense exercise of his
    nature and perfections_.

    It is readily granted, that the Divine Being was as
    necessarily, and perfectly happy _before_ Creation and
    Providence as since; and if Creation and Providence should
    cease, his happiness would continue the same: hence, it
    follows, necessarily, that the happiness of the Divine Being
    was, is, and ever will be entirely _independent_ of Creation
    and Providence.

    But the happiness of any being consists, essentially,
    _in the exercise of its powers and perfections according
    to the law of its own nature_. And as it has been shown,
    that the happiness of the Divine Being is eternal, immense,
    and immutable, it follows, _He must have exercised Himself
    eternally, immensely, and immutably_.

    As it has been _granted_, That from the very nature of
    the Divine Being, He must have been eternally, immensely,
    and immutably active and happy, according to the law of his
    own nature: and it has been _proven_, That He could not have
    been eternally, immensely, and immutably active and happy, in
    reference to Creation and Providence, it follows, necessarily,
    that the _means_ and _principles_ of these eternal, immense,
    and immutable activity and happiness, _must exist_ IN HIS OWN
    CONSTITUTION, _and be exercised entirely_ WITHIN _Himself_.

    This conclusion cannot be denied, granting the premises in
    the propositions A. B. C. in reference to the Divine Being.
    It remains to be proven, That such principles, and means
    of eternal, immense and immutable activity and happiness
    _cannot_ be conceived of in the constitution of the Divine
    Being, _without conceiving his essence to subsist in plural
    personality_.

    The consideration simply of the nature and eternal activity
    of the Divine Being would establish the idea of _plural
    personality_ in his Essence: because the mind cannot conceive,
    that the same single being can be both _agent_ and _object,
    in reference to the same action_. And as it has been proven,
    that _previous_ to the existence of Creation and Providence,
    God existed eternally _alone_, consequently, no possible form
    of existence but Himself, and yet he was eternally, immensely,
    and immutably active and happy; it will follow irresistibly,
    that _there must be a plurality in his single Essence_; and the
    mind naturally assumes, this plurality is _personal_; as it
    cannot conceive of activity, and happiness without conceiving
    them to belong to person, or persons. And as action implies
    both _agent_, and an _object_ distinct from the agent; and
    there being no such agent, or object existing _without_ the
    Divine Being, it must be infered, that these agent and object,
    concerned in the eternal activity and happiness of his nature,
    must exist _inherently, eternally, immensely, and immutably_
    WITHIN _Himself_.

    Thus we are COMPELLED to admit a plurality of persons in
    the Divine Essence.

    It will be recollected, the Divine Being has not only
    exercised Himself eternally, but also _immensely_, according
    to the law of his own nature and perfections: i.e. He has
    necessarily, and eternally exercised Himself to the extent of
    his nature and perfections. This will be readily admitted when
    we reflect, that unless we admit the exercise of the nature
    and perfections of God _to their full extent_, we must admit
    a _redundancy_ in the Divine Nature, and perfections, which
    would be manifestly absurd, as it would _imply imperfection_.
    For it would imply (if we may dare say so) that there is an
    _efficiency_, or _ability_ in the Divine Being, which He
    has never exercised to its full extent; and in proportion
    to the _deficiency_ in the exercise, we must conclude this
    _efficiency_ or ability is _useless_, which would be repugnant
    to the true idea of the Divine Being.

    It is therefore, _proven_, That the Divine Being
    necessarily exercised Himself _immensely_, because his nature,
    and perfections are immense. But it will be readily perceived,
    this could not be done in the works of Creation and Providence:
    because, however vast they may be, they are not _immense_:
    and, therefore, could not admit of the immense exercise of his
    nature and perfections to their full extent: from which it
    must follow, inevitably, _That the immense exercise of his own
    nature and perfections must be_ WITHIN _Himself_.

    As it has already been proven above, that this internal
    exercise in the Divine Essence necessarily implies _plurality_
    in the Godhead; so now also, is it proven, that the admission
    of such plurality is the only view competent to show _HOW_
    the Divine Being could have exercised his own nature and
    perfections _immensely_, as the attribute of immensity
    appertains to God only.

    As it is granted, that the Divine Being was necessarily as
    happy _before_ Creation and Providence as since, and would
    continue so, should Creation and Providence cease; of course
    his happiness consists in the exercise of his own nature and
    perfections according to their own law. But, in order that the
    Divine Being should be eternally, immensely, and immutably
    happy, the WHOLE of the Divine Nature and perfections must
    be exercised eternally, immensely, and immutably. But if we
    divest the Divine Essence of its plural personality, we cannot
    conceive that some of the divine perfections can be exercised
    at all. For example: the divine goodness, love, wisdom,
    intelligence, and all his _moral_ perfections. We surely cannot
    say, He manifests his goodness to Himself; or exercises his
    love towards Himself; or employs his wisdom in understanding
    Himself; all of which ideas are obviously absurd. But so
    soon as we admit the idea of a plural personality, or the
    subsistence of the Divine Essence in a plurality of persons,
    we can conceive the moral perfections exercised in Himself,
    between the persons of the Godhead. This is the only ground on
    which we can conceive of his eternal, immense, and immutable
    happiness. For we can readily conceive of the distinct persons
    in the Divine Essence, _communicating mutually_ to each other
    the _whole_ of the divine moral perfections; and thus conceive
    of the perfect and independent happiness of God.

    The only remaining view of this subject would be this:
    the activity, energy, and influence of the Divine Being can
    only regard Creation and Providence. But as there was a _past
    eternity before_ Creation and Providence began, in which the
    Divine Being existed, He must be considered as having been
    _inactive_, _solitary_, and _unconscious_; (because there
    cannot be consciousness where there is not action,) the whole
    and every part of which view is derogatory to the acknowledged
    character of God. How much more reasonable is it to conceive
    the Divine Essence to subsist in a plurality of persons, and
    thus to conceive, _consistently_, of the eternal, immense, and
    immutable activity and happiness of the Divine Being?

    _Thus we see, that what the Scriptures declare concerning
    the plurality of persons in the Divine Essence_, CANNOT BE
    OTHERWISE, AS IS DEMONSTRATED ABOVE, FROM THE NECESSARY NATURE
    OF THE GLORIOUS DIVINITY.

    The demonstration might be extended to each of the divine
    perfections, and the same result would be obtained. The above
    remarks are a mere clue to the argument which is possible, and
    satisfactory; founded on the necessary nature of Jehovah.

    The key to the whole demonstration is this:

    1. The Divine Being, from his very and necessary nature,
    must be eternally, immensely, and immutably active.

    2. He must be eternally, immensely, and immutably happy.

    3. In order to be eternally, immensely, and immutably
    active and happy, He must be exercised to the whole extent of
    his nature and perfections, eternally, immensely, and immutably.

    4. That such an exercise of his nature and perfections, in
    an eternal, immense, and immutable manner, cannot be, in regard
    to Creation and Providence; because, Creation and Providence
    are not eternal, immense, and immutable.

    5. As there was not any thing _before_ Creation and
    Providence, but God Himself, it must follow, necessarily, that
    the eternal, immense, and immutable activity and happiness of
    the Divine Being were WITHIN _Himself entirely_.

    6. As it is impossible for the human intellect to conceive,
    that a being can be both _agent_ and _object, in the same
    action_, and the activity of the Divine Being has been shown to
    have been within Himself entirely; it follows, THAT THE DIVINE
    ESSENCE MUST HAVE SUBSISTED ETERNALLY, IMMENSELY, AND IMMUTABLY
    IN A PLURALITY.

    7. And as the mind is _forced_ to admit a _plurality_ in
    the Divine Essence, it naturally, and necessarily assumes
    PERSONS for this plurality; and thus concludes, _There must
    be a plurality of persons in the Godhead as the Scriptures
    declare._

    From the foregoing elements of the argument, it will be
    very easy to observe, if a _plurality_ must be admitted, there
    is no objection in the mind to admit it is _triple_; and
    hence, as the substance of the Divine Essence has been shown
    to exist necessarily in a plurality, the mind conceives a
    _triple plurality_, as easy as any other, and thus conceives
    the reasonableness of the doctrine of the _Trinity in Unity_.

    The most successful argument against this conclusion is
    this: _It is impossible to conceive how three can be one_.
    This is admitted, _when the objects designated by_ “three”
    _are the same as the object designated by_ “one.” But this is
    not the case in the doctrine of the Trinity in Unity. The term
    _Trinity_ applies to the _persons_ in which the Divine Essence
    subsists, and _not_ to the essence itself. So the term _Unity_
    applies to the _Essence only_, and _not_ to the persons. This
    simple distinction removes the whole force of the objection.

    The Unitarians, therefore, do us wrong when they say, _we
    believe three are one_. And Trinitarians do themselves wrong
    when they say, _to the three one God_: because, it is not true
    that there is a “three one God.” But it is a glorious truth,
    THAT THE DIVINE ESSENCE SUBSISTS IN THREE PERSONS, ETERNALLY,
    IMMENSELY, AND IMMUTABLY.

    It is very natural to suppose, that God imparted a
    knowledge of Himself to our first parents in Paradise. The
    Scriptures clearly support this supposition. This knowledge
    would, of course, include the doctrine of the Trinity; and we
    cannot admit for a moment, that so important a doctrine as the
    plurality of persons in the Godhead, could have been wholly
    lost by mankind, though it might become obscured. Accordingly
    we find the traditionary remains of this doctrine throughout
    the Old World.

    “The Hindoos” says M. Sonerat, “adore _three_ principal
    Deities, Brouma, Schiven, and Vichenou, who are still but
    _one_; which kind of Trinity is there called Trimurti, and
    signifies the re-union of those powers. The generality of
    Indians at present, adore only one of these three divinities;
    but some learned men, beside this worship, also address their
    prayers to the three united. The representation of them is to
    be seen in many pagodas, under that of human figures with three
    heads, which on the coast of Orissa, they call Sariharabrama,
    on the Coromandel coast, Trimourti,” &c.

    This account of M. Sonerat is very pertinent, and is
    confirmed by Dr. Buchanan who made extensive researches in that
    country. See his _Star in the East_.

    The same tradition is found in China. “Among the ancient
    Chinese characters” says Dr. A. Clarke, “which have been
    preserved, we find the following Δ like the Greek _delta_.
    According to the Chinese dictionary _Kang-hi_, this character
    signifies _union_. According to _Choueouen_, a celebrated work,
    Δ is _three united in one_. The Lieou-chou-tsing-hoen, which is
    a rational and learned explanation of ancient characters, says;
    “Δ signifies intimate union, harmony, the chief good of man, of
    the heaven, and of the earth; it is the union of three.”

    Lao-tse says; “He who is as visible, and yet cannot be
    seen, is denominated _lieou_; he who can be heard, and yet
    speaks not to the ears, _hi_; he who is tangible, and yet
    cannot be felt, is named _ouei_: in vain do you consult your
    senses about these _three_; your reason alone can discourse of
    them, and it will tell you they are but one,” &c.

    One of the missionaries at Peking, who wrote the letters from
    which I have made the above extracts, takes it for granted,
    “that the mystery of the _Trinity_ was known among the ancient
    Chinese, and that the character Δ was its symbol.” _Dr. A.
    Clarke, on the 1st chap. John’s Gospel._

    The existence of this same tradition in China is conveyed
    to us through another channel. “It was the leading feature in
    _Lao-Kiun’s_ system of philosophical theology, and a sentence
    which he continually repeated as the foundation of all true
    wisdom, that TAO, the eternal reason, produced ONE; _one_
    produced TWO; _two_ produced THREE; and THREE produced all
    things.” _Le Compt’s Memoirs of China_.

    Traditions of this doctrine are found also in Chaldea
    and Persia indeed throughout the East; from whence all agree
    they were imported, through Phœnicia, into Egypt, and thence
    into Greece. The great and original sources of information
    being in the neighborhood of the Euphrates, where the _first
    post-diluvian_ families resided; and the mighty intellects
    which were to influence the world, by the materials which
    were drawn from thence, being in Greece, the consequence
    was, we find the Grecian philosophers travelling _up_ the
    streams of knowledge to the fountains, and thence returning to
    enlighten the world by the results of their researches. For
    example: Pythagoras, Plato, and others visited Egypt first,
    thence to Phœnicia, and thence to Chaldea, and the East, from
    whence they undoubtedly drew their theology. (Nor should it
    be forgotten that _their_ philosophy was _theological_.) The
    concurrent testimony of history establishes this fact. The
    consequence of all this is, the doctrine of the Trinity was
    known to the Greek philosophers, who preserved it to the world
    in their incomparable writings, a collateral testimony of the
    authenticity of the Scripture doctrine. For this opinion we
    have the highest authority in the republic of letters.

    “It is said that the first Christians borrowed their notion
    of a Triune God from the later Platonists; and that we hear not
    of a Trinity in the church till converts were made from the
    school of Alexandria. But if this be the case we may properly
    ask, _Whence had those Platonists the doctrine?_

    “It is not surely so simple, or so obvious as to have
    occurred to the reasoning mind of a pagan philosopher;
    or if it be, _why do Unitarians suppose it to involve a
    contradiction?_--The Platonic and Pythagorean Trinities
    never could have occurred to the mind of him, who, merely
    from the works of creation, endeavored to discover the being
    and attributes of God; and therefore as those philosophers
    travelled into Egypt and the East in quest of knowledge, it
    appears to us in the highest degree probable, that they picked
    up this mysterious and sublime doctrine in those regions where
    it had been handed down as a dogma from the remotest ages,
    and where we know science was not taught systematically, but
    detailed in collections of sententious maxims, and traditionary
    opinions. If this be so we cannot doubt but that the pagan
    trinities had their origin in some primeval revelation. Nothing
    else indeed can account for a doctrine so remote from human
    imagination, and of which we find vestiges in the sacred books
    of almost every civilized people of antiquity. The corrupt
    state in which it is viewed in the writings of Plato and
    others, is the natural consequence of its descent through
    a long course of oral tradition. The Trinity of Platonism
    therefore, instead of being an objection, lends, in our
    opinion, no feeble support to the Christian doctrine, since it
    affords almost a complete proof of that doctrine having made
    a part of the first revelation to man.” _Ency. Brit. Art._
    THEOLOGY.

    “Some have indeed pretended, that the _Trinity_, which
    is commonly called _Platonic_, was a fiction of the later
    Platonists, unknown to the founder of the school: but any
    person who will take the trouble to study the writings of Plato
    will find _abundant evidence that he really asserted_ A TRIAD
    OF DIVINE HYPOSTASES, _all concerned in the formation, and
    government of the world_.” _Ency. Brit. Art._ PLATONISM.

    “Pythagoras, though inferior to Plato in reputation, and
    lived before him, held the same doctrine, and derived it from
    the same sources. He visited Egypt, Persia, Chaldea, &c, and
    thence returned to Greece.” _Ency. Brit. Art._ PYTHAGORAS.

    These quotations are directly from the Encyclopedia
    Britannica, than which no authority can be better. I might
    increase the quotations to the same effect from Dr. Oglevie,
    the learned Cudworth and others, were it necessary. The above
    is thought sufficient to establish the fact, _That the doctrine
    of a Trinity in Unity was once prevalent in the Pagan world,
    and that remains and traditions of it are yet abundant through
    all the East, where the revelations of God were made to
    mankind_.]

If it be asked, “Why did God conceal himself from eternity till within
six thousand years; for, according to Divine revelation, it is not
yet so long since the world was made?” I answer, God is at perfect
liberty to do what he pleases, to do it when he pleases, and to give
no account of the reasons of his conduct. If he had pleased to create
the world as many millions of years sooner, as there have been days
since its creation, the same question might have been asked, Why did
he not create the world sooner, and thereby discover himself? For the
longest time that can be imagined is just as nothing in comparison with
eternity. If God had pleased, he might have concealed his existence
and perfections to all eternity, or, in other words, never have made
any thing. Seeing therefore it was only of his sovereign pleasure that
he made creatures, to whom he might manifest himself, surely he had a
right to fix on the time for doing it. We are sure he is infinitely
wise, and consequently all his works are done in the fittest time, and
best manner.

God made the world, not because he needed the praise or service of
creatures to add to his blessedness; for he who is self-existent
must necessarily be infinitely perfect and absolutely independent;
and would always have remained the same happy Being, enjoying his
own excellencies and perfections, had no creature ever been made.
But it was for the manifesting of his own glorious attributes, and
communicating happiness to creatures capable of it, that he, in
the beginning, created this magnificent fabric of the heavens and
the earth, with all things therein, whether visible or invisible,
animate or inanimate, material substances or immaterial spirits. For
he created beings of different ranks and powers, to whom he might
manifest himself, or communicate his goodness. Some of these were pure
intellectual spirits, fit for the felicity and employments of the
heavenly state, to stand in his immediate presence, and execute his
righteous commands: but these were created before the solar system;
for the angels, those “sons of God,” called “morning stars,” were
present, and sung together for joy, when “the foundations” of this
world were laid. Others he formed out of the earth, with life, sense,
and instinct, but destitute of reason, designing them to be subservient
to the necessities or conveniences of a higher order of beings. Besides
these he created other beings of a middle rank, partaking of an earthly
part, fashioned with infinite skill and art, of exquisite symmetry, and
adorned with great external beauty; and of a spiritual part akin to
angels, and but little inferior to them, being in their constitution a
compound of the animal and angelic natures.

It is not by reason alone then, or the light of heathen philosophy,
but “through faith,” in the infallible testimony of Divine revelation,
“we understand that the worlds were framed by the word of God, so that
things which are seen were not made of things which do appear.” The
sun, moon, stars, and earth, which we see, were not made of matter
which had existed from eternity, as some of the heathen philosophers
supposed, but of what God created anterior to the formation of those
wonderful orbs. The word κατηρτισθαι, _framed_, signifies not only to
_make_ or _produce_ simply, but properly _to place_ or _set in joint_
the parts of any body or machine in their right order. Accordingly
Plato says, that in making the world, God proceeded with the exactness
of a geometrician, arranging every thing in complete symmetry. All this
was done by the _word_ of God, which is not to be understood of any
articulate sound, but of the simple act of his own will; he willed the
universe, with all its variety of furniture, into existence. And this
is a matter of _faith_, to be believed; not to be known by mere reason;
for reason, without faith, can apprehend a formation of things from
matter previously made ready.

A pious expositor very justly observes, By faith assenting to Divine
revelation, and not by reason we understand the truth and wonders,
the reasons and causes, the manner and end, of the creation of the
world. Reason indeed tells us that there was a creation, consequently
a Creator; but reason without Divine revelation could never have
discovered the circumstances and manner of the creation, which wholly
depended upon the will of God. Reason could never have known them,
if God had not in his word first revealed them. Reason may propound
the question, How was the world made, and all things therein? But
revelation must resolve it.

“Oh Lord my God, thou art very great; thou art clothed with honor
and majesty. Who coverest thyself with light as with a garment: who
stretchest out the heavens like a curtain: who layeth the beams of
his chambers in the waters: who maketh the clouds his chariot: who
walketh upon the wings of the wind: who maketh his angels spirits; his
ministers a flaming fire: who laid the foundations of the earth, that
it should not be moved for ever. Thou coveredst it with a garment:
the waters stood above the mountains. At thy rebuke they fled; at the
voice of thy thunder they hasted away. They go up by the mountains;
they go down by the valleys unto the place which thou hast founded for
them. Thou hast set a bound that they may not pass over; that they turn
not again to cover the earth.” Such is the sublime language of Divine
revelation!

       *       *       *       *       *

Footnotes - Chapter I

    [1] As the name _Jehovah_, in the Hebrew consists of four
    letters, so for the most part the name of the supreme Being
    does in all languages. Thus among the Persians, the name is
    Σορυ; among the Arabians, _Alla_; among the Assyrians, _Adad_;
    among the Egyptians, Θωυθ or Θευθ with the Grecians, Θεος; the
    Latins, _Deus_; the French, _Dieu_; the Spaniards, _Dios_; the
    Italians, _Idio_; and with the Germans, _Gott_.

    The name _Jehovah_ is written differently. Sanchoniathon
    writes it _Jevo_; Diodorus the Sicilian, Macrobius, Clemens
    Alexandrinus, Jerome, and Origen, _Jao_; Epiphanius, Theodoret,
    and the Samaritans, _Jabé_ or _Jave_: we find likewise _Jahoh_,
    _Javo_, _Jaou_, _Jaod_. Lewis Capellus is for _Javo_; Drusius
    for _Javé_; Mercer for _Jehevah_: Hottinger _Jehra_. The Moors
    call their God _Juba_, whom some believe to be _Jehovah_.
    The Latins probably took their _Juvis_ or _Jovis Pater_ from
    _Jehovah_. It is certain that these four letters may likewise
    be expressed by _Javo_, _Jaho_, _Jaon_, _Jevo_, _Javé_,
    _Jehvah_, &c. Mussulmen frequently use the name _Hu_, or
    _Hou_, which has almost the same signification as _Jehovah_,
    i.e. _He who is_. But the great name of God is _Allah_, which
    they pronounce often, and have great confidence in. Among the
    Arabians, and all Mahometans the name _Allah_ corresponds with
    the _Elohim_ and _Adonai_ of the Hebrews, and even that of
    _Jehovah_. See Calmet’s Dictionary.

    [2] Dr. A. Clarke on Exod. xxxiv, 6, 7.

    [3] Philo-Biblius seems to intimate, that the God of the
    Phœnicians was anciently called by the name _Jehovah_; and that
    _Jevo_, _Javo_, more recently used by them, is a corruption of
    it; for it is said, that Jerombalus who supplied Sanchoniathon
    with materials for his Phœnician history, was a priest of the
    God Jevo. Euseb. Præp. Evang. lib. i. c. 9.

    [4] “On the front of the famous temple of Apollo, at
    Delphos, was graven the Greek word Ει (which signifies _thou
    art_, being the second person singular of the verb εἰμὶ.) The
    learned among the Philosophers labored long to discover its
    meaning, each giving his own opinion; but could not find it
    out, until Plutarch (who travelled into Egypt and Greece for
    instruction in ancient sciences and other things) meeting with
    that passage in the writings of Moses, where God manifested
    himself by saying, I AM THAT I AM; he was struck with it, and
    having it explained to him, he then conceived the true and
    exalted sense of the word Ει, engraved on the front of the
    temple. It implied, as it were, an admonition to those who were
    about to enter the temple, to worship God, who is the only
    self-existent Being in the universe.” Creighton’s Enquiry into
    the Origin of True Religion, p. 21. Second Edition.

    On a temple dedicated to Neitha, at Sais, the chief town
    in Lower Egypt, was this inscription: “I am whatever is, or
    has been, or will be, and no mortal has hitherto drawn aside
    my veil; my offspring is the sun.” It appears highly probable
    that the ancient Egyptians acknowledged an active as well
    as a passive principle in nature, and, as Plutarch asserts,
    worshipped τῳ πρώτῳ Θεῳ, the supreme Deity. Enfield’s History
    of Philosophy, vol. i. p. 76, 77.

    [5] Norris on Reason and Religion. Contemp. i.

    [6] Allix’s Judgment of the Jewish Church against the
    Unitarians, p. 116. Edit. 1699. See also p. 119. Simpson’s
    Apology for the Doctrine of the Trinity, p. 379, 380.

    [7] Rabbi Simeon Ben Jochai, in Zoar, on the sixth section
    of Leviticus. See Ainsworth’s Annotations on the place.

    [8] Demonstration of the Messias, Part iii. p, 170, 171.
    Edit. 1700.

    [9] Jones on the Trinity, chap. iii. sect. 1.

    [10] Allix. p. 132.

    [11] Gen. i, 26; iii, 22; xi, 7; xx, 13; xxxi, 53; xxxv,
    7; Deut. iv, 7; v, 23; Josh. xxiv, 19; 1 Sam. iv, 8; 2 Sam.
    vii, 23; Psal. lviii, 12; Isai. vi, 8; Jer. x, 10; xxiii, 36;
    See Prov. ix, 10; xxx, 3; Psal. cxlix, 2; Eccl. v, 7; xii, 1:
    Job v, 1; Isai. vi, 3; liv, 5; Hos. xi, 12, or xii, 1; Mal.
    i,6; Dan. vii, 18, 22, 25; Hebrew Lexicon, p. 19. Edit. 1811.
    See also Mr. Parkhurst’s pamphlet against Dr. Priestly and Mr.
    Wakefield, p. 3-9, and p. 148, &c.

    [12] Ridley’s Eight Discourses, p. 79.

    [13] See Allix’s Judgment of the Jewish Church, p. 118.

    [14] Professor Kidd’s Essay on the Doctrine of the Trinity,
    p. 452.

    [15] Jones on the Trinity.

    [16] Ganganelli’s Letters.

    [17] Rev. Hugh Knox’s Sermons.

    [18] Gray’s Key to the Old Testament.

    [19] M. Pascal’s Thoughts.

    [20] See Gray’s Key, Notes, p. 82-83.

    [21] See Sturm. vol. iv. p. 266.

    [22] Christian’s Magazine, vol. ii, p. 97, 98.

       *       *       *       *       *




CHAPTER II.

FIRST DAY.

_Section_ I.--CHAOS.

    Inquiry into the origin of things natural to man --
    Character of Moses as a sacred historian important --
    Explanation of the term Created -- Chaotic state of the
    elementary principles of matter -- Influence of the Spirit
    of God upon the chaotic mass -- Opinions of the ancients --
    Similitude between the first and second creation -- Agency of
    the Holy Spirit in the work of regeneration asserted and proved.


As creatures possessed of conscious existence, and furnished with both
intellectual and moral powers, it is very natural for us to inquire
into the origin and first state of things; and, when difficulties
present themselves, to meet with clear and satisfactory solutions of
them, removing the darkness in which they were enveloped, affords
to reflecting minds a high gratification. Without the aid of divine
revelation, the creation of the world would have been involved in
uncertainty, and our unassisted reason left to speculate in fields
of wide conjecture. But in following the luminous torch of sacred
communication, we are safely conducted to the first great Cause, by
whose almighty _fiat_ matter was called into existence, and afterwards
disposed and modified according to the plan devised by the eternal Mind.

Moses, considered as a man of scientific habits, being well versed in
all the “wisdom of the Egyptians”--mathematical, physical, moral, and
divine; could not but know that his cosmogony would have to pass the
ordeal of critical investigation, and undergo the best of philosophical
inquiry: that contemporaries, as well as future and remote nations
and generations, would minutely examine his historical record; and
science, in its progressive state of improvement, try the validity
of his system: that it would meet the inquisitive eye of genius and
learning, and fall into the hands of both sincere friends and insidious
enemies to religious truth: that candor would patiently search into its
pretensions, impartially weigh its evidence, and sober inquiry respect
its claims: while narrow prejudice, blind bigotry, or superstitious
enthusiasm, would dispute its authority, deny its veracity, and
disdainfully reject its aid. But listening to an all-wise Instructor,
following a Guide that could not deceive him; and disregarding the
envenomed tongue of calumny, the lampooning pen of the satirist, the
surly frown of literary pride, and the imperious authority of exalted
rank; he committed to writing a true account of the creation of the
world, for the information and religious improvement of mankind to the
latest generation.

Viewed as the ground-work of all future revelations, if any defect or
false position were discovered in his relation of things, that would
deprive his history of credibility, and decisively prove him to have
been led by the sallies of a vain and heated imagination, and not the
Spirit of the living God. But of this there was no danger; and, as a
distinguished author pertinently observes, “from the book of Genesis,
almost all the ancient philosophers, astronomers, chronologists, and
historians, have taken their respective _data_: and all the modern
improvements and accurate discoveries in different arts and sciences
have only served to confirm the facts detailed by Moses, and to show,
that all the ancient writers on these subjects, have approached to,
or receded from truth, and the phenomena of nature, in the exact
proportion as they have followed the Mosaic history.” As a writer,
Moses does not attack other systems, formed on this or that hypothesis;
but in a simple and incontrovertible narrative, acquaints us with the
origin of matter, and the progressive formation and completion of the
solar system.

The Scriptures inform us, that Moses was privileged to converse with
God “face to face, as a man speaketh unto his friend,” and from him
received clear and manifest revelations, not by visions, ecstasies,
dreams, inward inspirations, or the mediation of angels, but familiarly
and with confidence, by articulate sounds, in his own language. The
Lord said, “With him will I speak mouth to mouth, even apparently,
and not in dark speeches; and the similitude of the Lord shall he
behold.” God being a Spirit, has neither shape nor parts, consequently
is invisible, and cannot be seen by eyes of flesh: he is the most
simple essence. When he speaks of himself as having a face, mouth,
eyes, hands, &c, he adapts his language to our capacities, designing
to express by these figures the perfections of his nature; but he
is really one undivided essence. That which Moses saw, was only the
_Shekinah_, a glorious brightness, the symbol of the Divine presence,
and not the essence, which is invisible.

In giving an account of the true origin of things, he attends
particularly to the _mode_, _agent_, and _time_ of their being
produced. His history commences with the creation of matter, “In
the beginning.” Before the creative acts mentioned by him, all was
eternity. _Time_ signifies _duration_ measured by the revolutions of
the heavenly bodies; but prior to the creation of these bodies, there
could be no measurement of duration, and consequently no _time_;
therefore, “In the beginning,” must necessarily mean the commencement
of time which followed, or rather was produced by God’s creative acts,
as an effect follows, or is produced by a cause.

    [From several expressions in this chapter, it is obvious
    that Mr. Wood considered the account given by Moses, in the
    first chapter of Genesis, to apply to _universal creation_,
    and not to be restricted to our _Solar System_. It is also
    plainly inferable, that he considered this the _first exercise
    of God’s creative energy in any way_. This view is entirely too
    contracted, is not clearly warranted by the text of the sacred
    historian, and is unnecessary.

    There are no passages of Scripture which say distinctly,
    the Mosaic creation is the first or only acts of creative
    energy: but there are several which intimate the _previous
    existence of creatures_, and of course imply a previous
    exercise of creative power.

    It is sufficiently clear that there were intelligent beings
    existing at the creation of this world. Hence it is said, “the
    morning stars sang together, and the sons of God shouted for
    joy,” in view of the rising creation.

    Since, therefore, the previous existence of intelligent
    beings is established, we must, of course, assign to them some
    _mode_ of subsistence; and this will compel us to assign at
    least what must be _necessary_ to every creature, a _place of
    abode_, suited to his wants and conditions, without which he
    cannot subsist. Thus we establish even a _material_ creation,
    _anterior_ to the creation mentioned by Moses.

    After weighing the account which Moses gives in the first
    chapter of Genesis, together with the facts and analogies in
    Nature, the conclusion seems irresistible, _that he describes
    only our Solar System_; which includes the seven primary
    planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and
    Herschel: the four asteroides, Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas:
    and the eighteen moons which attend the primary planets.
    Because,

    1. As this account forms the introduction to a revelation
    designed for the _human family only_, it is reasonable to
    conclude it would have reference to those bodies only which
    operate materially to their benefit or injury. But there are no
    such bodies except in the Solar System.

    2. Moses in describing the formation of the heavenly
    bodies, mentions only the _sun_ and _moon_ in a conspicuous
    manner: because, these are the only luminaries which contribute
    _essentially_ to our comfort: and then, lest a beholder might
    imagine God did not also make the other suns and stars, says
    incidentally, “He made the stars also.”

    3. The conclusion is clear from the fact, that _the Solar
    System is complete in itself_: forming a perfect whole, which
    could exist were all other stars and suns destroyed, and vice
    versâ, all other systems could exist were the Solar System
    destroyed.

    4. It does not well comport with the character of the
    Divine Being, when we consider his eternal power, infinite
    wisdom, and boundless goodness, to suppose He never exercised
    his creative energies but _once_, and that not until a few
    thousand years since. Yet we are compelled to this conclusion,
    however reluctantly, unless we restrict the Mosaic account of
    the creation to our Solar System.

    This argument will derive additional weight, when we
    recollect the _immensity_ of God’s works taken together, and
    the _illimitable space_ in which he has, and may, exercise his
    creative energy. We may _approximate towards_ a very faint idea
    of their immensity, by calling to mind the immense number of
    _fixed stars_. All astronomers admit their number to be very
    great indeed, but how many cannot be correctly known. There
    may be millions whose light has not reached us yet. Of those
    which may be detected, Professor _Vince_, says, there are at
    least _seventy-five millions_; and each the centre of a system
    as large, possibly much larger than our own. Indeed we can
    scarcely approach towards a competent idea of _illimitable
    space_. The nearest _fixed star_ is supposed to be Sirius, or
    the dog-star, at the lowest calculation _twenty-two billions
    of miles distant_. If we compute according to this analogy,
    and say there are seventy-five millions of fixed stars, each
    the _centre_ of a system, perfect, and independent: what mind
    can conceive the illimitable space through which these worlds
    must lie? Yet this would scarcely be an approximation towards
    the true extent. Beyond this there is still _unoccupied space_,
    “where existence sleeps in the wide abyss of possibility.”

    It may, therefore, be asked with justice, whether a being
    capable of creating, even in this limited view, would have
    exercised his creative powers _but once_, and that not until
    a few thousands years since? _Credat qui posset, non ego._
    Who can tell what may have been the _successive_ creations,
    durations, and, possibly, destructions of those worlds which we
    see, and of others, of which the inhabitants of this earth have
    never heard, whose light has not yet reached us since their
    creation, though coming at the rate of nearly _twelve millions
    of miles in a minute_?

    Finally: A _succession_ of creative acts, whose
    commencement runs back _almost_ parallel with eternity, and
    will extend forward _almost ad infinitum_, seems to comport
    best with the eternal, immense, and immutable activity, energy,
    and goodness of the Divine Being.]

The word _created_ means, that God caused that to exist which,
previously to this moment, had no being. The Rabbins, who are
legitimate judges in a case of verbal criticism on their own
language, are unanimous in asserting, that the word ברא
_bara_ expresses the commencement of the existence of a thing,
or its egression from nonentity to entity. It does not, in its
primary meaning, denote the _preserving_ or _new forming_ things
that had previously existed, as some imagine; but _creation_, in
the proper sense of the term, though it has some other acceptations
in other places. The supposition that God formed all things out of
a pre-existing eternal nature, is certainly absurd: for, if there
was an eternal nature besides an eternal God, there must have been
two self-existing, independent, and eternal Beings, which is a most
palpable contradiction. _Ex nihilo nihil fit_, “That out of nothing,
nothing is produced” is a maxim that applies itself in every case where
Deity is not concerned; it was the main argument used by Aristotle and
his followers, but is completely refuted by the authority of Divine
revelation. God created את השמים ואת הארץ _eth hashamayim
veet haarets_, “the heavens and the earth.” The word את
_eth_, which is generally considered as a particle, simply denoting
that the word following is in the accusative or oblique case, is often
understood by the Rabbins in a much more extensive sense, “The particle
את _eth_,” says Aben Ezra, “signifies the _substance_ of the
thing.” The like definition is given by Kimchi in his _Book of Roots_.
“This particle,” says Mr. Ainsworth, “having the _first_ and _last_
letters of the Hebrew alphabet in it, is supposed to comprise the _sum_
and _substance_ of _all things_.” “The particle את _eth_,”
says Buxtorf, Talmudic Lexicon sub voce, “with the Cabalists, is often
mystically put for the _beginning_ and the _end_, as Α
alpha and Ω omega are in the Apocalypse.” On this ground,
these words should be translated, “God in the beginning created the
_substance_ of the heavens, and the substance of the earth: i.e. the
_prima materia_, or first elements, out of which the heavens and the
earth were successively formed.”[23]

During the first state of things, Moses informs us, that “the earth was
without form and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep.” The
original terms תהו _tohoo_, and בהו _bohoo_, translated, “without form
and void,” convey the idea of confusion and disorder. The translation
by Paginus, is _desert and emptiness_; in the Vulgate, it is _empty and
void_; in the Septuagint, _invisible and incomposed_; from the Syriac,
_desert and uncultivated_; the Samaritan is the same as the Vulgate;
the Arabic, _covered with abysses_: these translations are allowed
by the learned Walton. There is but little difference in their real
meaning, and all the Versions express the first state of things.[24]
The whole collection of matter, created in a fluid state, was a crude,
indigested chaos: all belonging to our system, as the sun, moon, stars,
earth, and seas, lay blended together in one vast, confused mass,
without any arrangement of their constituent particles, heavy and
light, dense and rare, fluid and solid, being all mixed together; air,
water, and earth, (which have since obtained the name of elements,)
were promiscuously scattered throughout.

The chaotic mass remained in this primitive state, till God was pleased
to assimilate, assort, and arrange the materials,--out of which he
built up, in the space of six days, the whole of creation.[25] _The
Spirit of God_, represented us sitting upon the vast abyss, like a
bird, while either in the act of incubation or fostering its young,
_moved_ or brooded _upon the face of the waters_, communicating, by his
vital energy, life and motion to the unformed chaos.

Some writers understand by  רוח אלהימ _the Spirit of God_, a “mighty
sweeping wind,” a “tremendous tempest,” separating diversified
particles of the elementary principles of matter, and combining those
of the same kind together. But this is making an effect to be produced
by a cause, which, as yet, had no existence; nor, as a cause, is it
sufficient to produce so great an effect. To make an effect superior to
its cause, is as absurd and contradictory as to say, a long line and a
short one are equal. That the single Hebrew word רוח _ruach_, the Greek
πνευμα _pneuma_, the Latin _spiritus_, and the ancient Saxon _ghost_
or _gast_, signifies _wind_, as well as the vital breath, the soul of
man, a created spirit good or evil, is readily admitted. But concerning
the phrase רוח אלהימ, _the Spirit of God_, so frequently used in the
Scriptures of the Old Testament, there is not one instance that it
signifies _wind_, and to attempt to force such meaning upon it, is a
most manifest violation done to the text. By _the Spirit of God_, is
meant the third subsistence in the Divine essence, distinguished from
the person of the Father, and that of the Son; he is called a _Spirit_,
to signify his spiritual and immaterial nature, as well as to express
his mighty agency; and the works of which he is the author can only be
effected by an omnipotent power.

Milton, who was well versed in the Hebrew language, in his address to
the Holy Spirit, says,

                            “Thou from the first
    Wast present, and with mighty wings outspread,
    Dove-like, sat’st brooding on the vast abyss,
    And mad’st it pregnant.”

The Holy Spirit, by his vital influence, infused that efficient power
into the great mass of matter, which was necessary for the assumption
of different forms, and the discharge of the assigned functions of
selecting and arranging the materials out of which the world is
formed. By brooding over the mingled earth and water, says Dr. Owen,
“he communicated a prolific virtue; and inlaid them with the seeds of
animal life; and therefore the earth and the water brought forth all
sorts of creatures in abundance, according to the seeds and principles
communicated to them by the cherishing motion of the _Spirit of God_.”

As several of the ancients have described the elementary principles
of all things to be a gloomy chaos, consisting of _darkness_ and
_water_, we may easily infer from what source they derived this notion.
Aristotle observes, the theologists and natural philosophers agreed,
that all things were produced, as the former said, “out of night;” or,
as the latter, “out of a confused mixture.” Whatever knowledge the
inhabitants of Chaldea had of the creation of the world, they ascribe
to the teaching of an amphibious monster denominated Oannes. He taught
his auditors, that there was a time when all things were darkness
and water, in the midst of which various monsters of horrible forms
received life and light. Over this chaotic mass presided the demon
Omoroca, a mythological personification of the ocean. At length arrived
the destined hour of the creation. The monster Omoroca fell subdued
beneath the victorious arm of Belus; the animals which composed her
empire were annihilated; and the world was formed out of her substance.
Oannes, however, taught, that this physiological description was to be
taken merely in an allegorical sense, and that the whole fable alluded
to the aqueous origin of the universe. Matter having been thus created,
Belus divided the darkness from the light, separated the earth from the
heavens, disposed the world in order, and called the starry host into
existence.

According to the Phœnician system, the principle of the universe was
a _dark air_, and a _turbulent evening chaos_; an opinion not very
dissimilar to that given by Moses. Sanchoniathon afterward ascribes to
material operation the origin of that which may be denominated the will
or desire of God, when in his great wisdom he thought fit to create
the world out of nothing. From this personification of Divine love,
a chaotic mixture was produced, and within it were comprehended the
rudiments of all things.

The cosmogony of the ancient Egyptians, though more obscure, is
given by Diodorus Siculus. “Damascius having inquired about what was
the first principle in the world, gives this as an ancient Egyptian
doctrine. The Egyptians have chosen to celebrate the first cause
as _unspeakable_. They accordingly style it _darkness unknown_ and
mention it with a three-fold acclamation. Again. In this manner the
Egyptians styled the first principle _an inconceivable darkness; night
and darkness past all imagination_.” This is perfectly consonant
to passages from the same author, quoted by Dr. Cudworth. “There
is one origin of all things, celebrated by the name of _unknown_
(incomprehensible) _darkness_.” Again. “They hold, that the first
beginning or cause of things was _darkness beyond all conception; an
unknown darkness_.”

Hesiod mentions, “A chaos as first existing. Next was produced the
spacious earth, the seat of the immortals; Tartarus hid within the
recesses of the ample globe; and divine love, the most beautiful of the
deities. From chaos sprung Erebus, and black night; and from the union
of night and Erebus were born ether and the day.”[26] Zeno, of Cittium,
the founder of the Stoics, said, Hesiod meant by the chaos, “Water, out
of which all things were formed, which by concretion became firm earth.”

In the work of Aristophanes, we meet with a similar passage. “Chaos,
and night, and black Erebus, and wide Tartarus, first existed; at that
time, there was neither earth, air, nor heaven. But in the bosom of
Erebus, black-winged night produced an aërial egg; from which, in due
season, beautiful Love, decked with golden wings, was born. Out of dark
chaos, in the midst of wide-spreading Tartarus, he begot our race, and
called us forth into the light.”[27]

It is unnecessary to multiply quotations to prove, that the ancients
were not only acquainted with the cosmogony of Moses, but received it
as true; to which they added their own coloring.

    [It is now generally agreed by cosmogonists, commentators,
    biblical critics, and natural philosophers, that the
    _substance_ of the earth certainly, and probably the materials
    of the Solar System, was first created in a chaotic state, and
    subsequently arranged in order. This opinion is very ancient
    and almost universal, found in all nations. Ovid, an ancient
    heathen poet, has well described this chaos:

        Ante mare et terras, et, quod teget omnia, Cœlum,
        Unus erat toto naturæ vultus in orbe,
        Quem dixére Chaos; rudis indigestaque moles,
        Nec quicquam nisi pondus iners; congestaque eodem.
        Non bene junctarum discordia semina rerum.

        Before the seas, and this terrestrial ball,
        And heaven’s high canopy that covers all:
        _One_ was the face of nature if a face:
        _Rather a rude and indigested mass:
        A lifeless lump, unfashioned and unframed,
        Of jarring seeds, and justly_ CHAOS _named_.--Dryden.

    Notwithstanding the general prevalence of this opinion,
    and the high authorities which support it, the reader must not
    imagine it is absolutely _universal_. Some eminent men have
    suggested, that the earth, and matter generally, was created in
    a _solid_ state at first. This is the view taken by Mr. Ure, of
    the Andersonian University. He supposes _the earth was created
    a solid ball, or spheroid, regular on its surface, without
    hills and vallies, and immersed in a crust of ice, which
    completely and uniformly surrounded it: that it was a cold
    lifeless lump; heat not yet having pervaded it_. The first, and
    all quickening operation of heat he supposes to be indicated
    by these words of Moses: “And the Spirit of God moved on the
    face of the waters.” He supposes, all the matter of our earth
    is in the same relative position, in which it was when it first
    existed at the command of God; _except such cases in which some
    subsequent force has disarranged it_. These cases he supposes
    to have been many, and to have operated to the _upheaving_
    the mountains, and hollowing out the beds of the sea, &c. He
    says of the earth: “The central mass composed, most probably,
    of the metallic bases of the earths and alkalies, as volcanic
    phenomena seem to attest, would fuse, when first the calorific
    energy was made to actuate the body of the earth, and the
    exterior parts would oxydize into the crust of mineral strata,
    and the outermost coat of all, the fixed ice, would melt into
    the moveable _waters_.” _New Syst. of Geol. B. 1. chap. 1. p.
    7._

    Perhaps Mr. Ure’s view might be improved, and made
    to approximate much nearer the common opinion, possibly
    identified with it, by supposing the mass of matter composing
    our earth, was confusedly mixed,--and of course chaotic--but
    was in a frozen, hard, inactive state: that the quickening
    energy, which softened and fused it, was simultaneous with its
    revolution on its axis. The consequence then would be precisely
    what we find it to be; viz: an enlargement of the equatorial
    diameter, and a flattening of the poles. This I conceive to be
    the true theory in this case.

    Mr. Ure confirms his view by a quotation from Sir Isaac
    Newton; Optics, Book 3. towards the conclusion. “It seems
    probable to me that God in the beginning formed matter in
    solid, massy, hard, impenetrable, movable particles, of such
    sizes and figures, and with such other properties, and in such
    proportions to space, as most conduced to the end for which he
    formed them. All material things seem to have been composed
    of the hard and solid particles above mentioned, variously
    associated in the _first creation_ by the counsels of an
    intelligent agent. For it became him who created them to set
    them in order; and if he did so, it is unphilosophical to seek
    for any other origin of this world, or to pretend that it might
    rise out of chaos by the mere laws of Nature; though being once
    formed, it may continue by those laws for many ages.”

    I have given this quotation precisely as I found it in
    Mr. Ure’s New System of _Geology_, B. 1. chap. 1. p. 10.
    Considering the well founded reputation of Newton, it adds very
    much to the probability of the above theory: yet it seems to
    me to be at variance with the commonly received impression of
    Newton’s opinion on this subject. I have not his work at hand
    to examine it.

    The Encyclopedia Britannica, Article _Earth_, seems to
    favor this view. It says, “The common notion of the earth’s
    being originally a chaos, seems neither to have a foundation in
    reason, nor in the Mosaic account of the creation.”

    The reader will here perceive high authorities on both
    sides, and all claiming to agree with Moses. The weight of
    evidence seems to be in favor of a chaotic creation, which
    does _not_ necessarily imply that the mass was created in a
    _soft_ state. But the configuration, and internal structure of
    the earth abundantly prove it was in a soft, or compressible
    state when it was assuming its present form and structure.
    This condition was the effect of the quickening energy of the
    Spirit of God. The difference between the _equatorial_ and
    _polar_ diameters of the earth, which is now well established,
    and is about twenty-seven miles, can scarcely be accounted for,
    without supposing the substance of the earth, at least to a
    great depth, to have been partially or wholly fluid; in which
    case, by turning round rapidly on its own axis, it would assume
    the shape it is known to possess. It may, indeed, be said, the
    Almighty could give it any shape and qualities he pleased, and
    we cannot well object to it.

    As it regards the interior, or central parts of our planet,
    our author has said nothing, and possibly he would give
    this very good reason for his silence--_we can know nothing
    certainly_. Still, however, we may subjoin the conjectures of
    some eminent philosophers.

    Some suppose the central parts of our globe to be
    _cavernous_ or _hollow_. The principal argument for this
    theory is the transmission of _sound_ and _motion_ through vast
    extents of country, in case of volcanoes and earthquakes. It is
    supposed this could not be done so perfectly and extensively,
    unless we suppose some _aëriform_, or _gaseous_ body within the
    earth, by means of which it might be transmitted: which would
    be to suppose it _cavernous_ or _hollow_.

    Dr. Halley supposes the earth is a hollow sphere, in
    which there is inclosed a central magnetic globe, and by the
    motions of this globe the variations of the magnetic needle are
    produced.

    Our own ingenious, but unfortunate countryman, _Symms_,
    supposed the earth to be hollow, and inhabited within, and its
    interior accessible to us. He argues, there is no necessity,
    for the purposes of gravitation, or for any other purposes, to
    suppose the earth solid to the centre: And it is inconsistent
    with the divine beneficence to suppose such an amount of matter
    as this globe would be, if solid, should have been created to
    afford so small a portion, _scarcely one-fourth_, fit for the
    actual habitation of man, for whom principally it was created.
    He, therefore, supported, that the interior of the earth was an
    immense cavern blessed with changes of season, succession of
    day and night, cold and heat, and inhabited by human beings,
    and other animals. He supposed the poles of the earth were
    hollow, and this hollow entrance gradually verged round towards
    the equator; and ships have, without knowing it, been within
    the verge, from whence they found no difficulty of returning.

    Others have supposed the central parts of our globe are
    solid. This is the common supposition, and is principally
    supported by these two arguments:--As the attraction of
    gravitation depends on the _quantity_ of matter, as well as
    the distance; unless we suppose the earth a _solid_ body it
    will not be able to exert a sufficient attractive influence on
    the moon to keep her in her orbit. Again: it is ascertained
    by actual experiment, that the _mean_ density of the earth is
    about _five_ times that of water: from which it is infered it
    is solid, and must increase in density from the surface to the
    centre, in order to give this high mean proportion over the
    bodies at its surface.

    The increasing density of the earth, from the surface to
    the centre is owing to _compression_ in part, and partly to the
    supposed fact, that the heavier substances are placed nearer
    the centre. Thus we find the different strata of rocks indicate
    the same. Granite is the heaviest and lowest rock _in situ_.

    Some have supposed that _iron_, probably nearly in a
    metallic state, constitutes the nucleus of our earth. This idea
    seems to have been suggested to account for the influence of
    the earth on a magnetic needle.

    But the most splendid, and very probable conjecture is
    founded on the experiments of Berzelius, and Sir H. Davy, on
    the earths, which experiments prove them to have _metallic
    bases_ universally: hence all our earths are _metallic oxides_.
    From these circumstances it is conjectured, that the nucleus
    of our globe is constituted of the metals in a pure, or nearly
    pure state, which are the bases of our earths, alkalis, and
    alkaline earths.

    It would almost seem a legitimate conjecture to suppose the
    substances of our globe were, at _first, metals_ and _gases_:
    that the oxygen, combining with the metals formed earths, and
    alkalis; and the gases combining among themselves formed air,
    water, &c. This would be a chemical process, and necessarily
    _fuse_ and soften the earth, and introduce the process of
    cooling, which would proceed from the surface towards the
    centre. Hence some eminent philosophers have conjectured that
    there is a great degree of heat in the interior of the earth
    yet: probably the central parts are in a state of igneous
    fusion. Some recent researches of Cordier tend to establish
    this opinion. The amount of evidence in favor of this
    conjecture is increasing annually, and probably will prevail.
    See the _additional_ paper on _volcanos_ in this volume.]

       *       *       *       *       *


_Section_ II.--_Fire._

    Omnific word -- Moving principles in Nature -- Criticism
    on the original word אור aur -- Creation of fire -- Its nature
    -- Friction exciting the action of fire -- Fire attracted by
    bodies -- Fire conducted -- Fire in a state of combination --
    Fire elastic -- Expansive force of fire -- Subterraneous fires
    -- Earthquakes and Volcanic Eruptions -- Air a storehouse of
    fire -- General and final Dissolution of Nature by fire --
    Fire a symbol of the Deity, in his gracious presence, vital
    influence, transforming energy, and destructive operation.


The sacred historian here informs us of the first regular production
reduced from the chaotic mass. With an astonishing majesty of
expression, God said, יהי אור ויהי אור YEHI AUR, _vayehi aur_, _Let
there be light: and there was light_. Or, more literally, _Be light:
and light was_. Pagninus translates the words יהי אור YEHI AUR,
literally, _Sit lux, Be light_. In the Greek it is γενεθητω φῶς, _Be
light made_, or _generated_. In the Vulgate, _Fiat lux_, which is much
the same as the Greek. The celebrated Dionysius Longinus, meeting
with this passage in the Septuagint, considered it as a specimen of
the _true sublime_. Though a heathen, he thus expresses himself:
“So likewise the Jewish lawgiver, (who was no ordinary man) having
conceived a just idea of the divine power, he expressed it in a
dignified manner; for at the beginning of his laws he thus speaks: GOD
SAID--_What?_ LET THERE BE LIGHT! _and there was light_. LET THERE BE
EARTH! _and there was earth_.”[28]

Here we may inquire, Whether this was a word uttered with a sound, like
that which God spake from mount Sinai in giving the Law; or only the
exercise of the inward faculty of reason or understanding? It could not
be a word spoken with a sound, for that requires air as its _medium_,
and none as yet existed; neither was there any ear to hear, nor any
use of such words. Nor could it be any exercise of the Divine Mind,
now beginning to think of the creation and formation of things; for
this purpose was in his thoughts from eternity. The meaning therefore
is, that God did, without any instruments, toil, labor, alteration,
or delay, for the manifestation of his own infinite goodness, wisdom,
power, and will, actually working like a powerful word or command,
instantaneously produce _light_.[29] Thus

    “Dark Chaos heard his voice.”

The Psalmist, touching on the subject of creation, says, “He spake, and
it was done: he commanded, and it stood fast”--יעמד _jagnamad, it stood
forth_, as a servant at his master’s command, prepared to do his will,
and to execute his pleasure.[30]

The divine commandment which produced light, says an intelligent
writer, must be considered as operating on the properties of matter
already created; and as light is found to proceed from the motion of
luminous particles, we must conceive some central force, or attracting
power, to be the instrument of producing this phenomenon of light,
by its attractive or propelling properties. There seem to be moving
principles in all nature, which, when put in action by the first
Cause, produce natural effects according to established laws, which
cannot be altered unless by the first Mover. As the Hebrew word תהומ
_tehom, abyss_, translated _deep_, signifies also to move with a sort
of confused motion; we may justly conclude that the chaotic mass had
some gravitating powers in it, before the forming of the system; and
that attracting and repelling force was naturally and originally in
the universe; and that the first Mover gave them in a regular course,
the specifical direction, and systematical attractions. What our
distinguished philosopher, Sir Isaac Newton, has suggested concerning
attraction and gravitation, even in point of philosophy, appears to
agree with the Principia of Moses.

Another author writes, Whether Moses intended a philosophical account
of light in this place, I will not pretend to say; but one thing is
certain, that he makes use of a word which points out some of the
principal properties of light. The original word אור _aur_ signifies
that body which renders objects visible, which we call _light_; it
also signifies _fire_, and perhaps Moses intended to point out in one
word, what in our language requires two, _light_ and _fire_. When we
consider the words of Moses, it appears evident that what is in our
version called _light_, is in the Hebrew rather something that sends
forth light. The original word אור _aur_ may signify any thing that
makes things visible by emitting particles of light. When the Almighty
said, “Let there be אור _aur, light_,” it is not certain that he meant
elementary fire, or original unpropagated light. It is more probable
that he intended by that word, a body that sent forth light by means of
the motion of similar particles of luminous and igneous matter.

Whatever may be the philosophic differences between these two, _light_
and _fire_, continues the same author, we are certain that they are
seldom separated. The origin of that light which now renders bodies
visible to us, seems chiefly to be _fire_, though light and fire are
not inseparably connected; for light may be propagated where there is
no fire, as from putrid bodies, &c, and fire may be where there is no
light, as in iron, sulphur, &c.

The Hebrew word אור _aur_, signifies not only light, but
_fire_. God created this powerful agent on the first day, and diffused
it through every part of nature; because without it no operation could
be carried on and perfected. T. Bartholine quotes Aristotle as saying,
“That fire is the efficient cause of all things.” Robison says, “Heat
is susceptible of fixation--of being accumulated in bodies, and, as
it were, laid up till we have occasion for it; and we are as certain
of getting the stored-up heat, as we are sure of obtaining from our
drawers the things we put in them.”[31] It pervades all bodies: this is
not the case with any other substance we know of--not even light. It
lies hid in every thing around us. It is a substance which we are ever
in want of; it is therefore deposited on every side, and is ready for
every exigency.

_Caloric_ is the name given by modern chemists, to that substance by
whose influence the phenomena of heat are produced, and which had
before been distinguished by the terms _igneous fluid_, _matter of
heat_, and other analogous denominations. In order to give precision
to chemical language, it was necessary to adopt a word by which to
distinguish between the substance which produces the sensation we call
heat, and the sensation itself; these being connected as cause and
effect; for whenever caloric becomes fixed in a body, it loses its
property of affording heat. Whatever is the nature of that quality in
bodies called heat, we are assured it does resemble the sensation of
heat. A man whose mind is destitute of the cultivation of science, if
endued with common sense, never imagines the sensation of heat to be
in the fire; he only imagines that there is something in fire which
occasions this sensation.

Though we are well acquainted with the effects of fire, we know but
little of its nature. It is so active, as well as powerful a principle,
that it eludes all our researches. We may, however, define it to be the
phlogiston or inflammable principle, which pervades in a greater or
less degree all substances. Boerhaave thinks it is a fluid of a nature
peculiar to itself; that it was created such as it is, and cannot be
altered in its nature or its properties; that it naturally exists in
equal quantities in all places; and that it is wholly imperceptible to
our senses, being only discoverable by such effects as in its operation
it produces.[32]

That fire is really a substance, and not a quality, appears from its
acting upon other substances, the reality of which has never been
doubted. Charcoal, in its natural state, contains within its pores a
large quantity of air; but if charcoal is heated, this air is expelled
by the fire, which assumes its place, and occupies the pores of the
charcoal. The burning of lime also, which deprives it of a great part
of its weight by expelling the fixable air, demonstrates that fire, as
a substance, enters into the pores of the lime, and forces out those
other substances which are least intimately combined with it.

Collision or friction of solid bodies, is the means most generally
used for exciting the action of fire. The vacuities of all solid
bodies are replete with fire, so that it is impossible to agitate or
separate their parts swiftly, without giving the same rapid motion to
the element contained within them. When a piece of hardened steel is
struck with a flint, some particles of the metal are scraped away from
the mass, and so violent is the fire which follows the stroke, that it
melts and vitrifies them. If the fragments of steel are catched upon
paper, and viewed with a microscope, you will find most of them perfect
spherules, and very highly polished. Their sphericity demonstrates that
they have been in a fluid state, and the polish upon their surface
shows them to be vitrified; the fire being disengaged with violence,
disposes the particles of the substance to combine with the vital
air, while this air accelerates the combustion. The whole of the heat
produced is not afforded by the body itself, because in proportion as
the interior fire is disengaged, the external air acts upon the body
and gives out fire.

If the irons at the axis of a coach-wheel are applied to each other,
without the interposition of some unctuous matter to keep them from
immediate contact, they will become so hot when the carriage runs
swiftly along, as to set the wood on fire; and the fore wheels being
smallest, and making more revolutions, will be most in danger. The same
will happen to mill-work, or any other machinery, if the necessary
precautions are neglected. It is no uncommon practice with a blacksmith
to use a plate of iron as an extemporaneous tinder-box; for it may be
hammered on an anvil till it becomes red hot, and will fire a match of
brimstone. A strong man who strikes quick, and keeps turning the iron,
so that both sides may be equally exposed to the force of the hammer,
will perform this in less time than would be expected. If in the
coldest season you lay one dense iron plate upon another, and press the
upper one, by a weight, on the lower one, and then rub the one over the
other; by reciprocal motions, they will first grow warm, and at length
so hot, as in a short time to emit sparks, and at last grow red hot, as
if taken out of a vehement fire.

It is not necessary that the substance should be very hard; a cord
rubbed backwards and forwards swiftly against a post or a tree will
take fire; a stick of wood pressed against another which is turned
swiftly about in a lathe, will soon make it turn black and emit smoke.
Even the palms of your hands, if you rub them briskly together, when
they are dry, will smell as if they were scorched. The method of
exciting fire by rubbing two sticks of wood together, was anciently
practised by country people, and is still retained in some parts of
the world. The manner is exactly described in Captain Cook’s voyage.
The inhabitants of New-Holland are there said to produce fire with
great facility, and spread it in a wonderful manner. To produce it,
they take two pieces of _soft_ dry wood; one is a stick about eight or
nine inches long, the other piece is flat. The stick they shape into an
obtuse point at one end, and pressing it upon the other, turn it nimbly
by holding it between both their hands, as we do a chocolate mill,
often shifting their hands up and down, and then moving them down upon
it to increase the pressure as much as possible. By this method they
get fire in less than two minutes, and from the smallest spark they
increase it with speed and dexterity.

The matter of fire is attracted more or less by all bodies. When any
heated body comes in contact with a cold one, the former loses a part
of its heat, and both of them become equally warm. If heated iron is
laid upon a stone, its heat will flow into the stone; if thrown into
the water, the heat will be diffused through the water. If a number of
different substances, as metals, wood, wool, &c, are brought together
into a place where there is not a fire, if they are of different
temperatures, that is of different degrees of heat, the fire will be
attracted from the hottest to those that are colder, till a perfect
equilibrium is produced, or till they have all acquired the same
temperature, as may be proved by applying the thermometer successively
to each of them.

It does not appear, however, that all bodies have an equal attraction
for the matter of fire. If a rod of iron is put into the fire for a
short time, the end which is at a moderate distance from the fire will
almost burn the hand; but a rod of wood, of the same length will be
consumed to ashes at the end which is in the fire, before the other end
is sufficiently heated to burn the hand. A ball of lead, and a ball of
wool, may be of exactly the same temperature by the thermometer, but
they will not appear of the same degree of heat on applying the hand.
If they are of a temperature below that of our bodies, the lead will
appear much colder than the wool, because it attracts the heat more
rapidly from the hand; if they are of a higher temperature, the lead
will appear much hotter, from the facility with which it parts with its
heat. This property in bodies is called their _conducting_ power; and
those bodies through which the element of fire most rapidly circulates,
are called good conductors.

The power of conducting the matter of fire seems to depend upon the
texture of bodies, that is, upon the contact of their parts; hence the
excessive slowness with which heat is communicated to bodies of a rare
and spongy texture. Thus flannel, wool, and feathers, are considered as
warm coverings, not because they possess more heat in themselves--for
they serve to preserve any cold body in a cool state better than other
substances--but because they prevent the escape of the animal heat from
our bodies.

The matter of fire will exist in a state of combination, in a _latent_
state, so as not to be perceptible to our senses. It will be found by
observation, that every body which exists contains a quantity of the
matter of fire in a fixed or neutralized state, disarmed of all its
active, penetrating, and destructive qualities, like an acid and an
alkali in combination.

Fluids, from their very nature and constitution, contain a greater
quantity of caloric in a latent state than solid bodies: indeed it is
now universally admitted, and may be easily proved, that the fluidity
of all bodies is altogether owing to the quantity of fire which they
retain in this latent or combined state, the elasticity of which keeps
their particles remote from each other, and prevents their fixing into
a solid mass. All bodies, therefore, in passing from a fluid to a solid
state, emit a quantity of fire or heat. When water is thrown upon quick
lime, it is absorbed by the lime, and in this state it is capable of
retaining a much smaller quantity of caloric than in its natural state;
on the slacking of lime, therefore, a very intense heat is produced,
the matter of fire which preserved the water fluid being disengaged and
detached. If spirit of vitriol is added to strong oil of turpentine,
they will condense into a solid mass, and a great quantity of heat will
be sensibly emitted. Upon the same principle it will be found, on the
other hand, that when any body passes from a solid to a fluid state,
the adjacent bodies will be deprived of a quantity of their natural
heat.

    [This theory of what is called _burning lime_, is not
    sufficiently clear. Fire does not enter into the pores of the
    lime by burning. The mineral commonly used for procuring _quick
    lime_ is the _carbonate_ of lime, or common _limestone_, which
    is composed of carbonic acid with a small quantity of water,
    43, and lime 57, in 100 parts. By submiting it to a strong
    heat, the carbonic acid is driven off, and the quick or pure
    lime remains, which is an _oxide of calcium_. The loss in
    weight is owing to the expulsion of the carbonic acid, with
    the small portion of water. By adding water to the quick lime,
    it is dissolved, and falls into a powder. This process is
    called _slacking lime_, and the product, _slack-lime_. During
    the process a large quantity of heat is disengaged; and if
    the slacking be done in the dark, _light_ is also observed to
    be thrown out. This heat is given out by the _water_, not the
    lime. The lime having a _greater affinity_ for the _hydrogen_
    of the water than exists between the hydrogen and oxygen in
    water, seizes upon it, and the _oxygen passes off_, together
    with the _latent caloric_ of the water, and thus the heat is
    produced which is observed in slacking lime. The hydrogen of
    the water combines with the lime and becomes solid, forming
    an _hydrate of lime_, which is the common slacked lime used in
    mortar.]

The matter of fire is _elastic_, as is proved evidently from all its
effects. There is indeed reason to believe, that caloric is the only
fluid in nature which is permanently elastic, and that it is the
cause of the elasticity of all fluids which are esteemed so. From the
elasticity of this element it results, that all natural bodies can only
retain a certain quantity of it, without undergoing an alteration in
their state and form. Thus a moderate quantity of fire admitted into a
solid body expands it; a still larger quantity renders it fluid; and if
the quantity is still increased, it will be converted into vapor.

Caloric expands all bodies which it penetrates, more or less, in
proportion to its quantity, and to the nature of those bodies. The
expansion of water, even previous to its assuming the form of vapor,
may be seen in an easy experiment. If a quantity of cold water,
contained in a clear flask, is immersed in a vessel of boiling water;
as the heat enters, the water in the flask will be seen to rise in the
neck till it overflows.

An iron rod a foot long being heated red hot, became 1-60 longer
than before; and a glass cylinder, a fathom long, under the same
circumstances, gained 1-50 in length. A metalline ring thus heated was
increased 9-100 in its diameter; and a glass globe became extended
1-100 part by the heat of the hand only applied to its surface.[33]

The _general_ effects of caloric are to increase the bulk of the
substances with which it unites, and to render them specifically
lighter than they were before; but in whatever quantity it is
accumulated in bodies, it never adds to their absolute weight.
Caloric favors the solution of salts, and promotes the union of many
substances. In other cases it serves to separate bodies already united;
so that in the hands of chemists it is the most useful and powerful
agent with which they are acquainted. It is the cause of fluidity in
all substances which are capable of becoming fluid, from the heaviest
metal to the lightest gas. Let it be remembered that _all_ fluids are
formed from solids by an addition of caloric; and that, by abstracting
this caloric, solids would be reproduced. It insinuates itself among
their particles, and invariably separates them in some measure from
each other. We have reason to believe that every solid substance on
the face of the earth might be converted to a fluid, or even a gas,
were it submitted to the action of a very high temperature in peculiar
circumstances.[34]

    [The general and aggregate bearing of the facts and
    experiments which are now known, render the statement here
    made by Mr. Wood extremely probable, viz; That caloric is a
    very subtle fluid which pervades in large quantities every
    particle of matter in the universe--that it is the agent which
    regulates the _densities_ of all bodies, and by consequence,
    regulates in some measure their _weight_ and _dimensions_. It
    is considered as an almost settled question, _that a stratum
    of caloric surrounds each ultimate particle of every body, so
    that the ultimate particles of bodies do not, and cannot be
    made to touch each other_. Their inherent inclination to come
    into actual contact is called their _attraction of cohesion_:
    the power of this attraction is in proportion to the distance
    at which they are kept from each other by the atmosphere of
    caloric which intervenes between them. This atmosphere of
    caloric is _idio-repulsive_: of course the particles of caloric
    have an inherent _repulsion_ among themselves, and are ever
    struggling to get further asunder.

    This idio-repulsive nature of caloric is the great, and
    constant antagonist power to the attraction of cohesion.
    Caloric has a tendency to drive the particles of matter further
    from each other, and these particles have a mutual tendency
    to approach. Hence these two principles are ever in conflict.
    As a general rule we may say, when the attraction of cohesion
    prevails greatly, the body becomes _solid_: when the two forces
    are pretty nearly balanced, the body becomes _liquid_: when the
    caloric prevails greatly, the body becomes _gaseous_.

    There is sufficient reason to believe, that _every_ body
    in nature might be raised to a _gaseous_ state by the addition
    or action of a sufficient quantity of caloric: and there is,
    probably, a sufficient quantity in nature, to render the whole
    _universe_ gaseous, were it sufficiently excited to a state
    of freedom. It is a well known fact, that _all the metals are
    fusible by heat_, and many of them have been _volatalized_, and
    it is extremely probable all of them may be.

    As caloric regulates the density of bodies, by resisting
    and modifying the influence of the attraction of cohesion: if
    it were entirely withdrawn from nature, or the whole of it
    rendered perfectly latent, _all matter would become perfectly_
    SOLID and FIXED: even _water_ and _air_ would assume the
    _solidity of the diamond_.

    We must, therefore, regard caloric as the great
    conservative principle of the Universe, and yet capable, if
    called into action, of destroying it instantly.

    These views strongly corroborate _our_ paper on _chaos_.]

From the experiments of General Roy, in the 75th volume of the
Philosophical Transactions, it appears that the expansion of a steel
pendulum of a clock is such, that every four degrees of the thermometer
will cause a variation of a second per day; and that the difference
between the going of a clock in summer and winter will be about six
seconds per day, or one minute in ten days, owing to the metallic
pendulum varying in length with every change of temperature. A
knowledge of this circumstance gave rise to Harrison’s self-regulating
time-piece, which, by the different expansion of _different_ metals,
accommodates its movements to every change of seasons or climate.

The fire deposited below the surface of the earth is peculiarly
important, having produced earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Dr.
Watson, late Bishop of Llandaff, in his Chemical Essays, says, The most
remarkable changes which have taken place in the form and constitution
of the earth, since the deluge, have probably been produced by
subterraneous fires; for it is to their agency that philosophers
ascribe volcanos and earthquakes; those tremendous instruments of
nature, by which she converts plains into mountains, the ocean into
islands, and dry land into stagnant pools. Mr. Lemery, as far as I have
been able to learn, adds the learned Bishop, was the first person who
illustrated, by actual experiment, the origin of subterraneous fires.
He mixed twenty-five pounds of powdered sulphur with an equal weight of
iron filings; and having kneaded the mixture together, by means of a
little water, into the consistency of a paste, he put it into an iron
pot, covered it with a cloth, and buried the whole a foot under ground.
In about eight or nine hours time the earth swelled, grew warm, and
cracked: hot sulphureous vapors were perceived: a flame which dilated
the cracks was observed; the superincumbent earth was covered with a
yellow and black powder: in short, a subterraneous fire, producing a
volcano in miniature, was spontaneously lighted up from the reciprocal
actions of sulphur, iron, and water.

Volcanic eruptions are awfully terrific, and sometimes extensively
destructive. The violent eruption of Vesuvius, in 1767, is reckoned the
27th since that which destroyed the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii,
in the reign of the Emperor Titus; and this eruption of 1767, has been
succeeded by several others. Of the eruptions of Ætna, Mr. Oldenburg
has given a historical account in the Philosophical Transactions, No.
xlviii. p. 967. A very great eruption of this mountain was in the year
1669. The progress of the lava, or fiery deluge, was at the rate of a
furlong a day. It advanced into the sea 600 yards, and was then a mile
in breadth. It had destroyed, in forty days, the habitations of 27,000
persons; and of 20,000 inhabitants of the city of Catanea, only 3,000
escaped. This inundation of liquid fire, in its progress, met with a
lake four miles in compass, and not only filled it up, although it was
four fathoms deep, but raised it into a mountain. Borelli, an ingenious
Neapolitan, has calculated, that the matter discharged at this eruption
was sufficient to fill a space of 93,838,750 cubic spaces. The lava
which ran from it is fourteen miles in length, and, in many parts, six
in breadth. There have been no such eruptions since, although there
have been signs of many, more terrible, that preceded it.[35]

The principal volcanos in Europe are Mount Vesuvius, near Naples, in
Italy; Mount Ætna, in Sicily; Mount Hecla, in Iceland; and Stromboli,
the most northern of the Lipari islands, north of Sicily. Of all the
volcanos recorded in history, Stromboli seems to be the only one that
burns incessantly. Ætna and Vesuvius are sometimes many months, and
even years, without the least emission of fire; but this is ever at
work, and, for ages past, has been considered as the light-house of
the Mediterranean Sea. It is very probable, that Mount Vesuvius and
Mount Ætna form but different portions of _one_ chain of mountains that
passes under the sea, and the isle of Lipari; for whenever one of the
volcanos has a great eruption, it is observed that the other, and the
volcano in the isle of Lipari, throw out more flames than ordinary.
This remark was made by Huet, Bishop of Avranches, in France, a
celebrated philosophical, historical, and commercial writer. The force
of volcanos is supposed to be the greatest of any thing yet known in
nature. In the great eruption of Vesuvius, in 1779, a stream of lava,
of an immense magnitude, is said to have been projected to the height
of at least 10,000 feet above the top of the mountain.

    [The present state of chemical science, and the
    geological discoveries of the last ten or fifteen years,
    seem to discountenance the theory, that volcanic action, and
    earthquakes result from _sulphur_, _iron_, and _water_, as Mr.
    Lemery’s experiment seems to indicate.

    The vast extent of volcanic action, as indicated by extinct
    and active volcanos, would require a greater amount of these
    materials, than can be supposed to exist in the composition of
    the earth. Thus, according to the Newtonian test of a correct
    theory, the means, if true, would not be sufficient.

    Again: If sulphur and iron were the principal agents in
    producing volcanic action, and earthquakes, _volcanic products
    would give evidence of it_, by being, principally, _sulphate
    of iron_. So far is this from being the fact, that in 100
    parts, volcanic product, Dr. Kennedy found, in reference to two
    volcanos, not exceeding 14.25 oxide of iron, and no sulphur at
    all.

    Volcanic products are generally, “mixtures of the earth in
    an oxidated and fused state, under intense ignition; water and
    saline substances, such as might be furnished by the sea and
    air, altered as might be expected from the formation of fixed
    oxidated matter.” URE.

    These two simple considerations must set aside the theory
    mentioned in the text. Other valid objections might be urged.

    As this theory is inadmissible, because, neither true in
    application to volcanic action and product, nor sufficient in
    force, it is proper to supply the deficiency.

    By a careful inspection of the phenomena attending volcanic
    action, as well as an examination of its products, we are
    clearly convinced, the _agents are aëriform_; chiefly _steam_
    and the _gases_, and they act with an _expansive force from
    beneath_.

    Mouna Roa, in the island Owhyhee, rises 15,000 feet,
    and has on its top a crater _eight miles_ in circumference,
    containing a vast lake of molten lava. Mr. Goodrich visited it
    in 1824. He says, “exhalations escape from all the fissures of
    the lava crust, producing here and there a blast _like strong
    vapor blowing out of a steam boiler_.”

    Subsequently, a party from the Blonde frigate visited it,
    and the Rev. Charles Stewart, who accompanied the party, has
    given a description of the crater. He says, “its surface had
    all the agitation of the ocean. Billow after billow tossed
    its monstrous bosom into the air, and occasionally the waves
    from apposite directions met with such violence, as to dash
    the fiery spray, in the concussion, forty or fifty feet high.”
    _Ure’s New Syst. Geol._ pp. 381-2.

    In both these accounts we clearly see aëriform agents
    acting from beneath. The _hissing_ noise of steam escaping from
    a boiler, convinces of the _nature_ of the body escaping. The
    _upheaving_ of the melted lava proves, not only, that the agent
    acts from _beneath_ by expansion, but also, by its resemblance
    to the common phenomenon observed in boiling liquids, that
    the agent is formed below, and rises through the melted lava,
    heaving it up in swells and waves, until it escapes in a
    gaseous state, like vapor from boiling liquids.

    We must come to the same conclusion from the experiments,
    observations, and reports of the celebrated, and intrepid
    Spallanzani, who visited and examined the crater of the
    ever-burning Stromboli. His words are nearly these: Fluid lava,
    resembling melted brass red-hot, and liquid filled the crater
    to a certain height, and this matter appeared to be influenced
    by two distinct impelling powers; the one whirling and
    agitated; and the other upwards, terminating in an explosion
    like a short clap of thunder. Immediately before the explosion
    occurred, the lava appeared _inflated_, and _large bubbles_,
    some several feet in diameter, rose and burst, the detonation
    followed and the lava sunk. During the rising, _a sound
    issued from the crater like that produced by a liquid boiling
    violently in a caldron_. In this case we have every evidence of
    an _aëriform agent acting from beneath_.

    An aëriform agent is detected also by examining the
    _structure_ of volcanic products, which have been ejected in
    a melted state. They are found to be _vesicular_, _cellular_,
    and _porous_. This structure proves, incontestibly, that these
    cavities and cells were filled with an aëriform body, which
    escaped upon cooling.

    This position might be sustained by other proofs, but it
    is unnecessary. It remains only to ask, _whether these elastic
    agents are sufficient to produce the astonishing amount and
    products of volcanic action and earthquakes_?

    The force which elastic agents are known to possess, when
    generated suddenly, and raised to a high temperature, answers
    this question promptly in the _affirmative_. A very few grains
    of gunpowder, when converted into gas by sudden ignition in
    a gun-barrel, by their expansive force drive a bullet with
    astonishing power and velocity. A few cubic feet of water
    converted into steam, will burst the strongest metallic barrier
    which man can construct, unless it find vent.

    As we have seen sufficiently clearly that aëriform bodies,
    as steam and gases, are the elastic agents in producing
    earthquakes and volcanos, it remains to inquire into the
    _production_ and _action_ of those agents.

    As it regards their production, the present state of
    geological and chemical science suggests _three_ theories,
    each of which would be adequate to the object.

    It is necessary to premise that _water_ is a common agent
    in each of the three theories.

    1. The splendid discoveries of Sir H. Davy, in regard to
    the _bases_ of the earths, demonstrating them to be _metallic_,
    and the earths merely _oxides_ of those metals, have led to the
    conjecture, _that these metals exist in nearly a pure state in
    the interior of the earth_; of course the _crust_ of the earth
    is composed of the various metallic oxides.

    It is well known that many of these metals _take fire on
    coming into contact with water, as potassium, sodium, &c_; and
    _all of them oxidize rapidly on meeting with water and air_,
    and thus _large quantities of hydrogen gas would be evolved_.

    This theory is so reasonable, in view of the
    _combustibility_ of metals, and so conformable to science, that
    we almost decide it is true, without further examination.

    But, in order that its demonstration should be clear, it
    must first be shown, _that the metals do exist in nearly a pure
    state in the interior of the earth_: and then, _that they are
    accessible by water, or air, or both_.

    The first point can only be rendered _probable by analogy_.
    We _know_ that the earths which are found in the crust of our
    planet are _metallic oxides_. It is very natural to suppose
    these metals existed in a pure _metallic state at the creation,
    as well at the surface as at the centre_; as all other bodies
    most probably existed in an elementary and uncombined state
    when God first produced them. From this supposition it is
    easy to see, that when water and air came into action, which
    would be at the earth’s surface, these metals would be rapidly
    oxidized, thus forming the earths. But as this process would
    commence at the _surface_ of the earth, and _tend towards the
    centre_, it is evident its _progress would be arrested by its
    own action_.

    For the _accumulation of the earths_, by the oxidation of
    the metals, would gradually form the _superincumbent crust_,
    which would act as a _barrier_ to the water and air, preventing
    their contact with the metals in the interior, _which_, of
    course, _would not be oxidized_.

    In this state they would remain buried deep under the
    superincumbent oxidated crust of the earth, until water and
    air should find access to them. When this should take place
    a rapid, and extensive _chemical action_ would commence,
    generating immense quantities of hydrogen gas, the metals
    _decomposing_ the air and water, in the process of oxidation,
    and setting the _hydrogen_ of the water, and _nitrogen_ of the
    air _free_. Thus a large amount of the most inflammable of all
    gases would be disengaged. The rapid chemical action would
    _raise the temperature_ of these gases, and thus _increase
    their bulk_ immensely, which would produce an irresistible
    _expansive force_, which would _increase the pressure_ against
    the sides of the cavern in which the gases were generated,
    _and the_ IGNITION _of the hydrogen would be a necessary
    consequence_. Such an immense volume of gas being ignited, and
    confined, would produce such a degree of heat, as rapidly to
    _decompose_ or _melt_ the substances in its neighborhood, and
    set at liberty a vast quantity of other gases; all of which
    being _ignited_, and of course _expanded_ immeasurably, would
    not only shake a given section of the earth, but, if placed
    in its centre, would shake the solid globe throughout, and
    rend it into ten thousand pieces, if it did not find means to
    escape. If it found means of escape by some opening forced from
    its seat to the surface of the earth, _that opening would_
    CONSTITUTE A VOLCANO; from which the gases would escape, and
    throw out before them the vast amount of volcanic products
    which are known to come forth of the craters.

    It now remains to inquire, _whether a sufficient quantity
    of water can be supposed to have access to these metals_?

    From what we know of the distribution of water generally
    in the bowels of the earth, we should have no difficulty in
    admitting the _affirmative_. But this question may be clearly
    answered by two circumstances.

    First: Large quantities of boiling water and mud, are
    frequently ejected from volcanos. This proves an _excess_
    of water at, or near the seat of action, which could not be
    decomposed, before the amount of gases generated, and acting
    with incredible force, drove it out of the crater. This fact is
    true in some measure of all volcanos, but eminently so of those
    in South America. “Bouguer and Condamine saw these formidable
    torrents tear up the surface of a whole country. Six hours
    after an explosion of Cotopaxi, a village nearly eighty miles
    distant in a straight line, and probably one hundred and forty
    by the winding channel, was entirely swept away by the flood.”
    _Ure’s New Sys. Geol._ p. 386.

    Secondly: The position of volcanos, _always near the
    sea_, together with the _agitations of the sea_, previous to,
    and during an eruption, as well as the _saline_ matter in
    the ejected substances, render it very clear, _that the sea,
    by subterranean communication, supplies water at the seat
    of volcanic action_. “The sea seems to sympathise with the
    agitations of the adjoining volcanos, rising and falling with
    rapid alternation--_caused by the sudden deflux of a great body
    of water into the vast volcanic caverns_.” _Ure’s New Sys.
    Geol._ p. 388.

    This fact is so well known in the history of volcanos,
    that it needs no further proof. It has, however, led to the
    remark, that volcanos are generally situated in islands, or
    near the sea coast. Indeed many of them are _submarine_, and
    have actually been seen in operation, throwing up vast columns
    of water to an immense height, until the edge of the crater
    appeared above the surface of the sea, and increased into
    islands, which have become permanent. At such times the water
    of the sea for a great distance round became _hot_, fishes
    died; and even the pitch melted from the hulks of the vessels
    in the neighborhood.

    2. Another theory has been proposed which does not differ
    from the first, in regard to the _materials_ employed at the
    seat of volcanic action, nor in the _manner_ of the process;
    but in regard to the _condition_ of those materials when they
    _begin_ to operate in the production of the elastic agents.
    These materials may be in a state of _igneous fusion_ in the
    interior of the earth. This state is supposed to have resulted
    thus:

    When God created the substances of the earth, they were
    in an _elementary_ and _uncombined_ state, promiscuously
    mixed through each other from the surface to the centre. By
    his _Spirit brooding over the great deep_, caloric and light,
    which were in a _latent_ state, were called into action,
    which gave impulse and motion to every particle of matter,
    thus quickening the whole mass by producing _intense heat_.
    This would cause the _aqueous_ and _gaseous_ particles to
    rise through the mass, and collect at the surface. This would
    bring them in contact with the metals in a pure state, which
    would of course _oxidize_, and become _earths_. This action
    would go on until it arrested its own progress, by forming and
    consolidating the oxidated crust of the earth inclosing all
    the interior substances in a state of igneous fusion, which
    have been gradually cooling ever since. The _primitive_ rocks,
    which have a crystalline structure, are supposed to have been
    deposited during this process, as it is evident they could not
    have crystallized under any other circumstances, and they are
    well known to be composed of the earths which are only metals
    in a state of oxidation. It is now only necessary to introduce
    the water to this mass of melted matter, or any part of it, as
    in the first theory to the metals in their pure state, _and we
    have the same results in all respects_.

    This theory has two advantages over the first. It agrees
    best with the crystalline structure which primitive rocks are
    known to possess, and which must result from chemical action on
    the materials in a state of solution. It also seems to accord
    best with the Mosaic account of the action of heat and light,
    in assimilating, arranging and settling the materials of the
    earth.

    Moreover, it is confirmed by experiments made on the
    _temperature_ of the earth at different depths. The following
    tables are extracted from Mr. Ure’s New System of Geology, pp.
    426-7. They accord, in their tendency, with the opinions of
    other eminent philosophers than those whose names appear in the
    tables.

    _Observations on the temperature of the earth._

        In the mines of Giro-Magny, three leagues from Befort,
        M. Gensanne found:

            At 333 feet, 54½ Fahr.
               680   “   62
              1016   “   66½
              1429   “   73

        In the mines of Freyberg, M. D’Aubuisson found

            External air           41
            In the galleries       50
            528 feet, water pool   52
            858 water of a spring  57

        At Junghohebirke,

            external thermometer   32
            1040 feet, water was   63

        Observations by Captain Lean in the mines of
        Cornwall.

            At surface, in June,   59
               118 feet deep       64½
               480  “              68
               840  “              69½
              1144  “              79

        _December._

            At the surface air     50
               120 feet air        57
               600  “   air        66
              ----  “   water      64
               962  “   air        70
              ----  “   water      74
              1200  “   air        78
              ----  “   water      78

    M. Humboldt obtained analogous results in many mines
    in South America. The evidence in favor of a _perpetually
    increasing temperature as you descend into the earth_, and a
    _higher temperature formerly at the surface of the earth_, is
    increasing daily. _See the conclusion of this paper._

    3. There is yet a third theory, founded on _voltaic
    energy_, or _galvanism_ and _electricity_.

    The application of these agents to the production of
    volcanic action, had occurred to me, before I met with the
    “Outline of the course of Geological Lectures, given in Yale
    College,” by Professor Silliman, from which the following
    extract is made. I had not regarded their application in
    the same manner as he has explained it. Indeed, my thoughts
    on the subject had not assumed any definite direction. I
    shall transcribe from his “Outline,” pp. 118-19, inserted in
    “Bakewell’s Introduction to Geology, first American Edition.”

    “Whatever we may think of the hypothesis now detailed, may
    we not suppose, with sufficient probability, that those voltaic
    powers which we _know_ to exist--whose action we can command,
    and whose effects having been first observed within the memory
    of the present generation, now fill us with astonishment, are
    constantly active in producing the phenomena of earthquakes and
    volcanos?

    “Arrangements of metals and fluids are the common means
    by which we evolve this wonderful power, in our laboratories;
    and it would seem that nothing more than juxta-position, in
    a certain order, is necessary to the effect. Even substances
    apparently dry and inert, with respect to each other, will
    produce a permanent, and in proportion to the means employed,
    a powerful effect, as in the columns of De Luc and Zamboui. It
    would seem indeed that metals and fluids are not _necessary_
    to the effect. Arrangements of almost any substances that are
    of different natures, will cause the evolution of this power.
    Whoever has witnessed the overwhelming brilliancy and intense
    energy of the great galvanic combinations, especially the
    deflagrator of Dr. Hare, and considers how very trifling, in
    extent, are our largest combinations of apparatus, compared
    with those natural arrangements of earths, salts, metals, and
    fluids, which we know to exist in the earth, in circumstances
    similar to those which, in our laboratories, are effectual in
    causing this power to appear, will not be slow to believe that
    it may be in the earth perpetually evolved, and perpetually
    renewed; and now mitigated, suppressed, or revived, according
    to circumstances influencing the particular state of things at
    particular places.

    “In our laboratories we see emanating from this source,
    intense light, irresistible heat, magnetism in great energy,
    and above all, a decomposing power, which commands equally
    all the elements, and the proximate principles in all their
    combinations.

    “Sir Humphrey Davy, after discovering that the supporters
    of combustion and the acids, were all evolved at the
    positive pole, and the combustibles and metals, and their
    oxidated products, at the negative--proved that even the
    firmest rocks and stones could not resist this power; their
    immediate principles and elements being separated by its
    energy. The decomposition of the alkalies, earths, and other
    metallic oxides being a direct and now familiar effect of
    voltaic energy--their metals being set at liberty, and being
    combustible both in air and water--elastic agents produced
    by this power, and rarified by heat, being also attendant on
    these decompositions, it would seem that the first principles
    are fully established by experiment, and that nothing is
    hypothetical, but the application to the phenomena of
    earthquakes and volcanos.”

    The reader will perceive that all of the above theories
    agree in one respect, viz; in the agency of _elastic bodies_,
    as steam and gases, produced by the decomposition of
    substances; and that the same substances are supposed to be
    employed, though not precisely in the same manner, nor in the
    same condition. Further Geological and Chemical experiments
    may, hereafter, settle the question between these theories.
    They are all scientific in their principles, and fully
    competent to the object, and it is not impossible but that they
    may all be true in part or in whole, acting separately in some
    instances, and combined in others.

    Under the agency of either of them the products would be
    the same. Dr. Kennedy has made experiments on the composition
    of volcanic products, and found, Silex, 51--Alumina, 19--Lime,
    9.5--Oxide of iron, 14.5--Soda, 4--Muriatic acid, 1--in 100
    parts.

    As it regards the extent of volcanic action and
    earthquakes, the two first theories agree best with actual
    appearances. They would lead us to conclude that volcanic
    action was necessarily more extensive in the earlier ages of
    the world than now. Because, every action would oxidize the
    crust of the earth deeper, and increase the superincumbent
    strata, and render the access of water and air more difficult.
    _This is found to be the fact by observation in different
    countries._

    In some parts of France, in which kingdom there is not,
    and has not been for the last two thousand years, any active
    volcano, _there are ranges of extinct volcanos, in which may
    be counted from seventy to one hundred craters_. They are so
    close their bases touch in many instances. The same fact is
    observed along the Rhine, and in Hungary, and other countries.
    _See Ure’s New Syst. Geol. and Bakewell’s Geology._

    Mr. Ure reckons up two hundred and five _active_
    volcanos at this time. One hundred and seven in islands, and
    ninety-eight on continents.

    It is very evident that the _seat_ of volcanic action is
    vastly below the surface of the earth. The _extent_ of country
    which is shaken by the effort of the gases to escape, will
    prove this. The agitations have been felt over all Europe, and
    even _across the Atlantic_!

    Again: If the action were not situated far below the
    surface of the earth, the mountains, which only serve as
    _chimnies_, and which have been formed by the action of the
    volcanos, _would sink in_. This has been the case in a few
    instances. This will appear more clearly if we consider
    the _amount_ of matter ejected. Did it not come from an
    immeasurable distance beneath, the accumulated mass at the
    surface of the earth would break down the _substrata_ which
    lie over the immense caverns formed by the ejection. The
    _dimensions_ of those caverns, situated under the volcanic
    mountains, are far greater than one would suppose at first
    consideration. _The internal caverns must be as large as the
    ejected masses, which came out of them._ Ætna is known to have
    thrown out matter sufficient to form twenty such mountains as
    it is. It is strongly probable that the whole island of Sicily
    is of volcanic origin. Humboldt says the dome-shaped craters
    of volcanos rise from six hundred to eighteen thousand feet in
    height. He considers the _whole mountainous district of Quito
    as one immense volcano_.

    Indeed, from a close survey of the geological features of
    the earth, there is reason to believe, that at very remote
    periods almost the whole surface of our globe has been the
    theatre of volcanic action. It is a matter of gratitude
    that its amount is growing less every year, of course the
    destructions by earthquakes are more limited. In process
    of time, it may be hoped, the earth may become permanently
    tranquil, nor flame, nor shake, until the final catastrophe,
    which God has ordained to destroy our planet, by a general and
    simultaneous action of all the fires of the earth.

    P.S. It may be of advantage to recollect, that the
    _expansive force of steam is to that of gunpowder as 140 to
    5_. According to Vauban, 140 pounds of water converted into
    vapor would produce an explosion capable of blowing up 77,000
    pounds, while 140 pounds of gunpowder could only blow up a mass
    of 30,000. _See the text under the head_, “SALUTARY EFFECTS OF
    WATER.”


    APPENDIX.

    _On the temperature of the earth anciently._

    That the temperature of the earth’s surface was much higher
    in the first ages of its existence, than since the period of
    authentic history, seems now to be nearly established, in the
    opinion of the learned, and only requires time to have the
    weight of evidence produce its proper effect on the great mass
    of community.

    Though this fact would be apprehended from what is said
    above, it may be desirable to the reader to see a concise view
    of the reasons which induce this opinion.

    1. _It may be inferred from the original constitution of
    the globe, and the chemical action consequent upon it._ It
    has been seen above that the _natural_ condition of matter
    is _cold_, _frozen_, _inactive_, and _solid_: and that the
    elements of this globe were created in a _simple, uncombined
    state_. If this mass of elements received a quickening impulse,
    the chemical laws of _affinity_ and _attraction_, and also the
    natural law of _gravitation_, would commence exerting their
    influence. This we know would create a rise in the temperature
    of the whole mass, in proportion to the _amount_ of matter
    acted on, and the _force_ of the different principles and
    agents which were in operation. Upon consideration of these
    points in regard to our earth, no one can doubt but that they
    would raise the temperature to an inconceivable height.

    _Refrigeration_ would commence at the surface as soon
    as the first violent action was abated, and the water and
    air began to assume their relative places, through which the
    heat would escape into celestial space. This refrigeration
    would be increased by the oxidation of the metals forming the
    crust of the earth, which would confine the interior heat
    more effectually, because, the earths are almost complete
    _non-conductors_ of caloric. Thus the crust of the earth would
    continue to cool, and the oxidation would thicken it, and, of
    course, contribute to the reduction of its temperature.

    From this natural process it is very evident that the earth
    was much warmer during its first periods; earthquakes, and
    volcanos much more common than now, and a general instability
    in the condition of our globe. The deluge was the climax of its
    alternations, and settled, in some measure, its constitution by
    a sudden and great reduction of temperature.

    2. _It may be inferred from the vast extent of volcanic
    action, as indicated by the remains of extinct volcanos, and
    their effects on the earth._ This argument is merely _called up
    here_, not to be discussed at length, but to be _referred_ to,
    as it has been mentioned in a preceding part of this paper.

    It is almost impossible for the ordinary reader, who has
    not closely studied the geological phenomena which present
    themselves to the close observer, to conceive of the extent
    to which volcanic action operated anciently. It would not be
    exaggeration to say, there was a remote period _when our globe
    was a single volcano_: the whole surface of it being subject to
    its action.

    Though we may ascribe something of the formation of hills
    and vallies to the action of water, yet, doubtless, the
    most effectual agent in upheaving the mountains, and even
    continents, possibly, was volcanic force.

    “Those ranges of volcanos,” says the celebrated Humboldt,
    “those eruptions through vast chasms, those subterranean
    thunders, that roll under the transition rocks of porphyry and
    slate in the new world, remind us of the present activity of
    subterranean fire, of the power, which in remote ages, _has
    raised up chains of mountains, broke the surface of the globe,
    and poured torrents of liquid earth in the midst of the most
    ancient strata_.”

    From this constant and extensive volcanic action we may
    safely infer the high temperature of our earth anciently.

    3. _It may be inferred from the origin of primitive,
    trapean, and basaltic rocks._ The primitive rocks, as granite,
    gneiss, mica slate, &c, give evidence on this consideration;
    they must have been deposited when their substance was in
    solution, admitting of _chemical mobility_, in order that they
    might assume a crystalline form which they are known to have.

    It is not easy to conceive _how_ the substances of the
    primitive rocks could be solved, except by _heat_, as a
    _principal solvent_. The acids, and water also, may have
    contributed to their solution, but would not be competent of
    themselves. This consideration would give a high temperature
    for the earth anciently.

    It is now generally admitted that the trap, and basaltic
    rocks are of _igneous_ origin. When we consider the _magnitude_
    of the trap and basalt formations, the extent of surface which
    they cover, the hills, and even elevated and lofty mountains
    which they form, we shall not hesitate to assign a higher
    temperature to our earth at the period when fires, so immense
    as to effect the upheaving and ejection of all these, actually
    burned in the bowels of the earth.

    4. _It may be inferred from the well preserved remains of
    vegetables and animals of warm equatorial climates, in high
    northern latitudes where they have not been found since the
    memory of man._ This is a conclusive argument if its _data_
    be well established. Because, if _tropical_ and _equatorial_
    animals and fruits are _now_ found buried and fossilized
    in Siberia, and the islands of the _arctic sea_, in such a
    state of preservation as to forbid the supposition they were
    transported thither, it will follow inevitably, that they _grew
    there_, and there flourished, died, and were buried.

    Moreover, if _herbivorous_ animals are found fossilized
    in those high northern latitudes, under such circumstances as
    forbid the supposition, that they were transported thither, it
    will doubtless, follow, that not only _they_ lived there, but
    also _luxuriant vegetation_ must at the same time have covered
    the plains where their remains are entombed.

    The inference which we are forced to draw from these
    _data_, is this: _As no such tropical and equatorial animals or
    plants have been known to exist there, nor even herbage of any
    kind, on which such animals might subsist, since the memory of
    man, there was a time anciently when the climate suited their
    growth, and of course was very much warmer than it is known to
    be now, its temperature then corresponding to the temperature
    of the present equatorial regions, as it produced and subsisted
    anciently the animals and plants which the tropical regions
    produce and subsist at the present time, and which cannot
    subsist in any other climates._

    In proof of the above position, it is well known that
    animals and plants have their peculiar climates, in which they
    are _indigenous_, and out of which they cannot thrive, or even
    live, if too far removed. It is also well known, that the
    warmer, and more moist the climate is, the more luxuriant the
    vegetation, and the more huge the animals.

    Hence we are in the habit of denominating animals and
    plants by the climates in which they are indigenous, as
    _arctic_, or northern; _tropical_, or southern. Let us now see
    if the tropical animals and plants once lived and flourished in
    high northern latitudes. The best authorities follow.

    “We proceed now to examine the remains of quadrupeds:
    _these are found accumulated in regions where similar animals
    do not_ NOW _exist_. Some are buried deep in gypsum.--Some
    present themselves to view, accumulated in vast caverns, and
    destitute of any envelope. The islands of Lachof, situated
    to the NORTH _of Siberia_, are, according to a modern
    traveller, _only heaps of sand, ice, and bones of elephants and
    rhinoceros_, mixed with those of great cetaceous animals, and
    even, agreeably to the latest accounts, with the remains of
    gigantic birds.

    “There have been found in _Siberia, whole carcases of the
    elephant, covered with their_ FLESH and SKIN, preserved by the
    frosts which prevail in those regions.--Germany has furnished
    the greatest number (of bones:)--In France a great many bones
    of the elephant have been met with.

    “These discoveries, though as yet scarcely commenced, have
    thrown already _a new light upon the revolutions which our
    globe must have undergone, and upon the_ STATES WHICH MUST HAVE
    PRECEDED THE PRESENT COURSE AND CONSTITUTION OF NATURE.

    “These bones, presenting no trace of having been rolled
    up and down, occurring only fractured as we find those of
    our domestic animals, and sometimes joined together in the
    form of skeletons, often even as it were heaped up in common
    cemeteries, clearly demonstrate, _that the catastrophe which
    has destroyed the living beings to which they belonged must
    have overtaken them in the_ SAME CLIMATES WHERE WE MEET WITH
    THESE RECORDS OF THEIR FORMER EXISTENCE.

    “The quantity of nourishment which such huge animated
    masses required, and their numbers, proved by the existence of
    the carnivorous kinds, _render it probable that the countries
    where we find their remains_ ONCE _enjoyed a temperature, if
    not warmer, at least more favorable to vegetation_.” MALTE
    BRUN, _Physical Geography, Book 12_.

    In the above quotations, the data on which our argument
    rests are so clearly sustained there needs no comment. The
    authority given is unquestionable, and could be corroborated by
    scores of weighty names, and in reference to all the _northern_
    countries of Asia, Europe, and America.

    It is impossible to read the above extracts without being
    convinced that those tropical and equatorial animals lived,
    flourished, and died _where_ their remains are _now_ found. And
    it is equally impossible to avoid another conclusion; viz: that
    there must have been a heavy vegetation on those plains, where
    _now_ the rein-deer can scarcely pick up a blade of grass.

    From these convictions no other inference can be drawn, but
    that the temperature of the _frigid zones_, was anciently much
    higher than at present; and of course the general temperature
    of the earth also.

    From the perfect preservation of these fossil remains; from
    the fact that they are found in their relative position, bone
    to bone, and, in some instances, with their _hair_, _skin_,
    and _flesh undecayed_, it is obvious, _the animals must have
    perished by a catastrophe which overwhelmed them suddenly, and
    was, instantaneously followed by a freezing of the overwhelming
    waters_. Such was the catastrophe of the _scripture deluge_,
    which _physically_ was competent to perform the phenomena, as
    shall be shown presently.

    Let us now see if we do not arrive at the same conclusion
    by examining the _fossil_ VEGETABLES.

    At Portland, England, the Rev. Dr. Buckland finds fossil
    plants _akin to the cycas family of Malabar_, from which he
    concludes, “it is probable that the climate of these regions,
    _at the time when the oolites_ (a series of rocky strata) _were
    deposited, was of the same warm temperature with that_ (the
    tropical) _which produces a large proportion of the existing
    cycadeæ_.” URE, _New Syst. Geol._ p. 433.

    “The remarkable development of these vegetables
    (equisetums) during the first (or coal measure) period of
    vegetation, and their size in the second (or oolitic) period,
    _smaller_ than before, but still far greater than our existing
    equisetums, accord with many other facts, furnished by fossil
    vegetables of many other families, to lead us to regard the
    _climate of the earth, at these remote epochs, to have been
    hotter than the hottest of modern climates_.” _Ibid_, p. 443.

    “There is no doubt, however, that _palms with fan-shaped
    leaves covered Europe with their lofty vegetation at this
    remote period, in regions where no species of these plants
    could_ NOW _grow_!” _Ibid_, p. 452.

    The palm is well known to be a _tropical_ plant, and cannot
    thrive, except in a warm climate. The climate of Europe, when
    it grew in the north, must have been tropical. Indeed, in
    all parts of northern Europe _tropical flowers_, _leaves_,
    and _fruits_ are found in such a state of preservation as to
    convince the most incredulous, _that they must have grown
    on the spot_; which would be to convince him of the high
    temperature, anciently, of those regions.

    “Professor Kounizin describes in the Isis for 1821, immense
    beds of fossil wood in several localities of the governments
    of Novogorod and Twer in the _north_ of Russia, _where no such
    trees are now found to grow_.

    “Near Constand on the river Necker, M. Autenrieth found an
    entire forest of the trunks of _palm trees_, buried along with
    the remains of elephants.” _Ure, Ibid_, p. 455.

    “The fossil shells found in the strata of England, and
    France, and the contiguous countries, having for the most part,
    no _antitypes alive except in equatorial regions_, harmonize
    with the preceding details.” _Ibid_, p. 456.

    To the above testimony might be added the _caves_ in
    Germany, England, and France, in which great quantities of
    bones are found in such a state of preservation, and under such
    circumstances as to show that the animals whose bones are found
    were in the habit of frequenting these caves, and perished
    in them suddenly, as their remains are found mixed with sand
    and gravel, _but not water-worn_. Of these bones, the great
    majority are those of the hyæna; hence these dens, specially in
    England, are called _hyæna dens_. In them are also found the
    bones of other animals _gnawed_ by the hyænas.

    From these facts there can be no doubt but the hyæna
    inhabited England, France, and Germany, and dwelt in these
    caves, and here perished when the sudden catastrophe of the
    flood overtook him. This argues beyond doubt that these
    countries were once _warm_, _when these tropical animals lived
    in them_.

    5. _The same fact may be inferred from the immense amount
    of vegetable matter which was necessary to supply the materials
    for the coal measures._ This is an irresistible argument in
    view of the _immense amount_ of coal in the bowels of the
    earth, which must be of _vegetable origin_. Because at the
    ratio of vegetable product of _our age_, the earth would not
    produce a sufficient amount to form the coalbeds, short of
    millions of years.

    The _vegetative power_ of the earth, therefore, must have
    been anciently very much greater than at present, which could
    only be on the supposition of a _warmer_ and more moist climate.

    Moreover, the fact that tropical plants are known to have
    contributed almost entirely to the formation of coal measures
    in the _northern latitudes_, is proof direct. This is clear
    from the fact that their roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and
    fruits are found impressed on the coal, in such a manner that
    there can be no mistake; and the _perfection_ of the impression
    forbids the supposition that they were _transported_ thither
    from tropical climates.

    “Brown coal and black coal, the former sometimes called
    wood coal, is found chiefly in diluvial or alluvial ground.
    It contains, besides charcoal and bitumen, _various vegetable
    principles, and the branches or trunks of trees_ partially
    decomposed, _which mark the origin of this kind of coal_.”
    _Bakewell’s Geology_, p. 111.

    “Wood coal, or brown coal, is found in low situations
    and appears to have been _formed of heaps of trees_ buried
    by inundations under beds of clay, sand, or gravel.--In some
    specimens of this coal the _vegetable fibre, or grain_, is
    perceptible in one part, and the other part is reduced to
    coal.” _Ibid_, p. 121.

    “In wood coal we may almost seize nature in the fact of
    making coal, before the process is completed. These formations
    of coal are of far more recent date than that of common coal,
    though their origin must be referred to a former condition
    of our globe, _when the vegetable productions of tropical
    climates flourished in northern latitudes_. The _vegetable
    origin_ of common mineral coal appears to be established by its
    association with strata _abounding in vegetable impressions_,
    by its close similarity to wood coal, (which is undoubtedly a
    _vegetable product_) and lastly by the decisive fact, that some
    mineral coal in the Dudley coal-field is _entirely composed of
    the layers of mineralized plants_.” _Ibid_, p. 122.

    “When we see the multitude of reeds filled and surrounded
    with sandstone, having their thin scaly bark _converted into
    a true coal_, it is _impossible to doubt of its vegetable
    origin_.” _Ure’s New System Geol._ p. 166.

    Quotations from the best authorities might be multiplied
    to the same effect, but it is deemed unnecessary. It remains
    to repeat the question, _Could such an amount of vegetable
    matter have been accumulated, short of millions of years, at
    the ratio of the present vegetative powers of the earth?_ It is
    impossible. The only remaining conclusion is, the vegetative
    power of the earth anciently was much greater than at present,
    which could not have been except its temperature was much
    higher also.

    In conclusion on this question, it is necessary to say,
    that the reduction of the earth’s temperature would be gradual,
    in a natural way, by the heat flying off into celestial spaces,
    until the crust became so thick and compact as to prove a
    perfect non-conductor of caloric. Then the surface of the earth
    would depend on the heating power of the sun altogether.
    The thickening of the crust of the earth would be attended
    with earthquakes, volcanos, and partial deluges, the natural
    and necessary results of the oxidations of the metals. Hence
    we would have different strata of rocks, sand, gravel, &c,
    deposited at different times, and over different sections of
    the country. Hence also forests would be overthrown, and the
    vegetation of years be thrown together in the nearest lakes
    or seas; which explains the origin of _coal-basins_. This
    state of things also well explains the alternations of strata
    of different kinds, as sand, gravel, chalk, fresh and salt
    water deposites, &c, as well as the dislocations, fractures,
    contortions, and confusions observable in the structure of the
    earth’s crust.

    There are however various phenomena which indicate
    clearly that there was _a general and sudden reduction of
    temperature_. The state of preservation, in which those animals
    in Siberia are found, proves this. The vestigia of the _last_
    great revolution in our globe clearly indicate the DELUGE
    to have been the cause of this general and sudden reduction
    of temperature. This would be the natural consequence of
    _submerging_ the earth in water: and the suddenness of the
    event is well attested both by the scriptures, and the physical
    history of our earth.

    The action of the deluge does not come within the
    contemplation of this volume, and therefore will not be noticed
    here.]

The air is another storehouse of fire. When lucid igneous particles
are strongly attracted to one another in great quantities, their heat
becomes intolerable, and is capable of destroying the most solid
bodies. It is well known, that when converged in the focus of one of
Hartsocker’s burning-glasses, they will produce wonderful effects: tin,
lead, or any soft metal, will dissolve at the first touch; and iron,
which requires a very strong fire for liquefaction, will melt before
one of these glasses almost as soon as applied. They will consume
wood, though wet, in a moment; vitrify bricks and pumice stones, and
dissolve earthen vessels full of water; and plume-allum, which will
resist the fire of the hottest glass-houses, without alteration, is
instantly melted. Even gold, that resists the force of common fire, is
soon liquefied by their powerful agency. This plainly shows us that,
provided there were not a wise and almighty Providence, superintending
all his works, those materials which are of the greatest utility to the
harmony and order of things, would have a direct tendency to destroy
the whole. If lucid igneous particles were to form solid bodies, and
depart from their state of fluidity, they would, in an instant, reduce
this globe to ashes, or render it liquid fire. Were they all of one
kind, it is probable they might unite in solid bodies; but the wisdom
of Providence has formed them of various colors, and of different
reflections and refrangibility. This prevents them from associating in
such a manner as to do harm, which can only be produced by converging
them with some instrument which prevents their flying off. As all
these have not the same degree of reflexibility and refrangibility, but
as some are capable of greater reflections and refractions than others,
they cannot, without force, be united in one solid body, yet they are
all serviceable for important purposes, contributing to the happiness
of man, and the welfare of all living creatures.

Considering the extent of fire, and that its property is, when put into
motion, to consume all combustible substances within its reach, it is
astonishing that the world has not long since been destroyed! This
terrible element is at present restrained and directed by its almighty
Creator; but divine revelation informs us, that a period will arrive
when its utmost energies shall be called into action. The apostle Peter
asserts, that “the heavens and earth, which are now, by the same word
are kept in store, reserved unto fire against the day of judgment and
perdition of ungodly men;--in the which the heavens shall pass away
with a great noise, and the elements shall melt with fervent heat; the
earth also, and the works that are therein shall be burnt up.” Again
he says, “looking for and hasting unto the coming of the day of God,
wherein the heavens being on fire shall be dissolved, and the elements
shall melt with fervent heat.” The _passing away of the heavens_
means the same as their being _dissolved by fire_. The word Ῥοιζηδὸν
signifies with a _very loud_ and _terrible noise_: with a sound
resembling that of a great _storm_. In this place it more particularly
denotes the horrid crackling noise of a wide-spreading fire.

    “The cloud-capp’d towers, the gorgeous palaces,
    The solemn temples, the great globe itself
    Yea, all which it inherit, shall _dissolve_;
    And, like the baseless fabric of a vision,
    Leave not a wreck behind.”

The word rendered _melt_, is a metaphor taken from _metals_,
dissolving in the fire, or _wax_ before the flame; so will the fierce
and spreading fire of the last day _melt down_ this globe, and its
surrounding atmosphere.[36] That the world was to be dissolved by fire
was the opinion of Anaximander, Anaxiphanes, Anaxagoras, Archelaus,
Diogenes, and Leucippus.[37] The inference which the apostle deduces
from this view of the general and final conflagration of the world,
is highly impressive. “Seeing then that all these things shall
be dissolved, what manner of persons ought ye to be in all holy
conversation and godliness.”

       *       *       *       *       *


_Section_ III.--LIGHT.

    Motion of luminous and fiery particles the first cause
    of light -- Light the most simple body --Velocity of light
    -- Light diffusive -- Light the medium through which objects
    become visible -- Light beautiful, or its rays of different
    colors -- Light a visible resemblance of its Divine Author,
    in his spirituality, simplicity, purity, energy, goodness,
    manifestation, glory.


Moses, in the original word אור _aur_, seems plainly to hint at the
operation of a principle in the universe which, as a second cause,
produced the phenomenon of _light_. This, most probably, was the motion
of the luminous and fiery particles in the chaotic mass which, at the
Divine command, separated themselves from the other gross materials of
the miscellaneous composition, and by an attractive sympathy associated
in one body.

It is conjectured, that light was at first impressed on some part of
the heavens, or collected in some lucid body. Dr. Wall says, Though the
sun was not yet formed into a compact body, yet the most subtile and
active particles had already begun to fly together to the centre of the
solar system, which gave some light; though probably not so great as
when afterward they made the compact body of the sun. And the earth,
which was then only a round lump of mud, or muddy salt-water, being
turned, as it has been ever since, upon its own axis, receiving that
light on its several hemispheres successively, made night and day, or
evening and morning. Milton gives his opinion in the following lines:

    “Let there be light! said GOD; and forthwith light
    Ethereal, first of things, quintessence pure,
    Sprung from the deep; and from her native east
    To journey through the aery gloom began,
    Spher’d in a radiant cloud; (for yet the sun
    Was not;) she in a cloudy tabernacle
    Sojourn’d the while.”

Light, after a short progression, concentrated in the sun, the common
centre of our system; the various parts of this system, by his central
light or fire, are balanced, and, by mutual attraction, move in the
expanse, according to fixed laws, or determined distances.[38]

Light was once considered to be a property or quality of matter only;
but more recently it has been discovered to be a _body_, a very subtile
fluid, consisting of minute particles. We have no certain knowledge of
its nature; though a collection of its rays make other things visible,
yet its constituent parts themselves are most exquisitely small, and
quite imperceptible; and therefore it approaches the nearest to the
nature of spirit.[39]

Of all material bodies, light is the most _simple_. Most others are
compounded of several parts, not only of different, but sometimes of
contrary natures: but light is an unmixed body. It is also a most
pure matter; It has no defilement in itself, neither is it capable
of contracting pollution from other objects. When it shines upon a
dunghill or sepulchre, which sends forth the most offensive effluvia,
it still remains uncontaminated.

    [The author is undoubtedly mistaken when he considers light
    “of all material bodies--the most simple,” and “an unmixed
    body.”

    It is well known that a beam, or pencil, of light, as
    emitted from the sun, is _not_ a simple body, but is capable of
    being divided into seven prismatic colors. The image which is
    formed by the refraction of the pencil, by means of a prism, is
    called a _Spectrum_, and clearly exhibits the compound nature
    of light. The refracted rays of the Spectrum may be collected
    and made to constitute a pencil of light again, which will be
    white, or colorless as before.

    If this prismatic Spectrum be examined closely, it will
    be found that the different colored rays differ very much
    in their _heating_, _illuminating_, and _chemical_ powers.
    Dr. Herschell, and other experimenters, have found that the
    _orange_ rays possess a greater illuminating power than the
    red; and the _yellow_ more than the orange: but the _maximums_
    of illumination lies in the _brightest yellow_ or _palest
    green_.

    There is also a very sensible difference in the _heating_
    power of these colored rays. By passing the bulb of a
    delicate air thermometer through the different colored rays,
    it indicates the greatest heat in the _red_ rays; next in
    the _green_, and so on diminishing to the _violet_. But
    the maximum of heat has been ascertained to be immediately
    _beyond_ the red rays, and of course _out_ of the Spectrum,
    in an _unilluminated_ spot: thus indicating that there are
    _invisible_ rays possessing a greater heating power than any of
    the seven colored rays. These are called _calorific rays_.

    By the experiments of Ritter and Wallaston it is now
    satisfactorily ascertained that there are also _chemical rays
    which excite neither heat nor light_, and lie on the _other
    side_ of the Spectrum from the invisible calorific rays, just
    without the violet. It is true, the chemical effect can be
    distinguished even to the green rays, but this seems to be by
    _diffusion_, or a species of sympathy. The sensible chemical
    power is exerted just without the violet rays.

    This fact is established more clearly by Berard. He
    concentrated, by a lens, all the portion of the Spectrum from
    the green to the red rays, and made them act on muriate of
    silver _two hours_ without effect. He then concentrated all
    the portion of the Spectrum from the green to the violet rays,
    and made them act on muriate of silver, and _they blackened it
    in less than six minutes_. Thus, evidently, are detected very
    different properties in the different portions of the prismatic
    Spectrum.

    Instead, therefore, of light being a “simple substance,”
    and “unmixed” it is found to be decidedly _compound_. It is
    capable of being divided into seven differently colored rays,
    and these rays, according to their natural properties, into
    three classes: the _illuminating_ rays, _calorific_ rays, and
    _chemical_ rays.]

The rays of light always proceed in _straight lines_, unless diverted
by some intervening body. They are subject to the laws of attraction
like other small bodies. If a stream of light be admitted through a
small hole into a dark room, and the edge of a knife be applied, it
will be diverted from its natural course, and _inflected_ towards it.
When the rays of light are thrown back by any opposing body, they are
said to be _reflected_. When in passing from one medium to another,
they are inflected or diverted from their rectilineal course, they
are said to be _refracted_; and this property of light is called its
_refrangibility_. Refraction arises from this, that the rays are more
attracted by a dense, than by a rare medium.

The _velocity_ of light is prodigious, and almost incredible; it moves
at the rate of near 200,000 miles in _a second_ of time! Roemer, a
Danish philosopher, was the first who found the means of determining
the velocity of light, by the difference of time in the eclipses
of Jupiter’s satellites, when the earth was on the same, or on the
contrary side of the sun, with that planet. This point may be easily
proved; for when the earth is between the sun and this planet, those
eclipses will happen about 8¼ minutes sooner, than according to the
tables; but when the earth is in the contrary position, the eclipses
happen about 8¼ minutes later than they are predicted by the tables.
Hence, therefore, light takes up about 8¼ minutes in passing from the
sun to the earth, a distance of 95,513,794 miles; and it takes about
16½ minutes of time to go through a space equal to the diameter of the
earth’s orbit, which is at least 190 millions of miles in length; which
is near a million of miles swifter than the motion of a cannon-ball,
which flies with the velocity of about a mile in eight seconds.[40]
In comparing this velocity of light with that of a cannon-ball, it
has been observed, that light passes through a space in about eight
minutes, which a cannon-ball with its ordinary velocity, could not
traverse in less than thirty-two years! The velocity of sound bears a
very small proportion to that of light. Light travels, in the space of
eight minutes, a distance in which sound could not be communicated in
seventeen years; and even our senses may convince us, if we attend to
the explosion of gunpowder, &c, of the almost infinite velocity of the
one compared with that of the other.[41] Were the propagation of the
rays of light less rapid, the darkness would be very slowly dissipated,
and great inconveniences would result to the inhabitants of the earth.

The _divisibility_ of the parts of matter is no where more apparent
than in the minuteness of the particles of light. The unobstructed rays
of light which proceed from a candle, will, almost instantaneously,
fill a space of two miles; and it has been computed, says Dr. O.
Gregory, that there fly out of the end of the flame of a burning
candle, in a second of time, ten thousand millions of times more such
particles than there are visible grains of sand in the whole earth.
Dr. Nieuwentyt has computed, that an inch of candle, when converted to
light, becomes divided into 269,617,040 parts, with 40 ciphers annexed;
at which rate there must issue out of it, when burning, 418,660, with
39 ciphers more, particles in the second of a minute; vastly more than
a thousand times a thousand million of times the number of sands the
whole earth can contain; reckoning ten inches to one foot, and that 100
sands are equal to one inch.[42] As sound is propagated only at the
rate of 1,142 feet in a second, a particle of light must be 786,000
times more subtile than a particle of air. If the particles of light
were not extremely small, their velocity would be highly destructive.
Indeed, were they equal in bulk to the two millionth part of a grain of
sand, this impulse would not be less than sand shot from the mouth of a
cannon. If the particles of light had more density, they would not only
dazzle us by their splendor, but injure us by their heat.

There is no creature of God that _diffuses_ itself, and whose influence
reaches so far and wide, and fills so large a vacuum, as light. All
that inconceivable space between this globe and the fixed stars, a
distance which numbers cannot reach, is replete with light. Nay, the
space in which it is diffused is not less than the universe itself; the
immensity of which exceeds the conception of human understanding. It is
from this almost unlimited diffusion of light that the very remotest of
the heavenly bodies in the solar system become discernible, either by
the naked eye or by telescopes. And had we instruments that could carry
our sight as far as the light is extended, we should discover those
bodies which are placed at the very extremity of the universe.[43]

Light is the _medium_ through which objects become _visible_ to us.
It is owing to it, that we are enabled to behold and contemplate the
wonderful works of the great Creator; to discover unexplored systems
in the trackless regions of unbounded space, to imbibe knowledge from
things created, to hold intercourse with each other, to steer the
hollow bark to distant climes, and to investigate the records of all
science. Without its aid, the world would have been an inhospitable
wilderness, involved in sable shades of perpetual night. “Truly the
light is sweet, and a pleasant thing it is for the eyes to behold it.”

Light _beautifies_ every delightful object which comes within the reach
of its rays.

            “Nature’s resplendent robe!
    Without whose vesting beauty all were wrapt
    In unessential gloom.”

All colors are rays of light differently reflected. The cause of their
diversity was first rationally accounted for by Sir Isaac Newton. He
has shown that color is not a specific property of bodies, but is
caused by the different rays of light being reflected from the surface
of the body; the rest of the rays passing into or through the body. He
discovered that in the rays of light are all the colors in nature; and
the primary colors he considered to be seven in number, namely, red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet; and that bodies appear
of different colors, as they have the property of reflecting some rays
more powerfully than others. These colors are poetically enumerated by
Thomson.

                “First the flaming _red_
    Sprung vivid forth; the tawny _orange_ next;
    And next delicious _yellow_; by whose side
    Fell the kind beams of all-refreshing _green_:
    Then the pure _blue_, that swells autumnal skies,
    Ethereal play’d; and then, of sadder hue,
    Emerg’d the deepen’d _indigo_, as when
    The heavy-skirted evening droops with frost;
    While the last gleamings of refracted light
    Dy’d in the fainting _violet_ away.”

Since the time of this justly celebrated philosopher, it has been
objected, that the seven colors above mentioned are not primitive.
It seems very obvious that there can be only three primitive colors,
namely, red, yellow, and blue; since all the colors can be made by
means of these. It has lately been advanced by Prieur, that the
primitive colors are violet, green, and red; that the yellow is formed
with red and green, the latter being in excess; and that when the red
is in excess, they form orange; the green and violet form blue. The
colors excited by the different refrangible rays do not appear to
determine what are the primitive colors, since we find that different
rays are capable of producing the same color, as a mixture of the
yellow with the red produces orange. And it must be admitted, that the
violet rays excite, in some degree, the idea of red along with the
blue; as in the green, the yellow and blue may be discerned, but none
of the red. When the different colored rays are mixed together, either
by recomposition, or by getting each color by a separate Spectrum, the
result will be white light. Hence Sir Isaac Newton concluded, that
when the rays are promiscuously reflected from any surface it will
appear white. He also found, and the discovery has since been confirmed
by the experiments of Dr. Herschell, that the different colored rays
have not by any means the same illuminating power. The violet rays
appear to have the least luminous effect, the indigo more, the blue a
little more, the green very great, between the green and the yellow the
greatest of all, the yellow the same as the green, and the red less
than the yellow.[44] From experiments it is found, that those rays of
light are of the largest quantity that paint the brightest colors;
and of all these, the red rays have the least refrangibility. Without
light vegetables would have no color, but would appear white; this has
been remarkably illustrated by Professor Robison. Some bodies absorb
one colored ray, others another, while they reflect the rest. This is
the cause of color in bodies. A red body, for instance, reflects the
red rays and absorbs the rest. A white body reflects all the rays, and
absorbs none; while a black body, on the contrary, absorbs all the
rays, and reflects none:[45] this shows, that black colored apparel is
very improper during the heat of summer, or in tropical climates.

    [There is one difficulty scarcely mentioned, and surely
    not accounted for, in the preceding chapter: i.e. _How are we
    to reconcile the creation of light on the first day, and the
    creation of the sun not until the fourth?_

    This has been a standing proposition since the revival
    of learning. There can be no doubt but the account of the
    creation, arrangement and nature of the world, as given
    by Moses, is correct; and would so appear to the most
    philosophically scientific, could we ascertain certainly
    the meaning of the sacred historian, and did we understand
    perfectly the phenomena of nature.

    It is reasonable to suppose that the discoveries in natural
    philosophy would tend to influence the explanations of Moses’
    account. This is the fact. These discoveries have produced two
    theories in regard to light: The _vibratory_, or Cartesian; and
    the _corpuscular_, or Newtonian.

    The Newtonian theory supposes the sun to be the original
    and principal source of light; and that light is emitted
    from the sun’s surface in inconceivably small _corpuscles_,
    in such rapid succession, and in straight lines, as to seem
    a continuous ray, though, in reality, the particles are a
    thousand miles apart in their approach to the earth.

    This is the most popular of modern theories, and the only
    one, as I recollect, employed by commentators in illustrating
    the account of Moses; or rather in solving the difficulty by
    reconciling this theory with his account.

    Some have supposed the sun was created long before, our
    earth, and that his beams took effect on our earth, as now, on
    the fourth day from his creation. Others have supposed that
    the sun and earth were created _simultaneously_, but that the
    sun’s beams did not fully penetrate our atmosphere, so as to
    make himself distinctly visible as now, until the fourth day.
    In both these cases it is supposed that the words of Moses,
    in regard to the creation of the sun on the fourth day, are
    to be interpreted of his _appearance_, and _influence_ on the
    earth, by dispensing light. But this does not account for the
    _existence_ of light _from the first to the fourth day_. This
    is an insuperable objection here.

    Finding the foregoing theories pressed with this
    insurmountable difficulty, other commentators have supposed,
    Light was a real substance, created _simultaneously_, and in
    conjunction with the original chaotic mass of our earth; and
    when God said “Let there be light, and there was light,” He,
    by his divine power, caused the chaotic light to separate
    itself from the earth, and, departing, _to condense_ in the
    body of the sun; or, as some would probably say, in view of Dr.
    Herschell’s solar discoveries, in the phosphoric clouds which
    surround the real body of the sun. In this case, if the light
    concentrated in the body of the sun, then that luminary must be
    a body of _condensed light_: if in the solar phosphoric clouds
    of Dr. Herschell, then those clouds would be _condensed light_.
    This body of condensed light is considered the source of our
    solar light, which flies off from it in the form of rays or
    beams.

    DR. URE, in his Chemical Dictionary, article LIGHT, takes
    this view. He says, “We learn from scripture, that light
    pre-existed before this luminary (the sun) and that its
    _subsequent condensation_ in his orb was a particular act of
    Almighty Power. The phosphorescence of minerals, buried since
    the origin of things in the bowels of the earth, coincides
    strictly with the Mosaic account of the creation. We shall
    therefore regard light as the first born element of chaos,
    as an independent essence, universally distributed through
    the mineral, vegetable, and animal world, capable of being
    disengaged from its latent state by various natural and
    artificial operations.”

    This theory, as I understand Dr. Ure’s view, has _two_
    advantages, and _three_ disadvantages. It accounts for the
    production of light on the _first_ day, as Moses says. It
    also accounts for the _artificial production_ of light by
    friction between bodies which have never been exposed to solar
    light, by combustion, compression, &c. For though it supposes
    light “subsequently condensed” in the sun, I presume it does
    not suppose _all_ the light thus transferred from the earth,
    and condensed: much of it is latent, and combined with other
    substances, from which it is evolved by friction, combustion,
    compression, &c.

    But this ingenious theory, which is mentioned by our
    author, and attributed to Dr. Wall, is pressed with _three_
    difficulties:

    1. It does not suppose the existence of the sun until the
    _fourth_ day, and of course no common centre of attraction to
    the earth and other planets. But it is impossible to conceive
    of the _safe existence_ of the planets _previous_ to the
    existence of their common center, which now regulates their
    order and motion. This is an insuperable difficulty, unless we
    resort to a “particular act of Almighty Power.”

    2. If the body of the sun be “condensed light,”
    _abstracted_ from the earth, the scene of its creation, then
    we must suppose that _a body more than a million times
    greater than the earth was drawn off from it_, which indeed
    would require an “act of Almighty Power,” and is utterly
    irreconcilable to the laws of attraction.

    3. This view also destroys the idea of the sun’s being
    an opake and habitable globe, unless we could conceive the
    inhabitants capable of dwelling in “condensed light;” which
    supposition is at variance with all our ideas of rational
    existence. Hence it robs the mind of the pleasing and almost
    intuitively correct idea of the sun’s being a habitable globe.

    These difficulties appeared so great that others, and
    particularly Dr. Adam Clarke, have offered a new mode of
    interpretation, founded on the Newtonian theory as improved by
    Dr. Herschell. Dr. Clarke supposes that _caloric_, or latent
    heat, was produced on the first day, when God said, “let there
    be light; and there was light.” In this case he considers that
    latent heat and latent light are, probably, the same: or that
    it is the same subtile substance diffused throughout creation,
    which is capable of producing heat and light, when properly
    excited.

    Yet, in his remarks on the sun, he embraces Dr. Herschell’s
    ideas of the sun’s real body being opake and habitable,
    surrounded by phosphoric clouds which are the source of our
    solar light. Of course the Doctor only transfers the source
    of light from the real body of the sun to these phosphoric
    clouds with which he is invested. Our solar light then comes by
    _impulsion_ from these clouds, and not from the sun’s real body.

    These clouds are supposed to give light to the _Solar_
    inhabitants also, the intensity of which is regulated by a
    stratum of clouds placed _below_ the _outer_ phosphoric clouds,
    and which defends the sun’s real body from too great degree of
    light.

    This is Dr. Herschell’s supposition, and seems to be pretty
    well established.

    This ingenious theory solves the difficulty under notice,
    by supposing that _caloric_, and not light, is intended in
    the third verse, where God said, “Let there be light.” And by
    supposing latent light, as well as latent heat, it seems to
    provide for the well known existence of light in combination
    with many, if not all, terrestrial substances; and yet it
    refers to the sun as the principal source of light, which
    according to this interpretation, was not necessary to the
    existence of the substance intended in the third verse--“Let
    there be light, and there was light.”

    This theory has another most excellent suggestion, viz:
    that the heat excited by the sun at the earth’s surface, is
    produced by the luminous rays of the sun combining with the
    caloric in the atmosphere, and other substances at the surface
    of the earth. This suggestion supposes a very close affinity,
    if not identity in the matter of light and heat.

    Although this explanation approaches much nearer a
    satisfactory solution of the difficulty in question, yet it is
    by no means unembarrassed.

    In the first place it is built upon a singular translation
    of a word. The text, according to this theory, should be, “And
    God said let there be _caloric_, and there was caloric.”
    This may be the text; but I cannot help thinking, that a bias
    to a system of philosophy, and a strong desire to _cut_ the
    difficulty rather than _solve_ it, suggested this translation.
    The text seems to have been so generally and uniformly
    understood of light, it would be difficult to alter it. It
    would be better to suspect a defect in our knowledge of the
    source and nature of light.

    Again: this view seems to suppose a _consecutive_ creation,
    which is at variance with a seemingly well settled opinion,
    in regard to the _Solar System_, and even at variance with
    Dr. Clarke’s own remarks on Gen. chap. i, v. 2. On this verse
    he says: “God seems at _first_ to have created the elementary
    principles of _all things_.”

    Finally: as his view is Newtonian, it is liable to all
    the objections to which that theory is liable: such as the
    _diminution_ which would take place at the source from whence
    the light came; and the _destructive force_ with which it would
    fall at the surface of the earth.

    These considerations, with others, have influenced many of
    the most learned and acute philosophers to look for another
    theory. Our own countryman, Dr. Franklin, felt them. He says,
    in a letter dated April 23, 1752, in reference to the theory,
    of light being _particles of matter driven off from the sun’s
    surface_; “Must not the smallest portion conceivable have, with
    such a motion, a force exceeding that of a twenty-four pounder
    discharged from a cannon? Must not the sun diminish exceedingly
    by such a waste of matter, and the planets, instead of drawing
    near to him, as some have feared, recede to greater distances,
    through the lessoned attraction? Yet these particles with this
    amazing motion, will not drive before them, or remove the
    least, and slightest dust they meet with, and the sun appears
    to continue of his ancient dimensions, and his attendants move
    in their ancient orbits.”

    He then supposes the phenomena of light may be more
    satisfactorily solved by supposing a subtle fluid, universally
    diffused, which is invisible _when at rest_, but _becomes
    visible when put in motion_, by affecting the nerves of the
    eye, as the vibrations of the air affect the ear, and produce
    the sensation of sound; and that the different degrees of
    intensity in the vibrations, will account for the different
    colors. _See Nicholson’s Encyclopedia_, LIGHT.

    This is the _vibratory_ or Cartesian system of light. As
    already suggested, it supposes the existence of a subtle,
    luminiferous ether, diffused throughout the universe, pervading
    every particle of matter, and is capable of being put in
    motion, so as to become visible, by the sun, as the grand
    natural _excitant_, friction, combustion, compression, &c.
    The _laws_ of the vibrations of this luminiferous fluid, are
    precisely the same with those ascertained, and determined, in
    regard to light as commonly understood. This luminiferous fluid
    is to be considered an elementary substance, and was created
    when the different substances composing the chaotic mass were
    created. At its first creation, like caloric, it was in a
    _latent_ state, as no excitant as yet had put it in motion.

    It is to be understood, therefore, that the substances of
    each planet in the _Solar System_, as well as the sun himself,
    were created _simultaneously_ in a chaotic state, at their
    proper relative distances from each other: that the requisite
    quantity of each elementary substance was present in each mass:
    but as caloric, and this luminiferous ether were _latent_,
    these masses were solid, frozen lumps; inactive and lifeless;
    and darkness necessarily prevailed. This then was the original
    condition of the elements of our Solar System, according to
    the scriptures. “And the earth was without form and void; and
    darkness was upon the face of the deep.” Gen. i, 2.

    In order, therefore, to produce a quickening in these
    masses, which rendered them _soft_, it was only necessary to
    call the latent caloric, and this luminiferous ether into
    action, which would agitate, and bring to light the whole
    mass, and thus commence the arrangement and organization of
    the Solar System. However, as there was no exciting cause
    _then_ in operation, it is evident the Almighty must have given
    the _first_ impulse to these elements. This he did, and the
    important fact is recorded by Moses in these words: “AND THE
    SPIRIT OF GOD MOVED UPON THE FACE OF THE GREAT DEEP,” Jehovah
    saying at the same time, “LET THERE BE LIGHT.”

    Here is the Mosaic account of the production of light,
    and possibly heat also, which took place on the _first_ day.
    The same process went on _simultaneously_ in the sun and
    planets, and the continued action cleared up their respective
    atmospheres, and the _sun_ became visible at the earth’s
    surface on the _fourth_ day. Hence, the sun was said to have
    been _made_ on the fourth day.

    This solution of the difficulty is consistent with the
    account of Moses; and also all the well ascertained phenomena
    of light can be satisfactorily explained by it. It will
    naturally lead the mind to observe the resemblance between the
    phenomena of light and heat, and impel us to the conclusion,
    that light, or vision, is the _effect_ of a material cause, as
    heat is of caloric: and it is natural to suppose this cause
    is in the same relation to light, that caloric is to heat. Of
    course we should conclude that light, or the luminiferous ether
    in a latent state, enters into combination with all substances,
    as does caloric; and at the same time a large proportion of it
    is _free_, or in motion, and of course sensible to the eye, as
    _free_ caloric is to the sense of feeling. Moreover we must
    conclude that this latent light is capable of being set free
    or evolved by the exciting influence of the sun, as also by
    friction, compression, combustion, chemical action, &c. It
    will be of advantage, therefore, to establish the fact of the
    existence of _latent_ light, in combination with terrestrial
    substances.

    That this is the fact may be proven by a single reflection
    on the process of _combustion_. It is a daily observation that
    light is produced by _burning_ bodies. Let us suppose these
    bodies burnt at midnight in a close room; still light will
    be given out copiously and constantly. _Whence_ this light?
    The natural and obvious answer is, it was in combination in
    a _latent state_ with the burning bodies, and by combustion
    it was set free, and thrown out, and thus put the surrounding
    luminiferous ether in motion.

    It is said by some, the light evolved in this case is not
    from the burning bodies, but from the oxygen which is supplied
    by the air to support the combustion. This does not alter the
    case at all: for then the light was in combination with the
    oxygen, and was invisible, being in a latent state, until it
    was set free from the oxygen by combustion.

    The same conclusion is obtained in the process of
    _compression_ and _expansion_. If atmospheric air, or oxygen
    be suddenly compressed in a glass syringe; or if a glass ball,
    filled with the latter, be suddenly broke _in vacuo_, a _flash
    of light_ is instantly perceived. In this case the light
    suddenly becomes visible, which was invisible before, being
    latent in combination with the air. (URE.)

    We arrive at the same conclusion in case of _friction_. It
    is well known that pieces of wood can be made to _blaze_ by
    rubbing them together. But it is not so well known, that two
    pieces of rock crystal, or quartz, taken from any depth in the
    earth, and which cannot be supposed to have ever been in the
    light of the sun, when rubbed quickly together, even _under
    water, will give out volumes of light_. _Whence_ this light?
    from the quartz doubtless. Of course it must have been in a
    latent state, and was set free by friction. Let it be strictly
    observed, the crystals _never were exposed to the light of the
    sun, of course could not have derived this light from that
    luminary_.

    We must come to the same conclusion, in regard to the light
    given out by _animal_ substances. Many _insects_ are known to
    have the power of evolving light, or putting the surrounding
    luminiferous ether in motion, which is the same. Putrescent
    animal matter has been observed to possess it, in some cases,
    in a very great degree; sufficiently to illuminate a room, or
    pantry, for hours together. In some instances the fingers of
    those who touched the luminous flesh, became luminous.

    This is eminently the case in regard to some fishes. A
    species of fish called PHOLAS, has the power of evolving a
    large quantity of light. This power is greater when the fish is
    sound and fresh. Pliny mentions this fish, and says it rendered
    the hands and clothes of persons luminous. When put in water,
    under proper circumstances, it renders the water luminous. But
    when put in milk, a single _pholas_ made seven ounces of it so
    luminous as to enable one to distinguish the faces of persons
    present. _Ency. Brit. Art._ LIGHT.

    The evolution of light from the sea in the night, is a fact
    of common observation, and is sometimes so great as to enable
    one to read large print on a ship’s deck. _Ency. Brit. Art._
    LIGHT.

    In all the above instances, and many more might be added,
    the light evolved, or, (which is the same thing in this
    investigation,) the luminiferous ether put in motion, must have
    been in a state of combination with the substances from which
    it was evolved. The only question which remains is this: _Was
    all this light transmitted from the sun, and become latent and
    combined at the earth’s surface by absorption?_

    It would certainly be hazardous to answer this question in
    the affirmative. For how could we account for the evolution of
    light from those bodies which have never been subject to the
    sun’s influence?

    Again: If all this light had been transmitted from the
    sun, it will inevitably follow, that there was a time when
    the quantity of light at the surface of the earth, and in
    combination with terrestrial bodies, _was very small_, and of
    course combustion, friction, and compression of bodies produced
    anciently a much smaller quantity of light than now; because
    there was a smaller quantity in combination.

    It is evident that this supposition would come to this
    conclusion: _The quantity of light, in combination at the
    earth’s surface, has increased in the same ratio as the
    increase of the duration of the influence of the sun on the
    earth: and, by consequence, the quantity of light produced by
    artificial means has increased in the same proportion._ Of
    course, fires and candles burn more brightly now than they did
    five thousand years since.

    Though this conclusion is legitimate from the foregoing
    supposition, yet it is at war with common sense, and the
    current observations of the world.

    We are therefore compelled to conclude that the MATTER _of
    light_ is diffused throughout the universe, as is caloric, and
    that it is evolved, or put in motion by the influence of the
    sun; as also by artificial and chemical means; as combustion,
    compression, friction, chemical action, &c.

    This conclusion is much strengthened by the fact, that the
    _existence of caloric_ is well ascertained, _not as proceeding
    from the sun_, but in combination with all terrestrial
    substances; and also by the fact of the constant _analogy_
    between the phenomena of light and heat. This analogy is so
    strong and striking that we are compelled to conclude, _if
    heat be the effect of a real substance, light must be also_.
    Indeed the analogy is so strong that it almost convinces us of
    the _identity_ of the matter of heat, light, electricity, and
    galvanism.

    Notwithstanding the amount of evidence is against this
    supposition at present, yet there is a strong tendency in
    recent philosophical experiments to confirm it; and I am
    inclined to believe that future discoveries will confirm this
    identity. Some of the most obvious evidences in favor of it may
    be introduced here.

    1. Almost all the celebrated authors and experimenters have
    occasionally _suggested_ the probability of this identity.
    Mr. Turner, Elements of Chemistry, p. 67, says, in reference
    to heat and light: “It has been supposed that _they are
    modifications of the_ SAME AGENT; and though most persons
    regard them as independent principles, yet they are certainly
    allied in a way which at present is inexplicable.” Again,
    p. 71. “Mr. Leslie conceives that light when absorbed, _is
    converted into heat_.” Dr. Henry (Art. Light,) says, “A new
    fact has been lately ascertained by Dr. Delaroche, which seems
    to point out _a close connection_ between heat and light,
    _and a gradual passage of the one into the other_. The rays
    of _invisible_ heat pass through glass with difficulty at a
    temperature below that of boiling water; but they traverse
    it with a facility always increasing with the temperature,
    as it approaches the point at which bodies become luminous.”
    “The general facts, says Sir H. Davy, of the refraction and
    effects of the solar beam, offer an analogy to the agencies
    of electricity.” (_Ure, Chemical Dictionary, Article Light._)
    It is well known that this view pressed itself strongly on
    the attention of Sir Isaac Newton, during his philosophical
    investigation. _See Ure, Chem. Dic. Art. Light._

    2. This identity is strongly suggested by the constant and
    striking analogy between the laws of heat and light.

    _First:_ The color of surfaces has an influence on the
    passage of light and heat.

    _Secondly:_ The power of light, heat, and electricity
    diminishes as the squares of their distances.

    _Thirdly:_ The particles of heat, light, and electricity,
    are _idio-repulsive_.

    _Fourthly:_ The passage of the electric spark is generally
    attended with the production of light and heat.

    _Fifthly:_ Heat is emitted in all directions from the
    surface of an ignited body: so is light from the surface of a
    burning body.

    _Sixthly:_ The laws of reflection are the same in light and
    heat.

    Other coincidences might be established, and other
    celebrated names added.

    If this identity should be established finally, it would
    not effect the doctrine of the foregoing pages in the least. It
    would only be necessary to say, the luminiferous fluid of this
    essay is the well established substance now called caloric.


    _Addenda on Light._

    1. It is now generally admitted that the real body
    of the sun is surrounded with a peculiar set of clouds,
    _phosphorescent_ in their nature. It is also allowed that these
    clouds do not emit heat. And as it is well known that no one of
    the _planets_ has such clouds, but receive their light from the
    sun, _it is extremely probable that these phosphorescent clouds
    are intended by the Creator, to be the great dispenser of light
    to the solar system, by operating as the exciting cause to put
    the luminiferous ether in motion throughout the solar system_.

    By a parity of reasoning, each centre of a system may be
    invested with similar clouds, which operate in the same way in
    reference to the planets which belong to it.

    2. If light were a real substance, _as commonly
    understood_, solar light must proceed from the sun by
    _impulsion_, and artificial light from burning bodies by
    _evolution_. Take the case of burning bodies. A single candle
    placed two miles above the surface of the earth in the air, and
    lighted up in that position, will _instantly illuminate a space
    of two miles in every direction from itself, or a spherical
    space four miles in diameter_. In this case a sufficient
    quantity of light is instantly evolved to fill this space,
    and the evolution continues as long as the candle burns. The
    question upon this fact is this: Can it be supposed that there
    is a sufficient quantity of light, in combination with a single
    candle, or the oxygen necessary to keep up its combustion, to
    fill a spherical space four miles in diameter for several hours
    together? This would indeed be almost incredible in view of the
    space filled by light evolved from a single candle.

    But this difficulty would be satisfactorily solved upon
    the supposition that light is the _effect_, produced by a
    luminiferous ether, universally diffused, and put in motion,
    by which it becomes visible, by the sun, burning bodies,
    &c. Because, the motion which renders the luminiferous
    ether visible, commences instantly upon the commencement of
    combustion, and is propagated from the point of combustion _in
    right lines_, under the appearance of rays of light: but the
    motion ceases instantly on the cessation of combustion, and of
    course darkness instantly ensues.]

After having attended to the production of _light_, and noticed some
of its properties, it is a paramount duty to contemplate its glorious
Author; especially as by this mysterious production he himself has
chosen to be represented. If creatures be excellent, what must be
the Creator? and to admire the former without adoring the latter,
would be profane and atheistical. “The Deity,” says Sir Isaac Newton,
“in infinite space, as in his own _sensorium_, has an intimate
perception of all things:” so we, possessing intellect, should “look
through nature up to nature’s GOD.” Then matter, however rarefied or
diversified, would serve as his minister to introduce us into his
presence. A pious ancient, on being asked by a profane philosopher, How
he could contemplate high things, since he had no books? answered, That
he had the whole world for his book, ready open at all times, and in
all places, and that he could therein read things heavenly and divine.
As the visible creation is the outward expression of the existence of
God, and displays several of his infinite perfections; so we should
study him in the works of nature, and trace him in the operation of his
hands.

The late excellent and pious Bishop Horne very beautifully
observes,--“When the angels beheld the dark and disordered state of
created nature upon its first production, they were, doubtless, thrown
into some perplexity to conceive how it should ever be made a means of
manifesting forth the glory of the Creator. But when they saw the light
spring up, at the Divine command, from that blackness of darkness, and
fix its residence in its tabernacle the sun, illuminating and adorning
the firmament of heaven with its glorious show, and the earth with its
beautiful furniture, all formed out of rudeness and confusion, then
they confessed that the difficulty of the work served only to display
the skill of the workmaster, which is proportionally estimated by the
unpromising nature of the materials.

In like manner, whoever views the chaos to which the infinite wisdom of
a presiding Providence sometimes permits the moral world to be reduced
by the prevailing power of the prince of darkness, and the agency of
his instruments, will scarce be able, at first, to discern any traces
of the Divine counsels in a mirror so sullied and clouded over by the
enormities of sinful men. Yet let him wait with patience for a little
season, and those clouds shall pass away; a light shall shine, and some
great end present itself to sight, so worthy of God, so beneficial to
man, that standing amazed at a power able to bring the greatest good
out of the greatest evil, he will be forced to cry out concerning the
economy of the spiritual system, as David did concerning the operations
of the natural--‘Oh Lord, how manifold are thy works! In wisdom hast
thou made them all.’”[46]

       *       *       *       *       *


_Section_ IV.--DAY AND NIGHT.

    Original terms of Day and Night -- Motion the effect of
    a Divine power -- Commencement of Time -- Utility of Day and
    Night -- Religious improvement of Time -- Sin moral darkness --
    The Gospel a Light to dispel it -- A Christian the subject of
    a transition from the one state to the other.

The separation of _light_ from the _darkness_, was the work of the
_first day_. This was an arrangement made by infinite Wisdom, as
well as a display of almighty power. When this took place, it is
highly probable that God gave to the earth its rotation upon its own
axis, to produce the necessary succession of _day_ and _night_. “The
word ערב _éreb_, which we translate _evening_, comes from the root
ערב _ârab_, to _mingle_, and properly signifies that state in which
neither absolute darkness, nor full light, prevails. It has nearly
the same grammatical signification with our _twilight_, the time that
elapses from the setting of the sun till he is eighteen degrees below
the horizon, and eighteen degrees before he arises. Thus we have the
morning and evening twilight, or _mixture_ of light and darkness, in
which neither prevails; because, while the sun is within eighteen
degrees of the horizon, either after his setting, or before his rising,
the atmosphere has power to refract the rays of light, and send them
back to the earth. The Hebrews extended the meaning of this term to the
whole duration of night, because it was ever a _mingled_ state; the
moon, the planets, or the stars, tempering the darkness with some rays
of light. From the _ereb_ of Moses came the Ερεβος _Erebus_ of Hesiod,
Aristophanes, and other heathens, which they _deified_, and made with
_nox_, or night, the parent of all things. The word בקר _boquer_,
which we translate _morning_, from בקר _boquar_, he _looked out_, is a
beautiful figure, which represents the morning as _looking out_ at the
east, and illuminating the whole of the upper hemisphere.”[47]

All bodies continue in a state of rest, till they are put into motion
by some external force impressed on them. Motion is the removal of a
body from one place to another, or a continual change of place.[48]
Any force acting on a body to move it, is called a _power_. The
_momentum_, or quantity of motion, is in proportion to the force
impressed. The heavier any body is, the greater is the power required
to move it.

There are but three possible ways of accounting for motion:--either
by supposing that there has been an infinite succession of impulses
communicated from one body to another from eternity, without any active
principle either in matter or without it: or, that there is an active
principle in matter that renders it self-active, and motion essential
to it: or, else, that there is a Being distinct from matter, and is the
cause of its motion.

An infinite succession of impulses, without an active or moving
principle, will never give birth to motion, because this would be to
produce an effect without the assistance of a cause. This absurdity
was asserted by Spinosa; yet when urged by his friends to explain how
matter could ever come into motion, if motion was neither essential to
matter, nor proceeded from any external cause, he always avoided giving
a direct answer. This conduct makes it reasonable to believe, that he
himself would have given up his account of motion, if he could have
saved his atheistical scheme and his reputation.

That motion is essential to all matter, and action as much an attribute
of matter, as extension or solidity; and, consequently, every atom of
matter is necessarily self-moving, or active from the necessity of its
own nature, is asserted by Toland. Though he thought fit to reject the
hypothesis of Spinosa as indefensible, yet he believed in the atheistic
notion, that motion is essential to matter, and thinks it will be
sufficient without troubling the Supreme Being. The reason which has
always determined mankind to look out for a cause of motion extrinsical
to matter, was this: though they could easily conceive it capable of
being moved and divided; yet the conceiving of it to be undivided, and
unmoved, was a more simple notion of matter, than the conceiving it
divided and moved. This being first in order of nature, and an adequate
conception of it too, they thought it necessary to inquire, how it
came out of this state, and by what causes motion, from whence this
diversity in matter arose, could come into the world?

Descartes, though he allowed the infinity of matter, as well as Toland,
was yet sensible that even this would not alter the nature of matter,
nor the idea that every person had of its inactivity, and therefore
could see no way of altering its primitive idea, and reconciling it
with the motion of matter, but by introducing an infinite Being, who
had sufficient power to rouse matter out of that sleepy state in which
its original idea had represented it.[49]

That such a circumstance exists, and what it is, a French author very
clearly states. He says, The universe is composed of matter, and, as a
system, is sustained by motion. Motion is not a property of matter,
and without this motion the solar system could not exist. Were motion a
property of matter, that undiscovered and undiscoverable thing, called
perpetual motion, would establish itself. It is because motion is not
a property of matter, that perpetual motion is an impossibility in
the hand of every being but that of the Creator of motion. When the
pretenders to atheism can produce perpetual motion, and not till then,
they may expect to be credited.

The natural state of matter, as to place, is a state of rest. Motion,
or change of place, is the effect of an external cause acting upon
matter. As to that faculty of matter called _gravitation_, it is the
influence which two or more bodies have reciprocally on each other to
unite and be at rest. Every thing which has hitherto been discovered
with respect to the motion of the planets in the system, relates only
to the laws by which motion acts, and not to the cause of motion.
Gravitation, so far from being the cause of motion to the planets that
compose the solar system, would be the destruction of the solar system,
were revolutionary motion to cease; for as the action of spinning
upholds a top, the revolutionary motion upholds the planets in their
orbits, and prevents them from gravitating and forming one mass with
the sun.

    “By ceaseless action all that is subsists;
    Constant rotation of the unwearied wheel
    That nature rides upon, maintains her health,
    Her beauty, her fertility. She dreads
    An instant’s pause, and lives but while she moves.
    Its own revolvency upholds the world.”

In one sense of the word, philosophy knows, and atheism says, that
matter is in perpetual motion. But the motion here meant refers to
the state of matter, and that only on the surface of the earth. It
is either decomposition, which is continually destroying the form of
the bodies of matter, or recomposition, which renews that matter in
the same or another form, as the decomposition of animal or vegetable
substances enter into the composition of other bodies. But the motion
that upholds the solar system is of an entirely different kind, and is
not a property of matter. It operates also to an entirely different
effect. It operates also to perpetual preservation, and to prevent any
change in the state of the system.

Giving then to matter all the properties which philosophy knows it
has, or all that atheism ascribes to it, and can prove, and even
supposing matter to be eternal, it will not account for the system
of the universe, or of the solar system, because it will not account
for motion, and it is motion that preserves it. When, therefore, we
discover a circumstance of such immense importance, that without it the
universe could not exist, and for which neither matter, nor any, nor
all, the properties of matter can account, we are by necessity forced
into the rational and comfortable belief of the existence of a cause
superior to matter, and that cause is GOD.

The motion of the earth, therefore, is an effect of Divine power,
because there is none other equal to it; and the constant operation of
the same cause is requisite to perpetuate its progress. How amazing
it is that this globe, so large in circumference, should move at all!
Plato attributes motion to the power of God, “How is it possible,” he
argues, “for so prodigious a mass to be carried round for so long a
time, by any natural cause? For which reason,” he says, “I assert God
to be the cause, and that it is impossible it should be otherwise.”[50]
“Every thing that is moved,” adds Aristotle, “must of necessity be
moved by some other thing; and that thing must be moved, either by
another, or not by another thing. If it be moved by that which is moved
by another, we must of necessity come to some Prime Mover that is not
moved by another. For it is impossible that what moves, and is moved by
another, shall proceed _ad infinitum_.”[51] Since motion then is not
a property of matter, but an effect produced by the power of a Divine
agent, what a constant display we have of this efficient energy, in
moving this earth, and with such a surprising, swiftness! Surely all
men should fear and reverence a Being, who possesses and exercises
such a power! He who created all things out of nothing, could, if he
pleased, extinguish the light, and shake the solid earth into atoms!

When the ponderous wheel of nature first began to move, _time_,
consisting of days, months, years, and ages, and measured by the
duration and revolutions of the heavenly bodies, commenced.

    _Time_ (in eternity parenthesis)
    Is measur’d by successive days and months,
    Seasons and years; which closely like the links
    Of an extended chain progressive join:
    Or as a clock, with all its hidden springs
    And constant motions, wound up to the top,
    Begins its course, revolving until down.

The distinction between _day_ and _night_ is a wise and gracious
provision for man. In the morning, after the weary limbs have repaired
their exhausted vigor by the indulgence of soft repose, we are pleased
with the blessing of light; and, after a few fleeting hours engaged
in our diversified pursuits of the day, we begin to court the evening
shades, pleased again to enjoy that balmy retreat which alone refits
us for the fatigues of the ensuing day. When a few fleeting hours
are spent, the day is no longer gratifying; but its light becomes
burdensome, and we wish for the shadows of the evening to be stretched
over us. This sable period is scarcely gone, when we welcome the
dawning day, and leave the place of our rest with gladness.

_Day_ and _night_, and their alternate changes, are adapted to suggest
useful thoughts, and calculated to employ our serious meditation.

      “From night to day, from day to night,
    The _dawning_ and the _dying_ light
      Lectures of heavenly wisdom read;
    With silent eloquence they raise
    Our thoughts to the Creator’s praise.
      And neither sound nor language need.”

A force continually impressed by the supreme Being produces and
preserves these different and useful motions, which measure out that
portion of time assigned us, for the performance of his work, and
the securing of our own salvation. We are directed in his word how
to employ this important _talent_ lent to us; also warned to guard
against a misapplication of it, and told that a day will come when we
shall have to give an account of our stewardship. As _day_ is afforded
for the management of those employments which could not be done in
the night, how unwise would it be to postpone such concerns till the
approach of darkness? So the short period of life is given us that we
may “work out our own salvation.” We are favored with the light of
Divine truth to illuminate our understandings; the operation of the
Holy Spirit to influence our wills; and our pressing necessities should
impel us to perform what God requires.

The Greeks have two words for _time_, χρονος and καιρος: the former
signifies time in general; and the latter that part of it which is
proper for doing a thing--the present season in which any thing to be
done may be done fitly and to advantage. Accordingly Solomon says,
“To every thing there is a season, and a time to every purpose under
heaven.”

What the apostle says to the Christians at Ephesus is equally
applicable and interesting to persons in succeeding ages of the world;
giving a view of the importance of time, and directing to a right
improvement of it. “See that ye walk circumspectly, not as fools, but
as wise, redeeming the time, because the days are evil.”

_Walking_, in the Scripture style, is a word frequently used to denote
the whole course of a man’s life and conversation, including all
his thoughts, words and actions. Walking _circumspectly_, ακριβως,
signifies correctly, accurately, consistently, or perfectly. In
another place the same word is rendered _diligently_. Herod said to
the wise men come from the east, Go to Bethlehem, and search ακριβως,
_diligently_, narrowly, for the young child Jesus. But the word
_circumspect_ is from the Latin _circumspicio_, and signifies to
look round about, on all hands, to be every way watchful, wary, and
cautious, in order to avoid danger, discern enemies before they come
too nigh, and secure a man’s interest by every possible and lawful
means.[52]

The necessity of this duty is suggested in the Greek text, βλεπετε ουν
_see then_ or _therefore_, take care of this as a matter of the highest
concern and greatest importance; it is that on which your all depends.
He adduces a cogent reason for this--“Not as fools, but as wise.” As if
he should say, It is your _wisdom_ to walk circumspectly, and not to
walk so would be your _folly_: to walk circumspectly is the wisdom that
God recommends to you, and which is adapted to make you truly wise,
both in this world and in that which is to come.

The word _redeeming_, εξαγοραζομενοι, literally signifies _buying
time_. The term _buying_ is proper in reference to civil contracts,
but it is here applied morally. Properly speaking, time cannot be
bought: it is a commodity for which all the treasures in the world
would not be an equivalent. Its price is above rubies. But the
term imports the great value of time, and intimates that we should
be willing to suffer any privation or inconveniences, rather than
lose it. _Redeeming_ properly implies the laying down a price for
re-purchasing or recovering that which was ours, but which has fallen
into the possession of another. A captive sometimes is redeemed out
of the hand of an enemy. Now, in this sense, to redeem time already
past is impossible, for when once gone it is irrecoverable. So that
by _redeeming_ time, nothing else can be understood but a diligent
and prudent improvement of it, which is the only way in our power
to counterbalance the loss we have sustained by our former neglect.
The effects of our past negligence should be counteracted by double
diligence in future: we should do much work in a little time. This is
to redeem that time, concerning which we have allowed worldly business,
unprofitable visits, sensual indulgence, carnal recreations, and vain
thoughts, to rob us, and, as it were, to take and keep us captive. To
redeem time then is to be diligent in future, wisely improving it so as
may make amends for our very culpable remissness. Future diligence is,
as it were, the price of redemption paid down for what we had mortgaged
into the hands of those things which we have suffered to deprive us of
it.

The argument used to enforce the practice of this duty is, “because the
days are evil.” Time, in itself, properly speaking, is neither good nor
evil; but in regard to the moral state of mankind may be so called.
The days here primarily intended by the apostle, denominated _evil_,
were those of his own time, in which he himself and his contemporaries
lived, and which abounded with trouble and danger, by reason of the
opposition made by unbelieving Jews and Gentiles against Christianity.
But all our days, as well as those, may be called evil, because of
the prevalence of sin, Satanic delusion, and hostility of the ungodly
against real religion. Many persons can adopt the language of the
patriarch Jacob, “Few and evil have the days of the years of my life
been.” Job gives a similar testimony, “Man that is born of a woman, is
of few days, and full of evil.”

The whole argument runs thus: seeing that you cannot enjoy true quiet
and substantial comfort in this terrestrial abode, and are in danger
of being quickly deprived of all opportunity of getting and doing
good, fail not to improve the present time to the best advantage, in
reference to the future state, that you may secure for yourselves a
happy and glorious eternity.

       *       *       *       *       *

Footnotes - Chapter II

    [23] See Dr. A. Clarke on Gen. i. 1.

    [24] Barington’s Dissertations, &c, p. 82.

    [25] An eminent chemist and philosopher, Dr. Priestley,
    has very properly observed, that it seems plain that Moses
    considered the whole terraqueous globe as being created in
    a _fluid_ state, the earthly and other particles of matter
    being mingled with the water. The present form of the earth
    demonstrates the truth of the Mosaic account, for it is well
    known, that, if a soft or elastic globular body be rapidly
    whirled round on its axis, the parts at the poles will be
    flattened, and the parts on the equator, midway between the
    north and the south poles will be raised up. This is precisely
    the shape of our earth; it has the figure of an _oblate
    spheroid_, a figure pretty much resembling the shape of an
    _orange_. It has been demonstrated by admeasurement, that the
    earth is flatted at the poles, and raised at the equator. This
    was first conjectured by Sir Isaac Newton, and afterwards
    confirmed by M. Cassini, and others, who measured several
    degrees of latitude at the equator and near the north pole,
    and found that the difference perfectly justified Sir Isaac
    Newton’s conjecture, and consequently confirmed the Mosaic
    account. The result of the experiments instituted to determine
    this point, proved, that the diameter of the earth at the
    equator is greater by more than _twenty-three_ and _a half_
    miles than it is at the poles, allowing the polar diameter to
    be 1-334 part shorter than the _equatorial_, according to the
    recent admeasurements of several degrees of latitude made by
    Messrs. Mechain and Delambre. L’Histoire des Mathem. par M. de
    la Lande, tom. iv, part v, liv. vi: and Dr. Adam Clarke, on
    Gen. i. 10.

    [26] Hesiod. Theog. 116.

    [27] Aristoph. Aves, 694.

    [28] Longin, sect. ix, Edit. Pearce.

    [29] Walker’s History of the Creation, p. 8, 9.

    [30] Benson on the Text.

    [31] Preface to Dr. Black’s Lectures, by Robison.

    [32] Carpenter’s Lectures on the Works of Creation, vol. i.
    p. 87.

    [33] Boerhaave’s Chem. by Shaw, vol. i. p. 299.

    [34] Parkes’s Chemical Catechism, or Rudiments of
    Chemistry, chap. ii.

    [35] Contemplative Philosopher, vol. ii. p. 149, 150.

    [36] See Dr. Burnet’s Theory, vol. ii, p. 30.

    [37] Apud Stob. Eclog. Phys. p. 44.

    [38] That light is a fluid which encompasses the earth,
    and requires only to be agitated by some other inflamed body,
    in order to render it perceptible, is an hypothesis, says a
    celebrated German divine, that has been adopted by the most
    eminent philosophers. “It is certain, at least, that there is
    a great difference between _fire_ and _light_. The latter is
    incomparably more subtile than the former. It penetrates glass,
    and other transparent bodies, in a moment; whereas fire does it
    very slowly. The pores of glass are consequently large enough
    to give a free passage to the light, while the fire meets with
    more resistance, because it is less subtile. Fire moves more
    slowly than light. Let burning coals be brought into a room,
    the heat diffuses itself very slowly, and the air becomes
    warm by degrees; but the moment a candle is brought into an
    apartment, the whole is suddenly illuminated; and wherever
    the rays can reach the parts become more visible. From these
    facts, and some others, it is concluded, that fire and light
    are different substances; although we generally see them both
    together, and find that one may produce the other. But the
    consequence drawn from this is possibly false.”

    [39] A new material has recently been introduced in
    this country, for the purpose of lighting houses, streets,
    manufactories, &c, namely, the inflammable gas of coals.
    When coals are burning in a common fire-place, a flame more
    or less luminous, according as it is more or less encumbered
    with incombustible smoke and vapor, issues from them; and
    very frequently emit some very beautiful streams of a flame
    remarkably bright. All this arises from the gases which are
    extricated from the coal by the heat. It was natural to imagine
    that such gas might be received in proper reservoirs, and, on
    being forced out of small apertures, and lighted, would serve,
    as the flames of candles, to illuminate rooms or other places.
    The trial was easily made, and has been attended with the
    desired effect.

    [40] Dr. Rees’s New Cyclopædia, Art. Light; and Dr. O.
    Gregory’s Lessons, Astronomical and Philosophical p. 157.

    [41] Gregory’s Economy of Nature, vol. i, p. 173.

    [42] See Relig. Philos. vol. iii, pp. 869, 870, Fourth
    Edition.

    [43] Sturm’s Reflections, vol. iii, p. 184.

    [44] Dr. Rees’s Cyclopædia, Art. Light.

    [45] Parkes’s Rudiments of Chemistry, chap. xii.

    [46] Sermon on 1 Pet. ii, 21.

    [47] Dr. Adam Clarke on Gen. i, 31.

    [48] When Zeno, the Prince of the Stoics, was endeavoring
    to prove, by a sophistical argument, that there was no
    motion, Diogenes, the cynic, who had come into his school to
    hear him, quickly started up and walked: which was an ocular
    demonstration of motion, and sufficient to refute all his
    sophisms adduced to the contrary.

    [49] See Gurdon’s Sixth Sermon at Boyle’s Lecture.

    [50] Plato in Epinom.

    [51] Aristot. Physic. lib. vii, c. 5.

    [52] Dr A. Clarke on Eph. v, 15.

       *       *       *       *       *




CHAPTER III.

SECOND DAY.

ON THE ATMOSPHERE.

    Composition of Atmospheric Air -- Atmosphere divided
    into three regions -- Air a fluid -- Its compressibility
    and elasticity -- Weight and pressure -- Equilibrium --
    Transparency -- Wind -- Causes of Wind -- Variety of Winds
    -- Velocity of Winds -- Destructive Winds -- Wind under the
    control of God -- Wind a similitude of the Holy Spirit’s
    operations.


On the _second day_ God made a space or _expansion_, surrounding the
solid earth to a certain height, called the _atmosphere_. This word
is derived from ἀτμός and σφαῖρα, and signifies a body of vapor in a
spherical form. By this name we understand the “entire mass of air
which encircles all parts of the terrestrial globe, which moves with it
round the sun, which touches it in all parts, ascending to the tops of
its mountains, penetrating into its cavities, and incessantly floating
on its waters. It is a fluid which we inhale from the first to the
last moment of our existence.” The Hebrew word רקיע _rakiâ_, from רקע
_rakâ_, used by Moses, (and which our translators, by following the
_firmamentum_ of the Vulgate, which is a translation of the στερεωμα,
of the Septuagint, have improperly rendered _firmament_,) signifies to
_spread out as the curtains of a tent or pavilion_.[53] It corresponds
with those beautiful words of Isaiah, “It is he that STRETCHETH OUT
the heavens as a curtain, and SPREADETH THEM out as a tent to dwell
in.” “Thus,” as a learned and pious author justly observes, “the
second great production of the Almighty was the element which is next
in simplicity, purity, activity, and power, to the light, (or, rather
_fire_,) and no doubt was also used by him as an agent in producing
some subsequent effects.”[54]

It is particularly deserving notice, that, after the creation of
caloric, the atmosphere was the next regular production. If heat
had not previously existed, could the atmosphere have been formed?
The Creator, having first impressed certain principles on matter,
impregnating it with repelling forces and systematical attractions,
proceeded with his work according to these radical and fixed laws.
One of the general laws discovered by Dr. Black, and which is laid
down as a chemical axiom, is, that “Whenever a body _changes_ its
state, it either combines with caloric, or separates from caloric.”
“The most probable opinion concerning the nature of caloric,” says Mr.
Dalton, “is that of its being an elastic fluid of great subtlety, whose
particles repel one another, but are attracted by all other bodies.
Every kind of matter has its peculiar affinity to heat, by which it
requires a certain portion of the fluid, in order to be in equilibrium
with other bodies at a certain temperature.”[55] It is now generally
supposed, adds Mr. Parkes, that the air owes its elasticity to the
caloric which it contains; and, that if it could be deprived entirely
of this, it would lose its elastic form. The expansibility of the air
is effected by the operation of caloric: for being rarefied by heat,
it occupies a larger space than otherwise it would. It is extremely
probable, says Lavoisier, that air is a fluid naturally existing in a
state of vapor; or, as we may better express it, that our atmosphere
is a compound of all the fluids which are susceptible of the vaporous
or permanently elastic state, in the usual temperature, and under the
common pressure.[56]

For the discovery of the composition of atmospheric air, we are
indebted to Scheele, an able chemist, born 1742, at Stralsund, in
Germany, who was a member of the Academy of Stockholm, and one of the
Royal Society of Medicine at Paris, and whose laborious investigations
of nature have perpetuated his memory. When the nature of atmospheric
air began to be understood, it was imagined that it was a mere
_mixture_ of oxygen gas and nitrogen gas; and Mr. Dalton is still of
this opinion: but, says Mr. Parkes, we have now abundant reason to
believe that it is a mere chemical compound; that is, that the oxygen
and nitrogen form atmospheric air by a chemical union. Atmospheric air
is a chemical mixture of oxygen and nitrogen rendered aërial by the
expansive power of caloric: it likewise contains a portion of carbonic
acid gas, which was formerly calculated at one per cent.; but Mr.
Dalton has lately demonstrated that it does not amount to more than
one part in a thousand.[57] Carbonic acid gas is nearly twice as heavy
as common air; hence it is evident that it must combine _chemically_
with the atmosphere, or it would be found only near the surface of the
earth. If it were merely _mixed_ with atmospheric air, its gravity
would prevent it from ascending to any great height: but it is found to
exist in the atmosphere at the greatest heights, (though probably not
in the same proportion) as well as near the surface of the earth; which
is a proof that it is not a mere mixture, but that it is chemically
combined with the air. There are about 22 parts of oxygen, and 78 of
nitrogen, in every 100 measures of atmospheric air, or 23 of the former
and 77 of the latter, if the calculation be made by weight.[58]

Antony de Marti observes, If a few hundredth parts of oxygen only were
wanting in atmospheric air, fire would lose its strength, candles would
not diffuse such complete light, and animals would with difficulty
separate the necessary quantity of the vivifying oxygen. On the other
hand, if the atmosphere were more charged with oxygen than nitrogen,
animals indeed would acquire a more free respiration; but, let us
consider the activity which fire would acquire by air of superior
purity. We know that, on some occasions, the least spark excites the
strongest flame in a combustible body, and which increases so much
as to consume it in a few moments: candles _then_ would be no sooner
lighted than they would be destroyed, without answering any other
purpose than that of dazzling us for a few moments: iron would be
calcined, instead of acquiring from the fire that softness necessary
for transforming it into its various instruments, and which it cannot
receive in a more moderate heat. Nothing would be capable of checking
the progress of this destructive element, which is nourished by vital
air, if this aëriform substance were not abundantly mixed with mephitic
air, which serves to restrain it.

Pure atmospheric air is composed of three gaseous substances only, but
is perpetually contaminated by a variety of exhalations from the earth.
“The atmosphere is a vast laboratory,” says Fourcroy, “in which nature
operates immense analyses, solutions, precipitations, and combinations:
it is a grand reservoir, in which all the attenuated and volatilized
productions of terrestrial bodies are received, mingled, agitated,
combined, and separated. Notwithstanding this mixture, of which it
seems impossible for us to ascertain the nature, atmospheric air is
sensibly the same, with regard to its intimate qualities, wherever we
examine it.” Hence, whatever may be the nature of the aërial fluid,
when absolutely pure, that which we breathe, and which commonly
goes under the name of _air_, must be considered as an exceedingly
heterogeneous mixture, various at various times, and which it is by
no means possible to analyze with accuracy. The whole mass of it
contains a great deal of water, together with the vast collection of
particles raised from all bodies of matter on the surface of the earth
by effluvia, exhalations, &c, so that it may be termed a _chaos_ of the
particles of all sorts of matter confusedly mingled together. And hence
it has been considered as a large chemical vessel, in which the matter
of all kinds of bodies is copiously floating; and thus exposed to the
continual action of that immense surface, the sun, from whence proceed
innumerable operations, sublimations, separations, compositions,
digestions, fermentations, putrefications, &c.

Though, in this view, the atmosphere seems to be a kind of sink or
common sewer, where all the poisonous effluvia arising from putrid
and corrupted matter is deposited; yet it has a wonderful facility of
purifying itself, and one way or other, of depositing those vapors
contained in it; so that it never becomes noxious, except in particular
places, and for a short time; the general mass remaining, upon all
occasions, pretty much the same.[59] The way in which this purification
is effected, is different according to the nature of the vapor with
which the air is loaded. Aqueous vapor ascends; and also much of that
vapor arising from decayed and putrid animal and vegetable substances,
(and which, by some modern philosophers, is called _phlogiston_,
attaching itself to the aqueous vapor,) ascends along with it; and
probably descends again with the rain; whence the fertilizing qualities
of rain-water above those of any other: while another part is absorbed
by vegetables; for the phlogistic vapor is probably the food for
plants. But sulphureous, acid, and metalline exhalations, produced
principally by volcanos; vapors, arising from houses where lead and
other metals are smelted; descend, in consequence of their specific
gravity, and suffocate and spread destruction around them, poisoning
not only animals, but vegetables also. From all these, the air seems
not capable of purifying itself, otherwise than by winds, or by letting
them subside by their superior gravity, till they are absorbed either
by the earth or water, according as it is their nature to unite with
one or other of these elements. Of this kind also seem to be the vapors
which are properly called pestilential. The contagion of the plague
itself seems to be of a heavy, sluggish nature, incapable of rising in
the air, but attaching itself to the walls of houses, bed-clothes, and
wearing apparel. Hence, scarcely any constitution of the atmosphere
can dispel these noxious effluvia; nor does it seem probable that
pestilential distempers ever cease until the contagion has operated so
long, and been so frequently communicated from one to another, that,
like a ferment much exposed to the air, it becomes vapid, communicates
a milder infection, and at last loses its strength altogether.

The atmosphere, or body of air encompassing the earth on all sides,
is generally divided into _three_ regions. The lowest region extends
from the earth to the place where the air is no longer heated by the
rays which the earth reflects: this region is the wannest. The _middle_
region begins where the preceding one ends, and goes to the summit of
the highest mountains, or even the highest clouds; this is the space
where rain, hail, and snow are engendered: this region is much colder
than the preceding one. The _third_ region extends from the middle one
to the utmost height of the atmosphere; whose limits have not been
ascertained.[60] If the air were of an equal density throughout, the
height of the atmosphere might be determined: but since the density
of the air decreases with the pressure, it will be more rarefied and
expanded the higher we go; and by this means the altitude of the
atmosphere becomes indefinite, and terminates in pure ether. But though
we cannot assign its real height, it is certain, from observations and
experiments, that a distance of 45 or 50 miles is the utmost limit
where the density is sufficient to refract the rays of light. For the
beginning and ending of twilight show, that the height at which the
atmosphere begins to refract the sun’s light is about 45 English miles;
and therefore that may be reckoned the altitude of the air to the least
degree of density.

The air is justly reckoned among the number of _fluids_, because it
has all the properties by which a fluid is distinguished. It requires
but little attention to be convinced of this. The air yields to the
smallest force impressed on it; its parts are easily moved among
themselves; it presses according to its perpendicular height, and its
pressure is every where equal. That the air is a fluid consisting of
such particles as have no cohesion among themselves, but easily glide
over one another, and yield to the smallest impression, appears from
the ease and freedom with which animals breathe in it, and move through
it without any difficulty or sensible resistance. The ease with which
it is penetrated, and driven about in every direction, and the motion
of it in pipes and channels, however crooked and intricate, demonstrate
its fluidity. It is also known to be a fluid, by the easy conveyance
which it affords to sound.

_Compressibility_ and _elasticity_ are evident properties of air. Its
elasticity was first ascertained by some experiments of Lord Bacon.
The air nearest the earth is in a state of compression, occupying a
smaller space than it otherwise would do, were it not compressed by
the superincumbent air. It must therefore be in a state something
resembling that of a quantity of fine carded wool thrown loosely into a
deep pit; the lower strata supporting the weight of the upper strata,
and being compressed by them; and so much the more compressed as they
are further down, while the upper stratum only is in its unconstrained
and most expanded state. If we should suppose this wool thrown in by
a hundred weight at a time, it will be divided into strata of equal
weights, but of unequal thickness, the lowest being the thinnest, and
the superior strata gradually increasing in thickness.[61]

When the air is in a state of compression, we find that the same force
with which we compressed it is necessary to keep it in its bulk; and
that if we cease to press it together, it will swell out and regain its
natural dimensions, which shows its elasticity. This distinguishes it
essentially from such a body as a mass of flour, salt, and such like,
which remains in the compressed state to which we reduce it. There is
something therefore which opposes the compression of air, different
from its simple impenetrability, and produces motion, by repelling
the compressing body. As an arrow is gradually accelerated by the
bow-string pressing it forward, and at the moment of its discharge
is brought to a state of rapid motion; so the ball from a pop-gun or
wind-gun is gradually accelerated along the barrel by the pressure
of the air during its expansion from its compressed state, and
finally quits it with an accumulated velocity. These two motions are
indications perfectly similar to the elasticity of the bow and of the
air.

Mr. Parkes observes, that atmospheric air in all states, and in all
seasons, is _permanently_ elastic. This elasticity arises from caloric
being chemically combined with the solid substances of which it is
composed. I say _solid_, because we have abundant evidence that oxygen
and nitrogen are both capable of taking a solid form, and actually
do, in many instances, exist in a state of solidity. Nitrogen is a
component part of all animal substances, and exists in a solid state in
all the ammoniacal salts. Oxygen takes the same state when it combines
with metals and other combustibles; and in the composition of the
nitrous salts they both take the same state of solidity. These facts
surely evince that atmospheric air owes its fluidity to caloric.

Dr. Hales, by means of a press, condensed the air 33 times; and,
afterwards, by forcing water in an iron globe, into 1,551 times less
space than it naturally occupies. The dilation of the air, by virtue of
its elastic force, is found to be very surprising. In experiments made
by Mr. Boyle, it dilated to 10,000, and even, at last, in 13,679 times
its space; and this altogether by its own expansive force, without the
help of fire. In fact, it appears that the air we breathe is compressed
by its own weight into at least the 13,679th part of the space it would
occupy in _vacuo_. But if the same air be condensed by art, the space
it would take up when most dilated, will be, according to the same
author’s experiments, as 550,000 to 1.

It is only by means of the experiments made with pumps,[62] and the
barometrical tube, by Galileo and Torricelli, that we came to the
proof, not only that the atmosphere is endued with _weight_ and
_pressure_, but also of the measure and quantity of that pressure. The
rise of water in a pump was formerly attributed to the horror that
nature had of a vacuum. This absurd notion was refuted about the middle
of the seventeenth century, by the following occurrence. The Duke of
Florence, having occasion to raise water to the height of 50 or 60
feet, ordered a common pump to be made for that purpose; but when it
was completed, the workmen were astonished to find that it would not
work. The matter was referred to Galileo, but he was unable to account
for it in any way. All they were able to determine was, that water
would not rise in a common pump more than 32 or 35 feet. The fact
remained inexplicable till philosophers caught the idea of atmospheric
pressure; since when, the suspension of mercury in the barometer, and
water in a pump, have been well understood.[63]

That the air is a heavy body, has been demonstrated by a variety of
experiments. The air next the earth is more dense than that at a
distance, because, as it is of an elastic or springy nature, it is
pressed down by the whole weight of the superincumbent air. Its general
force of gravity appears, from its surrounding the earth, and always
accompanying it in its orbit round the sun. As the matter of which the
air is composed is always variable, so likewise will its weight or
gravity be, as barometers of various kinds and structure evince. The
weight of the air at the earth’s surface, is found by the quantity of
mercury that the atmosphere balances in the barometer; in which, at a
mean state, the mercury stands 29½ inches high. And if the tube were
a square inch wide, it would at that height contain 29½ cubic inches
of mercury, which is just 15 pounds weight; and so much weight of air
every square inch of the earth’s surface sustains; and every square
foot, as containing 144 inches, must sustain a pressure of 2,160. At
this rate, a middle-sized man, whose surface is about 15 square feet,
must sustain a weight of 32,400 pounds, or 16 tons; for the air, like
other fluids, presses equally upwards, downwards, and sideways, in
every direction. But because this enormous weight bears equally on all
sides, and is counterbalanced by the spring of air diffused through all
parts of the body, it is not in the least felt by us.[64]

By this enormous pressure we should undoubtedly be crushed in a moment
were not all parts of our bodies filled either with air or some other
elastic fluid, whose spring is just sufficient to counterbalance the
weight of the atmosphere. The human body is a bundle of solids, hard
or soft, filled or mixed with fluids, and there are few or no parts of
it which are empty. All communicate either by vessels or pores; and
the whole surface is a sieve through which the insensible perspiration
is performed. The whole extended surface of the lungs is open to the
pressure of the atmosphere; every thing therefore is in equilibrio: and
if free or speedy access be given to every part, the body will not
be damaged by the pressure, however great, any more than a wet sponge
would be deranged by plunging it any depth in water. The pressure is
instantaneously diffused by means of the incompressible fluids with
which the parts are filled: and if any parts are filled with air or
other compressible fluids, these are compressed till their elasticity
balances the pressure. Besides, all our fluids are acquired slowly, and
gradually mixed with that proportion of air which they can dissolve or
contain. The whole animal has grown up in this manner from the first
vital atom of the embryo. For such reasons the pressure can occasion
no change of shape by squeezing together the flexible parts; nor any
obstruction by compressing the vessels or pores.

Sometimes the air is so heavy and elastic as to support the mercury in
the tube at the height of 31 inches nearly; at other times it is so
light and unelastic, as to suffer it to fall as low as 28 inches. The
difference between these two altitudes is three inches, that is, about
1-9th of the whole weight of the atmosphere. Our bodies, therefore, are
sometimes pressed with a weight one-ninth more than at other times,
that is, with about 3,360 pounds more weight at one time than another.
This has considerable effect on our feelings, and consequently on our
health, but we are apt to ascribe this effect to a wrong cause. When
we feel ourselves dull and languid, we think it is owing to the air
being too thick and heavy about us. But it is just the reverse: the air
is then too light and thin, as is evident from the mercury’s sinking
in the barometer, and its not bearing up the clouds: it is seldom
dense enough at two miles height to bear them up.[65] The weight of
the air is proved by its supporting the clouds and vapors which we so
frequently see floating in it; in the same manner that the swimming of
a piece of wood indicates the weight of the water which supports it.

It may be remarked, says Mr. Parkes, that the Creator has endowed
atmospheric air with the property of preserving its own _equilibrium_
at all times and in all places. Its elasticity is such, that,
however it may be consumed by respiration or combustion, its place
is immediately supplied with a new portion; and though by a mistaken
policy the doors and windows of our habitations may be constructed so
as to exclude it as much as possible, it will have admission; it forces
its way through every crevice, and performs the most important office
assigned it, in defiance of all our exertions. If the properties which
are given to the different substances in nature, and the laws by which
they are governed, be thus examined, we shall find them all tending to
promote the welfare and felicity of every species of animated beings.

The _transparency_ of the air is a very beneficial property it
possesses. According to Dr. Keill, and other writers on astronomy, it
is entirely owing to the atmosphere that the heavens appear bright in
the day-time. For, without an atmosphere, that part of the heavens only
would shine in which the sun is placed: and if we could exist without
air, and should turn our backs toward the sun, the whole heavens would
appear as dark as in the night, and the stars would be seen as clear
as in the nocturnal sky. In this case we should have no twilight;
but a sudden transition from the brightest sunshine to the blackest
darkness immediately after sunset; and from the blackest darkness
to the brightest sunshine at sun-rising; which would be extremely
inconvenient, if not fatal to the sight of men. But, by means of
the atmosphere, we enjoy the sun’s light, reflected from the aërial
particles, for some time before he rises, and after he sets. For, when
the earth by its rotation has prevented us from seeing the sun, the
atmosphere, being still higher than we, has the sun’s light imparted to
it, which gradually decreases until he has descended 18 degrees below
the horizon; and then, all that part of the atmosphere which is above
us becomes dark. The atmosphere refracts the sun’s rays so, as to bring
him in sight every clear day, before he rises in the horizon; and to
keep him in view for some minutes after he is really set below it. For,
at some times of the year, we see the sun ten minutes longer above the
horizon, than he would be if there were no refractions; and about six
minutes every day at a mean rate. We cannot but perceive the wisdom of
God displayed in this contrivance, to prevent the sudden transition
from light to extreme darkness, and his goodness manifested therein to
man.

Besides these, there are many other advantages we derive from the
atmosphere. Were it not for the atmospheric air, which is the vehicle
of light and sound, our eyes would be useless, and the pleasures which
arise from the variegated prospects that now surround us, unknown.
Sound would never strike our ears, nor convey the charms of language
from one person to another; all the delights of mutual converse would
be lost. The sense of smell would never be regaled with odoriferous
sweets; nor annoyed with exhalations from putrid and morbid substances.
In short, life would become extinct, and a chaos of darkness and
emptiness ensue. It has been well remarked, that, if the Deity had
intended only to give us existence, and had been indifferent about
our happiness or misery, all the necessary purposes of hearing might
have been answered without harmony; of smell, without fragrance; of
vision without beauty. The consideration of the various _uses_ to
which the different substances in nature may be applied, gives so
satisfactory an assurance of the goodness of the Almighty, as is
calculated to produce in us gratitude and obedience. With this view,
an elegant French writer has said on this necessary fluid, “In the
use of atmospheric air, _man_ is the only being who gives to it all
the modulations of which it is susceptible. With his voice alone, he
imitates the hissing, the cries, and the melody of all animals; while
he enjoys the gift of speech denied to every other. To the air he also
communicates sensibility; he makes it sigh in the pipe, lament in
the flute, threaten in the trumpet, and animates to the tone of his
passions even the solid brass, the box tree, and the reed. Sometimes he
makes it his slave: he forces it to grind, to bruise, and to move for
his advantage an endless variety of machines. In a word, he harnesses
it to his ear, and obliges it to waft him over the stormy billows of
the ocean.”

_Wind_ is air in motion. As the air is a fluid, its natural state is
that of rest, which it cannot have but by an universal equilibrium
of all its parts. When, therefore, this natural equipoise of the
atmosphere is destroyed in any part, the circumjacent air necessarily
moves towards that part, to restore it; and this motion of the air is
called _wind_. Hence, where the equilibrium of the air is disturbed,
the wind may blow from every point of the compass at the same time:
those who live northward of that point have a north wind; those who
live southward have a south wind; and so on of the rest: but those
who live on the spot, where all those winds meet and rush together,
will have turbulent and boisterous weather, such as whirlwinds and
hurricanes, accompanied with rain, lightning, and thunder. For
sulphureous exhalations from the south, torrents of nitre from the
north, and aqueous vapors from every part, are there violently blended
together, and seldom fail to produce these phenomena.

The causes of wind augment or diminish the gravity or elasticity of
the atmosphere; for two portions of air, which are equal in elasticity
or gravity, remain mutually immoveable. We must look for the causes of
wind in the variation of heat and cold, the position of the sun, the
nature of the soil, the inflammation of meteors, the condensation of
the vapors into rain, and other similar circumstances: but the most
general causes are heat and cold. Fire, which expands and rarefies the
air, diminishes its elasticity, and, consequently, makes it lighter in
some places than in others; hence the pressure of the ambient air is
greater than that of the rarefied, whence a motion arises; and thus
several winds blow towards the part where the air is rarefied by the
heat; which currents of air, if strong, are called _winds_, if gentle,
_breezes_ or _gales_. Thus the air is constantly carried from the polar
regions towards the torrid zone, where it is also affected by the
diurnal motion of the sun from east to west.

“When we reflect attentively upon the nature of winds in general,”
says Dr. O. Gregory, “considering all the causes which disturb the
equilibrium of the atmosphere, the great mobility due to its fluidity
and its elasticity, the influence of heat and cold upon the latter,
the immense quantity of vapor with which it is charged and discharged
alternately, the mutual effect of contiguous air and water in motion,
the varied attractions of the sun and moon, upon the aërial fluid, and
finally the changes produced by the earth’s rotation in the velocity of
the atmospherical moleculæ at different parallels of latitude; we shall
no longer be astonished at the inconstancy and variety which infringe
upon the regularity of some of our winds, nor of the extreme difficulty
of reducing the whole to laws wearing the semblance of certainty.”[66]

There is a great variety of winds. The ancients observed only four,
called _venti cardinales_, because they blow from the four cardinal
points. Homer mentions no more than _eurus_, the east; _notus_, the
south; _zephyrus_, the west; and _boreas_, the north wind.[67] In
imitation of him, others do the same. Afterwards intermediate winds
were added, first one, then two, between each of these. Most writers,
make only eight winds, and Vitruvius[68] informs us that the Athenians
built a marble tower in the form of an octagon with eight winds
marked, every one on that side which faced it. The moderns make 32
winds, the four cardinal winds 90 degrees distant, and 28 collateral
or intermediate, 11 degrees and 15 minutes distant from each other, of
which those in the middle between two cardinals, are 45 degrees distant
from each cardinal.[69] But some make as many points on the compass,
and as many winds, as there are degrees on the horizon, namely, 360.

The winds for a considerable space north of the equator, about 30
degrees in the open sea, blow from the north-east, and as far south
of the equator, from the south-east. These are called _trade-winds_,
from their facilitating trading voyages. In the Indian ocean, from its
particular situation, and that of the lands which surround it, from
April or May, to October or November, the wind blows from south-east to
north-west; and during the rest of the year from the opposite quarters:
these winds are called _monsoons_. In Jamaica and the Caribbee islands,
in the months of July, August, or September, there are usually violent
storms of wind, called _hurricanes_; the wind during the hurricane
frequently veering, and blowing in every direction.

    “Winds from all quarters agitate the air
    And fit the limpid element for use,
    Else noxious. Oceans, rivers, lakes, and streams,
    All feel the fresh’ning impulse, and are cleansed
    By restless undulation. E’en the oak
    thrives by the rude concussion of the storm.
    He seems indeed indignant, and to feel
    The impression of the blast with proud disdain,
    Frowning, as if in his unconscious arm
    He held the thunder. But the monarch owes
    His firm stability to what he scorns,
    More fixed below, the more disturbed above.”

Winds have been measured, and their velocity calculated. The following
is Mr. John Smeaton’s table of the rate at which the wind travels:

    Wind.                       Miles in  Feet in
                                an Hour.   a Sec.

    Hardly perceptible                 1     1,47
    Just perceptible                   2     2,98
                                       3     4,40
    Gentle, pleasant                   4     5,87
                                       5     7,35
    Pleasant brisk gale               10    14,67
                                      15    22,00
    Very brisk                        20    29,34
                                      25    36,67
    High winds                        30    44,01
                                      35    51,34
    Very high                         40    58,68
                                      45    66,01
    Storm, tempest                    50    73,35
    Great storm                       60    88,02
    Hurricane                         80   117,36
    ---- that tears up trees,      }
         destroys buildings &c. &c.} 100   146,70[70]

There are some winds that are awfully destructive. In the Gulf of
Persia, particularly at Ormus, during the months of June and July, a
hot suffocating wind sometimes blows from the west, for a day or two
together, which scorches up and destroys any animal exposed to it. On
this account the people of Ormus then leave their habitations, and
retire to the mountains. Winds similar to this in kind, but not in
degree, are sometimes felt on the coast of Coromandel, where they are
called _terrenos_; and likewise on the Malabar coast. On the coast of
Africa, north of Cape Verd, during the months of December, January, and
February, an easterly wind sometimes blows for a day or two, called by
sailors _harmattan_, so intensely cold, as to be almost as destructive
as the west winds at Ormus. The _simoon_ is a hot wind which blows
occasionally in the deserts of Arabia, parched by a vertical sun. If
inhaled in any quantity, it produces instant suffocation, or at least
leaves the unhappy sufferer oppressed with an asthma and lowness of
spirits. Its approach is perceived by a redness in the air, well
understood by those who are accustomed to journey through the desert;
and the only refuge which they have from it, is to fall down with
their faces close to the ground, and to continue as long as possible
without respiration.[71] _Sirocco_ is a periodical wind which generally
blows in Italy and Dalmatia every year about Easter. It blows from
the south-east by south; it is attended with heat, but not rain; its
ordinary period is twenty days, and it usually ceases at sunset. When
the sirocco does not blow in this manner, the summer is almost free
from easterly winds, whirlwinds, and storms. This wind is prejudicial
to plants, drying and burning up the buds; though it hurts not man
any otherwise than by causing in him an extraordinary weakness and
lassitude; inconveniences that are fully compensated by a plentiful
fishing, and a good crop on the mountains. In the summer time, when
the westerly wind ceases for a day, it is a sign that the sirroco will
blow the day following, which usually begins with a sort of whirlwind.
When St. Paul was sailing close to the shore at Crete, there arose in
the north-east, a tempestuous wind, called by the sacred historian,
_euroclydon_; by Pliny, the _mariner’s plague_; and in modern language,
a _levanter_, which drove the ship from the coast: this not being a
point wind, but rather a kind of hurricane, often shifting its quarter,
tossed them backward and forward in the Adriatic.

On Saturday, November 27, 1703, a tremendous storm shook all Europe,
which has been considered the most dreadful tempest that has ever
taken place since the deluge. This storm commenced three days before
it arrived at its height. A strong west wind set in about the middle
of the month, the force of which was increased every day till the
27th. Great damage was sustained, and much alarm excited, both by sea
and land. The late Rev. Dr. Stennett, in endeavoring to account for
it, observes, that “having most probably taken its rise in America,
it made its way across the western ocean, and collecting confederate
matter in its passage over the seas, spent its fury on those parts of
the world, whither this army of terrors was principally commissioned.”
The violence of the wind produced a hoarse, dreadful noise, like one
continued peal of thunder; whilst the excessive darkness of the night
added to the horror of the scene. Some accounts say, that it lightened;
but it is probable, that this apprehension arose from there being, at
times, many meteors and vapors in the air; the hurry and agitation of
nature being too great to admit of thunder and lightning, in their
usual course.

Great loss of property was sustained; many painful accidents happened
to those who escaped with their lives; and not a few had all their
apprehensions realized, as they met death in some of its most
dreadful forms. In the city of London and its vicinity, more than 800
dwelling-houses were laid in ruins, and above 2,000 stacks of chimnies
were precipitated to the ground. As a further proof of its strength
and fury, we are informed, that the lead which covered the roof of
100 churches, was rolled up, and hurled, in prodigious quantities, to
great distances. But the dreadful devastation spread throughout the
country. In one extensive plain, on the banks of the Severn, not less
than 15,000 sheep, being unable to resist its violence, were driven
into the river and drowned. Such was the quantity of trees torn up
by their roots, that a person anxious to ascertain the number, had
proceeded through but a part of the county of Kent, when, arriving at
the prodigious amount of 250,000, he relinquished the undertaking.
If such were the dreadful ravages of this storm by land, it will be
anticipated they were still more disastrous on the water. Accordingly
we are informed, that the best part of our navy being then at sea, if
it had been at any other than a full flood and spring tide, the loss
might have proved fatal to the nation. It was computed that not less
than 300 ships were utterly destroyed by this tempest; among which were
15 of the royal navy, containing upwards of 2,000 seamen, who “sunk as
lead in the mighty waters.” The whole loss of property was estimated
at four millions of money--of lives, about eight thousand--and cattle
without number.

Towards the evening of the 27th, it pleased Him, “who gathereth the
wind in his fists,” gradually to suppress the storm, till there was a
perfect calm. Men were encouraged to leave the retreats in which they
had taken refuge, and view the “desolations which God had made in the
earth.”[72]

Though the winds are produced by the operation of natural causes, and
seem to move in natural courses, yet there is a first Cause, whose
efficiency is necessary to their existence, motions, and continuance.
We shall select the following remarkable instance as an illustration of
the truth of this assertion.

The disciples of Christ were once in imminent danger from a storm at
the sea of Tiberias, which is also called the Sea of Galilee, and
the Lake of Gennesaret, and, according to Pliny, is sixteen miles
long, and six broad. It is said, “Behold, there arose a great tempest
in the sea,” σεισμὸς μέγας, a great concussion or shaking. The same
expression is frequently used, both in the Scripture and in other
writings, for an earthquake; but here it is applied to the sea. Luke
calls this tempest “a storm of wind;” Mark, “a great storm of wind;”
and both of them use the word λαιλαψ, which the philosopher says is a
particular kind of wind, or rather a conflict of many winds. The most
probable derivation, says Mr. Parkhurst, seems to be from λα or λιαν,
_very much_, and λαπτω, _to lick_ or _lap up_, as wolves do water in
drinking; for a whirlwind _violently licks up_, as it were, the dust of
all light bodies in its way. Hence λαιλαψ is a wind that is suddenly
whirled and rolled about downwards and upwards. Aristotle explains the
word by _a violent whirlwind, moving from beneath upwards_. Hesychius,
a learned Grecian, defines it to be a storm or tempest of wind, with
rain. It seems to have been a whirlwind and hurricane in which the
disciples then were. Luke says, that this storm of wind _came down_;
it descended with great force into the sea, and lifted up its waves,
which beat into the ship, and pressed it much, so that it was in great
danger of being swallowed up and sunk by them. All the views given us
of this tempest show the disciples to have been in imminent danger. It
is said, “that the ship was covered with the waves,” which “beat into
it, so that it was now full of water,” as Mark expresses it. Nay, Luke
says, “they were filled with water, and were in jeopardy,” or in great
danger. The ship was immersed, or just sinking into the deep. So that
the disciples were brought to the utmost extremity. The great distress
they were in is expressed in these words, “We perish, ἀπολλύμεθα, _we
are lost_.”[73] This way of speaking is still in use among sea-faring
men, and indeed among others. Nothing is more common than for men to
say, Such a vessel, or such a ship’s crew, or such a person, was lost
at sea, in such a place, and at such a time. It is also to be observed,
they do not say, We are in danger of being lost, or we are ready to
be lost, or we shall be lost, but, _we are lost_. Which shows what
apprehension they had of their condition; they saw no probability of
escaping by any naturally rational method; they looked on themselves as
lost.

All the Evangelists agree in this, though they do not use the same
word. Mark mentions the place where he was asleep, _in the hinder
part of the ship_, or stern, where he, as Lord and Master, should be.
But to the great concern of the disciples, he was there in a deep or
sound sleep, as the word αφυπνωσε, which Luke uses, signifies, and is
confirmed by the loud cry, and repeated call of the disciples to him,
saying, “Master, Master, we perish!” This sleep, doubtless, was brought
on him through his great fatigue in preaching all the preceding day,
and from the great concourse of people resorting to him, to have the
sick healed, and devils cast out. He seems to have signified that he
was very weary, just before he entered into the ship, to a man who said
to him, “Master, I will follow thee whithersoever thou goest:” the
answer he returned was, “The foxes have holes, and the birds of the
air have nests; but the Son of Man hath not where to lay his head.”
Intimating as though he wanted an opportunity to lie down, and take
some rest: and accordingly, when he was come into the ship, placing
himself at the stern, he lay down, and fell fast asleep.

Christ was their last resource, but he was asleep in the same ship.
However, they resolved to apply to him, and in so doing were certainly
right. They used this language, “Lord, save us;” which implies that
they believed he was able to save them; and indeed the considerable
miracles which had been so lately wrought in their presence, were
sufficient to convince them of his ability to deliver them in their
greatest extremity. Our Lord indeed blamed them for their incredulity
and want of faith. The question he put to them, as related by Luke, is
“Where is your faith?” You professed to have faith in me, and doubtless
had a little while ago; where is it now? Mark expresses himself, “Why
are ye so fearful? how is it that ye have no faith?” that is, none in
exercise, none sufficient to suppress your alarming fears? Matthew
says, “Why are ye fearful, Oh ye of little faith?” It would seem they
had no faith in Christ when sleeping, though not destitute of it when
awake; but for this he justly reprimanded them. For though, as the Son
of Man, he was asleep, yet as the Son of God, by nature, he neither
sleeps nor slumbers. He was equally able to save them when sleeping as
well as when waking.

It is not only certain that he was able to save them, but it is matter
of fact that he in reality did so. Being awaked by his disciples, he
rises up, and, with a majestic voice, and in an authoritative manner,
showing, as it were, some kind of resentment at the wind and sea, as
if they had exceeded their commission, and the one had blown and the
other raged too much, and too long, rebukes them, saying, “Peace, be
still:” Σιώπα, πεφίμωσο, be silent, hold thy peace, stop thy mouth, put
a bridle on it, (as the last Greek word signifies;) go on no longer to
threaten with shipwreck, and loss of lives. On this the wind ceased,
and the sea became calm and smooth. The ship now moved quietly on, and
they all arrived safe at the land of the Gadarenes, which is opposite
to Galilee.

This had a very considerable effect both on the mariners and disciples,
who rightly concluded from hence that their deliverer was more than
a man. There was such a display of majesty, such a lustre of Divine
power appeared in this behest, as filled them with astonishment and
fear. They _marvelled_ greatly, and _feared exceedingly_. Matthew seems
to relate this, as though the mariners were the only persons who were
affected with their deliverance: the men said one to another, “What
manner of man is this, that even the winds and the sea obey him?”
But Mark and Luke represent it as a question of the disciples to one
another, “What manner of man is this?” of what qualities, powers,
and perfections? He must be more than a mere man, he can be no other
than the mighty God, “whom the winds and the sea obey.” It is to be
observed, that the word _man_, inserted in our translation, is not in
the question, as expressed by any of the Evangelists, in the original,
but “Who is this?” The disciples were sufficiently convinced by this
miracle, which so nearly concerned themselves, that their Master must
be God over all, blessed forever.

This amazing instance of the power of Christ, shows clearly his Deity.
Since he has such authority over the wind and seas, it must unavoidably
follow that he is truly and properly God. It is said, “he rebuked the
wind and the sea,” a phrase that is used only of the Most High God, who
stands distinguished from all other beings by this, that “he stilleth
the noise of the seas, the noise of their waves, and the tumult of the
people.” The Messiah makes use of this as an argument to prove, that
he is able to redeem, because he can rebuke the sea, dry it up, and
cover the heavens with clouds. “Is my hand shortened at all, that it
cannot redeem? or have I no power to deliver? behold, at my rebuke I
dry up the sea: I make the rivers a wilderness. I clothe the heavens
with blackness, and I make sackcloth their covering.” That it is the
Messiah who here speaks, the following words abundantly declare: “The
Lord God hath given me the tongue of the learned, that I should know
how to speak a word in season to him that is weary: he wakeneth morning
by morning; he wakeneth mine ear to hear as the learned. The Lord
God hath opened mine ear, and I was not rebellious, neither turned
away back. I gave my back to the smiters, and my cheeks to them that
plucked off the hair: I hid not my face from shame and spitting.” Now
on our Lord rebuking the wind and the sea, the one _ceased_, and the
other became _calm_; this was done by speaking a word only, in an
authoritative manner. Moses divided the waters of the Red Sea with a
rod; Joshua, the waters of Jordan with the ark of the covenant; Elisha,
with the Prophet’s mantle: but here Christ calmed the raging billows
with a word. When he rebuked the wind and the sea, not only the former
instantly ceased to rage, but the sea immediately became calm, which
was very unusual and extraordinary; for after the wind has ceased, and
the storm is over, the waters of the sea commonly continue raging, and
in a violent motion for a considerable time. Must not that man be an
infidel, who can read this account, and deny the Deity of Jesus Christ?
Or, must he not be forced to one or other of these two conclusions,
either to deny the truth of the fact, or to believe that Jesus Christ
is truly and properly God?

    [_Addenda on Atmosphere._

    1. By more recent and accurate experiments it is
    established, that the relative proportions of oxygen and
    hydrogen in air, are not precisely as given by Mr. Wood; but
    are 21 of oxygen, and 79 of hydrogen in 100 parts.

    2. Experiments on the _compressibility_ of the atmosphere
    have been carried to a much greater extent than stated in the
    text, and since our author wrote. It was generally believed
    that air might be made to assume a _liquid_ form by pressure;
    and it has been recently accomplished by Mr. Perkins, as he
    states, by a pressure of 2,000 atmospheres.

    3. Our author very justly states, that the _gaseous_ state
    of the atmosphere is owing to the quantity of _caloric_ in
    combination, the entire _abstraction_ of which would render
    our atmosphere a body as solid as the diamond. This caloric is
    not imparted to it by the beams of the sun _passing through_
    it; because, radiant matter does not warm gaseous bodies by
    passing through them. This caloric is chiefly supplied from the
    _earth_, by the lowest stratum of air coming in contact with
    it, and when heated ascends, and thus gives place to a colder
    stratum. Hence the air is much warmer at the surface of the
    earth, than in its higher regions.

    4. Our author inclines to the opinion that the atmosphere
    is the product of a _chemical_ combination of the gases, yet
    great names, and weighty arguments are in favor of the opposite
    theory of a _mere mixture_ of gases.

    5. There is one point not presented in the preceding
    section. It is well known that oxygen is abstracted from the
    air by _combustion_, and the _breathing_ of animals. This
    abstraction is very large. From whence then comes the supply
    of oxygen sufficient to keep up the constitutional quantity of
    this gas in the atmosphere? The only answer I have met with to
    this difficult question is this: The _growing of vegetables_
    is supposed to supply it, as it is well known that they absorb
    carbonic acid during the day, and evolve oxygen. But it is also
    well known that this process is _reversed_ during the night.
    Hence it would appear that this is not a sufficient cause.
    Still it would seem there must be a sufficient supply from some
    source, as chemists have not been able to detect any change in
    the constitution of the air.

    May not the oxygen be _restored_ back again by _evolution_
    from those bodies which have _absorbed_ it, _upon their
    decomposition_? Thus there would be a successive absorption and
    evolution as the process of nature went on; which would tend to
    keep up an equal distribution of oxygen.]

       *       *       *       *       *

Footnotes - Chapter III

    [53] Dr. Clarke on Gen. i, 6.

    [54] Benson on Gen. i, 6.

    [55] Dalton’s New System of Chemical Philosophy, part 1, p.
    1.

    [56] Lavoisier’s Elements of Chemistry, p. 78.

    [57] Manchester Memoirs, New Series, vol. i, p. 254.

    [58] When solid substances are rendered permanently
    aëriform by heat, the air thus produced is called a _gas_. John
    Baptist van Helmont, a physician and chemist, born at Brussels,
    in 1577, and educated at Louvain, was the first chemist who
    made use of this term to denote an elastic fluid. He gave fixed
    air the name of _gas_.

    The oxygen gas in atmospheric air is the principle
    of combustion, as the vehicle of heat; and is absolutely
    necessary for the support of animal life. Pure oxygen gas
    has the property of accelerating the circulation of all the
    animal fluids, and occasions the most rapid combustion of all
    combustible substances; so that it is the most energetic and
    powerful agent that chemists are acquainted with. Oxygen gas is
    a little heavier than atmospheric air, and 740 times lighter
    than water.

    Nitrogen gas is chiefly distinguished by certain _negative_
    qualities, such as being incapable of supporting combustion and
    animal life. It is uninflammable, and somewhat lighter than
    atmospheric air. Nitrogen gas has the effect of neutralizing,
    in some measure, the properties of oxygen gas, and rendering
    it fit for respiration and combustion. By the union of
    nitrogen gas with the oxygen gas this change is effected: the
    latter, which would burn every thing within its reach with an
    unparalleled activity, is, as it were, dissolved and diluted;
    and the nature of the former is so much enveloped by the
    latter, that the compound possesses properties different from
    either of these gasses, so as to be fitted for every purpose
    for which it was designed.

    Though nitrogen gas is, by itself, so noxious to animals,
    it answers an important end when mixed with oxygen gas in
    atmospheric air. Were it not for this large quantity of
    nitrogen in the atmosphere, the blood would flow with too great
    rapidity through the vessels, and all animals would have too
    great spirits; the consequence of which would be, that the
    life of man would not be protracted to the length that it now
    is. “If the proportions of oxygen and nitrogen were reversed
    in the atmospheric air, says Dr. Lambe, the air taken in by
    respiration would be more stimulant, the circulation would
    become accelerated, and all the secretions would be increased:
    but the tone of the vessels, thus stimulated to increased
    action, would be destroyed by over-excitement; and, if the
    supply from the stomach were not equal to the consumption, the
    body must inevitably waste and decay.” Hence the wisdom of God
    is remarkably displayed in the constitution of the atmospheric
    air! See Parke’s Chemical Catechism, chap. ii.

    [59] “Mr. Cavendish,” says Dr. O. Gregory, “is the first
    who endeavored to establish that the proportions of the two
    principal elements of the atmospheric air were constant. The
    observations since made by M. de Mairy in Spain, M. Berthollet,
    in Egypt and in France; Mr. Davy, in England; and by Dr.
    Beddoes on the air brought from the coast of Guinea, seem
    to have confirmed this grand result. But one of the finest
    experiments made on this subject is that of Gay Lussac, in
    France, who, having been elevated alone in a balloon to the
    height of 6,900 metres, the greatest ever attained by any
    person, brought some atmospheric air from these regions. This
    air, being analysed at his return, comparatively with that
    on the surface of the earth, gave the same principles in the
    same proportions; a proof that the chemical constitution of
    the atmosphere at these great heights, is the same as at the
    surface of the earth. This result has been since confirmed by
    the experiments made by Messrs. Humboldt and Gay Lussac on
    eudiometry. The air of the surface of the earth, analysed at
    different days, at various hours and temperatures, presented
    no change in its composition: it always contained 0.21 of
    oxygen in volume, 0.783 of azote, 0.003 of hydrogen, and 0.004
    of carbonic acid. Biot and Arrago have also lately verified
    this grand result. The atmospheric air, analysed in places
    the most distant from each other, in deep valleys, on high
    mountains, on banks of lakes, and in the glaciers of Chamouny,
    always presented to them the same composition.” Haüy’s Natural
    Philosophy, Note, vol. i. p. 218.

    [60] Sturm’s Reflections, vol. iv. p. 49.

    [61] “Galileo, to whom was reserved the glory of preparing,
    long before, the way for the theory of Newton, by the discovery
    of the law to which the acceleration of heavy bodies is
    subjected, having let fall from a great height different balls
    of gold, of lead, of copper, or porphyry, with a ball of wax,
    observed that all these bodies employed nearly the same time
    in falling to the earth. The ball of wax, the only one that
    was sensibly retarded, was no more than four inches from the
    earth at the end of the fall of the other bodies. Galileo,
    considering that this difference was very far from being
    proportional to that of the weights, concluded that it depended
    solely on the resistance of the air. This conjecture has been
    since verified by direct experiments, consisting in letting
    fall from the top of a tube, within which the vacuum has been
    made the most perfect possible, bodies of different materials,
    such as lead, iron, wood, cork, feathers, wool, &c, and it has
    been found that none of these bodies will then permit of our
    perceiving any sensible difference in the duration of their
    fall. As to bodies which raise themselves in air, such as
    smoke, it is known that their ascension is occasioned by the
    circumstance of their being specifically lighter than air: they
    are with respect to this fluid, situated as a piece of cork
    is with respect to water, which when immersed in that water
    to a certain depth, and then left to itself, rises again to
    the surface. The vulgar regard all as being without gravity
    which rises instead of falling: whence Newton remarked that the
    weight of the vulgar was the excess of the absolute weight of
    a body above the weight of the air. The ascent of air-balloons
    in the midst of the air is well calculated to undeceive the
    partisans of this theory of bodies without heaviness.” Haüy’s
    Natural Philosophy, vol. i. p. 48.

    [62] To Otto Guericke, a burgo-master of Magdeburgh, we
    are indebted for the invention of the pneumatic machine, or
    air-pump.

    [63] The atmosphere presses equally on the whole surface of
    the water in the well, until the rod of the pump is moved; but,
    by forcing the rod down, the bucket compresses the air in the
    lower part of the pump tree, which being elastic, forces its
    way out of the tree through the valve; so that when the bucket
    is again raised, that part of the pump tree under the bucket
    is void of air; and the _weight of the atmosphere_, pressing
    on the body of water in the well, forces up a column of water
    to supply its place; the next stroke of the pump rod causes
    another column of water to rise; and as long as the bucket fits
    the pump tree close enough to produce a vacuum, a constant
    stream of water may be drawn from below. Parkes’s Chemical
    Catechism, pp. 47, 418.

    [64] As the earth’s surface contains, observes Mr.
    Ferguson, in round numbers, 200,000,000 square miles, must
    contain no less than 5,575,680,000,000,000 square feet; which
    being multiplied by 2,160, the numbers of pounds on each square
    foot, amounts to 12,043,468,800,000,000,000 pounds, for the
    weight of the whole atmosphere. Mr. Coates computed that the
    weight of the air which pressed upon the whole surface of the
    earth, is equal to that of a globe of lead sixty miles in
    diameter.

    The following simple experiments within the reach of every
    one’s observation, show clearly the weight or gravitating power
    of the air. Let any one lay his hand on the top of a long
    perpendicular pipe, such as a pump filled to the brim with
    water, which is at first prevented from running out by the
    valve below: then let the valve be opened, so that the water
    may descend, and he will find his hand so hard pressed to the
    top of the pipe that he cannot draw it away. The prop is now
    gone; he has no pressure under his hand; a column of air, 45
    miles high forces it down by its weight; and he must let in
    the air under it before the hand can be withdrawn.--If we shut
    the nozzle and valve-hole of a pair of bellows after having
    squeezed the air out of them, we shall find that a very great
    force, even some hundred pounds, is necessary for separating
    the boards; they being kept together by the pressure of the air
    which surrounds them.--If any one will apply the open end of a
    syringe to his hand, and then draw up the piston, he will find
    his hand sucked into the syringe with great force, and it will
    give pain, and the soft part of the hand will swell into it,
    being pressed in by the neighboring parts, which are subject to
    the action of the external air.

    [65] A heavy air is more favorable to health than a
    light one, because it promotes the circulation of the blood,
    and insensible perspiration. When the air is heavy, it is
    generally clear; whereas a light air is generally accompanied
    with clouds, rain, or snow, which render it damp. Too great
    a dryness of the air is very injurious to the human body;
    but this seldom happens for any length of time, except in
    sandy countries. A damp air is very unwholesome, because it
    relaxes the fibres, obstructs insensible perspiration, and
    if heat accompany the dampness, it disposes the humors to
    putrefy. An air too hot dilates all the fluids of the body, and
    occasions sweatings, which bring on weakness and oppression.
    On the other hand, when the air is to cold, the solid parts
    contract excessively, and the fluids are condensed; hence
    result obstructions and inflammations. The best air is that
    which is neither too heavy nor too light, too moist nor too
    dry, and which is not impregnated with noxious vapors. Sturm’s
    Reflections, vol. iv, p. 50.

    [66] “The most ingenious theories of the periodical winds
    we recollect, are those of Mr. Hadley, first proposed in Phil.
    Trans. vol. xxxix, p. 58, and lately revised by Mr. Dalton,
    in his Meteorological Essays,--and of Dr. Halley, first
    published in Phil. Transac. vol. xvi, p. 153, and recently
    defended by Dr. Kirwan, in his paper, ‘On the Variations of
    the Atmosphere.’ In the latter mentioned paper Kirwan has
    given some interesting information relative to variable winds,
    as westerly, easterly, southerly, northerly, and opposite
    concomitant winds; also relative to the succession of winds,
    and the Sirocco. See likewise the Philosophical Magazine,
    No. 60. Some curious facts respecting winds, and waves on
    the surface of the sea, are related by Mr. Horsburg in the
    Philosophical Journal, No. 60.” Haüy’s Nat. Phil. vol. i, pp.
    285,286.

    [67] Odyss. v. 295.

    [68] A celebrated architect, born at Formio, in Italy. He
    was greatly esteemed by Julius Cæsar, and employed by Augustus
    in constructing public buildings and warlike machines. He wrote
    a valuable Treatise on Architecture.

    [69] This division, with the several names on each point,
    was made by the Germans, as most commodious; but these names
    are not easily expressed in other languages. They are thus
    marked in English:

        North.          East.           South.         West.
        N and by E      E and by S      S and by W     W and by N
        N N E           E S E           S S W          W N W
        N E and by N    S E and by E    S W and by S   N W and by W
        N E             S E             S W            N W
        N E and by E    S E and by S    S W and by W   N W and by N
        E N E           S S E           W S W          N N W
        E and by N      S and by E      W and by S     N and by W

    [70] “The most decisive circumstance tending to show the
    great velocity of brisk winds,” says Dr. O. Gregory, “is that
    of the rapid passage of the celebrated aëronaut M. Garnerin,
    from London to Colchester. On the 30th of June, 1802, the wind
    being strong, though not impetuous, M. Garnerin and another
    gentleman ascended with an inflammable air-balloon from
    Ranelagh Gardens, on the south-west of London, between four and
    five o’clock in the afternoon; and in exactly three-quarters of
    an hour they descended near the sea, at the distance of four
    miles from Colchester. The distance of the places of ascent and
    descent is at least 60 miles; so that, allowing no time for
    the elevation and depression of the balloon, but, supposing
    the whole period occupied in transferring it in a path nearly
    parallel to the earth’s surface, its velocity must have been at
    the rate of 80 miles per hour. If, therefore, the wind moved
    no faster than the balloon, its velocity was then 80 miles per
    hour, or 117½ feet per second; a celerity but little less than
    the greatest assigned by Kraaft: and hence it is probable, that
    the velocity of very impetuous winds is not less than 130 or
    140 feet per second.” Haüy’s Nat. Phil. vol. i, p. 282.

    [71] Mr. Bruce, who, in his journey through the desert,
    suffered from the simoon, gives of it the following graphical
    description. “At eleven o’clock, while we contemplated with
    great pleasure the rugged top of Chiggre, to which we were fast
    approaching, and where we were to solace ourselves with plenty
    of good water, Idris, our guide, cried out, with a loud voice,
    ‘Fall on your faces, for here is the simoon.’ I saw from the
    south-east a haze come, in color like the purple part of the
    rainbow, but not so compressed or thick. It did not occupy
    twenty yards in breadth, and was about twelve feet high from
    the ground. It was a kind of blush on the air, and it moved
    very rapidly: for I scarce could turn to fall on the ground
    with my head to the northward, when I felt the heat of its
    current on my face. We all lay flat on the ground as if dead,
    till Idris told us it was blown over. The meteor or purple-haze
    which I saw, was indeed passed, but the light air that still
    blew was of heat sufficient to threaten suffocation. For my
    part, I found distinctly in my breast that I had imbibed a part
    of it, nor was I free of an asthmatic sensation, till I had
    been some months in Italy, at the baths of Poretta, near two
    years afterwards.” Though the severity of this blast seems to
    have passed over them almost instantaneously, it continued to
    blow so as to exhaust them till twenty minutes before five in
    the afternoon, lasting through all its stages very near six
    hours, and leaving them in a state of the utmost despondency.

    _Fatal Simoon._--Extract of a letter from Smyrna:--We have
    received intelligence of a dreadful calamity having overtaken
    the largest caravan of the season, on its route from Mecca
    to Aleppo. The caravan consisted of 2,000 souls, merchants
    and travellers from the Red Sea and Persian Gulf, pilgrims
    returning from Mecca, and a numerous train of attendants; the
    whole escorted by 400 military. The march was in three columns.
    On the 15th of August last, they entered the great Arabian
    Desert, in which they journeyed seven days, and were already
    approaching its edge. A few hours more would have placed them
    beyond danger; but on the morning of the 23d, just as they had
    struck their tents, and commenced their march, a wind arose
    from the north-east, and blew with tremendous violence. They
    increased the rapidity of their march to escape the threatening
    danger; but the fatal Kamsin had set in. On a sudden dense
    clouds were observed, whose extremity obscured the horizon, and
    swept the face of the desert. They approached the columns, and
    obscured the line of march. Both men and beast, struck with a
    sense of common danger, uttered loud cries. The next moment
    they fell beneath its pestiferous influence lifeless corpses.
    Of 2,800 souls, composing the caravan, not more than 20 escaped
    this calamity; they owed their safety to the swiftness of their
    dromedaries. Literary Panorama, for January, 1814.

    [72] See Baptist Magazine, for December, 1816.

    [73] So the word is translated Luke xix, 10; 2 Cor. iv, 3.

       *       *       *       *       *




CHAPTER IV.

THIRD DAY.

_Section_ I.--THE SEA.

    Water and land separated -- Formation of the sea -- Its
    restrictions -- Extent -- Depth -- Composition -- Saltness
    -- Motion -- Tides -- Four states of water -- Circulation --
    Religious improvement.


On the _third day_, the earth was drained, and the waters, which before
covered its surface, were gathered into copious receptacles, and called
seas. God said, “Let the waters under the heaven be gathered into one
place, and let the dry land appear; and it was so. And God called the
dry land Earth; and the gathering together of the waters called he
Seas.” The almighty Creator proceeds to separate, put in order, and
control the element nearest to _light_ and _air_ in quality and use,
and, although not elastic, yet of great power. Probably the air was
used by him as the great agent in gathering the waters into one place.
Thus, instead of the confusion, which existed when the earth and the
water were mixed in one great mass, there is now order; and by their
separation each is rendered useful: the earth affording a habitation
and support for man and the various orders of land animals; and the
water forming an abode for the numerous tribes of living creatures
adapted to subsist in that liquid element.[74]

Previous to this arrangement, the water, being a pure element, was
above the earth. Thus the Psalmist, “Thou coveredst it with the deep
as with a garment: the waters stood above the mountains,” so that they
did not appear. “At thy rebuke they fled; at the voice of thy thunder
they hasted away.” At the omnipotent word they started back, and shrunk
away, says Bishop Patrick; like an affrighted slave at the thunder
of his master’s threatenings, if his commands are not obeyed. They
gathered themselves in those places where they now are, which by Moses
are called seas; and there God shut them up, confining them that they
might not return to cover the earth. God “brake up,” for the reception
of the waters, his “decreed place,” that vast concave or hollow in the
earth; “and set bars and doors,” banks and shores, the weak sand to
control this element, which, however it roar and struggle, it cannot
pass.

It is wonderful that the sea, which has a natural disposition, from its
being a purer and lighter element, to be above the earth, should not
overflow it; but the amazing power of Omnipotence retains it within its
prescribed limits. For he has pronounced, “Hitherto shalt thou come,
but no further; and here shall thy proud waves be stayed.” As if he had
said, Though thy tides flow with mighty strength, though the swelling
billows of thy pride (so the original) rise high in a storm, and dash
against the shore with impetuous force and overwhelming rage, yet here
shall they stop: though they roar and foam, as if irritated at the
opposing strand, yet dare not to approach beyond those limits to thee
assigned; but, obedient to thy Lord and Master, submissively retire.
Here we see the power and dominion of the supreme Being in the kingdom
of nature, whose sway the sea is subject to! Our preservation from its
threatening destruction, by the continual restrictions it is under, is
a perpetual expression of Divine goodness and mercy, and should induce
all men to live always in the reverential fear of God. “Fear ye not
me? saith the Lord: will ye not tremble at my presence, which have
placed the sand for the bound of the sea, by a perpetual decree, that
it cannot pass; and though the waters thereof toss themselves, yet they
cannot pass over it.”

If we look upon the map of the world, we shall find that the ocean
occupies a considerably greater surface of the globe than the land
is found to do. Although the ocean, properly speaking, is but one
extensive sheet of water, continued over every part of the globe
without interruption; and although no part is divided from the rest,
yet geographers have distinguished it by different names, as the
Atlantic or Western Ocean; the Northern, Southern, Pacific, Indian,
and German Oceans. In this vast receptacle, almost all the rivers of
the earth ultimately terminate. And yet these vast and inexhaustable
supplies do not seem to increase its stores; for it is neither
apparently swelled by their tribute, nor diminished by their failure;
it continues constantly the same. Indeed, the quantity of water of
all the rivers and lakes in the world is nothing compared to that
contained in this prodigious reservoir. And some natural philosophers
have carried their ideas on this subject so far as to assert, in
consequence of certain calculations, that, if the bed of the sea were
empty, all the rivers of the world flowing into it with a continuance
of their present stores, would take up at least 800 years to fill it
again to its present height.[75]

To ascertain the _depth_ of the sea has been found impracticable,
both on account of the numerous experiments which it would be found
necessary to make, and the want of proper instruments for that purpose.
Beyond a certain depth the sea has hitherto been found unfathomable;
and though several methods have been contrived to obviate this
difficulty, none of them has completely answered the purpose. We know
in general that the depth of the sea increases gradually as we leave
the shore; but if this continued beyond a certain distance, the depth
in the middle of the ocean would be prodigious. Indeed, the numerous
islands every where scattered in the sea demonstrate the contrary,
by showing us that the bottom of the water is unequal like the land,
and that so far from uniformly sinking, it sometimes rises into lofty
mountains. If the depth of the sea be in proportion to the elevation
of the land, as has been generally supposed, its greatest depth will
not exceed five or six miles; for there is no mountain six miles
perpendicular above the level of the sea. The sea has never been
actually sounded to a greater depth than a mile and 66 feet; every
thing beyond that, therefore, rests entirely upon conjecture and
analogical reasoning, which, in this case, are in no wise conclusive.
Along the coasts, where the depth of the sea is generally well known,
it has always been found proportioned to the height of the shore; when
the coast is high and mountainous, the sea that washes it is deep;
when, on the contrary, the coast is low, the water is shallow. Whether
this analogy holds at a distance from the shore, experiments alone can
determine.

Water is an uninflammable fluid, says Dr. O. Gregory, and, when pure,
is transparent, colorless, and void of taste and smell. Mr. Cavendish
made a discovery that it is formed by the union of _hydrogen_ and
_oxygen_. It may, therefore, be considered as _oxide of hydrogen_:
oxygen and hydrogen appearing to unite, only in that certain proportion
of which water is the result. In 1798, (observes Mr. Parkes) Mr. Sequin
made a grand experiment for the composition of water. He expended no
less than 25,582 cubic inches (or nearly two hogsheads) of inflammable
air, and 12,457 of vital air. The first weighed 1,039 grains, and
the second 6,210, amounting to 7,249 grains, and the water obtained
amounted to 7,245 grains, or about three-fourths of a wine pint. The
loss was only four grains. Another experiment was afterwards made
by Le Fevre, in which nearly two pounds and a quarter of water was
produced.

The sea water contains a quantity of _salt_, but not in the same
proportions every where. In the torrid zone, where otherwise, from the
excessive heat, it would be in danger of putrefaction, the water is
found most salt; as we advance northward its briny quality diminishes,
till at the poles it is nearly gone altogether. Under the line,
Lucas found that the sea comprised a seventh part of solid contents,
consisting chiefly of sea-salt. At Harwich, he found it yielded 1-25 of
the same matter. At Carlscroon, in Sweden, it contains 1-30 part, and
on the coast of Greenland a great deal less. This gradual diminution
of saltness from the equator to the pole, is not, however, without
particular exceptions. The Mediterranean sea contain 1-22 of the
sea-salt, which is less than the German sea contains. The saltness of
some seas, or of particular parts of the same seas, may be increased,
as Mr. Boyle intimates, from rocks and other masses of salt, either at
the bottom of the sea, or dispersed near their shores.

This phenomenon of the sea perplexed the philosophers before the time
of Aristotle, and surpassed even the great genius of that philosopher.
Father Kircher, after having consulted three and thirty authors
upon the subject, could not help remarking, that the fluctuations
of the ocean itself were scarcely more various than the opinions
concerning the origin of its saline impregnation. Bernadine Gomesins,
(observes Bishop Watson) about 200 years ago, published an ingenious
treatise on salt: in this treatise, after reciting and refuting the
opinions of Empedocles, Anaxagoras, and Aristotle, on the subject in
question, he proposes his own; wherein he maintains, that the sea was
originally created in the same state in which we at present find it,
and impregnated, from the very first, with the salt which it contains.
Indeed, we cannot account for the general saltness of the sea from
second causes; hence we must suppose it has had this property from
the creation. Naturalists assure us, that, though some few species of
fishes thrive in fresh water, and some others live alternately in fresh
and salt, yet by far the greatest number cannot exist out of the sea;
which is a proof that the sea was at the creation impregnated with salt.

The saltness of the sea has been considered by some as a peculiar
blessing from Providence, in order to keep so great an element pure
and wholesome: but facts prove that this property is not capable of
preserving it from putrefaction. Sir Robert Hawkins, one of our most
enlightened navigators, gives an account of a calm, in which the sea
continuing for some time without its usual motion, began to assume a
very formidable appearance. “Were it not (says he) for the moving of
the sea, by the force of winds, tides, and currents, it would corrupt
all the world. The experiment of this I saw in the year 1590, lying
with a fleet about the islands of Azores, almost six months; the
greatest part of the which time we were becalmed. Upon which all the
sea became so replenished with various sorts of gelies, and forms of
serpents, adders, and snakes, as seemed wonderful; some green, some
black, some yellow, some white, some of divers colors, and many of
them had life; and some there were a yard and a half and two yards
long; which had I not seen, I could hardly have believed. And hereof
are witnesses all the companies of the ships which were then present;
so that hardly a man could draw a bucket of water clear of some
corruption. In which voyage, towards the end thereof, many of every
ship fell sick, and began to die apace. But the speedy passage into
our country was a remedy to the crazed, and a preservative for those
that were not touched.”[76] Mr. Boyle informs us, that he once kept a
quantity of sea water, taken from the English channel, for some time
barrelled up; and, in a few weeks, it began to acquire a fetid smell.
He was also assured by one of his acquaintance, who had been becalmed
for about fourteen days in the Indian ocean, that the water, for want
of motion, began to stink; and, that had the calm continued much
longer, the stench would probably have poisoned him. It is the motion,
therefore, and not the saltness of the sea, that preserves it in its
present state of salubrity.[77]

The sea has three kinds of motion: the _first_ is that undulation
which is occasioned by the wind. This motion is evidently confined to
the surface; the bottom, even during the most violent storms, remains
perfectly calm. Mr. Boyle has remarked, from the testimony of several
divers, that the sea is affected by the winds to the depth only of six
feet. It would follow from this, that the height of the waves above
the surface does not exceed six feet; and that this holds, in the
Mediterranean sea at least, we are informed by the Compte de Marsigli;
though he also sometimes observed them, during a very violent tempest,
rise two feet higher.

The _second_ kind of motion is that continual tendency which the whole
water in the sea has towards the west. It is greater near the equator
than about the poles; and, indeed, cannot be said to take place at all
in the northern hemisphere beyond the tropic. It begins on the west
side of America, where it is moderate; hence that part of the ocean has
been called _Pacific_. As the waters advance westward, their motion is
accelerated; so that, after having traversed the globe, they strike
with great violence on the eastern shore of America. Being stopped
by that continent, they turn northward, and run with considerable
impetuosity in the Gulf of Mexico; from thence they proceed along
the coast of North America, till they come to the south side of the
great bank of Newfoundland, when they turn off, and run down to the
Western Isles. This current is called the _Gulf stream_. It was first
accurately described by Dr. Franklin, who remarked also, that the
water in it having been originally heated in the torrid zone, cools so
gradually in its passage northward, that even the latitude might be
found in any part of the stream by means of a thermometer. This motion
of the sea westward has never been explained: it seems to have some
connection with the trade-winds, and the diurnal revolution of the
earth upon its axis.

The _third_, and most remarkable motion of the sea, is the tide; which
is a regular swell of the ocean every 12 hours, accounted for from the
principal of gravitation. The sagacious Kepler long ago conjectured,
that the earth and moon, and every particle of them, mutually gravitate
towards each other, and are the cause of the tides. If, says he, the
earth ceased to attract its waters towards itself, all the water in
the ocean would rise and flow into the moon: the sphere of the moon’s
attraction extends to our earth, and draws up the water. This, at that
time, was mere conjecture; for Sir Isaac Newton was the first who
clearly pointed out the cause of this phenomenon. On the shores of the
ocean, and in bays, creeks, and harbors, which communicate freely with
it, the waters rise above their mean height twice a day, and as often
sink below it, forming what is called a _flood_ and an _ebb_, a _high_
and _low water_. It has been stated, that in the middle of the sea the
tide seldom rises higher than one or two feet; but, on the coast, it
frequently reaches to the height of 45 feet, and, in some places, even
to more. At Plymouth, it is sometimes 21 feet between the greatest and
least depth of the water in the same day, and sometimes only 12 feet.

When the sun and moon act conjointly on the tides, which is at the
change and full of the moon, they are stronger and run higher than at
other times, and are called _spring tides_; but when the sun and moon
are 90 degrees apart, their attractive powers, being in opposition to
each other, occasion the tides to be weaker and lower than at other
times, and these are called _neap tides_. The word _neap_ is derived
from the Saxon; it signifies low, decrescent, and is used only of the
tide. These different heights of tide are observed to succeed each
other in a regular series, diminishing from the greatest to the least,
and then increasing from the least to the greatest, according to the
age and situation of the moon.

    “The moon turns ocean in his bed,
    From side to side, in constant ebb and flow,
    And purifies from stench his watery realms.”

Sir Isaac Newton calculated the attractive powers of the sun and moon
on the tides, and found the attraction of the latter to be about three
times greater than that of the former.

Water is found to exist in four states: namely, solid, or ice;
liquid, or water; vapor, or steam; and in a state of composition
in other bodies. The younger Lemery observes, that ice is only the
re-establishment of the parts of water in their natural state;
that the mere absence of fire is sufficient to account for this
re-establishment; and that the fluidity of water is a real fusion, like
metals exposed to the fire; differing only in this, that a greater
quantity of fire is necessary to the one than the other.

Underneath the poles, water is always solid; there it is similar to the
hardest rocks, and may be formed by the chisel of the statuary like a
stone. The following circumstance, noticed by Bishop Watson, will show
the solidity that water is capable of acquiring when divested of a
large portion of caloric. It is related that at the whimsical marriage
of Prince Gallitzen, in 1739, the Russians applied ice to the same
purposes as stone. A house, consisting of two apartments, was built
with large blocks of ice; and the icy cannon, which were fired in honor
of the day, performed their office more than once without bursting.

During the severe winter of 1740, observes M. de Bomare, a palace of
ice, 52 feet long, 16 wide, and 20 high, was built at Petersburgh,
according to the most elegant rules of art. The river Neva afforded the
ice, which was from two to three feet thick, blocks of which were cut
and embellished with various ornaments. When built up, the different
parts were colored by sprinkling them over with water of various tints.
Six cannons, made of and mounted with ice, with wheels of the same
matter, were placed before the palace; and a hempen bullet was driven
by one of these cannons, in the presence of the whole court, through
a board two inches thick, at the distance of sixty paces. Cowper
remarks,--

                        “No forest fell,
    Imperial mistress of the fur-clad Russ,
    When thou wouldst build--no quarry sent its stores
    T’ enrich thy walls; but thou didst hew the floods,
    And make thy marble of the glassy wave.
    Silently as a dream the fabric rose,
    Ice upon ice; the well-adjusted parts
    Were soon conjoin’d; nor other cement ask’d
    Than water interfused to make them one.
    Lamps gracefully disposed, and of all hues,
    Illumin’d ev’ry side. Long wavy wreaths
    Of flowers, that feared no enemy but warmth,
    Blush’d on the pannels, which were once a stream,
    And soon to slide into a stream again.”

In the most northern part of the Russian territory, the cold is
sometimes sufficient to freeze mercury, or 72 degrees below the
freezing point of water.[78] It is so intense in some seasons, that the
poor inhabitants cannot venture out of their miserable huts but at the
hazard of their lives.

    “There, through the prison of unbounded wilds,
    Barr’d by the hand of nature from escape,
    Wide roams the Russian exile. Nought around
    Strikes his sad eye but deserts lost in snow,
    And heavy loaded groves, and solid floods,
    That stretch athwart the solitary vast
    Their icy horrors to the frozen main.”

In Iceland and Germany the thermometer frequently falls to zero, which
is 32 degrees below the freezing point. At Hudson’s Bay it has been
known to sink even 50 degrees lower. When stones or metals, which have
been exposed to such degrees of cold, are touched by the tongue, or
the softer parts of the human body, they absorb the heat from those
parts with such rapidity, that the flesh becomes instantly frozen and
mortified, and the principle of life in them is extinguished. Some
French academicians, who made a journey to the northern end of the
Baltic, and wintered under the polar circle, found it necessary to use
all possible precautions to secure themselves from the dreadful cold
which prevailed. They prevented, as much as possible, the entrance of
the external air into their apartments; and if at any time they had
occasion to open a window or a door, the humidity of their breath,
confined in the air of the house, was condensed and frozen into a
shower of snow; their lungs, when they ventured to breathe the cold
air, felt as if they were torn asunder; and they often heard the
rending of the timber around them by the expansive power of the frost
on the fluid in its pores. In this terrible cold the thermometer
fell to 33 below zero.[79] The most intense cold ever known in the
neighborhood of London was on December 25th, 1796, when the thermometer
indicated 2 below zero.

The ice at each pole of the earth forms an immense cupola, the arch of
which extends some thousand miles over the continents; the thickness
of which, beyond the 60th degree of latitude, is several hundred
feet. Navigators have assigned to detached masses, which are met with
floating at sea, an elevation of from 1,500 to 1,800 feet.[80] There
can be no doubt but that the thickness of these cupolas of ice is much
greater nearer the poles; for astronomy sometimes presents in the
heavens so vast an image of them, that the rotundity of the earth seems
to be considerably affected thereby. Captain Cook could never approach
nearer the south pole, where there is no land, than the 70th degree of
latitude; that is, no nearer than 1,500 miles; and it was only under
the favor of a bay, that he was permitted to advance even so far.[81]
All the results of observations made by navigators, concur in proving
that the temperature of the sea decreases according to the depth; and
that the deepest gulfs are continually covered with ice, even under the
equator. From a late memoir by M. Perron, some say, there is reason to
believe that these mountains of ice at the poles, which have hitherto
impeded the progress of European navigators, have been detached from
the depths of the sea to float at the surface.[82]

When water is converted into ice, it is lighter[83] than when in a
fluid state, which is a circumstance of great importance. Galileo
was the first who observed this. Ice consequently floats upon water,
its specific gravity being to that of water as eight to nine. This
rarefaction seems to be owing to the air-bubbles produced in water
by freezing; and which, being considerably larger in proportion to
the water frozen, render the body so much specifically lighter: these
air-bubbles, during their production, acquire a great expansive power,
so as to burst the containing vessels though ever so strong.

    [The specific weight of ice is known to be less than
    that of water. Our author assigns a reason not entirely
    satisfactory. We must admit that the freezing of the upper
    stratum of water, although it may _include_ the air which was
    in the water frozen, yet, _it does not expel the air from the
    subjacent volumes of water_. Hence the air in the water below
    will balance the effects of the air included in the ice.

    It is a singular fact, and is regarded as a deviation from
    the general rule, that water _expands_ in volume in proportion
    as its temperature is _reduced below_ 40° Fahrenheit. It also
    expands by raising its temperature above this degree.

    The _expansion_ of the volume then, and not the enclosed
    air bubbles, is the cause of water being specifically lighter
    when converted into ice. But it remains to account for its
    expansion by a _reduction_ of temperature.

    This is a difficult question. It seems most probable
    that this expansion is owing to a peculiar arrangement, of
    the particles of water, in the act of crystallization, i.e.
    _freezing_. M. Mairan found that the particles of water, in
    the act of freezing, arranged themselves constantly at an angle
    of 60°, and by this arrangement _increased the bulk_ of the
    water thus crystallized.

    It is obviously a mistake to attribute the “expansive
    power” of freezing to the force of the inclosed air-bubbles:
    because the reduction of temperature would reduce this supposed
    expansion of the inclosed air. The true cause of the expansion
    of ice is supposed above, in the arrangements of the particles
    of water in the process of crystallization.

    The _power_ which disposes these particles to arrange,
    _increases with the reduction of temperature_, until the
    disposing power becomes sufficiently great to force every
    impediment to the inclination to arrange. Hence the strongest
    vessels burst in the process of freezing.

    The impediments may restrain the accomplishment of the
    arrangement of the particles for a time, but the disposing
    power will overcome them, if the reduction of temperature go
    on; and when they are overcome _suddenly_, the crystallization
    will take place _instantly_. Hence the sudden rending of
    vessels, trees, mountain rocks, &c, upon the sudden congelation
    of water.

    Even when there is no cause to impede crystallization, it
    is well known that the _preparation_ to crystallize, or freeze,
    may be observed in the liquid; the particles seeming to be
    _preparing_ to arrange themselves; and then, at a given stage
    of the preparation, they take their places _suddenly_, and thus
    we have ice.

    This consummation may be retarded, or hastened by
    _artificial_ means. Water may be reduced to a lower temperature
    by being kept _still_, than when _agitated_. And if it be
    cooled down to the lowest possible temperature, _without
    congealing_, it may remain fluid at that temperature for a long
    time. But if the vessel be _suddenly struck_; or the surface
    of the water _touched with a piece of ice_; or _a large piece
    of cold metal be brought in contact with the outside of the
    vessel; the water will instantly crystallize or freeze in
    beautiful crystals_.

    These facts establish the above theory. Because, 1. there
    is no increased reduction of temperature effected, by striking
    the vessel, touching the surface of the water with ice, or the
    outside of the vessel with cold metal. 2. There is every reason
    to conclude these things _commence the motion_ in the water,
    which is at rest, balanced between an inclination to be at
    rest, and an inclination to move in arranging the particles;
    the motion communicated overcomes this balance in favor of
    the disposition to crystallize, and hence the water freezes
    instantly, with an expansion of volume.]

It is owing to the _expansion_ of water in freezing, that rocks
and trees are often split during intense frosts. According to the
calculations of the Florentine academicians, a spherule of water, only
one inch in diameter, expands in freezing with a force superior to the
resistance of 13½ tons weight. Major Williams also attempted to prevent
this expansion; but during the operation the iron plug which stopped
the orifice of the bomb-shell containing the freezing water, and which
was more than two pounds weight, was projected several hundred feet
with great velocity; and in another experiment the shell burst. This
property of water is taken advantage of in splitting slate. At Colly
Western, the slate is dug from the quarries in large blocks: these are
placed in an opposite direction to what they had in the quarry, and the
rain is allowed to fall on them: it penetrates their fissures, and the
sharp frost freezes the water, which, expanding with its usual force,
splits the slate into thin layers.[84]

M. Mairan, in a dissertation on ice, attributes the increase of its
bulk chiefly to a different arrangement of the parts of the water
from which it is formed; the icy skin on the water being composed
of filaments, which according to him, are found to be constantly
and regularly joined at an angle of 60°; and which, by this angular
disposition, occupy a greater volume than if they were parallel. He
found the augmentation of the volume of water by freezing, in different
trials, a 14th, an 18th, a 19th, and when the water was previously
purged of air, only a 22d part: that ice, after its formation,
continues to expand by cold; for, after water had been frozen to some
thickness, the fluid part being let out by a hole in the bottom of the
vessel, a continuance of the cold made the ice convex; and a piece of
ice, which was at first only a 14th part specifically lighter than
water, on being exposed some days to the frost, became a 12th part
lighter. To this cause he attributes the bursting of ice on ponds.

Several philosophers have been very desirous to experience how far the
expansive force of freezing water might be carried. “An iron gun of an
inch thickness,” says M. Haüy, “filled with water and exactly closed,
having been exposed by Buot to a strong frost, was found to be burst
in two places at the end of twelve hours. The Florentine philosophers
were able, by means of the same cause, to burst a sphere of very thick
copper; and Musschenbroek, having calculated the effort which would
occasion the rupture, found that it would be capable of raising a
weight of 27,720 pounds.”

“Colonel E. Williams, of the Royal Artillery, when at Quebec, in the
years 1794 and 1795,” says Dr. O. Gregory, “made many experiments.
He filled all sizes of iron bomb-shells with water, then plugged the
fusee-hole close up, and exposed them to the strong freezing air of the
winter in that climate; sometimes driving in the iron plugs as hard as
possible with a sledge-hammer: and yet, though they weighed near three
pounds, they were always forced out by a sudden expansion of the water
in the act of freezing, like a ball impelled by gunpowder, sometimes
to the distance of between 400 and 500 feet: and when the plugs were
screwed in, or furnished with hooks and barbs, by which to lay hold of
the inside of the shell, so that they could not possibly be forced
out; in that case the shell was always split in two, though its
thickness of metal was about an inch and three quarters. It is further
remarkable, that through the circular crack, round about the shells
where they burst, there stood out a thin film or sheet of ice, like a
fin; and in the cases where the plugs were projected by freezing water,
there suddenly issued from the fusee-hole a bolt of ice of the same
diameter, and stood over it sometimes to the height of eight inches
and a half. Hence we need not be surprised that excessive frost should
cause the ice to split rocks, and other solid substances.”[85]

It was necessary for the preservation of the world, that water should
in this instance be subjected to a law different from that of other
substances which change from fluid to solid. The wisdom and goodness
of the great ARTIFICER of the world will manifest itself in this
arrangement, if we consider what would have been the consequences had
water been subject to the general law, and like other fluids, become
specifically heavier by the loss of its caloric. In winter, when the
atmosphere became reduced to 32°, the water on the surface of our
rivers would have sunk as it froze; another sheet of water would
have frozen immediately, and sunk also; the ultimate consequence of
which would have been, that the beds of our rivers would have become
repositories of immense masses of ice, which no subsequent summer could
unbind; and the world would shortly have been converted into a frozen
chaos. How admirable the wisdom, how skilful the contrivance, that by
subjecting water to a law contrary to what is observed by other fluids,
as it freezes it becomes specifically lighter, and, swimming upon the
surface, performs an important service by preserving a vast body of
caloric in the _subjacent_ fluid from the effects of the surrounding
cold, ready to receive its own accustomed quantity on the first change
of the atmosphere?[86]

Owing to the distance of this globe from the sun, and to the vast
mountains of ice at the poles, the atmosphere over a large portion of
the earth is at times reduced to so low a temperature, that, if it
were not for a wise provision of nature, all vegetable life must be
destroyed. Caloric has always a tendency to equilibrium; therefore, if
the temperature of the air be lowered, the earth cools in proportion:
but when the atmosphere is reduced to 32°, the water which it held
in solution becomes frozen, and precipitates in the form of snow on
the earth, covering it as with a carpet, and thereby preventing the
escape of that caloric which is necessary for the preservation of
those families of vegetables that depend on it for their support and
maturity. Be the air ever so cold, the ground, thus covered, is seldom
reduced below 32°, but is maintained equably at that temperature for
the purpose above mentioned.[87] Homer has described a shower of snow,
and its extensive effects, in a fine strain of poetry.

    “In Winter’s bleak uncomfortable reign,
    A snowy inundation hides the plain:
    Jove stills the winds, and bids the skies to sleep;
    Then pours the silent tempest thick and deep:
    And first the mountain tops are covered o’er,
    Then the green fields, and then the sandy shore;
    Bent with the weight the nodding woods are seen,
    And one bright waste hides all the works of men:
    The circling seas alone, absorbing all,
    Drink the dissolving fleeces as they fall”--POPE.

Snow is furnished with the power of absorbing and combining with a
large portion of oxygen, which gives it its fertilizing property. The
snow melting and penetrating into the softened earth communicates to it
oxygen, and this oxygen promotes the germination of seeds. The carbon
of the earth combining with the oxygen, is converted into carbonic
acid, and thereby acquires more solubility; while the water contributes
to excite that activity which had been rendered dormant in the roots
by the cold. It is this property of carbon which deprives water of the
superabundant oxygen that would render it prejudicial to health, and
unfit for the purposes of life. Thus what would otherwise be injurious
to us is improved by the ground, and gives at the same time power and
activity to the mould. How multiplied are those means which infinite
wisdom and goodness employ for the preservation of the productions of
Nature![88]

Ice at 32° must absorb 140° of caloric before it can become a fluid;
or such a quantity as would raise a body of water of equal bulk with
itself from 32° to 172°. For instance: “Take any quantity by weight of
ice or snow at 32°, and mix it with an equal weight of water heated
exactly to 172°. The snow instantly melts, and the temperature of
the mixture is still only at _thirty-two_ degrees. Here the water is
cooled 140°, while the temperature of the snow is not increased at
all; so that 140° of caloric have disappeared. They must have combined
with the snow; but they have only melted it, without increasing its
temperature. Hence it follows irresistibly that ice, when converted
into water, absorbs and combines with 140° of caloric. Water then,
after being cooled down to 32°, cannot freeze till it has parted with
140° of caloric; and ice, after being heated to 32°, (which is the
exact freezing point), cannot melt till it has absorbed 140° more of
caloric. This is the cause of the extreme slowness of these operations.
There can be no doubt, then, but water owes its fluidity to its latent
caloric, and that its caloric of fluidity is 140°.”[89] And all this
arrangement in nature, connected with the operation of these elements,
is immediately under the control and direction of the infinitely wise
and almighty Creator of the universe. “He sendeth forth his commandment
upon earth: his word runneth very swiftly. He giveth snow like wool:
he scattereth the hoar-frost like ashes. He casteth forth his ice like
morsels: who can stand before his cold? He sendeth out his word, and
melteth them: he causeth his wind to blow, and the waters flow.”

Drops of rain, falling through a cold region of the atmosphere, are
frozen and converted into hail; and thus the _hail_ is produced by
_rain_. When it begins to fall, it is _rain_; when it is falling, it
is converted into _hail_; so that it is literally true, that _it rains
hail_. The further a hail-stone falls, the larger it generally is;
because, in its descent, meeting with innumerable particles of water,
they become attached to it, are also frozen, and thus its bulk is
continually increasing till it reaches the earth.[90] A storm of hail
fell near Liverpool, in Lancashire, in the year 1795, which greatly
damaged the vegetation, broke windows, &c, &c. Many of the stones
measured five inches in circumference. Dr. Halley mentions a similar
storm of hail in Lancashire, Cheshire, &c, April 29, 1697, that for
sixty miles in length, and two miles in breadth, did immense damage,
by splitting trees, killing fowls and all small animals, knocking
down men and horses, &c, &c. Mezeray, in his History of France, says,
that in Italy, in 1510, there was for some time a horrible darkness,
thicker than that of night; after which the clouds broke into thunder
and lightning, and there fell a shower of hail-stones which destroyed
all the beasts, birds, and even fish of the country. It was attended
with a strong smell of sulphur, and the stones were of a blueish color,
some of them weighing one hundred pounds weight. The Almighty says to
Job--“Hast thou seen the treasures of the hail, which I have reserved
against the time of trouble, against the day of battle and war.” While
God has such artillery at his command, how soon may he desolate a
country, or a world![91]

The aqueous fluid is in continual circulation. The constant _round_
which it travels, says Dr. Paley, and by which, (without suffering
either adulteration or waste,) it is continually offering itself to
the wants of the habitable globe, is much to be admired. From the sea
are exhaled, by the heat of the sun, into the air, those vapors which
are there condensed into clouds: these clouds are dissolved into rain
and dew, or into snow and hail, which are but rain congealed, by the
coldness of the air, and descend in showers, which, penetrating into
the crevices of the hills, supply the springs: which springs flow in
little streams into the valleys; and there uniting, become rivers,
which rivers, in return, feed the ocean. So there is an incessant
circulation of the same fluid; and not one drop probably more or less
now than there was at the creation. A particle of water takes its
departure from the surface of the sea, in order to discharge certain
important offices to the earth: and, having executed the service which
was assigned to it, returns to the bosom which it left.[92] Thus, as
one of the greatest of naturalists says, “All the rivers run into the
sea; yet the sea is not full: unto the place from whence the rivers
come, thither they return again.”

Water, when taken up by the atmosphere, is not in an aqueous state, but
is converted into vapor by the efficiency of heat, and then combines
with more than five times the quantity of caloric than is required to
bring ice-cold water to a boiling heat, and occupies a space 800 times
greater than it does when in the form of water. A large portion of the
matter of heat combining chemically with water, renders it specifically
_lighter_; which is the cause of its rising and mixing with the
atmosphere. The waters on the face of the earth would be dissipated in
vapor by a small degree of heat, if we had no atmosphere. Under the
pressure of the atmosphere water boils at 212°, but in vacuo it boils
when heated only to 67°. On the contrary, if additional pressure be
given to water by a Papin’s digester, it may be heated to 400°, without
producing ebullition. However long we boil a fluid, in an open vessel,
we cannot make it in the smallest degree hotter than the boiling
point.[93] When arrived at this point, the vapor absorbs the heat, and
carries it off as fast as it is generated. When water is received into
the atmosphere, if the air be warm, it becomes so far changed by its
union with the matter of heat as to be perfectly invisible. In this
state it occupies a space 1,400 times greater than its ordinary liquid
state.

After vapor has remained some time in the atmosphere, it becomes in a
measure condensed; and the particles of water of which it is composed
unite, and form hollow vesicles, which accumulate together and produce
clouds. How this is effected, those who have attentively considered
the subject are not agreed. Dr. Thomson, after well investigating the
matter, concludes, from all the facts, that “the formation of clouds
and rain cannot be accounted for by a single principle with which
we are acquainted.” It is, however, says Mr. Parkes, probable that
_electricity_ alone is the primary cause. Saussure conjectures that it
is the electrical fluid which surrounds these vesicles, and prevents
them from dissolving in the air. And the idea of the formation of
clouds by the agency of electricity was mentioned by Volta, and also by
Dr. Franklin.

    [It is allowed by all, that clouds are formed by the
    aqueous vapors which are held suspended, or in solution, by
    the atmosphere. It is not a settled question, whether the air
    holds these vapors in solution, or merely suspended; and thus,
    keeping the particles asunder, prevents their condensation.

    This aqueous vapor is _invisible_ when perfectly in union
    with the air. When it begins to separate from the air, it
    becomes visible by condensation, in the form of _clouds_,
    _mists_, and _fogs_. When it is perfectly separated and
    sufficiently condensed it becomes _rain_, and when the
    temperature is sufficiently low to freeze the condensed drops,
    they become _snow_, or _hail_.

    The above process is quite intelligible, but the _agent_ of
    this condensation is, perhaps, inexplicable. It is impossible
    to solve all the phenomena of the formation of clouds, by
    supposing the vapors condensed by a reduction of temperature,
    produced by the warmer volumes of clouds rising into the
    regions of colder ones. For we know the natural tendency of the
    warmer strata of air, from the neighborhood of the earth, is to
    rise, with its watery particles, to colder regions. Hence there
    would be a constant condensation, which would seem to require a
    constant deposition of rain, or mist; or, at least, a constant
    accumulation of clouds.

    Again: On this theory, the nights would be cloudy and
    rainy: as the vapors raised during the day would be condensed
    by the superior coldness of the night succeeding. Moreover, it
    is well known that great rains fall in very warm weather, and
    when a _rise_ of temperature is observed.

    These, and other considerations, have induced many persons
    to have recourse to _electricity_ to solve this difficult
    question, and various observations seem to countenance the
    idea that it may be the remote agent of the formation of
    clouds, by producing a sudden rarefaction of the air, which
    would, of course, produce a sudden reduction of temperature;
    the consequence of which would be a rapid condensation of the
    watery particles in combination with the air. This condensation
    would form clouds, and if sufficiently rapid and extensive, a
    fall of rain would ensue.

    This supposition is much strengthened by a fact of common
    observation, viz: _when clouds are impending over us, but no
    rain falling, a sudden shower comes down instantly upon a
    flash of lightning._ In this case it is so obvious that the
    lightning had an immediate agency, that none can doubt, who
    ever observed the phenomenon.

    The _electrified_ state of _clouds_, _fogs_, and _mists_,
    is considered strong proof in favor of this theory. Clouds are
    almost always highly charged with electricity, and sometimes so
    highly charged as to become _luminous_, and very destructive.

    On the 11th of August, 1772, about midnight, a bright cloud
    was observed covering a mountain in the district of Cheribon,
    in the island of Java, at the same time several reports were
    heard like those of a gun. The people who dwelt upon the upper
    parts of the mountain not being able to fly fast enough, a
    great part of the cloud, almost three leagues in circumference,
    detached itself under them, and was seen at a distance rising
    and falling like the waves of the sea, and emitting globes of
    fire so luminous, that the night became as clear as day. The
    effects of it were astonishing; every thing was destroyed for
    seven leagues round; the houses were demolished; plantations
    were buried in the earth, and 2,140 people lost their lives.
    _Ency. Brit. Article_, CLOUDS.

    In another case, October 29th, 1757, in the island of
    Malta, a little after midnight, there was seen to the South
    west of the city Melita, a great black cloud, which, as it
    approached, changed its color, till at last it became like a
    flame of fire mixed with smoke. A dreadful noise was heard on
    its approach, which alarmed the whole city. It passed over the
    port, and came first on an English ship, which in an instant
    was torn to pieces, and nothing left but the hulk; part of
    the masts, sails, and cordage were carried to a considerable
    distance along with the cloud. The small craft were sunk
    instantly. It demolished a part of the city, and passed over to
    Sicily, but did no injury there as it was previously exhausted.
    Several hundred were killed. _Ency. Brit. Article_, CLOUD.]

The principle of evaporation is the primary cause of all rain, mist,
dew, &c. The ocean loses many millions of gallons of water hourly by
evaporation. The Mediterranean alone is said to lose more by it, than
it receives from the Nile, the Tiber, the Rhone, the Po, and all the
other rivers that fall into it. When Dr. Halley made his celestial
observations upon the tops of the mountains at St. Helena, he found
that the quantity of vapor which fell there (even when the sky was
clear) was so great, that his observations were thereby much impeded:
his glasses were so covered with water through the condensation of the
vapors, that he was obliged to wipe them every ten minutes. In order to
determine, with some degree of accuracy, how much water would be raised
in vapor in any space of time, he took a vessel of water salted to the
same degree with that of sea-water, in which he placed a thermometer,
and by means of a pan of coals brought the water to the same degree of
heat as would be produced by the sun in summer: he then affixed the
vessel of water with the thermometer in it, to one end of a pair of
scales, and exactly counterpoised it with weights on the other. Then,
at the end of two hours, he found by the alteration in the weight of
the vessel, that a sixtieth part of an inch in the depth of the water
was gone off in vapor; and therefore, in twelve hours, one-tenth of an
inch would have gone off. From this experiment the Doctor calculates
(in as accurate a manner as the subject will admit of) the quantity of
water raised by evaporation from the Mediterranean Sea, to be at least
five thousand two hundred and eighty millions of tons of water in a
day; and from the river Thames twenty millions three hundred thousand
tons per day, on the average.

This water is conveyed by the winds to every part of the continents:
these it fertilizes in the form of rain, and afterwards supplies the
rivers, which flow again into the sea. In our climate, evaporation is
found to be about four times as much from the vernal to the autumnal
equinox, as from the autumnal to the vernal. Heat facilitates all
solutions; and the greater the difference between the temperature
of the air and the evaporating surface, the greater will be the
evaporation. Bishop Watson found that, even when there had been no rain
for a considerable time, and the earth had been dried by the parching
heat of summer, an acre of ground dispersed into the air above 1,600
gallons of water in the space of twelve hours of a summer’s day. A
little reflection would convince any one of the importance of the
principle of evaporation. Innumerable instances of its use might be
adduced; suffice to add, that without it neither grass nor corn could
be sufficiently void of moisture to lay up for use. Our clothes when
washed could not be dried; neither could a variety of the most common
operations, which conduce much to our comfort and convenience, be
performed without it.

It is evident that water exists in the atmosphere in abundance, even in
the driest seasons, and under the clearest sky. By the experiments of
Saussure, it appears, that a cubic foot of atmospheric air will hold
eleven grains of water in solution. From this property of the air we
derive many advantages. It has a tendency to preserve every thing on
the face of the earth in a proper degree of moisture. It appears, from
the experiments of some aëronauts, that the air is much drier in the
higher regions than it is near the surface of the earth.

When two opposite currents of air meet, of different temperatures,
the vapors are sometimes condensed thereby, and rain ensues. It may
be remarked, that if the temperature of our atmosphere had been 212,
or upwards, rain could never have fallen on the earth; for the water
taken up by evaporation would have been converted into a _permanently_
elastic fluid. Such is the necessity of rain, that it _alone_ not only
affords a proper degree of moisture to the vegetable creation, but
is of service in bringing the soils into a fit state to perform their
office. Dry earth of itself is ineffective; but when _moistened_ it
has the property of decomposing atmospheric air, and of conveying its
oxygen to the roots of those plants which vegetate within it. We are
indebted to Humboldt for the knowledge of this fact. It is impossible
ever to contemplate the various ways in which the different operations
of nature are made to correct and balance each other, without being
struck with the infinite comprehension of the Divine Mind, which could
thus foresee the tendency of every law which it was about to establish.
How many cases are there in which the slightest oversight would have
produced the destruction of the world!

The effects of vapor have furnished a new moving force to mechanics,
says Haüy, which it required no ordinary genius to have created, and to
have measured its energy. This science, during a long time, had only
employed water as a moving force, by availing itself of its natural
course, or by judiciously managing its fall, so as to subject it to the
operation of machines which is regulated by an impulsion continually
renewed. The experiments made upon the force of water reduced to
vapor, gave birth to the idea of applying that vapor so much the more
advantageously to the same purpose, because independently of its
great energy, it may be transported wherever it is called for by the
interests of commerce and industry.

The execution of steam-engines has had, like that of all other
machines, its different epochs, to which successively corresponded new
degrees of perfection. To diminish, as far as possible, the quantity
of vaporisation requisite for the effect in contemplation, and to make
a moderate use of the combustible; to combine with this chief economy
that of substance and of workmanship, by contracting the dimensions of
the pieces without diminishing their utility; to prevent explosions,
by the wisest precautions adopted in the management of an agent whose
power becomes destructive when it is not limited: these are in general
the objects which have fixed the attention of engineers, and have
excited among them a laudable kind of rivalship.[94]

In no invention, either for ingenuity or utility, has modern genius
been more conspicuous than in the invention of the steam-engine.
The amazing power wielded by man, by this means, is just matter
of astonishment and wonder. In no part of the kingdom have these
stupendous machines been brought to greater perfection, either in size
or principle, than in the mining counties of Cornwall and Devon. The
largest ever built has lately been erected at Chacewater mine, in the
county of Cornwall, by Mr. S. Moyle, of that place, and is for size and
efficiency, as well as neatness, without a parallel. This stupendous
machine is equal to 1,010 horses; it works day and night in pumping dry
a mine of 100 fathoms deep, and of a large extent: and the quantity of
water pumped out in one minute, and the column consequently lifted,
is greater than any other machine of the kind ever erected. The whole
reflects the greatest credit on the abilities of the engineer, and
forms an interesting object to all those who are curious in mechanism,
or who may visit the mines of Cornwall.[95]

A very ingenious naturalist suggests the idea, that subterraneous
fire, and steam generated from it, are the true and real causes of
earthquakes. And he thinks the elasticity of steam and its expansive
force, are every way capable of producing the stupendous effects
attributed to earthquakes, when it is considered that this expansive
force of steam is to that of gunpowder as 140 to 5. He also apprehends
that subterraneous fire must, at different times, have existed
universally in the bowels of the earth, and that in union with water,
or by the expansive power of steam, it has produced the immense
continents, as well as the mountains of our globe.[96] There are,
in the Memoirs of the Paris Academy of Sciences for the year 1707,
some observations communicated by Vauban, from which it results that
140 pounds of water converted into vapor, would produce an explosion
capable of blowing up a mass of 77,000 pounds, while 140 pounds of
powder could only produce a similar effect upon a mass of 30,000.

Water would be the purest of all drinks, says Sturm, were it as
absolutely simple body; but on the other hand, its medicinal virtue
would be reduced to nothing. If we consider the manner in which water
nourishes plants, it is easy to presume that it communicates the
nutritious juices which it contains, to men and animals in the same
way. Water is not very nutritive by itself, but being very subtile, it
dissolves the nutritious parts of aliments, is a vehicle for them, and
carries them along into the minutest vessels. It is consequently the
most wholesome drink; and is essentially necessary to men and animals;
and its salutary effects are felt, where all other liquids are found
hurtful to health. “The water of Egypt,” says the Abbé Mascrier, “is
so delicious, that one would not wish the heat to be less, or to be
delivered from the sensation of thirst. The Turks find it so exquisite,
that they excite themselves to drink of it by eating _salt_. It is a
common saying among them, that if Mahomed had drank of it, he would
have besought God that he might never die, in order to have had this
continual gratification. When the Egyptians undertake the pilgrimage of
Mecca, or go out of their country on any other account, they speak of
nothing but the pleasure they shall have, at their return, in drinking
of the waters of the Nile. There is no gratification to be compared to
this: it surpasses, in their esteem, that of seeing their relations
and families. All those who have tasted of this water, allow that they
never met with the like in any other place. When a person drinks of it
for the first time, he can scarcely be persuaded that it is not a water
prepared by art: for it has something in it inexpressibly agreeable and
pleasing to the taste; and it should have the same rank among _waters_,
that _champaigne_ has among _wines_. But its most valuable quality is,
that it is exceedingly salutary. It never incommodes, let it be drank
in what quantity it may: this is so true, that it is no uncommon thing
to see some persons drink three buckets full of it in a day, without
the least inconvenience! When I pass such encomiums on the water of
Egypt, it is right to observe, that I speak only of that of the _Nile_,
which indeed is the only water, drinkable, for their _well-water_ is
detestable and unwholesome. _Fountains_ are so rare, that they are a
kind of prodigy in that country; and as to _rain-water_, that is out of
the question, as scarcely any falls in Egypt.”

       *       *       *       *       *

Having attended to the situation and properties of water in the world
of nature, we shall now show that by this element is represented the
blessings of Divine grace in the moral or spiritual world. God is
the _fountain of living waters_, ever-living, all-sufficient, and
incessantly flowing; like waters, arising and issuing from a spring,
which continue during the whole year: not like waters that proceed only
from some excess of rain, such as land-floods, or those flowing down
from hills, which in the winter season run in torrents, but in the
heat of summer are dried up and fail. Such uncertain waters are well
expressed by Job--“My brethren have dealt deceitfully as a brook, and
as the stream of brooks they pass away; which are blackish by reason
of the ice, and wherein the snow is hid: what time they wax warm they
vanish: when it is hot they are consumed out of their place. The paths
of their way are turned aside; they go to nothing, and perish. The
troops of Tema looked, the companies of Sheba waited for them. They
are confounded because they had hoped; they came thither, and were
ashamed.” He alludes to those merchants who travelled in companies or
caravans, with beasts of burden, through the deserts of Arabia; who,
having in the winter observed and marked out in certain places on the
road great pools of water, or copious streams locked up in the valleys
by severe frosts; so that, when travelling the same road in summer,
they expected finding water there still to refresh themselves and their
thirsty camels; but, to their great grief and consternation, instead
of pools or brooks of water, found heaps of dry sand, occasioned by
intense heat. But God is a fountain which sends forth streams of
blessings in all seasons, and never fails. The _living waters_ which
proceed from him as their fountain, are not stagnant, or dead, but
running, like those that issue from springs which are never dry, and
possess the most refreshing and invigorating properties.

The element of water is used for washing and purifying the body; so the
operation of Divine grace on the soul removes its moral defilement.
All the purifications by water under the law, were outward expressions
of this inward cleansing. Thus those important words by the prophet
Ezekiel, “I will sprinkle clean water upon you, and ye shall be clean;
from all your filthiness, and from all your idols, will I cleanse you:
a new heart also will I give you, and a new spirit will I put within
you.” Accordingly the Psalmist says, “Thou shalt wash me, and I shall
be whiter than snow.” He also prays, “Create in me a clean heart, oh
God; and renew a right spirit within me.” As purity is necessary for
enjoying communion with God in all his instituted ordinances, he says,
“I will wash mine hands in innocency: so will I compass thine altar,
oh Lord.” Similar language is used in the New Testament. Our Lord said
to Peter, “If I wash thee not, thou hast no part in me.” The apostle
Paul, after mentioning several immoral characters to the Christians at
Corinth, says, “And such were some of you: but ye are washed, but ye
are sanctified, but ye are justified in the name of the Lord Jesus, and
by the Spirit of our God.”

Our Lord gave himself for us, not only that he might redeem us from
all iniquity, but also that he might purify us unto himself a peculiar
people. This cleansing, washing, and purifying the soul from sin, is,
in the Holy Scripture, attributed to the virtual efficacy of his blood.
“The blood of Jesus Christ his Son cleanseth us from all sin.” “Unto
him that loved us, and washed us from our sins in his own blood.”
The primary effect of his blood is the expiation of sin; and, as a
consequence thereof, the remission of it. “This is my blood which is
shed for the remission of sins.” “In whom we have redemption through
his blood, the forgiveness of sins.” Now by the blood of Christ in
these places we are to understand his sufferings, which were completed
in the shedding of his blood on the cross.

       *       *       *       *       *


_Section_ II.--THE EARTH.

    Surface of the Earth -- Mountains -- Fertility of Plants --
    Dissemination of Seeds -- Preservation of Plants -- Adaptation
    to different Climates -- Number of vegetables -- Succession of
    vegetables -- Remarkable Trees -- Sensitive Plants -- Kitchen
    vegetables -- Garden flowers -- Religious Improvement.


The dry land and the seas constitute what is called the _terraqueous
globe_; what proportion the superficies of the sea bears to that of the
land, cannot be easily ascertained; but, as one observes, the earth
and the water exist in a most judicious proportion to each other.
According to the most exact calculations, the surface of the earth is
199,512,595 square miles; and that of the sea is to the land as three
to one. There is no certain measurement of the proportion of land and
water which the parts within the polar circles contain. The superficies
of the sea appearing so large, may lead some persons to suppose, that
the proportions between the land and water are not wisely adjusted; and
that had there been less sea and more dry land, this would have been
more adapted to the accommodation and service of mankind. As such a
supposition as this tends to arraign the wisdom of God, so it proceeds
from ignorance of natural philosophy. For, as Dr. Keill asserts, “if
there were but half the sea that now is, there would be also only half
the quantity of vapors; and, consequently, we could have no more than
half so many rivers as there now are, to supply not only all the dry
land we have at present, but half as much more; for the quantity of
vapors which are raised, bears a proportion to the surface whence they
are raised, as well as the heat which raised them. The wise Creator so
prudently ordered it, that the sea should be large enough to supply
vapors sufficient for all the land, which it would not do if it were
less than it now is.”[97] The Scriptures speak of God as making all
things in number, weight, and measure; as proceeding in his works with
the greatest exactness. “He hath measured the waters in the hollow of
his hand, and meted out heaven with a span, and comprehended the dust
of the earth in a measure, and weighed the mountains in scales, and the
hills in a balance.” Those who wish to see this further illustrated,
would do well to consult Ray’s “Wisdom of God manifested in the works
of the Creation,” and his “Physico-theological Discourses.”

The stately mountains, that lift their lofty heads above the clouds,
serve for very beneficial purposes. Does the bold atheist call them
blemishes, and irregularities in the formation of the earth? Surely
he never considered how necessary they are, for arresting the clouds
in their flight, and conveying their waters through imperceptible
channels, till they meet in some common receptacle, whence they burst
out in springs to fertilize the lower grounds, and afford refreshing
streams for man and beast. “This,” says Mr. Halley, “seems to be the
design of the hills, that their ridges, being placed through the midst
of the continents, might serve as it were for alembics, to distil
fresh water for the use of man and beast; and that their heights might
give a descent to those streams to run gently, like so many veins of
the microcosm, to be more beneficial to the creation.” They are, says
Mr. Ray, “for the generation and maintenance of rivers and fountains,
which--on the hypothesis that all proceed from rain water--could not
subsist without them, or but rarely. So we should have only torrents,
which would fail in summer, or in any dry season, and nothing to trust
to, but stagnating water, reserved in pools and cisterns. The great
inconvenience resulting from this I need not take pains to show. I say
that fountains and rivers would be but rare, were there no mountains.
For the whole dry land being but one continued mountain, and ascending
all along from the sea to the mid-land, as is undeniably proved by
the descent of rivers even in plain countries; the water sinking into
the earth, may run under ground, and, according as the vein leads it,
break out in the side of this mountain, though the place, as to outward
appearance, be a plain. There are huge ridges and extended chains of
mountains directed for the most part to run east and west; by which
means they give admittance and passage to the vapors, brought by the
winds from the Atlantic and Pacific oceans; but stop and inhibit their
excursions to the north and south, either condensing them on their
sides into water, by a kind of external distillation; or by straitening
and constipating them, compelling them to gather into drops, or descend
down in the rain.”

After the waters had subsided, the land appeared, dry and fit for
vegetation. “And God said, Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb
yielding seed, and the fruit-tree yielding fruit after his kind,
whose seed is in itself upon the earth: and it was so. And the earth
brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed after his kind, and the
tree yielding fruit, whose seed was in itself, after his kind.” Here we
rise to organized and vegetative bodies. At the Divine command, herbs,
plants, trees, and all the almost endless varieties of the vegetable
world, bearing their several seeds and fruits, according to their
different kinds, immediately began to appear. Thus before God formed
any living creature to dwell upon the earth, he provided abundantly
for its sustenance. “Now as God delights to manifest himself in the
little as well as the great,” says a celebrated commentator, “he has
shown his consummate wisdom in every part of the vegetable creation.
Who can account for, or comprehend, the structure of a single tree or
plant? The roots, the stem, the woody fibres, the bark, the rind, the
air-vessels, the sap-vessels, the leaves, the flowers, and the fruits,
are so many mysteries. All the skill, wisdom, and power of men and
angels, could not produce a single grain of wheat!”

Dr. Hales, in his Statistical Essays, has observed, that the substances
of vegetables appear, by a chemical analysis, to be composed of
sulphur, volatile salt, water, and earth, which are all endued with
mutually attracting powers; and also of a large portion of air, which
has a wonderful power of strongly attracting in a fixed state, or
of repelling in an elastic state, with a power which is superior to
great compressive forces.[98] By the infinite combinations, action,
and reaction of these principles, all the operations in animal and
vegetable bodies are effected. These active aërial principles are very
serviceable in carrying on the work of vegetation to its perfection
and maturity; not only in helping, by their elasticity, to distend
each ductile part, but, also, by enlivening and invigorating their
sap, where, mixing with the other mutually attracting principles, they
are, by gentle heat and motion, set at liberty to assimilate into the
nourishment of the respective parts. The sum of the attracting powers
of these mutually acting and re-acting principles, is, while in this
nutritive state, superior to their repelling power; by which the work
of nutrition is gradually advanced by the nearer and nearer union of
these principles from a less to a greater degree of consistency, till
they are advanced to that viscid, ductile state, whence the several
parts of vegetables are formed; and are, at length, firmly compacted
into hard substances, by the flying off of the watery diluting vehicle:
but when they are again disunited by the watery particles, their
repelling power is thereby become superior to their attracting power,
and the union of the parts of vegetables is so thoroughly dissolved,
that putrefaction commences.

God has endued the vegetable creation with the astonishing power
of multiplying itself by seeds, slips, roots. &c. ad infinitum: it
contains in itself all the rudiments of the future plants through
their endless generations. The celebrated Linnæus, in an “oration
concerning the augmentation of the habitable earth,” which proceeds on
the supposition of the existence of a sexual system in the vegetable
world, shows how from one plant of each species the immense number
of individuals now existing might arise. He gives some instances of
the surprising fertility of certain plants; as, of the elecampane,
one plant of which produced 3,000 seeds; of spelt, 2,000; of the
sun-flower, 4,000; of the poppy, 3,200; of tobacco, 40,320: and one
grain of Turkey-corn produces 2,000 others! But supposing any annual
plant producing yearly only two seeds, even of these, after 20 years,
there would be 1,048,576 individuals. For they would increase yearly
in a double proportion, _viz._ 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, &c. The seed of the
_elm_, as a learned author observes, affords a remarkable instance of
the prolific power with which the vegetable creation is endued, to
multiply its different species. “This tree produces one thousand five
hundred and eighty-four millions of seeds; and each of these seeds
has the power of producing the same number. How astonishing is this
produce! At first one seed is deposited in the earth; from this one a
tree springs, which in the course of its vegetative life produces one
thousand five hundred and eighty-four millions of seeds. This is the
first generation. The second generation will amount to two trillions,
five hundred and ten thousand and fifty-six billions. The third
generation will amount to fourteen thousand six hundred and fifty-eight
quadrillions, seven hundred and twenty-seven thousand and forty
trillions! And the fourth generation from these would amount to fifty
one sextillions, four hundred and eighty-one thousand three hundred
and eighty-one quintillions, one hundred and twenty-three thousand one
hundred and thirty-six quadrillions! Sums too immense for the human
mind to conceive; and when we allow the most confined space in which a
tree can grow, it appears that the seeds of the third generation from
one elm would be many myriads of times more than sufficient to stock
the whole superficies of all the planets in the solar system!”

While many plants and trees may be propagated by branches, buds,
suckers, and leaves fixed in the ground; so concerning the
dissemination of seeds after they come to maturity, the Author of
nature has wisely provided in various ways; this being absolutely
necessary, since without it no crop could follow. The stalks and stems
favor this purpose; for these raise the fruit above the ground, so that
the winds, shaking them to and fro, widely disperse the ripe seeds.
The pericarpium, a pellicle or thin membrane encompassing the fruit or
grain of a plant, is generally shut at the top, that the seeds may not
fall before they are shaken out by stormy winds. Wings are given to
many seeds, by the help of which they fly far from the mother plant,
and frequently spread over a large tract of country. These wings
consist either of down, as in most of the composite-flowered plants;
or of a membrane, as in birch, alder, ash, &c. Several kinds of fruits
are endued with a remarkable elasticity, by the force of which the
ripe pericarpies throw the seeds to a great distance; as wood-sorrel,
spurge, phyllanthus, and dittany. Other seeds or pericarpies are rough,
or provided with hooks, as hounds-tongue, agrimony, &c; so that they
are apt to stick to animals which pass by them, and by this means are
carried to their holes, where they are both sown and manured. Berries,
as well as other pericarpies, are by nature allotted for aliment to
animals; but, with this condition, that while they eat the pulp, they
shall sow the seeds: for when they feed on it, they either disperse
them at the same time; or, if they swallow them, they are returned
unhurt. The mistletoe always grows on other trees, because the thrush
eating its seeds, casts them forth with its dung. The cross-bill living
on fircones, and the haw-finch feeding on pinecones, sow many of their
seeds.

The structure of plants contributes essentially both to their own
preservation, and that of others. But the wisdom of the Creator appears
very remarkable in the manner of the growth of trees. For as their
roots descend deeper than those of other plants, provision is thereby
made that they shall not rob them too much of nourishment;[99] and
what is still more, a stem, not above a span in diameter, often shoots
its branches very high; these bear perhaps many thousand buds, each of
which is a plant, with its leaves, flowers, and stipulæ. Now if all
these grew on the plain, they would take up a thousand times as much
space as trees do; and, in this case, there would scarcely be room in
all the earth for so many plants as at present trees alone afford.
Besides, plants that shoot up in this way are more easily preserved
from cattle by a natural defence: their leaves also, falling in autumn,
cover the plants growing about them against the rigor of the winter;
and, in the summer, they afford a pleasing shade, not only to animals,
but to plants, against the intense heat of the sun. We may add, that
trees, like all other vegetables, imbibe water from the earth: which
does not circulate again to the root, but being dispersed like small
rain, by the transpiration of the leaves, moistens the plants that grow
around. Many plants and shrubs are armed with thorns, as the buckthorn,
sloe, carduus, cotton-thistle, &c: these serve to keep off animals,
which otherwise would destroy their fruit. At the same time, they cover
many other plants, especially of the annual kind, under their branches.
Nay it has frequently been observed on commons where furze grows, that
wherever a bush was left untouched for some years by the inhabitants a
tree has sprung up, being secured by the prickles of that shrub from
the bite of cattle. So that while adjacent grounds are robbed of plants
by voracious animals, some may be preserved to ripen flowers and
fruit, and stock the surrounding parts with seeds which otherwise would
be quite extirpated. All herbs cover the ground with their leaves, and
by their shade hinder it from being totally deprived of that moisture
which is necessary to their nourishment. Mosses, which adorn the most
barren places, do, at the same time, preserve lesser plants when they
begin to shoot, from cold and drought; as is evident in gardens, where
plants are preserved in the same way. They also hinder the fermenting
earth from forcing the roots of plants upwards in the spring; like what
happens annually to trunks of trees, and other things put into the
ground. Hence very few mosses grow in warm climates, the same necessity
not existing in those places.

The great Author of all things intended that the whole earth should be
covered with plants, and that no place should be void or barren. But
since all countries have not the same changes of seasons, and every
soil is not equally adapted to every plant; therefore, that no place
should be without some, he gave to each of them such a nature as might
be chiefly accommodated to their own climate: so that some of them can
bear intense cold, others an equal degree of heat; some delight in dry
ground, others in moist, &c. Hence plants grow where the seasons of the
year and the soil are friendly to their constitution. Grasses, the most
common of all plants, can bear almost any temperature of air: in this
the good providence of the Creator particularly appears; for all over
the globe they are necessary for the nourishment of cattle. The same
is observed in relation to our most common grains. Thus neither the
scorching sun, nor the pinching cold, hinders any country from having
vegetables. Nor is there any soil which does not bring forth many kinds
of plants. Deserts and sandy places are adorned with trees and plants.

If we connect the vast fecundity of vegetables with their number,
how bountiful will the great Author of nature appear! Solomon had a
comprehensive knowledge of the different species of plants, for he
“spake of trees, from the cedar-tree that is in Lebanon even unto
the hyssop that springeth out of the wall;” but his writings on this
subject, not being quoted by any ancient author, nor the least fragment
remaining, are entirely lost. Theophrastus, a Greek philosopher, who
succeeded Aristotle in his school at Athens, where his name became so
celebrated that he was attended by two thousand pupils, wrote a work
entitled “The History of Plants,” in which above 500 different plants
are described. Dioscorides, a Grecian by birth, but under the Roman
empire, a physician and botanist in the time of Nero, being near 300
years posterior to Theophrastus, describes about 600 plants. Pliny
the elder,[100] in his voluminous work entitled “The History of the
World,” gives descriptions of above 1,000 different species of plants.
Hieronymus Bock, or Bouc, a German, generally known by the name of
_Tragus_, in 1532, published a History of Plants, in which he describes
800 species.

From later botanical researches, we learn, that the bountiful
Creator has enriched the earth with about 20,000 different species
of vegetables. The following statement of the progress of botanical
knowledge has recently been given to the public. Messrs. Humboldt
and Boupland, the celebrated travellers, have collected in their
five years’ travels through South America, 3,800 species of plants,
of which upwards of 3,000 were new, and absolutely unknown before
to the botanists of Europe. We are at present acquainted altogether
with 44,000 species of plants; while the whole number mentioned by
the Greeks, Romans, and Arabians, does not exceed 1,400. It is worth
remarking, that the vegetable productions of the new world seem to have
been in an inverse ratio, both in point of number and luxuriance, to
those of the animal kingdom. In North America, for instance, the number
of lofty trees is far greater than in Europe. In the former country,
there are found 137 species of trees, whose trunks exceed the height
of 30 feet; while in Europe there are scarcely 45 species. But it is
singular there are no firs to be found on any part of the mountains of
South America, between the tropics, though they are very abundant in
North America. The reason why Magnolias, and other equinoxial plants,
appear so far north in America, is, that as far as lat. 48 deg. the
summers are 9 degrees (of Fahrenheit) hotter than in the corresponding
European latitudes. The winters, however, are more than proportionably
colder. At Philadelphia the summer is as hot as at Rome; while the
winter corresponds with that of Vienna. At Quebec, the summer is warmer
than at Paris; the winter colder than at St. Petersburgh. Beyond Lake
Superior, and at Hudson’s Bay, it is said that the earth is perpetually
frozen at the depth of three feet from the surface, which prevents the
inhabitants from digging wells. The same thing happens in Siberia,
on the banks of the Lena; while in South America there are cities at
a greater height than the highest summit of the Pyrenees, and houses
more elevated than the Peak of Teneriffe, the region, in Europe, of
perpetual congelation. To this we may add, that Linnæus, the celebrated
botanist, divided all plants into classes, the classes into orders, the
orders into genera, and the genera into species: and the species, we
are told, amount perhaps to 40,000, or 50,000, or more!

The fertility of the earth has been continued from the creation,
through every successive period, to the present time. Plants spring
up, grow, flourish, ripen their fruit, wither, and at last, having
finished their course, die, and return to the dust again, from whence
they first took their rise. Thus black mould, which covers the earth,
is generally owing to dead vegetables. For all roots descend into the
sand by their branches, and after a plant has lost its stem, the root
remains; but this too rots at last, and changes into mould. Thus this
kind of earth is mixed with sand, by the arrangement of nature, nearly
in the same way as dung thrown on fields is wrought into the earth by
the industry of the husbandman. But the earth offers again to plants
from its bosom what it has thus received. For when seeds are committed
to the earth, they draw to themselves, accommodate to their nature,
and turn into plants, the more subtile parts of this mould by the
co-operation of the sun, air, and rain; so that the tallest tree is,
properly speaking, nothing but mould wonderfully compounded with air
and water, and modified by a virtue communicated to a small seed by the
Creator. From these plants, when they die, just the same kind of mould
is formed as gave birth to them originally; whence fertility remains
continually uninterrupted. Whereas the earth could not make good its
annual consumption, unless it were constantly recruited by new supplies.

That the Author of nature had so constituted the world that none of the
elements should be subject to destruction, might have been supposed by
the ancients; but, till the present advanced state of the science of
chemistry, no proof of this interesting fact could have been adduced.
Of the indestructibility of matter it may be remarked, that provision
has been made even for the restoration of the fallen leaves of
vegetables, which rot on the ground, and, to a careless observer, would
appear to be lost for ever. Berthollet has shown by experiment, that,
whenever the soil becomes charged with such matter, the oxygen of the
atmosphere combines with it, and converts it into carbonic acid gas.
The consequence of this is, that this same carbon in process of time
is absorbed by a new race of vegetables, which it clothes with a new
foliage, and which is itself destined to undergo similar putrefaction
and renovation to the end of time.

The selection of a few remarkable trees and plants will serve to
impress the reader with a sense of the wisdom and power of God, as
displayed in the vegetable kingdom. As rivers and brooks are very
seldom found in deserts and sandy places, many of the trees growing
there distil water; and, by that means, afford great comfort both to
man and beast. Thus the _Tillandsia_, which is a parasitical plant,
growing on the tops of trees in the deserts of America, has its leaves
turned at the base into the shape of a pitcher, with the extremity
expanded; in these the rain is collected, and preserved for the use of
men, beasts, and birds. The water-tree in Ceylon produces cylindrical
bladders, covered with a lid; into these is secreted a most pure
and refreshing water. There is a kind of cuckow-pint in New France,
of which, if a person break a branch, it will afford him a pint of
excellent water. How wise, how beneficial is the adaptation of plants
to the inhabitants of those countries where they grow!

On the top of a rock, in one of the Canary Islands, says Glass, in
his History, grows the _Fountain Tree_, called, in the language of
the ancient inhabitants, _Garse_, (sacred or holy tree,) which for
many years has been preserved sound, entire, and fresh. Its leaves
constantly distil such a quantity of water as is sufficient to furnish
drink to every living creature in Hierro; nature having provided this
remedy for the drought of the island. It is situated about a league
and a half from the sea. Nobody knows of what species it is, only
that it is called _Til_. It is distinct from other trees, and stands
by itself. The circumference of its trunk is about twelve spans, the
diameter four, and in height from the ground to the top of the highest
branch forty spans: the circumference of all the branches together, is
one hundred and twenty feet. The branches are thick and extended: the
lowest commence an ell from the ground. Its fruit resembles the acorn,
and tastes something like the kernel of a pine-apple, but is softer and
more aromatic. The leaves of this tree resemble those of the laurel,
but are larger, wider, and more curved; they come forth in perpetual
succession, so that the tree always remains green. On the north side
of the trunk, are two large tanks, or cisterns, of rough stone, or
rather one cistern divided, each half being twenty feet square, and
sixteen spans in depth. One of these contains water for the drinking of
the inhabitants; and the other that which they use for their cattle,
washing, and such like purposes. Every morning, near this part of
the island, a cloud or mist arises from the sea, which the south and
easterly winds force against the fore-mentioned steep cliff, so that
the cloud, having no vent but by the gutter, gradually ascends it,
and from thence advances slowly to the extremity of the valley, where
it is stopped and checked by the front of the rock, which terminates
the valley, and then rests upon the thick leaves and wide-spreading
branches of the tree, from whence it distils in drops, during the
remainder of the day, until it is at length exhausted, in the same
manner that we see water drip from the leaves of trees after a heavy
shower of rain. This tree yields most water in those years when the
Levant or easterly winds have prevailed for a continuance, for by these
winds only the clouds or mists are drawn hither from the sea. A person
lives on the spot near where this tree grows, who is appointed by the
council to take care of it, and its water; and is allowed a house to
live in, with a certain salary. He every day distributes to each family
of the district, seven pots or vessels full of water, besides what he
gives to the principal people in the island.

In Cockburn’s Voyages we find the following account of the _Dropping
Tree_, near the mountains of Vera Paz, in America. “On the morning of
the fourth day we came out on a large plain where were numbers of fine
deer, and in the middle stood a tree of an unusual size, spreading its
branches over a vast compass of ground. Curiosity led us up to it; we
had perceived, at some distance, the ground about it to be wet, at
which we began to be somewhat surprised, as well knowing there had no
rain fallen for near six months past, according to the certain course
of the season in that latitude; that it was impossible to be occasioned
by the fall of dew on the tree, we were convinced, by the sun having
power to exhale all moisture of that nature a few minutes after his
rising. At last, to our great amazement, as well as joy, we saw water
dropping, or, as it were, distilling fast from the end of every leaf of
this wonderful (nor had it been amiss, if I had said miraculous) tree;
at least it was so with respect to us, who had been laboring four days
through extreme heat without receiving the least moisture, and were now
almost expiring for the want of it. We could not help looking on this
as liquor sent from heaven to comfort us under our great extremity. We
catched what we could of it in our hands, and drank very plentifully
of it, liking it so well, that we could hardly prevail with ourselves
to give it over. A matter of this nature could not but excite us to
make the strictest observations concerning it; and accordingly we staid
under the tree near three hours: we found that we could not clasp its
body by five times. We observed the soil where it grew to be very
stony; and upon the nicest inquiry we could afterwards make, both of
the natives of the country, and the Spanish inhabitants, we could not
learn that there was any such tree known throughout New Spain, nor
perhaps all America over.”

The _Tallow Tree_, mentioned by Du Halde in his History of China, grows
in great plenty in that country, producing a substance much like our
tallow, and serving for the same purposes. It is about the height of a
cherry tree; its leaves are in form of a heart, of a deep shining red
color, and its bark very smooth. Its fruit is enclosed in a kind of pod
or cover, like a chestnut, and consists of three round white grains,
of the size and form of a small nut, each having its peculiar capsule,
and within that a little stone. This stone is encompassed with a white
pulp, which has all the properties of true tallow, as to consistence,
color, and even smell; and accordingly the Chinese make their candles
of it, which doubtless would be as good as those in Europe, if they
knew how to purify this vegetable as we do the animal tallow, and make
their wicks as fine. All the preparation they give it, is to melt it
down, and mix a little oil with it, to make it softer and more pliant.
It is true, their candles made of it yield a thicker smoke, and give a
dimmer light than those of ours; but these defects are owing in a great
measure to the wicks, which are not of cotton, but only a little rod or
switch of dry light wood, covered with the pith of a rush, wound round
it, which, being very porous, serves to filtrate the minute parts of
the tallow, attracted by the burning stick, and which by this means is
kept burning.

The _Tea Tree_ is a native of China, of very slow growth; it has a
black, woody, irregular, branched root, and rises to a fathom high, or
rather more. Its leaves are very thick set, without any regularity,
and are, in substance, like those of the morella cherry tree; but,
when young, they resemble, except in color, the spindle tree, with red
berries, called _euonymus_. The larger leaves are about two inches
long, and one broad. The method of gathering them is one by one, lest
they should be torn. The first gathering begins at the middle of the
first moon, immediately before the vernal equinox; these leaves are
scarcely full opened, being only of two or three days growth; but
they are accounted the best, fetch the best price, and are called the
flower of the tea; but, by the Chinese, _veui boui_, or bohea tea. The
second gathering begins about a month after, and the last gathering is
in June; the leaves of the gatherings are sorted into three several
classes, according to their size and goodness, and sold accordingly.
After the leaves are gathered, they are the same day carried to the
work-house, and roasted over a slow fire in an iron pan; and, that they
may be thoroughly and equally dried, the roaster keeps them continually
stirring with his hands, then takes them out, with a shovel like a fan,
and commits them to the rollers, who roll them with the palms of their
hands in small parcels, till they are equally cooled, and the sharp
yellow and greenish juice is quite discharged. They are then poured
upon a mat, and sorted a second time into different classes according
to their goodness, and those that are less curled or burnt are taken
out.--It is said that the Dutch were the first importers of tea into
Europe, about the year 1606, for which they exchanged dried sage with
the Chinese: and though the English did certainly about the same time
gain a knowledge of this plant, we do not find that the government
took any cognizance of it till the Restoration, when in 1660, a duty
of eight-pence per gallon was laid on the liquor made, and sold in all
coffee-houses.

The _Coffee Tree_ is a native of the Indies, grows surprisingly quick,
and its body is naturally of an upright form; its leaves are something
like those of the common bay, but curl at the end and hang downwards.
The blossoms first appear in July, when they show themselves in bunches
at the joints, near the ends of the branches; they are much like
the flowers of the jessamine, but have the addition of some yellow
_apices_, which are loose on the top of the blossom, and a _style_
which shoots out near half an inch above it. The fruit appears about
October, which hangs on the tree till the next July before it is ripe:
it is then gathered and prepared for the market, or for propagating
other plants. Coffee is, perhaps, one of the greatest blessings, among
those that are not really necessaries of life, that Providence has
granted to mankind; and, considering its beneficial qualities as well
as its agreeable properties, it should be ranked among the most elegant
plants, in foliage, blossom, and fruit. It is a wholesome, pleasant,
and cheap beverage, and of great use in many disorders. The origin of
the use of coffee is stated to be as follows. A prior of a monastery
in the part of Arabia where this berry grows, having remarked that the
goats which eat of it became extremely brisk and alert, resolved to try
the experiment on his monks, of whom he so continually complained for
their lethargic propensities. The experiment turned out successful;
and, it is said, it was owing to this circumstance that the use of this
Arabian berry came to be so universal.

The _Banian Tree_ is a native of several parts of the East Indies. It
has a woody stem, branching to a great height and vast extent, with
heart-shaped entire leaves, ending in acute points. Of this tree the
following lines of Milton contain a description equally beautiful and
just.

                    “There soon they chose
    The fig tree; not that tree for fruit renown’d,
    But such as at this day to Indians known
    In Malabar or Decan, spreads her arms,
    Branching so broad and long, that in the ground
    The bended twigs take root and daughters grow
    About the mother tree, a pillar’d shade,
    High over arch’d and echoing walks between;
    There oft the Indian herdsman, shunning heat,
    Shelters in cool, and tends his pasturing herds
    At loop-holes cut through thickest shade.”

The banian tree, or Indian fig, is perhaps the most beautiful of
nature’s productions in that genial climate, where her luxuriance is
displayed with the greatest profusion and variety. Some of these trees,
as they are continually increasing, and, contrary to most other things
in animal and vegetable life, seem to be exempted from decay, grow to
an amazing size. Every branch projecting from the main body throws out
its own roots, at first in small tender fibres, several yards from the
ground; these continually grow thicker till they reach the surface; and
there striking in, they increase to large trunks, and become parent
trees, shooting out new branches from the top; these at length suspend
their roots, which, swelling into trunks, produce other branches:
thus continuing in a state of progression as long as the earth, the
first parent of them all, contributes her sustenance. The Hindoos
are peculiarly fond of this tree; they view it as an emblem of the
Deity, from its long duration, outstretching arms, and overshadowing
beneficence; they almost pay it divine honors, and

    “Find a fane in every sacred grove.”

Near these trees the most esteemed pagodas are generally erected; under
their shade the brahmins spend their lives in religious solitude; and
the natives of all casts and tribes are fond of recreating in the cool
recesses, beautiful walks, and lovely vistas of this umbrageous canopy,
impervious to the hottest beams of a tropical sun.

A description of a tree in the island of Java, called the _Upas_, or
Poison Tree, is given to the public by a surgeon belonging to the
Dutch East India Company, of the name of Foersch, who was stationed at
Batavia, in the year 1774. Surprising its this account may be, it is
accompanied by so many public facts, and names of persons and places,
that it is somewhat difficult to conceive it fabulous. The Upas grows
about seven leagues from Batavia, in a plain surrounded by rocky
mountains, the whole of which plain, containing a circle of ten or
twelve miles round the tree, is totally barren. Nothing that breathes
or vegetates can live within its influence. The bird that flies over
it drops down dead. The beast that wanders into it expires. The whole
dreadful area is covered with sand, over which lie scattered loose
flints and whitened bones, Thus,

    “Fierce in dread silence on the blasted heath,
    Fell Upas sits!”

This tree may be called the emperor’s great military magazine. In
a solution of the poisonous gum which exudes from it, his arrows
and offensive weapons are dipped; the procuring, therefore, of this
poisonous gum, is a matter of as much attention as of difficulty.
Criminals are only employed in this dreadful service. Of these, several
every year are sent with a promise of pardon and reward if they procure
it. Hooded in leather cases, with glass eyelet-holes, and secured as
much as possible from the foul effluvia of the air they are to breathe,
they undertake this melancholy journey, travelling always with the
wind. About one in ten escapes, and brings away a little box of this
direful commodity!

Every one skilled in natural history knows, that the mimosæ, or
sensitive plants, close their leaves, and bend their joints, on
the least touch. This is truly astonishing: but hitherto no end or
design of nature has appeared from these motions; they soon recover
themselves, and the leaves are expanded as before. Dionæ Muscipula, or
Venus’s Fly Trap, is a newly discovered sensitive plant; and shows that
nature may have some view towards its nourishment, in forming the upper
joint of its leaf like a machine to catch food. Upon the middle of this
lies the bait for the unhappy insect that becomes its prey. Many minute
red glands, that cover its inner surface, and which, perhaps, discharge
some sweet liquor, tempt the poor animal to taste them; and the instant
these tender plants are irritated by its feet, the two lobes rise up,
grasp it fast, lock the two rows of spines together, and squeeze it to
death. Further, lest the strong efforts for life, in the creature thus
taken, should serve to disengage it, three small erect spines are fixed
near the middle of each lobe among the glands, that effectually put an
end to all its struggles. Nor do the lobes ever open again, while the
dead animal continues there. But it is nevertheless certain that the
plant cannot distinguish between an animal and a mineral substance; for
if we introduce a straw, or a pin, between the lobes, it will grasp it
full as fast as if it were an insect. This plant grows in America, in
wet shady places, and flowers in July and August. The largest leaves
are about three inches long, and an inch and a half across the lobes:
the glands of those exposed to the sun are of a beautiful red color;
but those in the shade are pale, and inclining to green. The roots are
squamous, sending forth few fibres, and are perennial. The leaves are
numerous, inclining to bend downwards, and are placed in a circular
order; they are jointed and succulent; the lower joint, which is a kind
of stalk, is flat, longish, two-edged, and inclining to heart-shaped.
In some varieties, they are serrated on the edges near the top. The
upper joint consists of two lobes, each lobe is of a semi-oval form,
with their margins furnished with stiff hairs, like eye-brows, which
embrace or lock in each other when they are inwardly irritated. The
upper surfaces of these lobes are covered with small red glands, each
of which appears, when highly magnified, like a compressed arbutus
berry. Among the glands, about the middle of each lobe, are three very
small erect spines. When the lobes enclose any substance, they never
open again while it continues there. If it can be shoved out, so as
not to strain the lobes, they expand again; but if force is used to
open them, so strong has nature formed the spring of their fibres,
that one of the lobes will generally snap off, rather than yield. The
stalk is about six inches high, round, smooth, and without leaves,
ending in a spike of flowers. The flowers are milk-white, and stand,
on foot stalks, at the bottom of which is a little painted bractea, or
flower-leaf.

There is not an article in botany more admirable than a contrivance,
visible in many plants, to take advantage of good weather, and to
protect themselves against bad. They open and close their flowers and
leaves in different circumstances; some close before sun-set, some
after; some open to receive rain, some close to avoid it. The petals
of many flowers expand in the sun; but contract at night, or on the
approach of rain. After the seeds are fecundated, the petals no longer
contract. All the trefoils may serve as a barometer to the husbandman;
they always contract their leaves on an impending storm. Some plants
follow the sun, others turn from it. Many plants, on the sun’s recess,
vary the position of their leaves, which is styled, the _sleep of
plants_. A singular plant was lately discovered in Bengal. Its leaves
are in continual motion all day long; but when night approaches; they
fall down from an erect posture to rest.[101]

A plant has a power of directing its roots for procuring food. The red
whortle-berry, a low evergreen plant, grows naturally on the tops of
our highest hills, among stones and gravel. This shrub was planted in
an edging to a rich border, under a fruit wall. In two or three years
it over-ran the adjoining deep-laid gravel walk, and seemed to fly from
the border, in which not a runner appeared. An effort to come at food,
in a bad situation, is extremely remarkable, in the following instance.
Among the ruins of New Abbey, formerly a monastery in Galloway, there
grows on the top of a wall, a plane tree, about twenty feet high.
Straitened for nourishment in that barren situation, it several years
ago directed roots down the side of the wall, till they reached the
ground ten feet below; and now the nourishment it afforded to those
roots during the time of their descending, is amply repaid, having
every year, since that time, made vigorous shoots. From the top of the
wall to the surface of the earth these roots have not thrown out a
single fibre, but are now united in a single root.

Plants, when forced from their natural position, are endowed with the
power to restore themselves. A hop-plant, twisting round a stick,
directs its course from south to west, as the sun does. Untwist it, and
tie it in the opposite direction, it dies. Leave it loose in the wrong
direction, it recovers its natural direction in a single night. Twist
the branch of a tree, so as to invert its leaves, and fix it in that
position, if left in any degree loose, it untwists itself gradually,
till the leaves be restored to their natural position. What better can
an animal do for its welfare? A root of a tree meeting with a ditch
in its progress, is laid open to the air. What follows? It alters its
course, like a rational being, dips into the ground, surrounds the
ditch, rises on the opposite side to its wonted distance from the
surface, and then proceeds in its original direction. Lay a wet sponge
near a root laid open to the air; the root will direct its course
to the sponge. Change the place of the sponge; the root varies its
direction. Thrust a pole into the ground at a moderate distance from
a climbing plant; the plant directs its course to the pole, lays hold
of it, and rises on it to its natural height. A honeysuckle proceeds
in its course till it be too long for supporting its weight; and then
strengthens itself by shooting into a spiral. If it meet with another
plant of the same kind, they coalesce for mutual support, the one
screwing to the right, the other to the left. The claspers of briony
shoot into a spiral, and lay hold of whatever comes in their way for
support. If, after completing a spiral of three rounds, they meet with
nothing, they try again, by altering their course.

By comparing these and other instances of seeming voluntary motion
in plants, with that share of life wherewith some of the inferior
kind of animals are endowed, we can scarce hesitate at ascribing
the superiority to the former: that is, putting sensation out of
the question. Muscles, for instance, are fixed to one place as much
as plants are; nor have they any power of motion, besides that of
opening and shutting their shells; and in this respect, they have no
superiority over the motion of the sensitive plant: nor does their
action discover more sagacity, or even so much, as the roots of the
plane tree, mentioned by Lord Kames.[102]

Beckmann’s History of Inventions and Discoveries presents us with an
interesting account of Kitchen Vegetables and Garden Flowers, collected
from numerous authorities; some parts of which I shall now transcribe,
and incorporate with information derived from other sources.

Our foreign kitchen vegetables have, for the most part, been procured
from the southern countries, but chiefly from Italy; and the number of
them has rapidly increased, in the course of the last two centuries.
Many of them require laborious attention to make them thrive in our
climate. On the other hand, some grow so readily, and increase so much
without culture, even in the open fields, that they have become like
indigenous weeds, as is the case with hops, which at present abound
in our hedges. Some plants, however, both indigenous and foreign,
which were formerly raised by art and used at the table, are no
longer cultivated, because we have become acquainted with others more
beneficial.

Among many which were formerly cultivated, but at present are no longer
esteemed, are the following. Winter-cresses, _erysimum barbarea_;
common alexander, _smyrnium olosatrum_, which in the seventeenth
century was used instead of celery; bulbous chærophyllum, the roots of
which are still brought to market at Vienna, where they are boiled and
eaten as salad. Rampion, _phyteuma spicata_, was formerly used in like
manner. The earth nut, the tuberous roots of the _lathyrus tuberosus_,
which grows wild in many parts of Germany, is still cultivated in
Holland and in some districts on the Rhine. Rocket, _brassica eruca_,
in Italian, _ruchette_, the young leaves of which were eaten by our
forefathers as salad, and is still retained in Italy. And there are
several others either but imperfectly known or little regarded.

Among the kitchen vegetables of which no certain traces are to be found
in the works of the ancients, is spinage, _spinacea oleracea_. Its
native country is unknown; but the name is new, and certainly derived
from the nature of its prickly seeds. As far as I know, it first occurs
in the year 1351, among the food used by the monks on fast-days; and at
that time it was written _spinagium_ or _spinachium_.

The ancients were acquainted with curled cabbages, and even with
some of those kinds which we call _broccoli_. Under this term is
understood all those species, the numerous young flower heads of which,
particularly in spring and autumn, can be used like cauliflowers.
The broccoli used at present was however first brought from Italy to
France, together with the name, about the end of the sixteenth century.

Our cauliflower, about the same time, was first brought from the Levant
to Italy; and in the end of the seventeenth century was transplanted
thence to Germany. For a long time the seeds were procured annually
from Cyprus, Candia, and Constantinople, by the Venetians and Genoese,
who sent them to every part of Europe, because at that time the art
of raising seed was not understood. The seeds of cauliflowers were
brought from Italy to Antwerp, where no seed was raised, or such only
as produced degenerate plants. Prosper Alpinus, in the year 1588, found
abundance of this vegetable in Egypt, and from his account there is
reason to conjecture it was then very little known in Europe. Conrad
Gesner seems not to have been acquainted with it; at any rate it is not
mentioned by him in a list of the cabbage kind of plants. Even in the
time of Bauhin, it must have belonged to those vegetables which were
scarce; because he has been so particular in naming the garden in which
he saw it. Von Hohberg, who wrote about 1682, says that cauliflower, a
few years before, had been brought to Germany for the first time.--It
would be difficult to define all the species of the cabbage kind, the
leaves and flowers of which were used by the ancients as food; but
it would be a task still more arduous to determine those that have
esculent roots.

Potatoes were first imported into Europe, in the year 1565, by Hawkins,
from Santa-Fe, New Mexico, Spanish America. They were planted for
the first time in Ireland, by Sir Walter Raleigh, who had an estate
in that kingdom. The natural history of the potatoe was so little
understood, that a total ignorance which part of the plant was the
proper food, had nearly ruined any further attention towards its
cultivation. For perceiving green apples appear on the stems, these
were first supposed to be the fruit; but on being boiled, and finding
them unpalatable, or rather nauseous, Raleigh was disgusted with his
acquisition, nor thought any more of cultivating this plant. Accident,
however, discovered the real fruit, owing to the ground being turned
over, through necessity, that very season; and to his surprise, a
plentiful crop was found under ground, which being boiled, proved
nourishing to the stomach, and grateful to the taste. On its utility
being known, its cultivation became general through Ireland. It found
its way to this kingdom, and was first planted on the western coast,
in consequence of a vessel containing some potatoes, being wrecked at
the village of Formby, in Lancashire; a place still famed for this
excellent vegetable.

Asparagus was first planted in England in the year 1662, in the reign
of Charles II. Artichokes were first introduced about the same time.
Cos lettuces were originally brought from the island of Cos, near
Rhodes, in the Mediterranean. Turnips were brought into this country
from Hanover. In the time of Henry VIII, several kinds of fruits and
plants were cultivated in England, as apricots, and a fine gooseberry
from Flanders; also salads, carrots, and other edible roots. These
vegetables were before this period imported from Holland and Flanders.
So that Queen Catherine, to procure a salad, had to dispatch a
messenger to fetch it from those countries. Fruit seems to have been
scarce in the time of Henry VII. In an original manuscript, signed by
himself, and kept in the Remembrance office, it appears that apples
were not less than one or two shillings each, and that a red one cost
two shillings. The great plenty and variety of vegetables displayed
upon modern tables, through every month in the year, evidently shows
what superior blessings we enjoy, in this respect, compared with those
of our forefathers.

Some of the flowers introduced into our gardens, and now cultivated
either on account of their beauty, or the pleasantness of their smell,
have been procured from plants which grew wild, and which have been
changed, or, according to the opinion of florists, improved by the art
of the gardener. The greater part of them however came originally from
distant countries, where they grow in as great perfection as ours,
without the assistance of man. It is probable that the modern taste for
flowers came from Persia to Constantinople, and was imported thence
to Europe for the first time, in the sixteenth century. At any rate,
many of the productions of our flower-gardens were conveyed to us by
that channel. Clusius and his friends, in particular, contributed very
much to excite this taste; and the new plants brought from both the
Indies by travellers who frequently visited these countries, tended
to increase it. That period also produced some skilful gardeners, who
carried on a considerable trade in the roots and seeds of flowers; and
these, likewise assisted to render it more general. Among these were
John and Vespasian Robin, gardeners to Henry IV, of France, and Emanuel
Sweert, gardener to the emperor Rodolphus II, from whom the botanists
of that time procured many rarities, as appears from different passages
of their works.

Simon de Tovar, a Spanish physician, brought the tuberose to Europe
before the year 1594 from the East Indies, where it grows wild in Java
and Ceylon, and sent some roots of it to Barnard Paludanus, who first
made this flower publicly known, in his annotations on Linschoten’s
voyage. The full tuberoses were first procured from seed by one Le
Cour, at Leyden, who kept them scarce for some years, by destroying
the roots. The propagation of them in most countries is attended with
difficulties: but in Italy, Sicily, and Spain, it requires no trouble;
and at present the Genoese send a great many roots to England, Holland,
and Germany. The oldest botanists classed them among the hyacinths, and
their modern name _polianthes tuberose_ was given them by Linnæus in
his Hortus Cliffortianus.

The auricula, _primula auricula_, grows wild among the long moss
covered with snow, on the confines of Switzerland and Steyermark,
whence it was brought to our gardens, where, by art and accident, it
has produced more varieties than any other species of flower. I do not
know who first transplanted it from its native soil. Pluche says only
that some roots were pulled up by Walloon merchants, and carried to
Brussels. However, this is certain, that it was first cultivated with
care by the Flemings, who were very successful in propagating it. In
the time of Clusius, most of the varieties of the auricula were scarce.

The common fritillary, or chequered lily, _fritillaria meleagris_,
was first observed in some parts of France, Hungary, Italy, and other
warm countries, and introduced into gardens about the middle of the
sixteenth century. At first it was called _lilium variegatum_; but
Noel Capperon, an apothecary at Orleans, who collected a great many
scarce plants, gave it the name of _fritillaria_, because the red or
reddish-brown spots of the flower form regular squares. It was first
called _meleagris_ by Dodonæus, because the feathers of that fowl are
variegated almost in the same manner.

The roots of the magnificent crown imperial, _fritillaria imperialis_,
were about the middle of the sixteenth century brought from Persia to
Constantinople, and were carried thence to the Emperor’s garden at
Vienna, from which they were dispersed all over Europe. This flower was
first known by the Persian name _tusac_, until the Italians gave it
that of _corona imperialis_, or crown imperial. It has been imagined
that the figure of it is to be found represented on the coins of Herod,
and that, on this account, it has been considered as the lily so much
celebrated in the Scripture.

The Persian lily, _fritillaria Persica_, which is nearly related to
it, was made known almost about the same time. The bulbs or roots
were brought from Susa to Constantinople, and for that reason it was
formerly called _lilium Susianum_.

African and French marigolds, _tagetes erecta_ and _patula_, are
indigenous in South America, and were known to botanists under the
name of _caryophillus Indicus_, from which is derived the French
appellation _œillet d’ Inde_. Cordus calls them, from their native
country, _tanacetum Peruvianum_.

Among the most beautiful ornaments of our gardens, is the bella-donna
lily, _amaryllis formosissima_, the flower of which, composed of six
petals, is of a deep red color, and in a strong light, or when the
sun shines upon it, has an agreeable yellow lustre like gold. The
first roots of it ever seen in Europe were procured in 1593, on board
a ship which had returned from South America, by Simon de Tovar, a
physician at Seville. In the year following, he sent a description of
this flower to Clusius; and as he had at the same time transmitted
some roots to Bernard Paludanus, and count d’Aremberg, the former
sent a dried flower, and the latter an accurate drawing of it, to
Clusius, who published it in 1601. One of the Robins gave, in 1608,
a larger and more correct figure, which was afterwards copied by
Bry, Parkinson, and Rudbeck; but a complete description, with a good
engraving, was published in 1742, by Linnæus, who in 1737 gave to that
genus the name by which they are known at present. Tovar received it
from South America, where it was found by Plumier and Barrere, and at
a later period by Thiery de Menonville. At first it was classed with
the narcissus, and it was afterwards called _lilio-narcissus_, because
its flower resembled that of the lily, and its roots those of the
narcissus. It was named _flos-Jacobæus_, because some imagined that
they discovered in it a likeness to the badge of the knights of the
order of St. James in Spain, whose founder, in the fourteenth century,
could not indeed have been acquainted with this beautiful amaryllis.

Another species of this genus is the Guernsey lily, _amaryllis
Sarniensis_, which in the magnificence of its flower is not inferior
to the former. This plant was brought from Japan, where it was found
by Kæmpfer, and also by Thunberg, during his travels some years ago
in that country. It was first cultivated in the beginning of the
seventeenth century, in the garden of John Morin, at Paris, where it
flowered, for the first time, on the 7th of October, 1634. It was then
made known by Jacob Cornutus, under the name of _narcissus Japonicus
flore rutilo_. After this it was again noticed by John Ray, an
Englishman, in 1665, who called it the _Guernsey lily_, which name it
still very properly bears. A ship returning from Japan was wrecked on
the coast of Guernsey, and a number of the bulbs of this plant, which
were on board, being cast on shore, took root in that sandy soil. As
they soon increased, and produced beautiful flowers, they were observed
by the inhabitants, and engaged the attention of Mr. Hatton, the
governor’s son, whose botanical knowledge is highly spoken of by Ray,
and who sent roots of them to several of his friends who were fond of
cultivating curious plants. Of this elegant flower Dr. Douglass gave a
description and figure in a small treatise published in 1725, which is
quoted by Linnæus in his Bibliotheca, but not by Haller.

Of the numerous genus of the ranunculus, florists, to speak in a
botanical sense, have obtained a thousand different kinds; for,
according to the manner in which they are distinguished by gardeners,
the varieties increase almost every summer.

The principal part of them, however, and those most esteemed, were
brought to us from the Levant. Some were carried from that part of the
world so early as in the time of the crusades; but most of them have
been introduced into Europe from Constantinople since the end of the
sixteenth century, particularly the Persian ranunculus, the varieties
of which, if I am not mistaken, hold at present the first rank. Clusius
describes both the single and the full flowers as new rarities. This
flower was in the highest repute during the time of Mahomet IV. His
Grand Vizir, Cara Mustapha, well known by his hatred against the
Christians and the siege of Vienna, in 1683, wishing to turn the
Sultan’s thoughts to some milder amusement than that of the chase,
for which he had a strong passion, diverted his attention to flowers;
and, as he remarked that the Emperor preferred the ranunculus to all
others, he wrote to the different Pachas throughout the whole kingdom
to send him seeds or roots of the most beautiful kinds. The Pachas of
Candia, Cyprus, Aleppo, and Rhodes, paid most regard to this request;
and the elegant flowers which they transmitted to court were shut up
in the seraglio as unfortunate offerings to the voluptuousness of the
Sultan, till some of them, by the force of money, were at length freed
from their imprisonment. The ambassadors from the European courts,
in particular, made it their business to procure roots of as many
kinds as they could, which they sent to their different sovereigns.
Marseilles, which at that period carried on the greatest trade to the
Levant, received on this account these flowers very early; and a person
there, of the name of Malaval is said to have contributed very much to
disperse them all over Europe.

Some of our most common flowering shrubs have been long introduced into
the gardens: the bay-tree has been cultivated more than two centuries;
it is mentioned by Tusser, in the list of garden plants inserted in
his work called, “Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry,” printed in
1573. The laurel was introduced by Cole, a merchant at Hampstead, some
years before 1629, when Parkinson published his Paradisus Terrestris,
and at that time we had in our gardens oranges, myrtles of three sorts,
lauristinus, cypress, phyllyrea, alaternus, arbuttus; a cactus, brought
from Bermuda, and the passion-flower, which last had flowered here, and
showed a remarkable peculiarity, by rising from the ground near a month
sooner, if a seedling plant, than if it grew from roots brought from
Virginia.


_Crust of the Earth._

    [In the preceding section the Author has noticed the
    _superficies_ of the earth principally; as its inequalities
    because of seas, lakes, rivers, mountains, vallies, &c. The
    _rocky_, and _earthy_ masses and strata, which cover the
    nucleus of our globe, are scarcely mentioned at all. Whether
    the _central_ parts of the earth be solid, soft, or hollow, and
    filled with gaseous matter, is not the subject of enquiry here:
    but the _composition_ and _arrangement_ of the _solid crust_ of
    the planet come under consideration.

    As it regards the composition of the crust of the earth
    considered principally, it consists of _metallic oxides_.
    The bases of the different earths are well known to be
    _metals_. The metal called _Silicon_, is the base of silex or
    flint--_Aluminum_ is the metallic base of pure clay--_Calcium_,
    of lime--_Magnesium_, of magnesia--_Potasium_, of potash, &c.
    Iron, also, enters largely into the composition; and soda,
    whose metallic base is _sodium_, forms a considerable portion.

    These bases, at their creation, existed in an _uncombined_
    state, as did all the elementary substances. When they entered
    into combination with _oxygen_ they became _earths_, which are
    simple metallic oxides, which readily combine with the _acids_,
    in which combination they are generally seen, though not
    always, at the earth’s surface; as carbonate of lime, or common
    limestone; the composition of which is _calcium_, _oxygen_, and
    _carbonic acid_.

    Rocks of the _silicious_ family are not considered _earthy
    salts_, though, occasionally, they may contain a small per
    cent. of acid. They are called _earthy compounds_. _Granite_
    is an instance; composed of _feldspar_, _quartz_, and _mica_.
    Gneiss, and mica slate are of similar composition, though in
    different proportions, and under different arrangements.

    It will readily occur to the reader that there are some
    other earths, and other substances also, as the acids, and
    gases, which enter into the composition of the earth’s crust,
    though in small proportions, and, therefore, are not considered
    _principal_ ingredients, and hence not noticed in this general
    sketch.

    The rocky, or stony substances, composed of the above
    elements, under the influence of chemical affinities, and
    other principles, are found in _crystalline_, _stratified_,
    _amorphous_, and _aggregate masses_. The _position_,
    _structure_, and _contents_ of these masses will develope the
    _natural history of the solid crust of our Earth_.

    In order to facilitate this development, the rocks have
    been divided, according to their age into,

    1. _Primitive Rocks._ These were deposited _first_, as is
    evident from their position, being the lowest of all the rocks.
    Their name indicates their relative age.

    2. _Transition Rocks._ These rocks are deposited
    immediately above the primitive, of course subsequently to
    them. They are called _transition_ rocks, because they were
    deposited as the earth was _passing_ from an uninhabitable to a
    habitable state, as is evident from the fact that _they contain
    the first traces of organized being imbedded in them_.

    3. _Secondary Rocks._ These are deposited next in
    succession to the transition rocks, and mark a _third_ grand
    geological epoch, by being almost altogether a _mechanical_
    deposition, and lie _horizontally_ when _in situ_, and contain
    an increase of organic remains, both in quantity and variety.

    4. _Tertiary Rocks._ These derive their name from their
    succession to the secondary, and of course mark the _fourth_
    geological epoch in the history of the arrangement of the
    earth’s crust, which completed its redemption from the abyss of
    waters, and fitted it for the habitation of man.

    This division of the rocks designates the _order of time_
    in which they were successively deposited, as is evident from
    their position.

    Considering these rocks _in situ_, they may be reckoned
    _general formations_, extended all around the globe in
    concentric circles, as the coats of an onion around its centre,
    in the order above stated, beginning with the primitive rocks.

    It is, however, well known that _fractures_ and
    _dislocations_ prevail to a great extent, the result of
    violence subsequently to the deposition of these rocks,
    removing large portions of them _out of place_. But this
    circumstance need not interrupt the grand _natural_ order of
    the construction of the earth’s crust.

    There is also a class of stony substances which follow no
    general laws, either in regard to _position_, _form_, or _age_.
    These are volcanic and igneous productions of every kind; as
    basalt, lava, &c. These shall be mentioned subsequently.

    In the above remarks we have an _outline_ of the structure
    of the crust of the earth; but in order to have a more
    satisfactory development, the principal and distinctive
    features of the leading rock formations must be stated in order.


    _Primitive Rocks._

    1. _This class occupies the lowest position as a class_,
    yet the individual rocks of this class have a general order of
    position among themselves. Granite is lowest; then Gneiss--Mica
    Slate--Clay Slate--Primitive Limestone--Porphyry--Sienite--and
    Greenstone.

    _These rocks are sometimes observed alternating with each
    other, and sometimes passing into each other._ But these
    circumstances do not effect the general order. When the
    formations are _undisturbed_, in penetrating them we should
    come to granite last; and it is universally the lowest of all
    observed rock formations.

    2. _This class is generally, indeed we may say,
    universally, crystalline in its structure._ Each integrant
    particle is not a _perfect crystal_; but throughout the mass
    there is a partial crystallization, such as would be the result
    of an effort to crystallize perfectly, under a great pressure;
    in which case the particles would mutually interfere with each
    other.

    The very fact of this crystallization implies _first_; a
    prevailing state of _unagitated solution_ of the crystallizing
    materials: _secondly_: that their crystallization was the
    effect of _chemical action_.

    3. _The primitive rocks contain no fragments, either
    angular, or rounded by attrition, imbedded in them_; simply
    because no rocks preceded them, and of course could not be
    broken up. It is, however, to be carefully observed, that
    perfect crystals of different kinds are found imbedded in
    primitive rocks. When they prevail to a great extent they
    constitute _porphyritic rocks_. It is evident that these
    crystals must have been formed before the consolidation of the
    including rock, and must have been suspended in the solution
    which formed the rock upon crystallization.

    4. _The primitive rocks contain no traces of organized
    bodies._ This is an universal characteristic, and proves
    incontestibly that they were formed _previous to the existence
    of organized beings_.

    5. _The primitive rocks are usually inclined at a high
    angle to the horizon, and frequently are vertical._ This seems
    to be the result of crystallization, as mechanical deposition
    would place them _horizontally_, having the general bearing of
    the curve of the earth.

    6. The principal primitive rocks are granite, gneiss, and
    mica slate.

    They are composed of the same materials, in different
    proportions; viz; feldspar, quartz, and mica. These three
    minerals constitute granite, when feldspar is the _base_,
    and the quartz is embedded in a crystalline state, and the
    mica interspersed generally. They constitute gneiss, when the
    feldspar _decreases_, and the mica _increases_, and is arranged
    in layers. They compose mica slate, when the feldspar almost
    _disappears_, and the mica and quartz are intimately united.

    7. Though the primitive rocks occupy the lowest position
    _in situ_, yet they sometimes form, not only the _summits_ of
    lofty mountains, but sometimes the _mountain mass_ itself, and
    appear at the surface. In these cases it is evident that they
    have been _upheaved_ by a force acting beneath, and forcing
    them through the superincumbent rocks, which were rent, and
    glided down the sides of the rising mass of primitive rocks,
    leaving them bare and visible at the summit. In this case the
    rocks which were uppermost before the mountain mass began
    to rise, would be found at the _foot_ of the mountain; and
    the rocks which were next to the uppermost, would be found
    immediately above them, reclining on the side of the mountain;
    and thus _ascending through the ages of the rocks to the summit
    of the mountain, where we find the primitive rock formations
    constituting its apex_.

    This phenomena of primitive rocks forming the apices of
    mountains may be explained differently. The primitive rocks,
    and other classes in succession, _may have been deposited in
    mountain masses_, and the upper rocks being _softer_ and more
    _exposed_, have yielded to the ravages of the elements, and
    to the demolishing force of the deluge, and thus laid the
    primitive rocks bare. The _first_ seems to be the most probable
    supposition.

    8. It is beyond a doubt, that in some instances, an
    upheaving force has operated, and elevated the granitic summits
    of mountains; and so powerful was the upheaving force that the
    blocks of granite have broke at the apex of the elevation, and
    some of them hang over perpendicularly in awful grandeur; and
    others have rolled down the sides far into the plains below.

    This theory of the formations of some of the principal
    mountains would be firmly established in every mind, if every
    one could have an opportunity of inspecting them without
    prejudice. The primitive rocks would be seen shooting up from
    the centre of the mountain, into lofty pyramidal elevations,
    resembling, sometimes, lofty spires, or cupolas; and sometimes
    the summit is rounded off as a dome. The rocks are in a
    _verticle_ position, which proves they could not have been
    _deposited there_ from a state of quiet repose.

    Sometimes two summits project from the same common base,
    having an intervening valley or depression between them. In
    this case, the rocks which lay uppermost before the mass was
    upheaved, upon upheaving, broke and glided down the sides, on
    which they depend in magnificent drapery; but the portion of
    them which was situated _between_ the uprising summits, not
    being able to escape, is found in the valley which is formed
    between the peaks.

    In some instances, as the mass is elevating itself it bears
    up upon it a large mass of the over-laying rock, which forms
    the apex of the mountain, crowning it as a stately castle
    crowns the summit of the hill on which it is built. In this
    case the crowning mass is entirely different, and perfectly
    distinct from the subjacent materials. _For some further
    remarks on the structure, and formation of mountains, and
    mountain masses, and the deluge, see Theory of the Earth, end
    of Sect. 2, chap. iv._

    9. As there was a rapid and irresistible chemical action,
    at a very high temperature, going on during this first great
    geological period, and the whole globe in almost omnipotent
    fermentation, there is no difficulty in accounting for the
    irregularities, contortions, dislocations and fractures which
    we observe in the earth. This whole process was anterior to the
    existence of organized being.


    _Transition Rocks._

    1. _This class was deposited subsequently to the primitive
    rocks, and after they had consolidated._ This is evident
    from the fact that, in their natural order, they _overlay_
    the primitive, which could not be the case, unless they were
    deposited subsequently, any more than the roof of the house
    could be put on before the foundation was laid.

    2. _Their structure is evidently the result both of
    chemical action, and mechanical deposition._ These principles
    appear to have acted sometimes conjointly; and at other times
    to have alternated. Hence the crystallization is more imperfect
    than in the primitive, and occasionally seems to disappear.

    3. _From the complex action under which they were
    deposited, they are generally, neither verticle nor horizontal,
    but inclined about between these two positions._

    4. _They were deposited as the primitive chaotic ocean
    was subsiding, and the elevations of the new-born earth had
    recently emerged._ Hence they are found next to the summits of
    the primitive mountains, _on their flanks_.

    5. _The transition rocks contain some fragments of all the
    primitive class._ This would be the natural consequence of the
    summits of primitive rock formations being exposed to the fury
    of the elements; which would rend portions of them, and thus
    deposit the fragments mechanically in the floods subsiding
    below on the flanks of the mountains.

    6. _In these rocks we meet with the first traces of
    organized being._ (SILLIMAN.) This fact is irresistible proof
    that these rocks were deposited _subsequently_ to the existence
    of the enclosed remains. The probability is, that the animals
    and vegetables found in transition rocks, were created at the
    _commencement_ of the transition period, and their remains
    deposited as the rocks were successively deposited.

    It is remarkable that these organized beings belonged to
    genera now extinct. They were of an inferior class, having
    neither the delicacy, complexity, or sensibility of those which
    we now see. They were crude, and gross, corresponding to the
    condition of the earth at the time of their existence.

    It is also evident that they lived, and died, and were
    inhumed in the same places; as they present, generally, no
    marks of violence, and their most delicate parts are well
    preserved.

    These organic remains occupy vast districts of country, and
    constitute, principally, large masses of marbles, sometimes
    many hundreds of feet in the interior of mountains. They are
    identified with the rock, and frequently impart to it its
    beauty.

    7. The reader will readily perceive that this class of
    rocks marks the _commencement_ of _sensitive_ existence. And it
    would seem, from an examination of fossil remains generally,
    that the creation of animals and vegetables was _progressive_,
    produced with structures and functions adapted to the condition
    of the globe, at the time of their creation.


    _Secondary Rocks._

    1. _These rocks are so called, because they are the second
    great deposit, after the grand foundation of the primitive
    rocks were laid._ Of course they point out the third great
    geological period.

    2. _Their position is horizontal, corresponding to the
    general curve of the earth._ This regards their natural
    position. They are found, under particular circumstances,
    inclined to the horizon. They occupy a lower position on the
    sides of mountains, resting on the transition class, which is
    immediately subjacent _in natural order_.

    3. _This class is much less chemical, indeed very little
    so, in its structure._ It is the result of mechanical
    deposition, after the chemical action had nearly ceased in the
    great primitive and retiring abyss.

    4. _These rocks abound more in fragments of other rocks,
    and in the remains of organized beings, than the preceding
    class._ This would be natural, as a greater extent of the
    earth’s surface would be exposed to the elements, and thus the
    destruction would be greater: and as the condition of the earth
    was better for sustaining sensitive beings, these would of
    course be more abundant both in _kind_ and _number_.

    It is also well ascertained, from the fossil remains found
    in this class of rocks, that during their deposition, there
    existed many species of animals and plants which do not now
    exist: that many of the animals were _monsters_ of incredible
    size and voracity; of such hugeness, grossness, and ferocity as
    were suitable to the then prevailing condition of the earth.

    The researches of the last ten or fifteen years, in
    England, have brought to light the skeletons of animals,
    approaching the _lizard genus_, from _sixty to seventy feet
    long_!! They are abundant in England, and occasionally found
    on the continent. Who can say, but that the other genera
    of animals then existing, were also as much more vast, and
    misshapen than their present existing types? A single glance
    at the _geological reminiscences_ of this ancient period must
    convince any observer, that the vegetable, and specially the
    animal genera then existing were really astonishing both in
    _size_, _shape_, and _nature_.

    It becomes a question of some interest, whether these huge
    animals ceased to exist, having found their graves in this
    secondary class of rocks, before the existence of man?

    There are many reasons which induce a supposition they did
    cease to exist. Man could scarcely have been safe in the land
    of these wonderful creatures. Moreover, it is probable their
    constitutions were adapted to the condition of the world at
    this period, which we suppose to have been more gross in its
    air, and water, and more ardent in its climate; as it had not
    yet settled, and dried; and the waters had not yet sufficiently
    subsided, to render the earth the abode of the more delicate
    land-animals, birds, and specially man. It is probable the
    earth was marshy, with numerous inland lakes, to a considerable
    extent; the waters still somewhat turbid; the air gross and
    moist; and the temperature still very high. Such a state of the
    planet would suit the constitutions of such monsters as the
    _ichthyosaurus_, and _plesiosaurus_, which would perish as the
    condition of the globe became more pure, and its temperature
    reduced.


    _Tertiary Rocks._

    1. _These rocks were deposited as the earth was actually,
    and finally redeemed from water, and became fit for the abode
    of the more delicate and gentle land-animals and birds._ Hence,
    it is very rare, if ever, the fossil remains of animals which
    live wholly on land, are found below this class of rocks. But
    man’s companion animals are found, as elephants, deer, horse,
    sheep, &c.

    2. This class is not so extensively spread as the preceding
    classes. It includes the _diluvial_ and _alluvial_ formations,
    and indicate an alternation of fresh and sea waters in its
    deposition. This class covers the low countries as they slope
    from primitive districts towards the sea. Such grand vallies
    are called _diluvial_, because deposited chiefly by the great
    primitive ocean, as it retired through its last stages to
    its resting beds. The deposites at the mouths of rivers, or
    any other deposites from causes now in operation, are called
    _alluvial_.

    3. Some of the principal members of this class are: 1.
    Argillaceous, and sandy depositions from the sea. 2. Marl,
    and gypsum, from fresh water. 3. Sand, and sandstone, with or
    without shells, from sea water. 4. Limestone, and silicious
    millstone grit, from fresh water.


    _Conclusion._

    From what has been said above we may clearly deduce the
    following particulars.

    1. The crust of the earth is constructed of four great
    general classes of rocks: the _primitive_ at the foundation;
    the _transition_, laying immediately over the primitive; the
    _secondary_ immediately above these; and the _tertiary_ at the
    surface. In this arrangement we consider the rocks in their
    natural position.

    2. The _position_, _structure_, and _organic remains_ of
    these classes, clearly point out a grand geological epoch,
    corresponding to the time of the deposition of each class,
    and thus indicate their relative ages. They indicate also the
    successive conditions of the globe as it passed from its gross
    chaotic state, to a state suitable for the habitation of man,
    and his companion animals.

    3. _The natural history of the_ PRIMITIVE WORLD, _as
    deduced from_ GEOLOGICAL FACTS, CORRESPONDS _expressly in the_
    ORDER _and_ NATURE OF THE EVENTS, WITH THE ACCOUNT GIVEN BY
    MOSES.

    4. The gradual retiring of the primitive chaotic ocean,
    would give sufficient time for the production of those immense
    beds of marine animals which are found in the most solid and
    elevated mountains. During the prevalence of the sea, these
    beds would form at the bottom, and when it retired they would
    consolidate, with the mineral deposites, into rocks.

    In this case the process is supposed to go on in a _quiet_
    ocean, peaceably retiring, and leaving the deposition in
    layers. But we must not suppose the waters were always still,
    and peacefully retiring. If so, there could not have been
    such distinct and different deposites, in which different
    substances sometimes alternate. Moreover, in this case there
    would have been but one deposition, which would have been
    regular and continuous, changing its character simply by almost
    imperceptible degrees, and extending all round the globe, as
    the globe was at first wholly immersed in water. But this is
    not the case. There is every reason to believe there were
    violent agitations, earthquakes, volcanos, tempests, deluges,
    &c, _occasionally_, during the subsidence of the primitive
    waters. Hence the _dislocations_, _contortions_, _protrusions
    of lower rocks through upper ones_, and the _upheaving
    of the bottom of the seas in various places into ridges,
    and mountains_, producing a tremendous _deflux of waters_
    frequently, which would wash out channels and vallies, and
    carry off fragments of rocks, &c, into the waters below.

    Hence it is evident that the elevations on the earth’s
    surface have been _partly_ caused by subterranean force
    upheaving them; and _partly_ by currents of water wearing away
    channels, defiles, vallies, &c.

    The natural result of upheaving, _in mass_, the bed of
    the ocean, would be to protrude a body in which were embedded
    the marine exuviæ throughout the whole depth of the marine
    deposites. Hence mountain masses are sometimes composed of
    limestone, in which are found immense quantities of sea
    shells, throughout the mass, and entering intimately into the
    composition of the rock. This, without doubt, is the true
    origin of these marine mountain remains.

    Some have been disposed to attribute them to the _deluge_
    in the days of Noah; but this is impossible for two reasons.
    1. The deluge did not continue a sufficient length of time to
    allow these animals to be produced in such quantities, or to
    bury them so deeply in the earth. 2. The _rising_ waters could
    not have carried them to their present places; because, in
    that case they would be found at the _surface_ of the earth, or
    near it _exclusively_; whereas they are found buried thousands
    of feet in mountains, and embedded in solid rocks. They could
    not have been _transported_ by the waters, because they would
    have suffered violence, and been fractured, and compressed;
    which is not generally the case. They are found perfectly
    preserved, though of such delicate structure as would seem
    to have been destroyed by the least violence. Hence it is
    evident they are buried where they lived and died in perfect
    tranquillity.

    It is true, there are instances in which the _position_ and
    _nature_ of the animals clearly prove that they were inhumed
    by some _sudden_ catastrophe. For instance: when we see the
    fossil remains of delicate, and very active fish so placed as
    to indicate they were _caught_, we are convinced they perished
    _suddenly_. But this case is always _local_, and may have been
    produced by an earthquake, or volcanic action.

    That the primitive chaotic ocean occupied the earth a
    long time, _generally_ in a state of tranquillity, though
    occasionally, strongly agitated, and rising into overwhelming
    deluges and gradually retired, is evident also, from the fact,
    that the most delicate _plants_, _leaves_, and _flowers_ are
    found inhumed, as the marine animals above, _in a state of
    perfect preservation_.

    All the above phenomena took place prior to the creation of
    man.


    _Appendix._

    There is another class of rocky substances which obey no
    settled laws, and, therefore, are noticed here in an appendix:
    _They are rocks and substances of evident igneous origin_: as
    _basalt_, _obsidium_, _lavas of all textures_, and _trap_ rocks
    _frequently_, perhaps generally. These have one common origin:
    they are also of similar composition generally; and in this
    approach the composition of primitive rocks. They have been
    evidently _ejected from the bowels of the earth in a melted
    state_. They are found in almost all countries; and in some
    cases form mountains, and cover the surfaces of large districts
    to an astonishing depth: as in the north of Ireland, more than
    500 feet thick, and over an area of 800 square miles. (URE.)

    Being _protruded_ from beneath in a melted state they are
    found injected through the superincumbent rocks in _shafts_ or
    _veins_ of various sizes, from several inches to several feet.
    Sometimes being unable to rend the solid rocks above they are
    injected _between their strata_. They are generally somewhat
    crystalline in structure, because deposited on the same
    principles as granite, when undisturbed. From their _position_,
    _superficial extent_, and _quantity_, we infer they are the
    products of all ages, and of immense igneous action, seated at
    an unknown distance beneath the surface of the earth. Hence we
    may have some idea of the vast amount of igneous action which
    operated in the early ages of our planet. It must have been
    violently shaken from the centre to the surface.]

We may well ask, in the language of a German philosopher, Who can
enumerate all the blessings which the vegetable kingdom affords? It
is at least manifest that all the arrangements of Providence, in this
respect, have for their grand object the advantage of the creatures.
God has provided for the wants of each individual. He has assigned
to each that plant, which is most proper for its nourishment and
support. There is not a plant on the earth, but what has its particular
destination and use. What sentiments of veneration and gratitude
should we feel, at the sight of lawns, gardens, fields, and meadows!
Here his beneficent care has collected all that is necessary for the
comfort and preservation of the inhabitants of the earth. Here, oh
God! thou openest thy hand, and satisfiest the desire of every living
creature! Here every herb, ear of corn, flower, and tree, proclaims thy
goodness! How closely might our modern geologists walk with God, if,
like a Boyle, and a Ray, every new discovery led them to an increasing
admiration of Divine wisdom and omnipotent power![103] for

            “Philosophy, baptiz’d
    In the pure fountain of eternal love,
    Has eyes indeed; and viewing all she sees
    As meant to indicate a God to man,
    Gives him his praise, and forfeits not her own.”

To meet God in the immensity of his works, and trace him in the
operations of his hand, gives expansion to intellect, opens new sources
of enjoyment, and greatly exalts the character of man. The sacred
writers conduct us to the _forest_, and, after selecting particular
trees, press on our attention their emblematical uses.

       *       *       *       *       *


_Section_ III.--MINERALS.

    Gold -- Silver -- Platina -- Mercury -- Copper -- Iron
    -- Tin -- Lead -- Nickel -- Zinc -- Palladium -- Bismuth --
    Antimony -- Tellurium -- Arsenic -- Cobalt -- Manganese --
    Tungsten -- Molybdenum -- Uranium -- Titanium -- Chromium --
    Columbium or Tantalium -- Cerium -- Oxmium -- Rodium -- Iridium
    -- Religious Improvement.

Some parts of the earth’s surface are barren and unfruitful, yielding
no pleasant herb for cattle, nor vegetable for the service of man.
But the bowels of the earth in such places are commonly stored with
rich mines, and useful minerals. Without these what could we do in
the field, the house, the market, or crossing the seas? Surely, the
infinitely wise Architect has not made any thing in vain! It is
deserving of notice, says Mr. Parkes, that if minerals had been placed
on the _surface_ of the globe, they would have occupied the greatest
part of the earth, and prevented its cultivation. Their being deposited
_below_, is a proof of management and design worthy of that Being who
could furnish so great a variety of this class of bodies.

There are twenty-seven distinct metals, which possess properties very
different and distinct from each other. For a knowledge of most of
these, we are indebted to the more perfect modes of analysis, which
modern chemistry has afforded. The ancients were acquainted with only
seven. The properties of these were tolerably well known to the early
chemists, who acquired their knowledge from the alchemists. Metals
are divided into two classes, by modern chemists. The one contains
the malleable, and the other the brittle metals. This last class is
sometimes subdivided into those which are easily, and those which are
difficultly fused. The malleable metals are eleven, namely, Gold,
Silver, Platina, Mercury, Copper, Iron, Tin, Lead, Nickel, Zinc,
and Palladium. The brittle metals are Bismuth, Antimony, Tellurium,
Arsenic, Cobalt, Manganese, Tungsten, Molybdenum, Uranium, Titanium,
Chromium, Columbium or Tantalium, Cerium, Oxmium, Rodium, and Iridium.

_Gold_ is the heaviest of all metals excepting platina; it is neither
very elastic nor hard; but so malleable and ductile, that it may be
drawn into very fine wire, or beaten into leaves so thin as to be
carried away by the slightest wind. Dr. Black has calculated, that it
would take fourteen millions of films of gold, such as is on some fine
gilt wire, to make the thickness of one inch: whereas fourteen million
leaves of common printing paper make near three quarters of a mile.
According to Fourcroy, the ductility of gold is such, that one ounce
of it is sufficient to gild a silver wire more than thirteen hundred
miles long. Such is the tenacity of gold, that a wire 1-16th of an inch
in diameter will support a weight of 500 pounds without breaking. Gold
may be known from all other metals by its bright yellow color, and its
weight. Its specific gravity is 19.3; when heavier, it must be combined
with platina; when lighter, and of a deep yellow color, it is alloyed
with copper; and if of a pale color, with silver.

Arabia had formerly its gold mines. The gold of Ophir, so often
mentioned in Scripture, must be that which was procured in Arabia,
on the coast of the Red Sea. We are assured by Sanchoniathon, and by
Herodotus, quoted by Eusebius, that the Phœnicians carried on a
considerable traffic in gold, even before the days of Job, who thus
speaks of it, “Then shall thou lay up gold as dust, and the gold of
Ophir as stones of the brooks.” Gold is found in Peru, as well as in
several other parts of the world. It generally occurs in a metallic
state, and most commonly in the form of grains. It frequently is
met with in the ores of other metals, but is chiefly found in the
warmer regions of the earth. It abounds in the sands of many African
rivers, in South America, and in India. Several rivers in France
contain gold in their sands. It has also been discovered in Hungary,
Sweden, Norway and Ireland. Near Pamplona, in South America, single
laborers have collected upwards of £200 worth of wash-gold in a day.
In the province of Sonora, the Spaniards discovered a plain, fourteen
leagues in extent, in which they found wash-gold at the depth of only
16 inches; the grains were of such a size that some of them weighed
72 ounces, and in such quantities, that in a short time, with a few
laborers, they collected 1,000 marks, (equal in value to £31,219
10_s._ sterling,) even without taking time to wash the earth which
had been dug. They found one grain which weighed 132 ounces; this is
deposited in the royal cabinet at Madrid, and is worth £500.[104] The
native gold found in Ireland was in grains, from the smallest size to
upwards of two ounces. Only two grains were found of greater weight,
one of which weighed 5, and the other 22 ounces.[105] Gold mines were
formerly worked in Scotland; and indeed now, grains of this metal are
often found in brooks after a great flood. It has been said, that at
the nuptials of James V, covered dishes filled with coins of _Scotch
gold_ were presented to the guests by way of dessert. Standard gold
of Great Britain is twenty-two parts pure gold, and two parts copper;
it is therefore called gold of “twenty-two carots fine.” Some have
thought that Moses made use of sulphuret of potass to render the calf
of gold adored by the Israelites soluble in water. Stahl wrote a long
dissertation to prove that this was the case.

_Silver_ is a heavy, sonorous, brilliant, white metal; exceedingly
ductile, and of great malleability and tenacity. It possesses these
latter properties in so great a decree, that it may be beaten into
leaves much thinner than any paper, or drawn into wire as fine as a
hair without breaking. Fifty square inches of silver leaf weigh not
more than a grain. The specific gravity of silver is 10.500. When
perfectly pure, it is a very soft metal. To know when it is pure, heat
it in a common fire, or in the flame of a candle: if it be alloyed,
it will become tarnished; but if it be pure, it will remain perfectly
white. Our standard silver is formed with fifteen parts pure silver,
and one part copper.

Silver is found in various parts of the world in a metallic state; also
in the states of a sulphuret, a salt, and an oxide. Native silver is
found chiefly in the mines of Potosi. Sulphuret of silver occurs in the
silver mines of Germany, Hungary, Saxony and Siberia. Oxides of silver
are also common in some of the silver mines in Germany. Silver has
lately been found in a copper-mine in Cornwall.[106] Most of our lead
mines also afford it, particularly some in Scotland. In the county of
Antrim, in Ireland, there is a mine so rich, that every thirty pounds
of lead ore is said to produce one pound of silver. By the silver which
was produced from the lead mines in Cardiganshire, Sir Hugh Middleton
is said to have cleared two thousand pounds a month, and that this
enabled him to undertake the great work of bringing the New River from
Ware to London.

Silver was used in commerce eleven hundred years before the foundation
of Rome. Moses, says, “And Abraham weighed to Ephron the silver, which
he had named in the audience of the sons of Heth, four hundred shekels
of silver, current money with the merchant.” At this period silver was
not coined, but being only in bars, or ingots, in commerce was always
weighed. In the museum of the Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburgh,
is a piece of _native_ silver from China of such firmness, that
coins have been struck from it without its having passed through the
crucible.[107]

_Platina_, the heaviest of all metals, is nearly as white as silver,
and difficultly fusible, though by great labor may be rendered
malleable, so as to be wrought into utensils like other metals. It
will resist the strongest heat of our fires without melting, and, like
iron, is capable of being welded when properly heated. It is found in
grains, in a metallic state, at St. Domingo: and also at Santa Fe, in
Peru, in the language of whose inhabitants it means _little silver_. It
has recently been discovered in an ore of silver found in Estremadura,
existing in its metallic form. This metal was first introduced into
England by Charles Wood, who brought it from Jamaica in the year 1741.
It has been drawn into wire less than the two thousandth part of an
inch in diameter. The specific gravity of hammered platina is 23.66,
which is more than double that of lead.

_Mercury_, in the temperature of our atmosphere, is a fluid metal,
having the appearance of melted silver: in this state it is neither
ductile nor malleable; very volatile when heated; extremely divisible;
and is the heaviest of all metals except platina and gold. We see it
always in a fluid state, because it is so fusible that a small portion
of caloric will keep it in a state of fluidity; but when submitted
to a sufficient degree of cold, is similar to other metals, and may
be beaten into plates. It has been determined, that at 39 degrees
below zero of Fahrenheit’s thermometer is the point at which the
congelation of mercury takes place. In the winter of 1799, Mr. Pepys
froze 56 pounds of it into a solid and malleable mass. At Hudson’s Bay,
frozen mercury has lately been reduced to sheets as thin as paper, by
beating it upon an anvil that had previously been reduced to the same
temperature. It is a substance so volatile that it may be distilled
like water; and is sometimes purified in this way from mixture with
other metals, being often adulterated with lead and bismuth. It is also
so elastic when in a state of vapor, that it is capable of bursting the
strongest vessels. According to Mr. Biddle, its specific gravity at 47
degrees above zero is 13.545; but when frozen into a solid at 40 below
zero, 15.612.

This metal is brought to Europe from the East Indies and Peru; but is
found in greater abundance at Almaden in Spain, where it is extracted
from the ore by distillation. The quicksilver mine of Guanca Velica,
in Peru, is 170 fathoms in circumference, and 480 deep. In this
profound abyss are streets, squares, and a chapel where religious
mysteries on all festival occasions are celebrated. Millions of
flambeaux are continually burning to enlighten this subterranean abode.
This mine generally affects those who work in it with convulsions.
Notwithstanding this, the unfortunate victims of an insatiable avarice
are crowded all together, and plunged _naked_ into this abyss. Tyranny
has invented this refinement in cruelty, to render it impossible for
any thing to escape its restless vigilance.

    “Thus in the dark Peruvian mine confin’d,
    Lost to the cheerful commerce of mankind,
    The groaning captive wastes his life away,
    For ever exil’d from the realms of day;
    While, all forlorn and sad, he pines in vain
    For scenes he never shall possess again.”

Mercury is raised in such abundance in Spain, that in the year 1717
there remained above 1,200 tons of it in the magazines at Almaden,
after the necessary quantity had been exported to Peru for the use of
the silver mines there. The quicksilver mines of Idria, a town in the
circle of Lower Austria, have been wrought constantly for 300 years,
and are thought on the average to yield above 100 tons of quicksilver
annually. Mercury is found also in Hungary and China; it occurs most
commonly in argillaceous schistus, lime-stones, and sand-stones. It
is likewise found in Sweden, amalgamated with silver, and frequently
combined with sulphur. Running mercury is seen in globules, in some
earths and stones in America, and is collected from the clefts of
rocks. Cinnabar, or sulphuret of mercury, is also generally found in
those countries which produce the fluid metal.[108]

_Copper_ is of a red color, very sonorous and elastic, and the most
ductile of all metals, except gold. A wire 1-10th of an inch will
support near 300 pounds. Its specific gravity is 8.66. It will not
burn so easily as iron; which is evident from its not striking fire by
collision. Copper-mines have been worked in China, Japan, Sumatra, and
in the north of Africa. Native copper is generally found in Siberia,
Sweden, Hungary, and some parts of France. Copper is found in several
parts of England and Wales, particularly in Cornwall, and the Isles of
Man and Anglesea. The copper pyrites found in Cornwall are _sulphuret_
of copper. Anglesea formerly yielded more than twenty thousand tons
of copper annually: the vein of metal was originally more than seventy
feet thick. Copper mines have not been worked in England above 160
years. Before that period, whenever the workmen met with copper ore in
the tin mines of Cornwall, they threw it aside as useless, no English
miner at that time knowing how to reduce it to a metallic state. To
chemical science, therefore, we are indebted for such an ample supply
of this valuable metal. It is asserted, that a large copper mine has
been worked for some time in the state of New-Jersey in America, and
that the ore raised there is brought to this country to be smelted.
Native oxides of copper are found in Cornwall and in South America.
Carbonate of copper occurs as a natural production in two varieties,
called _malachite_ and _mountain green_. Sulphate of copper, of a very
rich quality, is also found in the state of Connecticut. The stream
in its course destroys vegetation; and where it settles in places
near the spring, large lumps of metallic salt are collected. Bishop
Watson relates, that the waters which issue from the copper mines in
the county of Wicklow, in Ireland, are so impregnated with sulphate of
copper, that one of the workmen having accidentally left a shovel in
this water, found it some weeks after so incrusted with copper, that
he imagined it was changed into copper. The proprietors of the mines,
in pursuance of this hint, made proper receptacles for the water,
and now find these streams of as much interest to them as the mines.
When miners wish to know whether an ore contains copper, they drop
a little nitric acid upon it; after a short time they dip a feather
into the acid, and then wipe it over the polished blade of a knife;
and if there be the smallest quantity of copper in it, the copper will
be precipitated on the knife.[109] A mass of _native_ copper has been
found in a valley in the Brazils, containing 2,666 pounds weight. The
description of it in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Lisbon is said to be very interesting, as the largest specimen ever
found before this weighs only ten pounds. In the museum of the Academy
of Sciences at St. Petersburgh, is a piece of native malleable copper
of extraordinary magnitude, found on the copper island lying to the
east of Kamschatka.[110] The Romans were acquainted with this metal;
for the only money used by that people, till the 485th year of their
city, was made of it, when silver began to be coined. In Sweden, houses
are covered with copper.[111]

_Iron_ is of a livid blueish color, and one of the hardest and most
elastic of all metals. When dissolved, it has a nauseous styptic taste,
and being strongly rubbed emits a peculiar smell. It is attracted by
the magnet, and has the property of becoming itself magnetic. It is
fused with great difficulty, but gives fire by collision with flint. An
iron wire only one-tenth of an inch in diameter, will carry a weight of
450 pounds without breaking; and a wire of tempered steel, of the same
size, will carry one of about 900 pounds. Iron becomes softer by heat,
and has capability of being welded to another piece of the same metal
so as to form one entire mass; and this may be done without melting
either of the pieces. No other metal, except platina, possesses this
singular properly, which renders it most suitable for every common
purpose. Its specific gravity varies from 7.6 to 7.8.

This valuable metal is plentifully diffused throughout nature,
pervading almost every thing, so as to be detected even in plants and
animal fluids, and is the chief cause of color in earths and stones.
It is found in large masses, and in various states, in the bowels of
the earth. In the museum of the Academy of Sciences at Petersburgh is a
mass of native iron twelve hundred pounds weight. In the northern parts
of the world whole mountains are formed of iron ore, and many of these
ores are magnetic. Of the English ores, the common Lancashire hematite
produces the best iron. This metal is found in solution in many natural
springs, and gives the character to all our chalybeate waters: besides
which, there are some springs which contain iron in combination with
sulphuric acid. These are called vitriolated waters. There are several
in this land; but those at Chadwell near London, and at Swansea in
Glamorganshire, are probably the most important.

As this metal possesses so many properties, exists in so many different
states, and is capable of being applied to such a variety of excellent
purposes, it is certainly the most useful of all the products of the
mineral kingdom. It was used in the time of Moses, in whose writings
Canaan is mentioned as “a land whose stones were iron.” The Greeks
understood the method of tempering it. Homer, in the ninth book of his
Odyssey, describes the fire-brand driven into the eye of Polyphemus,
as hissing like hot iron immersed in water. The advantages which we
derive from the magnetic property of iron are incalculable. To this
we are indebted for the _mariner’s compass_, by which man is enabled
to traverse the ocean, open a friendly or commercial intercourse with
every quarter of the globe, and to steer his course with the utmost
accuracy.

    “Tall navies hence their doubtful way explore,
    And ev’ry product waft from ev’ry shore;
    Hence meagre want expell’d, and sanguine strife,
    For the mild charms of cultivated life.”

Iron may be moulded by the hammer into any form, and united into as
many parts as the workman pleases, without rivets or solder. Were
it not for this peculiar quality, many works of great importance
could never have been executed. A most stupendous fabric, achieved
by means of welded iron is the Chinese bridge of chains, hung over a
dreadful precipice in the neighborhood of Kingtung, to connect two
high mountains. The chains are twenty-one in number, stretched over
the valley, and bound together by other cross chains, so as to form a
perfect road from the summit of one immense mountain to that of the
other.

Some idea of the extent and importance of the iron trade may be
conceived from the following account, abridged from Malkin’s Scenery,
&c, of South Wales. “Merthyr Tydvill was a very inconsiderable village
till the year 1755, when the late Mr. Bacon obtained a lease of the
iron and coal-mines of a district at least eight miles long, and four
wide, for 99 years. Since then these mines have been leased by him
to four distinct companies, and produce to the heirs of Mr. Bacon a
clear annual income of ten thousand pounds. The part occupied by Mr.
Crawshay contains now the largest set of iron works in the kingdom.
He constantly employs more than two thousand workmen, and pays weekly
for wages, coal, and other expenses of the works, twenty-five thousand
pounds. The number of smelting furnaces belonging to the different
companies at Merthyr is about sixteen. Around each of these furnaces
are erected forges and rolling-mills, for converting pig into plate
and bar-iron. These works have conferred so much importance on the
neighborhood, that the obscure village of Merthyr Tydvill has become
the largest town in Wales, and contains more than twelve thousand
inhabitants.”

_Tin_ is white, a little elastic, and so exceedingly soft and ductile,
that it may be beaten out into leaves thinner than paper. It is much
more combustible than many of the metals; and is soluble in all the
mineral acids. Its specific gravity is 7.291, or about 516 pounds to
the cubic foot. This metal is found in Germany, Saxony, South America,
the East Indies, and in England, chiefly in Cornwall and Devonshire.
It must have been known very early, as it is mentioned in the books of
Moses. Homer in his Iliad mentions the use of tin.

Pliny says, that the Romans learned the method of tinning their
culinary vessels from the Gauls. They used tin to alloy copper, for
making those elastic plates which they employ in shooting darts from
their warlike machines. The addition of tin to copper renders that
metal more fluid, and disposes it to assume all the impressions of the
mould. It was probably with a view to this, that it was used by the
ancient Romans in their coinage. Many of the imperial _large brass_, as
they are called, are found to consist of copper and tin alone. Antique
coins frequently occur, made by forgers in the different reigns,
in imitation of the silver currency, which contain a very large
proportion of tin. There are coins of Nero which are of a most debased
and brittle brass.

According to Aristotle, the tin mines of Cornwall were known and worked
in his time. Diodorus Siculus, who wrote about forty years before the
Christian era, gives an account of working these mines: he says, that
their produce was conveyed to Gaul, and thence to different parts of
Italy. The miners of Cornwall were so celebrated for their knowledge
of working metals, that, about the middle of the seventeenth century,
the renowned Becher, a physician of Spire, and tutor of Stahl, came
over to this country on purpose to visit them; and it is reported of
him, that, when he had seen them, he exclaimed, He who was a _teacher_
at home, was a _learner_ when he came there. About 3,000 tons of tin
are furnished annually in Cornwall, two-fifths of which are usually
exported to India by the East India Company. There are two kinds of tin
known in commerce, namely, _block_ tin, and _grain_ tin. Block tin is
procured from the common tin ore, and usually cast in blocks of about
320 pounds weight. It is taken to the proper offices to be assayed,
where it receives the impression of a lion rampant, being the arms of
the Duke of Cornwall, pays a duty of four shillings per hundred weight
to the Duke, and then becomes legally salable. Grain tin is found in
small particles, in what is called the _stream tin ore_. It appears to
have been washed from its original bed in remote ages. This kind of tin
owes its superiority, not only to the purity of the ore, but to the
care with which it is washed and refined.

_Lead_ is of a blueish white color, scarcely sonorous, unelastic,
and, being the softest of all metals, yields readily to the hammer.
It generally contains a small quantity of silver. An alloy of this
metal with tin forms pewter, and in different proportions soft solder.
Its specific gravity is 11.35. Lead ore is very abundant in Scotland,
the western parts of Northumberland and Durham, Derbyshire, and many
other parts of the world. The lead found in these counties occurs
on the estates of Colonel Beaumont, and of those of the late Lord
Derwentwater: the last of these were forfeited to Government; and are
now in the possession of Greenwich Hospital. Lead was known in the time
of Moses, and was in common use among the ancients. The Romans sheathed
the bottoms of their ships with it, fastened by nails made with bronze.
During the first century, at Rome, it was twenty-four times the price
it is now in Europe; whereas tin was only eight times its present price.

_Nickel_ is white, ductile and malleable, but of difficult fusion. It
is attracted by the magnet, and has itself the property of attracting
iron: but as the nickel of commerce always contains iron, this may
disguise its properties, and prevent its nature being exactly known,
Richter, in his Annales de Chimie, asserts, that this metal, in its
pure state, is nearly as brilliant as silver, and more attractable by
the loadstone than iron; that it is not liable to be altered by the
atmosphere; and that its specific gravity when forged is 8.666. The
ore of nickel is procured from various parts of Germany, and is often
found with cobalt. It is chiefly used in China; and it is said, that
the manufacturers of Birmingham combine it with iron, and melt it with
brass, with great advantage.

_Zinc_ possesses but a small degree of malleability and ductility,
except under certain circumstances. When broken, it appears of a
shining blueish white; and when exposed to the air, becomes covered
with a pellicle which reflects various colors. If beaten out into thin
leaves, it will take fire from the flame of a common taper. Its filings
are mixed with gunpowder, to produce those brilliant stars and spangles
which are seen in the best artificial fire-works. It is also one of the
metals employed to form Galvanic batteries. It is the most combustible
metal we have. It will decompose water without the assistance of heat.
Next to manganese, it has the strongest affinity for oxygen of all
the metals. Its specific gravity is 6.861. Its nature is such, that
it seems to form the link between brittle and malleable metals. Some
mineralogists consider zinc to be the most abundant metal in nature,
excepting iron. Calamine, or lapis calaminaris, which is a native oxide
of zinc, combined with carbonic acid, is found both in masses and in
a crystallized state, and is generally combined with a large portion
of silex. Zinc is also found in an ore called _blend_, in which state
it is mineralized by sulphur. The miners call it Black Jack--a mineral
employed till lately in Wales for mending the roads. Zinc is generally
called by our artists _spelter_; and in England and elsewhere it is
extracted from calamine, and other ores, by distillation. This metal
abounds in China, where it is used for current coin, and for that
purpose is employed in the utmost purity. These coins have frequently
Tartar characters on one side, and Chinese on the other. They have
generally a square hole in the centre, that they may be carried on
strings, and more readily counted.

_Antimony_ is of a dusky white color, brilliant, brittle, and destitute
of ductility. Though seemingly hard, it may be cut with a knife.
Its specific gravity, according to Bergman, is 6.86. It is procured
from an ore which is found chiefly in Hungary and Norway. Native
antimony, alloyed with a small portion of silver and iron, has been
found in Sweden. And it is said, that it has been found in the state
of Connecticut, in America, nearly in a pure metallic form. There are
five distinct ores of antimony, but the grey is the only one found
in sufficient quantity for the manufacturer; it is a sulphuret of
antimony. Perhaps we have no metal more valuable as a medicine than
this, or one which is applied in such various ways.

_Bismuth_ is of a yellowish white color, lamellated texture, and
moderately hard, but not malleable. It is so brittle that it breaks
readily under the hammer, and may be reduced to powder. It has the
singular property of _expanding_ as it cools. Hence, probably, its use
in the metallic composition for printers’ types; as from this expansive
property are obtained the most perfect impressions of the moulds in
which the letters are cast. In manufactories this metal is known to
the workmen by the name of _tin glass_. It is one of the metals which
will inflame when suspended in oxymuriatic acid gas. It is generally
found with cobalt in the cobaltic ores of Saxony and England. Native
bismuth, and sulphuret of bismuth, are found on the continent; and a
sulphuret of bismuth has been discovered in Cornwall; but this is not
an abundant metal. If 8 parts of bismuth, 5 of lead, and 3 of tin, be
melted together, the mixed metal will fuse at a heat no greater than
212°. Tea-spoons made of this alloy are sold in London, to surprise
those who are unacquainted with their nature. They have the appearance
of common tea-spoons, but melt as soon as they are put into hot tea.

_Arsenic_, when reduced to its pure metallic state, is a friable
brilliant metal, of a blueish white color, easily tarnishing, or
oxidizing, by exposure to the air. In all its states it is extremely
poisonous. It may be known by the smell of garlic, and by the white
fumes which it exhales when thrown upon a piece of red-hot coal. Its
specific gravity is 8.310. It is found in Bohemia, Hungary, Saxony, and
other places on the continent; and in combination with acids, sulphur,
or oxygen. The arsenic of commerce is prepared in Saxony, in the
operation of roasting the cobalt ores for the manufacture of zaffre.
The reverberatory furnace in which the ores are roasted terminates in a
long horizontal chimney; and in this chimney the arsenical vapors are
condensed, forming a crust, which at stated times is cleared off by
criminals, who are condemned to this work.

_Cobalt_ is a whitish-grey, brittle metal, nearly resembling fine
hardened steel; is difficult of fusion, but obedient to the magnet.
According to Bergman, its specific gravity is about 7.700; though
Tassaret makes it 8.538. Formerly all our cobalt came from Saxony. The
cobalt ores of Hesse produce a nett profit of £14,000 a year, as stated
in Born’s Travels; though once they were used for no other purpose than
to repair the roads. But now cobalt is found abundantly in the Mendip
hills in Somersetshire, and in a mine near Penzance in Cornwall. Zaffre
is now made from the cobalt ores found in these hills. Had it not been
for the rapid promulgation of chemical science in these kingdoms, this
important metal might have lain in the bowels of the earth undiscovered
for ages yet to come. Formerly miners not only threw cobalt aside as
useless, but they considered it so troublesome when they found it among
other ores, that, as stated in Beckmann’s History of Inventions, a
prayer was used in the German church, that God would preserve miners
from _cobalt_ and from _spirits_. It is now very valuable to the
manufacturers of porcelain.

_Manganese_ is of a dark grey color, brilliant, very brittle, of
considerable hardness, and difficult fusibility. Its specific gravity
has been estimated by Bergman at 6.850, and by Hielm 7.00. It is
never found native. It was first procured in its pure metallic form
by Kaim and Gahn between 1770 and 1775. It abounds in America, and
in various parts of the continent. The manganese which is used in
England, is obtained in a state of black oxide from Somersetshire and
Devon. It is found either in the state of an oxide or a salt. But the
discovery of mines of it in this country is a new acquisition, owing
to the spirit of chemical research. Dr. William Dyce, of Aberdeen, has
lately communicated to the Society for the Promotion of Arts, &c, the
discovery of a mine of great extent, and very fine quality, in the
vicinity of that town: for which the gold medal of the Society was
sent him. Professor Beattie, of the same place, has also discovered
manganese in his neighborhood, on the river Don, of good quality.
Scheele discovered this metal in the ashes of burnt vegetables. Proust
has lately announced the discovery of a native sulphuret of manganese.
That from the Bristol and the Mendip hills generally contains lead.

_Tungsten_ is a heavy metal, but its properties are not much known.
It is procured from a mineral found in Sweden, and from an ore called
_wolfram_, found in Cornwall, Germany, &c. It has been used in France
for making vegetable lakes; but is not used here. Though it has been
recommended as a proper basis for colors, it shows in some instances a
strange fugacious disposition. Its specific gravity is 17.60.

The same may be said of the other metals, their properties not being
much known. _Molybdenum_ was first procured in a metallic state by
Hielm, in the year 1782; and, it is believed, has been employed in
some processes of dyeing in Germany. As the ore may be had in great
plenty, it will probably, some time hence, come into general use here.
At present it is not used in any of the arts. Its specific gravity
is 8.61. _Uranium_ was discovered by Klaproth in 1789, in a mineral
called pechblend; and has since been found combined with carbonic acid,
in the common green mica. _Titanium_ was first noticed in the year
1781, by Mr. Macgregor, in a greyish black sand, found in the vale of
Menachan in Cornwall; but has since been discovered by Klaproth in
several other minerals. An ore of it occurs in Transylvania, which
very much resembles yellow sand. This metal has been used in France
for painting porcelain. _Tellurium_ was discovered by Klaproth in the
year 1798, in a particular kind of gold ore. It has hitherto been
found in quantities too small to allow of its being employed in the
arts. Its specific gravity is only 6.115. _Chromium_ received its
name from a property it has of imparting a lively color to a variety
of other bodies. The emerald is colored by an oxide of this metal.
_Columbium_ was discovered in a mineral sent from Massachusetts in
North America. _Tantalium_ was found in an ore from Swedish Lapland:
but Dr. Woollaston has lately discovered that this and columbium are
identically the same metal. _Cerium_ had not been seen in a metallic
form till Sir Humphrey Davy procured it from some oxide discovered by
Hissinger and Berzelius in 1804. Its scarcity will prevent its being
applied to any useful purpose.

The metals are simple substances, distinguishable from all other bodies
by their lustre, great specific gravity, perfect opacity, and superior
power of conducting electricity. They are the great agents by which
we are enabled to explore the bowels of the earth, and examine the
recesses of nature. Their uses are so multiplied, that they are become
of prime importance in every occupation of life.

The reason why one metal possesses such opposite and specific
differences from those of another, is not to be attributed to chance,
but must certainly be the effect of consummate wisdom and contrivance.
These metals differ so much from each other in their degrees of
hardness, lustre, color, elasticity, fusibility, weight, malleability,
ductility, and tenacity, that the Author of nature appears to have had
in view all the necessities of man coming within the range of their
operation.[112]

    [It is now generally admitted that there are FORTY
    _distinct metals_.

    Some of these metals are the _bases_ of the _alkalis_,
    _alkaline earths_, and _earths_. And as _this_ class of metals
    is but little known to the great mass of readers, some remarks
    will be acceptable: they are recommended to his special
    attention, as they form the base of the only satisfactory
    theory of _volcanos_ and _earthquakes_. The number of metals in
    this class are _twelve_.

    1. The bases of the three alkalis, _potash_, _soda_, and
    _lithia_.

    The base of _potash_ is POTASIUM. This metal was discovered
    in 1807 by Sir H. Davy. Its texture is crystalline; color
    and lustre similar to mercury. It is solid at the ordinary
    temperature of the atmosphere; somewhat fluid at 70°, melts
    at 150°. Its affinity for oxygen is so great that it oxidizes
    rapidly in the air; and decomposes water instantly upon
    contact, emitting heat, flame, and light, as it swims on the
    surface of the water, being the _lighter_ substance. In these
    cases it oxidizes and becomes potash, by abstracting oxygen
    from the air and water.

    The base of _soda_ is SODIUM. This metal was discovered
    by the same chemist the same year. It has the strong metallic
    lustre of silver. It fuses at 200°, and evaporates at a full
    red heat. It decomposes both air and water, but not so rapidly
    as potasium. When thrown on water it effervesces strongly; and
    inflames with light, when thrown on boiling water. In these
    cases soda results, which is the _oxide of sodium. This metal
    is the base of common salt._

    The base of _lithia_ is LITHIUM. This metal was discovered
    in Sweden in 1818, by Arfwedson. It is of a white color, like
    sodium; but oxidizes so rapidly as not to be kept in its pure
    metallic state. Its peculiar properties are, therefore, not so
    certainly known. Its alkaline quality is well ascertained, when
    in combination with oxygen, in which form it commonly appears.

    2. The bases of the four alkaline earths, _baryta_,
    _strontia_, _lime_ and _magnesia_.

    The base of _baryta_ is BARIUM. This metal was discovered
    by Sir H. Davy, in 1808. It is of a dark gray color, very
    heavy, and attracts oxygen very strongly from the air, and from
    water, with effervescence, caused by the escape of hydrogen
    gas, and thus becomes an oxide which is the pure earth baryta,
    of a white color, and very heavy. Its intimate properties are
    not yet well known.

    The base of _strontia_, is STRONTIUM. This metal is very
    much like barium, in color, weight, and power of decomposing
    air and water, and thus becoming an oxide, which is the earth
    strontia. Yet it is satisfactorily distinguished from barium.

    The base of _lime_ is CALCIUM. This metal was
    satisfactorily obtained first by Sir H. Davy. It is of a
    whiter color than the two last mentioned metals; and like them
    decomposes the air and water, and thus becomes lime, which is
    an _oxide of calcium_. The _base_ of common _limestone is_, of
    course, _a metal_.

    The base of _magnesia_ is MAGNESIUM. This metal was
    discovered by Sir H. Davy, but in very small quantities;
    sufficient, however, to determine its strong affinity for
    oxygen, so as to decompose water, and thus oxidize, and become
    the earth magnesia, which is a metallic oxide. The base of
    common magnesia is, of course, a metal.

    3. The bases of the five earths, _alumina_, _glucina_,
    _yttria_, _zirconia_, and _silica_.

    The base of _alumina_ is ALUMINIUM. The existence of this
    metal was pretty satisfactorily ascertained by Sir H. Davy,
    and subsequently _established_ by Wöhler. It is very difficult
    to obtain it, as the preparation is attended with intense heat
    and light. When obtained it is generally in small scales of
    a metallic lustre. It requires a great heat to fuse it; and
    when heated to redness in the open air, it burns with a bright
    light, and the product is an _oxide of aluminium_, which is
    _pure clay_, of a white color, and quite hard.

    This oxide, or pure clay, is very abundant in the
    composition of the earth, though generally very much
    adulterated. It is found in all countries and used for making
    bricks, porcelain ware, pipes, &c. When pure it sometimes
    crystallizes. Hence it is capable of forming some of the most
    beautiful _gems_: as the sapphire and ruby, which are pure
    crystallized clay. _Clay, then, has a metallic base._

    The base of _glucina_, is GLUCINIUM. Glucina was first
    discovered by Vauquelin in 1798, and by analogy its base was
    _supposed_ to be metallic, which has since been confirmed by
    Dr. Wöhler, who has obtained the base in the form of a metal.
    _An. de ch. et de ph. Sept. 1828, as quoted by Dr. Bache,
    Turner’s Chem. p. 303._

    The base of _yttria_ is YTTRIUM. This metal was obtained in
    a separate state by Dr. Wöhler, (See last quoted authority,)
    though its existence was inferred by Godolin who discovered the
    earth which is an oxide of this metal.

    The base of _zirconia_ is ZIRCONIUM. The earth was
    discovered by Klaproth in 1789, and its metallic base clearly
    established by Berzelius 1824.

    The base of _silica_ is SILICIUM. There exists some doubts
    among chemists whether this base is indeed a _metal_; but
    there is no doubt but that it is _combustible_, and that the
    earth silica, (or silex,) is an _oxide_. From _analogy_ it
    would be inferred this base is metallic, and the _evidence_
    preponderates on this side. This oxide, or earth, is very
    abundant. It is more commonly called _silex_. It is the base
    of the whole class of primitive rocks, and almost altogether
    constitutes quartz, flint, &c.

    The reader is now desired to recollect that this class of
    metals constitutes the _bases of the alkalis, and earths_;
    which are simply _metallic oxides_ or a combination of oxygen
    with the metals. Recollect also that _all these metals are
    inflammable_, and some of them simply upon exposure to air and
    water. Now as the earths at the surface of our globe are the
    results of _chemical action_, in which the oxygen combined with
    the metals, it is beyond a doubt that these substances were
    created in their elementary and uncombined state; and that
    the act of combining would produce an inconceivable amount of
    heat, so as to fuse completely the whole mass of our earth; and
    in this state of fusion the oxides would commence forming at
    the _surface chiefly_; and thus by oxidizing the metals would
    form the earths, rocks, &c, which constitute, principally,
    the _crust_ of our globe. When this crust became sufficiently
    thick it would protect the _interior_ parts of the earth from
    oxidation, by preventing the access of air and water; and they
    would of course remain in a pure metallic state. But, (as is
    most probable,) if the materials, being promiscuously mixed
    throughout the mass at the commencement of the chemical action,
    should oxidize throughout, then the indurating of the crust,
    by cooling, would inclose the _interior_ parts _in a state of
    fusion_, and in that state they remain to the present time. Nor
    is this astonishing when we recollect the _earths_ are almost
    perfect _non-conductors of caloric_: of course it could not
    escape at all through the _crust_ of the earth, formed of many
    strata of earths, in the shape of rocks, which, taken together,
    may be about eight miles thick.

    If, by any concussion, or by percolation, water, or air
    should reach these metals in the interior, or these fused
    masses of matter, the consequence would be _decomposition_,
    and the production of a great amount of gas, and heat, which
    operating conjointly, first produce earthquakes by struggling
    to escape from the caverns in which they are generated; and
    when they find a passage, they would break forth into volcanos.
    This is the only true and satisfactory theory of earthquakes
    and volcanos.

    It may be added, that this action would naturally bring to
    its aid the astonishing powers of electricity and galvanism.

    The _forty_ metals mentioned above, may be classed
    scientifically into _two_ classes.

    1. _The bases of the alkalis, alkaline earths, and earths._
    These are twelve: potasium, sodium, and lithium; bases of the
    alkalis--barium, strontium, calcium, and magnesia; bases of the
    alkaline earths--aluminium, glucinium, yttrium, zirconium, and
    silicium; bases of the earths.

    2. Metals, the oxides of which are neither alkalis, or
    earths. These are _twenty-eight_ in number, and may be set down
    in the following order: gold, silver, iron, copper, mercury,
    lead, tin, antimony, zinc, bismuth, arsenic, cobalt, platinum,
    nickel, manganese, tungsten, tellurium, molybdenum, uranium,
    titanium, chromium, columbium, palladium, rhodium, iridium,
    osmium, cereum, and cadmium.

    Not only the _first_ class of metals are _combustible_,
    but the _last_ also. _All_ the metals are now well known to
    be combustible bodies, _and may be made to burn as really as
    wood_.]

_Gems_ are of a higher order than metals, of a more refined nature, and
consist of two classes, the pellucid and semi-pellucid. Those of the
first class are bright, elegant, and beautiful fossils, naturally and
essentially compound, ever found in small detached masses, extremely
hard, and of great lustre. Those composing the second class are stones
naturally and essentially compound, not inflammable nor soluble in
water, found in detached masses, and composed of crystalline matter
debased by earth: however, they are but slightly debased, are of great
beauty and brightness, of a moderate degree of transparency, and
usually found in small masses.

The knowledge of the gems depends principally on observing their
hardness and color. Their _hardness_ is commonly allowed to stand in
the following order: the diamond, ruby, sapphire, jacinth, emerald,
amethyst, garnet, carneol, chalcedony, onyx, jasper, agate, porphyry,
and marble. This difference, however, is not regular and constant, but
frequently varies. In point of _color_, the diamond is valued for its
transparency, the ruby for its deep red, the sapphire for its blue,
the emerald for its green, the jacinth for its orange, the amethyst
for its purple, the carneol for its carnation, the onyx for its tawny,
the jasper, agate, and porphyry, for their vermillion, green, and
variegated colors, and the garnet for its transparent blood-red.

There is not a unity of opinion concerning the cause of this
difference. “Their colors,” says Cronstedt, “are commonly supposed to
depend upon metallic vapors; but may they not more justly be supposed
to arise from a phlogiston united with a metallic or some other earth?
because we find that metallic earths which are perfectly well calcined
give no color to any glass; and that the manganese, on the other hand,
gives more color than can be ascribed to the small quantity of metal
which is to be extracted from it.” M. Magellan is of opinion, that
their color is owing chiefly to the mixture of iron which enters their
composition; but approves the sentiment of Cronstedt, that phlogiston
has a share in their production, it being well known that the calces
of iron when dephlogisticated, produce the red and yellow colors of
marble, and when phlogisticated to a certain degree produce the blue or
green colors.

With regard to the texture of gems, M. Magellan observes, that all of
them are foliated or laminated, and of various degrees of hardness.
Whenever the edges of these laminæ are sensible to the eye, they have
a fibrous appearance, and reflect various shades of color, which
change successively according to their angular position to the eye.
These are called by the French _chatorantes_; and what is a blemish
in their transparency, often enhances their value on account of their
scarcity. But when the substance of a gem is composed of a broken
texture, consisting of various sets of laminæ differently inclined to
each other, it emits at the same time various irradiations of different
colors, which succeed one another according to their angle of position.
This kind of gems has obtained the name of _opals_, which are valued
in proportion to the brilliancy, beauty, and variety of their colors.
Their crystallization, no doubt, depends on the same cause which
produces that of salts, earths, and metals: but as to the particular
configuration of each species of gems, we can hardly depend upon any
individual form as a criterion to ascertain each kind; and when we
have attended with the utmost care to all that has been written on the
subject, we are at last obliged to appeal to chemical analysis, because
it very often assumes various forms.[113]

       *       *       *       *       *

The rich treasures of the earth are within it, observes a worthy
author, so that they cannot be discovered and brought to the surface
without the labor of man; yet they are not placed so deep, as to render
his exertion ineffectual. Thus nothing but what is comparatively
worthless is to be found by the indolent on the surface of life. Every
thing valuable must be obtained by diligent research and sedulous
effort. All wisdom, science, art and experience, are hidden at a proper
depth for the exercise of intellect, and they who bend their attention
to any of these objects shall not be disappointed in their pursuit.

The treasures of wisdom, which are displayed in the redemption of
mankind by Jesus Christ, and recorded in the Divine Oracles, do not lie
upon the surface of the letter, for every superficial reader to observe
them: therefore our Lord says, “Search the Scriptures.” The word
ερευνατε, compounded of ερεω, _I seek_, and ευνη, _a bed_, is, says
St. Chrysostom, “a metaphor taken from those who dig deep and search
for metals in the bowels of the earth. They look for the bed where
the metal lies, and break every clod, and sift and examine the whole,
in order to discover the ore.” In Leigh’s Critica Sacra, we meet
with these observations, illustrative of the Greek word--“_Search_;
that is, shake and sift them, as the word signifies: search narrowly,
till the true force and meaning of every sentence, yea, of every word
and syllable, nay, of every letter and yod therein, be known and
understood. Confer place with place; the scope of one place with that
of another; things going before with things coming after: compare word
with word, letter with letter, and search it thoroughly.”

The Holy Scriptures contain the most invaluable treasures, a complete
collection of doctrines, precepts, and promises, necessary to
everlasting happiness. In this respect they have a peculiar advantage
above all the writings of the most distinguished philosophers in the
heathen world. The Bible presents an exact model of religion, for the
instruction and common benefit of mankind. Here we have, in a narrow
compass, all the things necessary to be known, believed, and practised,
in order to our salvation; for it is, “a lamp to our feet, and a light
to our path.” We are taught the knowledge of the only living and
true God, his spiritual nature, adorable perfections, and endearing
relations to his rational creatures: so that the meanest Christian
who can read, may arrive at more true and just notions of him, than
the wisest heathen sages could attain, who as the Apostle intimates,
did only grope after him in the dark.--We are informed how Adam was
created, how he fell, and what is the consequence of his transgression
to all his posterity: the most celebrated heathens were not able to
account for the origin of moral evil, as affecting the human race. The
glorious plan of redemption by Jesus Christ is set before us, in its
commencement, progress, and completion; which is the highest display
of the moral perfections of God, and attended with the most beneficial
advantages to man.--The rules of duty, all the agenda of religion, or
things to be done, are plainly stated, and properly enforced. Promises,
containing pardon, adoption, sanctification, and eternal life, are
every where interspersed, and are “yea, and amen, in Christ.”

Our obligation to search the Scriptures, and by that means acquaint
ourselves with their valuable contents, appears from the _necessity_
and _design_ of committing them to writing. St. Paul says, “All
scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable
for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in
righteousness: that the man of God may be perfect, thoroughly furnished
unto all good works.” But how can they contribute to these important
ends without being read? What effect could the mere writing of them
have on mankind, to inform the judgment and regulate the life? How
could Christian motives have proper influence, if the Sacred Volume
were neglected? Is it not an insult to common sense, to assert that
the Scriptures were written for our instruction and admonition, but
it is not necessary to peruse them to learn what they teach? To have
a Bible, and not to read it, for direction in the way of truth and
holiness, would not be attended with any peculiar advantage. Precious
metals, deposited in the earth, must be procured to be rendered
beneficial. The Holy Scriptures contain the revelation of God to
mankind, declare his will with certainty, and are the prescribed means
of salvation: the Apostle says, “they are able to make us wise unto
salvation, through faith that is in Christ Jesus.”

       *       *       *       *       *

Footnotes - Chapter IV

    [74] Benson on Gen. i, 9, 10.

    [75] Contemplative Philosopher, vol. ii, pp. 177-179.

    [76] M. Savary, in his instructive and entertaining Letters
    on Greece, has the following pertinent reflections: “We enjoy
    the finest weather imaginable; not a cloud obscures the sky,
    and a south-east wind wafts us directly towards the port to
    which our wishes tend. We have now entirely lost sight of land,
    and, as far as the eye can reach, only view the immense abyss
    of the waters, and the vast expanse of the heavens. How awful
    is this sight! How does it inspire the mind with great ideas!
    How adventurous is man, who trusts his fortune and his life
    to this frail vessel he has built, which a worm may pierce,
    or a single blast dash to pieces against a rock. Yet in this
    he braves the fury of the ocean! But how admirable is his
    ingenuity! He commands the winds, enchains them in the canvas,
    and forces them to conduct him where he pleases. He sails from
    one end of the world to the other, and traverses the immense
    liquid plains without any signals to direct him. He reads his
    course in the heavens. A needle, which wonderfully points
    perpetually to the pole, and the observation of the stars,
    inform him where he is. A few lines and points mark out to him
    the islands, coasts, and shoals, which his skill enables him
    to approach or avoid at pleasure. Yet has he cause to tremble,
    notwithstanding all his science and all his genius! The fire
    of the clouds is kindling over his head, and may consume his
    dwelling. Unfathomable gulfs are yawning beneath his feet,
    and he is separated from them only by a single plank. His
    confidence might make us imagine he knew himself immortal; yet
    he must die--die never to revive again, except in another state
    of being.”

    [77] As it is sometimes necessary to preserve sea water
    in casks for bathing and other purposes, it is of importance
    to know how to keep it from putrefaction. Dr. Henry from
    many experiments made by him for the preservation of sea
    water from putrefaction, has concluded, that two scruples of
    quick-lime are sufficient to preserve a quart of sea water.
    The proportions, however, may vary a little according to the
    strength of quick-lime employed.

    [78] “Frosts often occasion a scantiness of water in our
    fountains and wells. This is sometimes erroneously accounted
    for by supposing that the water freezes in the bowels of
    the earth. But this, as Dr. Robison remarks, is a great
    mistake: the most intense cold of a Siberian winter would not
    freeze the ground two feet deep; but a very moderate frost
    will consolidate the whole surface of a country, and make
    it impervious to the air; especially if the frost have been
    preceded by rain, which has soaked the surface. When this
    happens, the water which was flittering through the ground is
    all arrested, and kept suspended in its capillary tubes by the
    pressure of the air.” Haüy’s Nat. Phil. p. 198.

    [79] Dr. Black’s Lectures, vol. i. p. 69.

    [80] See Ellis’s voyage to Hudson’s Bay.

    [81] St. Pierre’s Studies, vol. i, pp. 129-132.

    [82] See 21st volume of the Philosophical Magazine.

    [83] The specific gravity of water is as follows; a
    wine-pint measure weighs one pound; consequently a cubic foot
    of water weighs about 1,000 ounces, or 62½ pounds, avoirdupois.
    It is 816 times heavier than atmospheric air.

    [84] Parkes’s Chemical Catechism, p. 108.

    [85] Haüy’s Natural Philosophy, vol. i. pp. 197, 198.

    [86] Parkes’s Chemical Catechism, pp. 94, 95.

    [87] Parkes’s Chemical Catechism, p. 92.

    [88] Driessen on the Nature of Snow.

    [89] Thomson’s Chemistry, vol. i, p. 365.

    [90] “The English word _hail_, in Latin _grando_, in Greek
    χαλαζα, gives us no information about the nature of the thing:
    but, if we take the word ברד BeReD in Hebrew, it resolves
    itself into ב..רד, which signifies _in descensu_, and so
    describes to us the physiological formation of hail: which, as
    philosophers agree, is first formed into drops of rain, and,
    _as it falls_, is frozen into hail.” Jones’s Letter on the Use
    of the Hebrew Language.

    [91] Dr. Clarke on Exod. ix, 18.

    [92] See Dr. Paley’s Natural Theology, p. 407.

    [93] There are hot spouting springs of water in Iceland, of
    which a traveller says, “Near Laugervatan, a small lake about
    two days’ journey distant from Mount Hecla, we beheld the steam
    of the hot springs rising in eight different places, one of
    which of which continually threw up into the air a column of
    water from eighteen to twenty-four feet high. The water was
    extremely hot, so that a piece of mutton and some salmon trouts
    were almost boiled to pieces in it in six minutes.

    At Gyser, not far from Skallholt, one of the Episcopal
    sees in Iceland, within the circumference of three English
    miles, forty or fifty boiling springs are seen together; and
    the largest, which is in the middle, particularly engaged our
    attention the whole of the day that we spent here. The aperture
    through which the water arose is nineteen feet in diameter; and
    round the top is a basin nine feet higher than the conduit.
    Here the water does not continually, but only by intervals
    several times a day; and, as I was informed by the Icelanders,
    in wet weather higher then at other times.

    On the day we were there the water spouted ten different
    times, between the hours of six and eleven in the morning, each
    time the height of fifty or sixty feet. Before, the water had
    not risen above the margin of the pipe; but now it began by
    degrees to fill the upper basin, and at last to run over. Our
    guides told us that the water would soon spout up much higher
    than it had done.

    Soon after four o’clock we observed that the earth began
    to tremble in three different places; as well as the top of a
    mountain which was about three hundred fathoms distant from the
    mouth of the spring. We also frequently heard a subterraneous
    noise, like the discharge of a cannon; and immediately
    afterwards a column of water spouted from the opening, which at
    a great height divided itself into several rays, and according
    to our observation was ninety-two feet high. Our great surprise
    at this uncommon force of the air and fire was increased, when
    many stones which we had flung into the aperture wore thrown up
    again with the spouting water.” _Troil._

    [94] Savary, Newcomen, Cawley, Watt, and Boulton,
    Englishmen; and Betancourt and the brothers Perrier, Frenchmen;
    are names well known in the history of steam-engines. And
    those persons who wish to acquaint themselves with the
    principles and manner of operation of this most important
    class of machines, says Dr. O. Gregory, may be referred to
    the following work:--The Repertory of Arts and Manufactures,
    the Philosophical Journal, and the Philosophical Magazine, in
    various places; the second volume of Mr. Brewster’s edition
    of Ferguson’s Select Lectures, the second volume of Gregory’s
    Mechanics, and the second volume of Prony’s treatise entitled
    Nouvelle Architecture Hydraulique.

    [95] Plymouth Chronicle.

    [96] Whitehurst’s Inquiry into the Original State and
    Formation of the Earth.

    [97] Examination of Dr. Burnet’s Theory of the Earth, pp.
    92, 93.

    [98] The substances of which vegetables are composed, now
    amount to fifteen in number; but almost the whole of vegetable
    substances are composed of four ingredients, namely, carbon,
    hydrogen, oxygen, and azote. Of these, the last, namely, azote,
    forms but a small proportion even of those vegetable substances
    of which it is a constituent part, while, into many, it does
    not enter at all.--Contemplative Philosopher, vol. i. p. 150.

    [99] Of the efficacy of water in vegetation, we have
    on record some remarkable instances. That vegetables will
    grow in woollen cloth, moss, and in other insoluble media,
    besides soils provided they be supplied with water, has been
    repeatedly shown since the days of Van Helmont and Boyle: but
    the experiments of a modern author, says Mr. Parkes, from
    their apparent correctness, seem more highly interesting and
    conclusive.

    Seeds of plants were sown in pure river-sand, in litharge,
    in flowers of sulphur, and even among metal, or common leaden
    shot; and in every instance nothing employed for their
    nourishment but distilled water. The plants throve, and
    passed through all the usual gradations of growth to perfect
    maturity. The author then proceeded to gather the entire
    produce, the roots, stems, leaves, pods, seeds, &c. These were
    accurately weighed, dried, and again weighed, then submitted to
    distillation, incineration, lixivation, and the other ordinary
    means used in a careful analysis. Thus he obtained from these
    vegetables all the materials peculiar to each individual
    species, precisely as if it had been cultivated in a natural
    soil--viz. the various earths, the alkalies, acids, metals,
    carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, nitrogen, &c. He concludes this
    very important paper nearly in these extraordinary words:
    “Oxygen and hydrogen, with the assistance of solar light,
    appear to be the only elementary substances employed in the
    constitution of the whole universe; and Nature, in her simple
    progress works the most infinitely diversified effects by
    the slightest modifications in the means she employs.”--See
    Recherches sur la Force assimilatrice dans les Végétaux, par M.
    Henri Braconnot, Annales de Chimie, Fev. et Mars, 1808.

    [100] He was born at Verona, of an illustrious family; and
    at the foot of Vesuvius, while attempting to ascertain the
    cause of an extraordinary cloud issuing therefrom, was, by the
    sulphureous exhalation from the burning lava, suffocated, A.D.
    79.

    [101] The _Tabacum_, or common Tobacco plant, was first
    discovered in America, by the Spaniards, about the year
    1560, and by them imported into Europe. It had been used
    by the inhabitants of America long before; and was called
    by the inhabitants of the islands, _yoli_, and by those of
    the continent, _pætux_. It was sent into Spain from Tabaco,
    a province of Yucatan, where it was first discovered, and
    from whence it takes its common name. Sir Walter Raleigh is
    generally said to have been the first who introduced it into
    England, about the year 1585, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth,
    and who taught his countrymen how to smoke it. The following
    anecdote is related of him. He having imitated the Indians in
    smoking this plant, at length so much delighted in it, that
    he was unwilling to disuse it on his return to England; and
    therefore supplied himself with several hogsheads, which he
    placed in his own study, and generally indulged himself with
    smoking secretly two or three pipes a day. He had a simple man,
    who waited at his study door, to bring him up daily a tankard
    of old ale and nutmeg, and he always laid aside his pipe when
    he heard him approaching. One day, being earnestly engaged in
    reading some book which amused him, the man abruptly entered,
    and, surprised at seeing his master enveloped in smoke, (a
    sight perfectly new to him) the smoke ascending in thick vapors
    from his mouth and the bowl of the tobacco-pipe, immediately
    threw the ale in his master’s face, ran down stairs, and
    alarmed the family with repeated exclamations, that his master
    was on fire in the inside, and that if they did not make haste,
    before they could get up stairs, he would be burned to ashes.

    [102] Taylor on remarkable Trees, Plants, and Shrubs.

    [103] Evangelical Magazine, January, 1814.

    [104] Dr. Black, ii. 694.

    [105] Phil. Trans. for 1796.

    [106] See Mr. Hitchen’s Paper, in Phil. Trans. vol. xci. p.
    159.

    [107] Storch’s Picture of Petersburgh, p. 330.

    [108] Several salts are formed by art with this metal for
    medicinal purposes. One of the most valuable is _calomel_,
    which is made by triturating fluid mercury with corrosive
    sublimate, and then submitting the mixture to sublimation. As
    this medicine is much used in private families, and as dreadful
    consequences might ensue if it were improperly prepared, it
    ought to be generally known, says Mr. Parkes, that if it be
    not perfectly insipid to the taste, and indissoluble by long
    boiling in water, it contains a portion of oxymuriate of
    mercury, or corrosive sublimate, and consequently is poisonous.

    [109] Monthly Review, Appendix, vol. xxvii. N.S. p. 551.

    [110] Storch’s Picture of Petersburgh, p. 319.

    [111] In domestic economy, the necessity of keeping copper
    vessels always clean is generally acknowledged; but it may
    not perhaps be so well known, that fat and oily substances,
    and vegetable acids, do not attack copper while _hot_; and,
    therefore, if no liquor be ever suffered to grow _cold_ in
    these utensils, they may be used for every culinary purpose
    with perfect safety.--Dr. Percival gives an account of a
    young lady who amused herself, while her hair was dressing,
    with eating samphire pickle impregnated with copper. She soon
    complained of pain in the stomach, and in five days vomiting
    commenced, which was incessant for two days. After this her
    stomach became prodigiously distended: and in nine days after
    eating the pickle, death relieved her from her sufferings.
    Medical Transactions, vol. iii, p. 80.

    [112] The materials forming nearly the whole of this
    Section have been selected and arranged from the _seventh_
    Edition of Parkes’s _Chemical Catechism_: a work of peculiar
    interest, and which was confidently recommended to the Author
    by a physician and chemist of distinguished celebrity.

    [113] See Encyclopædia Britannica.


       *       *       *       *       *




CHAPTER V.

FOURTH DAY.

_Section_ I.--THE SUN.

    Signs -- Names -- Nature -- Motions -- Form -- Magnitude --
    Distance -- Suspension -- Idolatrous worship of the Sun -- The
    Sun an Emblem of Christ.


On the _fourth day_, “God said, Let there be lights in the firmament of
the heaven to divide the day from the night, and let them be for signs,
and for seasons, and for days, and years: and let them be for lights in
the firmament of the heaven to give light upon the earth: and it was
so. And God made two great lights; the greater light to rule the day,
and the lesser light to rule the night: he made the stars also. And God
set them in the firmament of the heaven, to give light upon the earth,
and to rule over the day and over the night, and to divide the light
from the darkness.” The light which had hitherto been scattered and
confused, was now collected and formed into several luminaries, and so
rendered more glorious and of greater utility.

A sensible and pious author observes, that not only the two great
lights, which were made after a special manner to rule the day and
the night, but, in general, all the lights in the firmament of the
heaven, are said to be for signs and for seasons; or, as some render
the words, “for signs of the seasons.” And indeed this seems to be the
meaning of the inspired writer. As for the manner of expression, “for
signs and for seasons,” it is very common in the Hebrew, as well as in
many other languages, and is a figurative way of speech, expressing
those things disjunctively, which must by the understanding be joined
together. First, these lights are said to be _for signs_, and then the
things are mentioned which they are to signify, namely, the _seasons_,
the _days_, and the _years_: whereas, if we understand the word _signs_
in an indefinite sense, and not confined to what follows, we are
through the whole text left in great uncertainty; seeing that there are
_signs_ appointed _in the heaven_ for some purpose or other, but not
knowing for what. Besides, if we must take all the parts of the text
disjunctively, then “the lights in the firmament” must be taken for
_seasons_, and for _days_, and for _years_, as well as for _signs_.
But we know, that the celestial bodies are not themselves _seasons_,
and _days_, and _years_, but only _signs_ of them, by such particular
motions and aspects, as God, according to the laws of nature, has
ordained them. Neither can I see reason to believe, that every motion
or position of the heavenly bodies has a special signification in it:
though serving in general to display the wisdom and power of God, in
their regular courses. The sun, indeed, which is called the _greater
light_, is said _to rule the day_, as it is by the appearance of
his light, increasing and decreasing, that we measure the length of
the day; and the moon likewise _to rule the night_, partly on the
like account. Thus likewise the sun’s course (if we may so call it)
is a determining sign of the beginning and ending of the year, and
of its various seasons. And in general, the sun, the moon, and the
other lights, are necessary signs of the seasons of sowing, reaping,
planting, and are useful in navigation, as well as other arts.

Costard, in his History of Astronomy, makes some critical remarks on
the name of this greater light. He says, The sun is, by the Greeks,
called Ἡλιος: which is nothing more than the Hebrew word אל _El_,
modelled after the Greek manner of pronunciation, and signifies _Lord_;
the first idolatrous worship being paid to this planet. In the Hebrew
language it is called שמש _Shemesh_, and in the Chaldee שמשא _Shimsha_,
from שמש _Shamesh_, to _minister_, on account of its administering
light and heat to this world. From this property of communicating heat,
it is also called המה _Hammah_. By the Phœnician idolaters it seems
to have been called בעל _Baal_, or בעל שמים _Baal-Shamim_, the _Lord
of Heaven_. And on account of the supposed swiftness of its diurnal
motion from east to west, it had a chariot dedicated to it at Sidon, an
ancient town of Phœnicia. Such a chariot is still seen on the coins of
that place. This superstition was likewise imitated by the idolatrous
Jews: for we read of _the horses which the kings of_ Judah _had given_,
or dedicated, _to the sun_. By the Chaldeans it seems to have been
called בל _Bel_, and by the Assyrians פל _Pul_; and, with the addition,
sometimes of אב _ab_, or אף _ap_, i.e. _father_, אף-פל _Ap-Pul_, or
_Father-Lord_; from whence the Greeks formed their Απολλων, another
name given by them to the sun. The name of this luminary, among the
Romans, was _sol_; given more probably, on account of his scorching
heat in the summer, or from his determining the length of the year by
his course, than because he appeared _solus, alone_, according to the
derivation given by Macrobius.

The _nature_ of the sun is a subject which has not only excited the
most diligent inquiry among men of scientific knowledge, but the
opinions concerning it have passed through a variety of vicissitudes.
The sun being evidently the source of light and heat, was by the
ancients considered to be a globe of fire. But Dr. Herschell’s
discoveries, by means of his immensely large telescopes, tend to prove,
that what we call the _sun_ is only the _atmosphere_ of that luminary:
“that this atmosphere consists of various _elastic fluids_, which are
more or less transparent; that as the clouds surrounding our earth are
probably decompositions of some of the elastic fluids belonging to the
atmosphere itself, so we may suppose that in the vast atmosphere of the
sun similar decompositions may take place, but with this difference,
that the decompositions of the elastic fluids of the sun are of a
_phosphoric_ nature, and are attended by lucid appearances, by giving
out light.” The body of the sun this celebrated astronomer considers as
hidden generally from us, by means of this luminous atmosphere; that
what are called _maculæ_, or _spots_ on the sun, are real openings in
this atmosphere, through which the _opaque body_ of the sun becomes
visible; that this atmosphere itself is not _fiery_ nor _hot_, but
is the instrument which God designed to act on the caloric or latent
heat; and that heat is only produced by the solar light acting on and
combining with the caloric or matter of fire contained in the air, and
other substances which are heated by it.

This indefatigable investigator of the heavenly phenomena shows, by
many substantial proofs, drawn from natural philosophy, that _heat_ is
produced by the sun’s rays only when they act on a calorific medium;
and that they cause the production of heat by uniting with the matter
of fire which is contained in the substances that are heated,--as the
collision of flint and steel will inflame a magazine of gunpowder,
by uniting with its latent fire, and bring the whole into action.
This point is capable of a very clear elucidation. “On the tops of
mountains, and at heights to which the clouds seldom reach to shelter
them from the direct rays of the sun, we always find regions of ice and
snow. Now if the sun’s rays themselves conveyed all the heat we find
on the earth, it would of course be hottest in situations similar to
the tops of mountains, where their course is least interrupted. But
all those who have ascended in balloons confirm the coldness of the
upper regions of the atmosphere; and, therefore, since even on the
earth the heat of the situation depends on the facility with which the
medium yields to the impression of the sun’s rays, we have only to
admit, that, on the sun itself, the fluids composing its atmosphere,
and the matter on its surface, are of such a nature as not to be
capable of any excessive heat from its own rays. It is also a well
known fact, that the focus of the largest burning lens thrown into
the air, will occasion no heat in the place where it has been kept
for a considerable time, although its powers of exciting heat, when
proper bodies are exposed to it, should be sufficient to melt or fuse
the most refractory metals.” That the sun is a luminous, and not an
igneous body, has met with the general consent of modern philosophers;
an opinion to which every new discovery in philosophy gives additional
support.

The telescope, said to have been invented by the children of a
spectacle-maker at Middleburgh, in the year 1590, but first brought
to such a degree of perfection by Galileo as to make any considerable
discoveries in the celestial regions, has led to the most important
results in the science of astronomy. Among which are the _spots_ in
the sun’s disk, by whose motion from west to east the sun is perceived
to revolve upon his own axis in 25 days, 14 hours, 8 minutes. This
revolution of the sun round his own axis is probably not the only
motion which this luminary experiences. There is great reason to
believe that he has another motion, either rectilinear, or round some
indefinitely remote centre of attraction. In this last course, he
carries along with him, through space, the entire system of planets,
satellites, and comets; in the same manner in which each planet
draws his satellites along with him in his motion round the sun. He
communicates light and heat to at least twenty opaque bodies, which
revolve round him, at different distances, in ellipses that differ but
little from circles.

From the motion of the spots, which is sometimes straight and sometimes
curved, we learn that the sun’s axis is not perpendicular to the plane
of his ecliptic, but inclined to it, or the plane of the earth’s
annual orbit, so as to form an angle of about 83 degrees. Christopher
Scheiner, a most diligent observer of these spot’s in the sun’s disk,
published a treatise concerning them in A.D. 1626. These spots are
sometimes seen to increase to a very large size, and to continue for
a considerable time. In the year 1779, there was a spot on the sun’s
disk which was large enough to be seen with the naked eye: it was
divided into two parts, and must have been 50,000 miles in diameter:
this, and other phenomena of the same kind, may be accounted for from
some natural change of the atmosphere. For if some of the fluids which
enter into its composition be of a shining brilliancy, while others are
merely transparent, then any temporary cause removing the lucid fluid,
will permit us to see the body of the sun through the transparent ones.
Dr. Herschell supposes that the spots in the sun are mountains on
its surface, which, considering the great attraction exerted by this
luminary upon bodies placed at its surface, and the slow revolution it
has about its axis, he thinks may be more than 300 miles in height, and
yet not be rendered unstable by the centrifugal force.

    [There appears to be a _discrepancy_ between this last
    statement--“Dr. Herschell supposes that the spots in the sun
    are _mountains_ on his surface;”--and the statement made a
    few paragraphs preceding--“that what are called _maculæ_,
    or _spots_ on the sun, Dr. Herschell thought to be _real
    openings_ in his atmosphere, through which the opake body
    of the sun becomes visible.” These statements must have been
    made at different periods of his observations on the sun,
    which continued about fifteen years. The last statement was,
    doubtless, Dr. Herschell’s mature opinion.

    As this seems to be a settled question among philosophers;
    and as it has induced the enlightened world to regard the sun
    as a _habitable globe_, it will not be out of place to enlarge
    a little on this point.

    The spots on the sun’s surface has led to the conclusion
    above, and also to a determination of the motion of the sun
    around his own axis. They appear to have been observed, for
    the first time, in A.D. 1610, by Fabricius and Harriot; the
    first in Germany, the second in England. It is uncertain
    which noticed them first; but it is certain the discovery was
    _original with both_.

    After the observations of these two fortunate persons
    were known, the attention of the scientific was directed to
    this phenomenon. Scheiner supposed the spots to be _planets_
    which revolved very near the sun. In process of unwearied
    observations, it was ascertained that these spots changed their
    positions. Sometimes two would blend together, and thus run
    into each other. Sometimes one large one would divide into
    two or three smaller ones. They were observed to dilate, and
    contract; and to have umbræ, or shades attending them.

    From these phenomena Galileo and others supposed the solar
    spots were _schoria floating on the burning liquid matter_, of
    which they supposed the sun composed. M. de la Hire, and La
    Lande supposed them to be eminences which occasionally rose
    above the rolling tides of fire, as islands rise above the sea.
    All these theories were on the supposition that the sun was an
    igneous body, in a high state of combustion, by which means he
    dispenses heat and light to the surrounding planets.

    Dr. WILSON, Professor of practical astronomy in the
    University of Glasgow, was the first to conjecture that these
    spots were _depressions_ rather than elevations. This was
    about the year 1769. The Doctor rendered this conjecture very
    probable, by his close and lucid observations and illustrations.

    These spots attracted the attention of the celebrated
    Dr. Herschell in 1779, who continued to observe them closely
    until 1794, and by means of his immensely large and powerful
    telescopes, he clearly established Dr. Wilson’s conjectures,
    _that these spots are openings in the luminous surface of the
    sun, through which his opake body appears_.

    Dr. Herschell regards the real body of the sun to be
    an _opake nucleus_, fit for the habitation of intellectual
    creatures: that he has an atmosphere suited in density and
    height to his own magnitude: that in the higher regions of
    this atmosphere there are _two_ sets of clouds surrounding the
    sun, which are permanently and essentially luminous, being
    _phosphoric_ in their nature. The lower set of these clouds,
    which are _next_ the sun, are less bright, and more dense than
    the upper set. They are designed to serve as a _curtain_ to the
    sun’s body, to prevent a too great intensity of light at his
    real surface; the higher set of clouds, which are visible to
    us, being the principal source, or rather _agent_, of light.

    It is plain from the foregoing theory, that _we_ never see
    the real body of the sun, except when we see the spots on his
    surface: that what we commonly call the sun, are only those
    bright, luminous phosphorescent clouds, which permanently
    surround his body, and which give light _outwards_ to the
    planets, and also _inwards_ to his own inhabitants.

    It will be obvious also to any one, that the inhabitants
    of the sun _cannot see_ any heavenly body, as the stars, and
    planets; because they are inclosed by those clouds, which are
    impenetrable to vision. They may catch a glimpse of a passing
    star through these openings as we do of the sun’s body.

    It is highly probable (see _our_ paper on light, attached
    to our author’s chapter on the same,) that these luminous
    phosphoric clouds _do not actually emit light, or heat_; but
    only _excite_ them at the surfaces of the different planets.
    That is: it is very probable there is a _matter of light_ or
    a _luminiferous ether_, diffused through all existing matter,
    as caloric is, which is _excited by these clouds_, and _thus_
    becomes _visible_, which is light, as latent caloric is
    excited, and becomes sensible, by becoming _free_. Indeed it is
    very probable _that the matter of heat and light is the same_,
    and that heat and light are only _different modifications_ of
    the action of the same substance, excited in a different, or
    higher degree.]

The sun has two _apparent_ motions, namely, the diurnal and annual.
By the _former_ he appears to move round the earth in twenty-four
hours: and by the latter he appears to traverse that circle in the
heavens, called the ecliptic, in the course of a year. These motions,
are, however, only apparent: the sun does not travel round the earth
in twenty four hours: he does not change his place in the heavens at
different seasons of the year. His apparent motions are occasioned
by the earth’s real motions. The sun’s apparent diurnal motion is
occasioned by the earth’s real rotation about its axis: and the sun’s
apparent annual motion is caused by the earth’s real motion in her
orbit, through the whole of which she travels in a little less than 365
days, and 6 hours.

The fixed stars appear every twenty-four hours to make an entire
revolution about the earth. The sun makes the same apparent circuit;
but the apparent diurnal motion of the sun is evidently slower than
that of the fixed stars. This appearance is occasioned by the daily
rotation of the earth on its axis; for while it is turning once on its
axis it advances in its orbit a whole degree; therefore it must make
more than a complete rotation before it can come into the same position
with the sun that it had the preceding day. In the same way, as when
both hands of a watch set off together at any hour, as twelve o’clock,
the minute hand must travel more than the whole circle before it can
overtake the hour hand: hence the difference between solar and sidereal
days, which it is important to understand in explaining the equation of
time.

Though the sun appears to us merely as a circular disk, yet he is
a _spheroid_, higher under his equator than about his poles. The
deception arises from this; that all the parts of his surface are
equally luminous, and consequently there is nothing which can suggest
to us, at the great distance he is from the earth, that the central
parts are more prominent than the sides, although in reality, they are
nearer by half a million of miles.

This luminous body is supposed to be 886,473 English miles in diameter,
about 2,700,000 in circumference, in solid bulk 24,000,000 times as
big as the moon, and 1,384,462 times as big as the earth, and its
superficies in square miles, about 2,236,603,000,000. This _magnitude_
of the sun may appear exaggerated; for our eyes can discover nothing so
large as the earth which we inhabit; and as to this alone we compare
the sun, so we are tempted to believe the testimony of sense rather
than our reason. But what confirms this prodigious size, is his visible
magnitude, notwithstanding the vastly remote point which he occupies
in space. And, concerning this subject, no doubt can remain, if we
admit the calculations of astronomers, which are made on principles
indubitably correct.

The sun does not appear large; but this is owing to his _distance_
from the earth, which is 95,513,794 miles: this is so prodigious, that
a cannon-ball, which is known to move at the rate of eight miles in a
minute, would be something more than twenty-two years in going from
the earth to the sun. If a spectator were placed as near to any of the
fixed stars as we are to our sun, he would see our sun as small as
we see a common star, divested of its circumvolving planets; and in
numbering the stars he would reckon it one of them. But the earth’s
orbit being an ellipse, the sun is not always at an equal distance from
it. When he is in his apogee, that is, furthest from the earth, the sun
is full two millions of miles further from us than when he is in his
perigee, or nearest the earth: nevertheless, we feel greater heat than
when he is in our winter. The difference of temperature between summer
and winter does not depend chiefly upon our nearness to the sun, but
upon the following causes. 1. In summer, the solar rays strike upon the
earth more perpendicularly than in winter, and therefore they act with
greater force than when they strike it obliquely. 2. The rays of the
sun coming more perpendicularly in summer than in winter, have less of
the atmosphere to pass through. 3. In the summer, the sun continues a
longer time above the horizon than below it; and consequently there is
time for the earth to accumulate a greater portion of heat than in the
days of winter. We know, in the longest days, that the sun to us is
above the horizon 16 hours; whereas, in the shortest days, it is not
more than 8 hours visible.[114]

The miraculous suspension of the natural powers of the heavenly
bodies, as recorded in the book of Joshua, shows that they are
upheld, controlled, and directed in their operations, by a Being who
is infinitely wise and powerful. To account for this miracle, and to
ascertain the _manner_ in which it was wrought, has employed the pens
of the ablest _divines_ and _astronomers_, especially of the last
two centuries. For the elucidation of this important fact, I shall
transcribe the view which Dr. Adam Clarke has given of it, which he
considers to be strictly philosophical, consonant to the Pythagorean,
Copernican, or Newtonian system, which is the system of the universe,
laid down in the writings of Moses.

He assumes, as a thoroughly demonstrated truth, that the sun is in
the _centre_ of the system, moving only round his own axis, and the
common centre of the gravity of the planetary system, while all the
planets revolve round _him_; and that his influence is the cause of the
_diurnal_ and _annual_ revolutions of the earth.

“Joshua’s address is in a poetic form in the original, and makes the
two following hemistichs:

    שמש בגבעין דום
    וירח בעמק אילון
    Shemesh, be-Gibêon dom:
    Vyareach, beèmek Aiyalon.
    Sun! upon Gibêon be dumb:
    And the moon on the vale of Aiyalon.

“The effect of this command is related in the following words: וידם
השמש וירח עמד _vayiddom ha_-SHEMESH _ve_-YAREACH _âmad; And the sun was
dumb, or silent, and the moon stood still_. And it is added, _And the
sun stood still in the midst of heaven, and hasted not to go down about
a whole day._

“I consider, that the word דום _dom_, refers to the _withholding_ or
_restraining_ this influence, so that the cessation of the earth’s
motion might immediately take place. The desire of Joshua was, that the
sun might not sink below the horizon; but as _it_ appeared now to be
over Gibeon, and the _moon_ to be over the valley of Ajalon, he prayed
that they might continue in these positions till the battle should
be ended; or, in other words, that the day should be miraculously
lengthened out.[115]

“Whether Joshua had a correct philosophical notion of the true system
of the universe, is a subject that need not come into the present
inquiry; but whether _he spoke_ with strict propriety on this occasion,
is a matter of importance, because he must be considered as acting
_under the Divine influence_, in requesting the performance of such
a stupendous miracle: and we may safely assert, that no man in his
right mind would have thought of offering such a petition, had he
not felt himself under some Divine afflatus. Leaving, therefore, his
philosophical knowledge out of the question, he certainly spoke as if
he had known that the solar influence was the cause of the earth’s
_rotation_, and therefore, with the strictest philosophic propriety,
he requested, that that influence might be for a time restrained, that
the diurnal motion of the earth might be arrested, through which alone,
the sun could be kept above the horizon, and the day be prolonged. His
mode of expression evidently considers the sun as the great _ruler_ or
_master_ in the system; and all the planets, (or at least the _earth_)
moving in their respective orbits at his _command_. He therefore
desires him, (in the name and by the authority of his Creator) to
suspend his _mandate_ with respect to the earth’s motion, and that of
his satellite, the moon. Had he said, _Earth, stand thou still_--the
cessation of whose diurnal motion was the _effect_ of his command, it
could not have obeyed him; as it is not even the _secondary_ cause
either of its annual motion round the sun, or its diurnal motion round
its own axis. Instead of doing so, he speaks to the sun, the _cause_
(under God) of all these motions, as his great archetype did, when, in
the storm on the sea of Tiberias, he rebuked the _wind_ first, and then
said to the _waves_, Peace, be still! Σιωπα, πεφιμωσο, be _silent_!
be _dumb_! And the effect of this command was, a cessation of the
agitation in the _sea_, because the _wind_ ceased to _command_ it, that
is, to exert its influence upon the waters.

“The terms in this command are worthy of particular note: Joshua does
not say to the sun, _Stand still_, as if he had conceived _him_ to be
_running his race round the earth_; but, be _silent_, or _inactive_;
that is, as I understand it, _restrain thy influence_; no longer act
upon the earth, to cause it to revolve round its axis; a mode of
speech which is certainly consistent with the strictest astronomical
knowledge: and the writer of the account, whether Joshua himself, or
the author of the Book of _Jasher_, in relating the consequence of
this command, is equally accurate, using a word widely different, when
he speaks of the _effect_, the retention of the solar influence had
on the moon: in the first case, the sun was _silent_, or _inactive_,
דום _dom_; in the _latter_, the moon _stood still_, עמד _âmad_. The
_standing still_ of the moon, or its continuance above the horizon,
would be the natural effect of the cessation of the solar influence,
which obliged the earth to discontinue her diurnal rotation, which, of
course, would arrest the moon; and thus both it and the sun were kept
above the horizon, probably for the space of a whole day. As to the
address to the _moon_, it is not conceived in the same terms as that to
the _sun_, and for the most obvious philosophical reason: all that is
said is simply, _and the moon on the vale of Ajalon_, which may be thus
understood: ‘Let the sun restrain his influence, or be inactive, as he
appears now upon Gibeon, _that_ the moon may continue as she appears
now over the vale of Ajalon.’ It is worthy of remark, that every word
in this poetic address is apparently selected with the greatest caution
and precision.

“At the conclusion of the 13th verse, a different expression is used
when it is said, _So, the sun stood still_, it is not דום _dom_, but
עמד _âmad_; ויעמד השמש _vai-yaâmod ha-shemesh_, which expression,
thus varying from _that_ in the command of Joshua, may be considered
as implying, that in order to _restrain his influence_, which I have
assumed to be the _cause_ of the earth’s motion, the sun himself
became _inactive_, that is, ceased to revolve round his own axis;
which revolution is, probably, one cause, not only of the revolution
of the earth, but of all the other planetary bodies in our system, and
might have effected all the planets at the time in question: but this
neither could, nor did produce any disorder in nature; and the delay
of a few hours in the whole planetary motions, dwindles away into an
imperceptible point in the thousands of years of their revolutions. I
need scarcely add, that the _command of Joshua to the sun_, is to be
understood as a _prayer to God_ (from whom the sun derived his being
and continuance) that the effect might be what is expressed in the
command; and therefore it is said, verse 14, ‘that the LORD HEARKENED
UNTO THE VOICE OF A MAN, _for the Lord fought for Israel_.’”

How glorious an object is the sun! too dazzling for mortal eye long to
gaze on: the brightest visible emblem of its adorable Creator. This
luminary rejoices to run his prescribed course, makes our day joyful,
and without his reviving beams we should dwell in perpetual darkness.
He, as the great source of day, distributes light and life through all
nature. Seeds, in the bosom of the earth, feel his vegetative presence,
and unfold themselves. By his diffusive influence he causes the vital
juice to ascend in the tubes of trees, plants, and vegetables; and
clothes them with their various and beautiful foliage. He nourishes the
young fruits, gives them their fine tints, and brings them to maturity.
At his approach, millions of insects awake into life, shine, collect
themselves, and sport in his rays. Animals partake of his benefits,
and without his animating beams they would sink into insensibility
and death: even in caves and dens of the earth, his visitation gives
life. His heat has a pleasing effect on all the juices and fluids in
the human body, which, without his directive or impulsive energy,
would soon become stagnant and useless. He is, by the Divine wisdom
and goodness, placed at such a proper distance from us, that, were he
much nearer, the blood would boil in our veins, and our bodies soon be
either dissolved or calcined: or, were he at a much greater distance,
we should become torpid, and presently be congealed to statues of ice.
The very bowels of the earth partake of his influence, thus producing
many valuable and useful metals. He penetrates the highest mountains,
though composed of stones and rocks. He darts his beams even into the
depths of the ocean, where the watery tribes live and play at his
command.

                                “---- O SUN;
    Soul of surrounding worlds! in whom best seen
    Shines out thy Maker!----
    ’Tis by thy secret, strong, attractive force,
    As with a chain indissoluble bound,
    Thy system rolls entire.----
    INFORMER of the planetary train!
    Without whose quick’ning glance their cumbrous orbs
    Were brute unlovely mass, inert, and dead,
    And not, as now, the green abodes of life!

       *       *       *       *       *

As the sun is the greatest visible glory in the natural world, so it
is selected by the pen of Divine inspiration as the brightest emblem
of the Supreme Being--“The Lord God is a sun.” This great luminary has
been considered by the Heathen as the representative of the Deity,
and as such received religious adoration. According to Mr. Bryant’s
system of Ancient Mythology, the worship of fire is nearly as old as
the flood, having been propagated by the posterity of Ham, in Egypt,
who called themselves Ammonians, and carried this worship with them
wherever they went, erecting their _puratheia_, or fire-temples, in
all their settlements. It is stated, that fire was the primitive,
or at least the principal object of idolatrous worship, and common
to all idolaters from the first apostasy at Babel. For the original
institution of this sacred fire among the Chaldeans, we must go back
to Nimrod, concerning whom the Alexandrian Chronicon asserts, that
“the Assyrians called Nimrod, Ninus; this man taught the Assyrians
to worship fire.” From the Greeks we may trace it backwards to the
Ur of the Chaldeans; on which the learned Classius remarks, that
“Ur is the name of a city wherein the sacred fire was conserved and
worshipped by the Chaldeans, whence it was called _Ur_, which otherwise
signifies _fire_.” Plutarch confesses that the Romans, in the days of
Numa, borrowed their worship of fire from the Greeks at Athens and
Delphi. Numa built a temple of an orbicular form, to represent, as
Plutarch interprets, the system of the heavens; which temple was the
conservatory of a holy and perpetual fire, kindled at first by the
reflections of the sun-beams, and placed in the centre of the building;
the astronomy of that early period placing the sun in the centre of
the world. Fire has such an affinity to light, that the same word has
sometimes comprehended them both. The _Ur_ of the Chaldeans was _fire_;
the _Horus_ of the Egyptians was _light_: and the reason is plain,
because fire and light are united at the body of the sun, and by him
diffused over the world. If, therefore, we consider fire as called into
action by the sun, and bear in mind that the ancient Pythagoreans used
the same term ΠΥΡ to denote both fire and the sun,[116] we shall get at
the root of most of the heathen mythologic divinity.

So universal was the attachment to this fire, that Macrobius undertook
to reduce the names of all the heathen deities to the one object of the
sun and its attributes. He says, “The Egyptians consecrated a lion in
that part of the heavens where the heat of the sun is most powerful,
because that animal seems to derive his nature from the sun, excelling
all other creatures in fire and force, as the sun exceeds the other
lights of heaven. His eyes, likewise, are bright and fiery, as the
sun with a bright and fiery aspect surveys the world. The Lybians
represented their Jupiter Hammon, which was the setting sun, with the
horns of a ram, with which that animal exerts its strength, as the sun
acts by its rays. The worship of Egypt abundantly shows, that the bull
is to be referred to the sun; which is plain from the worship of a bull
at Heliopolis, the city of the sun; and of the bull Apis at Memphis,
where it was an emblem of the sun; and of the other bull called Pacis,
consecrated in the magnificent temple of Apollo at Hermunthis.”[117]

Wheresoever fire was worshipped in the puratheia of antiquity after
the manner of Numa, we may suppose that there the true solar system
prevailed, which places the solar fire in the centre; and that this
was really the universal opinion of the most ancient Heathens.
This doctrine agrees with the name which they gave to the sun in
his physical capacity, calling him _cor cœli_, the heart of the
heaven;[118] which illustration and allusion is probably of very great
antiquity, because it cannot with any propriety be applied to the more
modern Ptolemaic hypothesis. The analogy is very striking; for as the
heart is the centre of the animal system, so is the sun in the centre
of our world: as the heart is the fountain of the blood, so is the sun
the source of light and fire: as the heart is the life of the body, so
is the sun the life and heat of animated nature, and the first mover of
the mundane system: when the heart ceases to beat, the circuit of life
is at an end; and if the sun should cease to act, a total stagnation
would take place throughout the whole frame of nature. Macrobius,
pursuing this analogy, says, “We have before observed, that the sun is
called the fountain of the ethereal fire; therefore the sun is in the
heavens, what the heart is in animals.” Since the circulation of the
blood has been known, this analogy has been taken up with advantage
by the celebrated Hervey himself, who, first of all the moderns,
explained to us with sufficient accuracy this branch of natural
philosophy. He observes, that the heart of animals is the foundation
of life, the chief ruler of all things in the animal system, the sun
of the microcosm, from which flows all its strength and vigor. The
philosophers of antiquity called the sun the heart of the microcosm;
the moderns call the heart the sun of the microcosm. There must be
something very striking in the analogy which is thus convertible, and
has been taken up at both ends by such different persons, at such
remote periods of time.

The savage philosophy of America seems to have comprehended in it the
relation, which we have already noticed, between the animal system and
the frame of nature. Acosta, in his History of the Indies, reports,
that in the human sacrifices of the Mexicans, the high priest pulled
out the heart with his hands, which he showed smoking to the sun, to
whom he offered this heat and fume of the heart, and presently he
turned towards the idol, and cast the heart at his face. A very highly
esteemed correspondent in Ceylon writes, There is a cast of people
inhabiting this island who live wild in the woods, and worship fire
as an emblem of purity; they are called Vandals, and several English
officers have met a premature death by intruding near the holy fire,
which is under a tamarind tree.

With the Persians fire was an object of worship from the earliest
times, under the name of _Amanus_, and _Mithas_; and it is retained as
such at this day by the Geberrs, Gaurs, Guebres, or Ghebers, a sect of
Indian philosophers. Pottinger says, “At the city of Yezd, in Persia,
which is distinguished by the appellation of the Darûb Abadut, or
seat of Religion, the Guebres are permitted to have an Atush Kudu, or
Fire Temple (which, they assert, has had the sacred fire in it since
the days of Zoroaster), in their own compartment of the city; but for
this indulgence they are indebted to the avarice, not the tolerance
of the Persian government, which taxes them at twenty-five rupees
each man.” Hanway informs us, that the Ghebers suppose the throne of
the Almighty is seated in the sun, and hence their worship of that
luminary. “As to fire,” says Grose, “the Ghebers place the spring-head
of it in that globe of fire, the sun, by them called Mithras, or
Mihir, to which they pay the highest reverence, in gratitude for the
manifold benefits flowing from his ministerial omniscience. But they
are so far from confounding the subordination of the servant with the
majesty of the Creator, that they not only attribute no sort of sense
or reasoning to the sun or fire, in any of its operations, but consider
it as a purely passive blind instrument, directed and governed by the
immediate impression on it of the will of God; but they do not even
give that luminary, all glorious as it is, more than the second rank
among his works, reserving the first for the stupendous production of
the Divine power, the mind of man.” The temples are generally built
over subterraneous fires. Rabbi Benjamin observes, “Early in the
morning, they (the Parsees or Ghebers of Ouham) go in crowds to pay
their devotions to the sun, to whom upon all the altars are spheres
consecrated, made by magic, resembling the circles of the sun; and,
when the sun rises, these orbs seem to be inflamed, and turn round with
a great noise. Every one has a censer in his hands, and offers incense
to the sun.”

It is not a little surprising that the descendants of faithful Abraham,
taken into covenant with God, should fall under the influence of this
idolatrous worship! The apostasy of the Israelites in the wilderness
from the true God to the golden calf, was occasioned by a previous
attachment to the sacred rites of the Egyptian idolatry. And the
calves which were afterwards set up in Dan and Bethel, were probably
derived from the same source. The Israelites were not only cautioned
against this worship, but, if the charge of idolatry brought against
an Israelite was proved by unequivocal facts and competent witnesses,
it affected his life. Such was the progress of this idolatrous worship
among this people at one period, that Josiah, king of Judah, took away
out of the temple of the Lord the horses, and burned the chariots,
which the kings, his predecessors, had consecrated to the sun. Job,
in allusion to this vile worship, says, “If I beheld the sun when
it shined, or the moon walking in brightness; if my heart hath been
secretly enticed, or my mouth hath kissed my hand:[119] this also were
an iniquity to be punished by the judge: for I should have denied the
God that is above.” Ezekiel, in a vision, saw “at the door of the
temple of the Lord, between the porch and the altar, about five and
twenty men, with their backs toward the temple of the Lord, and their
faces toward the east: and they worshipped the sun toward the east,” in
imitation of the Egyptians, Persians, and other Eastern nations.

While the heathen have thus paid idolatrous worship to the sun, some
persons, believing in the truth of revealed religion, have entertained
strange notions concerning this luminary. It is remarkable, observes
a polite writer, that whilst some of the ancients imagined the _sun_
to be the seat of future blessedness, from Psal. xix, 14, “He set his
tabernacle in the sun,” a Mr. Swinden, among the moderns, endeavors
to prove that _hell_ is seated in the sun, chiefly pleading that this
is the grand repository of fire; that its horrible face, viewed by a
telescope, suits the description given of the burning lake; and that
being in the _centre_ of the system, it might be properly said that
wicked men were _cast down into it_. But these are mere hypotheses, and
unworthy of serious consideration.

Notwithstanding this idolatrous worship of the sun, there is a sober
and religious use to be made of this luminary; for being the greatest
visible glory in the natural world it is selected as the brightest
emblem of the Supreme Being--“The Lord God is a sun.” An object thus
illustrious and useful in the regular and wise economy of nature, is
mentioned in the sacred volume as a metaphor fraught with truths of
infinite moment, imparting wisdom to the simple, and instruction to the
ignorant. He admirably represents the unity, glory, and bounty of God.

Viewing our sun in all his paramount qualities to every material
object in nature, how is he eclipsed and surpassed by the Sun of
Righteousness, of whose splendor, grace, and energy this is but a faint
emblem, and from whom issues, in bright and gentle beams, all the
light, life, joy, and hope received and enjoyed in the Christian world.
The one is the most magnificent creature among the vast variety of
objects which surround us, but the other is the source of all that is
excellent, attractive, and beneficial, in the whole range of material
causes and effects, as well as in the nature, extent, and perpetuity of
the kingdom of grace. The material sun runs its course from day to day,
with unwearied regularity, activity, and ardor, and thus completes its
circuit according to its original destination. And did not our adorable
Saviour also finish the great career of our redemption, after he held
performed all those miracles, and published his own everlasting gospel,
which are the sublime and interesting themes of the sacred writers, by
offering himself on the consecrated altar a sacrifice for the sins of
mankind? The former diffuses light, vitality, vegetation, and felicity
through the whole mass of animated nature in our planetary system. And
does not the other likewise dissipate the ignorance which darkens the
intellectual regions, enlighten our minds in all saving knowledge, and
produce in the human heart every grace and virtue?

Were our natural sun to withdraw his beams, or absent himself from
the centre of our system for any given time, the planets would start
out of their orbits; darkness, black as night, would instantly spread
itself over the whole mass, and “chaos come again.” And if the glorious
Luminary of the moral world were to hide his face behind a thick cloud
of gathering vengeance and judicial desertion, this would introduce
into the soul alarming fears and tumultuous passions, which would exist
in a state of opposition and conflict. Those who have been brought out
of the darkness of ignorance, wickedness and misery, into the light
of knowledge, holiness and happiness, by Christ, who is the light of
the world, should be careful to walk in the light of his countenance
all the days of their life. Does not the earth return the fructifying
warmth of the sun, and all his genial effects, in a profusion of
verdure, foliage, and flowers? Do not all the irrational tribes
joyfully greet his rising every morning, and bask in his presence
through the day with great delight? All the orbs which revolve round
him, and are preserved and cherished in their respective spheres by his
ministry, pay him perpetual homage by maintaining invariable harmony
and order. And being thus taught by natural objects, what is due for
the reception of so many mercies, surely it is an unquestionable duty
that we guard against every thing which would prevent us doing the will
of our best benefactor.

Christian believers, rich in the bloom of holiness, and ripening for
the harvest of glory, are said to be “clothed with the sun.” It is the
gracious promise, on which all their hopes and wishes confidently rely,
that the “righteous shall” ultimately “shine as the sun in the kingdom
of their Father.”[120] Thus it is written, “The path of the just is as
the shining light, that shines more and more unto the perfect day.”
In the path of the just there is a progress from a less to a greater
light: it does not only grow clearer, but increases in clearness till
it is light in perfection; advancing from the break of day to the sun
rising, and then to the brightness of noon-day.

    “JESUS, let all thy lovers shine,
      illustrious as the sun,
    And bright with borrow’d rays divine,
      Their glorious circuit run.

    Beyond the reach of mortals, spread
      Their light where’er they go;
    And heavenly influences shed,
      On all the world below.

    As giants, may they run their race,
      Exulting in their might:
    As burning luminaries, chase
      The gloom of hellish night.

    As the bright Sun of Righteousness,
      Their healing wings display;
    And let their lustre still increase
      Unto the perfect day.”

       *       *       *       *       *


_Section_ II.--THE MOON.

    Names -- Dimensions -- Motions -- Seasons -- Phases --
    Harvest Moon -- Moon’s Surface -- Aërial Stones -- Eclipses --
    Moonlight -- Epithets -- Religious Improvement.


The _moon_ is called a _great light_, but _less_ than the sun. Moses
does not here speak philosophically, according to her bulk, but to the
proportion of light she affords us, which is more than all the planets
in the solar system and all the fixed stars put together.

    “He smooth’d the rough-cast moon’s imperfect mould,
    And comb’d her beamy locks with sacred gold;
    Be thou, said he, Queen of the mournful night,--
    And as he spoke, she rose o’erclad wish light,
    With thousand stars attending on her train.”

The moon is not a primary planet, but only a satellite, or secondary
planet, attendant on our earth, round which she revolves, and along
with which she is carried round the sun.

“The moon,” says Dr. O. Gregory, “is a dark, or opake body, shining
principally with the light she receives from the sun. If she shone by
a light of her own, we should feel a sensible warmth from her rays;
but it is a light reflected from the sun with which she shines, and
is so exceedingly weak and languid, that the greatest burning glass
will not collect enough to make any sensible degree of heat. This has
been accounted for, and those who have gone through the computation
assert that the light of the full moon is ninety thousand times less
than day-light.” The ancients early discovered, that the moon had no
light of its own, but shone with that which it reflected from the sun.
This, after Thales, was the sentiment of Anaxagoras and Empedocles, who
thence accounted not only for the mildness of its splendor, but the
imperceptibility of its heat, which our experiments confirm.

In the Hebrew language the moon is called ירה _Yarah_, or, more
strictly speaking, says Parkhurst, the _lunar light_, or _flux of
light, reflected from the moon’s body_, or _orb_. That this is the true
sense of the word is evident from several passages of Scripture, one of
which is, “For the precious (produce) נרש ירחים _put forth by_--what?
Not the _orbs_ of the moon surely (for the orb is but _one_), but _by
the fluxes_ or _streams of light_ reflected from it, which are not
only _several_ but _various_, according to the moon’s different phases
and aspects in regard to the sun and the earth. And this may lead us
to the radical idea of the word ירח; for as יחר and אחר,‎ יחד and אתד &c.,
are very nearly related to each other respectively, so likewise
I conjecture that ירח is to ארה, in sense as well as in sound, and
consequently that it signifies _to go in a track_ or _in a constant
customary road or way_; and this affords us a good descriptive name
of the _lunar light_; for, _Behold_, says _Bildad_ in Job, chap. xxv,
5, _even to the_ ירח or lunar light ולא יאהיל _and he_ (God) _hath
not pitched a tent_ (for it); as he has for the שמש or _solar light_.
No! The _lunar_ stream has _fixed station_ from whence it issues,
but together with the orb which reflects it, and which like a human
_traveller_ moves now a quicker, now a slower pace, is continually
_performing its appointed journey_, and _proceeding in a constant_,
though regularly irregular _track_.”

The Greeks called the moon μηνη, which may be considered as a
derivative from μην. Parkhurst says, This word may be derived either
from μηνη, _the moon_, by the phases of which the month is reckoned,
or else it may be deduced from the Hebrew מנה _manah_, _to number_,
_compute_, as being computed by the lunar phases. And it is probable
that the first _computations_ of time were made by the _revolutions_ of
the moon. It is obvious to remark, that not only these two Greek words,
but also the Latin _mensis_, a month, and the English _moon_, _month_,
are ultimately derived from the same Hebrew מנה. Leigh observes, that
“the Hebrews call the moon and a month by the same name, because the
moon is renewed every month. The Greeks also call σεληνη, from σελας,
because it every day renews its light.” Parkhurst on the word σεληνη
says, “The Greek etymologists, and particularly Plato, deduce it from
σελας νεον, _new light_, because its light is continually renewed.”
But the learned Goguet says; “The Greeks gave to the _moon_ the name
_selene_, which comes from the Phœnician word (לן or לון namely)
which signifies _to pass the night_; whence also we may observe is
plainly derived the Latin name of the moon, _luna_.” From _lun_ with
the termination _a_, comes _luna_, and this name is given to the planet
from her _changing_ or appearing under different phases.

As to the _dimensions_ of the moon, according to the most accurate
calculations, her diameter is 2,175 miles, the circumference 6,831
miles, the surface contains 14,898,750 square miles, and its solidity
5,408,246,000 cubical ones. Her bulk is equal to about a fiftieth part
of our earth, and her mean distance from the earth is about 240,000
miles.

The _motions_ of the moon are most of them very irregular. The only
equable motion she has, is her revolution on her own axis. The time in
which she moves round her axis is about 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes,
5 seconds; and her revolution through an elliptical orbit is performed
in the same time as her rotation on her axis, moving about 2,290 miles
every hour. Her revolution round her axis exactly in the same time
that she goes round the earth, is the reason she always turns the same
face towards us: she has only one day and one night in the course of a
month. From a long series of observations, it has been ascertained that
the moon makes a complete revolution in 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, 5
seconds; this is called the periodical month; but, if we refer to the
time passed from new moon to new moon again, the month consists of 29
days, 12 hours, and 44 minutes, which is called the synodical month.
This difference is occasioned by the earth’s annual motion in its
orbit. Thus, if the earth had no motion, the moon would make a complete
round in 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, and 5 seconds; but while the
moon is describing her journey the earth has passed through nearly a
twelfth part of its orbit, which the moon must also describe before
the two bodies come again into the same position that they before held
with respect to the sun: this takes up so much more time as to make
her synodical month equal to 29 days, 12 hours, and 44 minutes. The
motions of the hour and minute hands of a watch may serve to give some
idea of the periodical and synodical revolutions of the moon; for when
the minute hand has performed a complete revolution, it has yet some
distance to go to obtain a coincidence with the hour hand, similar to
that which it had the preceding hour.

We have observed that the same face is turned towards us during
the whole of the moon’s revolution, and that the other half of her
surface is never visible to us. This arises from the two motions we
have noticed, which, with regard to our view of the moon, appear to
counteract each other. Her revolution round the earth is performed
towards the _east_; while the revolution upon her own axis is performed
towards the _west_: so that, one of these motions turns as much of her
face from us, as the other turns towards us. And from the moon’s axis
being inclined to the plane of her orbit, sometimes one of her poles
is inclined towards the earth, and sometimes the other: in consequence
of which, we see more or less of her polar regions in different periods
of her revolution. When the moon is in _perigee_, or nearest distance
from the earth, her motion is quickest; and when in _apogee_, or most
remote distance, her motion is slowest.

The length of the day is equal to our lunar month, for all that time
is included in one revolution round her axis. Her days and nights,
therefore, will constantly be of the same length, or almost fifteen
of our days each. The year will be exactly the same with our year;
because, being an attendant on the earth, she must go round the sun
in the same time as that does. Her difference of seasons will be much
less than on our earth, having only a small inclination of her axis
of six degrees and a half; so that the variation between her summer’s
heat and her winter’s cold must be comparatively inconsiderable. Hence
there will be only thirteen degrees of Torrid Zone, on some parts
most opposite the sun, and thirteen degrees of Frigid Zone on those
contiguous to her poles; which consequently must leave seventy-seven
degrees for what we should call her Temperate Zones, both in the north
and south parts from her Equator. Our earth, unquestionably, performs
the office of a moon to the moon, waxing and waning regularly, but
appearing thirteen times as large, and, of course, affording her
thirteen times as much light as she does to us. When she changes to us,
the earth appears full to her; when she is in her first quarter to us,
the earth is in its third quarter to her; and _vice versâ_. To the moon
the earth seems to be the largest body in the universe, and must indeed
be a most magnificent sight.

On the supposition that the moon is inhabited, it may be observed, that
those who are placed about the middle of the surface, or face next to
us, will constantly see our earth over their heads, and increasing and
decreasing in light, like as the moon itself appears to us. Those who
are situated near the borders, whether on the right or left, or upon
the top or bottom, will also constantly have the same appearance in the
opposite part of the horizon. But those who live on the side of the
moon which is not presented to us, will know nothing of our earth, or
at least, they will never have an opportunity of seeing this large and
wonderful moon, without travelling perhaps more than 1,500 of our miles
on the surface of that luminary. To those who live on this side of the
moon, or travel to it on any account, as we may pass from the northern
into the southern hemisphere of our globe, the earth, indeed, when at
full to them, will appear to be more than three times as broad as the
moon does to us, and to communicate, as has been already mentioned,
about thirteen times as much light to her, as she does to us when at
the full.

The moon, possessing no native light, shines entirely by light received
from the sun, and which is reflected to us from her surface. That half
of her which is towards the sun is enlightened, and the other half is
dark and invisible: hence, when she is between us and the sun, she
disappears, because her dark side is then towards us. Whilst making
her revolution round the heavens, she undergoes a continual change of
appearance. She is sometimes on our meridian at midnight, and therefore
in that part of the heavens which is opposite to the sun; when she
appears with a face completely circular, which is called a _full
moon_. As she moves eastward, a part of her dark side comes forward
on the western side, and, in a little more than seven days, reaches
to the meridian, at about six in the morning, having the appearance
of a semi-circle, with the convex side turned towards the sun: this
crescent gradually becomes more slender, till, about fourteen days
after the full moon, being so near the sun, and in a line between that
luminary and our earth, she is rendered invisible to us, from the
superior splendor of that orb of light. About four days after this
disappearance, she may be seen in the evening, a little to the eastward
of the sun, in the form of a fine crescent,[121] as before, but having
her convex side turned from the sun. Travelling still towards the
east, the crescent becomes wider; and when advanced to the meridian,
about six in the evening, she again bears the appearance of a bright
semi-circle, with the same difference that we observed of the crescent,
that is, its convex side is now turned _from_ the sun. Advancing still
more eastward, the semi-circular moon widens into an oval shape, till
at last, in about twenty-nine days and a half from the last opposition
to the sun, she is again in the same situation, and appears a full moon.

The following account of the _harvest moon_, so called, taken from
the Pantalogia, will no doubt be acceptable to the reader.--It is
remarkable that the moon, during the week in which she is full about
the time of harvest, rises sooner after sun-setting than she does in
any other full moon week in the year. By this means, she affords an
immediate supply of light after sun-set, which is very beneficial for
the harvest and gathering in the fruits of the earth; and hence this
full moon is distinguished from all the others in the year, by calling
it the harvest-moon.

To conceive the reason of this phenomenon, it may first be considered,
that the moon is always opposite to the sun when she is full; that she
is full in the signs Pisces and Aries in our harvest months, those
being the signs opposite to Virgo and Libra, the signs occupied by the
sun about the same season; and because those parts of the ecliptic
rise in a shorter space of time than others, as may easily be shown
and illustrated by the celestial globe: consequently, when the moon is
about her full in harvest, she rises with less difference of time, or
more immediately after sun-set, than when she is full at other seasons
of the year.

In our winter, the moon is in Pisces and Aries about the time of her
first quarter, when she rises about noon; but her rising is not then
noticed, because the sun is above the horizon. In spring, the moon is
in Pisces and Aries about the time of her change; at which time, as she
gives no light, and rises with the sun, her rising cannot be perceived.
In summer, the moon is in Pisces and Aries about the time of her last
quarter; and then, as she is on the decrease, and rises not till
midnight, her rising usually passes unobserved. But in autumn, the moon
is in Pisces and Aries at the time of her full, and rises soon after
sun-set for several evenings successively; which makes her regular
rising very conspicuous at that time of the year.

And this would always be the case, if the moon’s orbit lay in the plane
of the ecliptic. But as her orbit makes an angle of 5° 18ʹ with the
ecliptic, and crosses it only in the two opposite points called the
nodes, her rising when in Pisces and Aries will sometimes not differ
above 1h. 40min. through the whole of seven days; and at other times,
in the same two signs, she will differ three hours and a half in the
time of her rising in a week, according to the different positions of
the nodes with respect to these signs; which positions are constantly
changing, because the nodes go backward through the whole ecliptic in
18 years 225 days.

This revolution of the nodes will cause the harvest moons to go through
a whole course of the most and least beneficial states, with respect to
the harvest, every nineteen years. The following table shows in what
years the harvest-moons are least beneficial as to the times of their
rising, and in what years they are most beneficial, from the year 1790
to 1861: the column of years under the letter L are those in which the
harvest-moons are least of all beneficial, because they fall about
the descending node; and those under the letter M are the most of all
beneficial, because they fall about the ascending node.

HARVEST MOONS.

     L     M     L     M     L     M     L     M
    1790  1798  1807  1816  1826  1835  1844  1853
    1791  1799  1808  1817  1827  1836  1845  1854
    1792  1800  1809  1818  1828  1837  1846  1855
    1793  1801  1810  1819  1829  1838  1847  1856
    1794  1802  1811  1820  1830  1839  1848  1857
    1795  1803  1812  1821  1831  1840  1849  1858
    1796  1804  1813  1822  1832  1841  1850  1859
    1797  1805  1814  1823  1833  1842  1851  1860
          1806  1815  1824  1834  1843  1852  1861
                      1825

When the moon is viewed through a good telescope, there appear vast
cavities and asperities on various parts of her face, some of them
extremely resembling deep caverns and vallies, and others mountains.

    “Turn’d to the sun direct, her spotted disk
    Shows mountains rise, umbrageous vales descend,
    And caverns deep, as optic tube descries.”

The cavities, it is conjectured, do not contain water; hence it is
concluded that there can be no extensive seas and oceans, like those
which cover a great part of our earth. It is, however, imagined that
there may be springs and RIVERS. The moon seems, as a learned author
has observed, in almost every respect to be a body similar to our
earth, to have its surface diversified by hill and dale, mountains
and vallies, rivers and lakes. With regard to a lunar atmosphere, the
existence of which has long been a subject of much dispute, it is
now generally admitted.[122] The irregularity of the moon’s surface,
arising from hills and vallies, renders her more capable of reflecting
the sun’s rays to us. Though philosophers have differed widely in their
ideas concerning the materials of the moon’s mountains, some from their
brilliancy even supposing them to be rocks of diamonds, there is no
diversity of opinion as to their use. If smooth and polished, like a
mirror, or covered with water, she would not reflect and distribute
the light received from the sun. In some positions she would show us
his image no larger than a single point, and with a lustre that would
injure our sight: but roughened by these hills and vallies, her surface
returns the sun’s light to us in an equable and pleasant manner, and
enables us to examine her with ease and precision.

That the moon is a planet similar to our earth, is a sentiment very
early adopted. Orpheus is the most ancient author, whose opinion on
this subject has come down to us. Proclus presents us with three verses
of that philosopher, wherein he positively asserts, that the moon
was another earth, having in it mountains, vallies, &c. Pythagoras,
who followed Orpheus in many of his opinions, taught likewise, that
the moon was an earth like ours, replete with animals, whose nature
he presumed not to describe, though he was persuaded they were of a
more noble and elegant kind than ours, and not liable to the same
infirmities. Stobæus gives us the opinion of Democritus about the
nature of the moon, and the cause of those spots which we see upon
its disk. That great philosopher imagined, that “those spots were
no other than shades, formed by the excessive height of the lunar
mountains,” which intercepted the light from the lower parts of that
planet, where the valleys formed themselves into what appeared to us
as shades or spots. Plutarch went further, alleging, that there were
embosomed in the moon, vast seas and profound caverns: he says, those
deep and extensive shades which appear upon the disk of that planet,
must be occasioned by _the vast seas_ it contains, which are incapable
of reflecting so vivid a light, as the more solid and opake parts; “or
by caverns extremely wide and deep, wherein the rays of the sun are
absorbed,” whence those shades and that obscurity which we call the
spots of the moon. And Zenophanes said, that those immense cavities
were inhabited by another race of men, who lived there just as we do
upon earth.

        “And oft I think, fair planet of the night,
        That in thy orb the wretched may have rest.”

    [The height of the moon’s atmosphere is supposed to be
    1.622 miles; or a little more than a mile and a half.

    The observations on the moon have been so accurate, and
    so often repeated, by means of the best glasses, that the
    _map of the moon_ is now considered nearly perfect. On this
    map is laid down the position of _spots_, _cavities_, and
    _mountains_, representing their _size_, _height_, _depth_, and
    _peculiarities_. They are very numerous.

    Some of these mountains are full _five miles high_. They
    descend in height, from the highest to small elevations.

    Several astronomers, particularly Herschell, has distinctly
    observed and described _volcanos_ in the moon, _actually
    flaming_; and others in an _expiring state_. _Craters_ of
    extinct volcanos are visible, and so numerous as to indicate
    very clearly, that volcanic action was once very extensive and
    powerful in the moon.

    Some of the _cavities_ are more than _three miles and a
    half deep_, and sixteen broad at the surface. _Ferguson’s
    Astronomy, additional chapters by Dr. Brewster._]

That stones have fallen from the _clouds_ or from much _higher
regions_, is a fact which has recently been very closely investigated,
and also fully demonstrated. A table, constructed by M. Izarn, a
foreign chemist, exhibits a variety of facts of this kind, from which
the following is an extract.

  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  |                     |    _Places where_    |      _Period of_     |
  |   _Substances._     |     _they fell._     |     _their fall._    |
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  |  Shower of stones.  |        At Rome.      |     Under Tullus     |
  |                     |                      |      Hostilius.      |
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  |  Shower of stones.  |        At Rome.      | Consuls, C. Martius, |
  |                     |                      |   and M. Torquatus.  |
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  | A very large stone. |    Near the river    |    Second year of    |
  |                     |    Negos, Thrace.    |  the 78th Olympiad.  |
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  | Three large stones. |      In Thrace.      | Year before J.C. 452.|
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  |  Stone of 72 lbs.   |     Near Larissa,    |    January, 1706.    |
  |                     |      Macedonia.      |                      |
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  | About 1,200 stones; |      Near Padua,     |       In 1510.       |
  |    one 120 lbs.     |       in Italy.      |                      |
  | Another of 60 lbs.  |                      |                      |
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  | Another of 59 lbs.  |   On Mount Vasier,   |  November 27, 1627.  |
  |                     |       Provence.      |                      |
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  |  Two large stones,  |       Liponas,       |   September, 1753.   |
  |  weighing 20 lbs.   |      in Bresse.      |                      |
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  |    A stony mass.    |   Niort, Normandy.   |       In 1750.       |
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  |  A stone of 7½ lbs. | At Luce, in Le Maine.| September 13, 1768.  |
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  |      A stone.       |  At Aire, in Artois. |       In 1768.       |
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  |      A stone.       |    In Le Contenin.   |       In 1768.       |
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  |  Extensive shower   |   Environs of Agen.  |    July 24, 1790.    |
  |     of stones.      |                      |                      |
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  |  About 12 stones.   |   Sienna, Tuscany.   |     July, 1794.      |
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  |    A large stone    |     Wold Cottage,    |  December 13, 1795.  |
  |     of 56 lbs.      |       Yorkshire.     |                      |
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  | A stone of 10 lbs.  |     In Portugal.     |  February 19, 1796.  |
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  | A stone of 120 lbs. |   Salé, Department   |   March 17, 1798.    |
  |                     |     of the Rhone.    |                      |
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  |  Shower of stones.  | Benares, East Indies.|  December 19, 1798.  |
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  |  Shower of stones.  |    At Plann, near    |    July 3, 1753.     |
  |                     |    Tabor, Bohemia.   |                      |
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  |    Mass of iron,    |       America.       |    April 5, 1800.    |
  |   70 cubic feet.    |                      |                      |
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  |     Mass of do.     |  Abakauk, Siberia.   |      Very old.       |
  |    14 quintals.     |                      |                      |
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  | Shower of stones.   |      Barboutan,      |     July, 1789.      |
  |                     |    near Roquefort.   |                      |
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  |     Large stone,    |      Ensisheim,      |  November 7, 1492.   |
  |       260 lbs.      |     Upper Rhine.     |                      |
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  |     Two stones,     |     Near Verona.     |       In 1762.       |
  |  200 and 300 lbs.   |                      |                      |
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  | A stone of 20 lbs.  |      Sales, near     |   March 12, 1798.    |
  |                     |    Ville Franche.    |                      |
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
  |     Several do.     |     Near L'Aigle,    |   April 26, 1803.    |
  | from 10 to 17 lbs.  |       Normandy.      |                      |
  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+

The stones generally appear luminous in their descent, moving in
oblique directions, with very great velocities, and commonly with a
hissing noise. They are frequently heard to explode, or burst, and
seem to fly in pieces, the larger parts falling first. They often
strike the earth with such force, as to sink several inches below the
surface. They are always different from the surrounding bodies, but is
every case are similar to one another, being semi-metallic, coated with
a thin black encrustation. They bear strong marks of recent fusion.
Chemists have found, on examining these stones, that they very nearly
agree in their nature and composition, and in the proportions of their
component parts.

Their specific gravities are generally about three or four times that
of water, being heavier than common stones. From the above account,
it is reasonable to conclude, that they have all the same origin. I
believe it is generally agreed among philosophers, that all these
aërial stones, chemically analysed, evince the same properties;
and that no stone, found on our earth, possesses exactly similar
properties, nor in the same proportions: this is an extraordinary
circumstance, and deserves particular notice. At the sitting of the
Society of Natural History at Halle, July 6, 1816, M. Chladni submitted
to the inspection of the members present, a collection of meteoric
stones, or stones fallen from the atmosphere; and to the exhibition, he
added his own observations on their nature and formation. Dr. Kæstner,
taking up the subject in the same point of view which M. Chladni had
given of it, admitted that these stones are not natives of this earth,
but of other celestial bodies; to which he added, that the chemical
analysis of them proves, that many of the same substances as are found
in our mountains, and among the solids of our globe, are also component
parts of the solids and mountains of other globes; certainly of those
celestial bodies which are nearest to us; and probably of the others
which form our planetary system.

That these stones are projected from lunar volcanos, very strong
reasons have been assigned to prove. As 1. Volcanos in the moon have
been observed by means of the telescope. 2. The lunar volcanos are
very high, and the surface of that globe suffers frequent changes,
as appears by the late observations of Schroëter. 3. If a body be
projected from the moon to a distance greater than that of the point
of equilibrium, between the attraction of the earth and the moon,
it will, on the known principles of gravitation, fall to the earth.
4. That a body may be projected from the lunar volcanos beyond the
moon’s influence, is not only possible, but very probable; for on
calculation it is found, that four times the force usually given to a
twelve pounder, will be quite sufficient for this purpose: it is to
be observed, that the point of equilibrium is much nearer; and that a
projectile from the moon will not be so much retarded as one from the
earth, both on account of the moon’s rarer atmosphere, and its less
attractive force.[123]

Of all the phenomena of the heavens, there are none which engage the
attention of mankind more than _eclipses_ of the sun and moon; and to
those who are unacquainted with the principles, nothing can appear more
extraordinary than the accuracy, even to a second of time, with which
they are predicted. Eclipses of the sun are occasioned by the shadow of
the intervening new moon falling on the earth, and those of the moon
are caused by the shadow of the earth falling on the full moon, the
earth at the full moon being always in a direction between the sun and
moon.

It is ascertained that, for an eclipse of the sun to be annular, the
most favorable circumstances will be when the sun is in perigee, and
the moon in apogee; and, for an eclipse to be total, the most favorable
case is when the sun is in apogee, and the moon in perigee. The motion
of the moon being much swifter than that of the earth, and the motions
of both being directed from west to east, an eclipse of the sun must
always begin in the western edge of the sun; and as the moon is a great
deal less than the earth, her shadow forms a cone, the section of which
is much less than the earth, so that a small portion of the earth only
can, at any time, be involved in the shadow at one time. Hence it is,
that an eclipse of the sun is not perceived, at the same instant, in
every part of the hemisphere that is turned towards the sun, and that,
in some parts, it will not be seen at all. For instance, a friend of
mine, writing from Ceylon in the month of May, (1817,) says, “On the
16th of this month, we had a fine sight of an eclipse of the sun about
noon: I think about 3-4ths of the surface were covered.” But in this
country we had no solar eclipse at the same time. Again, in different
situations, different parts of the sun’s disk will appear eclipsed;
but, on the contrary, an eclipse of the moon is perceived, at the same
moment, in every part of the earth where this planet is visible, and
appears every where to occupy the same portion of her disk. Hence,
eclipses of the sun are much less frequent in any particular place than
eclipses of the moon.

If the nodes of the moon constantly corresponded with the same points
in the heavens, the eclipses of the sun or moon might be expected in
the same months, and even on the same days; but as the nodes shift
backwards, or contrary to the earth’s annual motion, about 19½ degrees
in a year, the same node will come round about nineteen days sooner
every year than in the preceding. From the time, therefore, when the
ascending node passes by the sun, as seen from the earth, there will be
only 173 days before the descending node passes by him. If, then, at
any time of the year, we have eclipses about either of the nodes, their
return may be expected in about 173 days, in or near the other.

It may be further observed, that, after the sun, moon, and nodes, have
been once in a line of conjunction, they will return nearly to the same
state again in 228 lunations, or eighteen years and ten days; so that
the same node which was in conjunction with the sun and moon at the
beginning of the first of these lunations, will be within less than
half a degree of the line of conjunction with the sun and moon again,
when the last of these lunations is completed. In that time, therefore,
there will be a regular period of eclipses for many ages.

These things being properly considered, it will not be difficult to
conceive how astronomers are able to foretell the exact time when any
phenomenon of this kind will happen; for, as an eclipse can only take
place at the time of a new or full moon, the principal requisites are,
to determine the number of mean conjunctions and oppositions that
will happen every year, and the true places of the sun and moon in
their orbits at each of those times. And, if from this, when proper
calculations have been made, it appears that the two luminaries are
within the proper limits of the node, there will be an eclipse.
To facilitate these operations, we have astronomical tables ready
computed, by which the places of the heavenly bodies, and every other
particular required, may be easily found for any given instant of
time.[124]

With delight we reflect on the invaluable benefits which this _lesser
light_ confers on our globe. She sometimes appears visible in the
presence of the sun; but how faint and pale is her shining! God has
appointed her to _rule the night_, and give light to men. How cheerless
and uncomfortable would our nights be, were we destitute of the light
which this faithful and inseparable companion of our earth dispenses!
How strange are her eclipses, occasioned by the earth interposing
and shading her face! but, they are highly useful in astronomical,
geographical, and chronological calculations. How salutary, too, is her
attractive influence, which sways the ocean, and actuates the world
of waters; causing the swelling of the tides, and perpetuating the
regular returns of ebb and flow; by which the liquid element itself
is preserved from putrefaction, and the surrounding continents from
infection and disease.

A moonlight night has led the greatest poets in every age to vie with
each other in attempting to describe its beauty and use. Among all
the treasures of modern poetry, I know not one superior, for pleasing
imagery, and variety of numbers, to that of Milton:

    “Now came still evening on, and twilight grey
    Had in her sober livery all things clad.
                    Now glowed the firmament
    With living sapphires: Hesperus, that led
    The starry host, rode brightest, till the Moon,
    Rising in clouded majesty, at length,
    Apparent queen, unveiled her peerless light.
    And o’er the dark her silver mantle threw.”

Homer, in the eighth book of the Iliad, gives us a description of a
fine moonlight night, which is esteemed a master-piece of nocturnal
painting. Milton’s pencil leaves off where that of Homer begins:

    “As when the Moon, refulgent lamp of night,
    O’er heaven’s clear azure sheds her sacred light;
    When not a breath disturbs the deep serene,
    And not a cloud o’ercasts the solemn scene;
    Around her throne the vivid planets roll,
    And stars unnumbered gild the glowing pole;
    O’er the dark trees a yellower verdure shed,
    And tip with silver every mountain’s head;
    Then shine the vales; the rocks in prospect rise;
    A flood of glory bursts from all the skies;
    The conscious swains rejoicing in the sight,
    Eye the blue vault, and bless the useful light.”

The wise Son of Sirach, although his writings are not admitted into
the sacred canon, deserves to be heard on this subject. He says, “The
Lord made the moon also to serve in her season, for a declaration of
times, and a sign of the world. From the moon is the sign of feasts,
a light decreaseth in her perfection. The month is called after her
name, increasing wonderfully in her changing, being an instrument of
the armies above, shining in the firmament of heaven; the beauty of
heaven, the glory of the stars, an ornament giving light to the highest
places of the Lord. At the commandment of the Holy One they will stand
in their order, and never faint in their watches.” This is paraphrased
with great elegance and spirit by Mr. Broome:

    “By thy command the moon, as day-light fades,
    Lifts her broad circle in the deep’ning shades;
    Arrayed in glory, and enthroned in light,
    She breaks the solemn terrors of the night;
    Sweetly inconstant in her varying flame,
    She changes still, another, yet the same!
    Now in decrease, by slow degrees she shrouds
    Her fading lustre in a vale of clouds;
    Now of increase, her gathering beams display
    A blaze of light, and give a paler day;
    Ten thousand stars adorn her glittering train,
    Fall when she falls, and rise with her again;
    And o’er the deserts of the sky unfold
    Their burning spangles of sidereal gold:
    Through the wide heavens she moves serenely bright,
    Queen of the gay attendants of the night:
    Orb above orb in sweet confusion lies,
    And with a bright disorder paints the skies.”

Many striking epithets have been given to this refulgent lamp of the
night, some of which are noticed by Nichols in his Conference with
a Theist. Tully asserts, that the moon was called _Diana_, because
she made a day of the night, whilst all other stars did not make a
twilight. Æschylus, a tragic poet, born at Athens 397 before the
Christian era, calls her πρεσβυϛον αϛρων, the ancient, the governess,
or mother of the stars. Apollinaris, bishop of Hierapolis, in Phrygia,
about A.D. 171, denominates her, νυχιων βασιλεια αταρπων, the queen
of the nightly paths. Tynesius, who flourished A.C. 400, styles
her, ποιμην νυχιων θεων, the princess of the nocturnal gods: which
is consonant to Horace’s lucidum cœli decus--syderum regina. Virgil
likewise calls her, astrorum decus, the ornament of the stars. Seneca
terms her, obscuri dea clara mundi, the bright goddess of the obscure
world; and also clarumque cœli sydus et noctis decus, the bright star
of heaven, and the grace of the night. Statius, who lived at Rome in
the reign of Domitian, in his Thebais, terms her, arcanæ moderatrix
Cynthia noctis, the moon the governess of silent night. “Fair as the
moon,” was an ancient manner of describing beauty, and, it is said,
still prevails in the East.

Among the ancients, observes Mr. Butler, the moon was an object of
prime respect. By the Hebrews, she was more regarded than the sun,
and they were more inclined to worship her as a deity. The _new_
moons, or first days of every month, were observed as festivals among
them, which were celebrated with sound of trumpets, entertainments,
and sacrifice. The moon was the goddess of the Phœnicians, whom they
worshipped under the name Ashtoreth, or Astarte. The moon is sometimes
in Scripture styled, the “queen of heaven.” She is likewise styled,
“the goddess of the Zidonians,” and “the abomination of the Zidonians,”
as she was worshipped very much in Zidon, or Sidon, a famous city of
the Phœnicians, situated upon the eastern coast of the Mediterranean.
Solomon, who had many wives that were foreigners, was prevailed upon
by them to introduce the worship of this goddess into Israel, and he
built her a temple on the mount of Olives, which, on account of this
and other idols, is called “the mount of corruption.”[125] Milton says,

                              “There stood
    Her temple on th’ offensive mountain, built
    By that uxorious king, whose heart, though large,
    Beguil’d by fair idolatresses, fell,
    To idols foul.”

The _full_ moon was held favorable for any undertaking by the Spartans;
and no motives could induce them to enter upon an expedition, march
an army, or attack an enemy, till the _full_ of the moon. It is usual
with the modern Arabians to begin their journeys at the _new_ moon; a
practice which, indeed, appears to be very ancient. When the Shunammite
proposed going to Elisha, her husband dissuaded her by observing that
it was neither _new_ moon nor sabbath.

1. The _moon_ is an emblem of the _church_ of God, which receives
its light from Christ as the moon does from the sun. Especially, of
the Jewish dispensation, which consisted much in the observation
of new moons, its solemn feasts being governed by them. The Jewish
dispensation was a veiled and shadowy one: Christ and the blessings
of the covenant of grace were revealed in dark promises, obscure
prophecies, types and ceremonies, which were all significant figures of
that grace which should be displayed, with fulness and evidence, under
the Christian dispensation. The Jewish economy exhibits such marks of
imperfection, as show the necessity of some new revelation to supply
its defects. Its rites and precepts seem to be particularly suited to
the condition, capacity, temper and genius of that particular people,
for whom they were first formed, but not to be calculated for general
use. It consisted chiefly of external performances, such as washings,
sacrifices, and oblations, which could not purify the conscience, nor,
indeed, satisfy the reason of man. The provision for sin, by way of
atonement, was partial, and not thoroughly effectual: for some sins no
sacrifice was admitted; and though sacrifice, where it was appointed,
might atone for ceremonial impurity, yet the inward guilt and
defilement still remained, and the justice of God was not satisfied.
Yet the observance of these was enjoined in a very awful manner. The
omission of what was prescribed by these laws, or even a defect in
observing the minute circumstances of them, was made a capital crime,
or rendered the delinquents liable to be cut off from the congregation.
The Apostle styles the whole code of these laws, “a yoke of bondage;”
and says, that, previous to the coming of Christ, the Jews were in
bondage under what he terms “the beggarly elements of the world.”

There were indeed wise reasons for such a dispensation: to keep the
Jews a distinct people, and preserve them from idolatry, while they
were continually employed in the service of God; to remind them of
their obligations to purity, inward and outward holiness; and, as a
schoolmaster, to bring them to Christ; the law being a type and shadow
of that “truth and grace which came by Jesus Christ,” who was “the end
of the law for righteousness.” On which account, the law of Moses was
not perpetual, but a temporary institution: thus the Apostle reasons,
“There is verily a disannulling of the commandment going before for
the weakness and unprofitableness thereof; for,” as he says in another
place, “the law could not in any wise make the comers thereunto
perfect.” He calls the law, “a shadow of good things to come.” The
Levitical ceremonies led the Jewish church into the knowledge of the
promised Messiah, and what he was to do, suffer, purchase, and apply.
Hence the words of St. Peter, “Of which salvation the prophets have
inquired and searched diligently, who prophesied of the grace that
should come unto you: searching what or what manner of time the Spirit
of Christ which was in them did signify, when it testified beforehand
the sufferings of Christ, and the glory that should follow. Unto whom
it was revealed, that not to themselves, but unto us they did minister
the things which are now reported unto you by them that have preached
the gospel unto you, with the Holy Ghost sent down from heaven.” The
Christian dispensation is attended with greater clearness. We have
a far more comprehensive knowledge of the glorious Redeemer, in his
person, natures, offices, and blessings; of the spiritual nature of his
kingdom, and the way of salvation through faith in him, than what the
Jews had. Thus the Apostle says, “But we all with open face beholding
as in a glass the glory of the Lord, are changed into the same image,
from glory to glory, even as by the Spirit of the Lord.”

In the Revelation, we have this representation given of the Christian
church: “And there appeared a great wonder in heaven; a woman clothed
with the sun, and the moon under her feet, and upon her head a crown of
twelve stars.” An author, quoted by Dr. A. Clarke, gives the following
elucidation of this passage.--That the woman here represents the true
church of Christ, most commentators are agreed. In other parts of the
Apocalypse, the pure church of Christ is evidently pourtrayed by a
woman. In chapter xix, verse 7, a great multitude are represented as
saying, “Let us be glad and rejoice, and give honor to him; for the
marriage of the Lamb is come, and his _wife_ hath made herself ready.”
In chapter xxi, 9, an angel talks with St. John, saying, “Come hither,
I will show thee the _bride_, the Lamb’s wife.” That the Christian
Church is meant will appear also from her being “clothed with the
sun,” a striking emblem of Jesus Christ, the Sun of Righteousness,
the light and glory of the Church; for the countenance of the Son of
God is, as “the sun shineth in his strength.” The woman has the “moon
under her feet.” Bishop Newton understands this of the Jewish typical
worship; and, indeed, the Mosaic system of rites and ceremonies could
not have been better represented. The moon is the less light, ruling
over the night, and deriving all its illumination from the sun: in like
manner, the Jewish dispensation was the bright moonlight night of the
world, and possessed a portion of the glorious light of the gospel.
At the rising of the sun the night is ended, and the lunar light no
longer necessary as the sun which enlightens her shines full upon the
earth: exactly in the same way has the whole Jewish system of types
and shadows been superseded by the birth, life, crucifixion, death,
resurrection, ascension, and intercession of Jesus Christ. Upon the
head of the woman is “a crown of twelve stars;” a very significant
representation of the _twelve apostles_, who were the first founders of
the Christian church; and by whom the gospel was preached in a great
part of the Roman empire with astonishing success.

2. The phenomenon of the moon is _mutability_. This beautiful luminary,
whose gentle beams render the summer evenings still more agreeable, and
in the winter nights cheer the abodes of solitude, and aid the midnight
traveller, is perpetually changing. In this, and in nothing but this,
observes Mr. Basely, she is invariable, and a perfect index to all
within her orbit. This should teach us, says Mr. Browne, that there is
not any thing permanent in the present scene. Mutability is engraved in
legible characters upon every earthly object. Every thing is in motion,
and assuming a different appearance, whilst vicissitude and change wait
on the affairs of mortals. Such is the fluctuating state of the present
world, whether we view kingdoms in general, or the personal concerns of
men in particular.

But while these things are fortuitous as to man, we should reflect that
they are under the direction and control of a Divine providence. The
prosperous issue of all our designs and enterprises depends entirely
on the sovereign disposer of events. “Except the Lord build the house,
they labor in vain that build it; except the Lord keep the city, the
watchman waketh but in vain.” “A man’s heart deviseth his way; but the
Lord directeth his steps;” the result of his designs and projects being
under the dominion and direction of God. Whether his undertaking shall
succeed or fail, belongs alone to the Most High to determine. Let as
arrange our worldly concerns in the most prudent and politic manner,
so that there shall appear the greatest probability of success, yet
God has the ordering of the event. Solomon has long since observed,
that, amongst the many vanities under the sun, one is, “the race is
not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to
the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favor to men
of skill: but time and chance happeneth to them all.” Some unforeseen
circumstance may interrupt our pursuit, and disappoint our expectation.
So great is the uncertainty which attends all human affairs, and all
future events are concealed in such thick darkness, that we can never
positively affirm that this or the other scheme, however wisely laid,
cannot be frustrated, or that it is impossible the success should be
otherwise than as we calculate. No man knows what shall be on the
morrow; the only thing we know previously is, that every event shall be
as God is pleased to settle it.

This consideration, that it is not by our own choice and foresight, but
the will and wisdom of God, our affairs are directed and determined,
we should apply to ourselves. We are not competent to mark out our own
ways, nor can we seriously imagine that matters should be arranged
exactly according to our imperfect views and secret inclinations; but
we should refer ourselves to his guidance who cannot err, and willingly
acquiesce in his providential decisions: saying, “I know, oh Lord, that
the way of man is not in himself: it is not in man that walketh to
direct his own steps.” We are commanded by the Apostle James to say,
“If the Lord will, we shall live, and do this, or that.” And Solomon’s
advice is, “Trust in the Lord with all thine heart; and lean not unto
thine own understanding. In all thy ways acknowledge him, and he shall
direct thy paths.” Concerning all our lawful designs, enterprises, and
projects, we may pray, “Establish thou the work of our hands upon us;
yea, the work of our hands establish thou it.”

       *       *       *       *       *


_Section_ III.--THE SEASONS.

    Seasons: Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter -- Displaying
    Divine Power, Wisdom, Goodness, Faithfulness -- Religious
    Improvement.

The Divine Architect appointed the sun and moon the places of their
rising, the circuits they were to run, and where they were to go down:
he marked out the line in which they were to move through all the
different climates of the earth. They instantly obeyed his all-powerful
word, and have ever since acted faithfully to his command. In their
operations, they measure out our days and nights, distinguish between
different periods of time, and produce the several seasons of the year.

    “With what an awful world-revolving power
    Were first th’ unwieldy planets launched along
    Th’ illimitable void! Thus to remain
    Amid the flux of many thousand years,
    That oft has swept the toiling race of men
    And all their labored monuments away,
    Firm, unremitting, matchless in their course;
    To the kind tempered change of night and day,
    And of the seasons ever stealing round,
    Minutely faithful.”

God is the supreme ruler in the kingdom of nature, and the constant
changes of day and night, summer and winter, seed-time and harvest, are
appointed and regulated by his providential influence. This wonderful
and stupendous system, consisting of matter, is preserved by motion.
Deprive it of motion, and, as a system, it must expire. Who, then,
breathed into this amazing combination of things acting together, the
life of motion? What power impelled the planets to move, since motion
is not a property of the matter of which they are composed? Did not
annual observation familiarize it to us (to speak unphilosophically),
who that observes the sun going in appearance further from us during
six months in succession, and all that time decreasing in light and
heat, could ever think that he would again return to us? What hinders
his projection into boundless space, till he should appear no larger
than a star, or get beyond the reach of our powers of vision? What,
but the immediate control of God! for this is a work superior to all
created strength, and only to be effected by almighty energy.[126]

When we have seen that glorious lamp of heaven, the great ruler of the
day, gone so far from us that we scarcely knew how to stand before
the cold, how has his return revived and cheered us, visiting the
frozen earth with his friendly beams, infusing a genial warmth into
every creature, and inspiring us with the pleasing hope of once more
enjoying those various fruits of the earth, which are the liberal gifts
of an indulgent Providence! It is the Divine Being who commands the
sun to rise, who, “coming out of his chamber” in the east, rejoices
as a strong man to run a race. Again, he bids this glorious orb to
withdraw, and obscure his beauty behind thick clouds, or sink below
the western ocean; when, behold, the day is covered with darkness, and
night succeeds. At his sovereign command, the glowing summer recedes,
and winter approaches with chilling aspect. “He sends his snow like
wool, and scattereth his hoar frost like ashes. He casteth forth his
ice like morsels: who can stand before his cold?” He then recalls the
solar influence, scatters the inauspicious clouds, thaws the frozen
ridges of the field; the corn springs up and flourishes, and the heart
of man rejoices with the pleasing hope of a plenteous harvest. Thus
does the almighty Creator, and beneficent Governor of the world, order
and regulate the constant succession of the seasons; his Providence
over-rules and directs the whole movement, and nothing can come to pass
without his superintendence.

Reason, as well as supernatural revelation, asserts the reality of a
Divine providence. The happiest inquirers into the phenomena of nature
have discovered that every thing is made with the justest proportion,
and that the whole machine is directed according to the most exact
rules: but they have also perceived a power above and beyond the energy
of natural principles, and which could not possibly be accounted for
any other way than by admitting an immediate act or influence of the
supreme Being. In the revolving of the celestial orbs, we observe an
exact agreement with the established laws of mechanism: but, yet, there
is a force demonstrable in them which is altogether immechanical; and,
consequently, immediately issuing from God himself.

The remarks made by Dr. A. Clarke on this point, will, it is presumed,
gratify the intelligent reader. “The _double motion_ of a primary
planet, namely, its _annual_ revolution and _diurnal_ rotation, is
one of the greatest wonders the science of astronomy presents to our
view.--The laws which regulate the latter of these motions are so
completely hid from man, notwithstanding his present great extension
of philosophic research, that the times which the planets employ in
their rotations can only be determined by observation. How is it that
two motions, so essentially different from each other, should be in
the same body, at the same time, without one interfering at all with
the other?--No astronomer, since the foundation of the world, has been
able to demonstrate that the earth’s motion in the heavens is at all
accelerated or retarded by the diurnal rotation; or, on the other hand,
that the earth’s motion on its axis experiences the least irregularity
from the annual revolution.”

The rotation of the earth round its own axis, from west to east, once
in 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4 seconds, is the cause of the distinction
between day and night, by bringing the different parts of the earth’s
surface successively into, and from under the solar rays. And the
revolution of the earth round the sun, from any equinox or solstice to
the same point again, in 365 days, 48 minutes, 48 seconds, produces
the agreeable vicissitudes of the seasons, and measures the length of
our year. For though the revolution is that of the earth, yet both
the hours of the day and night, the different lengths of the days
and nights, and the seasons of the year, cannot be determined but by
the heavenly bodies. Thus the earth has a two-fold motion, like a
chariot-wheel; for while it goes forward on its annual journey, it is
still in its diurnal motion turning upon its own centre. But it differs
from the motion of a chariot-wheel in this: that its hourly motion in
its orbit is 75,222 miles; and that by the motion upon its axis, the
inhabitants on the equator are carried after the rate of 1,042 miles an
hour, and those upon the parallel of London 580 miles.

The Dr. proceeds, “How wonderful is this contrivance! and what
incalculable benefits result from it! The uninterrupted and equable
diurnal rotation of the earth gives us day and night in their
succession, and the annual revolution causes all the varied scenery of
the year. If one motion interfered with the other, the return of the
day and night would be irregular; and the change of seasons attended
with uncertainty to the husbandman. These two motions are, therefore,
harmoniously impressed upon the earth, that the gracious promise of the
great Creator might be fulfilled, ‘While the earth remaineth, seed-time
and harvest, and cold and heat, and summer and winter, and day and
night, shall not cease.’

“The double motion of a secondary planet is still more singular than
that of its primary; for (taking the moon for an example) besides its
particular revolution round the earth, which is performed in 27 days,
7 hours, 43 minutes, 4½ seconds; it is carried round the sun with the
earth once a year. Of all the planetary motions, with which we have a
tolerable acquaintance, that of the moon is the most intricate: upwards
of twenty equations are necessary, in the great majority of cases, to
reduce her mean to her true place; yet not one of them is derivable
from the circumstance that she accompanies the earth in its revolution
round the sun. They depend on the different distances of the earth
from the sun in its annual revolution, the position of the lunar nodes,
and various other causes, and not on the annual revolution itself,
a motion which, of all others, might be expected to cause greater
irregularities in her revolution round the earth than could be produced
on that of the latter by the planetary attractions. Who can form an
adequate conception of that influence of the earth which thus draws the
moon with it round the sun, precisely in the same manner as if it were
a part of the earth’s surface, notwithstanding the intervening distance
of about 240,000 miles; and, at the same time, leaves undisturbed the
moon’s proper motion round the earth? And what beneficent purposes are
subserved by this harmony? In consequence of it, we have the periodical
returns of new and full moon; and the ebbing and flowing of the sea,
which depend on the various lunar phases, with respect to the sun and
earth, (as if demonstrable from each of these phases being continually
contemporaneous with the particular phenomenon of the tides,) always
succeed each other with a regularity necessarily equal to that of the
causes which produce them. Thus we see that God is continually present,
supporting all things by his energy, and that, while his working is
manifest, his ways are past finding out.”

Thomson, in his descriptive, philosophical, moral, and religious poem,
admirably well delineates the revolving seasons.

    “These, as they change, ALMIGHTY FATHER, these
    Are but the _varied_ God. The rolling year
    Is full of thee. Forth in the pleasing spring
    THY beauty walks. THY tenderness and love
    Wide flush the fields; the softening air is balm;
    Echo the mountains round; the forest smiles;
    And every sense, and every heart is joy.
    Then comes THY glory in the summer-months,
    With light and heat refulgent. Then THY sun
    Shoots full perfection through the swelling year:
    And oft THY voice in dreadful thunder speaks;
    And oft at dawn, deep noon, or falling eve,
    By brooks and groves, in hollow-whispering gales.
    THY bounty shines in Autumn unconfin’d,
    And spreads a common feast for all that lives.
    In Winter awful THOU! with clouds and storms
    Around THEE thrown, tempest o’er tempest roll’d.
    Majestic darkness! on the whirlwind’s wing,
    Riding sublime, THOU bidst the world adore,
    And humblest nature with THY northern blast.
    Mysterious round! what skill, what force divine,
    Deep felt, in these appear! a simple train,
    Yet so delightful mix’d, with such kind art,
    Such beauty and beneficence combin’d;
    Shade, unperceiv’d, so softening into shade;
    And all so forming an harmonious whole;
    That, as they still succeed, they ravish still.”

He who governs the whole frame of nature, and directs and regulates
these successive changes, must possess almighty _power_, without
which, he would be infinitely inadequate to the task. He who made the
celestial orbs of such a prodigious bulk, and whirls them round with
an almost incredible swiftness, causing the regular return of day and
night, summer and winter, what can he not do? None among the mighty
host of heaven, or among the inhabitants of the earth, can resist his
power, or stay his arm when lifted up. He who created all things out
of nothing, could, if he pleased, extinguish the lights of heaven,
and shake the solid earth to atoms. How easily, then, can he stop our
breath, break the slender thread of life, dissolve our feeble frame, or
hurl guilty and impenitent sinners into the pit of destruction! He who
brought darkness for the space of three days upon the Egyptians, and a
dreadful tempest of forty days and forty nights upon the inhabitants
of the old world, can make the days of the ungodly darkness, and their
nights full of horror. He can strike them with “the arrow that flieth
by day,” his swift pointed lightning; or with the pestilential vapors
of the night, which “walk in darkness,” and give the deadly stroke
unseen.

    “Lord, when my thoughtful soul surveys
    Fire, air, and earth, and stars and seas,
      I call them all thy slaves;
    Commissioned by my father’s will,
    Poison shall cure, or balm shall kill;
    Vernal suns or zephyr’s breath,
    May burn or blast the plants to death,
      That sharp _December saves_.

    What can winds or planets boast
      But a precarious power?
    The sun is all in darkness lost,
    Frost shall be fire, and fire be frost,
    When he appoints the hour.”

Shall not, then, such a frail creature as man, think and speak of this
omnipotent Being with the greatest reverence and profound humility?
Oh God, fill the minds of all men with just and enlarged views of thy
majesty and greatness! for thou killest, and thou makest alive; thou
woundest, and thou healest: neither is there any that can deliver out
of thy hand.

Divine _wisdom_ also shines forth in the regular and uninterrupted
succession of the seasons. “The Lord by wisdom hath founded the earth,
and by understanding established the heavens.” Not only the different
magnitudes of the heavenly orbs, but their particular distances, and
the harmonious laws by which they move, do loudly proclaim, that he
who formed, ranges, and actuates them all, must be infinitely wise.
Without looking into boundless space, where shine many thousand globes
of light, or fixed stars, supposed to be suns like our own, and to
have planets revolving round them, we may discover luminous displays
of Divine wisdom in our own system, in the constant succession of the
seasons, that may justly excite our wonder and adoration. How wise
must he be who has so exactly proportioned the different magnitudes
of the earth and the sun, and placed them at a proper distance from
each other! Is not equal wisdom discovered in that equable, steady,
swift, and complicate motion of the earth, by which the delightful
and necessary succession of the seasons return? It is the wisdom of
God that at first arranged the motion of the celestial bodies, and
that preserves them in their rapid and yet regular progressions and
rotations, with so much order and harmony. “How manifold, oh Lord, are
thy works! in wisdom hast thou made them all. Thy understanding is
infinite, for thou tellest the number of the stars, and callest them
all by their names.”

The _goodness_ of God to the inhabitants of the earth, is also
displayed in the revolving seasons. When the almighty Creator took
a survey of all the works his hands had made, he saw that they were
good; not only conformable to eternal reason, but proper to answer the
end for which he designed them. And this goodness manifested in the
formation of the world, is not more clearly discovered in any thing
than in the return of day and night, heat and cold, summer and winter.
We are pleased with the light in the morning, but it is after we have
rested well in the night: when a few hours are spent, we grow weary
of the light, and wish for the return of the silence and darkness of
the nocturnal season. After a long cold winter, we joyfully welcome
the approach of summer; but when scorched a few months with its heat,
and ready to faint, the return of winter is not so unpleasant to us
as it appeared more early in the spring. But whatever effect these
successions may have upon us, it is certain they are very beneficial.
The light of the day is advantageous for managing the toils and
business of life; and the coolness and stillness of the night are
as suitable for rest and sleep. The summer’s heat is necessary for
ripening the fruits of the earth, and hastening the harvest: but the
winter’s cold and hoary frost are subservient to prepare the earth for
the seed, and render it fertile. Nay, this dreary season is serviceable
both to man and beast; it tends to remove distempers contracted in the
summer’s unwholesome air, and gives a new spring and vigor to nature.
How great, then, is the Divine goodness in preserving the constant and
regular revolution of these seasons, so pleasant and beneficial to
mankind! “Oh that men would praise the Lord for his goodness, and for
his wonderful works to the children of men.”

We cannot but perceive the _faithfulness_ of God in continuing these
seasons, according to his promise, to this period. We still see day
succeeding day, and year succeeding year: this covenant made with
mankind is inviolably kept. The husbandman cultivates his land,
ploughs up the furrows, casts in the seeds, in hope of the ensuing
harvest, when he expects that his expense, labor, and patience, will
be recompensed with a rich and large increase. But should God, in
anger, open the bottles of heaven, pour down the rain in torrents,
cause swelling floods to arise, and, rolling with alarming impetuosity
forward, to sweep away at once the fruit of all his toil, how great
must be his grief and astonishment! Such were the consternation and
confusion that seized mankind at the time of the flood. The husbandman
had tilled his land, thrown his seed into the ground; he saw it with
pleasure springing up, and promised himself a plentiful harvest: when
quickly, all the flood-gates of heaven were opened, all the fountains
of the great deep were broken up, and a rapid current overflowed the
springing corn, swept away numerous flocks of cattle, overthrew the
habitations of the people, and drowned man and beast to the very
tops of the mountains! But in this general ruin, Noah found favor
with God, and he and his family were preserved in the Ark. When the
waters had abated, and the earth became dry, this pious patriarch,
being much affected with the awful judgment inflicted upon mankind,
especially with the distinguishing mercies conferred upon himself
and family, offered sacrifice, in testimony of his gratitude, to his
great Deliverer, who was well-pleased with it. And on this, he made a
covenant with him, and with all his posterity, in which he promises
that he will not again curse the ground for man’s sake, nor any more
smite every living thing, but that, “while the earth remaineth,”
the successive seasons of the year shall be continued. The awful
disobedience of the inhabitants of the old world rendered it necessary
to inflict so dreadful a judgment; but as soon as it had subsided, God
promised never to punish mankind again so universally. And, in token of
his faithfulness, he set the rainbow in the cloud, to be a sign of his
covenant, which has not been broken, but faithfully kept even to this
day. However the Almighty may contend in anger with particular nations
or provinces, he will no more do so with mankind in general.

How happy is the situation of our native isle! There are few countries,
if any, that exceed it. The climate is temperate; neither days nor
nights are ever of immoderate length; the summer and winter are neither
extremely hot, nor excessively cold; the seed-time and harvest are
generally favorable, and the produce of the land is plenteous. The
inhabitants of some countries endure a long and severe winter, seeing
not the sun for many weeks: nay, there are some places where it rises
not for several months; but these parts are not inhabited in the winter
season. In other countries, the inhabitants are scorched with the rays
of a vertical sun, and wish in vain for the cooling winter’s snow.
Some know not what is meant by the heat of summer, and others are as
ignorant of the cold of winter. Some see the sun, but comparatively
feel not his warming influence; while others are penetrated with his
burning rays all the year. But the people of this country have moderate
summer, heat sufficient for ripening the most useful fruits, and winter
that may be well endured. The days are not so hot in the summer, but
the nights are sufficiently cool for allaying the heat; and they are
long enough in winter for managing the business that is requisite to
be done. Some warmer climates produce more delicious fruits: but no
country under the canopy of the heavens does more abound with all the
substantial supports of life; not only equal to our own consumption,
but frequently to enable us to assist our neighbors. Happy are the
people that are in such a case: yea, thrice happy are they whose God is
Jehovah. All his works praise him: may we join the grand chorus, and
bless his holy name. Surely, if the works of creation were attentively
viewed, and seriously considered, they would not only be truly admired,
but their glorious Author would be sincerely regarded, diligently
worshipped, and practically obeyed.

The following table has been ascribed to the illustrious astronomer,
Dr. Herschell. It is constructed upon a philosophical consideration
of the attraction of the sun and moon in their several positions
respecting the earth, and confirmed by the experience of many years:
actual observation will, without trouble, suggest to the observer what
kind of weather will most probably follow the moon’s entrance into any
of her quarters; and that so near the truth, that in very few instances
will it be found to fail.

  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  |   _New or Full Moon._    |     _Summer._      |      _Winter._     |
  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  |If it be new or full moon,|    Very rainy.     |   Snow and rain.   |
  |or the moon enters into   |                    |                    |
  |the first or last quarters|                    |                    |
  |at the hour of 12         |                    |                    |
  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | Between hours of 2 and 4 |    Changeable.     |   Fair and mild.   |
  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  |                  4  -  6 |       Fair.        |        Fair.       |
  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  |                  6  -  8 | Fair, if wind N.W. |  Fair and frosty,  |
  |                          |Rainy, if S. or S.W.|   if N. or N.E.    |
  |                          |                    |Rainy, if S. or S.W.|
  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  |                  8  - 10 |       Ditto.       |       Ditto.       |
  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  |          10 and Midnight |       Fair.        |  Fair and frosty.  |
  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  |           Midnight and 2 |       Ditto.       | Hard frost, unless |
  |                          |                    |   wind S. or S.W.  |
  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  |                  2  -  4 |     Cold, with     |  Snow and Stormy.  |
  |                          |  frequent showers. |                    |
  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  |                  4  -  6 |        Rain.       |       Ditto.       |
  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  |                  6  -  8 |   Wind and rain.   |       Stormy.      |
  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  |                  8  - 10 |     Changeable.    |  Cold, rain if W.  |
  |                          |                    |     snow if E.     |
  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  |              10 and Noon |  Frequent showers. |Cold with high wind.|
  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+

Hence, the nearer the time of the moon’s entrance, at full and change,
or quarters, is to midnight (that is, within two hours before or after
midnight), the more fair weather is in summer, but the nearer to
noon the less fair. Also, the moon’s entrance, at full, change, and
quarters, during six of the afternoon hours, viz. from four to ten,
may be followed by fair weather; but this is mostly dependant on the
wind. The same entrance, during all the hours after midnight except the
two first, is unfavorable to fair weather; the like, nearly, may be
observed in winter.[127]

       *       *       *       *       *

It is an easy and excellent method of conveying instruction, and
impressing it upon the heart, to take occasion from natural objects to
raise the mind to things spiritual and divine. The day and night, and
their alternate changes, may suggest such thoughts as the following, to
a serious mind engaged in meditation.

What a glorious creature is light! How beneficial to this world! How
useful, nay, how necessary for managing those employments which could
not be done in the night! How unwise, then, is he who postpones the
necessary business of the day till night overtake him?--So beneficial,
so requisite, is the light of life in the important work of human
salvation. Does God allow men a day, a gracious season, and the light
of his word, for the good of their souls? Of what extreme folly shall
they be guilty, if they neglect the necessary business till the night
of death come, and they drop into the grave, where there is neither
work, nor wisdom, nor device! Now is the day of grace, and God is
favoring them with the light of reason and revelation. May he give
them wisdom to improve these advantages, to his glory, and their own
happiness! They know not how soon their sun may set, and the night of
death come upon them. If it should be before their everlasting interest
is secured, they will be lost for ever. Oh Lord, teach us so to number
our days, that we may apply our hearts to wisdom!

Night comes on apace; I must soon undress, and lie down to sleep. And
it cannot be long before I must put off this body, lie down in the
grave and sleep in the dust. What shall I do that my soul may not be
found naked, but be clothed and adorned with the glorious robes of
righteousness? Jesus, to whom shall I go but to thee, for thou hast
the words of eternal life!--How awful, and full of horror, is this
approaching darkness! If the imperfection of man did not require the
rest of sleep, surely it would be a pleasant thing always to dwell in
the light. Will it not then, be unspeakably delightful to abide in the
light of God’s countenance, to see the Divine Majesty with a strong and
open eye? and to behold his unutterable glories without any fear of
being deprived of the beatific vision, or of returning night? But oh!
how dismal must that place of darkness be where the light never shines!
where the miserable inhabitants never see one beam of Divine light,
one ray from God’s reconciled face! where the grossest darkness reigns
for ever, without the least hope of returning day! and where nothing
remains for them, but a black, a horrible, an eternal night!

    “Is light so grateful to the human sense?
    Created light? a faint, refracted ray?
    One, distant sun? the shadow, but, of God!
    Dark adumbration of the DEITY?
    Oh! what is heav’n! that day of endless light?
    Where saints shall from th’ essential fountain drink
    Of radiance! in God’s full, paternal shine?
    Ah! what is Hell? of ever-absent day,
    A night all hopeless!--and all endless too!”

The successive changes of day and night may suggest what is frequently
the condition of good people in this world. Their day of prosperity
is sometimes followed with a night of adversity; and then, when
sorrow and weeping have endured for a night, light and joy spring up
in the morning.--Is the light of the day pleasing? rejoice in it with
trembling, for the night is advancing. Is the darkness of the night
solemn and awful? rejoice in hope that the day is approaching. Hence
be instructed, oh my soul, in the concerns of thy eternal welfare. Are
prosperity, health, and relatives, agreeable? rejoice in them as one
that rejoices not: these must have an end; and adversity, sickness, and
death, will come. Are losses, affliction, and pain, not joyous, but
grievous? mourn as one that weeps not: ease, health, and gladness, are
in prospect, and will continue for ever. And how happy and glorious
will that world be, where light and joy shall never cease! But how
dreadful is that abode where darkness, despair, and anguish shall never
end!

The succession of cold and heat, winter and summer, will always suggest
pious and useful reflections in retirement. How pleasing it is to see
the sun return, and to feel his cheering rays, after a long, cold,
and tempestuous winter! So it is delightful to the humble penitent
sinner, after a long season of darkness and sorrow, when the Sun of
Righteousness arises with his reviving influences, and God lifts upon
him the smiles of his reconciled countenance. All misery, and clouds of
doubt and fear, are then dispersed, and heavenly light breaks into the
soul, and fills it with gladness. And does the want of the light of God
cause the serious Christian to mourn and weep, and taste no sweetness
in any of the comforts of life? How extremely miserable, then, must a
person be, who is driven to an everlasting distance from the presence
of God, and from the glorious Sun of Righteousness; only to see his
glory very remote, but never to feel the reviving beams of his love;
and to be punished in hell, far “from the presence of the Lord, and the
glory of his power.”

       *       *       *       *       *


_Section_ IV.--THE PLANETS AND FIXED STARS.

    Mercury -- Venus -- The Earth -- Mars -- Ceres -- Pallas --
    Juno -- Vesta -- Jupiter -- Saturn -- Georgium Sidus -- Comets
    -- Fixed Stars -- Religious Improvement.

Moses, after stating that God created the sun and the moon, says, “he
made the stars also.” A learned author explains it, “he made the lesser
light, with the stars, to rule the night.” It is very probable that the
whole _solar system_ was created in six days: but as the design of the
sacred historian was to relate what especially belongs to our globe and
its inhabitants, he therefore passes by the planetary system, leaving
it simply included in the plural word, שמים _shamayim_, _heavens_. In
a work of this nature, it is proper to take a concise view of all the
planets, their number, distances, magnitudes, revolutions, &c.

_Wandering Stars_, says Baseley, is one of the many appellations by
which our solar system has been sometimes designated. And the figure
it makes in the heavens is not unaptly expressed by the phraseology.
For we distinguish the planets from the fixed stars by the lustre
of the former, which is only from that side which faces the sun,
and by their motion, which is seldom, and then but apparently,
interrupted. Their brightness seems more uniform, has the cast of
reflected rather than direct illumination, and is altogether free from
scintillation or twinkling. Their connection with the globe we inhabit
is more perceptible, and their relative situation to one another
less stationary. Their distance from us is not so remote, and more
susceptible of calculation. The latter occupy a certain region situated
in our neighborhood between us and the former.

The planets are opake bodies, and nearly spherical. Being opake in
themselves, they become visible only by reflecting the light, which
they receive from the sun. The laws by which they are governed were
discovered by Kepler, who demonstrated that they must necessarily
revolve in elliptical, and not in circular orbits. Astronomers have
divided them into classes: the _primary_ planets are Mercury, Venus,
the Earth, Mars, Ceres, Pallas, Juno, Vesta, Jupiter, Saturn, and the
Georgium Sidus; and the second class includes the satellites which
belong to some of the primary planets, such as the Moon, the attendant
on the Earth, the four moons or satellites that revolve about Jupiter,
the seven that attend Saturn, and the six that wait on the Georgium
Sidus.

_Mercury_ is the smallest of the seven primary planets, and nearest
to the sun; he appears as a small star, and emits a very vivid
white light. He was called by the Greeks Στιλβων, plainly alluding
to his brightness. Costard observes, “ברק אור _Bark-oor_, ברק אורי
_Bark-oori_, or, changing the letter ב into מ as letters of the same
organ frequently are, מרק אורי _Mark-oori_, we have in another dialect,
with a Latin termination _us_, another name of this planet, Mercurius;
and from whence comes _Mercury_, as he is called by us.” This planet
never goes to a greater distance from the sun than about 27° 50ʹ; so
that he appears only a little after sunset, and again a little before
sunrise; he is never longer in setting after the sun than an hour and
fifty minutes nor does he ever rise more than an hour and fifty minutes
before that luminary: he is then about as far as the moon appears to
be from the sun on the second day after the change. His mean distance
from the sun says Dr. O. Gregory, is to that of the earth from the sun
as 387 to 1,000: hence his distance is about thirty-seven millions of
miles. To an inhabitant of Mercury, the sun appears almost three times
broader than we see him from the earth; because the planet is almost
three times nearer to the sun than the earth. Whence also the solar
disk, seen from Mercury, is seven times greater than the disk as it
appears to us, and Mercury has seven times more light than the earth.

                  “---- Mercury the first,
    Near bordering on the day, with speedy wheel
    Flies swifter on, inflaming where he comes
    With seven-fold splendor.”

The diameter of this planet is more than one-third of the diameter
of the earth, or 3,180 miles. Hence his surface is about 1/7th; and
his magnitude 1/16th of that of the earth. His period of revolution
round the sun is 87 days, 23 hours, 14 minutes, 33 seconds, which is
his year, and falls short of three of our months: hence he moves in
his orbit round the sun at the rate of more than 95,000 miles in an
hour. According to some astronomers, it has not been ascertained by
observation, whether Mercury turns upon his own axis, and therefore it
cannot be certainly affirmed that he has the vicissitude of day and
night, neither the return of summer and winter: because they depend
upon the inclination of the axis of his rotation, which is unknown,
to the plane of the orbit which he describes about the sun; though
there is very little doubt entertained on the subject. But Schroëter
affirms that he “has distinguished spots and mountains, which he
has assiduously followed, till he has arrived at the subsequent
conclusions: that the apparent diameter of the planet is about 6ʺ;
that it does not present any sensible ellipticity; that the mountains
it contains are proportionably larger than those of Venus and the
Earth; that the highest are, as in these two bodies, in the southern
hemisphere; that the angle which the equator makes with its orbit is
very considerable; that the difference of days and seasons ought to be
much greater in Mercury than it is on the earth; that its atmosphere,
like that of Venus, is very dense; and lastly, that its rotation about
its axis is 24 hours, 5 minutes, 30 seconds.” When examined by means
of a telescope magnifying about 200 or 300 times, he appears equally
luminous throughout his whole surface, without the least dark spot. He
exhibits the same difference of phases with the moon, being alternately
horned, gibbous, and shining almost with a round face, though not
entirely full because his enlightened side is never turned directly
toward us; but at all times perfectly well defined without any ragged
edge, and completely bright; and, like the moon, the crescent is always
turned toward the sun. Mercury has no inferior planet known to us, and
if that be actually the case, a spectator on his body will want the
argument taken from the horned phases of the planets, to establish
the true system of the world. But though we do not see any planets
inferior to Mercury, it does by no means follow that there are none:
for we seldom see Mercury himself, he being buried in the rays of the
sun; and a planet much nearer the sun could never be seen from the
earth. The first observation that was ever made of a transit, was by
Gassendi, who saw Mercury on the sun, A.M. November 7, 1631. Since his
time there have occurred seventeen other transits of this planet, the
last of which was at his ascending node on the 9th of November, 1802.
The ascending and descending nodes are in the 16° of Taurus, and 16°
of Scorpio. Other transits are expected in the years 1822, 1832, 1835,
1845, and 1848.

_Venus_, the second planet from the sun in the order of the system,
is the most beautiful star in the heavens, being easily distinguished
by her brightness and whiteness, which exceeds that of all the other
planets, and is so considerable, that in a dusky night she projects
a sensible shadow. Concerning her name, Costard remarks, “From the
Chaldee הן _Han_, or _Hen_, which signifies _gratia_, _decor_,
_elegantia_, with the Æolic digamma Ϝ, comes _Fen_, or _Ven_, and
with the additional termination _us, Venus_; the name by which this
planet was known among the Romans, and by which, from them, it has
been transmitted to us.” The mean distance of Venus from the sun is
about 69,000,000 miles; her diameter is 7,630 miles; she performs
her revolution round the sun in 224 days, 16 hours, 41 minutes, 27
seconds; her diurnal motion on her axis, according to some observations
accurately made by Schroëter, is performed in 23 hours, 21 minutes; and
she moves at the rate of 81,398 miles an hour.

This planet constantly attends the sun, and never departs from him more
than forty-seven degrees, and consequently is never seen at midnight,
nor in opposition to that luminary; being visible only for three or
four hours in a morning or evening, according as she is before or
after the sun. Venus is a _morning star_ when she appears westward
of the sun, for she then rises before him, and is among poets called
Phosphorus or Lucifer--

                  “----Fair morning star,
    That leads on dawning day to yonder world,
    The _seat of man_.”

but when eastward of the sun, she is an _evening star_, shining after
he is set, and then the poets give her the name Hesperus or Vesper.

              “---- Her lovely beams adorn
    As well the dewy eve, as opening morn.”

She is in each situation, alternately, between nine and ten months,
or about 290 days. Pythagoras is said to have first discovered that
Hesperus and Phosphorus were one and the same star. “From the name
Phosphorus,” says Costard, “it seems as if this is the same star that
in Isaiah is called הילל בן שהר _Helal-ben-shahar_, or _Helal, son of
the morning_; a name given it on account of its remarkable brightness.
If so, that is the oldest record of a planet that occurs in any author
whatever now extant: this was about the year before Christ 710.”

Venus is frequently seen in the day-time, when in the inferior part of
her orbit, at about forty degrees distant from the sun.

    “No stars besides their radiance can display
    In Phœbus’ presence the dread Lord of day;
    Ev’n Cynthia’s self, though regent of the night,
    Is quite obscur’d by his emergent light;
    But VENUS only, as if more divine,
    With Phœbus dares in partnership to shine.”

To quiet the minds of some superstitious people, greatly alarmed at
the appearance of Venus in the day-time, Dr. Halley wrote a small
piece, published in the Philosophical Transactions (No. 349) to show
that this was nothing extraordinary, and might be expected every eight
years. Venus, when viewed through a good telescope, is rarely seen to
shine with a full face, but has phases just like those of the moon,
being now gibbous, now horned, &c, and her illuminated part constantly
turned towards the sun, looking toward the east when a morning star,
and toward the west when an evening star. M. de la Hire, in 1700,
through a telescope of sixteen feet, discovered mountains in Venus,
which he found to be larger than those in the moon. These observations
have recently been confirmed by M. Schroëter, who, in the year 1780,
commenced a course of observations on this planet, the results of which
were published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1792.

Venus, as well as Mercury, is sometimes seen to transit the sun’s
disk, in form of a dark round spot; but these transits seldom happen.
The first that was ever observed, was seen by our countryman Jeremiah
Horrox, at Hool, an obscure village fifteen miles north of Liverpool:
his account of which was published by Hevelius at Dantzic in 1661,
under the title, “Venus in sole visa, anno 1631, November 24.” Mr.
Horrox’s friend, William Crabtree, according to his direction, saw
this transit at the same time, at Manchester. Two have occurred in the
last century, namely, one June 6th, 1761, seen by many astronomers,
which excited particular attention by a dissertation published by
Dr. Halley in the Philosophical Transactions (No. 348) in which he
proposed finding, from that transit, the sun’s parallax, and thence the
distance of the earth from the sun: and the other, June 3d, 1769, at
10^{h}. 10ʹ, according to M. de la Lande, and consequently invisible
at Paris and London; but by comparing together two observations made,
one at Mexico, and the other to the north of Petersburgh, we perceive
the sun’s parallax, was determined with great precision. The transits
of Venus, occurring between the years 1631 and 2110, according to the
calculations of persons most eminent in astronomical science, are as
follow:

    1631      December  6
    1639      December  4
    1761      June      5
    1769      June      3
    1874      December  8
    1882      December  6
    2004      June      7
    2109      December 10

The _Earth_ is the next planet in order; called by the Greeks Γη, and
by the poets Γαια, from γαω to _generate_, _produce_, which, says
Parkhurst, is from the Hebrew, גאה _to grow_ as a plant, because it
produces, or is the mother of all terrestrial things; or in the poetic
language of the Orphic hymn to the earth,

        “---- Brings forth her various fruits,
    With throes maternal.”

The word used by Moses is הארץ _haarets_, translated _earth_, whence
in the Anglo-Saxon, _eard_ and _eord_; Danish _jord_, _jorden_; Dutch
_erd_ and _aerd_; and Teutonic _erd_, _erde_.

The distance of the earth from the sun is about 95,000,000 miles:
her orbit round the sun is 597,000,000 miles, and she performs her
revolution round the sun, from any equinox or solstice to the same
point again, in 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes, 57 seconds; of course,
her hourly motion in her orbit is 68,000 miles. Her diameter is 7,964
miles, her circumference is 25,000 miles, and the time of rotation upon
her axis, from west to east, is 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4 seconds: by
which the inhabitants upon the equator are carried after the rate of
1,042 miles an hour, and those upon the parallel of London, 580 miles,
as we have already noticed. The annual and diurnal motion of the earth
is thus described by Milton:

    “She from the West her silent course advances
    With inoffensive pace, that spinning sleeps
    On her soft axle, while she paces even,
    And bears us soft with the smooth air along.”

From this circumstance arises the _apparent_ diurnal revolution of all
the heavenly bodies from east to west.

“The motion of the earth,” says an intelligent writer, “has so long
ceased to be a disputed question, that the arguments on each side are
nearly forgotten; and those who do not scruple to adopt the hypothesis
of the earth’s motions, are often less acquainted with the arguments
on which it is supported, than they would have been in former times,
when their opinions must have been the subjects of fierce contention.”
La Place observes, “that if the earth be at rest, and the stars move,
the velocity of these latter must be immense; and yet all the purposes
thereof might have been answered by a moderate motion of the earth
alone. The moon’s distance from the earth is 240,000 miles; of course,
the length of the tract which it traverses, if it moves round the
earth in 24 hours, is about 1,500,000; that is, at the rate of 62,500
miles an hour, instead of 2,290 miles, which is really the case:
consequently, in each second of time, the moon, known to be the slowest
of all the heavenly bodies, must move more than seventeen miles. Again,
the sun’s mean distance from the earth is about 95,000,000 miles;
consequently, the diurnal path of that luminary, if it revolve about
our globe in twenty-four hours, must be 580,000,000: and therefore, in
a single second, the beat of a clock, he must move nearly 7,000 miles.
Upon the same principle; that is, supposing the earth to be the centre
of the system, and not the sun, the planet Mars, in a second of time,
must travel at the rate of more than 10,000 miles, Jupiter 36,000, and
Saturn 62,000. And, lastly, the fixed stars being yet indefinitely more
remote from the earth than the sun or Saturn, their motion in or near
the equator must be vastly swifter than this. If the earth does not
move round the sun, the sun must move with the moon round the earth;
now; the distance of the sun to that of the moon is nearly 400 to 1,
and the period of the moon being about twenty-eight days, the sun’s
period should be, by the law above mentioned, full 600 years, whereas,
it is, in fact, but a single year. This consideration was, of itself,
thought of weight enough to determine the controversy between the two
opinions, and to establish the motion of the earth in its orbit for
ever.”

That the shape of the earth was an extended plane, and the visible
horizon its utmost bounds, was the opinion of the ancients. But that
it is globular, a little raised at the equator, and flattened at the
poles, being about thirty-seven miles shorter than at the equator, so
as nearly to resemble an orange, is demonstrable on the most evident
and unquestionable principles. 1. All the appearances of the heavens,
both at land and at sea, are the same as they would be if the earth
were a globe. Mariners first begin to lose sight of the lower parts of
objects, and then gradually of the higher parts; also, persons on shore
first discover the masts before the hull of approaching vessels, and
on leaving a port the masts are seen when the hull is out of sight,
which must be owing to the convexity of the water between the eye and
the object, otherwise the largest and most conspicuous parts would have
been visible the longest.

    “Behold, when the glad ship shoots from the port
    Upon full sail, the hulk first disappears,
    And then the lower, then the higher sails;
    At length the summit of the towering mast
    Alone is seen; nor less, when from the ship
    The longing sailor’s eye in hope of shore:
    For then, from the top-mast, though more remote
    Than either deck, the shore is first beheld.”[128]

2. Navigators sailing round the globe, as Magellan, Drake, Lord Anson,
Cook, and others, have steered their course directly south and west
till they came to the Magellanic sea, and from thence to the north
and west, till they returned to their port from the east; and all the
phenomena which should naturally arise from the earth’s rotundity,
happened to them. Beside, their method of sailing was also founded
upon this hypothesis, which could not have succeeded so happily, if
the earth had been of any other figure. 3. In all lunar eclipses, the
shadow of the earth falling upon the moon is always circular; and a
body can be no other than a globe, which in all situations casts a
circular shadow. It is true, the surface of the earth is not an exact
geometrical globe: but what the earth loses of its sphericity by
its inequalities, as writers on this subject have remarked, is very
inconsiderable: the highest mountains bearing so little proportion to
its bulk, as scarcely to be equivalent to the minutest protuberance on
the surface of an orange, or a grain of dust to a common globe.

    “These inequalities to us seem great;
    But to an eye that comprehends the whole,
    The tumor, which to us so monstrous seems,
    Is as a grain of sparkling sand that clings
    To the smooth surface of a sphere of glass;
    Or as a fly upon the convex dome
    Of a sublime, stupendous edifice.”

It is not so easy as some imagine, says a German philosopher and
divine, to determine exactly the size of the earth. It is true, there
is but one longitude; but there are two latitudes, the north and the
south. Both of these begin at the equator; the one extends northward,
the other southward, as far as the arctic and antarctic poles. But, no
one has yet been able to reach either pole. The mountains of ice in
Greenland and the Northern Sea, have always obstructed the passage to
the north pole: and immense fields, mountains, and islands of ice, have
rendered the passage to the south pole impossible. Thanks, however, to
the geometricians, we can at present know very nearly the size of our
globe. According to the most exact calculations, the surface of the
earth is 199,512,595 square miles. The seas and unknown parts of the
earth, by a measurement of the best maps, contain 160,522,026 square
miles. The inhabited parts contain about 38,990,559 square miles,
in the following proportion: Europe--4,456,065; Asia--10,768,823;
Africa--9,654,807; America--14,110,874: Hence it appears that scarcely
one-third of the globe is habitable. It has been calculated, that
there might be at least _three thousand millions_ of men upon the
earth at once: but in reality there are no more than about a _thousand
and eighty millions_: of which there are, in Asia--650 millions; in
Africa--150; in America--150; in Europe--130.

The path traversed by the earth, which, in astronomical language, is
called its orbit, is the apparent path of the sun: it is called the
_ecliptic_, because eclipses, both solar and lunar, always happen in
this circle--also _via solis_, or the sun’s path, because the sun
never departs from it; and, therefore, at any time to denote the sun’s
place in the heavens, astronomers have divided the whole circle of the
earth’s motion in 360 equal parts, which they term _degrees_, and every
thirty of these a _sign_, of which there are twelve. In this circle
the sun advances nearly one degree every twenty-four hours, and thirty
degrees every month; thus passing through the whole 360 degrees in a
year. The signs are called by different names, and, with regard to
their situations and corresponding seasons and months, they stand in
the following order:

    _Northern Signs; so denominated as being north of the Equator._

              {Aries ♈, the Ram, part of March and April.
    Spring.   {Taurus ♉, the Bull, April and May.
              {Gemini ♊, the Twins, May and June.

              {Cancer ♋, the Crab, June and July.
    Summer.   {Leo ♌, the Lion, July and August.
              {Virgo ♍, the Virgin, August and September.

    _Southern Signs; so called as being south of the Equator._

              {Libra ♎, the Balance, September and October.
    Autumn.   {Scorpio ♏, the Scorpion, October and November.
              {Sagittarius ♐, the Archer, November and December.


              {Capricornus ♑, the Goat, December and January.
    Winter.   {Aquarius ♒, the Water-bearer, January and February.
              {Pisces ♓, the Fishes, February and March.

The order of the signs is thus poetically described by Dr. Watts.

    “The Ram, the Bull, the heavenly Twins,
    And next the Crab the Lion shines,
        The Virgin and the Scales:
    The Scorpion, Archer, and Sea-goat,
    The Man that holds the Water-pot,
        And Fish with glittering tails.”

Dr. Long observes, that ♈ represents the horns of the ram; ♉ the head
and horns of the bull; ♊ the figure of gemini, the twins joining hands
and feet; the character cancer ♋ represents the changes of the sun’s
declination from north to south, by two lines or figures drawn so as to
point two contrary ways; ♌ is the tail of the lion; ♍ was originally
the three ears of corn which Virgo held; ♎ is the beam of the balance;
♏ was at first the picture of the scorpion; ♐ the arrow of the Archer;
♑ represents capricorn, the goat-fish; ♒ is a natural representation
of the water’s undulating surface; ♓ is the picture of two fishes tied
together back to back.

The figures of the twelve signs are supposed by Dr. Jennings, and other
astronomers, to be Egyptian hieroglyphics, by which they designed to
exhibit some remarkable natural occurrence in each month, as the sun
passed through these signs. Thus the first three months, beginning
from the vernal equinox, were remarkable for the production of those
animals which they most valued, namely, sheep, kine, and goats. The
lambs came first, which are represented by their parent, the Ram; next
the calves, represented by the Bull; and the kids, which commonly come
in pairs, and which, therefore, gave the name to Gemini, the third
constellation; which was not at first represented by Two Boys, but by
Two Beasts; as referring to the fruitfulness of goats, in producing
_twin kids_ about the time when the sun was in that constellation.
When, in the fourth month, the sun is arrived at the summer solstice,
he discontinues his progress towards the north pole, and begins to
go back again to the southward; this retrograde motion the Egyptians
expressed by the Crab, which is said to go backwards. The excessive
heat that usually follows in the next month, is signified by the Lion;
an animal remarkable for his strength and fierceness; or, as others
observe, when that animal, driven by thirst from the desert, made his
appearance on the banks of the Nile. Nothing could be more proper
than the symbol for the harvest: namely, the Virgin reaper or gleaner
with an ear of corn in her hand. The seventh constellation, when the
sun arrives at the autumnal equinox, is expressed by the Balance or
Scales, in equilibrio, because the days and nights, being then of the
same length, seemed to indicate an equilibrium like that instrument.
October is often a sickly season, when the surfeits acquired in the
hot months of the summer produce their fatal effects; the symbol is
therefore the Scorpion, who wounds with a sting in his tail, as he
recedes; or, according to others, when certain regular winds brought
forth a burning vapor like the poison of the scorpion. The diversion
of hunting, which is chiefly followed after the fall of the leaf, is
designated by Sagittarius, or the archer. The Goat, which is an animal
that delights to browse up hill and to climb the highest rocks, is the
emblem of the winter solstice, when the sun begins to ascend from the
southern tropic, and is continually mounting higher and higher for the
ensuing half year. Aquarius, or the Water-bearer, fitly represents the
rains, or snows, of the winter. And the Two Fishes in a band, had, it
is imagined, reference to the prime fishing season, which began in
February.

The names given to our months originated as follows:

The name given to the month of _January_ by the Romans was taken
from _Janus_, one of their divinities, to whom they gave two faces;
because on the one side, the first day of this month looked towards
the new year, and on the other towards the old one. It was called
_wolf-monat_ by our Saxon ancestors, on account of the danger they
then experienced from wolves. Some etymologists derive _February_ from
_Februa_, an epithet given to Juno, as the goddess of purification;
while others attribute the origin of the name to _Februa_, a feast
held by the Romans in this month, in behalf of the manes of the
deceased. The Saxons named February _sprout kele_, on account of the
sprouts of the cole-wort which began to appear in this month. Among
the Romans, _March_, from Mars, was the first month, and marriages
made in this month were accounted unhappy. The Saxons called March
_lent-monat_, or _length-moneth_, “because the days did first begin,
in length, to exceed the nights.”--_April_ is derived from _Aprilis_,
of _aperio_, I open; because the earth, in this month, begins to open
her bosom for the production of vegetables. The Saxons called this
month _oster-monat_, from the goddess Eoster, or because the winds
were found to blow generally from the east in this month.--_May_ is
so called from _Maia_, the mother of Mercury, to whom sacrifices were
offered by the Romans on the first of this month; or, according to
some, from respect to the senators and nobles of Rome, who were named
_Majores_, as the following month was termed Junius, in honor of the
youth of Rome. The Saxons called May, _tri-milki_, because, in that
month, they began to milk their kine three times in the day.--The
Saxons called June _weyd-monat_, because their beasts did then _weyd_
or feed in the meadows.--The word _July_ is derived from the Latin
_Julius_, the surname of C. Cæsar, the dictator, who was born in it.
Mark Antony first gave to this month the name of July, which was before
called _Quintilis_, as being the fifth month in the year, in the old
Roman calender established by Romulus. July was called by the Saxons,
_hew-monat_, or _hey-monat_, because therein they usually mowed, and
made their hay-harvest.--_Sextilis_ was the ancient Roman name for
_September_, it being the sixth month from March. The Emperor Augustus
changed this name, and gave it his own, because in this month Cæsar
Augustus took possession of his first consulship, celebrated three
triumphs, reduced Egypt under the power of the Roman people, and put
an end to all civil wars. “The Saxons called August _arn-monat_ (more
rightly _barn-monat_,) intending thereby the then filling of their
barnes with corne.” _September_ is composed of _septem_, seven, and the
termination _ber_, like _lis_ in _Aprilis_, _Quintilis_, _Sextilis_.
This rule will also apply to the three following months, Octo-ber.
Novem-ber, Decem-ber. Our Saxon ancestors called it _Gerst-monat_,
“for that barley which that moneth commonly yielded was anciently
called gerst.”--_October_ was called _Domitianus_ in the time of
Domitian: but, after his death, by the decree of the senate, it took
the name of October, every one hating the name and memory of so
detestable a tyrant. It was called _wyn-monat_, or wine month, by the
Saxons--The Saxons called _November wint-monat_, or wind-month, on
account of the prevalence of high winds in this month.--_December_ was
called _winter-monat_ by the Saxons; but, after they were converted
to Christianity, it received the name of _heligh-monat_, or holy
month.[129]

The names of our days are of Heathen origin. The seven planets were
anciently looked on as presiding over the affairs of the world, and to
take it by turns each one hour at a time, according to the following
order: Saturn first, then Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, and
last of all, the Moon. Hence they denominated each day of the week
from the planet whose turn it was to preside the first hour of the
nychthemeron, a term compounded of νυξ, _night_, and ἡμερα, _day_,
which implies both night and day, and is divided into twenty-four
parts, called _hours_. Thus, assigning the first hour of Saturday to
Saturn, the second will fall to Jupiter, the third to Mars, and so the
twenty-second of the same nychthemeron will fall to Saturn again, and
therefore the twenty-third to Jupiter, and the last to Mars: so that
on the first hour of the next day, it will fall to the Sun to preside;
and by the like manner of reckoning, the first hour of the next will
fall to the Moon, of the next to Mars, of the next to Mercury, of the
next to Jupiter, and the next to Venus: hence the days of the week came
to be distinguished by the Latin names of _Dies Saturni_, _Solis_,
_Lunæ_, _Martis_, _Mercurii_, _Jovis_, and _Veneris_. The ancient
Saxons had a great many idols, seven of which were appropriated to the
seven days of the week, because of some worship that was offered to
each idol on its respective day. The northern nations substituted, for
the Roman Divinities, such of their own as most nearly resembled them
in their peculiar attributes, and hence the derivation of the names
now in use. These were Seater, the Sun, the Moon, Tuisco, Woden, Thor,
Friga: hence among us the names of Saturday, Sunday, Monday, Tuesday,
Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday. For, as Saturday, Sunday, and Monday,
plainly denote the day of Saturn, the Sun, and the Moon; so Tuesday,
Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday, denote the day of Tuisco, Woden, Thor,
and Friga, which are the Saxon names respectively answering to Mars,
Mercury, Jupiter, and Venus. Verstegan, in his “Restitution of Decayed
Intelligence,” describes the Saxon deities who presided over each day
of the week, and gives plates of the idols, pp. 74-85.

How amazing it is that this ponderous globe should be suspended in
the fluid air, without any visible support, and upheld only by the
sovereign will of its almighty Creator! His power, who “hangeth the
earth upon nothing,” is inconceivably great; and the revolutions of
this globe produce the most beneficial effects. The daily rotation of
the earth causes the uniform succession of light and darkness; and
its annual motion occasions the difference of the length of the days
and nights, and the beautiful diversity of the seasons. Many pious
Christians, who read the Scriptures to great personal advantage,
but who are unacquainted with the science of astronomy, are apt to
doubt the truth of the astronomical principles concerning the shape
and motion of the earth, because, as Dr. O. Gregory judiciously
observes, they think them contrary to divine revelation. Such persons
would do well to consider for what purpose the Holy Scriptures were
written, whether as a measure of faith, or as a rule to regulate our
philosophical notions? Gassendus, though he does not give a direct
answer to the question, has made the following very pertinent
observations on the subject. “There are,” says he, “two sacred volumes,
the one written, called the Bible; the other Nature, or the World;
God having manifested himself by two lights, the one of revelation,
and the other of demonstration; accordingly the interpreters of the
former are divines; of the latter mathematicians. As to matters of
natural knowledge, the mathematicians are to be consulted; and as to
objects of faith, the prophets; the former being no less interpreters,
or apostles, from God to men than the latter. And as the mathematician
would be judged to wander out of his province, if he should pretend
to controvert, or set aside any article of faith from principles of
geometry; so it must be granted, the divines are no less out of their
limits, when they venture to pronounce on a point of natural knowledge,
beyond the reach of any not versed in geometry and optics, merely
from Holy Scripture, which does not pretend to teach any thing of the
matter.”

_Mars_ is the first of the four superior planets in order from the sun,
his orbit being immediately beyond that of the earth. He was called by
the Greeks Αρης, the supposed god of war, which, says Parkhurst, comes
from the Hebrew עריץ _violent_, _destructive_. Costard remarks, “This
planet, I suppose, was called ערע _Ara_, ערץ _Aretz_, Αρης, and, in
another dialect, מערץ _Ma-aretz_, or _Mars_, in a softer pronunciation,
from his _strong glowing brightness_.” He is distinguished from the
other planets by the red and fiery appearance, of his disk: whether his
ruddy troubled color arises from a natural disposition to reflect the
red rays of light best, or from a thick atmosphere attending it, is
rather uncertain; but it is generally attributed to the density of his
atmosphere.

    “In larger circuit rolls the orb of Mars,
    Guiltless of stern debate, and wasteful wars,
    As some have erring taught: he journies on,
    Impell’d and nourish’d by the attractive sun;
    Like us, his seasons and his days he owes
    To the vast bounty which from Phœbus flows.”

His figure, like that of the earth, is an oblate spheroid. His mean
distance from the sun is 145,000,000 miles, and he travels round that
common centre of gravity in about 687 of our days, or 1 year, 321 days,
22 hours, 18 minutes, 27 seconds, which is nearly equal to two of
our years; and therefore his velocity in his orbit is at the rate of
55,000 miles an hour. He has likewise a rotation upon his axis, which
is performed in 1 day, 39 minutes, 22 seconds. This was discovered
by means of spots seen on his surface. Dr. Hook, in 1665, observed
several spots, which, having a motion, he concluded that the planet
revolved upon its axis. In 1666, M. Cassini saw several spots in the
two hemispheres of Mars, which, by continuing his observations very
diligently, he found to move from east to west, and to return in the
space of 24 hours, 40 minutes, to their former situation. Whence both
the motion and period, or natural day of this planet, were determined.
In 1781, Dr. Herschell observed the spots of Mars very minutely, from
the motion of which he has found his rotation upon his axis to be
performed in 24 hours, 39 minutes, 21-2/3 seconds; and he says that
there cannot be more than two seconds of uncertainty in this result.
The different seasons will take place on this planet very much like
what they are known to do upon our earth, with this difference, that
the seasons there will be almost as long again as with us, on account
of the time he takes in moving round the sun being nearly twice as long
as our year. The diameter of Mars being 4,135 miles, he is about 2/11,
or less than a fifth, and more than a sixth part as large as the earth;
and if any moon attend him, she must be very small, for it has not yet
been discovered by the best telescopes of our most eminent astronomers;
if without a moon, walking his round in perpetual solitude, he must
consequently want that division of time, which, from the moon’s
revolution round the earth, is called a month.

From the greater distance of Mars in his orbit than our earth is,
the inhabitants there will scarcely see Mercury, unless it be when
he appears on the sun’s face, and passes over him like a dark spot,
in the same manner as he sometimes does to us. Venus will to them
appear somewhat similar to the appearances of Mercury to our earth,
the apparent distance from the sun being nearly the same to them as
Mercury is to us. Our earth to them, also, will be an inferior planet,
or within his orbit, being nearer to the sun, in a way similar to what
Venus appears to us, and will alternately be a morning or evening star;
and our moon, which will always be seen to accompany her, when in a
position to have the benefit of the sun’s light, will not be seen at a
greater distance, than about a semi-diameter of the sun or moon from it.

This planet being half as far again from the sun as our earth is, his
light and heat are not half so much as our own. When in opposition
to the sun, he is found to be five times nearer to us than when in
conjunction; and, therefore, he appears so much bigger and brighter at
one time than another. In 1719, his apparent magnitude and brightness
were so much increased, that, by the uninformed, he was taken for a new
star.

The telescopic appearance of Mars is very variable. This planet
exhibits larger and more remarkable spots than any of the others.
The belts and cloudy appearances are found to change their shape and
arrangement frequently. The predominant brightness of the polar regions
leads to the supposition that those parts of his surface, like the
poles of the earth, are intensely frozen, or always covered with snow;
and Dr. Herschell imagines that the changes in brightness are connected
with the summer and winter seasons on that planet. The phases of Mars
were first discovered by Galileo. Having his light from the sun, and
revolving round it, he has an increase and decrease like the moon.
At his quadratures, he appears gibbous, but never horned, like Venus,
Mercury, and the Moon; which shows, that his orbit includes that of the
earth, and that it is from the sun that he receives his light.

Between the orbit of Mars and that of Jupiter, the smaller planetary
bodies, lately discovered, revolve. _Ceres_ was discovered on the 1st
of January, 1801, by M. Piazzi, astronomer at Palermo, in the island
of Sicily. When viewed through a good telescope, it is of a ruddy
color, appears to be of the size of a star of the eighth magnitude,
and surrounded with a dense atmosphere. Her mean distance from the sun
is 260,000,000 miles; and her revolution is performed in 4 years, 7
months, 10 days. Dr. Herschell and Schroëter differ very much as to
the magnitude of this planet; the former says the diameter is only 160
miles, but the latter makes it more than ten times greater, or 1,624
miles. _Pallas_ was discovered on the 28th of March, 1802, by Dr.
Olbers, of Bremen. Its mean distance from the sun 270,000,000 miles;
its diameter 80 miles; and it performs its revolution in about 4 years,
280 days. _Juno_ was discovered on the 1st of September, 1804, by M.
Harding, of Lilienthal. Its mean distance from the sun is 290,000,000
miles; and its diameter is 119 miles, and the time of revolution round
the sun 5 years, 181 days. _Vesta_ was discovered by Dr. Olbers, on
the 29th of March, 1807. It is nearer to Mars than either of the other
newly discovered planets; and the revolution through its orbit is
performed in less time. The size of this planet is not known. Its light
is more intense, pure, and white, than any of the other three.

A century and half ago it was conjectured, says a very intelligent
author, that there must be a planet between the orbits of Jupiter
and Mars, on account of the distance subsisting between those two
planets. The discovery of Ceres confirmed this happy conjecture; but
the opinion which it seemed to establish respecting the harmony of the
solar system, appeared to be completely overturned by the discovery
of Pallas and Juno. Dr. Olbers, willing to find a theory that should
account for the facts newly ascertained, imagined that these small
celestial bodies were merely the fragments of a larger planet, which
had burst asunder by some internal convulsion, and that several more
might yet be discovered between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. He
therefore concluded, that though the orbits of all these fragments
might be differently inclined to the ecliptic, yet, as they must
have all diverged from the same point, they ought to have two common
points of re-union, or two nodes in opposite regions of the heavens,
through which all the planetary fragments must sooner or later pass.
One of these nodes Dr. Olbers found to be in Virgo, and the other in
the Whale; and it was actually in the latter of these regions that M.
Harding discovered the planet Juno. With the intention, therefore, of
detecting other fragments of the supposed planet, Dr. Olbers examined,
thrice every year, all the little stars in the opposite constellation
of the Virgin and the Whale, till his labors were crowned with success,
by the discovery of a new planet in the constellation of Virgo, to
which he gave the name of Vesta.

The existence of four planets between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter,
(continues the same author,) revolving round the sun at nearly the
same distances, and differing from all the other planets in their
diminutive size, and in the form and position of their orbits, is
acknowledged to be one of the most singular phenomena in the history of
astronomy. The discordance of these phenomena with the regularity of
the planetary distances, and with the general harmony of the system,
naturally suggests the opinion, that the inequalities in this part
of the system were produced by some great convulsion, and that the
four planets, as we have already hinted, are the fragments of a large
celestial body, which once existed between Mars and Jupiter. To suppose
them independent planets, as they must necessarily be if they did not
originally form one, their diminutive size, the great eccentricity
and inclination of their orbits, and their numerous intersections,
when projected on the plane of the ecliptic, are phenomena absolutely
inexplicable on every principle of science, and subversive of that
harmony and order which before the discovery of these bodies, seemed
to pervade the planetary system. Admitting, however, the hypothesis
that these planetary bodies, are the remains of a larger body, which
circulated round the sun, nearly in the orbit of the greatest fragment,
the system resumes its order, and we discover a regular procession in
the distances of the planets, and a general harmony in the form and
position of their orbits. But, independently of analogical reasoning,
the elements of the new planets furnish several direct arguments, drawn
from the eccentricity and inclination of their orbits, and from the
position of their perihelia and nodes; and all concurring to show, that
the four new planets have diverged from one point, and have, therefore,
been originally combined in a larger body.

_Jupiter_ is the largest of all the planetary bodies, and, next to
Venus the brightest. He was called by the Greeks Ζευς, which is from
ζεω, _to be hot_, or, says Parkhurst, immediately from the Hebrew זי
_to shine_, compounded, perhaps, with יש _substance_, q.d. _the shining
substance_; a name very justly given to this planet, on account of his
strong and clear light.

                      ----“In distant skies
    Revolves the mighty magnitude of Jove,
    With kingly state, the rival of the sun.”

His mean distance from the sun is 490,000,000 miles, and his diameter
is 89,170 miles, or more than 11 times that of the earth, and therefore
his magnitude is 1,400 times greater than our earth; of course, as the
surface of a globe increases according to the square of its diameter,
our earth will, to the inhabitants of Jupiter, appear 121 times less
than this noble planet appears to us. His revolution round the sun,
from east to west, is performed in 11 years, 315 days, 14 hours, 39
minutes, 2 seconds, which is nearly twelve of our years; and his motion
in his orbit is 29,000 miles an hour. He performs his diurnal rotation
upon his axis in 9 hours, 55 minutes, 33 seconds, by which motion his
equatorial parts are carried round at the amazing rate of 26,000 miles
an hour, which is about twenty-five times the velocity of the like
parts of our earth. He has, of course, a rapid succession of days, as
the poet observes,

    “In ample compass Jove conducts his sphere,
    And later finishes his tedious year;
    Yet swiftly on his axle turn’d, regains
    The frequent aid of day to warm his plains.”

The axis of Jupiter is nearly perpendicular to his orbit, so that he
has no sensible change of seasons. This is not the work of chance, as
Dr. O. Gregory observes, but wisely ordered by the Divine Architect;
for if the axis of this planet were inclined any considerable number
of degrees, so many degrees round each pole would be almost six years
together in darkness. And as each degree of a great circle on this
planet contains more than 700 miles, it is natural to conceive, that
vast tracts of land would be rendered uninhabitable by any considerable
inclination of his axis.

The appearance of this planet, through a telescope, opens a vast
field for interesting inquiry. His surface is not equally bright, but
variegated with certain bands, or belts, of a dusky appearance: they
run parallel to each other, and are continued round the body of the
planet. They are not regular or constant in their appearance: sometimes
only one is seen; at other times six or eight. The breadth of them
is likewise variable; one belt is sometimes becoming narrow, while
another, in its neighborhood, grows broader as if one had flowed into
the other: in these cases, an oblique belt has been observed to be
between them, as if for the purpose of establishing a communication.
Sometimes, one or more spots are formed between the belts, which
increase till the whole is united in a large dusky belt. There are also
bright spots to be discovered on Jupiter’s surface; these are rather
more permanent than the belts, and re-appear after unequal intervals of
time. The remarkable spot, by whose motion the rotation of Jupiter upon
his own axis was first ascertained, disappeared in the year 1694, and
was not seen again till 1708, when it re-appeared exactly in the same
place, and has been occasionally seen ever since.

Jupiter is enlightened by four moons, or satellites, each of them
larger than that with which we are supplied, and which revolve at
different distances from that planet. In the solar system the moons,
or satellites, revolve round their respective primary planets as
centres, in the same manner as the primary planets revolve round the
sun. By means of Jupiter’s satellites, a method has been obtained
for demonstrating that the motion of light is progressive, and not
instantaneous, as was formerly supposed; which discovery is important
to the interests of science. M. Huygens, in his Treatise on Light,
concludes from these eclipses, that light transmits itself about
600,000 times faster than sound.

Distances and Revolutions of Jupiter’s Satellites.

                                      Revolution.
                      Distance.     _d._ _h._ _m._
    1st Satellite      250,000        1   18   36
    2d                 401,000        3   13   15
    3d                 648,000        7    3   59
    4th              1,128,000       16   18   30

They are thus referred to by Mallet:

    “About him round _four_ planetary moons,
    On earth with wonder all night long beheld,
    Moon above moon, his fair attendants dance.”

To a spectator placed on the surface of Jupiter, each of the satellites
would put on the phases of the moon; but as the distance of any of
them from Jupiter is but small, when compared with the distance of
that planet from the sun, the satellites are therefore illuminated by
the sun very nearly in the same manner with the primary itself; hence
they appear to us always round, having constantly the greatest part
of their enlightened half turned towards the earth: and indeed they
are so small, that were they to put on the phases of the moon, these
phases could scarcely be discerned through the best telescopes. When
the satellites pass through their inferior semicircles, they may cast
a shadow upon their primary, and thus cause an eclipse of the sun to
his inhabitants; and in some situations this shadow may be observed
going before or following the satellite. On the other hand, in passing
through their superior semicircles, the satellites may be eclipsed in
the same manner as our moon by passing through the shadow of Jupiter:
and this is actually the case with the first, second, and third; but
the fourth, by reason of the extent of its orbit, passes sometimes
above or below the shadow, as is the case with our moon.

These satellites were first discovered on the 7th of January, 1610,
by the celebrated Galileo, who called them _Medician Stars_, in honor
of the family of the Medici, dukes of Tuscany, his patrons. These
satellites, revolving about Jupiter at different distances, from west
to east, when viewed through a telescope, make a beautiful appearance.
As our moon revolves round the earth, enlightening the nights, by
reflecting the light she receives from the sun; so these satellites,
revolving round Jupiter, may also be supposed to enlighten the nights
of that planet.

_Saturn_ is a very conspicuous planet, though he shines with a pale and
feeble light, very unlike that of Jupiter and the other planets. He
was called by the Greeks φαινων. “From the account given by Diodorus
Siculus,” says Costard, “it seems as if the Chaldeans called this
planet by some name not widely different from this of the Greeks.
In the language of Chaldea, the verb פנא _phana_, or פנה _phanah_,
signifies _convertere se_, _divertere se_, _declinare_. And whatever
_vanishes_, or _disappears_, very properly _declines_, or _turns
aside_, from our view. This planet, therefore, was most probably called
פן _phen_, or פין _phain_, and, with a Greek termination, φαινων, on
account of his _withdrawing_ himself, by reason of his distance. And
this conjecture is yet further confirmed from his name in another
dialect, or among another people. For from סתר _sater, latuit,
abscondit se_, with the paragogic ן _nun_ which is not unusual in the
formation of Eastern words, comes the word סתרן _Saturn_, and with the
Latin termination _us, Saturnus_.”

His mean distance from the sun is 900,000,000 miles, consequently his
motion in his orbit is proportionably slow; and his annual revolution
round the sun, from west to east, being so much longer likewise than
that of the other planets, he takes 29 years, 164 days, 7 hours,
21 minutes, 50 seconds, which is almost _thirty_ of our years, to
accomplish it, in his orbit travelling with a velocity of 22,000 miles
an hour. His diameter is 79,000 miles; and his magnitude is about 1,000
times that of the earth. The time of rotation upon his axis is 10
hours, 17 minutes.

    “Still further off, scarce warm’d by Phœbus’ ray,
    Through his wide orbit, Saturn wheels away;
    How great the change, could we be wafted there!
    How slow the seasons! and how long the year!”

There is a singular and curious appendage to Saturn, namely, a thin,
broad, opake ring, encompassing the body of the planet, without
touching it; like the horizon of an artificial globe; it appears to be
suspended round the planet, and to keep its place without any immediate
connection with it. The distance of this prodigious circle from the
body of the planet is usually stated to be about 21,000 miles.

The dimensions of the ring, or of the two rings with the space between
them, Dr. Herschell has given as follows:

                                                  Miles.
    Inner diameter of the smaller ring           146,345
    Outside diameter of ditto                    184,393
    Inner diameter of the larger ring            190,248
    Outside diameter of ditto                    204,883
    Breadth of the inner ring                     20,000
    Breadth of the outer ring                      7,200
    Breadth of the vacant space, or dark zone      2,839

It puts on different appearances to us, sometimes being seen quite
open, or as a wide oval, and at others, only as a single line. When
our eye is in the plane of the ring, or looking at it directly on
the edge, it is invisible to us; and it is in this situation twice
in each revolution of the planet; that is, once in about fifteen
years: at these times, he appears quite round, for nine or ten months
together. The ring was invisible to us on the 15th of June, 1803, and,
since that time, gradually increased in light and breadth for about
seven years: and, after which, has again decreased, till, as before,
after an interval of fifteen years, in the present year 1818, the
ring is again edgewise to us, and invisible. With telescopes of great
magnifying power, two belts or stripes have been discovered on Saturn;
they appear parallel to the ring, and are supposed to be permanent. Of
what component materials this ring is composed, or by what means it is
suspended, we as yet remain ignorant: but of its use, it is supposed to
supply light and heat to the planet, agreeably to the observation of a
poet who has evinced an extensive acquaintance with philosophy.

    “Muse! raise thy voice, mysterious truth to sing,
    How o’er the copious orb a lucid ring,
    Opake and broad, is seen its arch to spread,
    Round the big globe at stated periods led;
    Perhaps (its use unknown) with gather’d heat
    To aid the regions of that gelid seat,
    The want of nearer Phœbus to supply,
    And warm with reflex beams his summer sky;
    Else might the high-plac’d world, expos’d to frost,
    Lie waste, in one eternal winter lost.”

Besides the ring, Saturn is also furnished with seven attendant moons,
or satellites, which move around him at different distances, in a way
similar to those of Jupiter.

Distances and Revolutions of Saturn’s Satellites.

                                      Revolution.
                     Distance.    _d._ _h._ _m._ _s._
    1st Satellite     172,000       1   21   18   26
    2d                217,000       2   17   44   51
    3d                315,000       4   12   25   11
    4th               705,000      15   22   41   14
    5th             2,126,000      79    7   53   42
    6th               137,000       1    8   53    9
    7th               107,000       0   22   37   30

The sixth and seventh satellites were discovered by Dr. Herschell in
1787 and 1788: they are nearer to Saturn than any of the other five;
but, to prevent confusion, they have been called the 6th and 7th. The
5th satellite has been observed by Dr. Herschell to turn once round its
axis, exactly in the time in which it revolves round Saturn: in this
respect it resembles our moon. Their distance from us is so far, as not
to be easily visible, even with a good telescope, unless the air be
exceedingly clear.

It was for ages that astronomical science limited the solar system to
six planets, and Saturn was considered as its utmost extent. Vitruvius,
speaking of the planet Saturn, says, that star “is near the extremity
of the world, and touches the frozen regions of heaven.” He did not
understand the extent of our planetary system.

It is to the indefatigable application of Dr. Herschell that we are
indebted for the discovery of a new planet, which is the fourth of the
superior ones then known, and, being at twice the distance of Saturn
from the sun, has quadrupled the bounds formerly assigned to the solar
system. This planet was discovered on the 13th of March, 1781, and
is called by different names: the discoverer bestowed upon it that
of _Georgium Sidus_, in honor of our present venerable and beloved
sovereign; by the French it is called _Herschell_, and by the Italians,
_Uranus_. This important discovery is very deservedly noticed by the
Poet Laureat, in his Ode entitled “Carmen Seculare for the year 1800.”

          “Mathesis with uplifted eye,
          Tracing the wonders of the sky,
          Beholds new constellations rise,
          New systems crown the argent skies;
    Views with new lustre round the glowing pole,
    Wide his stupendous orb the _Georgian Planet_ roll.”

On the 11th January, 1787, Dr. Herschell discovered the second and
fourth satellites which attend his own planet the Georgium Sidus; and
in the following years, previously to 1791, he observed four others
revolving round the same body. Though this celebrated astronomer was
the first who discovered the Georgium Sidus to be one of the planets
of the solar system, yet no doubt can be entertained of its having
been before observed and considered as a fixed star. Flamsteed in
1690, Mayer in 1756, and Monnier in 1769, determined the places of
three stars which cannot now be found. And M. La Place, according to
his theory of Jupiter and Saturn, has found that the Georgium Sidus
was _exactly_ in those three points at those very times. These truly
singular occurrences leave no doubt of the identity of these three
stars with the new planet. The lines which Mallet applied to Saturn are
now, with a little alteration, more applicable to the Georgium Sidus,
or Herschell planet.

    “Last, outmost Herschell walks his frontier round,
    The boundary of worlds; with his pale moons,
    Faint-glimmering through the darkness night has thrown,
    Deep-dy’d and dead, o’er this chill globe forlorn:
    An endless desert, where extreme of cold
    Eternal sits, as in his native seat,
    On wintry hills of never-thawing ice;
    Such Herschell’s earth.”

His mean distance from the sun is about 1,800,000,000 miles, and he
performs his revolution from west to east round the sun in 83 years,
294 days, 8 hours, 39 minutes; and in his orbit he moves with a
velocity of 15,846 miles an hour. His diameter is 4½ times larger than
that of the earth, being more than 35,000 miles; and his magnitude
is 80½ times larger than that of the earth. The orbit in which he
revolves is nineteen times further from the sun than the earth’s
orbit; consequently he has 361 times less light and heat from the
sun than we have. Notwithstanding this, his proportion of light is
considerable; for having been calculated, it is found to be equal to
the effect of 284 of our full moons. When the sky is very serene and
clear, and the moon absent, this planet may be perceived with the naked
eye, unassisted by a telescope: and it appears as a star of the fifth
magnitude, with a blueish white light, and a brilliancy between that of
Venus and the Moon.

The want of light arising from the great distance of this planet from
the sun, is supplied by six satellites, which revolve at different
distances round their primary.

Distances and Revolutions of the Satellites of the Georgium Sidus.

                                       Revolution.
                      Distance.    _d._ _h._ _m._ _s._
    1st Satellite      226,450       5   21   25    0
    2d                 293,053       8   17    0    0
    3d                 342,784      10   23    0    0
    4th                392,514      13   11    0    0
    5th                785,028      38    1   49    0
    6th              1,570,057     107    7   35   10

All these satellites, it has been said, perform their revolutions in
their orbits contrary to the order of the signs; that is, their real
motion is retrograde, but probably, as suggested by Dr. Hutton, this
is an optical illusion.[130] As the indefatigable Dr. Herschell has
already discovered six satellites belonging to this planet, does not
its immense distance from the sun leave some ground for conjecture,
that there may remain some undiscovered, and that his attendants are as
numerous, if not more so, than those of Saturn?

    Characters used for the Sun, Moon, and Planets.

    ☉ The Sun
    ☽ The Moon
    ☿ Mercury
    ♀ Venus
    ⊕ The Earth
    ♂ Mars
    ♃ Jupiter
    ♄ Saturn
    ♅ Herschell, or Georgium Sidus.

The mark which characterises the planet Herschell is the initial of the
discoverer’s name, intersected by a cross bar to represent a cross, by
which to denote that the discovery of the planet took place after the
birth of Christ.

Astronomy produces calculations concerning the magnitudes, distances,
and revolutions of the planets, and their respective satellites,
which, to the uninformed, appear absurd, chimerical, and presumptuous;
while, probably, they laugh at such notions as were received among men,
when even the wisest of them were weak enough to believe, that the
earth was an immense plain, situated in the centre of the universe;
that the vault of heaven was of crystal; and that the sun was no other
than a plate of red hot iron, about as large as the Peloponnessus. The
following thoughts, communicated by my much esteemed friend Thomas
Exley, A. M. may assist such persons to entertain more favorable
sentiments of the science of astronomy, and also serve to enlarge their
views of the Supreme Being.

“Many persons who have not had the advantages of proper instruction
in mathematical science, cannot be persuaded that it is in the power
of man to ascertain the distances of the sun, moon, and planets,
and, of course, pay little regard to the assertions of astronomers
on this subject. Sometimes, they are bold enough to say the thing is
impossible, because no one has ever been to any of those bodies. Let
such persons consider, that it is not necessary to go to a remote
object in order to measure its distance; for that purpose, it will be
sufficient to know the length of a line at the place of the spectator,
and the inclination of this line to two others directed from its
extremities to the object; for, on the length of this line, and the
position of the two others, depends the distance of the object from the
ends of that line.

“Thus, if I wish to know the distance of a neighboring tower, or
other object beyond a river, or in some other way inaccessible; I
measure any convenient line terminating in my station, and by some
instrument proper for measuring angles, I ascertain the position of
my measured line to the lines connecting its extreme points and the
object. On these data depends the distance, and from this line and
these angles accurately measured, the exact distance may be with
great ease truly found. It is on similar principles that astronomers
investigate the distances of the heavenly bodies. They take as the
given or measured line, which may be called the base, some line on the
earth, the semi-diameter for instance, as being the most convenient.
The angle formed, or rather contained by two lines drawn from the sun
or planet to the ends of the semi-diameter of the earth, is called the
parallax, because it shows the difference of the apparent situation
of the object as seen from the extremities of the semi-diameter, that
is, it measures the arc of a great circle in the heavens contained
between its two apparent places. Hence to ascertain its parallax, or
difference of the apparent place when the object is viewed from the
other end of the semi-diameter, becomes a problem of great importance
in astronomy; for this being truly discovered, the distance of the
planet will be obtained with the utmost exactitude. If any other line
besides the semi-diameter of the earth, whose length and position are
known, be used as a base, and the parallax in respect of this line be
found, the same conclusions will follow. The chief difficulty in this
affair arises from the smallness of the angle to be measured, which
is a consequence of the greatness of the distance in respect of the
earth’s semi-diameter. Several ingenious methods have been proposed
and employed by astronomers to discover the distances of the sun and
planets, but nothing serves this purpose so well as the transits of
Venus over the sun’s disk. At certain periods, which can be foretold
by astronomers, this planet passes exactly between us and the sun, and
is seen as a dark round spot for some hours, moving in a line across
the sun’s face or disk. The observer should be furnished with a good
chronometer, or pendulum clock with seconds, to note the time of the
transit; and good instruments, to take the apparent diameters of the
sun and Venus, and her greatest distance from the sun’s limb while
passing over his disk: from these observations, and the known phenomena
of the motions of the earth and Venus, the parallax may be found. But
if two observers, at very distant places of the earth properly chosen,
make these observations, the parallax may be obtained with much greater
ease and nicety; because the distance of the apparent tracks of Venus
across the sun as seen from the two places, and also the difference of
the time of the passage, arises from the parallax of Venus and that
of the sun. The two last transits, which happened in the years 1761
and 1769, were carefully observed for this purpose; and it is to the
results of these observations that the present astronomers are indebted
for their more accurate knowledge of the distances of the planets, and
the dimensions of the solar system.

“It should be observed, that if the parallax, and consequently the
distance of any one of the planets by any means becomes known, the same
is easily obtained for each of the other planets, from the relation
which has been clearly discovered to subsist between the periodical
times of revolution of the planets round the sun, and their distances
from that central luminary. Astronomers have most decidedly proved that
the square of the time in which any planet revolves is to the square
of the time in which any other revolves, as the cube of the distance
of the first, is to the cube of the distance of the other; and since
all the times are known from observation, if the distance of any one be
determined, there is no difficulty at all to find the distances of all
the other planets from the sun.

“It has also been matter of great surprise to the unlearned, that
astronomers should pretend to tell the magnitudes of the sun and
planets. But this is no difficult problem when the distance is known.
The _apparent_ diameter is readily found from observation, and on this
and the distance depends the _true_ diameter. If the apparent diameters
of two objects be equal, the true diameter of the one will be greater
as it is more remote; and the apparent diameter of any object will
increase as the distance of it from the observer diminishes. From this
every one sees, that a knowledge of the distance of the object is an
indispensible element for finding its bulk; and, according to the
accuracy of the measure of the distance, will be that of the measure of
the magnitude, provided the apparent distance be truly taken; and this,
in the present improved state of our instruments, presents no obstacle.
There can be no doubt but that astronomers are very near the truth in
the numbers which they now give us for expressing the distances and
magnitudes of the sun and planets.

“The telescope has been of singular use to the astronomer; it has
shown him many phenomena of the heavenly bodies, concerning which he
would otherwise have been totally ignorant. It is by the assistance of
this noble instrument that we have attained to the knowledge of the
rotations of the sun and planets, the phases of Venus and Mercury,
Saturn’s ring, and many other particulars exceedingly interesting. The
telescope has discovered several planets which otherwise would have
revolved in their courses unknown and unnoticed by the inhabitants of
this globe; it has informed us that several of the planets have moons
moving round them, as our moon revolves round the earth; besides, it
has presented to our view an innumerable multitude of fixed stars which
without this assistance we should never have seen.

“It is no wonder that great efforts have been made to improve this
excellent instrument; these efforts have been attended with great
success, and what may be further done in this respect we cannot tell;
however, there is a limit to the improvements of the telescope, for
after it has attained a certain degree of magnifying power, the motes
and vapors in the atmosphere would be so magnified as to occupy its
whole field of view, and thus render it a useless incumbrance.”

Who can contemplate the power which produced the solar system, at once
so magnificent, beautiful, and delightful, without astonishment and
admiration? The planets are kept in a regular motion, and retained in
an invariable course round the sun, by the power of this luminary’s
attraction or gravity. These bodies have a projectile force, being
propelled forwards in a right line, which is the nature of all simple
motion; but the sun’s attraction combining with their own projectile
force, withdraws them from their rectilineal courses, and preserves
the most perfect harmony in the system. This wonderful mechanism
was originally impressed on the system by its infinitely wise and
omnipotent Creator; to which primary impulse it has with undeviating
uniformity adhered, having never suffered in its operations from the
greatest distance of space, or intervals of time!

Surely no power less than that which at first gave existence and
modification to matter, is equal to the government of the world. The
solar orb and the planetary bodies could no more subsist in their
present form and order, without a Divine, supporting, and directing
hand, than they could at the beginning make themselves. What is that
general law or force called _gravitation_, without which the whole
frame of nature would soon be dissolved? Is it not a power constantly
issuing from the Deity, and which if he should suspend but for one
moment, the whole creation would sink into ruins? How inconceivably
great and operative must that power be, that is present throughout the
universe, with all the heavenly orbs to preserve them in their courses;
and on this earth, with every creature, and every particle of matter,
to preserve its present form!

In addition to the planets and their satellites, there are _Comets_,
which revolve round the sun, and, consequently, are a part of the
solar system. They have often a long tail, in appearance resembling
hair, issuing from that side which is turned away from the sun. Comets
are popularly divided into three kinds, namely, bearded, tailed, and
hairy: but this arrangement seems to apply rather to the different
circumstances of the same comet, than to the phenomena of several.
Thus, when a comet is eastward of the sun, and moves with him, it is
said to be bearded, because the light precedes it in the manner of a
beard: but when it is westward of him, it is said to be tailed, because
the train of light follows it in the manner of a tail: and, lastly,
when the sun and comet are diametrically opposite, the earth being
between them, the train is hid behind the body of the comet, excepting
the extremities, which being broader than the body of the comet, appear
round it like a border of hair (_coma_), from which circumstance it is
said to be hairy, and is denominated a comet.

Without attending to the variety of opinions which philosophers and
astronomers have entertained concerning the nature and use of comets,
we may affirm, that they have been considered as alarming phenomena,
displayed by the Divine Being to warn mankind of the near approach of
some dreadful calamity, such as wars, pestilence, and famine. This
opinion prevailed during the dark ages between the decline of the Roman
empire, and the dawn of the Reformation. To this apprehension some of
our modern poets have alluded in strong and descriptive language. Young
says,

    “Hast thou ne’er seen the comet’s flaming light?
    Th’ illustrious stranger passing, terror sheds
    On gazing nations, from his fiery train
    Of length enormous; takes his ample round
    Through depths of ether; coasts unnumber’d worlds
    Of more than solar glory; doubles wide
    Heaven’s mighty cape; and then revisits earth,
    From the long travel of a thousand years.”

Milton uses still greater strength of language when he compares his
hero to a comet:

    “Incensed with indignation, Satan stood
    Unterrified, and like a comet burn’d
    That fines the length of Ophiucus huge
    In the arctic sky, and from his horrid hair
    Shakes pestilence and war.”

Similar ideas are finely expressed by Savage:

    “In fancy’s eye encount’ring armies glare,
    And sanguine ensigns wave unfurled in air!
    Hence the deep vulgar deem impending fate,
    A monarch ruined, or unpeopled state.
    Thus comets, dreadful visitants! arise,
    To _them_ wild omens, science to the _wise_,
    These mark the comet to the sun incline,
    While deep red flames around its centre shine!
    While its fierce rear a winding trail displays,
    And lights all ether with a sweeping blaze!
    Or when, compell’d, it flies the torrid zone,
    And shoots by worlds unnumbered and unknown;
    By worlds, whose people, all aghast with fear,
    May view that minister of vengeance near.”

Notwithstanding the present improved state of astronomical science, it
is evident that the philosophy of comets is very imperfect. Kepler,
though in other respects a very great genius, and to whose useful
labors astronomy is deeply indebted, indulged in the most extravagant
conjectures; he imagined that the planets were large animals, swimming
round the sun: and that the comets were animals still more huge and
monstrous, which had been generated in the celestial spaces. Jean
Bodin, a learned Frenchman of the 16th century, entertained an opinion,
if possible, still more absurd and ridiculous. He maintained that the
comets are spirits, which having lived on the earth innumerable ages,
and being at last arrived on the confines of death, celebrated their
last triumph, or are recalled to the firmament like shining stars! Mr.
Whiston was of opinion, that comets are so many hells, appointed in
their orbits alternately to carry the damned into the confines of the
sun, there to be scorched by its violent heat, and then to return with
them beyond the orb of Saturn, there to starve them in those cold and
dismal regions. Thus

    “Born in an age more curious than devout;
    More fond to fix the place of heaven or hell,
    Than studious this to shun, or that secure.”[131]

James Bernoulli, in his Systema Cometarum, says, that comets are no
other than the satellites of some very distant planet, which is itself
invisible to us on account of its vast distance, as are also the
satellites, unless when they are in that part of their orbits which
is nearest the earth. Comets, according to Des Cartes, were formerly
fixed stars: but which becoming gradually covered with maculæ, and
at length wholly deprived of their light, cannot keep their places,
but are carried off by the vortices of the circumjacent stars; and in
proportion to their magnitude and solidity, moved in such a manner as
to be brought nearer the orb of Saturn; and thus, coming within reach
of the sun’s light, are rendered visible.

Aristotle, Seneca, Plutarch, and others, testify, that the
Pythagoreans, and the whole Italian sect, maintained, that a comet
was a kind of planet or wandering star, which appeared again after a
long interval of time. Hippocrates Chius was of the same opinion as
Aristotle informs us. Democritus held also the same opinion, as Seneca
tells us in his “Natural Questions;” book vii, chap. 3, “For,” says he,
“Democritus, the most curious and subtle of all the ancients, suspected
that there were many more stars which moved, meaning by this expression
the comets; but he neither established their number, or their names,
the courses of the five planets not having as yet been discovered.”
Again, Seneca assures us, that Apollonius Myndius, one of the most
skilful philosophers in the search of natural causes, asserted, that
the Chaldeans reckoned comets among the other wandering stars, and
that they knew their courses. Apollonius himself maintained, that a
comet was a star of its own kind, as the sun and moon are, but that its
course was not yet known; that by its motions it mounts very high in
the heavens, and only appears when it descends into the lower part of
its orbit. And Seneca himself embraces this opinion in the following
truly philosophical words: “I cannot believe,” says he, “that a comet
is a fire suddenly kindled, but that it ought to be ranked among the
eternal works of nature. A comet has its proper place, and is not
easily moved from thence; it goes its course, and is not extinguished,
but runs off from us. But you will say, if it were a wandering star
it would keep in the zodiac. But who can set one boundary to all
the stars? Who can restrain the works of the Divinity to a narrow
compass? For each of those bodies, which you imagine to be the only
ones that have motion, have very different circles; why, therefore,
may there not be some that have peculiar ways of their own, wherein
they recede far from the rest? But that their courses may be known,
it is necessary to have a collection of all the ancient observations
about comets; for their appearances are so rare, that their orbits are
not yet determined; nor can we as yet find whether they have their
periods, or whether they return again in a certain order.”--“The time
will come,” continues he, “wherein these things which are now hid from
us will be discovered; which observation, and the diligence of after
ages, will find out. For it is not one age that is sufficient for so
great matters: the time will be when posterity will wonder that we were
ignorant of things so plain; one will arise who will demonstrate in
what regions of space the comets wander, why they recede so far from
the other planets; how great and what sort of bodies they are.”[132]
The period, predicted by Seneca, in the first century of the Christian
era, is not yet arrived. “After all that has been done and written on
the subject of comets,” says a late writer, “we must confess, that
our knowledge of these wandering bodies is still very imperfect.”
“It appears to me,” says La Lande, “that almost every thing depends
on comets. The only thing that I recommend to my correspondents, is
to look after and attend to comets: the knowledge of comets is alone
wanting to complete the science of astronomy.”

Several ages elapsed before this prediction of Seneca seemed likely to
be fulfilled. Tycho Brahé was the first who attempted to restore the
comets to their proper rank in creation. Having diligently observed the
comet of 1577, and finding that it had no sensible diurnal parallax,
he very properly determined its true place to be among the other
revolving bodies in the planetary regions, as appears by his book De
Cometa, 1577. And Sir Isaac Newton, from his amazing discoveries, gives
the following theory of comets: “They are,” says he, “compact, solid,
fixed, and durable bodies; in fact, a kind of planets, which move in
very oblique and eccentric orbits, every way with the greatest freedom;
persevering in their motions even against the course and direction of
the planets: and their tail is a very thin and slender vapor, emitted
by the head or nucleus of the comet, ignited or heated by the sun.”

Various conjectures have been formed concerning the nature of the tails
of comets. Dr. Hamilton, of Dublin, in the second of his Philosophical
Essays, urges several objections against the Newtonian hypothesis: he
remarks, that, since the tail of a comet, though exceedingly rare,
meets with no resistance in its rapid motion round the sun (except so
slight a one as can only cause a very small condensation on that side
of it which moves foremost, and thereby may make it a little brighter
than the other side), it cannot possibly move in a medium denser and
heavier than itself, and therefore cannot be raised up from the sun
by the superior gravity of such a medium. And since the stars seen
through all parts of a comet’s tail appear in their proper places,
and with their usual colors, he infers that the rays of light suffer
no refraction in passing through the tail; therefore, since bodies
reflect and refract light by one and the same power, he concludes
that the matter of a comet’s tail has not the power of refracting or
reflecting light, and is, of consequence, a lucid or self shining
substance. Also from what astronomers say of the splendor of comets’
tails, it is manifest they do not shine with such a dull light as would
be reflected to us by the clouds or vapors at so great a distance, but
with a brisker though a glimmering light, such as would arise from a
very thin, volatile, burning matter. Dr. Halley, speaking of the great
streams of light in the remarkable aurora borealis seen in 1716, says,
“they so much resembled the long tails of comets, that at first sight
they might be taken for such:” and afterwards, “this light seems to
have a great affinity to that which the effluvia of electric bodies
emit in the dark.” Dr. Hamilton improves upon these hints: and since,
as he shows, the tails of comets, the aurora borealis, and the electric
fluid, agree remarkably, not only in their appearance, but also in such
properties as we can observe of each of them, he concludes that they
are substances of the same nature. And, because the electric matter,
from its vast subtility and velocity, seems capable of making great
excursions from the planetary system, he imagines that the several
comets, in their long excursions from the sun in all directions, may
overtake this matter; and by attracting it to themselves may come back
replete with it, and being again heated by the sun, may disperse it
among the planets, and so keep up a circulation of this matter, which
there is reason to think is necessary in our system.[133]

Comets, descending from the remote parts of the system with great
rapidity become visible to us in the lower parts of their orbits; and
after a short stay, go off again to vast distances, and disappear. They
move about the sun in very eccentric ellipses; and the velocity with
which they seem to move is variable in every part of their path round
the sun; when near to which they appear to move with great swiftness,
and, when very remote, their motion is slow. They are opake bodies, but
of a much greater density than the earth; for some of them are heated
in every period to such a degree, as would vitrify or dissipate any
substance known to us. Sir Isaac Newton computed the heat of the comet,
which appeared in the year 1680, when nearest the sun, to be 2,000
times hotter than red hot iron, and that, being thus heated, it must
retain its heat till it comes round again, although its period should
be more than 20,000 years; and it is computed to be only 575.

The number of the comets is much greater than that of the planets
belonging to our system. From the beginning of the Christian era, till
now, there have appeared about five hundred. Before that time, we
have accounts of about one hundred others. But, when it is considered
that there may have been many that have not been seen, from being too
near the sun, from appearing in moon-light, from being in the other
hemisphere, or from being too small, or from not being recorded, the
number is probably much greater. Miss Herschell, by means of the
telescope, has, within the last twenty years, discovered several
comets. The orbits of about one hundred comets have been calculated
with sufficient accuracy for ascertaining their identity on any future
appearance. Many of these orbits are inclined to the plane of the
ecliptic in large angles, and many of them approach much nearer the sun
than the earth does. Their motions are also different from those of the
planets, some of them being direct and others retrograde, nearly half
the number moving each way. The different motions of the comets, and
the various inclinations of their orbits to the plane of the ecliptic,
must not be regarded as the work of chance, but as calculated to answer
beneficial purposes, or avoid baneful consequences; for if these orbits
had been nearly coincident with that of the earth, both bodies might
have arrived at the common point of intersection of their orbits at
the same time; in which case a derangement of both motions must, at
least, have been the necessary result.[134] But, according to all the
observations that have been made respecting their present distribution
and direction, there is not the least reason to apprehend any such
consequence.

The following table contains a list of the last twenty-three of the
principal comets that have been observed, with the time of passing
their perihelia, and their nearest approach to the sun.

                            Nearest distance
            Passage of the   from the Sun in  Direction of
    Years.    Perihelion.    English Miles.   their Motion.
    ------  --------------  ----------------  -------------
    1790     January   15      71 millions     Retrograde.
    1790     January   28     101              Direct.
    1790     May       21      75              Retrograde.
    1792     January   13     122              Retrograde.
    1792     December  27      91              Retrograde.
    1793     November   4      38              Retrograde.
    1793     November  18     142              Direct.
    1795     December  15      23              Direct.
    1796     April      2     149              Retrograde.
    1797     July       9      50              Retrograde.
    1798     April      4      46              Direct.
    1798     December  31      73              Retrograde.
    1799     September  7      79              Retrograde.
    1799     December  25      25              Retrograde.
    1801     August     8      22              Retrograde.
    1802     September  9     103              Direct.
    1804     February  13     101              Direct.
    1805     November  18      35              Direct.
    1805     December  31      84              Direct.
    1806     December  28     102              Retrograde.
    1807     September 18      61              Direct.
    1811     August    20      25              Direct.
    1815     April     26     121              Direct.

But of all the comets, the periods of three only are known with any
degree of certainty, being found to return at intervals of 75, 129,
and 575 years; and of these, that which appeared in 1680 is the most
remarkable. This comet, at its greatest distance, is about 11,200
millions of miles from the sun, while its least distance from the
centre of the sun is about 490,000 miles; being less than one third
part of the sun’s semi-diameter from his surface. In that part of its
orbit which is nearest the sun, it flies with the amazing velocity of
880,000 miles in an hour; and the sun, as seen from it, appears 100
degrees in breadth, consequently 40,000 times as large as he appears
to us. The astonishing distance that this comet runs out into empty
space, naturally suggests to our imagination the vast distance between
our sun and the nearest of the fixed stars, of whose attractions all
the comets must keep clear, to return periodically and go round the
sun. How wonderful that, though this body travelled almost two thousand
times faster than a cannon ball, yet it drew after it a tail of fire,
or of phosphoric gas, eight millions of miles in length! How amazing
to consider, that this stupendous body, traversing the immensity of
the creation with such rapidity, and at the same time wheeling about
in that line which its great Creator prescribed to it, should move
with such inconceivable velocity, and at the same time with such
exact regularity! How spacious must the universe be, that, gives such
bodies as these full play, without suffering the least disorder or
confusion by it! With what a glorious exhibition must those beings
be entertained, who can look into this great theatre of nature, and
see myriads of these tremendous objects wandering through those
immeasurable depths of æther, and running their appointed courses!
Our eyes may hereafter be strong enough to command this magnificent
prospect, and our understandings able to find out the several uses of
these immense parts of the universe. In the mean time, they are most
suitable objects for our imagination to contemplate, that we may
form more extensive notions of infinite wisdom and power, and learn
to think humbly of ourselves, and of all the little works of human
invention.[135]

The _Fixed Stars_ are objects of peculiar interest, and are so
denominated, because they are observed always to preserve the same
distance from each other; and are distinguished from the planets by
their twinkling, which seems to depend on the atmosphere; for we are
assured, that where the air is exceedingly pure and dry, the stars
appear with a light altogether free from scintillation. All the
heavenly bodies, the sun, moon, and stars, appear to move round the
earth, in circles parallel to the equinoctial, once in the compass of
twenty-four hours; though these _apparent_ motions are almost entirety
to be accounted for by the _real_ motions of the earth: but by far
the greater number of them never change their relative situations,
each (so long as an observer continues in the same place) rising and
setting at the same interval of time, and at the same points of the
horizon;--these are called the _fixed stars_.

The fixed stars, as appears from several considerations, are placed
at immense distances from us. Mr. Exley, in a friendly communication,
says, “It should be noticed, that the distances of the fixed stars have
never yet been discovered; not indeed so much for want of a method,
as for want of a base line sufficiently large for this admeasurement.
The diameter of the earth’s orbit is about one hundred and ninety
millions of miles; and the fixed stars, viewed from the opposite ends
of this extensive base line or diameter, have no sensible parallax, but
all appear in the very same situations, and of the same magnitudes;
and as this is the greatest line to the extremities of which we can
have access, it is very probable we shall ever remain in ignorance of
the true distances of the fixed stars. One thing, however, is fully
ascertained by the observations which have been made to find the
parallax of the stars, which is, that they are so immensely distant
from our planetary regions, that the whole solar system, consisting
of the sun and planets, with their satellites, and the comets, would,
if viewed from the nearest fixed star, appear as crowded into one
single point of space, which is also known from other observations.
How astonishingly extensive is the view of the universe which such
observations furnish!”

Our earth is at so great a distance from the sun, that if seen from
thence, it would appear no bigger than a point, although its diameter
is 7,954 miles. Yet that distance is so small, compared with the
earth’s remote situation from the fixed stars, that if the orbit in
which the earth moves round the sun were the circumference of a globe,
that globe, seen from the nearest star, would likewise appear no bigger
than a point, although, it is at least 190,000,000 miles in diameter.
For the earth in going round the sun is 190,000,000 miles nearer to
some of the stars at one time of the year than at another, and yet
their apparent magnitudes, situations, and distances from one another
still remain the same; and being viewed through a telescope which
magnifies above 200 times, they still appear as mere points: which
proves them to be at least 400,000 times further from us than we are
from the sun.

It is not to be imagined, that all the stars are placed in one concave
surface, so as to be equally distant from us; but that they are
scattered at immense distances from one another through unlimited
space. So that there may be as great a distance between any two
neighboring stars, as between our sun and those which are nearest to
him. Therefore an observer, who is nearest any fixed star, will look
on it alone as a real sun; and consider the rest as so many shining
points, placed apparently at equal distances from him in the firmament.
The star nearest to us, or the largest in appearance, is Sirius, or the
Dog Star, and astronomers have calculated from indubitable principles,
that its distance from us is considerably more than two millions of
millions of miles! The apparent magnitude of Sirius has been computed
at 27,000 times less than the sun, and, therefore, supposing their
magnitudes equal, is 27,000 times more distant. If so, as our earth
is ninety-five millions of miles from the sun, that multiplied by
twenty-seven thousand, will give two millions of millions, and an
addition of 565 thousand millions, for the distance of this star from
the sun.[136] Our earth, in moving round the sun, is 195,000,000 miles
nearer to this star in one part of its orbit, than in the opposite
one; and yet the magnitude of the star appears not to be in the least
altered or affected by it. A cannon-ball flying from thence at the
rate of 400 miles in an hour, would not reach us in 732,000 years! The
distance of the star γ Draconis appears, by Dr. Bradley’s observations,
to be at least 400,000 times that of the sun, and the distance of
the nearest fixed star not less than 80,000 diameters of the earth’s
annual orbit; that is, the distance of the earth from the former is =
to 400,000 × 95,000,000 = 38,000,000,000,000, and the latter not less
than 7,600,000,000,000. As these distances are much too great to be
comprehended by the human imagination, we shall, perhaps, obtain a
better idea of them by comparing them with the velocity of some moving
body, by which they may, in some way, be estimated. The swiftest motion
we know of is that of light, which passes from the sun to the earth
in about eight minutes, or, at the rate of 200,000 miles nearly in a
second of time: and yet even light would be more than six years in
traversing the first space, and a year and a quarter nearly, in passing
from the nearest fixed star to the earth. Again, a cannon ball, moving
with its initial or greatest velocity of about ten miles in a minute,
would be more than seven millions of years in passing from the star γ
Draconis to the earth. The celebrated M. Huygens carried his thoughts
so far upon this subject, as to believe that there might be stars at
such inconceivable distances from our earth, that their light, though
it is known to travel at the rate of 12,000,000 miles in a minute, has
not yet reached us, since the creation of the world!

    “How distant some of the nocturnal suns!
    So distant, says the sage, ’twere not absurd
    To doubt, if beams, set out at nature’s birth,
    Are yet arrived at this so foreign world;
    Though nothing half so rapid as their flight.”

And Mr. Addison observes, that this thought of Mr. Huygens is far from
being extravagant, when we consider that the universe is the work of
infinite power, prompted by infinite goodness, having an infinite space
wherein to exert itself, so that our imaginations can set no bounds to
it.

The magnitudes of the stars appear to be very different from one
another; which difference may probably arise, partly from a diversity
in their real magnitude, but chiefly, no doubt, from their different
distances. Hence it is, that the fixed stars have been divided, for the
sake of distinction, into six orders or classes. Those which appear
largest, are considered as stars of the first magnitude; the next to
them in lustre, stars of the second magnitude; and so on, through the
different gradations, to the smallest that are visible to the naked
eye, which are said to be of the sixth magnitude. This distribution
having been made long before the invention of telescopes, the stars
which cannot be seen without the assistance of these instruments,
are distinguished by the name of telescopic stars. Bayer, besides
accurately distinguishing the relative size and situation of each star,
marked the stars in each constellation with the letters of the Greek
and Roman alphabets, setting the first Greek letter to the first or
principal star in each constellation, to the second in order; then,
when the Greek alphabet was gone over, he passed to _a_, _b_, _c_, of
the Roman, and so on. This useful method of noting and describing the
stars has been adopted by all astronomers since the time of Bayer; and
they have further enlarged it, by adding the ordinal numbers 1, 2, 3,
&c, when any constellation contains more stars than can be marked by
the two alphabets.

As it would be impossible to furnish names for all the fixed stars,
and retain those names in the memory; it became necessary not only to
ascertain their exact relative situations, but to invent some method
by which the principal part of the stars which can be seen may be
known, without having recourse to a separate name for each. Ancient
astronomers formed a commodious plan of arranging the fixed stars
in constellations under names and figures of various personages,
celebrated in antiquity, and even of birds, beasts, fishes, &c.
This division of the heavens into constellations is obviously very
ancient; for some of them are mentioned by Hesiod and Homer, both of
whom probably flourished nearly 1000 years before the Christian era.
Arcturus, Orion, and the Pleiades, are twice mentioned in the book
of Job: and in the prophecy of Amos, composed about 400 years before
Christ, the _seven stars_ and _Orion_ are mentioned. As the knowledge
of the stars became more extensive, the number of the constellations
was increased; and at the same time more stars were introduced into
each constellation. Such of the stars as were not comprehended under
any constellations, were by the ancient astronomers, called unformed
stars. The modern astronomers have reduced not these unformed stars
only, but many other stars, into new figures; and it is probable that
other constellations will still continue to be invented.[137]

With respect to the number of fixed stars, there have been several
accounts, given by different persons, at various times. The celebrated
Hipparchus, of Rhodes, 120 years before Christ, formed a catalogue
of 1,022 stars; to which Ptolemy added four more. Ulug Beigh, the
grandson of Tamerlane, formed a catalogue of 1,017 stars. Tycho Brahé’s
catalogue only extended to 777; but he took care to ascertain all their
places. Kepler’s catalogue amounted to 1,163, which Ricciolus enlarged
to 1,468. Bayerus extended his catalogue further than any of his
predecessors, having described the places of 1,725. Hevelius increased
the catalogue to 1,888. Flamsteed enlarged these catalogues to the
number of about 3,000. But by means of the telescope, which affords
us a glimpse of infinite space, and presents to our view myriads of
worlds, and systems of worlds, by which it is filled, the number of
the stars is astonishingly increased. Galileo found eighty stars in
the space of the belt of Orion’s sword, and F. de Rheita observed more
than 2,000 in the whole constellation of Orion, of which not more than
seventy or eighty can ever be seen without glasses. Dr. Hook reckoned
seventy-eight stars in the single constellation of the Pleiades; and F.
de Rheita, with a better telescope, discovered 188: whereas we cannot
reckon above seven or eight seen by the naked eye. At the present
period, the positions of 60,000 fixed stars have been exactly recorded,
and they are generally arranged according to the size they appear; 20
of the largest are called stars of the first magnitude; 65 are of
the second magnitude; 205 of the third; 485 of the fourth; 648 of the
fifth; and about 1,500 of the sixth magnitude; the remainder, being
invisible to the naked eye, are called telescopic stars.

Where the stars are in great abundance, Dr. Herschell supposes they
form primaries and secondaries, that is, suns revolving about suns, as
planets revolve about the sun in our system. He considers that this
must be the case in what is called the _milky way_, the stars being
there in prodigious quantity. Of this he gives the following proof:
on August 22, 1792, he found that in forty-one minutes of time, not
less than 258,000 stars had passed through the field of view in his
telescope! Dr. Chalmers observes, If we ask the number of suns and of
systems--the unassisted eye of man can take in a thousand, and the
best telescope which the genius of man has constructed can take in
eighty millions. Thus, by the help of telescopes, we discover a vast
multitude of stars which are invisible to the naked eye; and the better
the glasses are, still the more become visible; so that we can set no
limits either to their number, or to their distances.

    “Myriads beyond with blended rays inflame
    The _milky way_, whose stream of vivid light,
    Poured from innumerable fountains round,
    Flows trembling, wave on wave, from sun to sun,
    And whitens the long path to heaven’s extreme:
    Distinguished tract!”

From an attentive examination of the stars with good telescopes, many
that appear only single to the naked eye, are found to consist of two,
three, or more stars. The late Dr. Maskelyne observed the α Herculis to
be a double star, and other astronomers have discovered many more to
be double. Dr. Herschell has found 700; of these about forty had been
observed before. The following will serve as a specimen, and afford the
observer a few objects for his attention. α Herculis is a beautiful
double star: the two bodies are apparently unequal: the largest is red,
and the smallest of a blueish color inclining to green. γ Andromedæ,
double, very unequal: the larger of a reddish white color; the smaller
a fine bright sky blue, inclining to green. β Lyræ, quadruple, unequal
white, but three out of the four inclined to red. ε Bootis, double,
very unequal, larger, of a reddish color; the smaller is blue, or of a
faint lilac color. α Lyræ, double, very unequal; the larger is a fine
brilliant white, the smaller dusky.

New stars sometimes appear, while others disappear. Several stars
mentioned by ancient astronomers are not now to be found: several
are now visible to the naked eye, which are not mentioned in ancient
catalogues; and some stars have suddenly appeared, and again after
a considerable interval vanished. Fortunio Liceti, a celebrated
physician, who died in 1656, in Padua, published a treatise, entitled,
“De novis Astris et Cometis.” In it he gives us an ample account
of the several new stars spoken of by the ancients, among which he
mentions that remarkable one which appeared A.D. 389, near the Eagle.
It was as bright as the planet Venus, for the space of three weeks,
but afterwards entirely disappeared. In the ninth century, the Arabian
astronomers, Massahala, Haly, and Albumazar, observed a new star in
the 15th degree of Scorpio, whose light equalled that of the moon in
her first octant: it was visible for four months. Cyprianus Leovitius
relates, that in the reign of the emperor Otho, A.D. 946, a new star
was seen between the constellations of Cepheus and Cassiopeia; and
also that another was seen A.D. 1264, very near the same part of the
heavens, which had no proper motion. One of the most celebrated of the
new stars is that discovered by Cornelius Jansen, November 8, 1572, in
the chair of Cassiopeia: it exceeded Sirius in brilliancy, and Jupiter
in apparent magnitude; it gradually decayed; and, after sixteen months,
disappeared. On the 13th of August, 1596, David Fabricius observed a
new star in the neck of the Whale, and it disappeared after October
in the same year, but was supposed to be again discovered in the year
1637. In the year 1600, William Jansen discovered a changeable star
in the neck of the Swan. It was seen by Kepler, who wrote a treatise
upon it, and determined its place to be 16° 18ʹ ♒, and 55° 30ʹ or 32ʹ
north latitude. Ricciolus saw it in 1616, 1621, and 1624. Cassini saw
it again in 1655; it increased till 1660; then decreased, and at the
end of 1661 it disappeared. In November, 1665, it appeared again, and
disappeared in 1681. In 1715 it appeared, as it does at present, and
is of the sixth magnitude. In 1686, Kircher observed χ in the Swan,
to be a changeable star in the neck of that constellation; and, from
twenty years’ observations, the period of the return of the same phases
was found to be 405 days. In 1604, Kepler discovered a new star near
the heel of Serpentarius, so very brilliant that it exceeded every
fixed star, and even Jupiter, in apparent magnitude. For more recent
discoveries, see Dr. Herschell’s paper, “On the proper Motion of the
Sun and the Solar System, with an account of the several changes that
have happened among the fixed stars since the time of Mr. Flamsteed,”
vol. lxxiii, of the Philosophical Transactions, or the fifteenth of the
Abridgment.

All the stars seem to have a common and general motion about the
pole of the ecliptic, at the rate of a degree in seventy-two years;
this is occasioned by the precession of the equinoctial points. In
consequence of this apparent motion, the constellations change their
positions in regard to the equinoctial points. Hence it is, that the
constellation Aries now is in the sign Taurus, and Taurus occupies the
sign Gemini. It has been the common opinion that the fixed stars have
no real motion, but the accurate observations of modern astronomers
show, that some of them have a motion peculiar to themselves, by which
they slowly change their places. Thus Arcturus is found to approach
the ecliptic about four minutes in 100 years; and its distance from a
small star near it has been sensibly changed during the last century.
Sirius seems to recede from the ecliptic about two minutes per century.
Similar motions have been observed in Aldebaran, Rigel, the eastern
shoulder of Orion, the Goat, the Eagle, &c. Other stars have been
observed to have a motion in different directions. Perhaps all the
stars have similar motions, which are performed by certain fixed laws
in spaces, which, though very large in reality, yet, because of their
immense distance, subtend at the earth angles so very small, as in
some cases to be quite imperceptible, while in other cases they may
be observed, as in the stars above-mentioned; and on this rational
supposition the appearance and disappearance, and variations in
magnitude, of some stars may be accounted for.

The fixed stars do not appear to be all regularly disseminated through
the heavens, but the greater part of them are collected into clusters;
and it requires a large magnifying power, with a great quantity
of light, to distinguish separately the stars which compose these
clusters. With a small magnifying power, and small quantity of light,
they only appear as minute whitish spots, much like small light clouds,
and thence they are called nebulæ. The number of nebulæ was formerly
imagined to be about 103; but Dr. Herschell, early in the year 1784,
had discovered 469 more, and since then has given a catalogue of
2,000 nebulæ which he has discovered. The most careful and accurate
observations give great reason to conclude, that they all consist
of large masses or clusters of stars at prodigious distances from
our system. Dr. Herschell is of opinion the starry heaven is replete
with these nebulæ, and that each of them is a distinct and separate
system independent of the rest. The milky way he supposes to be that
particular nebulæ in which our sun is placed; and, in order to account
for the appearance it exhibits, he supposes its figure to be much more
extended towards the apparent zone of illumination, than in any other
direction; which is a supposition that he thinks allowable, from the
observations he has made on the figures of other nebulæ.

That there are other worlds, beside our earth, inhabited by rational
beings, endued with bodily constitutions adapted to the nature and
economy of the respective planets for which they are destined, is a
conjecture that approaches the nearest to certainty. There is scarcely
any doubt now remaining amongst philosophers, that our moon is a
habitable globe. The most accurate observations that have been made
with the most powerful telescopes, have confirmed the opinion. The
surface of the moon seems to be diversified by high mountains, large
valleys, and small and larger collections of water; consequently she
resembles our earth; and there can be no doubt that our earth serves
as a moon to the moon, whose inhabitants, comparing it with the sun,
may well say,

        ----“gives us his blaze again
    Void of its flame, and sheds a softer day;”

which similarity existing between them, is a presumptive proof that
the moon, like our earth, is a commodious habitation for creatures
endowed with capacity for knowing and adoring their beneficent Creator.
By a very correct analogy we are led to infer, says a learned author,
that all the _planets_ and their _satellites_ or attendant moons, are
_inhabited_; for matter seems only to exist for the sake of intelligent
beings. And Dr. Herschell’s discoveries have, by the general consent
of philosophers, added, besides the Georgian planet, a _new habitable
world_ to our system, which is the SUN.

To an attentive mind it will appear highly probable, that the planets
of our system, and their moons, are much of the same nature with our
earth, and destined for the like purposes; for they are solid opaque
globes, capable of supporting animals and vegetables. Some of them
are bigger, some less, and others about the size of our earth. They
move round the sun, as the earth does, in a shorter or longer time,
according to their respective distances from him: and have, where
it would not be inconvenient, regular returns of summer and winter,
spring and autumn. They have warmer and colder climates, as the various
productions of our earth require: and, in such as afford a possibility
of discovering it, we observe a regular motion round their axis like
that of our earth, causing an alternate return of day and night; which
is necessary for labor, rest, and vegetation, and that all their
surfaces may be exposed to the rays of the sun.

Can a person who attends to the vast magnitude of the three planets,
Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschell or the Georgium Sidus, and compares the
systems of moons together which belong to them, bring himself to think,
that an infinitely wise Creator should dispose of all his animals and
vegetables here, leaving the other planets destitute of living and
rational creatures? To suppose that he had any view to our benefit
in creating these moons, and giving them their motions round their
respective primaries; to imagine, that he intended these vast bodies
for any advantage to us, when he well knew, that they could not be seen
but by a few astronomers looking through telescopes; and that he gave
to the planets regular returns of day and night, and different seasons
to all where they would be convenient, but of no manner of service to
us, except only what immediately concerns our own planet, the earth; to
imagine, I say, that, he did all this on our account, would, I presume,
be charging him with having done much in vain: and be as absurd, as to
fancy that he has created a little sun, and a planetary system within
the shell of our earth, and intended them for our use.

    “As well might the minutest emmet say,
    That Caucasus was raised to pave his way
    The snail, that Lebanon’s extended wood
    Was destin’d only for his walk and food.
    The vilest cockle, gaping on the coast,
    That rounds the ample seas, as well may boast,
    The craggy rock projects above the sky,
    That he in safety at its foot may lie;
    And the whole ocean’s confluent waters swell,
    Only to quench his thirst, and move and blanch his shell.”

These considerations amount to little less than a positive proof, that
all the planets are inhabited: for if they are not, why all this care
in furnishing them with so many moons, to supply those with light
which are at the greater distances from the sun? Do we not see, that
the further a planet is from the sun, the greater apparatus it has for
that purpose? Such of the planets as are most remote from the sun, and
therefore enjoy least of his light, have that deficiency made up by
several moons, which constantly accompany, and revolve about them, as
our moon revolves round our earth. So that if the more distant planets
have the sun’s light in less proportion by day than we, they have an
addition made to it morning and evening by one or more of their moons,
and a greater proportion of light during the night. We know that the
earth goes round the sun, and turns round upon its own axis, to produce
the vicissitudes of summer and winter by the former, and of day and
night by the latter motion, for the benefit of its inhabitants: may we
not then fairly conclude, by parity of reason, that the end or design
of all the other planets is the same? And is not this agreeable to the
beautiful harmony which exists throughout the works of nature? Surely
it is! and it raises in us the most magnificent ideas of the supreme
Being, who is every where, and at all times present; displaying his
power, wisdom, and goodness, among all his creatures; and distributing
happiness to innumerable beings of various ranks!

When we consider the infinite power and goodness of God; the latter
inclining, the former enabling him to make creatures suited to all
states and circumstances; that matter exists only for the sake of
intelligent beings; and that wherever we see it, we always find it
pregnant with life, or necessarily subservient thereto; the numberless
species, the astonishing diversity of animals in earth, air, water, and
even on other animals; every blade of grass, every tender leaf, every
natural fluid, swarming with life; and every one of these enjoying
such gratifications as the nature and state of each requires: when
we reflect also, that some centuries ago, till experience undeceived
us, a great part of the earth was judged uninhabitable; the Torrid
Zone, by reason of excessive heat, and the two Frigid Zones because of
their intolerable cold; it seems highly probable, that these numerous
and large masses of the planets are not destitute of beings capable
of contemplating with wonder, and acknowledging with gratitude, the
wisdom, symmetry, and beauty of the creation. It is an undoubted
truth, that wherever God exerts his power, there also he manifests his
wisdom and goodness.

From what we know of our own system, it may be reasonably concluded,
that all the rest are with equal wisdom contrived, situated, and
provided with accommodations for rational inhabitants. Taking a survey
of the system to which we belong; the only one accessible to us; from
thence we are the better enabled to judge of the nature and end of the
other systems of the universe. For although there is almost an infinite
variety in the parts of the creation which we have opportunities
of examining, yet there is a general analogy running through and
connecting all the parts into one scheme, one design, one whole!

The stars, being at such immense distances from the sun, cannot
possibly receive from him so strong a light as they seem to have; nor
any brightness sufficient to make them visible to us. For the sun’s
rays must be scattered and dissipated before they reach such remote
objects, that they can never be transmitted back to our eyes, so as to
render these objects visible by reflection.

    “I launch into the trackless deeps of space,
    Where, burning round, ten thousand suns appear
    Of elder beam, which ask no leave to shine
    Of our terrestrial star, nor borrow light
    From the proud regent of our scanty day.”

The stars, therefore, shine with their own native and unborrowed
lustre, as the sun does; and since each particular star, as well as the
sun, is confined to a particular portion of space, it is plain, that
the stars are of the same nature with the sun.

It is not probable that the Almighty, who always acts with infinite
wisdom, and does nothing in vain, should create so many suns, fit for
so many important purposes, and place them at such distances from
one another, without proper objects near enough to be benefited by
their influences. Whoever imagines they were created only to give a
faint glimmering light to the inhabitants of this globe, must have a
very superficial knowledge of astronomy, and a mean opinion of the
Divine wisdom: since, by a much less exertion of creating power, God
could have given to our earth considerably more light by one single
additional moon. Since the fixed stars are prodigious globes of light
and heat, like our sun, and at inconceivable distances from one
another, as well as from us, it is reasonable to conclude they are made
for the same purposes that the sun is; each to bestow light, heat, and
produce vegetation, on a certain number of inhabited planets, kept by
gravitation within the sphere of its activity.

Instead then of one sun, and one world only, in the universe, as the
unskilful in astronomy imagine, that science discovers to us such an
inconceivable number of suns, systems, and worlds, dispersed through
boundless space, that if our sun, with all the planets, moons, and
comets belonging to it, were annihilated, they would with difficulty be
missed, by an eye that could take in the whole creation; the space they
possess being comparatively so small that it would scarce be a sensible
blank in the universe, although Herschell, or the Georgium Sidus, the
most remote of our planets, revolves about the sun in an orbit whose
mean distance from the sun is 1,822,575,228 miles, and some of our
comets make excursions to an amazing distance beyond the bounds of that
planet: and yet, they are incomparably nearer to the sun than to any
of the stars; as is evident from their keeping clear of the attractive
power of all the stars, and returning periodically by the virtue of the
sun’s attraction.

“In the immensity of God’s creation,” says a learned author, “we may
readily conceive one system of heavenly bodies, and others beyond them,
and others still in endless progression, through the whole vortex of
space! Every _star_ in the vast abyss of nature being a _sun_, with its
peculiar and numerous attendant worlds. Thus there may be systems of
systems, in endless gradation, up to the throne of God!”

    “Oh, for a telescope HIS THRONE to reach!
    Tell me ye learn’d on earth, or blest above!
    Where your great Master’s orb? His planets where?
                      On nature’s Alps I stand
    And see a thousand firmaments beneath!
    A thousand systems as a thousand grains!
    _Each_ of these STARS is a _religious house_;
    I saw their altars smoke, their incense rise,
    And heard Hosannas ring through _ev’ry sphere_;
    A seminary fraught with future gods!
    Oh, what a root! Oh, what a branch is here!
    Oh, what a Father! What a family!
    Worlds, systems, and creations!---- And creations
    In one agglomerated cluster hung,
    Great _Vine_! on THEE; on THEE the cluster hangs;
    The filial cluster! infinitely spread
    In glowing globes, with various being fraught;
    And drinks (nectareous draught!) immortal life!”

What an august! what an amazing conception, if human imagination can
conceive it, does this give of the works of the Creator! Thousands
of thousands of suns, multiplied without end, and ranged all around
us, at immense distances from each other, attended by ten thousand
times ten thousand worlds, all in rapid motion, yet calm, regular,
and harmonious, invariably keeping the paths prescribed them; and
these worlds peopled with myriads of intelligent creatures, formed
for endless progression in perfection and felicity. If so much power,
wisdom, goodness, and magnificence, is displayed in the material
creation, which is the least considerable part of the universe,
how great, how wise, how good must He be, who made and governs the
whole![138]

The persuasion that rational beings inhabit other worlds, has a
powerful tendency to excite our curiosity.

    “Ye sparkling isles of light that stud the sea
    Of empyrean ether! Ye abodes
    Of unknown myriads, spirits, or in bands
    Held of corporeal frame! Fain would my soul
    A thirst for knowledge unreveal’d to man,
    Question your habitants, and fain would hear
    A voice responsive from your distant bourn.
    Tell, tell me who possess your radiant climes;
    What are their forms, their faculties, their hopes,
    Their fears, if subject or to hope or fear?
    What fond pursuits, what animating toils
    Diversify existence with delight?
    Rove they in course aërial unconfined
    From sphere to sphere, with interchange of joy
    Heightening their mutual bliss; or dwell they fix’d,
    Each in his native solitary orb,
    Unconscious of the lot of neighboring worlds?
    What homage, what returns of grateful love
    Yield they to Him who made them? Stand they fast
    In undecaying blessedness, secure
    From risk of loss: or tread they yet the stage
    Of perilous probation? Hath sin won
    Conquests through disobedience o’er those hosts
    In your bright regions yawn the gates of Death?
    Falls he, who falls, for ever?--Power supreme
    Pardon the aspiring thoughts that would presume
    To pierce the veil which shrowds from mortal eye
    The wonders of thy realms! Enough, to know
    That Thou art Lord! Thy universal love
    Pervades Creation; on each living form
    Showers down its proper happiness; and, when guilt
    Wakes thy reluctant vengeance, stays the bolt
    Of wrath, and pales its mitigated fire!”[139]

       *       *       *       *       *

Stars are the hieroglyphics used to express both rulers and teachers;
therefore they may with great propriety be applied to the pastors of
the church. The Jews, says Dr. Doddridge, are said to have called
their teachers _stars_. They are represented under that emblem in the
Revelation, where St. John, speaking of our Lord, says, “He had in his
right hand seven stars;” and the allegorical explanation is, “The seven
stars which thou sawest in my right hand are the angels (or ministers)
of the seven churches,” namely, in Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos,
Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, Laodicea. By αγγελοι, _angels_, we are
to understand the _messengers_ or persons whom God sent to preside
over these churches. “Angel of the church,” in this place, says a
learned author, answers exactly to that officer of the synagogue
among the Jews, called שליח ציבור _sheliach tsibbor_, the messenger
of the church, whose business it was to _read_, _pray_, and _teach_,
in the synagogue. The ministers of the gospel bear this allegorical
designation.

1. Because, like stars in the firmament, they are placed in a _high
situation_ in the church. Eliphaz says, “Behold the height of the
stars, how high they are!” The sacred office is the highest that men
can occupy, both in point of rank and importance; and therefore the
views, dispositions, and deportment of ministers, should accord with
it. They should not be sordid in their attachments, nor grovelling
in their pursuits. A predilection for lucrative places, and worldly
honors, is inconsistent with the sanctity of their character, and the
design of their profession. As they are in a station above others, so
their minds should have a high elevation, contemplating spiritual and
divine things, with intense application, and holy delight. The glories
of the new Jerusalem, and the felicities of the celestial Paradise,
are subjects which should engross their thoughts, and be exhibited
in their official ministrations. They should look on all debasing
pleasures, fleeting honors, and perishing riches, as things vastly
below the dignity of their character, and contrary to the objects of
their professional engagements. They have higher considerations to
excite their solicitude, and more important affairs to employ their
powers, than to spend their time in things, which neither can afford
them any rational satisfaction, nor are of long duration. St. James
calls their attention to what is of most interest to them, where he
says, that “he who converteth a sinner from the error of his way shall
save a soul from death, and shall hide a multitude of sins.” Success is
the most valuable remuneration, and should actuate ministers both in
their private studies, and their public labors.

2. Because of the _beneficial effects_ of their ministerial labors,
being useful to men, in affording them light, direction, and comfort;
and, consequently, the need the church has of them. Gospel ministers
are as necessary to the moral world, during the present state of
things, as the sun, moon, and stars are in the universe. A church
without such helps, would be like a firmament deprived of globular
lights. Ministers, with the bright rays of heavenly doctrine, dispel
the darkness of ignorance, chase away the clouds of error, scatter
the mists of prejudice, disperse the fogs of vice, from the human
mind. As stars engage the attention, and draw the eyes of persons
toward heaven, presenting in themselves astonishing displays of the
infinite perfections of wisdom, power, and goodness: so it is the work
of ministers to endeavor to excite people to the contemplation of
Divine things--to behold through the medium of the sacred Writings,
the mediatorial character of Christ, the results of his passion, the
prevalence of his intercession, the happiness of his subjects, and the
glories of his kingdom. As the stars serve for guides to seafaring
men, while traversing the untrodden paths of the swelling ocean; so
these symbolical stars are guides to those who embark in the vessel
of the church, directing her course, through the inconstant sea of
this tumultuous and fluctuating world, to the harbor of everlasting
rest. And as an extraordinary star in the east directed the wise men
to Bethlehem, where Christ was born; so it devolves upon ministers, as
stars of the church, to conduct inquiring sinners to Jesus, who is able
and willing to save them from their sins, and bless them with holiness
and eternal life. They may with propriety adopt the language of an old
poet:--

    “Oh that his light and influence
      Would work effectually in me
      Another new Epiphany,
    Exhale and elevate me hence:

    That as my calling doth require,
      Star-like I may to others shine;
      And guide them to that Sun divine,
    Whose day-light never shall expire.”

3. All the light that ministers communicate to mankind, or to
the members of the church, is derived from Christ, the Sun of
Righteousness, as the light of the planets is from the natural sun.
The pastors of the church have neither light nor grace of themselves:
they receive all from the “Father of lights,” in whose light only they
can see light; and it pleased him that in Christ should “all fulness
dwell.” Both ministers and people must be enlightened with emanations
from him, or remain in darkness. St. Paul frankly acknowledges, “By the
grace of God I am what I am.” Without him, the most eminent minister
would be like a dark lamp. Hence they have no reason to be proud of
their qualifications; for they have received all their gifts and
graces from Christ. Their fitness for the ministerial work is not to
be ascribed either to their natural powers, the force of a superior
genius, a liberal education, intense study, or even to goodness and
piety, but to the gratuitous bounty of God only. So likewise, whatever
success in the exercise of those gifts and graces they may have had,
it flowed not from such sources, but from Christ. “I have planted,”
says St. Paul, “and Apollos watered; but God gave the increase.” The
largest planets are inconsiderable in comparison of the sun, which is
the great natural fountain of light and heat. The holy prophets are
nothing when brought into contrast with Jesus Christ. And John the
Baptist, though superior to all his predecessors, conscious of his own
vast inferiority, confessed, “He it is who coming after me is preferred
before me, whose shoe’s latchet I am not worthy to unloose.”--As the
planets shine with no other light than that derived from the sun;
so ministers are to be resplendent only with the radiance of Divine
truth, received from the eternal Fountain of illumination. They are
not to shine with the glimmering light of fallable reason, the sparks
of human wisdom, the glow-worm rays of vain philosophy; not with the
subtlety of Aristotle, the penetration of Cartes, the eloquence of
Cicero, the speculations of Plato, the propositions of Euclid; but
with the correct and comprehensive knowledge of the Scripture, which
is “given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for
reproof, for correction, and for instruction in righteousness; that
the man of God may be perfect, thoroughly furnished unto all good
works.” In a lower sense, it must be acknowledged, that human learning
is of considerable use, affording ministers certain qualifications
for their work. The knowledge of the languages, moral and natural
philosophy, sacred and profane history, mathematical science, the art
of speaking, particularly those branches of logic which teach us to
range our thoughts in a right method, to form propositions distinctly,
and to draw just conclusions from acknowledged premises: I say, the
knowledge of these different branches of literature and science, may
very much assist ministers to discover and defend the truth, and refute
its adversaries with their own weapons. But they must derive all their
peculiar lustre and excellence from the volume of Divine inspiration,
whence, as chosen instruments, they can make people wise to salvation.

4. Ministers are like the stars of heaven, because of the difference
that is among them, in respect of gifts and ability. The stars differ
from one another in situation, magnitude, influence, and glory. “There
is one glory of the sun, another glory of the moon, and another glory
of the stars: for one star differeth from another star in glory.”
The gradation extends from stars of the first to those of the sixth
magnitude. Some are so dazzling, that they appear with a peculiar
splendor among the shining beauties of the night: others are obscure
and nebulous; and there are many which can only be seen with the
help of telescopes. The stars of the moral hemisphere are not all
enlightened, “by the Day-spring from on high,” with the same degree of
intellectual and Divine radiance. They have not all the same gifts, nor
gifts in the same measure. Profound knowledge, excellency of speech,
solidity and firmness of judgment, prudence and dexterity of conduct,
are not usually the portion of one, but distributed among several
ministers. One excels in a talent for preaching, another is eminent
for utterance and power in prayer, and another is distinguished by
wisdom and stability for government. Paul was sublime and cogent in
reasoning; Apollos was copious, eloquent, and mighty in the Scriptures;
John soars high in mysteries, and yet excels in sweetness; Isaiah is
pompous and magnificent in his style; David charms and surprises us at
the same time, with his ecstatic raptures and poetic strains. In the
largest assembly of ministers there are not two alike, far less equal
in all things. Some, like stars of the first magnitude, shine with
great brilliancy: others have rays which are weak and obscure. Some are
prudent, but not eloquent. Some have the gift of preaching, but are not
remarkable for prudence and moderating their passions. Some have the
art of affecting the passions: others have the skill of enlightening
the mind, and informing the judgment. Some, appearing as if formed
in a finer mould, have a talent of politeness and address, in their
intercourse with people of character. Some, like skillful physicians,
know how to deal with afflicted souls, and relieve wounded consciences.
Some are sons of thunder, while others are sons of consolation. Though
every minister should have a competency of each of these gifts, yet
some excel in one, and some in another. Thus “there are diversities of
gifts, but the same Spirit;” and God, in diversifying his gifts, makes
his manifold wisdom appear. The Christians at Corinth not understanding
this, or too emulous for the first-rate talent, without sufficiently
regarding Divine agency, which can render the meanest useful, became
clamorous, and their indecorous conduct is held up to all succeeding
ages, with the censure they deservedly merited. However, to calm their
perturbation, he says, “Therefore let no man glory in men. For all
things are yours; whether Paul, or Apollos, or Cephas; and ye are
Christ’s; and Christ is God’s.”

5. While some stars disappear, others arise that were not previously
observed. “Your fathers, where are they? and the prophets, do they live
forever?” Many, “of whom the world was not worthy,” who were bold to
suffer for the name of Christ, not only the spoiling of their goods,
the loss of liberty, and banishment from their native country, but
even death itself, have rested from their labors and afflictions, and
are now enjoying a glorious reward. The Lord also sometimes raises
up extraordinary lights, for asserting and propagating the truth,
when his church is overwhelmed with the dark clouds of heresy and
superstition. Of this Moses, Joshua, Elijah, and Elisha, as well as
many other prophets, whom the Lord called in an extraordinary manner,
were remarkable instances, in the Old Testament: and, in the New
Testament, John the Baptist, and the apostles of Christ, whose voices
were heard, and whose rays extended to the ends of the earth. When the
Christian church was covered with the dark superstition and idolatry
of antichrist, God raised up some eminent lights, from time to time,
to diffuse the pure doctrines of the Gospel, and lead the people out
of mystic Babylon. Such were John Wickliffe in England, John Huss and
Jerome of Prague in Bohemia; and, a hundred years afterwards, Luther
in Germany, Zuinglius in Switzerland, Calvin in France and Geneva,
and John Knox in Scotland, whom Beza calls the apostle of the Scots.
Then did the Gospel run, and was glorified, like a mighty torrent
carrying before it not only cities and provinces, but whole nations
and kingdoms.[140] Actuated by zeal for religion, says a clergyman of
the Establishment, “Wickliffe, Jerome, and Huss, roused the slumbering
clergy to opposition. The zeal of Luther and his associates alarmed all
Germany, and shook the Papal throne itself. Gilpin alone, in a dark
period, evangelized a large part of the northern counties of England.
Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley, by their steady perseverance unto death,
illuminated the British Isles. The zeal of Whitefield and the two
Wesleys has, even in our day, made England, Scotland, Ireland, and
America, experience very important consequences.” Missionaries actuated
by primitive zeal, and sent out by different societies to preach the
Gospel among Heathen nations, like burning luminaries are chasing away
the darkness of ignorance, gross superstition, and degrading idolatry,
and, on their ruins, establishing the kingdom of Christ, and the reign
of truth, peace, righteousness, and benevolence, in the earth.

6. Ministers, considered as stars placed in the moral firmament, should
shine with purity of doctrine, fervency of zeal, and holiness of life,
both in the summer of prosperity, and in the winter of adversity. 1st.
In the _solemn assemblies_ of God’s people. Jerome says, Our pulpit
should be as Mount Tabor, where we should converse with Moses and the
Prophets, Christ and his Apostles, minding that we have to do with a
holy God, and with the immortal souls of people, which must be shortly
either in heaven or hell. 2d. Amongst _their flocks_, by an innocent,
instructive, and pious conversation, giving them no encouragement, by
their example, to sin; but alluring them to better worlds, and pointing
out the way thither. Their whole life should be a transcript of the
holy life of the blessed Jesus, a living epistle in which the people
may read the way wherein they ought to walk. 3d. In _their families_.
A minister should be “one that ruleth well his own house,” properly
presiding over and governing his own family: “for if a man know not how
to rule his own house, how shall he take care of the church of God?”
Eli’s conduct brought heavy judgments on himself and family, and a
great scandal on the church.


_Theory of the earth._

    [Such intimations and analogies as can be drawn from nature
    may, with propriety, be applied to the explanation of natural
    phenomena, in the absence of direct and satisfactory proof.
    Allowing this assumption, we conclude that the intimations
    and analogies in nature are sufficiently strong and clear to
    authorize a belief, _that all heavenly bodies are similar in
    their great constitutional principles, and designs, and that
    our earth may be taken as a fair and satisfactory sample of
    them all_.

    The only probable departure from this strong analogy in
    the heavenly bodies, seems to be this: the _suns_, or _centres
    of systems_, have a peculiar collection of phosphorescent
    clouds, which are designed to be the great exciting causes, or
    dispensers, of light to the planets which move round them. The
    planets have not these phosphorescent clouds.

    This does not interfere with the _general_ analogies
    between the heavenly bodies; and establishes the _strict
    analogies_ between the planets of all systems; and the suns, or
    centres of all systems.

    From all this we conclude, that a theory of _our earth_
    which is satisfactory, will also be deemed satisfactory in
    regard to the other heavenly bodies. We therefore lay down,
    as authorized by the intimations and analogies of nature, the
    following positions.

    1. _There is a general analogy between the constitutional
    principles and designs of the heavenly bodies; i.e. the suns
    and their planets._

    2. _That the sun, or center of each system, with all
    the planets and satellites revolving about it, were created
    simultaneously, as it regards their substances._

    3. _That they were created at their relative distances from
    the centre which they now preserve._

    4. _That they were stationary when first created, having no
    motion either on their axis, or in their orbits._

    5. _That the materials of each body, when first created,
    were solid, frozen, and lifeless._

    6. _That the materials of each body were created in their
    simple, uncombined, or elementary states._

    7. _That it is most probable these elementary materials
    were promiscuous in the mass, without regard to specific
    gravity, or any other principle or law._

    8. _That the arrangement of the materials of which our
    earth is composed was effected by the operation of the laws
    of nature, as they are called, which were simultaneously
    impressed upon the matter of the Solar System, and is continued
    impressed, by the direct agency of the Divine Being._

    9. _That this reference of the commencement, and
    continuance of the energies of the laws of nature, directly
    to the Almighty, is both philosophical and scriptural; and is
    noted by Moses in these words: “And the spirit of God moved
    upon the face of the waters (or deep.”)_

    Reasoning from these data, let us now see whether the
    phenomena of the structure and arrangement of our planet are
    explicable to a satisfactory degree.

    1. Immediately upon the impress of the laws of nature, by
    the direct effort of the Divine Being, the whole mass would
    commence revolving on its own axis, and moving around its
    centre in its orbit. At the same time a quickening impulse
    would be felt, from the operation of the laws of nature, which
    would impart life and animation to the mass. The first effect
    of this impulse would be to call the _caloric_, light, and
    electricity into action throughout the body. This would raise
    its temperature instantly, and call into action all the other
    powerful agents, as soon as formed: such as the acids, alkalis,
    &c.

    2. There will be no difficulty, to those who know the power
    of these agents, in believing _that the consequence of their
    united action would be an immediate fusion of the whole mass_.
    This would establish a state of _chemical mobility_; i.e. the
    various materials, owing to their fusion, would be at liberty
    to _combine_, according to the laws of chemical affinity; and
    to take their relative positions, according to the laws of
    gravitation.

    3. The result of this process would be binary, and ternary,
    and other combinations. Oxygen would enter into combination
    with the bases of the various acids, and thus form the acids;
    and with the various metals and thus form oxides; and the acids
    and oxides would unite and thus form other compounds, commonly
    called _salts_.

    4. As such combinations as these would commence forming
    first, water and air would be gradually and subsequently
    formed, by the three gasses, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen,
    escaping from the mass and rising to the surface, where the
    oxygen combining with the hydrogen would form water; and with
    the nitrogen would form air.

    5. It is evident that the very small specific gravity of
    the gases would cause them to escape from the interior parts of
    the earth, rapidly, and to accumulate at the surface in immense
    quantities. The consequence of this would be, _an immense
    amount of water would be generated at the earth’s surface; but
    the oxidizable bodies in the interior of the mass would not,
    all of them, be completely saturated with oxygen_.

    6. The condition of the earth, at this stage of the action,
    would be an inconceivably high state of ignition, specially
    in the interior, and a rapid chemical action still going on;
    the combinations still forming, and the bodies thus formed
    arranging themselves. In a very little time the various classes
    of bodies would have obtained, generally, their natural
    relative positions, according to their specific gravities; and
    all the combinable elements, in the same neighborhood, having
    combined, a state of comparative rest would ensue of course.

    7. In the mean time, large quantities of different
    substances would be held in solution by the acids, alkalis, and
    water, whose solvent powers would be very much increased by the
    presence of intense heat.

    8. If we examine the whole mass at this stage of the
    natural process, we will find it is in a condition to
    _crystallize_ whenever it can be _reduced_ to a sufficiently
    low temperature to admit of crystallization. We know that the
    reduction of temperature would commence at the surface, where
    the caloric would be conducted upwards through the waters, and
    would fly off into the celestial spaces. Of course, the first
    crystallized depositions would take place _at the junction of
    the waters with the oxides or earths, in a state of fusion, on
    which the lower stratum of water was resting_.

    9. This first deposition would extend all around the globe,
    as the waters _entirely invested_ the earth, and would lay the
    _foundation of the primitive family of rocks_, which are well
    known to be crystalline in their structure, and the result
    of chemical action. It is, however, evident that there were
    occasional tremendous agitations, and concussions during the
    deposition of the primitive rocks, which altered the state of
    the fluids, and caused successive, and, sometimes, alternating
    strata to deposit.

    10. The period of the deposition of the primitive rocks
    continued until the elevations on the earth’s surface were
    uncovered, became dry, and were subject to the disintegrating,
    and rending powers of the elements: at which time some marine
    animals, and some vegetables, adapted to warm and moist
    climates, were created. The consequence of this state of
    things would be that fragments of rocks, and marine animal and
    vegetable remains would be found in the composition of the
    strata deposited at this period, and subsequently. The family
    of rocks thus deposited is called _transition_ rocks.

    11. This is the proper place to institute an inquiry into
    the origin of these _primitive elevations or mountains_.

    12. It will be very obvious, that a mass of materials
    thrown into chemical action, and raised to a very high
    temperature, as explained above, would naturally, and
    necessarily be upheaved at different points on its surface,
    by the gases, and other bodies escaping from the interior.
    And though the general softness of the mass would cause these
    elevations to sink back again _at first_, upon the escape
    of the gaseous bodies upheaving them; yet, when the surface
    of the earth, which would cool by coming into contact with
    the water, would thus begin to become solid, _the elevations
    would maintain themselves, and consolidate_, and thus lay
    the foundations of the irregularities which, subsequently,
    would rise into mountains, and mountain chains, and sink into
    vallies, by the combined action of the internal heat, and the
    occasional rapid rise and subsidence of the waters, which would
    alter the shape and appearance of the mountains, and deepen the
    vallies.

    13. But it becomes very natural to inquire into the cause
    of the rapid rise, and subsidence of the waters at particular
    times; which will also explain the cause of the distinctions
    so obvious in the nature and ages of the different families of
    rocks.

    14. It will be recollected that the interior parts of
    the earth are in a state of high ignition, and an immense
    quantity of water surrounds the globe, the crust of which
    is consolidating. By the natural pressure of the water, by
    an occasional eruption of gas from the interior, and by
    percolation, &c, the water would have access to the interior
    materials in a heated state. In this case there would be an
    immense production of steam, and decomposition of water, which
    would of course produce an earthquake, until it broke forth in
    a volcano under the waters. In this case an _elevation_ would
    be produced on the surface, and, in all probability, a _cavity_
    in the interior from whence the elevated materials came.

    15. These phenomena would happen in quick succession, and
    very extensively in the first period of the world; and every
    time they happened, they would _reduce_ the quantity of water
    at the surface, by admitting some into the interior cavities;
    and by decomposing much; the oxygen and hydrogen of which would
    enter into other combinations.

    16. This will account for the rise and subsidence of the
    waters, the formation of vallies, and mountains, and the
    alterations in the fluids, so as to deposit the different
    strata in succession.

    17. During this process above, cavities sufficiently
    numerous and capacious, filled with water, would be formed
    in the earth to relieve the surface, in a great measure. But
    it seems pretty evident that the waters thus retired into
    those cavities were occasionally thrown back on the earth,
    by the same means with which earthquakes and volcanos are
    produced; and thus tremendous currents would ensue, which would
    successively bury the vegetable materials in the adjoining
    lakes, out of which the coal basins are formed; and also bury
    those immense forests of trees, with the bones of animals, and
    fishes also, which have been so clearly and satisfactorily
    described by geologists.

    18. Each successive deluge, in proportion to its power and
    extent, would alter the quantity and quality of the materials
    held in solution, and thus cause a corresponding deposition
    subsequently. Hence, as remarked above, the distinction in
    the strata, and the alternations of different substances
    successively.

    19. It may not be amiss here to say, it is very probable,
    that many deluges preceded the formation of man, produced on
    the same principles as the deluge of Noah, though for different
    purposes, according to the wishes of the Divine Being.

    20. To what has been said above, it is only necessary
    to add, that all depositions, or formations of rocks took
    place _at the bottom of the ocean_, or waters which held
    the materials in solution, or suspended; and that this
    ocean maintained its dominion for long periods together, in
    comparative tranquility, and during such times the different
    rock formations were deposited. The marine animals would
    multiply, die, and their exuviæ quietly fall to the bottom: at
    the same time carbonate of lime would be copiously deposited
    from the sea waters, and thus would consolidate into a stratum
    of rock, the thickness of which would bear some proportion to
    the length of the period of its deposition. If this stratum
    _remained in its place_, upon the retiring of the sea, it would
    appear at the surface at first; until it was covered with
    mould, and the ruins of other rocks disintegrated into earth,
    or soil. But if it were _upheaved_ by the force of the internal
    fire, it would become a _limestone mountain_, containing the
    organic remains as they were first quietly deposited. The same
    may be said of primitive mountains, or any other kind.

    21. The _transition_ rocks, the formation of which was
    barely noticed above, (No. 10) were deposited successively
    in strata, indicating their relative ages by the increase of
    rocky fragments, and fossil remains in their composition,
    from the oldest of the family to the newest: and also by the
    gradual change in their structure, which is more crystalline
    in the oldest, and becomes less so in the newest, owing to the
    decrease of chemical action, and the increase of mechanical
    deposition.

    22. From the fossil remains in the different strata of the
    transition rocks, we have good evidence of successive deluges,
    which swept away the animals existing at the time, and buried
    their remains which are now found in a fossil state; and others
    succeeded them. This will account for particular animals being
    peculiar to particular strata of rocks.

    23. During the transition period the chemical action ceased
    almost entirely, and the succeeding family of rocks, i.e. the
    _secondary_, was deposited _mechanically_, their materials
    being merely _suspended_ in the waters. This class, therefore,
    is not crystalline in its structure, and is nearly horizontal
    in position and contains greater quantities of fossil remains,
    both of animals and vegetables. These remains are, also, the
    relics of beings more delicately organized, and approach much
    nearer to the genera and species of animals now existing.

    24. During the deposition of this class of rocks, and also
    of the _tertiary_ class which succeeded it, the sea retired far
    from the up-lands, and well nigh into its permanent beds. The
    up-lands would, by the disintegrating power of the elements, be
    worn away at their surface, and thus afford the matter of soil,
    which would naturally be carried down towards the final retreat
    of the sea, by the waters, and be deposited in the vallies,
    and low countries. The same process would furnish fragments of
    rocks in abundance, and of all kinds, which would be rolled
    down the declivities of the up-lands, and become more or less
    rounded, and thus be found entering into the rocks of the
    secondary and tertiary classes; or in beds of sand and gravel,
    or in the channels of rivers in the form of _pebbles_. If these
    fragments were thrown together in sufficient quantities, and a
    suitable cement deposited among them they would consolidate and
    form _pudding-stone_, or breccia marble; such as the Potomac
    marble, of which the columns in the Capitol at Washington City
    are made.

    25. It is very evident that this process would deposit
    the heavier fragments, and materials nearest the highlands
    whence they originated; and carry the finer and richer matter
    further away towards the sea, and deposit it nearer the mouths
    of the rivers. This is well known to be the case, as in the
    Mississippi. Here the phenomena are doubtless, from the mouth,
    along all its tributaries to their sources.

    26. While these successive depositions were making,
    modified by tremendous eruptions from the force of subterranean
    fire, the same agent of these modifications would produce
    another very striking phenomena. The immense quantity of matter
    thrown from the interior to the surface in a melted state,
    would either shoot up in the form of cones, or columns, and
    by cooling crystallize and consolidate; or would flow in its
    melted state over the surface of the upper rocks, and thus
    cover them. This is the case with a class of rocky substances
    which may be called by the general name of _basalt_. Sometimes
    when the force below was not sufficient to protrude the
    melted matter through the superincumbent rocks, it drove it
    in _between_ the strata, or shot it up _through_ some of the
    strata; frequently upheaving the rocks on one side of the
    protruding body, or depressing them on the other. In this case
    the injected matter constitutes what is called a _fault_,
    _shaft_, or _dike_, by miners.

    27. It is not improbable, nay, it is pretty certain, that
    many of these basaltic ejections took place under the ancient
    chaotic abyss of waters, and have become visible by the
    retiring of the sea.

    28. In this theory we have a satisfactory explanation
    of the formation of _metallic veins_, and the _dispersion_
    of metallic grains in sands, and soil. The metals being in
    a pure state, or nearly so, in the bowels of the earth when
    _projected_ upwards by the force of subterranean power,
    would be _injected_ into the rocks in the direction of the
    operating force. Hence they are found in veins in solid rocks,
    running in all directions, and descending to unknown depths.
    Sometimes the whole of the vein appears to be _insulated_ by
    the rock. In this case, the whole mass was _fused_, at least
    partly, and when the force ceased to act, it would consolidate
    around the injected metal, leaving no trace of its injection.
    Sometimes the metallic vein evidently entered the rock _from
    above_. In this case the metal in a _melted_ state was thrown
    to the surface, and _meeting with a chasm, ran into it and
    consolidated into a vein_. When the metal was raised from
    below in a state of fusion in conjunction with an immense
    mass of rocky matter in a state of fusion, they would appear
    at the surface mixed throughout. When this rocky mass yielded
    to the disintegrating power of the elements, the particles
    of the metal and rock would be carried off together into the
    lower positions, and be found in the form of _dust_, in the
    secondary, or lower countries.

    29. The shape of the earth, in regard to which it is said
    the polar diameter is less than the equatorial, would be the
    same on the above theory, as it has been shown to be, on the
    supposition that the earth was in a soft state by the solvent
    powers of water, as commonly supposed.

    30. It is a matter of peculiar pleasure to the Christian
    philosopher, to observe the strong tendency in the Science of
    Geology, to confirm the account of the creation of the world,
    as given by Moses in the Bible. By a careful comparison of the
    account of Moses with well established geological positions,
    it will be found that _they agree expressly, in the_ ORDER
    _and_ NATURE _of the events_. This is a splendid evidence in
    favor of revelation. There can be no doubt, but, that if the
    phenomena of nature, and the teachings of the Bible were better
    understood, more striking and unexpected agreements would be
    found. Religion and Science will one day be inseparable.


    _Remarks._

    1. It will be necessary for the reader to peruse the above
    theory very attentively, in order to form a correct judgment
    of it, as it is merely an _outline_, very briefly drawn up,
    yet it is hoped, pretty clearly. Whether it be well calculated
    to explain the great leading geological phenomena which we
    observe, the reader will determine for himself. It was not
    drawn up _in view_ of such explanation, but was constructed
    by _induction_ from those well ascertained phenomena. It was
    drawn up _out of view_ of any ultimate object, or system,
    _previously_ embraced, and is even _different_ from the
    writer’s previous opinions, before he had diligently compared
    all the facts within his reach. It is therefore entitled to the
    merit of having been drawn up with a sincere desire to attain
    to truth on this interesting subject, and not to support a
    favorite theory.

    2. Upon examination it will be found to reconcile, in a
    great measure, the _Vulcanian_ and _Neptunian_ theories which
    have so long divided the principal writers on Geology. It
    will be found that both _fire_ and _water_ were concerned in
    producing the great geological phenomena. It cannot be doubted
    but that subterranean force _commenced_ the irregularities on
    our earth’s surface, and continued the action, probably with
    occasional intermissions, in upheaving the mountains, and
    mountain chains: but as this was commenced, and principally
    accomplished, _under_ the ancient sea, there can be no doubt
    but that the water has had a powerful and extensive agency
    in modifying the structure and composition of mountain, and
    moderate elevations. And while we have every reason to believe
    the force of subterranean fire was the principal agent in
    rending, dislocating, and confusing the rock formations of the
    crust of our earth; we have no less reason to acknowledge the
    agency of water in depositing the various strata; contributing
    to the disintegration of the exposed uplands; and carrying down
    the _alluvion_ which form the fertile tracts of vallies, and
    low countries; and the sand bars, and banks at the outlets, of
    rivers, bays, gulfs, &c.

    3. This view will be more clearly explained by examining
    the _shape_ of continents, islands, and countries, which will
    be found to correspond, pretty nearly with the shape of the
    mountain ranges in each. That is: the _length_ of a continent,
    island, or country will be found to be _in the direction of the
    mountain range_; and the _breadth across_ the mountain range.

    4. This would be the shape which would naturally result
    from the transition, secondary, and tertiary formations arising
    principally from the disintegration of the materials of the
    mountain range. This is evident from a single reflection: if a
    _conical_ body stood in the midst of a plain, and was equally
    exposed to a power which wore it away, the portions thus torn
    from the body would roll down the declivity towards the base of
    the cone, and would occupy a circle, generally speaking, of the
    plane at the base equidistant from the body. In the same manner
    the wasting away of the primitive elevations would deposit the
    detritus equidistant from the foot of the range.

    5. It will be obvious, however, that the conformity of
    a country, _in shape_, to the mountain ranges which run
    through it, will be more or less modified by adventitious
    circumstances. If one side of the mountain range was originally
    more precipitous than the other: or if some tremendous
    collection or current of water lashed or swept one side, and
    not the other, the shape of the country would be modified; but
    not so much as to destroy the general conformity in shape. The
    above remarks will be confirmed by an inspection of accurately
    drawn maps.

    6. Finally: Some formations are entirely owing to the
    agency of water; as sand banks, bars, shoals, &c, and some
    entirely owing to the action of fire, as the deposites of lava;
    the upheaving of volcanic mountains, even in the memory of man.
    These are _adventitious_ formations, and do not even _modify_
    a general theory.]

       *       *       *       *       *

Footnotes - Chapter V

    [114] Time’s Telescope for 1815, Introduction.

    [115] Dr. Robert Wittie, in his Survey of the Heavens,
    makes the following observations concerning this miraculous
    interposition of Divine providence. “We read that Joshua, in
    his zeal against the enemies of God and his people, in the heat
    of battle, called to the sun and moon to stand still, &c. The
    design was that the light might be lengthened, till he might
    destroy the army of the Amorites, and the day was accordingly
    prolonged, as the sun went not down for the whole day, and the
    moon also staid.--But why should Joshua call to the moon to
    stand still, as well as the sun, which I could be of no use
    to him, while the sun was up? To this I answer with all due
    modesty; I do believe Joshua did call thus by inspiration, and
    a special impulse from God upon his spirit: for that which
    would make the sun stand still, would stay the moon. He that
    from the hasty zealous call of this great general, shall think
    to form an argument to prove the philosophical notion of the
    sun’s diurnal motion about the earth, by taking the words in
    a proper literal sense, may as well go on, and eke it out a
    little further, and then he may prove the sun to have been in
    the next great town, Gibeon, and the moon in the valley; but if
    to all men this latter shall be judged a weak inference, I dare
    say, to many wise men, so will the former.” P. 12, 13.

    [116] Aristotle de Cœl. lib. ii, cap. 13.

    [117] Macrob. Sat. lib. i, cap. 21.

    [118] Macrob. in Somn. Scip. lib. i, cap. 20.

    [119] That is, in adoration; from _ad ore_, to the mouth,
    i.e. _hand_ to the mouth.

    [120] Baseley’s Glory of the Heavens, pp. 73-76.

    [121] The new moon is often styled a _crescent_; a word
    formed from the Latin _crescere_, to _grow_; and though it is
    used from the same figure of the moon in her wane or decrease,
    when her horns are turned towards the west, yet these horns
    always point to the east in the just crescent.

    [122] M. Schroëter, of the Royal Society of Gottingen,
    has recently published a very curious and elaborate work
    in German, entitled, Selenotographische Fragmente, &c, or
    Selenotopographical Fragments, intended to promote a more
    accurate knowledge of the moon’s surface: a valuable extract
    from which may be seen in the Pantologia, article _Moon_.

    [123] See Mr. Howard’s valuable paper on the Philosophical
    Transactions for 1802, Dr. Hutton’s Dissertation in the New
    Abridgment, part xxi, and Dr. Adam Clarke on Josh. x, 11.

    [124] The principal eclipse of the sun, for the present
    century, has been already calculated, and it is fully
    determined that it will take place in the year 1847. It will
    be annular in this country, and several other places. Time’s
    Telescope for 1815.

    The Athenians, according to Plutarch, entertained very
    terrific ideas of eclipses of the moon. Nicias and his army,
    when they were on the point of withdrawing secretly from
    Sicily, without being observed or suspected by the enemy,
    refused to embark, because the moon became suddenly eclipsed;
    this ignorant and superstitious conduct proved fatal, for they
    were all, shortly after, either slain or taken prisoners.

    [125] A valuable correspondent writing from Matura, in
    Ceylon, May 7, 1817, says, “A festival was lately celebrated
    here, principally on the river. A large boat was rigged for the
    purpose, somewhat after the manner of a ship, which carried a
    number of dancers and other persons in disguise, accompanied
    with the music of pipes and drums. I particularly inquired into
    the meaning of the ceremonies; and, as far as I could learn, it
    was a celebration of the birth of the sun and moon. The world
    is believed to have been once inhabited by holy brahmins, whose
    bodies were transparent, and afforded sufficient light. When
    these fell into sin, they lost their splendor, and other lights
    became necessary.”

    The African negroes, in the West Indies, on seeing the new
    moon, take out of their pocket a piece of whatever money they
    have, and, holding it up in their hand, say, “God bless the new
    moon, this is all I can give you; take this, and give me good
    luck:” and then throw it up toward it. After this action, they
    believe that prosperity will attend them during the time that
    moon continues. On embracing the Christian religion, they lay
    aside this heathenish practice.

    [126] On the dial of the cathedral at Bruges, the sun is
    represented directing the hours, with this motto, _Non rego,
    nisi regar_: signifying, that the sun could not rule the
    day, if it was not first ruled itself. Had the Pagan world
    known this truth, the greatest part of it had not fallen into
    idolatry.

    [127] Literary Panorama, for January, 1814, pp. 954, 955.

    [128] “At what time the earth began to be considered,
    or rather suspected, to be spherical,” says Costard, “is
    uncertain, but probably not before the undertaking long
    voyages; the first of which, it may be, were down the Arabian
    Gulf, and out of the Straits of _Bab-Al-mandub_, by Europeans
    corruptly called _Babelmandel_. What opinion was commonly
    entertained of those who undertook those long voyages, may be
    learned, in some measure, from this word. For _Mandub_ is one
    that is lamented at his funeral; therefore _Bab-al-mandub_ is
    the _gate_, or _strait_, of one lamented at his funeral; as if
    a person sailing beyond that point, was considered as going to
    certain death, or never to return.”

    [129] See Verstigan’s “Restitution of Decayed
    Intelligence,” Edit. 1673, pp. 64-68; and Time’s Telescope.

    [130] On June 14, 1815, was published the following
    astronomical notice. The Georgium Sidus is now visible to
    the naked eye any clear night. It souths now a little before
    midnight, is paler and less vivid than the fixed stars near it
    in Scorpio; it will remain in company with Arcturus for two or
    three years, passing north of it about the middle of the year
    1816, and veering to the east, or left hand, at the rate of 4°
    18ʹ annually, being near seven years in passing one sign, and
    near 84 in making an entire revolution.

    Dr. Herschell assumes, that the eclipses of the satellites
    of the Georgium Sidus will, in the year 1818, be visible to
    those who possess telescopes of high magnifying powers, when
    they will appear to ascend through the shadow of the planet in
    the direction almost perpendicular to the ecliptic.

    [131] In the year 1712, Mr. Whiston having calculated
    the return of a comet, which was to make its appearance on
    Wednesday, the 14th of October, at five minutes after five in
    the morning; he gave notice to the public accordingly, with
    this terrifying addition, that _a total dissolution of the
    world by fire was to take place on the Friday following_. The
    reputation Mr. Whiston had long maintained, both as a divine
    and a philosopher, left little or no doubt with the populace
    of the truth of his prediction. Several ludicrous events
    took place in consequence. A number of persons in and about
    London seized all the barges and boats they could lay their
    hands on in the Thames, very rationally concluding, that when
    the conflagration took place, there would be the most safety
    on the water. A gentleman who had neglected _family prayer_
    for longer than five years, informed his wife that it was
    his determination to resume that laudable practice the same
    evening; but his wife having engaged _a ball at her house_,
    persuaded her husband to put it off till they saw whether the
    comet appeared or not. The South-sea stock immediately fell to
    _five per cent._, and India stock to _eleven_. The captain of a
    Dutch ship threw all his powder into the river, that the ship
    might not be endangered.

    The next morning the comet appeared according to the
    prediction, and before noon the belief was universal, that
    _the day of judgment was at hand_. About this time of the
    day 123 clergymen were ferried over to Lambeth, it was said,
    to petition that a short prayer might be penned and ordered,
    there being none in the church service on that occasion.
    Three maids of honor burnt their collections of novels and
    plays, and sent to a bookseller’s to buy each of them a Bible,
    and Bishop Taylor’s Holy Living and Dying. The run upon the
    Bank was so prodigious, that all hands were employed from
    morning till night in discounting notes, and handing out
    specie. On Thursday, considerably more than _seven thousand
    kept mistresses were legally married_! in the face of several
    congregations. And to crown the whole, Sir Gilbert Heathcote,
    at that time head director of the Bank, issued orders to all
    the fire-offices in London, requiring them “to keep a good look
    out, and have a particular eye upon the Bank of England.”

    The comet which might have put the earth in most hazard,
    was that of 1680. By Halley’s calculation it passed, November
    11, within 60 semi-diameters of the earth’s orbit: and if, at
    that time, the earth had been in that part of her orbit, there
    is no conjecturing at the consequences.--Literary Panorama, for
    December, 1811.--Probably the above was only a hoax upon Mr.
    Whiston on account of the singularity of his opinion concerning
    comets.

    [132] Dr. Keill’s Astronomy, 5th Edit. pp. 189, 190.

    [133] Dr. O. Gregory’s Treatise on Astronomy, p. 413.

    [134] The celebrated Buffon supposed, that our earth was
    originally formed by a comet’s sweeping off and receiving in
    his train a portion of the exterior part of the sun; which,
    after having been sufficiently cooled, in the lapse of time,
    perhaps hundreds of thousands of years, had gradually assumed
    its present form! When we reflect that this eminent French
    naturalist was an infidel and a libertine, his many strange
    theories confirm the remark of the Poet,

        “An undevout astronomer is mad.”

    When a person through the pride of intellect, will not
    submit his fallible understanding to the sure light of Divine
    revelation, he is liable to embrace the greatest absurdities,
    which a sober and well-regulated mind would prevent.

    [135] Guardian, No. 103.

    [136] The distances of the fixed stars have never been
    absolutely determined, and what is here stated is not given
    as the true distance of Sirius; but from what has been
    ascertained, the distance cannot be less than as above. Dr.
    Bradley, after another method of calculation, makes it to
    be more than ten times greater, or twenty-five millions of
    millions, and 650 thousand of millions.

    [137] In 1627, Schiller published a work, entitled Cœlum
    Stellatum Christianum, containing the ancient catalogue,
    with new constellations. In this work he rejected the
    old designations, and substituted new figures for the
    constellations, and names taken from the sacred Scriptures;
    thus Aries he changed into St. Peter; Taurus, into St. Andrew;
    Andromeda, into the holy sepulchre; Lyra, into the manger
    of Christ; Hercules, into the wise men of the east; Canis
    Major, into David; and so on. This he is said to have done in
    imitation of the venerable Bede, who, instead of the profane
    names and figures adopted by pagans, substituted the names of
    the twelve apostles for those of the twelve constellations
    in the zodiac: but these innovations were disregarded by
    astronomers. Weigelius, professor of mathematics at Jena,
    attempted to make an innovation of another kind; he wished to
    change the starry heavens into a kind of Cœlum Heraldicum, by
    introducing the arms of all the princes and states of Europe,
    by way of constellations; but his project experienced the same
    fate as those of Bede and Schiller.

    [138] See Ferguson’s Astronomy.

    [139] Gisborne’s _Walks in a Forest_, sixth edit. pp. 44,
    45, 46.

    [140] The author thankfully acknowledges his obligations
    for many of the above thoughts to an old sermon preached “at
    the opening of the Synod of Lothian and Tweeddale;” but cannot
    say of what date, or by whom delivered, as his copy of it is
    without title-page.


       *       *       *       *       *




CHAPTER VI.

FIFTH DAY.

_Section_ I.--FISHES.

    Of Fishes in general -- The Cetaceous kind -- Cartilaginous
    -- Spinous -- Crustaceous -- and Testaceous. -- Animalcules. --
    Religious Improvement.

On the _fifth day_ were created fishes, and the fowls of heaven,
whatsoever flies in the expansion above us, or swims in the watery
element: these were produced from the waters. “God said, Let the waters
bring forth abundantly the moving creature that hath life, and fowl
that may fly above the earth in the open firmament of heaven. And God
created great whales, and every living creature that moveth, which the
waters brought forth abundantly, after their kind, and every winged
fowl after his kind: and God saw that it was good. And God blessed
them, saying, Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the waters in the
seas, and let the fowl multiply in the earth.”

    “See through this air, this ocean, and this earth,
    All matter quick, and bursting into birth;
    Above how high progressive life may go,
    Around how wide, how deep extend below!
    Vast chain of being, which from God began,
    Nature’s ethereal, human, angel, man,
    Beast, _bird_, _fish_, _insect_, what no eye can see,
    No glass can reach; from infinite to THEE,
    from THEE to _nothing_!”

It is generally granted that life is the highest perfection of
corporeal beings, the most inestimable jewel of the creation. Life,
though but in an insect, is more glorious than the sun. Solomon, making
a comparison between living and lifeless things, prefers the meanest
of living creatures before the best and noblest of dead things, “A
living dog is better than a dead lion.” How much soever we may be
astonished at the stupendous mass of inactive matter, yet the least
animated particle is still an object of greater admiration. God, in
creating the first individual of each species of living creatures, not
only gave a form to matter, but also a principle of life; inclosing in
each a greater or less quantity of organical particles, indestructible
and common to all organized beings. These pass from body to body,
perpetuating this life, and ministering to the nutrition and growth
of each. Thus every production, or increase by generation, is a
continuance of this life, of which every succession of creatures is
always full. The total quantity of life remains the same; for whatever
death seems to destroy, it does not affect that primitive life, which
is diffused through all organized beings.

However much the nature of life may perplex the most able, acute, and
diligent inquirers into the subject, or exceed the utmost reach of
human comprehension; yet we see that it enables creatures to act, as
it were, of themselves, and to seek and obtain such enjoyments as give
them a sensible pleasure. The creatures on which this amazing property
has been conferred, have also an inclination and ability to communicate
it to their own species, which will succeed one another till time
shall be no more! If we exercise our understanding on this remarkable
instance of creating energy, it will tend to excite in us the most
august thoughts of that almighty Being, who is the boundless source of
existence, vitality, and motion to all his creatures!

In the work of creation, observes a learned author, after the formation
of light, air, water, and earth, the originals of all material objects,
God proceeded from creatures less excellent to those of a superior
order. Such was his progress in the work of creation. Fish and fowl
were both formed out of the water. Hence there is a nearer alliance
and greater resemblance between the form and motions of creatures that
swim and those that fly, than between such as creep and those that walk
on the earth; and their bodies being intended to be lighter, and their
motion swifter, the wise Creator saw fit to form them from a light and
fluid element.

The number of the different species of fish to which names are
given, and with whose figure at least we are a little acquainted,
is, according to Linnæus, above four hundred. The majority of these
are confined to the sea, and would expire in the fresh water, though
there are a few which annually swim up the rivers, to deposit their
spawn. Among the various sizes, some have monstrous shapes, and amazing
qualities. Fishes are usually classed into three general divisions: the
_cetaceous_, or those of the whale kind; the _cartilaginous_, or those
which have gristles instead of bones; and the _spinous_, or bony kind,
called so from their bones resembling the sharpness of thorns.

In the cetaceous species are included all the various kinds of Whales,
the Norwhal, or Sea-Unicorn, the Dolphin, the Grampus, and the
Porpoise. Though “God created great whales,”[141] the words of Moses,
according to the original, התנינם הגדלים _ha-tan-neenin ha-gedoleen_,
says Dr. A. Clarke, must be understood rather as a general than a
particular term, comprising all the great aquatic animals, such as
these now mentioned. All these resemble quadrupeds in their internal
structure, and in some of their appetites and affections. Like
quadrupeds, they have lungs, a midriff, a stomach, intestines, liver,
spleen, bladder, and parts of generation; their heart also resembles
that of quadrupeds, with its partitions closed up as in them, and
driving red and warm blood in circulation through the body; and to keep
these parts warm, the whole kind are also covered between the skin
and the muscles with a thicker coat of fat or blubber. The _aorta_,
or principal artery, in that stupendous animal the _whale_, measures
about a foot in diameter; and it is computed that the quantity of blood
thrown into it, at every pulsation of the heart, is not less than from
_ten to fifteen gallons_.

    “Nature’s strange work, vast Whales of differing form,
    Toss up the troubled floods and are themselves a storm;
    Uncouth the sight, when they, in dreadful play
    Discharge their nostrils, and refund a sea;
    Or angry lash the foam with hideous sound,
    And scatter all the watery dust around.
    Fearless the fierce destructive monsters roll,
    Ingulph the fish, and drive the flying shoal.
    In deepest seas these living isles appear,
    And deepest seas can scarce their pressure bear:
    Their bulk would more than fill the shelvy strait,
    And fathom’d depths would yield beneath their weight.”

These animals possessing finer organs and higher sensations than
others, show an eminent superiority. They have all the tenderness of
birds or quadrupeds for their young, nurse them with constant care, and
protect them from every injury. The female never produces more than
one young, or two at the most; and this she suckles entirely in the
manner of quadrupeds, her breasts being placed, as in the human kind,
above the navel. The ends of these she protrudes at pleasure, to afford
nutriment to her offspring. Perhaps the prophet Jeremiah has an eye to
this when he says, “The sea-monsters draw out the breast, they give
suck to their young ones.” Those of the cartilaginous kind, though not
capable of nursing their young, yet bring them alive into the world,
and defend them with courage and activity; while the spinous kind, a
fierce, unmindful tribe, deposit their spawn, and leave the success to
accident, without affording any protection.

As this first class of sea animals breathe the air, it is obvious they
cannot bear to be a long time at once under water. They necessarily,
every two or three minutes, emerge to the surface to take breath, as
well as to spout out through their nostril (for they have but one),
that water which they sucked in while gaping for their prey.

    “Hugest of living creatures, on the deep,
    Stretched like a promontory, sleeps or swims,
    And seems a moving land, and at his gills
    Draws in, and at his trunk spouts out, a sea.”

Their tails therefore are different from those of all other fish: they
are placed so as to lie flat upon the surface of the water; while
the other kinds have their tails, as we frequently see, upright or
edge-ways. This position of the tail enables them to force themselves
suddenly to the surface of the water, at pleasure. How well is it that
animals of this enormous size do not approach our shores, for their
presence would fright the other valuable fish from our coasts: they
are therefore kept in the abysses of the ocean: just as wild beasts,
impelled by the same over-ruling Power, which hide themselves in the
recesses of the forest.[142]

The cartilaginous tribe, which have gristles instead of bones, unite
the principal of both the other classes in their conformation: like the
cetaceous, they have organs of hearing, and lungs: like the spinous,
they have gills, and a heart without a partition. From the structure
of their gills, these animals are enabled to live a longer time out
of water than other fishes. The cartilaginous Shark, or Ray, lives
some hours after it is taken; while the spinous Herring, or Mackarel,
expires a few minutes after it is brought on shore. Some of this
class bring forth their young alive; and others produce them by eggs,
which are afterwards brought to maturity. Most fishes having cold
blood, have not heat sufficient to produce the fœtus. The all-wise
Creator therefore has ordained, that many of them shall propagate their
species by eggs, and this they do near the shore; where, by means of
the solar rays, the water is warmer, and fitter for that purpose; and
also because water-insects abound more there, which afford the young
fry nourishment. To the fish of the ocean, which cannot reach the
shores by reason of the distance, the Creator has given eggs that swim,
and these are hatched amidst the floating fucus, called _sargazo_.
In all, however, the manner of gestation is nearly the same: for,
on dissection, it is ever found, that the young, while in the body,
continue in the egg till a very little time before they are brought
forth; and as soon as they leave the shell, they also begin to quit
the womb. It is confidently asserted, that the young of the several
species of the Shark, when pursued, will take refuge in the belly of
its mother, by swimming in at her mouth. Of the same class of fishes
are the Ray, the Torpedo,[143] the Lamprey, the Sturgeon, the Diodon,
the Angler, the Lump-Sucker, the Pipe Fish, the Hippocampus, or Sea
Horse, the Sea Porcupine, and the Galley Fish.

Of the spinous, or bony kind of fishes, these are obviously
distinguished from the rest, by having a complete bony covering to
their gills; by their being furnished with no other method of breathing
than through the gills only; by their bones which are sharp and thorny;
and by their tails, which are placed in a situation perpendicular to
the body. The history of any one of this order very much resembles
that of all the rest. They propagate not by bringing forth their young
alive, as do the cetaceous tribes, nor by distinct eggs, as do the
generality of the cartilaginous tribes, but by spawn, or pease, as they
are generally called, which they produce by hundreds of thousands. The
bones of this order of fishes, when examined slightly, appear to be
entirely solid; yet, when viewed more closely, every bone is seen to be
hollow, and filled with a substance less rancid and oily than marrow.
These bones are very numerous, and pointed; and, as in quadrupeds,
are the props or stays to which the muscles are fixed, which move the
different parts of the body. The number of bones in all spinous fishes
of the same kind is always the same. As this species partake less of
the quadruped in their formation than any other, so they can bear to
live out of their own element a shorter time. Some, indeed, are more
vivacious in air than others: the eel will live several hours out of
water; and the carp has been known to be fattened in a damp cellar. The
method is, by placing the fish in a net well wrapped up in wet moss,
the mouth only out, and hung up in a vault; then fed with white bread
and milk, and the net sometimes plunged into the water.

The spinous class of fishes is more prolific than any other animal.
Although their usual way of propagation is by spawn, yet there are
some, such as the eel and the blenney, which produce their young
alive. Their power of increasing is such, that if they were suffered
to multiply unmolested, and remain undiminished for only a few years,
the progeny of an individual would far exceed all human calculation.
It is asserted, that a single herring, in the space of twenty years,
would yield an offspring greater in bulk than ten such globes as this
we inhabit. A female herring deposits at least 10,000 eggs, in the sea
near to Great Britain![144] A tench lays 1,000 eggs. There have been
200,000 ova or eggs found in a carp; and in one of eighteen inches,
342,144: in a perch, weighing one pound two ounces, 69,216; and in
a sturgeon of one hundred and sixty pounds, there was the enormous
number of 1,467,500. Leewenhoeck counted in a middling-sized cod, _nine
million_ 384,000.

This multiplication of fishes is very astonishing; but the fact is,
as they are obliged to devour one another for necessary subsistence,
the whole natives of the deep without these extraordinary supplies,
would soon be totally extinct. Were they to bring forth no more
at a birth than land animals, the increase would be far too small
for the consumption. The weaker species would soon be destroyed by
the stronger, and the latter would soon after perish. Therefore to
supply millions of animals with food, and yet not depopulate the
watery realms, the issue produced by some of their species is almost
incredible. The spawn is not by scores, but by millions: and by this
amazing expedient, constant reparation is made proportionable to the
immense havoc.

As the different species of fishes are designed to occupy the waters,
and range to and fro in that element, so they are wonderfully formed
for that purpose. The chief instruments of the motion of a fish are
the fins, which in some fishes are more numerous than in others. The
fish in a state of repose, spreads all its fins, and seems to rest on
its pectoral and ventral fins near the bottom: on folding the right
pectoral fin, its body inclines to the right side; and on folding the
left fin, it inclines to that side.--When the fish desires to have
a retrograde motion, striking with the pectoral fins, in a contrary
direction, effectually produces it. When the fish desires to turn, a
blow from the tail sends it round; but if the tail strike both ways,
then the motion is progressive. If the dorsal and ventral fins be cut
off, the fish reels both to the right and left, and endeavors to supply
its loss by keeping the rest of the fins in constant action. If the
right pectoral fin be cut off, the fish leans to that side; if the
ventral fin on the same side be cut off, then it loses its equilibrium
entirely. When the tail is cut off, the fish loses all motion, and is
carried wherever the water impels it.

In addition to the fins, an aquatic animal is furnished with an air
bladder, a philosophical apparatus in its body; this sustains and
enables it, at will to raise itself to the surface of the water, or,
otherwise, to descend. When any accident has burst this air bladder,
or it has been punctured by way of experiment, the fish remains at the
bottom of the vessel or river, totally unable to ascend. Flounders,
Soles and Skates, which are without this appendage, seldom rise in
the water, and when they do, require a great effort. The simple
action of the fins is not sufficient to raise the fish, its specific
gravity being greater than the fluid in which it is immersed. The
bag containing the air is supposed to be muscular, and when the air
is compressed into a smaller compass by the action of this muscular
power, the bulk of the fish is contracted with it; whereby, since the
absolute weight remains the same, the specific gravity, which is the
sinking force, is increased, and the fish sinks; when, on the contrary,
this compression is removed, the air bladder expands, the fish is
specifically lighter, and it ascends.

In fish, we find the arrangement of the teeth nicely adapted to the
habits of the different species. For instance, in the Pike, the teeth
are placed with their points projecting backwards towards the throat,
by which an easy ingress is afforded, but which at the same time
prevents all egress, and retains most effectually the prey when seized.
The alarm excited among smaller fishes at the approach of the Pike, is
thus poetically expressed:

    “_Beware_, ye harmless tribes, the _tyrant comes_,
    Exclaims the silver mantled naiad of the pond;
    _Beware_, ye flirting _gudgeons_, _barbles_ fair,
    And ye, quick-swimming _minnows_, gliding _eels_,
    And all who breathe the lucid crystal of the lake,
    Or lively sport between the dashing wheels
    Of river mills, _beware_; the _tyrant comes_!
    Grim death awaits you in his gaping jaws,
    And lurks behind his hungry fangs--_beware_!”

The Sword-Fish is distinguished by the upper jaw, which runs out in the
figure of a strong and sharp sword, sometimes to the length of three
feet, with which he scruples not to engage the whale himself.[145] The
Sun-Fish is one round mass of flesh; only it has two fins, which act
the part of oars.

The great Creator has beautified the innumerable myriads that swim
in the vast ocean, giving the greatest proportion to their shapes,
the gayest colors to their skins, and a polished surface to their
scales. The eyes of some are surrounded with a scarlet circle; while
the backs of others are diversified with crimson stains. View them
when they glance along the stream, or when they are fresh from their
native brine; the silver is not more bright, nor the rainbow more
glowing than their vivid, glossy hues! But we are lost in wonder at the
exquisite contrivance and delicate formation of their gills: by which
they are accommodated, even in that dense medium, with the benefits of
respiration! A piece of mechanism this, possessed by the meanest of
the watery tribe; yet infinitely surpassing, in the fineness of the
structure of its operation, whatever is curious in the works of art,
or commodious in the palaces of princes.

As the spinous order of fishes is extremely numerous, various modes of
classing them have been followed by different naturalists. The simplest
is that of Linnæus, who ranks them in four divisions, according to
the positions of the fins. The 1st division is what that celebrated
naturalist terms _Apodal_; and includes the most imperfect of the
order, namely, those which want the ventral or belly fins, and it
consists of the following genera:--The Eel, the Wolf-Fish, the Launce,
or Sand-Eel, and The Sword Fish.--The 2d division consists of the
_Jugular_ fishes, or those which have ventral fins before the pectoral,
or nearer to the gills; and includes the Dragonet, the Weever, the
Cod, and the Blenny. The 3d division is called the _Thoracic_, or
those fishes which have the belly fins immediately under the pectoral;
and includes the Goby, or Roch-Fish, the Bull-head, the Doree, the
Flounder, the Wrasse, the Perch, the Stickleback, the Mackerel,
the Surmulet, and the Gurnard. The 4th division consists of the
_Abdominal_, or those which have the ventral fins behind the pectoral,
nearer the tail, and includes the Loach, the Salmon, the Pike, the
Argentine, the Atherine, the Mullet, the Flying-Fish, the Herring, the
Carp, &c. To the fishes, included in these four divisions, must be
added, all the several species belonging to each, some of which are
numerous.

There are two classes of animals inhabiting the water, which commonly
receive the name of fishes, entirely different from the preceding ones,
and also very distinct from each other. They are divided by naturalists
into crustaceous and testaceous: both of which, being totally unlike
fishes in appearance, seem to invert the order of nature. As those of
the cetaceous, cartilaginous, and spinous orders, have their bones on
the inside, and their muscles externally placed for the purpose of
life and motion; so these, on the contrary, have all their bony parts
on the outside, and their muscles within. For instance, persons who
have seen a Lobster, or an Oyster, perceive that their shells bear a
strong analogy to the bones of other aquatic animals; and that by these
coverings they are sustained and defended.

Crustaceous fishes, such as the Crab and Lobster, have shells
resembling a firm crust, and in some measure capable of yielding to
pressure or strength. Testaceous fishes, such as the Oyster or Cockle,
are furnished with shells of considerable hardness, very brittle,
and susceptible of yielding to compressure like the others. Of the
crustaceous kinds, are the Lobster, the Crab, and the Turtle:[146]
and the testaceous, includes the numerous tribes of Oysters, Muscles,
Cockles, and Sea Snails. Some of these are extremely prolific. Under
the tail of a Lobster, Dr. Baster says, he counted 12,444 eggs, besides
those that remained in the body unprotruded. The female Turtle lays
about eighty or ninety eggs at a time, each the size of a pigeon’s egg,
in a hole prepared with her fore feet in the sand, a little above the
high-water mark, which she covers so dexterously, that it is no easy
task to find the place; and then returns to the sea, leaving them to
be hatched by the solar rays. At the end of fifteen days, she deposits
about the same number of eggs again: and in fifteen days more, repeats
the same; three times in all, using the same precautions every time for
their safety.

Among shell-fish, how various is their figures? The shells of some seem
to be the rude production of chance, rather than of skill or design.
Yet, even in these, we find the nicest dispositions. Though uncouth,
they are exactly suited to the exigencies of their respective tenants.
Some, on the other hand, are extremely neat; their structure is all
symmetry and elegance; no enamel is comparable to their polish. Not
a room in all the palaces of Europe is so adorned as the tenement of
the little fish that dwells in Mother of Pearl. Where else is such a
mixture of red, blue, and green, so delightfully staining the most
clear and glittering ground? But what is more admirable than all
their beauty, is the provision made for their safety. As they have
no speed to escape, so they have no dexterity to elude their foe: so
that, were they naked, they must be an easy prey to every free-booter.
To prevent this, what is only clothing to other animals, is to them
clothing, habitation, and castle. They have a fortification which grows
with them, and is part of themselves. And by means of this, they live
secure amidst millions of ravenous jaws. The dark inky fluid, which the
Cuttle-Fish emits when alarmed, not only tinges the water, but, at the
same time, is so bitter, as immediately to drive off its enemies.

    “Th’ endangered _cuttle_ thus evades his fears,
    And native hoards of fluid safely bears.
    A pitchy ink peculiar glands supply,
    Whose shades the sharpest beams of light defy.
    Pursued he bids the sable fountain flow,
    And, wrapt in clouds, eludes th’ impending foe.
    The fish retreats unseen, while self-born night,
    With pious shade, befriends her parent’s flight.”

The Nautilus, when he means to sail, discharges a quantity of water
from his shell, by which it is rendered lighter than the surrounding
medium, and, of course, rises to the surface. The shell forms a kind of
boat, and he extends two of his arms upward, which are each furnished
at their extremity with an oval membrane, that he unfurls to the wind
for a sail. The other six arms hang over the sides of the shell, and
supply the place of either oars or rudder, with which he rows himself
along. When disposed to dive, he strikes sail, and at once sinks to
the bottom. When the weather is calm, he ascends again, and performs
his voyage without chart or compass.

    “Two feet they upwards raise, and steady keep;
    These are the masts and rigging of the ship.
    A membrane stretched between supplies the sail,
    Bends from the masts, and swells before the gale.
    The other feet hang paddling on each side,
    And serve for oars to row, and helm to guide.
    ’Tis thus they sail, pleased with the wanton game,
    The fish, the sailor, and the ship the same.
    But, when the swimmers dread some danger near,
    The sportive pleasure yields to stronger fear:
    No more they wanton drive before the blasts,
    But strike the sails, and bring down all the masts.
    The rolling waves their sinking shells o’erflow,
    And dash them down again to sands below.”

Thus, we see, according to the beneficent purpose and blessing of God,
the “waters bring forth abundantly.” The finny tribes are numerous
beyond all calculation; they crowd to our shores in vast abundance,
from which our markets are regularly and plentifully supplied. And, as
one judiciously observes, what a merciful provision is this for the
necessities of man! Many hundreds of thousands of mankind live, during
a great part of the year, on fish only. Fishes, which are liable to few
diseases, afford not only a wholesome, but a very nutritive diet; and
generally come in vast quantities to our shores, when in their greatest
perfection. In this also we may perceive that the kind providence of
God goes hand in hand with his creating energy; for, while manifesting
his wisdom and power, he is making a permanent provision for the
sustenance of man through all his generations. The Mackerel, the
Herring, and various other kinds, when lean, wander up and down the
ocean: but when fat they throng our creeks and bays, or haunt the
running streams. Who bids these creatures leave our shores when they
become unfit for our service? Who rallies and recalls the undisciplined
vagrants, as soon as they are improved into desirable food? Surely
the furlough is signed, the summons issued, and the point of re-union
settled, by a Providence ever indulgent to mankind, and loading us with
benefits.

By the invention and assistance of magnifying glasses, the two extremes
of the creation, as Mr. Baker intimates, which were out of the reach of
former ages, have been brought under our observation: the telescope is
directed to the heavenly bodies, and the microscope to unknown species
of animals, &c. The first appearance of the microscope was about the
year 1621; since which period it has been very much improved. It is to
this valuable optical instrument that we are indebted for a great part
of our present philosophy: we are brought into a kind of new world.

Numberless animals are discovered, which, from their minuteness, must
otherwise for ever have escaped our observation. How many kinds of
these invisibles there may be, says Mr. Adams, is still unknown; as
they are discerned of all sizes, from those which are barely invisible
to the naked eye, to such as resist the action of the microscope, as
the fixed stars do that of the telescope, and with the greatest powers
hitherto invented appear only as so many moving points.

The smallest living creatures our instruments can show, are those which
inhabit the waters; for though animalcules, equally minute, may fly in
the air, or creep upon the earth, it is scarcely possible to get a view
of them; but as water is transparent, and confines the creatures in it,
we are able, by applying a drop of it to our glasses, to discover, to
a certain degree of smallness, all that it contains.

                                “Where the pool
    Stands mantled o’er with green, invisible,
    Amid the floating verdure millions stray.
    Each liquid, too, whether it pierces, soothes,
    Inflames, refreshes, or exalts the taste,
    With various forms abounds. Nor is the stream
    Of purest crystal, nor the livid air,
    Though one transparent vacancy it seem,
    Void of their unseen people. These, concealed
    By the kind art of forming Heaven, escape
    The grosser eye of man: for, if the worlds
    In worlds inclosed should on his senses burst,
    From cates ambrosial and the nectared bowl,
    He would abhorrent turn; and in dead night,
    When silence sleeps o’er all, be stunned with noise.”

Leewenhoeck calculates, that a thousand millions of animalcules, which
may be discovered in common water, are not altogether so large as a
common grain of sand! Eminent naturalists have discovered not less
than 30,000 in a single drop of water! What a display is this of the
manifold wisdom of God! While he makes some of the aquatic tribes so
large, that they seem to require almost a whole sea to float in, he
forms others so astonishingly minute, that several thousands will
adhere to the point of a needle.[147]

Every animalcule being an organized body, how delicate and subtile
must the parts be that are necessary to constitute it, and to preserve
its vital actions! How inconceivably small must it be, and yet a
perfect animal. In animalcules, we discover the same multiplication
of parts, diversity of figures, and variety of motions, as in the
largest animals. How amazingly curious must be the internal structure
of these creatures! how minute the bones, joints, muscles, tendons!
how exquisitely delicate the veins, arteries, nerves! What a number of
vessels and different circulations must be contained in one of these
little creatures, and yet all have sufficient room for the performance
of their several functions, without interfering with each other! It
is difficult to conceive how in so narrow a compass, there should be
contained a heart as the fountain of life propelling the circulating
fluid, veins and arteries as the conductors of the blood, a brain to
supply nerves in every part of the minute structure, muscles necessary
to its motions, glands for the secretion of its fluids, stomach, and
bowels to digest its food, eyes to direct its progress, a mouth to take
in its nourishment, and organs of generation to propagate its kind!

    “How sweet to muse upon His skill display’d
    (Infinite skill!) in all that he has made.
    To trace in Nature’s most minute design,
    The signature and stamp of Power Divine;
    Contrivance exquisite expressed with ease,
    Where unassisted sight no beauty sees;
    The shapely limb and lubricated joint,
    Within the small dimensions of a point;
    Muscle and nerve miraculously spun;
    His mighty work, who speaks, and it is done;
    Th’ invisible in things scarce seen revealed;
    To whom an atom is an ample field.”

Animalcules in general, continues Mr. Adams, are observed to move in
all directions with equal ease and rapidity, sometimes obliquely,
sometimes straight forward; sometimes moving in a circular direction,
or rolling upon one another, running backwards and forwards through
the whole extent of the drop, as if diverting themselves; at other
times greedily attacking the little parcels of matter they meet with.
Notwithstanding their extreme minuteness, they know how to avoid
obstacles, or to prevent any interference with one another in their
motions: sometimes they will suddenly change the direction in which
they move, and take an opposite one; and, by inclining the glass on
which the drop of water is, as it can be made to move in any direction,
so the animalcules appear to move as easily against the stream as with
it. When the water begins to evaporate, they flock towards the place
where the fluid is, and show a great anxiety and uncommon agitation
of the organs with which they draw in the water. These motions grow
languid as the water fails, and at last cease altogether, without a
possibility of renewal if they be left dry for a short time. They
sustain a great degree of cold as well as insects, and will perish in
much the same degree of heat that destroys insects. Some animalcules
are produced in water at the freezing point, and some insects live in
snow.

    [In the American Journal of Science and Arts for April,
    1830, there is a letter to the editor, from _Dr. Joseph E.
    Muse_, from which the following is an extract:

    “When the winter had made considerable progress, without
    much frost, there happened a heavy fall of snow; apprehending
    that I might not have an opportunity of filling my ice house
    with ice, I threw in snow, perhaps enough to fill it; there was
    afterwards severely cold weather, and I filled the remainder
    with ice; about August the waste and consumption of ice,
    brought us down to the snow; when it was discovered that a
    glass of water which was cooled with it, contained hundreds
    of animalcules, I then examined another glass of water, out
    of the same pitcher, and with the aid of a microscope, before
    the snow was put in it, found it perfectly clear and pure; the
    snow was then thrown into it, and on solution the water again
    exhibited the same phenomenon; hundreds of animalcules, visible
    to the naked eye with acute attention, and when viewed through
    the microscope resembling most diminutive shrimps; and wholly
    unlike the eels discovered in the acetous acid, were seen in
    the full enjoyment of animated nature.

    “I caused holes to be dug in several parts of the mass of
    snow in the ice house, and to the centre of it; and in the most
    unequivocal and repeated experiments had similar results.”]

There is one remarkable circumstance, says Mr. Lobb, that we must not
pass over in our contemplation of these minute animals: which is, that
they are found proportionably much stronger, more active and vivacious,
than large ones. The spring of a flea in its first leap, how vastly
does it outstrip any thing of which animals are capable! A mite, how
vastly swifter does it run than a racehorse! M. de L’Isle has given
the computation of the velocity of a little creature scarcely visible
by its smallness, which he found to run three inches in half a second:
now, supposing its feet to be the fiftieth part of a line, it must make
500 steps in the space of three inches; that is, it must shift its legs
500 times in a second, or in the ordinary pulsation of an artery!

The modes of propagation among these animalcules are various, and the
observation of them is extremely curious. Some multiply by a transverse
division; and it is remarkable, that though in general they avoid
one another, it is not uncommon, when one is nearly divided, to see
another push itself upon the small neck which joins the two bodies in
order to accelerate the separation. Others, when about to multiply,
fix themselves to the bottom of the water; then becoming first oblong,
and afterwards round, turn rapidly as on a centre, but perpetually
varying the direction of their rotatory motion. In a little time, two
lines forming a cross are perceived: after which the spherule divides
into four, which grow, and are again divided as before.[148] A third
kind multiply by a longitudinal division, which in some begins in the
fore part, in others in the hind part; and from others a small fragment
detaches itself, which in a short time assumes the shape of the parent
animalcule. Lastly, others propagate in the same manner as the more
perfect animals.

The same rule seems to hold good in these minute creatures, which is
observable in the larger animals, namely, that the larger kinds are
less numerous than such as are smaller, while the smallest of all are
found in such multitudes, that there seem to be myriads for one of the
others. They increase in size, like other animals, from their birth,
till they have attained their full growth: and when deprived of proper
nourishment, they in like manner grow thin and perish.

And, if the extreme minuteness of the parts of animalcules is not
merely surprising, but far above our utmost conception, what shall
we say to those various species, to which the mite itself, in point
of size, is, as it were, an elephant? Naturalists suppose another
species, or order, of invisible animalcules; namely, such as escape
the cognizance even of the best microscopes, and give many probable
conjectures concerning them. Reason and analogy give some support to
the existence of an infinite number of these imperceptible creatures.
The naked eye, say some, takes in from the Elephant to the Mite; but
there commences a new order, reserved only for the microscope, which
comprehends all these from the Mite to those twenty-seven millions of
times smaller; and this order cannot be said to be exhausted, if the
microscope be not arrived at its last degree of perfection.

       *       *       *       *       *

Among the Egyptians, all the natives of the water were in some degree
esteemed sacred. In many parts the people did not feed upon them. The
priests in particular never tasted this kind of food; and the reason
why they abstained from it, was the sanctity imputed to this class of
creatures. For they were sometimes considered as sacred emblems: at
other times worshipped as real deities. One species of fish called
Oxurunchus, had, according to Strabo, a temple, and divine honors paid
to it. A fish called Phagrus, was, according to Clemens Alexandrinus,
worshipped at Syene. The Lepidotus and Eel, were, as we find from
Herodotus, objects of adoration; being each, sacred to the god Nilus.
This is ridiculed by Antiphanes, who says, that an Eel among the
Egyptians was reverenced equally with their gods.

The Jews were under a divine prohibition not to make an idolatrous
graven image or likeness of any aquatic animals. However strange this
idolatry may appear, yet, such was its extent, that it prevailed
not only in Syria, but in the borders of Lebanon, also at, Ascalon,
Ashdod, and Joppa, cities within the precincts of the tribes of Dan
and Judah. Hence we see the propriety of the judgments inflicted upon
the Egyptians. “And the Lord spake unto Moses, Say unto Aaron, Take
thy rod, and stretch out thine hand upon the waters of Egypt, upon
their streams, upon their rivers, and upon their ponds, and upon all
their pools of water, that they may become blood.--Against all the
gods of Egypt I will execute judgment.--And the fish that was in the
river died: and the river stunk.” This was a punishment particularly
well adapted to the state of that blinded and infatuated people: as
it showed them the baseness of those elements which they reverenced,
and the insufficiency of the gods in which they trusted. And this
remarkable display of the Divine displeasure was the means of affording
knowledge very salutary to the Israelites; as it served to warn them
not to fall into the same or any similar act of idolatry, when they had
seen it thus debased and exposed, and attended with such instances of
accumulated evil.[149]

Father Lamy remarks, that the principal parts of Fishes are the gills,
scales, and fins. Some have scales, and no fins; others have neither
scales nor fins. Upon which is founded the distinction which Moses
makes of clean and unclean fishes. Such as have neither scales nor
fins are thought unclean. The authority for this is what the Lord
commanded Moses to communicate to the children of Israel. “These
shall ye eat of all that are in the waters: whatsoever hath fins and
scales in the waters, in the seas, and in the rivers, them shall ye
eat. And all that have not fins and scales in the seas, and in the
rivers, of all that move in the waters, and of any living thing which
is in the waters, they shall be an abomination unto you: they shall
be even an abomination unto you; ye shall not eat of their flesh, but
you shall have their carcases in abomination.” The physical reason
for this distinction may be, because those which have fins and scales
are the most nourishing; and the others, which are without fins and
scales, being, in general, very difficult of digestion,--such as the
Conger, Eel, &c, which are too gross and fat for many stomachs. Among
the Romans, no fishes were suffered to be offered up in sacrifice, or
served up to the table of the gods, but such as were scaly.

In this distinction, direction, and prohibition, concerning fishes,
there is a further meaning. Dr. Spencer says, “God ordained this
distinction of meats, that the puerile nation of the Hebrews might be
led by an application of this law to the first elements of sanctity
and actual purity. And this conjecture is founded upon the reason
God himself has assigned for this institution; for after he had
delivered the law about separating the clean from the unclean animal,
he immediately adds, ‘Be ye holy, for I the Lord your God am holy.’
Which words St. Peter applies not to legal but to evangelical sanctity,
such as we should aspire to through the whole course of our lives.
I must not deny that the text of Leviticus, in the outward letter,
requires only a sort of legal sanctity, extending merely to corporeal
purification: but it is agreeable to the umbratic nature of that law,
that we should believe those words to have contained a more sacred
meaning at the bottom, and to have directed the Jews to a sort of
purity properly so called, and conformable to that of the Divine nature
itself, under the figure of external purification.” Indeed without
a view to the moral purification of the soul, an institution merely
affecting the body would be but of minor importance.

This distinction then being founded upon the moral principles of good
and evil, no doubt the peculiarities of the animals themselves will
serve to furnish instruction. A celebrated writer on this subject
remarks:--The progressive motion of fishes is owing to the tail: for
so may a boat be driven forward by the agitation of a single oar from
the stern. The fins serve to keep a fish upright, and support it while
it is stationary in any part of the water. The centre of gravity being
above the middle region of the body, a fish floats unnaturally with
its back downwards, when the fins are taken off. The scales of fishes,
which are very hard, bright, and radiated, compose a sort of armor,
which serves for their defence, and adds at the same time an appearance
of light and purity. The fishes thus distinguished differ as much in
their way of life from the smooth and slimy inhabitants of the waters,
as in their color and appearance; for they are generally disposed to
raise themselves from the bottom, and swim about with agility in the
superior regions of the water; while the Eel buries itself in the mire,
and all the crustaceous tribe lie scrabbling upon the ground. Fishes
of the Eel or snake kind are disturbed by thunder and storms, and swim
about when the waters are thick and turbulent: but as soon as the
elements are at rest again, they presently slide down to their native
mud.

Thus the mind, when polluted with impiety, and bowed down with
unbelief, cannot be raised to the contemplation of evangelical truth,
unless it is alarmed by the fear of Divine judgments; on which occasion
profligate sinners are sometimes most violently agitated, hurrying
themselves as fast as they can into a state of repentance. But as this
is a temporary repentance, excited merely by a fear of suffering,
the effect abides no longer than the cause continues to operate;
and so their terrors and their penitence vanish together. When there
was alarming thunder and destructive hail in the land of Egypt, and
fire from the Lord ran along the ground, even Pharaoh could recollect
himself, and say, “I have sinned this time: the Lord is righteous, and
I and my people are wicked. But when he saw that the rain, and the
hail, and the thunders were ceased, he sinned yet more, and hardened
his heart, he and his servants.” Such is the fruitless issue of that
involuntary repentance, which has no principle of Divine grace to
support it. The moral of this distinction is obvious: the whole being
a figurative monition, that a sordid and groveling way of life was to
be abhorred by those who professed to serve God; whose mind being under
the direction of revealed truth, and influence of the Holy Spirit,
their affections were to be raised from vice to virtue, from pollution
to purity, from things temporal to things eternal. There are many
persons who bury themselves in the mud like the Eel, drown their senses
in eating and drinking, or waste their precious time in sleep and
idleness;[150] utterly disregarding all serious reflection, devotional
elevation, holy rectitude, and spiritual enjoyment. Our Saviour, who
spake many things to the Jews in parables, says, “The kingdom of
heaven is like unto a net that was cast into the sea, and gathered
of every kind: which, when it was full, they drew to shore, and sat
down, and gathered the good into vessels, but cast the bad away.” This
was spoken to fishermen, who had been called from their employment
by our Lord, and to whom he said, “I will make you fishers of men.”
They had hitherto been laboring to catch fish, but hereafter they were
to catch men: thus their secular calling is turned into a spiritual
channel. The word σωγηνη is said to mean _a drag-net_, the particular
use of which is to drag fishes up from the bottom of the water. The
similitude between that occupation from which, and that employment to
which our Saviour called them, consists in these particulars:--the
sea in which they were now to fish is the world, the fishes they were
to catch are Jews and Gentiles, the net with which they were to catch
them is the Gospel, and they themselves were to be fishermen. Or
thus:--by the _net_ may be understood the Gospel; by the _sea_ into
which it is cast, the unconverted world; by _casting_ the net into the
sea, the preaching of the Gospel; by _those_ that cast the net into
the sea, ministers; by the _fishes_ enclosed, the hearers; by the net
_gathering of every kind_ of fishes, profane persons as well as sincere
Christians; by the net being _full_ and _drawn to shore_, a set time
coming when the Gospel shall have fulfilled that for which it was sent,
the mystery of God being finished; by the _good_ being _gathered into
vessels_ as valuable and precious, and the _bad cast away_ as vile and
contemptible, that separation which shall be made at the final close of
time between merely nominal and real Christians, casting the former
into hell, and bringing the latter to heaven.

This parabolical method of conveying important instruction, by which
heavenly things are represented and set forth by expressions borrowed
from earthly things which are familiar to us, was very ancient, as
appears from Jotham’s parable, and much in use among the Jews. It
engaged the attention, because it was pleasant; it assisted the
memory, which is apt to retain what is conveyed in this form; it
excited inquiry after the meaning of what was thereby intended: and,
consequently, was likely to be rendered beneficial to the hearers.
Father Quesnel remarks, The net of God’s word, animated by his Spirit,
draws souls out of the abyss of sin and error, to Christian faith and
piety. The net and vessel of the visible church receives both the good
and bad fishes, true Christians and hypocrites. This is neither the
time, nor the place of distinction; all must continue mixed together
till the great day of separation. A man’s being in the church will not
infallibly assure him of salvation: as yet there is time to become
such as we ought to be. But the moment will come, when all desires and
endeavors to this purpose will be attended only with despair. And who
knows but this moment may be just at hand. Our faith is very weak if
we can think of being separated from the righteous without shuddering.
Our love of salvation is very faint, if we do not endeavor earnestly to
separate ourselves in this world from the wicked, by the holiness of
our lives and conversation.

       *       *       *       *       *


_Section_ II.--ON FOWLS.

    Number of Species -- Superiority and peculiar Construction
    -- Skill in building their Nests -- Power and season of
    Propagation -- Dexterity in providing Food -- Instinct --
    Migrations -- Insects -- Religious Improvement.

Not any part of nature is destitute of inhabitants. The woods, the
waters, the depths of the earth, have their respective tenants; while
the transparent and elastic air, and those regions where man can never
soar, but with much art and at considerable risk, are occupied with
the most beautiful creatures. Every order of animals is fitted for
its situation in life; but none more apparently so than birds. Though
inferior to beasts in the scale of nature, yet they hold the next rank,
and far surpass fishes and insects, both in the structure of their
bodies, and in their sagacity.

The number of species in this order of animals is very numerous,
amounting to above eight hundred. As some degree of classification
appears necessary, they have therefore been arranged into eight orders.
The 1st is the _Struthious_, or Ostrich order, or those which never
rise from the earth. This includes the Ostrich, the Cassowary, the
Dodo, the Solitary, and the Nazarene. The 2d is the _Rapacious_ order.
This includes the Eagle, the Condor, the Vulture, the Falcon, the
Shrike, or Butcher-Bird, and the Owl. The 3d is the _Gallinaceous_, or
Poultry order, which is without both the talons and the hooked bill of
the rapacious kind. This includes the Bustard, the Cock, the Turkey,
the Pintada, or Guinea-Hen, the Grous, the Peacock, the Pheasant, the
Curassow, the Partridge, and the Quail. The 4th is what some authors
have termed the _Columbine_ order. This includes the Dove, or Pigeon,
with its varieties. The 5th is the order of _Pies_. This includes the
Crow, the Roller, the King-Fisher, the Cuckoo, the Wood-Pecker, the
Oriole, the Nuthatch, the Bee-Eater, the Wryneck, the Creeper, the
Hornbill, the Parrot, the Ani, the Wattle Bird, the Grackel, the Bird
of Paradise, the Beef-Eater, the Curucui, the Barbets, the Jacamer,
the Tody, and the Humming Bird. The 6th is the _Passerine_, or Sparrow
kind. This includes the Starling, the Thrush, the Chatterers, the
Grosbeaks, the Bunting, the Finch, the Fly-Catchers, the Lark, the
Wagtail, the Warblers,[151] the Titmouse, the Swallow, the Goatsucker,
the Coly, the Tanager, and the Manakins. The 7th is the _Cloven-footed_
Water-Fowl, including those with pinnated feet. This includes the
Heron, the Ibis, the Curlow, the Snipe, the Sandpiper, the Plover, the
Oyster-Catcher, the Pratincole, the Rail, the Gallinule, the Boatbill,
the Umbre, the Jacana, the Sheathbill; and with pinnated, or finned
feet, the Phalarope, the Coot, and the Grebe. And the 8th is the
_Web-footed_ Water-Fowl. This includes the Avoset, the Courier, the
Flamingo, the Auk, the Guillemot, the Diver, the Tern, the Petrels, the
Gull, the Mersanger, the Duck, the Pelican, the Albatross, the Skimmer,
the Penguin, the Tropic Bird, and the Darter. These eight orders take
in the several species belonging to each, some of which are very
numerous; the Duck genus alone embraces one hundred species, differing
much both in size and plumage. Thus we see in birds also, that God has
shown his wisdom and his power, in the gradation from the vast Ostrich,
and Cassowary, to the Humming-Bird, which, in size is not much larger
than the Bee.

    “The _ourissia_, bee-like in its size,
    _Humming_ from flower to flower delighted flies,
    And in a wondrous living rainbow drest,
    Shifts all its colors on its wings and breast.”

Of all animated beings, this little bird is the most elegant in form,
and superb in colors. The emerald, the ruby, and the topaz, sparkle in
its plumage, which is never soiled by the dust of the ground. In Mr.
Bullock’s Museum, Piccadilly, there is a case containing more than one
hundred _Humming-birds_; and in the “Companion” to this delightfull
repository of natural history, an interesting account is given of this
little creature, that flutters from flower to flower, breathes their
freshness, wantons on the wings of the cooling zephyrs, sips the nectar
of a thousand sweets, and resides in climes where reigns the beauty of
eternal spring.

The legs, the wings, the bones, even all parts of their bodies,
are much lighter, firmer, and more compact in birds than in other
animals. Their lungs are extended over all the cavities of their
bodies. Carniverous birds, like carniverous quadrupeds, have but one
stomach, where their food is moistened or swelled; a gizzard, which
is a very hard muscle, almost cartilaginous, and which they commonly
fill with small stones, where the food is afterwards ground, in order
to facilitate its complete digestion. In birds there is no ruminating:
but in such as are not carniverous, the food is immediately swallowed
into the crop, or anti-stomach (which is observed in many, especially
piscivorous birds,) where it is moistened by some proper juice, and
then transferred to the gizzard, by the working of whose muscles,
assisted by small pebbles, swallowed for that purpose, it is ground
small, and so transmitted to the intestines.

Birds we find supplied with a corney substance, instead of teeth
and lips. Their bills are cut into various shapes, adapted to their
different habits. The sharp edge and tempered point of the Sparrow’s
beak, enables it to pick every seed from its concealment; breaking the
grain to obtain the kernel. The hooked beak of the Hawk separates, like
a dissector’s knife, the flesh from the bones of the animals on which
it preys. The spoon-bill of the Goose enables her to graze, and collect
food from the bottoms of the pools. Birds of the Crane kind, which seek
their food among the waters, having no web-feet, are supplied with long
legs for wading, or long bills for groping, and usually both: these are
admirably adapted to the shallow pools of water, or sides of rivers,
which they frequent. But in birds living by suction, they are serrated,
or tooth-like; these do not serve the purpose of teeth, but act as a
sieve, or strainer, separating nicely from mud some nutriment conducive
to the preservation of life.

The sense of seeing in birds is remarkably acute; and though their want
of external ears is supplied by only two small orifices or ear-holes,
yet they do not appear deficient in hearing. The scent of some species
is exquisitely delicate. Men who attend decoys where ducks are caught,
generally keep a piece of turf lighted, on which they breathe, lest the
fowls should smell them and fly away. The voice of birds is much louder
in proportion to their size, than that of other animals; for in fact,
the bellowing of an Ox is not heard at a much greater distance than the
scream of a Peacock.

The covering of birds is perhaps one of the most beautiful. Their
feathers are light, smooth, and warm, inclining backward, downy at the
stem, overlapping at their tips, beautifully variegated, and forming
a raiment, varying in circumstances, so as always to suit the habits
of the bird. The construction of a single feather is “a mechanical
wonder.” We see at the stem, a tough, light, pliant, and elastic
material, only found in feathers; also the pith, which feeds the
feathers, a substance peculiar to that purpose; likewise the beard,
which grows on each side of the stem, and is stripped off when making
pens, the separate threads of which are called filaments, or rays.
These appear stronger when pressed perpendicularly to their plane, than
when rubbed either up or down in the line of the stem; and this arises
from the laminæ, of which these beards are composed, being flat, and
placed with their flat sides towards each other. Hence, though they are
easily made to approximate each other, yet they require more force in a
contrary direction, having to encounter the impulse of the air, which
requires more strength. We find also, that these threads, in their
natural state, unite; and cannot, be parted without force, although
not joined by any glutinous adhesion, but by a mechanical contrivance.
And, if separated by force or accident, when brought together they
immediately reclasp, resuming their former smoothness. These threads
are interlaced with each other, by means of a vast number of fibres,
or teeth, which they protrude on each side; fifty of these have been
counted in 1-20th of an inch: they are curved after a different manner
from the filaments on which they grow. Those which proceed from the
side toward the beginning of the quill-end, are shorter, firmer, and
turn upward. Those on the side toward the extremity of the feather, are
longer, more flexible, and bent downward. They therefore act thus; when
the two laminæ are pressed together, so that the long fibres are forced
far enough over the short ones, their crooked parts fall into the
cavity made by the crooked parts of the others, just as a latch enters
the cavity of a catch on the door post. All this beautiful structure
may be seen by the microscope. In the Ostrich, whose feathers, or other
filaments, hang loose like down, this mechanism is wanting. But as this
bird does not fly, and requires assistance only in running, perhaps
this formation is best adapted for that purpose. Small birds, which do
not migrate in the winter season, have the inner side of their feathers
black, because this is the warmest color: hence the heat of the bird is
prevented from escaping.

The feathers of birds appear to be nourished and preserved in a
remarkable manner; especially those that much frequent waters, for
they have a larger supply of oily substance, with which to trim them.
Lest the feathers should be injured by exposure to the air, every bird
is furnished with a gland situated on the rump, containing a proper
quantity of oil, which it presses out with its beak, and with which it
occasionally anoints them. In water fowls, this oil is so plentiful,
that it even imparts a degree of rancidity to the flesh; and by it,
their plumy coat is rendered completely waterproof.

As God made the fowls “that they might fly in the firmament of heaven,”
so has he adapted the form of their bodies, and the structure and
disposition of their plumage, for that very purpose. The head and neck
in flying, are drawn principally within the breastbone, so that the
whole underpart exhibits the appearance of a ship’s hull. The wings are
used as sails, or rather oars, and the tail as a helm or rudder. By
means of these, the creature is not only able to preserve the centre
of gravity, but also to accelerate its speed through the air, either
straight forward, circularly in any kind of angle, as well as upward or
downward. Though the greatest part of the aërial creation are adorned
with feathers, yet has the Deity enabled several to fly without them;
such as the Bat, one species of Lizard, two sorts of fishes, and
numberless kinds of insects.

The skill with which birds erect their houses, and adjust their
apartments, is inimitable. The caution with which they conceal them
from the searching eye, or intruding hand, is admirable. They fix
their nests on the pliant branches that wave aloft in the air, or are
suspended over the flowing stream: by these means the vernal gales rock
their cradle, and the murmuring waters lull their young; while both
concur to terrify their enemies, and have a tendency to prohibit their
approach. Some hide their downy offspring from view, amidst the shelter
of entangled furze. Others, with wary solicitude, place them in the
centre of a thorny thicket. And thus, by a variety of expedients, they
are generally as secure, as if intrenched behind an impregnable mound.

                              “Some to the holly-hedge
    Nestling repair, and to the thicket some;
    Some to the rude protection of the thorn
    Commit their feeble offspring: the cleft tree
    Offers its kind concealment to a few,
    Their food its insects, and its moss their nests.
    Others apart, far in the grassy dale,
    Or roughening waste, their humble texture weave.
    But most in woodland solitudes delight,
    In unfrequented glooms, or shaggy banks,
    Steep, and divided by a babbling brook,
    Whose murmurs soothe them all the live-long day,
    When by kind duty fixed. Among the roots
    Of hazel, pendent o’er the plaintive stream,
    They frame the first foundation of their domes;
    Dry sprigs of trees, in artful fabric laid,
    And bound with clay together. Now ’tis nought
    But restless hurry through the busy air,
    Beat by unnumbered wings. The Swallow sweeps
    The slimy pool, to build his hanging house
    Intent. And often, from the careless back
    Of herds and flocks, a thousand tugging bills
    Pluck hair and wool; and oft, when unobserved,
    Steal from the barn a straw: till soft and warm
    Clean and complete, their habitation grows.”

If the Swan has large sweeping wings, and a copious stock of feathers,
to spread over his callow young; the Wren supplies by contrivance
what is wanting in her bulk. Though small, she has to nurse a very
numerous issue; therefore with surprising sagacity designs, and with
wonderful diligence finishes her nest, being a neat oval, bottomed
and vaulted over with a regular concave, within made soft with down,
without thatched with moss, and having only a small aperture left for
her entrance.

                    “It wins my admiration,
    To view the structure of that little work,
    _A bird’s nest_. Mark it well within, without.
    No tool had he that wrought, no knife to cut,
    No nail to fix, no bodkin to insert,
    No glue to join: his little beak was all,
    And yet how neatly finished!”

By this means, the animating heat of her body is greatly increased
during the time of incubation. And her young no sooner burst the shell,
than they find themselves screened from the annoyance of weather, and
comfortably reposed, till they gather sufficient strength and plumage
in their warm recess, to make their first essay into the wide expanse.

As to the succession of this class of animals, some are endued with
a remarkable power of propagating, while others are confined within
narrow limits. In general, the least animals, and those which are
useful and serve for nourishment to the greatest number of other
animals, are the most prolific. The Hawk kind generally lay not more
than two eggs, or at most four; while the Poultry species produce from
50 to 100. The Diver, or Loon, which is eaten by a few animals, lays
also two eggs; but the Duck kind, the Moorgame, Partridges, &c, and
small birds, lay a very great number. If we suppose two pigeons to
hatch nine times a year, they may produce in four years 14,760 young!

Birds generate in that particular season which supplies them with a
stock of provisions, sufficient, not only for themselves, but for their
increasing families. They hatch their young when new-born insects swarm
on every side. So that the caterer, whether it be the male or female
parent, needs only alight on the ground, or make a short excursion into
the air, to find a repast ready dressed for the tender charge at home.
The love they have for their offspring, while helpless, is invincibly
strong.[152] They nurse them with the greatest care, caress them with
affectionate notes, put food into their mouths, cherish and keep them
warm, teach them to pick, eat, and gather food: whereas, the moment
they are able to provide for themselves, this anxious care vanishes
as though it had never been. The Hen, while catering for her little
brood, would fly at a mastiff in their defence: yet, in a few weeks,
leaves them to their own protection, not regarding them any more than
others of the same species.

They also provide their food with admirable art, which dexterity they
bring into the world with them. Some birds, though not aquatic, live
on fish: and must necessarily find it more difficult to seize their
prey than Water-fowl. From whence do they derive this natural instinct?
They stand on the brink of the liquid element, and when a shoal of
fish comes (which they can discover at a distance,) they pursue them,
skim along the surface, suddenly dive into the water, and carry off a
fish.[153] Who gave the birds of prey their piercing sight, undaunted
courage, and the destructive weapons, without which they could not
possibly subsist? Who points out to the Stork the place where she
may find frogs[154] and insects for her support? In order to procure
these, she must seek them not only in meadows, but also in the furrows
of fields; and continue her search till the approach of morning, when
the other birds awake and begin to quit their places of retreat. What
amazing strength must the Condor have, seeing it can carry away a
sheep, a deer, and even prey on the ox itself! How can we reconcile
that maternal instinct which causes the quail to adopt little birds
of every species, which she not only takes under her protection, but
bestows on them her tenderest cares! What cunning does the Crow use
to secure the prey, which she cannot devour at once? She hides it in
places such as other Crows do not frequent, and when hungry again, how
well does she know where she has deposited it![155]

There are also several birds, which, when food begins to fail, hide
themselves in the earth, or in caves, in a torpid state, during
the winter. We are assured, at least, that before the approach of
this season, the Strand-Swallows conceal themselves in the earth;
the Wall-Swallows repair to the holes of trees and old buildings;
and the House, or Common Swallows seek for ponds, where they fasten
themselves in pairs, cling to roots or weeds, continue without motion,
and apparently without life, till the return of spring, when they are
re-animated, and return from that state of torpidity.

The infinitely wise Creator has given different instincts to birds;
none of which is superfluous, or useless, but each is indispensably
necessary to the preservation and well-being of the animal. The motion
of birds not only requires strength and well-formed pliant limbs, but
also instinct to direct their movements. They have each two feet; but
their bodies do not rest perpendicularly on them, for they project
both before and behind; and yet a chick will stand upright and run
about almost as soon as it leaves the shell. Young Ducks, just hatched
by a Hen, know their own element, and swim about in the water without
example or instruction. Other birds know how to rise up from their
nests into the air, balance themselves, pursue their course, make
equal strokes with their wings in true time, stretch out their feet
to equipoise their bodies, use their tails like an oar or rudder, to
direct their flight, and make long journeys from their native country
to unknown regions.

The migration of birds is truly astonishing! Very few spend the winter
with us: the Yellow-Hammer, the Chaffinch, the Crow, the Raven, the
Sparrow, the Wren, the Partridge, the Robin, and the Fieldfare, are the
principal. Most of the others either retire to some invisible resort,
or leave us entirely. Some kinds of birds, without taking any high
flight, or setting off in troops, draw gradually towards the south, to
seek those seeds and fruits which are most congenial to their taste;
but they speedily return. Others, which are termed “birds of passage,”
collect at certain seasons in large flocks, and fly off to other
climates; they even cross the seas, and make excursions of a surprising
length. The best known birds of this description are, the Quail, the
Swallow, the Wild-Duck, the Plover, the Snipe, and the Crane, with some
others, which subsist on worms. In spring, the Cranes pass from Africa
into Europe, in order to enjoy a more temperate climate. They migrate
in flocks like clouds; and sometimes, their strength being nearly
exhausted, alight on ships, and are taken without any difficulty.
Swallows act in a different way: while some continue in Europe, and
seclude themselves from our view as already observed, others cross the
seas. Wild-Ducks and Cranes also repair at the approach of winter to
milder climates. They all assemble on a certain day, and take their
flight together. They commonly arrange themselves in two lines, united
in one point like an inverted ʌ, with a bird at the head,
and others following in the lines: whose beaks always rest on the tails
of those preceding. The leader holds only a temporary commission:
and having relinquished his charge, rests himself, and is replaced
by another. But all birds of passage do not take their departure in
flocks: for there are some which travel alone; and others with their
females and young. It has been computed that they may easily go 200
miles in six hours each day, supposing they can take rest at intervals,
or during the night. According to this calculation, they may pass from
our climates to the Equinoctial line in seven or eight days! This
conjecture has been verified; for Swallows have been seen on the coast
of Senegal on the 9th of October, which was eight or nine days after
their leaving Europe.

These migrations are wonderful in every point of view! Doubtless the
difference of heat and cold, and want of food, apprize them of the
necessity of changing their abode. But what reason can be assigned for
their departure at the appointed time, when the season is sufficiently
mild, and food still in abundance, to invite their continuance among
us? How do they know that other climates will afford them necessary
food and warmth? By what operative power are they impelled to make this
exit at the same period, as if preconcerted by mutual agreement? How
can they, notwithstanding the darkness of the nights, the perplexity
of the road, and the remoteness of the countries to which they are
destined, still hold on in a direct course? Nature does not teach them
all this art, industry, and penetration, which so much surprise us: if
we separate nature from its great Author, it is then a word destitute
of meaning.

    “Nature is but a name for an effect,
    Whose cause is God.”

It is He alone who gives wisdom to the fowls of the air.

God’s superintendence over birds is particularly noticed by our
Saviour. “Behold the fowls of the air; for they sow not, neither do
they reap, nor gather into barns; yet your heavenly Father feedeth
them.” God extends his providential care to all his creatures, not
only to those which are domesticated and receive their supplies from
men, but also to the fowls of the air. By a natural instinct they know
how to select that kind of food which is suitable for aliment, and
where to procure it; but they are without any particular solicitude
and forecast: nor have they need of these, because God takes care to
provide for them. St. Luke mentions the Ravens, which are carniverous
creatures. “Consider,” says he, “the ravens: for they neither sow nor
reap; which neither have storehouse nor barn: and God feedeth them.”
God asks Job, “Who provideth for the raven his food?” There are but
three things which concern such creatures; how their craving appetites
may be satiated, where they may repose, and by what means they may be
protected from the incursions of their enemies: and for all these God
has amply provided. He takes care of their food: “he giveth food to the
young ravens which cry,” and are the most helpless of all creatures.
Naturalists observe, that the Raven exposes her young ones as soon as
they are hatched, leaves them to provide for themselves, and struggle
with hunger as soon as they emerge into life; so they certainly would
perish, if Providence did not interfere in their behalf. But God makes
them his charge, and supplies their voracious cravings in due time,
whether by the insect, the reptile, or the dew from heaven. He protects
their rest, and renders their habitations places of refuge and safety.
“The trees of the Lord are full of sap: the cedars of Lebanon which he
hath planted; where the birds make their nests: as for the Stork, the
fir-trees are her house.”

The meanest classes of sensitive beings are endued with the faculty
of instinct: a sagacity which is neither derived from observation,
nor awaits the finishing hand of experience; which without a tutor
teaches them all necessary skill, and enables them, without a pattern,
to perform every needful operation. And what is more remarkable, it
never misleads them, either into erroneous principles, or pernicious
practices: nor ever fails to aid them in the most nice and difficult of
their undertakings.--The inhabitants of the hive subsist as a regular
community.

                                    ----“As _bees_
    In Spring-time, when the sun with Taurus rides,
    Pour fourth their populous youth about the hive
    In clusters; they among fresh dews and flowers
    Fly to and fro, or on the smoothed plank,
    The suburb of their straw-built citadel,
    New rubbed with balm, expatiate and confer
    Their state affairs: so thick the aëry crowd
    Swarmed and were straitened.”

Their indulgent Creator has given them all implements necessary
either for constructing combs, or composing honey. Bees have each a
portable vessel, in which they bring home their collected sweets: and
have the most commodious storehouses, wherein to deposit them. They
readily distinguish every plant, which affords materials for their
business; and are complete practitioners in the arts of separation
and refinement. Aware that the vernal bloom and summer sun are but
for a season, they improve to the utmost every shining hour, and lay
up a stock sufficient to supply the whole society, till their flowery
harvest shall return.

Insects, which some persons may consider as so many rude scraps of
creation, ought to be classed among the most polished pieces of Divine
workmanship.

    ----“In the vast and the minute
    The unambiguous footsteps of the God,
    Who gives its lustre to an insect’s wing,
    And wheels his throne upon the rolling worlds.”

“The first state in which insects appear, is that of the _ovum_ or egg;
from the egg is hatched the insect in its larva or caterpillar state.
The larva, or maggot, crawls on many feet, and is extremely voracious,
devouring the herbage, and stripping trees of their leaves. When the
time arrives in which the larva or caterpillar is to change into the
next state, namely, that of chrysalis, or _pupa_, it ceases to feed;
and having placed itself in some quiet situation for the purpose,
lies still for several hours; and then by a kind of laborious effort,
frequently repeated, divests itself of its external skin, or larva
coat, and immediately appears in the very different form of a chrysalis
or _pupa_. From this state emerges, at length, the insect, in its
complete or ultimate form, from which it can never change; nor can it
receive any further increase of growth. This last stage is denominated
_imago_.”

    “Waked by his warmer ray, the reptile young
    Come winged abroad; by the light air upborne,
    Lighter, and full of soul. From every chink,
    And secret corner, where they slept away
    The wintery storms; or rising from their tombs,
    To higher life; by myriads, forth at once,
    Swarming they pour; of all the varied hues
    Their beauty-beaming parent can disclose.
    Ten thousand forms! ten thousand different tribes!
    People the blaze.”

Many of them are decked with the richest finery. Their eyes are an
assemblage of microscopes. The common Fly, for instance, perpetually
surrounded with enemies, having neither strength to resist, nor a
retreat to secure herself, has need to be very vigilant, and always
on her guard: but her head is so fixed that she cannot turn it to see
her danger; Providence, therefore, to supply this apparent defect, has
given her more than a legion of eyes, insomuch that a single Fly is
supposed to have no less than eight thousand. Nay, it is asserted that
the common Dragon-fly is furnished with 25,000 of these diminutive
lenses! By the help of this truly amazing apparatus, she sees on every
side, with the utmost ease and speed, though without any motion of the
eye, or inflection of the neck. The dress of insects is a vesture of
resplendent colors, bespangled with an arrangement of the brightest
gems.

    “The little _gnat_, in beauties, may compare
    With all his rival brothers of the air;
    Transparent feathers, purple, green and gold,
    His wings, small feet, and gay-fringed tail enfold.
    Four sharpened spears his head with weapons arm,
    And his pearled eyes with liveliest graces charm.
    In down of ev’ry variegated dye
    Shines, fluttering soft, the gaudy _butterfly_,
    That powder which thy spoiling hand disdains,
    The forms of quills and painted plumes contains;
    Nor courts can more magnificence express,
    In all their blaze of gems and pomp of dress.”

The expansion of their wings displays the finest texture imaginable,
compared to which lawn is as course as sackcloth. The cases, which
inclose their wings, glitter with the finest varnish, are scooped into
ornamental flutings, studded with radiant spots, or pinked with elegant
holes. Not one but is endued with weapons to seize his prey, and
dexterity to escape his foe, to despatch the business of his station,
and enjoy the pleasure of his condition. It is affirmed that the female
of the common house-fly is capable of producing 20 millions 80 thousand
320; hence we cannot wonder at their swarming so much in autumn.

    [Our author has devoted very few remarks indeed to
    _insects_; yet the history of this class of creatures is as
    interesting as any other, and is attracting considerable
    attention. Their history is very far from being complete:
    their _number_ is not known. They inhabit the air, water, and
    earth. This family of creatures is called _insects_, because of
    the _articulations_ of the body, so as to appear notched, or
    intersected. A brief notice of some of their principal parts
    follows, which is chiefly taken from No. VIII, of the Family
    Library, published by J. & J. Harper, New-York.

    _Mouth._--All insects either _divide_ their food, or _suck_
    it. In those which divide their food, the parts of the mouth
    are, an upper lip, and an under lip fixed to a piece called the
    chin; between these two there are four lateral pieces, two on
    each side; the two upper are called mandibles, the two lower,
    jaws. The mandibles, or upper jaws cut the food: the lower jaws
    divide and masticate it.

    The mouth of those insects which suck their food, is
    elongated into a tongue or proboscis. This is a tube attached
    to the head. In some it is composed of two pieces connected by
    a joint; for if it were constantly extended it would be too
    much exposed to accidental injuries: therefore, in its indolent
    state it is securely doubled up by means of this joint. In
    some species, as the butterfly, the proboscis, when not in
    use, is coiled up like a watch-spring. In some it is shut up
    in a sharp-pointed sheath, which is of firmer texture than the
    proboscis, and by which the insect pierces the food, and then
    opens it within the wound to allow the proboscis to perform
    its office by extracting the juice.

    _Antennæ._--These are very slender arms resembling hairs,
    which project from the heads of almost all insects. There are
    generally two to each insect, which diverge somewhat. The
    insects can move them in all directions, and when they are seen
    doing this it commonly suggests the idea that these antennæ are
    _feelers_. However, their functions are not certainly known:
    some suppose them to be organs of sense.

    _Eyes._--These are generally found in the head of insects.
    Their real number is, usually, two: the surfaces of which are
    cut into many small faces; more than seventeen thousand have
    been counted in the butterfly. Each face on the insect’s eye is
    considered as a crystalline lens, concave within, and convex
    without. They have no eye-lids.

    _Thorax, or throat._--This is the second division of the
    body, and is placed directly behind the head. To the thorax
    are attached the wings and legs: commonly three legs on each
    side. Two membranes compose the wing, placed one above the
    other. Cords, or small nerves, are found in the upper one.
    The expansion of the wing is owing, as is supposed, to the
    introduction of a fluid, at the will of the insect, into hollow
    vessels which are detected in the composition of the wing.

    _Abdomen._--This is the third division of the insect, and
    is immediately connected with the thorax by articulation: it is
    composed of rings from one to fifteen. Most of these rings have
    an open pore placed laterally, through which air has access to
    the fluids in the body. In some insects the last ring contains
    the anus; in others, the organs of generation; or the means of
    defence, as a sting.

    _Muscles._--These are said to be disposed in bundles, the
    fibres of which are not connected by a cellular membrane: they
    are fixed to the hard parts, which are to be moved by horny
    tendons.

    The thorax contains the muscles which move the head up or
    down, and those also which move the wings and the feet. In some
    the muscles amount to four thousand. The muscular power of
    some of these insects is astonishing, as may be known by the
    distance they can leap: as the flea, and others, which leap two
    hundred times their own length. If man could do this he would
    leap at a single effort, more than one thousand feet.

    All insects are supposed to have a knotted nervous system.
    The knot nearest the head is composed of two lobes, from which
    nerves pass to the eyes, antennæ, and mouth.

    These are the principal common parts of insects. It would
    be a delightful task to enter into a minute description of
    their genera, species, habits, modes of life, subsistence,
    defence, attack, &c. Only two or three can be noticed, which
    must be taken as a specimen of the whole.

    _The_ BEE.--This insect has attracted the attention of the
    observing in all ages. On a pleasant summer’s day the hive
    presents the appearance of a busy, and populous city--the gates
    appear to be crowded with many workmen--some going to search
    for food, and others returning with it--some building--some
    tending the young--some cleansing the dwelling, and others
    carrying out the dead, and, apparently, performing some
    honorable sepulchral rites, &c.

    _The hive._--The interior of a bee-hive is itself a world
    of wonders. It is not, as is commonly supposed, the same in
    the form of its construction in all hives, it varies according
    to circumstances. Yet there are some general principles which
    seem to be common to all honeycombs: they do not touch each
    other, but always are sufficiently far apart to allow room to
    work on the opposite faces of each comb. The combs are placed
    vertically in the hive, and each complete comb is composed of
    two layers of six-sided cells, united by a common base. These
    two layers of six-sided cells are not united by a common base
    with a _flat_ bottom to each cell: but the hexagonal tube
    terminates at the bottom in a _three-sided pyramidal cavity_.
    The angle, formed at the apex of this pyramidal cavity, is
    70° 32ʹ--and the angle formed at the base of the hexagonal
    tube, or cell, is 109° 28ʹ. By this construction Reaumur has
    demonstrated, that the bee has formed his comb on the only plan
    which could produce cells of a determinate size, equal and
    similar, in the strongest manner, occupying the least space,
    and requiring the least quantity of matter.

    The wax, out of which the cells are formed, is not the same
    simple substance as honey, extracted from the flowers: it seems
    to be elaborated by the bees in their bodies, and deposited
    under their bellies in the form of scales. It is produced from
    a nectar obtained from flowers, which is swallowed by the bee
    in the greatest possible quantity, after which the bee hangs
    motionless in the hive for twenty-four hours, during which time
    the wax is elaborated and deposited under the belly in thin
    scales resembling talc.

    Some of the cells are filled with honey, and some are found
    to contain the young bee in the condition of larva.

    The bees which inhabit a hive may be regarded as a
    community, which is found to be divided into three classes: the
    queen--the males--and the workers, which are of no sex.

    _The Queen._--She is the common mother of the hive, and
    deposits all the eggs from which the young ones come: she
    appears to be in size between the males and workers, but longer
    than either.

    The attention or reverence, with which the queen-bee is
    regarded, is very remarkable. Upon withdrawing the queen from
    a hive the workers are thrown into the greatest consternation;
    they desist from work, run wildly through the hive, and refuse
    all nourishment. This they do for twenty-four hours, after
    which time a new queen will be received kindly, if offered
    them; but previously, they pay no attention to a strange queen,
    though introduced among them.

    If no queen can be found, Schirach discovered, and Huber
    has confirmed it, _that the bees have power to create a queen_,
    in the following manner. They build some _royal_ cells (for
    there are different kinds) into which they put the common
    worker-worm, i.e. the grub which produces the work-bee, and
    feed the insect with royal food, which is more pungent than
    the common bee-food; and in a few days they have a queen-bee
    produced, instead of a work-bee; then all is well.

    The queen is always attended with a train, which wait upon
    her, do her homage, caress and feed her, by presenting her
    with honey. If they lose their own queen, and a stranger queen
    is introduced, after twenty-four hours, they commence their
    reverence for the new sovereign by surrounding her, caressing
    her, feeding her, and opening a way for her when she moves.

    Their devotions to their queen do not cease if she become
    sterile, or die. Their veneration and tender attentions appear
    to increase towards the dead body of their queen. It is a well
    known fact, that the community perishes if they cannot procure
    a queen by any means.

    _The combats of the queens._--The bees seem to be purely
    monarchial in their constitution of government. This will
    appear from the following extraordinary facts:

    If a strange queen be introduced into the hive where there
    is a queen, the working-bees immediately seize upon her, and
    detain her a prisoner: as soon as this is done, another party
    hastens away to the reigning queen and surround her. They
    then force the queens towards each other, in order to make
    them decide the sovereignty of the hive in mortal combat. The
    conquerer is cheerfully taken for the reigning sovereign.

    Nor is it difficult to bring the rival queens to an
    engagement: so soon as they recognize each other they rush
    furiously to the combat, and the one or the other quickly
    inflicts a mortal wound by piercing the belly of the antagonist
    between the rings, by means of the sting.

    So exclusive is the passion of the queen for sovereignty,
    that she puts to death the young queens, so soon as she
    ascertains them to be such. This she does even in the cells,
    before they have come forth.

    _The male bees._--These seem not to have attracted much
    interest. They are not very numerous in the hive; generally not
    exceeding an hundred or two. They are the largest in size, and
    live perfectly idle.

    _The working bees._--These, as their name imports, perform
    the labors of the hive. The details of their labors cannot be
    admitted here.

    There is one question, in regard to bees, which
    is difficult and curious: their senses. From the best
    observations, and experiments, it would seem as if the antennæ,
    or feelers, were the principal organs of sense. Upon taking
    away the queen, in about an hour some one bee discovers it,
    and becomes instantly agitated, and runs furiously about the
    hive: the first companion he meets they cross their feelers
    mutually, the discoverer giving his neighbor a gentle tap with
    the feeler, and he in turn commences running furiously about
    the hive, communicating the intelligence in a similar manner;
    until the whole hive is in an uproar.

    Huber introduced a queen to a hive, after twenty-four hours
    absence of their own queen. The working bees which were nearest
    immediately approached and touched her with their feelers, and
    passing their trunks over every part of her body, gave her
    honey. Then these gave place to others which treated her in
    a similar manner; and all, with a vibration of their wings,
    arranged themselves around their new sovereign.

    From some experiments of Huber, it seems that the antennæ,
    or feelers of bees are the organs of communication. He thinks
    they have no organ for hearing. Their power of vision is very
    clear and strong. Anciently, in New-England, the honey-hunters
    are said to have found the nest of wild bees in the following
    manner: they placed a plate of honey in the woods, and when
    the bees came to get it, they caught two or three of them,
    the bee-hunter would let one go, and observe his course, by a
    pocket compass, as he flew to the nest: he would then walk off
    at a right angle a few hundred yards, and let another bee go,
    and observe the course: the angle, or point at which these two
    lines, described by the flights of the bees, met, the hunter
    knew to be the place where the bee-nest was.

    The manner in which bees take their rest is a matter of
    curiosity. Some attach themselves to a part of the hive, by
    their fore-feet, and extend their hind-feet down: the next
    bee by his fore-feet takes hold of the hind-feet of the first
    bee, and thus suspends himself; others attach themselves in
    like manner, until they form clusters, or festoons. In this
    condition they take their rest.

    It will be interesting to learn something of the _sting_ of
    the bee. It is situated in the lower end of the ringed-body:
    it is composed of three parts: the sheath, and two darts which
    are enclosed in it, very small and penetrating. The darts are
    barbed. When the bee strikes with its sting, the sharp and hard
    point of the hollow sheath strikes and penetrates first, and
    the two darts are immediately thrust into the incision made by
    the sheath; and at the same time the bee injects a poisonous
    liquor into the wound, which causes the pain and inflammation.
    In some instances the sting is struck in so deeply the bee
    cannot extricate it: in that case the wound is more painful,
    but the loss proves fatal to the bee.

    Destructive combats frequently take place between different
    hives; and many perish on both sides. Occasionally single
    combats, or duels, take place, which always prove fatal to
    one or the other. Instances are known, in which the bees
    of one hive plunder the bees of another. In this case a
    battle generally ensues. And what is more astonishing still,
    sometimes the hive-bees will, five or six of them, surround an
    _humble-bee_, and rob him of his honey, as he is returning home
    of an evening. Indeed a whole volume might be written, and the
    natural history of the bee not be exhausted.

    ANTS.--This insect has justly rivalled the bee in the
    admiration of the philosopher, and, on some accounts, is
    considered a more interesting creature. The instinct of this
    creature does not appear so strikingly as that of the bee:
    but it exhibits other and higher qualities, approaching to
    the cardinal virtues of man: such as love, courage, patience,
    perseverance, &c. The proof of all these will be found in the
    few brief remarks which follow.

    There are various kinds of ants: the fallow ant; the
    sanguine ant; the legionary ant; the white ant, &c. There are
    some traits common to all: They live in communities; build
    cities, or ant-hills; and are divided into general classes,
    with their appropriate grades and employments, somewhat similar
    to bees; there are males, females, and neuters, or workers.

    They also resemble the bees in their respect for their
    matrons or queens; though they differ in this respect; they
    admit of the presence of an indefinite number of queens, which
    produces no ill consequences whatever. They all are equally
    caressed, and attended.

    There is a very marked difference between the ant and bee.
    The queens, or matrons of the bees remain in their respective
    hives, and their presence is necessary to the industry and
    contentment of the communities. But the matrons or queens of
    the ants act differently. The male and female ants have wings;
    the neuters or workers have not. These generally swarm together
    between July and September. They rise from the ant-hill
    together, in immense numbers; sometimes the ants of a whole
    district collect together and rise in the air, and seem only to
    be sporting; but at this time the females become fecundated.
    The quantity of ants with wings is so great sometimes, as, says
    Dr. Bromley, to form a column on the water five or six miles
    long, eight or ten feet broad, and six inches deep, when they
    happened to fall into the river.

    In this general destruction of the winged ants, some
    females escape, which quickly divest themselves of their wings,
    form an ant-hill, and found a new colony by depositing their
    eggs in it.

    It is also well ascertained that the working ants do not
    permit all the females or queens to escape, but detain some as
    prisoners, by cropping their wings. They pay every attention
    to these royal prisoners guarding them diligently, and feeding
    them liberally. When these females drop their eggs, the workers
    take them up carefully, and deposit them in their proper places.

    These are some of the principal traits common to the ant
    tribe. A few brief remarks may be made on the principal species.

    _The fallow ant._--The wars of this insect is the principal
    thing which can be noticed here. We have a minute detail, of
    one long and disastrous battle, by Huber. This battle took
    place between the inhabitants of two neighboring ant-hills:
    they met half way: the battle was commenced by single
    combatants; then they fought in pairs on elevated ground; and
    finally the battle became general. The attack is generally made
    by seizing each other by the mandibles, and rearing up on their
    hind feet so as to bring their abdomens forward, from which
    they eject a pungent poison upon their adversaries, in order to
    destroy them. This circumstance gives rise to a pungent smell
    on the spot. During the combat they are frequently grappled so
    closely together as to fall on their sides; and others coming
    to their assistance the group is locked fast in the struggle.

    During the action some are found leading away prisoners;
    others going as couriers to bring fresh troops to the fight,
    and some in the immediate vicinity of the hills keeping guard,
    and transacting the common business of the community.

    The battle occupied a space of about three feet square,
    and lasted until the approach of night: then each party
    retired; but was on the spot next morning at dawn of day, and
    re-commenced the battle with greater fury, and carnage. It
    finally terminated without subverting either republic.

    It was very remarkable, says Huber, that these ants, in
    promiscuous combat, should know their own party. In a few
    cases, for a moment, friends assailed, but rectified the error,
    instantly, by caressing.

    _The legionary ant._ Though the natural history of this
    insect, throughout, is very interesting, there is place for but
    one principal fact: i.e. their practice of making the _formica
    fusca_, or negro ant, a slave. This curious fact was first
    discovered by Huber, and has since been confirmed by Latreille,
    and is now admitted readily by naturalists.

    A campaign, for the purpose of procuring slaves, was
    observed closely by Huber on the 17th of June, 1804. The column
    was first seen crossing the road, being about ten inches long
    and four broad. He followed them until they approached the
    nest of the negro ant. The centinels on duty gave the alarm,
    and the ants rushed out, and made a spirited resistance to
    the invaders, but were finally driven into their house. The
    legionary ants then rushed forward, attacked the hill, and
    took the little city by assault. They remained in it but a few
    minutes, and returned, each one carrying in his mouth a larva,
    or young negro ant, and scampered home in confusion.

    They never take the old ants captive, but the young, in a
    state of infancy, and thus raise them in a state of slavery.
    The consequence is that they are submissive and affectionate,
    and perform with cheerfulness and fidelity all the domestic
    duties of a legionary city. They provide house and food for
    their masters, attend them, and serve them in every possible
    way.

    _The sanguine ant_ is also a slave dealer, and in the same
    manner as the legionary. Nor is the negro ant the only victim:
    the _mining ant_ is also reduced to a state of slavery by the
    legionary, and sanguine ants.

    There remains to be stated another circumstance connected
    with the natural history of ants, which would scarcely be
    credited, were it not tested by such names as Linnæus, Huber,
    and Latreille: that is, _they keep milch-cows_. There are
    certain insects, from which they extract a sweet saccharine
    fluid for food, as we do milk from cows. The principal insects
    which are thus used, are the plant-louse, and the gall-insect.
    Linnæus, and after him other naturalists, call these insects
    the _milch-cows of the ants_.

    The fluid issues from the body of the insect through little
    tubes placed above the abdomen on either side. When no ants are
    present the plant-lice emit this liquor from their bodies by a
    jerking motion: when they are in attendance they suck the juice
    with great avidity. But what is still more astonishing, the
    ants compel their milch-cattle to yield their milk, by gently
    patting them on each side with their antennæ, or feelers. This
    is properly milking them.

    In addition to this the ants take care to appropriate
    these milch-cattle to themselves, by collecting them in herds,
    guarding and feeding them. They sometimes make an enclosure
    around them, or around the tree or plant on which they find
    them, and thus secure them. Some herds are owned in common by
    the ant-hill; and others appear to belong to individuals.

    The _yellow ant_ is known to remove these plant-lice from
    the plants, and domesticate them in their hillocks for service
    in winter.

    In conclusion, in regard to ants we may mention their
    ravages committed on property. In the East and West Indies
    they are very destructive. They undermine houses in such a
    manner as to cause them to fall. Some species will devour the
    wood of a building of small size, in a single night. And it is
    remarkable that they make their ravages _internally_. One would
    not observe that they had assailed a beam of timber, unless he
    should take means to examine its interior. They will devour
    even the exterior of the timber when they have first coated
    it over with mud or clay in order to conceal their work. They
    devour furniture of all kinds, and completely consume the trees
    which fall in some countries. The extent of the damage which
    they can do, is incalculable.

    These remarks will show what interest the natural history
    of insects can inspire. It is not permitted to extend the
    subject further in a note.]

The distinction between _clean_ and _unclean_ Fowls, made in the
Scriptures, serves to point out the difference between the two classes
of _saints_ and _sinners_ among the human race. Those Fowls were
accounted clean, which are gentle in their nature, as the Dove, and
musical in their notes, as the Lark; which qualifications are not
to be found among birds of prey, as the Ostrich, Eagle, Vulture,
Hawk, Cormorant, Raven, Owl, Bat, &c. All these, so far as their
instincts and properties are discovered to us, agree so well with
the different characters of men, to whom in Scripture they have a
symbolical allusion, that none but the infinitely wise Creator could
have distinguished and applied their several peculiarities with so much
simplicity, brevity, and propriety.

Several of the unclean Fowls feed on filth and dead carcases; whose
“young ones” also “suck up blood, and where the slain are, there
are they.” Dr. Buchanan, when at the distance of fifty miles from
Juggernaut, says, “We know that we are approaching Juggernaut, by the
human bones which we have seen for several days strewed by the way.
The Vultures seem to live here on human prey: they exhibit a shocking
_tameness_. The obscene animals will not leave the body sometimes till
we come close to them. Yesterday a woman devoted herself to the idol:
this morning, as I passed the place of skulls, nothing remained of her
but her bones.” The unrenewed nature of man is no more offended with
evil, than a vulture is with human flesh, or a crow is with carrion, on
which it feeds with delight.

The unclean Fowls persecute and devour those of a more gentle nature.
The Eagle, נשר _nesher_, is from _nasher_ to _lacerate_, _cut_, or
_tear to pieces_; hence the _Eagle_, a most rapacious bird of prey,
has its name from tearing the flesh of animals it feeds on: and for
this purpose, birds of prey have, in general, strong crooked talons and
a hooked beak. The Eagle is a cruel bird, exceedingly ravenous, and
almost insatiable. This propensity in birds of prey to seize, tear,
and devour, is expressive of the violent and malevolent dispositions
of some persons, who hate and endeavor to injure those who live in
the fear of God, and keep his commandments. Such were the heathens,
whom St. Paul has described as “cruel” and “unmerciful, full of envy,
murder, and debate,” given up to the vilest passions, and all the
uncleanness of “dead works.”

The want of _natural affection_, and a _right understanding_ of Divine
things, among ungodly persons, is strikingly exhibited in the character
of the Ostrich. This foolish bird, though it has wings, is not able
to raise itself from the earth, and is void of that instinctive
tenderness, which other creatures feel for their offspring: “which
leaveth her eggs in the earth, and warmeth them in the dust, and
forgetteth that the foot may crash them, or that the wild beast, may
break them. She is hardened against her young ones, as though they
were not hers; her labor is in vain without fear; because God hath
deprived her of wisdom, neither hath he imparted to her understanding.”
The Ostrich lays from thirty to fifty eggs, not placed, like those of
some other birds, upon trees, or in the clefts of rocks, but in the
sand, forgetting the danger to which they are exposed from the feet of
travellers or wild beasts. On the most trivial occasion, she forsakes
her eggs, or her young ones, to which, perhaps, she never returns;
or, if she does, it may be too late, either to restore life to the
one, or preserve the lives of the other. The prophet, applying this
want of affection, says, “The daughter of my people is cruel, like the
Ostriches in the wilderness.” She is likewise inconsiderate and foolish
in her private capacity, says Dr. Shaw, particularly in her choice of
food, which is frequently highly detrimental and pernicious to her; for
she swallows every thing greedily and indiscriminately, whether it be
pieces of rags, leather, wood, stone, or even iron. To secure herself,
she will thrust her head into the shrubs, though her body, which, when
standing upright, is from six to eight feet in height, from the top of
the head to the ground, be exposed. She has a little head, and scarcely
any brain: hence historians tell us, that the emperor Heliogabalus,
to gratify his luxurious taste, together with other delicacies, such
as the combs of Cocks, the tongues of Pheasants and Nightingales, the
eggs of Partridges, the heads of Parrots and Peacocks, the brains of
Thrushes, had likewise served up to him, at one entertainment, the
heads of six hundred Ostriches for the sake of the brains; because,
being so very small, a less number would not have been sufficient to
make a dish. What an affecting emblematical representation is this
singular bird of the moral qualifications and habits of ignorant and
wicked men! not to mention the superstitious practice of offering
children to Moloch and other diabolical deities; the custom of exposing
new-born infants in the woods to perish with hunger, or be devoured by
wild beasts; a practice still tolerated among the idolaters of China.

The heathen, who “did not like to retain God in their knowledge,
but became vain in their imaginations, and their foolish heart was
darkened,” were in this respect, symbolically represented by the tribe
of Owls and Bats, and other birds of night, all of which the law
pronounced to be unclean. In the Owl we have a striking image of the
sceptic, who loves darkness rather than light, and is more proud of
his artificial ignorance than any man ought to be of the most useful
knowledge: who could never find Divine truth, because he never loved
it; as the Owl is offended with that glory which the sun diffuses over
the natural creation. As the day has no charms for the Owl, so revealed
religion has nothing wise or wonderful in its nature and design with
the unbelieving philosopher; who brings with him to the word of God all
that prejudice with which the Owl flies out of its retreat into the
sun-shine. Yet he has his admirers; as the hooting of the Owl is music
in the ears of another of the same species. This emblematical bird,
when exposed to the light of the sun against his will, lets down a
conspicuous membrane over his eyes, to guard them from the inconvenient
splendor of the orb of day; as the infidel draws a dark veil of evil
reasonings and blasphemous objections over his heart, to intercept and
weaken the effulgent rays of heavenly truth. The Owl has a natural
aversion from the light; and if he breaks through his ordinary rule,
and settled habit, so as to appear in the day-time, he is pursued and
reprimanded by other birds, as one that is a disgrace to their kind.
But the birds which thus express their indignation against the Owl,
never kill him, being unarmed and inoffensive in their nature.[156]
So an infidel should not be put to death for his detestable and
demoralizing principles; but all Christians should agree in giving
public notice of him, and showing the world what he is. For internal
realities do not always comport with external appearances. The outward
appearance of the Owl seems to promise a great degree of gravity and
wisdom, while its principles and manners are opposite to the common
sense of other birds, and its office in the creation reduces it to
the rank of a common mouse-trap. So the philosophers it represented
made a pompous display of reason and learning, all of which, so far
as they applied these to divinity, were no better than ignorance and
folly. “Professing themselves to be wise, they became fools;” and by
an unaccountable fatality chose this very bird as the emblem of their
wisdom; which was accordingly held in great veneration at Athens, the
principal seat of heathen learning, as the symbol of Minerva, the
tutelar goddess of that city.

The Bat is a sort of monster, partaking of the nature of both a
bird and a beast, having feet or claws growing out of its pinions,
and contradicts the general order of nature by creeping with the
instruments of its flight. What a contrast between this creature and
the Lark!

                      “Up-springs the Lark,
    Shrill-voiced and loud, the messenger of morn;
    Ere yet the shadows fly, he, mounted, sings
    Amid the dawning clouds, and from their haunts
    Calls up the tuneful nations.”

Nothing can be more pleasing, observes Goldsmith, than to see the Lark
warbling upon the wing; raising its note as it soars, till it seems
lost in the immense heights above us; the note continuing, the bird
itself unseen; to see it then descending with a swell as it comes from
the clouds, yet sinking by degrees as it approaches its nest, the spot
where all its affections are centered--the spot which has prompted
all this joy. While the Lark thus mounts on triumphant wings, soaring
up into the heavens with a song of praise to its Creator, this little
black animal lies sleeping in holes and cracks of decayed edifices;
and if disturbed by any accident, drops down and crawls upon the
earth. When darkness prevails, it comes forth from its concealment
to haunt the cemeteries of the dead, and desolate places; as if it
purposely avoided the society of all cheerful birds, and took a delight
in associating with Owls and Beetles in dark and solitary abodes.
“The bat is called עטלף _âtalaph_,” according to Parkhurst, “from עט
_ât_ to _fly_, and עלף _âlaph_, _darkness_ or _obscurity_, because
it flies about in the _dusk of the evening_, and in the _night_; so
the Septuagint νυκτερις, from νυξ, the _night_, and the Vulgate,
_vespertilio_, from _vesper_, the evening.”

These birds of the night but too appropriately symbolize with persons
who love darkness rather than light, because their deeds are evil.
Dr. Shaw, speaking of Ostriches, says, “In the lonesome part of the
night they frequently make a very doleful and hideous noise, sometimes
resembling the roar of the Lion; at other times the hoarser voices of
other quadrupeds, particularly the Bull or Ox.” He adds, “I have often
heard them groan as if in the greatest agonies.” Thus--

    “The slaves of excess, Their senses to please,
        Whole nights can bestow,
    And on in a circle of riot they go;
    Poor prodigals, they The night into day
        By revellings turn,
    And all the restraints of sobriety scorn.

    The drunkards proclaim At midnight their shame,
        Their sacrifice bring,
    And loud to the praise of _their_ master they sing:
    The hellish desires Which satan inspires,
        In sonnets they breathe,
    And shouting descend to the regions of death.”

       *       *       *       *       *

Footnotes - Chapter VI

    [141] The great Greenland Whale is a large, heavy animal,
    usually found from sixty to seventy feet long. The head alone
    is equal to a third of its bulk; and the cleft of the mouth
    is above twenty feet long. The upper jaw is furnished with
    barbs, that lie like the pipes of an organ, the greatest in
    the middle, and the smallest on the sides; these compose the
    whale-bone, the longest spars of which are found to be not less
    than eighteen feet. The fins on each side are from five to
    eight feet, consisting of bones and muscles, and sufficiently
    strong to give speed and activity to the great mass of body
    which they move. The tail is about twenty-four feet broad; and,
    when the fish is on one side, its blow is tremendous. The skin
    is smooth and black, and in some places dappled with white and
    yellow: which, running over the surface, have a very beautiful
    effect. The outward or scarf skin is no thicker than parchment;
    but this removed, the real skin appears of about an inch thick,
    and covers the fat or blubber that lies beneath: this is from
    eight to twelve inches in thickness; and, when the fish is in
    health, of a beautiful yellow. The muscles lie beneath: and
    these, like the flesh of quadrupeds, are very red and tough.

    [142] A variety of opinions we meet with concerning the
    _whale_ which swallowed Jonah, and in whose belly he was _three
    days and three nights_. The following is offered by Dr. A.
    Clarke. “That a fish of the _shark_ kind, and not a _whale_,
    is here meant, _Bochart_ has abundantly proved, vol. iii, col.
    742, &c, edit, Leyd. 1692. It is well known, that the throat
    of a whale is capable of admitting little more than the _arm_
    of an ordinary man; but many of the shark species can swallow
    a whole man; and men have been found whole in the stomachs of
    several. Every natural history abounds with facts of this kind.
    Besides, the shark is a native of the _Mediterranean Sea_, in
    which Jonah was sailing, when swallowed by what the Hebrew
    terms דג גדול _dog gadol, a great fish_; but every body knows
    that _whales_ are no produce of the Mediterranean Sea, though
    some have been by _accident_ found there, as in most parts of
    the maritime world: but let them be found where they may, there
    is none of them found capable of swallowing a man.”

    [143] The _Torpedo_ is formidable, being well known by
    the effect it produces when touched: but the manner of its
    operating is to this hour a mystery to mankind. Such is the
    unaccountable power it possesses, that, the instant it is
    touched, it benumbs not only the hand and arm, but sometimes
    also the whole body. The shock received, by all accounts, much
    resembles the stroke of an electrical machine; being sudden,
    tingling, and painful. “The instant,” says Kemfer, “I touched
    it with my hand, I felt a terrible numbness in my arm, and as
    far up as the shoulder. Even if one tread on it with the shoe
    on, it affects not only the leg, but the whole thigh. Those who
    touch it with the foot, are seized with a stronger palpitation
    than even those who touch it with the hand. This numbness bears
    no resemblance to that which we feel when a nerve is a long
    time pressed, and the foot is said to be asleep: it rather
    appears like a sudden vapor, which, passing through the pores
    in an instant, penetrates to the very springs of life; whence
    it diffuses itself over the whole body, and gives real pain.
    The nerves are so affected, that the person struck imagines
    all the bones of his body, and particularly those of the limb
    that received the blow, are driven out of joint. All this
    is accompanied with an universal tremor, a sickness of the
    stomach, a general convulsion, and a total suspension of the
    faculties of the mind.”

    We are in possession of some facts which relate to the
    manner of its acting. Reaumur, who made several trials on
    this animal, has at least convinced the world that it is not
    necessarily, but by an effort, that the Torpedo benumbs the
    hand of him that touches it. He tried several times, and could
    easily tell when the fish intended the stroke, and when it
    would continue harmless. Always before the fish meditated
    the stroke, it flattened the back, raised the head and the
    tail; and then by a violent contraction in the opposite side,
    struck with its back against the pressing finger; while the
    body, which before was flat, became humped and round. The
    most probable solution of this phenomenon is, that it depends
    on electricity. When the fish is dead, the whole power is
    destroyed, and it may be handled, or eaten with perfect
    security.

    [144] A large herring-fishery is carried on at Douglas, in
    the Isle of Man. Herrings are so abundant in the neighborhood
    of Gottenburgh, that 200,000 barrels, on an average, are salted
    there every year, and about 400,000 are employed in making
    train oil. Besides these, 50,000 barrels are consumed fresh in
    the country, or sent to Denmark. Allowing 1,200 fish to each
    barrel, in this district alone, about 780,000,000 of herrings
    are caught in a season. In the year 1776, 56,000 barrels were
    sent to Ireland, and thence exported to the West Indies.

    [145] The Indians of Jamaica and Cuba (says Oviedo) go a
    fishing with the Remora, or Sucking-Fish, which they employ as
    falconers employ hawks.--This fish, which is not above a span
    long, is kept for the purpose, and regularly fed. The owner,
    on a calm morning, carries it out to sea, secured to his canoe
    by a small but strong line, many fathoms in length; and the
    moment the creature sees a fish in the water, though at a great
    distance, it darts away with the swiftness of an arrow, and
    soon fastens upon it. The Indian, in the mean time, loosens
    and lets go the line, which is provided with a buoy that keeps
    on the surface of the sea, and serves to mark the course which
    the Remora has taken, and pursues it in his canoe until he
    conceives his game to be nearly exhausted and run down: he
    then, taking up the buoy, gradually draws the line towards the
    shore; the Remora still adhering with inflexible tenacity to
    its prey; and it is with great difficulty that he is made to
    quit this hold. By this method (adds Oviedo) I have known a
    turtle caught, of a bulk and weight which no single man could
    support.--Edward’s West Indies, vol. i. p. 100.

    [146] A species of sea turtle, weighing 840 lb. was
    harpooned and caught on the 27th of September, 1811, off Sandy
    Hook, near New-York. It measured three feet two inches round
    the neck, was seven feet long, eight feet in circumference,
    and seven feet and a half from the extremity of one fin to the
    other: of a coal black color, with five black ridges on the
    back resembling the sturgeon. It is said to be a trunk turtle,
    a native of the East Indies, and was the first ever seen in
    the American seas. The proprietor of a museum purchased it for
    fifty dollars.

    [147] Sir W. Jones, when in India, formed en acquaintance
    with an intelligent and respectable Brahmin. The religion of
    these men permits them not to destroy life, nor to swallow any
    creature which has possessed it; and so strict are some, that
    in the season when insects abound, they cover their mouths and
    nostrils, and sweep the ground on which they walk with a soft
    broom, that they may not tread on them. Sir William had a solar
    microscope sent from England, and showing it to his Hindoo
    friend, demonstrated the impossibility of his eating even fruit
    and vegetables without swallowing the animalcules which adhere
    to them. The Brahmin was astonished and seemed gratified; but
    begged importunately for the microscope, _so_ importunately,
    that, at length, Sir William reluctantly resigned it to
    him. A momentary gleam of joy flashed across the Brahmin’s
    countenance; and, grasping the instrument, he immediately
    descended from the viranda, where they were conversing, into
    the garden, when, seizing a stone, he instantly smashed it to
    pieces. On assigning his reason for this act, which he did a
    few days afterwards, when his friend’s anger had subsided, he
    said, “Oh that I had remained in that happy state of ignorance
    wherein you first found me! Yet will I confess, that, as
    my knowledge increased, so did my pleasure, until I beheld
    the last wonders of the microscope. From that moment I have
    been tormented by doubt, and perplexed by mystery: my mind,
    overwhelmed by chaotic confusion, knows not where to rest,
    nor how to extricate itself from such a maze. I am miserable,
    and must continue so to be, until I enter on another stage of
    existence. I am a solitary individual, among fifty millions of
    people, all educated in the same belief with myself, all happy
    in their ignorance! So may they ever remain! I shall keep the
    secret within my own bosom, where it will corrode my peace, and
    break my rest; but I shall have some satisfaction in knowing
    that I alone feel those pangs which, had I not destroyed
    the instrument, might have been extensively communicated,
    and rendered thousands miserable! Forgive me, my valuable
    friend, and, oh, _convey no more implements of knowledge and
    destruction_!” These religious prejudices, which cannot bear
    the light of sound philosophy, we perceive to be the results of
    lamentable ignorance and degrading superstitions, and it may
    be hoped will soon be removed by the cultivation of science,
    and especially the dissemination of the Scriptures. The
    missionaries now in the East will certainly be of very singular
    use to the natives.

    [148] M. de Saussure, in a letter to Bonnet, says,
    “Infusion-animalcules multiply by continued divisions and
    sub-divisions. Those roundish or oval animalcules that have
    no beak or hook on the fore part of their bodies, divide
    transversely. A kind of stricture of strangulation begins about
    the middle of the body, which gradually increases, till the
    two parts adhere by a small thread only. Then both parts make
    repeated efforts, till the division is completed. For some time
    after separation, the two animals remain in seemingly torpid
    state. They afterwards begin to swim about briskly. Each part
    is only one half the size of the whole: but they soon acquire
    the magnitude peculiar to the species, and multiply by similar
    divisions. To obviate every doubt, I put a single animalcule
    into a drop of water, which split before my eyes. Next day, I
    had five; the day after, sixty; and, on the third day, their
    number was so great, that it was impossible to count them.”--La
    Palingenesie Philosophique, par C. Bonnet, tom. i. pp. 428, 429.

    [149] See Bryant’s Observations upon the Plagues inflicted
    upon the Egyptians, Part I.

    [150] See Jones’s Disquisition concerning clean and unclean
    Animals.

    [151] Nicholas, in his voyage to New-Zealand, vol. i, p.
    334, says, “The morning of the 10th of January, 1815, was
    announced to our enraptured ears by the swelling notes of the
    woodland choristers, and never either before or since did I
    hear such delightful harmony. Rising together at an early hour,
    we fancied ourselves for the moment in some enchanted ground,
    while the forest seemed to ring with the mellow warblings of
    nature, and a thousand feathered songsters poured their soft
    throats in responsive melody. There was, however, one bird that
    was distinguished from all the rest, as well by the compass and
    variety of its notes, as by their incomparable sweetness. This
    bird, which has been brought to Port Jackson, and highly prized
    there, is called by the colonists the _organ-bird_, and is, I
    believe, peculiar to New-Zealand: the notes of the Nightingale,
    however exquisite, are, in my opinion, much inferior to the
    song of this bird; and I never thought before that either the
    grove or forest could boast of such a vocal treasure.”

    [152] A Martin recently fixed her nest directly over
    the window of the Inn at Rampside, in Low Farnes. After her
    young were hatched, she became a very troublesome visitant,
    by throwing the cleansing of her nest upon the window. The
    servant-maid, with more attention to cleanliness than humanity,
    removed the little inconvenience by destroying the nest with
    a broom. The young birds of course fell to the ground; in
    the mean time the parents collected a great number of their
    own species, who quickly built a second nest, sufficiently
    commodious for the reception of the distressed family, and the
    young were safely conveyed to their new lodgings by the parents
    and their assistants.

    [153] Dr. Edmonston, in his view of the Zetland islands,
    says, “The white-tailed Eagle, or Erne, boldly attacks fishes
    of the largest size. Several desperate combats have been
    witnessed between this bird and the Halibut. The former strikes
    his claws into the fish with all his force, determined not to
    relinquish his hold, and, although but rarely, is sometimes
    drowned in the attempt to carry off his prize. When he has
    overcome the Halibut, he raises one of his wings, which serves
    as a sail, and if favored by the wind, in that attitude drifts
    towards the land. The moment he touches the shore, he begins to
    eat out and disengage his claws; but if discovered before this
    can be effected he falls an easy prey to the first assailant.”

    [154] Bellonius says, “The Storks come to Egypt in such
    abundance, that the fields and meadows, are white with them.
    Yet the Egyptians are not displeased with this sight; as frogs
    are generated in such numbers there, that did not the Storks
    devour them, they would over-run every thing. Besides, they
    also catch and eat Serpents. Between Belha and Gaza, the fields
    of Palestine are often desert on account of the abundance of
    Mice and Rats; and were they not destroyed by the Falcons that
    come here by instinct, the inhabitants could have no harvest.”

    [155] Dr. Edmonston says:--“The crows generally appear in
    pairs, even during winter, except when attracted to a spot
    in search of food, or when they assemble for the purpose
    of holding what is called the _Crow’s court_. This latter
    institution exhibits a curious fact in their history. Numbers
    are seen to assemble on a particular hill or field, from many
    different points. On some occasions the meeting does not appear
    to be complete before the expiration of a day or two. As soon
    as all the deputies have arrived, a very general noise and
    croaking ensue, and, shortly after, the whole fall upon one or
    two individuals, whom they persecute and beat until they kill
    them. When this has been accomplished, they quietly disperse.”

    On the subject of Gulls, Dr. Edmonston says:--“In the
    affectionate care of their offspring, these Gulls display great
    sagacity and even foresight. When the cradle at Noss is about
    to be slung, the gulls, aware of the approaching capture of
    their young, are unremitting in their efforts to carry them
    off. From the first moment that they observe preparations
    making to enter the holm, they become noisy and restless,

        ---- ‘and chide, exhort, command,
        Or push them off,’

    so that if bad weather delay the arranging of the cradle,
    but for a few days, scarcely any are left to be taken away.

    “This bird is a great enemy to the fowler, by intimating
    to other birds his approach. One of them is an inseparable
    attendant on the _Scarfs_, when they assemble on the rocks
    for the purpose of drying and resting themselves; and they
    seem sensible of the good offices of this voluntary guardian,
    by quietly receiving it among them, and obeying its friendly
    admonitions.--On the approach of a person from the shore, or
    of a boat, the Gull having first testified marks of anxiety
    and apprehension, flies off before either have approached
    within gunshot, and all the Scarfs, except those who are young
    and inexperienced, follow. It not merely contents itself with
    giving them warning in due time, but urges their departure by
    repeated calls, and sits down in the water, at a considerable
    distance from the spot from which it fled, as if intending
    to point out the place where they may consider themselves in
    safety; and they generally all repair to the same place. To
    the Seal this bird is of essential service. These animals
    frequently lie upon the rocks for hours in succession, and so
    well acquainted are some sportsmen with their haunts, that they
    raise small bulwarks, or _rests_, to conceal their approach,
    or wait their arrival behind a rock. The Gull, however,
    frustrates all these precautions, by first flying over the head
    of the hunter, and then screaming close to the Seal; and, when
    the latter is not disposed to avail himself at once of this
    friendly intimation, I have known them _strike him on the head_
    with their feet. As soon as he slips into the water they appear
    to be perfectly satisfied, as if they then conceived him in a
    situation to protect himself.

    “The Gull seems to consider itself the natural guardian of
    the coast. If it spies a person at a distance, walking in a
    cautious manner, in the neighborhood of any bird, it instantly
    repairs to the spot, and by a keen acute cry, different from
    the common note, endeavors to inform it of the approaching
    danger. Ducks and Curlews know the hint quite well, and almost
    always take advantage of it, and fly off long before the fowler
    can arrive within gun-shot of them. On these occasions it often
    comes with a sweep, as if intending to strike the person,
    who by that means is kept in a state of constant alarm and
    irritation; but if it do not immediately fly off, after having
    succeeded in accomplishing the object of its mission, this
    officious interference not unfrequently draws the vengeance of
    the fowler on itself, and it falls the victim of its own good
    intentions. This Gull is not satisfied with having alarmed
    birds on any particular occasion. It does indeed fly to a
    distance and sit down, but after its anxiety has been once
    roused, it never loses sight of the fowler, but follows him at
    a distance wherever he goes, and unless by pretended inactivity
    the sportsman can quiet the apprehension of his enemy, it is
    in vain to think of getting within reach of any bird that is
    naturally shy and of a timid disposition. The scream of this
    bird is peculiarly wild, and indicative of anxious impatience.”

    [156] Hasselquist, speaking of the _Strix Orientalis_,
    or Oriental Owl, says, “It is of the size of the common owl,
    living in the ruins of old deserted houses of Egypt and Syria;
    and sometimes in inhabited houses. The Arab in Egypt calls it
    _Massasa_, the Syrians _Bana_. It is very ravenous in Syria,
    and in the evenings, if the windows be left open, it flies into
    houses, _and kills infants_, unless they are carefully watched;
    wherefore the women are much afraid of it.”--Travels, p. 196.

       *       *       *       *       *




CHAPTER VII.

SIXTH DAY.

_Section_ I.--ON QUADRUPEDS AND REPTILES.

    Quadrupeds in general -- Motion -- Habits -- Rumination --
    Proportion -- Tastes -- Clothing -- Weapons -- Proportionate
    Number -- Faculties -- Reptiles -- Religious Improvement.

On the _sixth day_ all terrestrial animals were formed. “And God said,
Let the earth bring forth the living creature after his kind, cattle,
and creeping thing, and beast of the earth after his kind, and it was
so. And God made the beast of the earth after his kind, and cattle
after their kind, and every thing that creepeth upon the earth after
his kind.” According to Dr. A. Clarke, the words נפש חיה _nephesh
chaiyah_, translated _living creature_, are a general term used to
express all creatures endued with animal life, in any of its infinitely
varied gradations; from the half-reasoning elephant down to the stupid
potto, or lower still, even to the polype,[157] which seems equally
to share the vegetable and animal life. The word חיתו _chaiyeto_,
translated _beast_, and by Mr. Parkhurst, rendered _wild beasts_, seems
to signify all wild animals, as the Lion, the Tiger, the Panther, the
Lynx, the Hyæna, &c, and especially such as are _carnivorous_, or
subsist on flesh. בהמה _behemah_, which we translate _cattle_, probably
means those of the domestic species, such as are _graminivorous_, or
live on grass and other vegetables; and are capable of being tamed, and
applied to domestic purposes. The word properly means _beasts_, and is
so understood by the Seventy, whose interpretation of the words of Job
is, “Behold the beasts with thee, they eat grass like oxen.” According
to Ab, Ezra, and the Targum, it is the “name of any great beast.” But
R. Levi says, that it is “an animal peculiarly called by that name.”

The Hebrew _behemah_, says Buxtorf, is taken in the singular number
for the Elephant, because of its vast greatness. Ainsworth says, the
word generally implies all large beasts; and of this classification the
Elephant is called Behemoth. “Behold now _Behemoth_, which I made with
thee; he eateth grass as an ox.” The word here is plural, and signifies
beasts; but in this passage one particular beast is meant, for it is
usual with the Hebrews or Jews to express great and excellent things by
words in the plural number. Though some later and very learned men take
the Leviathan to be the Crocodile, and the Behemoth to be a creature
called the Hippopotamus, or river-horse, yet says Henry, “I confess
I see no reason to depart from the opinion, that it is the Elephant
that is here described, which is a very strong, stately creature, of a
very large stature, above any other, and of wonderful sagacity, and of
such reputation in the animal kingdom, that, among so many four-footed
beasts as we have had the natural history of, Job chap. xxxviii, xxxix,
we can scarce suppose this should be omitted.”[158]

The Elephant may be thus denominated from its great bulk and strength.
He is the largest of all land animals. Pliny tells us, that the
Elephants in India are thirteen feet and a half high, and have two
teeth of such enormous size that the Indians use them for posts to
their houses: those of the male being six or seven feet long, while
those of the female do not exceed one foot.

    “Peaceful, beneath primeval trees that cast
    Their ample shade o’er Niger’s yellow stream,
    And where the Ganges rolls his sacred wave,
    Or mid the central depth of blackening woods,
    High rais’d in solemn theatre around,
    _Leans the_ HUGE ELEPHANT.”

His strength is also equal to that of many beasts. “His bones are as
strong as pieces of brass; his bones are like bars of iron.” Some
historians say, that in time of war people used to erect wooden towers
on the backs of Elephants, and from these elevated forts men combated
with their enemies. It is said that Antiochus had a great number of
these huge animals with towers constructed upon them, in each of which
were thirty-two men armed. “He is the chief of the ways of God:” that
is, a signal instance of Divine power and wisdom, the most excellent of
all mere animals, in size, strength, understanding, and sagacity. None
of the beasts is more prudent, says Strabo: none of them approaches
nearer to man in his capacity, says Pliny. “He moveth his tail like a
cedar.” As his tail is not proportional to the bulk of his body, many
understand by this term his proboscis or trunk. The original word זנב
here rendered _tail_, signifies properly the extreme part of a thing;
hence it is as applicable to his trunk, which hangs like a tail, though
placed at the opposite extremity of his body. This he “moveth” with
amazing dexterity, and, at pleasure, can stretch it out, and erect it
like a “cedar” growing out of a mountain.--“Behold, he drinketh up a
river, and hasteth not: he trusteth that he can drink up Jordan into
his mouth.” He being naturally of a hot constitution, and generally
inhabiting hot climates, requires much liquid. His “drinking up a
river,” is a hyperbolical expression implying his ardent thirst: and
“hasteth not,” signifies his reluctance to quit the stream till his
parching desire be fully satiated. His “trusting” that he can drink
the river “Jordan” dry, is also an hyperbolical term to express his
copious draughts. “He eateth grass as an ox, the mountains bring him
forth food;” which he gathers, collects, and conveys to his mouth
with his long trunk. He resides “where all the beasts of the field
play.” So harmless is this strong animal, that the inferior part of
the brute creation are not intimidated at his presence, but graze with
him upon the mountains, and sport themselves about him in the plain,
apprehending no danger from him. How wondrous are the works of God! in
which are no less evinced the effects of his power, than the displays
of his wisdom. The word _cattle_, also includes Horses, Kine, Sheep,
Dogs, &c.

Quadrupeds enjoy many advantages above the lower tribes of the animal
creation. They rank higher than the class of Birds, by bringing forth
their young alive; they are superior to that of Fishes, by respiration
through their lungs; they are exalted above the order of Insects, by a
circulation of red blood through their veins; and they differ almost
from every other description of creatures, being either wholly or in
part covered with hair.

What admirable wisdom is displayed in the _motion_ of animals, suited
to their various occasions! Reptiles, to which a clod, a plant, a
tree, or a hole, will afford the means of supporting life, and which
protracted privations of food do not materially affect, require no legs
to make extensive excursions, but their vermicular motion is adequate
to every essential purpose. Beasts, whose necessities call for a larger
sphere, possess accordingly a swifter motion; and this is imparted
in various degrees, suitable to their range for food, and adapted to
accelerate their speed in escaping from their enemies.

In the motion of animals, from the largest Elephant to the smallest
Mite, the whole body is exactly balanced. The head is not too heavy,
nor too light for its kindred parts, nor they for it. The bowels hang
not loose, nor are so placed as to over-balance, or upset the system;
but well-braced, and accurately distributed to maintain an equipoise.
The most active members also are admirably well fixed, in respect to
the centre of gravity, being placed in the very point which best serves
to support and convey the body. Every leg bears its share of the weight.

The _mouths_ of animals are nicely adapted to their different habits
of life. The Ox, the Deer, the Horse, and the Sheep, have full lips,
rough tongues, broad cutting teeth, corrugated cartilaginous palates,
which qualify them for browsing, either by gathering large mouthfuls
where the grass is long, or biting close where it is short. In those
which subsist on flesh, the teeth are sharp, and calculated to hold
and divide their food. The bore of the gullet in animals is answerable
to their necessities. In a Fox, which feeds on bones, it is very
large. But in a Squirrel it is exceedingly small, which prevents him
from disgorging his meat in his descending leaps: and it is equally
contracted in Rats and Mice, which run along walls with their heads
downward.

In all animals, the strength and size of their _stomachs_ are
proportioned to the nature and quantity of their food. Those whose
aliment is more tender and nutritive, have them smaller, thinner, and
weaker: whereas they are large and strong in those whose food is less
nutritive, and whose bodies require greater supplies. Carnivorous
beasts have their stomachs small and glandular, as flesh is the most
nutritious. Those that derive their support from fruits and roots have
them of a middle size: while on the contrary, Sheep and Oxen, which
feed on grass, have the largest stomachs; and those which ruminate
have in general no less than four; in Africa, where the plants are
nutritive, some of this class have only two. Yet the Horse, Hare, and
Rabbit, though graminivorous, have comparatively small stomachs. The
Horse is made for labor, and both he and the Hare are constructed for
quick and continued motion; for these the most easy respiration, also
the freest action of the diaphragm, is requisite. But this could not
be, did the stomach lie heavy and cumbersome upon it, as in Sheep and
Oxen.

Another very remarkable circumstance is, that those animals which have
teeth on both jaws, possess but one stomach; whereas most of those
which have no _upper teeth_, or no teeth at all, have three stomachs.
For the meat which is first chewed, is easily digested; but that which
it swallowed whole, requires a stronger concoctive power.

The Horse eats night and day, slowly, but almost continually: whereas
the Ox eats quickly, and takes, in a short time, all the food nature
requires; and then lies down to ruminate. This difference arises
from the different conformation of these animals. The Ox, of whose
stomachs the first two form but one capacious bag, can, at the same
time, receive grass into both of them, without inconvenience, which he
afterwards ruminates and digests at leisure. The Horse, whose stomach
is small, and can receive but a small quantity of grass, is filled
successively in proportion as he digests it; and it passes into the
intestines, where is performed the principal decomposition of the
food. Chewing the cud is but a vomiting without straining, occasioned
by a re-action of the first stomach on the food which it contains.
The Ox fills the first two stomachs, the paunch, and the bag, which
is but a portion of the paunch. This membrane acts with force on the
grass it contains; it is chewed but a little, and its quantity is
greatly increased by fermentation. Were the food liquid, this force of
contraction would occasion it to pass by the third stomach, which only
communicates with the other by a narrow conveyance, and cannot admit
such dry food, or, at least, can only admit the moistened parts. The
food must, therefore, necessarily pass up again into the œsophagus, the
orifice of which is larger than the orifice of the conduit, and the
animal again chews and macerates it, and moistens it afresh with its
saliva: he reduces it to a paste, sufficiently liquid to enter into
this conduit, through which it passes into the third stomach, where it
is again macerated before it goes into the fourth; and it is in this
last receptacle that the decomposition of the hay is finished, which is
reduced to a perfect mucilage. What chiefly confirms this explication
is, that as long as the animals suck, and are fed with milk and other
liquid aliments, they do not chew the cud; and that they chew the cud
much more in winter, when they are fed with dry food, than in summer,
when they eat tender grass.

All the parts of the same animal are adopted to each other. So, for
instance, the length of the neck is always proportioned to that of the
legs. Though the Elephant has a short neck, because the weight of his
head and teeth would otherwise have been insupportable; but, then, he
is provided with a trunk, which abundantly supplies the defect. In
other beasts, the neck is always commensurate to the legs; so that they
which have long legs have necks proportioned; and so vice versa, as is
observable in Lizards of all kinds, even from the Eft to the Crocodile.
And creatures that have no legs, as they want no necks, so they
have none. This equality between the length of the neck and legs is
peculiarly seen in beasts that feed on grass, in which these are very
nearly equal; because the neck must necessarily have some advantage,
for it cannot hang perpendicularly, but must incline a little.

These creatures, while feeding, bend their heads downward for a
considerable time, which would be very laborious and painful to the
muscles, were it not for a very stiff, strong cartilage, placed on each
side of the neck, capable of stretching and shrinking again as need
requires, which butchers call pax-wax. The one end of this is attached
to the head, and the next vertebræ of the neck; and the other is knit
to the middle vertebræ of the back: and by the assistance of this,
animals are able to hold the head in that inclining posture all day
long. The head being placed at the end of a long lever, in a direction
nearly perpendicular to the joints of the neck, would be in constant
danger of dislocation from its own weight, had not such a substance
been added, which, by its great strength and toughness, retains the
parts together, while, by its pliancy, it offers no obstruction to the
free motion of the neck and head.

The members of animals are exactly adapted to their manner of living.
A Swine, whose natural food is chiefly the roots of plants, is provided
with a snout; long, that he may thrust it to a convenient depth in the
ground without injuring his eyes; and strong and suitably formed, for
rooting and turning up the earth: therefore the retiring under-jaw
works after the manner of a plough-share, and makes its way to the
food: and besides, his scent is extremely acute in discovering such
roots as are fit for him. Hence in Italy, the usual way of finding
truffles, or subterraneous mushrooms, is by tying a cord to the hind
leg of a pig, and driving him into pastures. They who attend then mark
where he stops and begins to root, and digging there, are sure to find
a truffle. So in pastures where there are earth-nuts, though their
roots are deep in the ground, and the leaves are quite gone, the Swine
will find them by their scent, and root only in the places where they
grow.[159]

In some animals the head is long, in order to give room for the
olfactory nerves, as in Dogs, which hunt by scent. In others, it is
short, as in the Lion, to give him the greater strength. In beasts of
prey, as Lions, Tigers, Wolves, they have the trumpet-part or concavity
of the ear standing forward, to meet the sound of the animals before
them, which they pursue or watch. The ears of animals of flight are
turned backward, to apprize them of the approach of the pursuing
enemy, lest he should assail them unseen. Beasts of prey have their
feet armed with claws, which some can sheath and unsheath at pleasure.
The Babyrouessa, or Indian Stag, a species of Wild-Boar, found in
the East Indies, has two _bent_ teeth more than half a yard long,
growing upward, and, which is very singular, from the upper jaw. These
instruments are not wanted for defence, that service being provided
for by two tusks issuing from the under jaw, and resembling those of
the common Boar: nor does the animal thus use them. They might seem
therefore both superfluous and cumbersome: however, they have their
utility; for this animal sleeps standing, and, in order to support its
head, hooks its upper tusks upon the branches of trees.

In the Mole we find a most scrupulous attention to the habits of the
animal. It has short legs, feet armed with sharp nails, a pig-like
nose, a velvet coat, a small external ear, a sunk protracted eye, all
which are conducing to utility and safety. Its feet are like so many
shovels, placed in so peculiar a manner as to enable the animal to
remove the earth on each side, and throw it backwards. The cylindrical
figure of the Mole, as well as the compactness of its form, arising
from the terseness of its limbs, proportionably lessen its labor;
because its bulk requires the least possible quantity of earth to
facilitate its progress. The structure of its face and jaws is similar
to those of a Swine, and equally adapted to work in the ground. The
nose is sharp, slender, tendinous, and strong. The plush covering,
which, by the smoothness, closeness, and polish of the short piles that
compose it, rejects the cohesion of almost every species of earth,
defends the animal from cold and wet, and from the impediment which it
would otherwise experience by the adhesion of mould to its body. Being
subterraneous, of all animals it comes out from soils of all kinds
the brightest and cleanest. But its eyes are most to be admired. This
animal occasionally visiting the surface of the earth, self-security
required a perception of light. The Mole did not need large eyes
to compass a great range of vision; and prominent eyes would have
been less easily defended, whilst working under ground. To reconcile
these inconveniences, these eyes are scarcely larger than the head
of a corking pin; and these globules are so sunk in the skull, and
sheltered with the velvet of their covering, that any contraction of
the eye-brows, not only closes up the apertures, but offers a cushion
to prevent any sharp or protruding substance from injuring them. These
apertures in their open state, are like pin-holes in velvet, scarcely
pervious to loose pieces of earth.[160]

The different _tastes_ of animals show the wise economy of nature. Oxen
delight in low grounds, because they afford the most palatable food.
Sheep prefer barren hills, on which is produced a particular kind of
grass called festuca, which they highly relish. Goats climb up the
precipices of mountains, that they may browse on the tender shrubs; and
accordingly have their feet constructed for jumping. Horses, not in
a state of domestication, chiefly resort to woods, and feed on leafy
plants. Nay, so various are the appetites of animals, that there is
scarcely any plant which is not chosen by some, and left untouched by
others. The Horse resigns the Water-Hemlock to the Goat; the Cow gives
up the Monks-Hood to the Horse; for that on which some animals grow
fat, others abhor as poison.--Hence no plant is absolutely poisonous,
but only respectively. Thus the Spurge, that is noxious to man, is a
most wholesome nourishment to the Caterpillar. That animals may not
destroy themselves for want of knowing this law of nature, they are
guarded by such a delicacy of taste and smell, that thus they can
easily distinguish what is pernicious from what is wholesome; and when
different animals subsist on the same plants, one kind always leaves
something for the other, as the mouths of all are not equally adapted
to lay hold on the grass; hence there is sufficient food for all.[161]
The leaves and fruits of trees are intended as food for some animals,
such as the Sloth and Squirrel; the latter of which has feet adapted
for climbing. The Camel frequents the sandy and burning deserts, in
order to obtain the barren produce of those soils. How wisely has the
Creator provided for him! he is obliged to traverse those trackless
wastes where frequently no water is found for many miles. Other
animals, so circumstanced, would perish with thirst: but he can endure
it without much inconvenience; his belly being full of cells, where he
reserves water for many days.[162]

Quadrupeds are furnished with such _clothing_ as is suitable to their
various offices. To beasts, hair is a commodious covering, which,
together with the texture of their skins, fits them in all sorts of
weather to lie on the ground, and to render service to man. The thick
and warm fleeces of others are a good defence against the cold and
wet, and also a soft bed; and to many, a comfortable shelter for their
tender young. All the animals near Hudson’s Bay are covered with a
close, soft, warm fur; and, what is very surprising, and shows the
wisdom and goodness of Divine providence, the Dogs and Cats which are
taken thither from England, on the approach of winter, change their
appearance, and acquire a much longer, softer, and thicker coat of hair
than they originally had.

Many animals are armed with _weapons_ of self-defence, some of which
are used for the destruction of others. Nay, we scarcely know an
animal which has not some enemy to contend with. Wild beasts are the
most pernicious and dangerous enemies. But, that they may not, by
too atrocious a butchery, destroy a whole species, even these are
circumscribed within certain bounds. As to the most fierce of all, it
deserves to be noted, how few they are in proportion to other animals.
The number of them is not equal in all countries. These fierce animals
sometimes destroy one another. Thus the Wolf devours the Fox. The Dog
infests both the Wolf and Fox. The Tiger often kills its own male
whelps. And wild beasts seldom arrive at so great an age, as animals
which live on vegetables. For they are subject, from their alkaline
diet, to various diseases, which tend to accelerate their death: while
the Elephant, which feeds on vegetables, is fifty or sixty years
before he attains his full strength, is in the highest state of vigor
at about a hundred, and lives two or three hundred years. But, though
animals are infested by their peculiar enemies, yet they frequently
elude their violence by stratagems and force. Thus the Hare, by her
doublings, often confounds the Dog. When the Bear attacks Sheep and
Cattle, these flock together for mutual defence. Horses join heads
together, and fight with their heels. Oxen join tails, and fight with
their horns. Swine unite in herds, and boldly oppose themselves to any
attack, so that they are not easily overcome: and, what is remarkable,
all of them place their young, as less able to defend themselves, in
the middle, that they may remain safe during the battle. Some animals
consult their safety by night. When Horses sleep in woods, one by turn
remains awake, and, as it were, keeps watch. When Monkeys, in Brazil,
sleep on trees, one of them keeps awake, in order to give the sign when
the Tiger creeps toward them; and in case the guard should be caught
asleep, the rest tear him in pieces.

Divine Providence is evidently displayed in keeping a just proportion
amongst all the different species of animals: this prevents any one
of them from increasing too rapidly, to the detriment of others. For
the produce of the ground would be insufficient for the support of the
animal creation, were their increase not regulated and limited by the
over-ruling power of God. To which we may add, that, if some animals
did not feed on others, the earth would be annoyed with putrified
bodies. Therefore, when an animal dies, Bears, Wolves, Foxes, &c,
expeditiously take the whole of it away. But if a horse die near a
public road, in a few days he is swoln, burst, and at last filled with
innumerable grubs of carnivorous Flies, by which his flesh is soon
entirely consumed, and so does not become a nuisance to passengers by
his poisonous stench. Thus the earth is not only kept clean from the
putrefaction of dead carcases, but at the same time, by this economy of
nature, the necessaries of life are provided for many animals.

Though animals should not die a violent death, still their powers only
continue for a limited time: they have their determinate periods of
growth, perfection, and decay: hence it becomes necessary that one
race should succeed and replace another, and for this purpose they
are endowed with a power of procreation. The formation of the fœtus,
the manner of its existence, and the growth of its parts, are great
secrets of nature; and in all viviparous animals, the _milk_ found in
the female parent is a maintenance ready for the young animal, the
moment it enters the world. We have here, the nutritious quality of
the fluid--the organ for its reception and retention--the excretory
duct, annexed to that organ--and the determination of the milk to the
breast, at the particular juncture when it is about to be wanted. The
advanced pregnancy of the female has no intelligible tendency to fill
the breasts with milk. The lacteal system is a constant wonder: and it
adds to other causes of our admiration, that the number of the teats
or paps in each species is found to bear a proportion to the number
of the young. In the Sow, the Bitch, the Rabbit, the Cat, the Rat,
which have numerous litters, the paps are numerous, and are disposed
along the whole length of the belly: in the Cow and Mare, they are
few.[163] And the teats of animals which give suck are exactly adapted
to the mouth, particularly to the lips and tongue, of the suckling
progeny. Herodotus observes, that the most useful animals are the most
fruitful in their generation: whereas the species of those beasts
that are fierce and mischievous to mankind are but scarcely continued.
The historian instances in a Hare, which is always either breeding or
bringing forth; and a Lioness, which bears but once and then loses all
power of conception.

It is evident that animals have not only a principle of self-motion,
but are endued with a degree of understanding; and have a will,
including various passions. What then produces the disparity
between men and brutes, the line which they cannot pass? It is not
understanding: who can say that brutes have not this? We may as well
assert that they have not sight, nor hearing. But the difference
consists in this: man is capable of knowing and enjoying God; the
inferior creatures are not. This is the specific difference between the
two: the great gulf which the brute cannot pass over.

We meet with a striking instance not only of industry, but
_understanding_ in Beavers. In the northern parts of America, during
the months of June and July, they assemble, and form a society, which
generally consists of more than two hundred. They always fix their
abode by the side of a lake or river; and in order to make a stagnant
water above and below, they erect, with incredible labor, a dam or
pier, perhaps fourscore or a hundred feet long, and ten or twelve
feet thick at the base. When this dyke is completed, they build their
several apartments, which are divided into three stories. The first is
beneath the level of the mole, and is for the most part full of water.
The walls of their habitations are perpendicular, and about two feet
thick. If any wood project from them, they cut it off with their teeth,
which are more serviceable than saws: and by the help of their tails,
they plaster all their works with a kind of mortar, which they prepare
of dry grass and clay, mixed together. In August or September, they
begin to lay up their stores of food; which consist of the wood of the
birch, the plane, and of some other trees. Thus they pass the winter,
in the enjoyment of ease and plenty.[164]

In the Dog we perceive evident marks of sagacity, recollection,
affection, and revenge. _Sagacity_:--In the year 1760, whilst one
Richardson, a waterman of Hammersmith, was sleeping in his boat,
the vessel broke from her moorings, and was carried by the current
under a west country barge. Fortunately, the man’s dog happened to
be present; and the sagacious animal awaked him, by pawing his face,
and pulling the collar of his coat, at the instant when the boat
was filled with water, and on the point of sinking; by which means
he had an opportunity of saving himself from inevitable death.[165]
_Recollection_:--A Dog, which had been the favorite of an elderly
gentlewoman, some time after her death, on seeing her picture, when
taken down from the wall, and laid on the floor to be cleaned,
discovered the strongest emotions. He had never been observed, Dr.
Percival believed, to notice the picture previously to this incident.
Here was evidently a case of remembrance, or of the renewal of former
impressions. _Affection_:--A few miles from Aberdeen, as a gentleman
was walking across the Dee, when it was frozen, the ice gave way in
the middle of the river, and he sunk; but, by grasping his gun, which
had fallen athwart the opening, kept himself from being carried away
by the current. A dog, who attended him, after many fruitless attempts
to rescue his master, ran to a neighboring village, and took hold of
the first person he met. The man was alarmed, and would have disengaged
himself: but the Dog regarded him with a look so kind and significant,
and endeavored to pull him along with so gentle a violence, that he
began to think there might be something extraordinary in the case, and
suffered himself to be conducted by the animal; who brought him to his
master in time to save his life.[166] _Revenge_:--A pack of ravenous
Fox-Hounds were half starved in their kennel, to render them more
furious and eager in the chace: and were severely lashed every day by
a merciless keeper, that they might be disciplined to the strictest
observance of his looks and commands. It happened that this petty
tyrant entered the kennel without his scourge. The dogs observed his
defenceless state; and, instantly seizing him, at once satisfied their
hunger and revenge by tearing him to pieces.[167]

The Monkey tribe is very numerous, and usually divided by naturalists
into three classes. Those which have no tails are termed Apes, and
such as have very short ones, Baboons; but by far the most numerous
class consists of those which have long tails, and are known by the
general name of Monkeys. Were we to dissect and examine the several
component parts of any one creature which God has made, we should
find a perfection among its several powers, and an adaptation of its
construction to its situation in the grand scale of existence, far
surpassing human wisdom.

At the Cape of Good Hope, Baboons are under a sort of natural
discipline, and go about whatever they undertake with surprising skill
and regularity. When they undertake to rob an orchard or vineyard
(for they are extremely fond of grapes and apples,) they go in large
companies, and with preconcerted deliberation. Part of them enter the
inclosure, while one is set to watch: the rest stand without the fence,
and form a line reaching all the way from their fellows within to their
rendezvous without, which is generally in some craggy mountain. Every
thing being thus disposed, the plunderers within the orchard throw
the fruit to those that are without as fast as they can gather it;
or, if the wall or hedge be high, to those that sit on the top; and
these hand the plunder to those next them on the other side. Thus the
fruit is pitched from one to another all along the line, till it is
safely deposited at their head-quarters. They catch it with amazing
dexterity; and while the business is going forward, a profound silence
is observed. Their sentinel, during the whole time, continues on the
watch, and when he perceives any one coming, instantly sets up a loud
cry, on which signal the whole company scamper away. Nor are they
willing to go empty-handed; for if they are plundering a bed of melons,
for instance, they go off with one in their mouths, one in their hands,
and one under their arms. If the pursuit be vigorous and close, they
drop first that from under their arms, then that from their hands; and
if it be continued, they at last let fall that which they had kept
in their mouth.[168] There is another species of Monkey in the West
Indies, of the size of a Fox. These are in great numbers in the woods,
and make aloud and frightful noise. But it is common for one only to
make a noise, and the rest to form a mute assembly round him. Marcgrave
says, “I have frequently seen great numbers of them meeting about noon:
at which time they formed a large circle, and one placing himself above
the rest, began to make a loud noise. When he had sung thus by himself
for some time, the rest all remaining silent, he lifted up his hand,
and they all instantly joined in the chorus. This intolerable yell
continued, till the same Monkey, who gave the signal for the beginning,
lifted up his hand a second time. On this they were all silent again,
and so finished the business of the assembly.”

Thus we see, wherever we turn our eyes, the various species of
creatures which God has made. Every element is stocked with
inhabitants, the sea with fishes, the air with fowls, and the earth
with quadrupeds and creeping things. All these different provinces are
richly replenished with food for the support of all the innumerable
creatures that live in them. And what surprising skill and sagacity
do some in the brute creation discover; such as might make many, who
pride themselves in their reason, to blush and be confounded! Who does
not admire the exquisite contrivance of birds in building their nests?
the subtlety of several creatures in seeking their proper food? and of
others in securing and defending themselves? The art of the Spider in
weaving and spreading her nets, to ensnare and entangle her prey? the
sapience and industry of the Bee in building her combs, and filling
them with pleasant food? and the care and foresight of the Ant, in
laying up her store against winter? In the meanest reptile, the Divine
wisdom and power are conspicuously displayed.

The word רמש _remes_, translated _creeping thing_, and rendered
_reptile_ by Parkhurst, includes all the different genera of serpents,
worms, and such animals as are not pedaneous. What a disparity among
animals! While some are of an enormous size, and stalk about in the
greatness of their strength, others are of a delicate and diminutive
appearance, bordering on comparative insignificance. But Divine “skill
and power are not less displayed in the beautiful Chevrotin, or
Tragulus, a creature of the Antelope kind, and smallest of all _bifed_
or cloven-footed animals, whose delicate limbs are scarcely as large as
an ordinary goose quill; nor the Shrew Mouse, perhaps the smallest of
the many-toed quadrupeds. In the _reptile_ race we see also the same
skill and power; not only in the immense snake called Boa Constrictor,
the mortal foe and conqueror of the Royal Tiger, but also in the Cobra
de Manille, a venomous serpent, not much larger than a common sewing
needle.”

The Lizard tribe are distinguishable at first sight from other
oviparous animals. They have no shields, like the Tortoises, and are
furnished with tails, which are wanting in Toads and Frogs. They are
covered with scales, of greater or less rigidity, or with a kind of
warts or tubercles. Some of the species are scarcely more than two
inches in length, whilst others extend even the length of twenty-six
feet. The larger ones live on animals, which they seize by stratagem,
and the smaller ones on insects. The aquatic species undergo a
metamorphosis, from a tadpole to a perfect state. Most of them are
produced from eggs, but some are brought forth alive. In many of the
species the color and form are exceedingly beautiful. They principally
inhabit the warmer regions of the globe, and many of them serve mankind
for food.

As according to the economy of nature, the Lion seems appointed to
the dominion of the immense deserts of the torrid zone, the Eagle to
rule as sovereign of the air, and the Whale to have the pre-eminence
in the seas; so the Crocodile[169] and the Alligator appear to rule
over the shores of the large rivers of tropical climates. All the
rivers of Guinea are pestered with vast shoals of the former, M.
Adanson having seen in the great river Senegal more than two hundred
swimming together; and the latter are natives of the warmer parts of
America.--The Guana, which grows to the length of four or five feet,
is very common in Surinam, the woods of Guiana, Cayenne and Mexico,
and in many parts both of Africa and Asia; but is now become scarce
in the West Indies, in consequence of being much sought after for
the table.--The Nimble Lizard, measuring from the tip of the nose to
the end of the tail about six inches, is known in almost every part
of the temperate regions of Europe. The Green Lizard and the Nimble
Lizard, are considered by Dr. Shaw as varieties of the same species.
The Green Lizards are considered by the inhabitants of Carolina as
very useful animals, in consequence of destroying flies, and other
troublesome and noxious insects. They will sometimes remain motionless
for half a day, waiting for insects; and when one appears, they spring
at it with the swiftness of an arrow. They are so familiar as to enter
the houses without fear, and, in pursuit of prey, ascend the tables
whilst families are eating, and even leap on their clothes. They are so
beautiful and cleanly, as to be suffered to run across the tables, and
even the plates, without exciting the least alarm or disgust.

The Chameleon is a native of India, the Indian Islands, Africa, some of
the warmer parts of Spain and Portugal, and several of the countries
of South America. Its usual length is about ten inches, and the tail
nearly the same. All the motions of this creature are extremely slow,
so that when travelling from one branch of a tree to another in pursuit
of food, it may rather be said to lie in ambush among the leaves,
in order to catch such insects as may come within the reach of its
long adhesive tongue, than go in search of prey. When walking on the
ground, it steps forward in a cautious, groping manner, seeming never
to lift one foot till it is well assured of the firmness of the rest.
From these precautions, its motions have a singular appearance of
gravity, when contrasted with its diminutive size, and the activity
that might be expected in an animal so nearly allied to some of the
most active in the creation. Each of its eyes is covered with a rough
membrane, which is divided by a narrow horizontal slit, through which
the bright pupil, as if bordered with burnished gold, is seen. The
eyes have this singular property, of looking at the same instant in
different directions. One of them may frequently be seen to move when
the other is at rest; or one will be directed forward, whilst the other
is attending to some object behind; or in the same manner upward and
downward. The property of changing its color is singular, and has led
to various conjectures as to the cause.

Serpents are distinguishable from those already mentioned, by their
total want of feet. The banded Rattle-Snake, found both in North and
South America, is the most dreaded of all serpents. Providence has
given to man a security against its bite; for it generally warns the
passenger by the rattling of its tail, as well as by its odor, which
is extremely fetid. When it has been irritated, or the weather is very
hot, its poison being introduced into a wound, often proves fatal in a
short time. If not provoked, it is inoffensive, being so much alarmed
at the sight of men, as always, if possible, to avoid them, and never
commencing an attack. The Great Boa, which is the largest of all the
serpent tribe, is frequently from thirty to forty feet in length, and
of a proportional thickness. It is a native of Africa, India, the
largest Indian Islands, and South America, where it chiefly resides
in the most retired situations in woods and marshy retreats. We are
assured, that one of these serpents killed and devoured a buffalo, in
the island of Java. It is happy for mankind that their rapacity is
often the means of their own punishment; for whenever they have gorged
themselves in this manner, they seek a retreat where they may lurk for
several days and digest their meal, become unwieldy, stupid, helpless,
sleepy, and may be approached and destroyed with safety.[170]

The snake tribe comprises nearly two hundred species, which differ from
each other both in size and habit, and about one-fifth of the whole
have been discovered to be poisonous. “The deserts of Arabia,” says
Adanson, “are entirely barren, except where they are found to produce
serpents; and in such quantities, that some extensive plains are almost
entirely covered with them.” The apparatus of poison in the Viper is
very similar to that of the Rattle-Snake, and all the other poisonous
serpents. The _fang_ of a Viper is a wonderful instance of contrivance.
It is a perforated tooth, loose at the root: in its quiet state, lying
down flat on the jaw, but furnished with a muscle, which with a jerk,
and by the pluck, as it were, of a string, suddenly erects it. Under
the tooth, close to its root, and communicating with the perforation,
lies a small bag containing the venom. When the fang is raised, the
closing of the jaw presses its roots against the bag underneath; and
the force of this compression sends out the fluid, with a considerable
impetus, through the tube in the middle of the tooth. By this singular
apparatus, the animal is enabled to inflict on its enemies a most
deadly bite, and infuse into the wound the most deleterious liquid.
Yet, though in the mouth, this, in the quiescent state of the reptile,
does not interfere with its ordinary office in taking its food.[171]

No less curious is the clothing of Reptiles. How well adapted are the
rings of some, and the contortions of the skins of others, not only to
guard the body sufficiently, but enable them to creep, perforate the
earth, and perform all the functions of their stations, better than any
other covering! Virgil gives the following description of a Sicilian
serpent:

    “Scarce had he finish’d, when, with speckled pride,
    A serpent from the tomb began to glide;
    His hugy bulk on sev’n high volumes roll’d;
    Blue was his breadth of back, but streak’d with scaly gold;
    Thus riding on his curls, he seem’d to pass
    A rolling fire along, and singe the grass.
    More various colors through his body run,
    Than Iris, when her bow imbibes the sun.”

Even the tegument of the Earthworms is made in the completest manner,
for effecting a passage in the earth, wherever instinct directs their
motions. Their bodies are composed of small rings, and have a curious
apparatus of muscles, which enables them with great strength to extend
or contract the whole body. Each ring is likewise armed with stiff,
sharp prickles, which they can open or close at pleasure. And under
their skins is a shining juice, which they emit, as occasion requires,
to lubricate their bodies, and facilitate their passage into the
earth. By all these means they are enabled, with ease and speed, to
work themselves into the ground, which they could not do, if they were
covered with hair, feathers, scales, or such clothing as any of the
other creatures.--One of the most singular properties of the serpent
tribe is that of casting their skins from time to time. The beauty and
lustre of their colors are then highly augmented. The old skins have a
tarnished and withered appearance, and are forced off by the growth of
the new. When this takes place, so complete is the spoil or coat-skin,
that even the external coat of the eyes themselves make a part of it.

Among creeping things, the Spider engaged the attention of Solomon who
observes, that he is one of those “little things on the earth, that are
exceeding wise.” This creature subsists on flies, wasps, and similar
insects, without having wings to pursue them; a circumstance apparently
of great difficulty, yet provided for by a resource, which no stratagem
nor effort of his own could have produced, had not both the external
and internal structure of this animal been specifically adapted to the
operation. What surprising skill and sagacity does the Spider discover
in weaving and spreading her nets to ensnare and entangle her prey!
How wonderfully artificial is her web, or _house_! How astonishingly
curious its architecture! With the fine and delicate threads she spins
out of her bowels, how thin a web does she weave, constructed for
the purpose of procuring food! It is fastened according to the rules
of mathematics, for its lines are drawn exactly from the centre at
parallel distances.[172] When this net is spread, that she may the more
effectually secure her prey, she cunningly conceals herself in her
covert, to evade the discovery of flies. It is from the accuracy of
this geometrical workmanship, that this cunning artist is immediately
apprized of the approach of a fly, or any other insect of the like
nature, when she sallies forth and seizes on her prey. She is furnished
with a very sharp hooked forceps, placed near the mouth. With this
weapon she seizes and pierces the flesh of such insects as entangle
themselves in her web; and, at the same instant, by means of a small
white proboscis, she infuses a deadly juice into the wound, which,
in a moment, kills the animal. This poison must be very deleterious;
for flies, and many other insects, may be mutilated by depriving them
of their legs, wings, and even cutting their bodies through the very
middle of their abdomen, and, in that condition, will survive several
days.--The Centipeds, the Scorpion, and the Tarantula, are all provided
with poisonous weapons.


_Appendix to the Chapters on Plants, Fishes, Fowls and Quadrupeds._

    [If we will attentively examine the _fossil remains
    of fishes, animals, birds, and vegetables_, so abundantly
    preserved entombed in the crust of our earth, we shall easily
    see the necessity of looking into the sepulchres of these
    primitive creatures if we would freely describe the “Mosaic
    Creation.” Many of their genera and species are now extinct:
    and those which remain seem to have dwindled down to mere
    _dwarfs_ in comparison with their prototypes.

    It is a matter of great satisfaction, that these
    interesting remains of the primordial world are so well
    preserved. They are called by one _the medals of creation_:
    they reveal the ancient condition of our earth; the successive
    events; and the attending organic appendages of sensitive
    beings: and it is a matter of great pleasure to the Christian,
    that what they disclose so clearly on this subject agrees
    expressly with the Bible.

    The class of animated beings called _pisces_, or _fishes_,
    is not so well known in regard to their _genera_, and
    _species_, as the classes of quadrupeds and birds.

    From the fossil remains of each, and their position in the
    crust of the earth, it is well ascertained, that their genera
    were created successively, and that the most ancient genera
    are extinct. The same is true in regard to vegetables. It is
    equally true, that, connected with the successive creation,
    was a _successive improvement_ in the delicacy and complexity
    of their structure and parts. There was also a reduction in
    the _size_ of fishes, and quadrupeds, and a great reduction in
    the _amount_ of vegetation, as well as the size of many of the
    plants.

    These periodic variations in all early organized bodies,
    were evidently owing to the variations of the state of the
    surface of our earth, and the surrounding atmosphere. The
    Divine Being appears to have created the different genera
    suited in constitution to the condition of the world at the
    time. The cause of their successive extinction appears to have
    been successive catastrophes, which altered the constitution of
    our earth and atmosphere.

    All these facts taken together indicate, that, in the
    early periods of the earth, the soil, water, and air were
    better calculated to sustain the simply huge, and inconceivably
    powerful and fierce creatures of the animal kingdom, than the
    delicate and beautiful beings of the present period. The same
    is eminently true in regard to vegetables, specially their
    _quantity_. They were of trunks, and spreading branches so huge
    as to exceed belief, did we not see them well preserved in a
    fossil state. Their quantity also was immense; hence the amount
    of vegetable coal found in the earth.

    These facts clearly indicate that, in the early periods of
    our earth, the surface was moist, perhaps, marshy for a long
    time, gradually drying, and passing to a habitable state: the
    air was very moist and gross, and the temperature of the earth
    was much higher than at present. Hence the huge and abundant
    vegetable productions. These general facts shall be confirmed
    by a few remarks in regard to each class.

    _Fishes._--Under this class is included, here,
    _testaceous_, and _crustaceous_ creatures, as well as
    _fishes_ commonly so called. The most ancient of this family
    seem to be entirely extinct, and their remains are found in
    great abundance in the lower transition rocks. There are
    many localities where fossil fish, of various kinds, are
    found abundantly. They are sometimes found in the heart of
    mountains, thousands of feet above the level of the sea. Their
    localities are so numerous they need not be mentioned. They
    are found in all possible _positions_, and in every degree of
    _preservation_--some are _contorted_, and _crushed_; indicating
    sudden violence. Others are inhumed in the very act of
    swallowing their prey, and in every easy and natural position;
    indicating that they expired without violence. Some of these,
    which are thus quietly buried, are of the most active species;
    thus proving the suddenness of the catastrophe.

    So extensive are the depositions of _shell-fish_, that
    whole beds of rock, in some cases, appear to be composed of
    them; and, indeed, in some instances, mountains are composed
    principally of these rocks filled with organic remains.

    From these facts, it is allowed by all, that the sea once
    covered these localities; and when it is recollected that some
    of the rock strata, composed of the exuviæ of these marine
    creatures, are _hundreds_ of feet thick, the conclusion will
    be irresistible, that the sea covered them for a long time,
    and that these rocks which contain them _were deposited at
    the bottom of the sea_, which have since become dry, by the
    retiring of the waters, or by some subjacent force upheaving
    the bed of the sea, and of course these deposits which had
    been made at its bottom--when these fossil remains are found
    in mountain masses they have been upheaved--when in low lands,
    where the rocks lie _in situ_, the sea has exposed them by
    retiring.

    _Amphibious Creatures._--There are yet a few animals of
    this class; but they can scarcely be called the types of the
    ancient races, now extinct, whose remains have lately been
    discovered, and attracted so much attention in Europe. They
    are principally of the _crocodile_, and _saurian_ (or lizard)
    families. Their size, and indicated power, ferocity, and
    fierceness, are astonishing beyond measure. Their structure
    clearly indicates their proper element was wet, marshy, and
    reedy places, such as the crocodile delights in at this time:
    thus indicating that they were in the earth as the ancient
    chaotic seas retired, and was leaving the earth dry.

    If a _single_ skeleton only, of any one of these creatures
    had been found, naturalists would have pronounced it a _lusus
    naturæ_. But many have been found, of different genera and
    species: only two or three shall be mentioned here.

    One of the crocodile family, as is supposed, had a spine
    composed of 133 vertebræ, or joints, taken together 21½ feet in
    length. The head was nearly 4 feet. Its species are extinct;
    some refer even this huge animal to the lizard family.

    _The Megalosaurus._ The skeleton of this huge creature has
    been satisfactorily examined, and ascertained to belong to the
    _lizard family_. Its thigh bone is 32 inches long. It is said
    some have been found 4 feet. At 32 inches, the animal must
    have been 48 feet in length. Dr. Buckland, from some fossil
    remains, calculates some of them were as high as our largest
    elephants, and sixty or seventy feet in length. And yet this
    was a _lizard_ of the ancient world!

    _The Pterodactyle._ This is a species of the saurian family
    as those above. Its distinctive character is the _elongation of
    its fourth toe_, so as to support a membrane for the purpose
    of _flying_: hence its name, _wing-toed_. It is indeed a
    curiosity. Its species is extinct.

    _The Ichthyosaurus._ This is also a reptile of the lizard
    kind: but because it so much resembles a _fish_; it has this
    name, i.e. _fish-lizard_. It has a moderate tail--long pointed
    muzzel armed with sharp pointed teeth; two huge eyes; breathed
    air; swam in the water; crawled in marshy, reedy places, but
    could not walk or run on land, having flat fins, or bony
    paddles, somewhat like seals. The skeletons indicate some of
    them to have been 25 feet long.

    _The Plesiosaurus._ This animal, as its name imports,
    was rather akin to lizards, than decidedly of the genus. Its
    very peculiar characteristic is the immoderate length of its
    neck, and the unexampled number of _vertebræ_ of which it is
    composed. In other respects it approaches the ichthyosaurus.
    Its remains indicate an animal, according to Cuvier, at least
    30 feet long.

    _The Iguanodon_, was of the lizard genus, three or four
    times as large as the largest crocodile; having jaws equal in
    size to the incisors of the rhinoceros, and crested with horns.
    (DR. BUCKLAND.)

    Many more creatures of the early periods of our earth might
    be mentioned, which would come expressly under the title of
    this volume; and the knowledge of which is durably preserved
    in the fossils of the earth, all of which would confirm the
    facts stated in the commencement of this paper, viz: that
    during the first and grossest periods of our earth previously
    to the creation of man, great numbers of genera and species
    of huge and misshapen animals existed, which are now extinct.
    For instance: the skeletons of animals of the _frog and
    toad_ families, have been found so large, as to induce some
    naturalists at first to call them _human remains_. A tapir has
    been found the _size of an elephant_; and a species of the
    _sloth tribe_ as long as a _rhinoceros_!!

    These things will indeed appear incredible to the reader
    at first; but let him recollect that the evidences of these
    astonishing facts are contained in the solid crust of the
    earth, and cannot be deceptive. They may be _seen, measured,
    weighed, and put up so as to form the whole animal_, an object
    of inspection to thousands.

    There are but few fossil remains of _birds_ found in the
    earth, and these are principally in the upper tertiary strata,
    and in company with the fossil remains of such animals as are
    companionable and serviceable to man. The reason of this is
    obvious: the earth was not suitable for the habitation of birds
    until it had become comparatively dry, and the seas had retired
    in a great measure, and vegetation abundant. The aquatic genera
    appeared first, of which there are a few remains. Moreover this
    class of creatures could not be overtaken with any violent
    catastrophe, so as to bury them in a body, or in particular
    strata. It is, therefore, probable that birds, as a class, have
    preserved their genera and species from the first; and are now
    nearly the same in this respect, as well as in size, as in the
    earlier periods of the world.

    _Vegetables._--In the vegetable kingdom we are if possible,
    more astonished than in the animal, of the ancient periods
    of our earth. From their fossil remains, well and abundantly
    preserved, it is very evident that the vegetation of the first
    periods of our earth was abundant and heavy, beyond any thing
    which we can conceive at this time. It cannot be doubted but
    that the vegetative powers of the earth was very much greater
    than at this time, or within the memory of man. This is evident
    from the immense production of _vegetable coal_.

    This statement may be rendered somewhat more credible when
    it is recollected, that the earth, in its first periods, was
    of a much higher temperature than now; and of course not only
    produced more abundantly, but _all parts_ of the earth produced
    vegetation in abundance. This is evident from the fact, that
    within the arctic circle, where now reigns eternal winter, and
    no vegetation can be found, there was anciently successive
    products of heavy vegetation. (See appendix to our paper on
    volcanos.) This is proven by plants being found fossilized
    _on the spot, and in the position in which they grew; as
    also the leaves and fruits of plants, which are known now to
    be tropical, so well preserved, and in such a natural, easy
    position as to prove clearly they grew on the spot on which
    they were fossilized_.

    The _flora_ of the primordial world was expressly a part
    of the ‘Mosaic creation,’ and which is but little understood
    as yet. Some of the principal plants were of the _fern_ and
    _palm_ genera; but their size very far exceeded those now found
    growing. By closely examining these fossil plants, it will be
    found, _that they increase in size and quantity as the period
    of their growth is distant from the time in which man was
    created_: thus indicating _an increasing temperature of the
    earth as we ascend in time_. This also corresponds with the
    well known fact, _that the size of these plants now increases
    progressively from the polar regions to the equator_.

    Our author has given a concise and edifying description of
    the principal families and individuals which now exist, and are
    found in the earth. The above remarks are intended to direct
    the attention to those _which have long since passed away_.]

The propriety of the distinction between clean and unclean beasts,
mentioned in the Scripture, will appear on the first hearing of their
names; for we find amongst the clean creatures, Oxen, Sheep, Goats,
and Lambs: and on the other side, Lions, Tigers, Wolves, Foxes, Swine,
Moles, and Serpents. It is evident that there is a wide difference
between these two parties, with respect to their manners and ways of
life.

Those only are admitted among clean animals, which “divide the hoof
and chew the cud.” Animals which divide the hoof are more inoffensive
with their feet, than the several tribes of wild beasts, whose paws are
armed with sharp claws, to seize their prey. Quadrupeds with a divided
hoof tread surer than those whose hoof is entire; there being a plain
mechanical reason why a foot, which presents several angles and edges,
should take faster hold on the ground. They are not only surer footed,
but also more orderly and regular in their progress. Sheep have a
natural tendency to follow each other’s steps. They approach the fold,
or return from it, in a train; as well as traverse their pastures in
the like order. Oxen tread in the very footsteps of their predecessors:
so that a drove of them, on passing through a deep and narrow road,
leave the surface divided into a regular succession of ridges and
furrows, as if it were the work of art. If animals could reason and
dispute as men can, this plodding practice of the Ox might possibly
be ridiculed by the Ass; as the orthodox believer, who is content to
tread in the steps of his forefathers, is scoffed at by the rambling
freethinker, who uses it as the privilege of his nature, to deviate
into by-ways, untrodden by those who were much wiser than himself.
_Sure footing_ is an image not improperly applied to elementary truth
and science: whence it will not be unnatural to suppose, that this
first character of the clean animals was intended to be expressive of
rectitude and certainty of principle in moral agents. Error is various
and changeable in its nature: but truth, being uniformly the same in
all ages, will always be productive of sobriety and regularity in those
who follow it.

The other character of clean animals is that of “chewing the cud;”
a faculty expressive of that act of the mind, by which it revolves,
meditates, and discourses on what it has laid up in the memory; and
the word _ruminate_ has the same metaphorical meaning. An animal
thus employed has the appearance of abstraction in its countenance,
as if it were engaged in deep meditation; and it ruminates more
particularly when lying in an horizontal position, for then the food
is more easily recalled into the mouth from its temporary lodgment in
the stomach. This character then, is expressive of devout thought and
holy conversation: for the word of God is the food of the mind, which,
being laid up in the heart, should be frequently revolved; so that
being properly applied to the inward man, it may contribute to a daily
increase in faith, purity, and goodness.

The clean animals were also _sacred_; that is, set apart by the law
for the purpose of sacrifice. The propriety of which is evident: for
if the worshipper, who offered an animal to God, meant by that act to
devote himself, using the animal as his substitute or proxy; then
certainly it was not fit that he should represent himself by an unclean
creature, whose instincts and habits would convey an odious idea of his
own person and character, and consequently make his devotion appear
ridiculous. In order to make a sacrifice acceptable, it was requisite
that the qualifications of the offerer should correspond with those
of the offering. The innocent manners of a clean victim, were a tacit
reflection on an unclean offerer. When the worshippers of the true
God were corrupt in their principles or morals, their oblations were
no longer either proper or acceptable: which was signified to them
in those words of the prophet--“He that killeth an ox, as if he slew
a man: he that sacrificeth a lamb, as if he cut off a dog’s neck:
he that offereth an oblation, as if he offered swine’s blood.” The
reason is added: “They have chosen their own ways, and their soul
delighteth in their abominations.” But there is another sense in which
the institution of sacrifice is to be understood: for every sacrifice
had its prophetic use, and was prefigurative of the true sacrifice of
Jesus Christ; with respect to whom it was necessary that every animal,
preferred to this sacred application, should be recommended by every
possible character of innocence, purity, and perfection: therefore the
sacrifices were taken from the tribes of Sheep, Goats, and Oxen.

The diet of the Jews being thus immediately connected with the most
solemn acts of religious adoration, the daily course of their living
carried with it an exhortation to purity of mind and body, and directed
their faith to its supreme object, the vicarious sacrifice of the
Messiah. The moral necessities of man can only be supplied by the death
and benefits of a propitiatory sacrifice, the common substitute of all
mankind: whence God has mercifully ordained, as well by the present
condition of creation itself, as by the appointment of revelation, that
the life of his body should be sustained in like manner: thereby to
remind us every day, that the life of man is in a state of forfeiture;
and that there can be neither the preservation, nor the remission
of sins, without the shedding of innocent blood. Thus does mankind
conspire in offering up a daily sacrifice, and attesting the truth of
the Christian doctrine, and many persons with the same insensibility
that Caiaphas uttered a similar prophecy in its favor, “It is necessary
that one man should die, that the whole people perish not.”

These clean and unclean animals, with respect to their several ways
of life, are as opposite as their dispositions. Sheep, Oxen, Goats,
Deer, &c, are formed into societies, they herd peaceably together, and
are subject to the laws of government, as well for their own advantage
as for the service of man. But beasts of prey roam by themselves in
forests and deserts, incapable of entering into any friendly communion.
They are so many single tyrants, who acknowledge no superior, but fight
their way, and live in a state of hostility with the whole creation.
If they ever unite in gangs, it is with the spirit of thieves and
murderers, who are banded together only that they may plunder the
innocent with greater security. And, like other depredators, they are
all fond of darkness. When the sun goes down, the Lion stalks forth
from his den: at which time the Sheep, under the direction of the
shepherd, are retiring to their fold. And when the cattle are climbing
up the mountains to their pasture, invited by the reviving rays of
the rising sun, the tyrants of the night are warned back to their
hiding-places.[173]

The blindness of the Mole, the petulance and immodesty of the Dog,
the subtlety of the Fox, the poisonous teeth and double tongue of the
Serpent, afford ample scope for reflection. The Egyptian hieroglyphics
were certain visible representations of creatures, whose inclinations
and actions led to the knowledge of those truths which they intended
for instruction. A profane and voluptuous man was represented by a
Swine, whose filthy disposition caused it to be hated by all the
eastern people. A great hypocrite, or a notorious dissembler of
wicked intentions, was expressed by a Leopard, because this animal
acts craftily, concealing his head that he may with less difficulty
catch his unwary prey; for the creatures are as much alarmed at his
presence, as they are pleased with the agreeable scent of his body:
when therefore they approach him, delighted with the perfume, he will
cover his head with his paws, till they come within his reach. An
incorrigible person was also expressed by a Leopard’s skin, because its
spots no art can remove. A Chamelion likewise was the hieroglyphic of a
hypocrite, who can accommodate himself to any religion that will serve
his turn; for this animal can change its color. A stupid, ignorant
person, an enemy to religion, was signified by an Ass; and one that was
not acquainted with men and things, or knew not how to acquit himself
with decency and propriety in the world, was painted with the head
and ears of an Ass. The Egyptians were accustomed to put the heads of
animals on the bodies of men, to express the dispositions and conduct
of those persons they were intended to represent. A Tiger, being a
most fierce animal, signified a savage, cruel, revengeful disposition,
opposed to all goodness. A Fox is notorious for his craftiness;
therefore he is an emblem of a subtile person, under the influence of
wicked thoughts and intentions.[174]

Rams, and Bullocks of Bashan, Lions, or any animal of prey, are figures
frequently used by the sacred writers for cruel and oppressive tyrants
and conquerors. “Hear this word, ye kine of Bashan, which oppress
the poor.” Bashan was a very fruitful place, a fine and fattening
pasture, in which were the best fed and strongest cattle. To these,
the prophet compares the great men among the Israelites, especially
their judges and magistrates, who were proud, insolent, wanton and
mischievous, like the bulls of Bashan; who oppressed the poor, as high
fed cattle push and gore the weaker sort. “The Lion is come up from
his thicket, and the destroyer of the Gentiles is on his way; he is
gone forth from his place to make thy land desolate: and thy cities
shall be laid waste without an inhabitant.” By this animal is meant
Nebuchadnezzar, the king of Babylon, so termed on account of his great
power and fierceness; and as the Lion is commonly in the forest among
the thicket, so this terrible political ruler had his strong hold and
principal seat at Babylon, which residence he left to commit awful
desolation among the cities of Judah and Israel.

The prophet Isaiah, with a boldness and majesty becoming the herald
of the Most High, begins his prophecy with calling on the whole
creation to attend, when Jehovah speaks. “Hear, oh heavens; and give
ear, oh earth; for the Lord hath spoken; I have nourished and brought
up children, and they have rebelled against me.” A charge of gross
insensibility and ingratitude is then brought against the Jews; by
contrasting their conduct with that of the Ox, and the Ass, which is
the most stupid of animals. “The Ox knoweth his owner, and the Ass his
master’s crib: but Israel doth not know, my people do not consider.”
What a cutting reproof! what an indelible reproach! to have been
favored with the best means of instruction, and yet to be exceeded by
the herd of the stall! To perish for lack of knowledge, after having
had the best means to acquire it, evinces the grossest inattention, and
most censurable insensibility.

The prophet Jeremiah lamented the wickedness of the age in which he
lived, and the vice and immorality that every where abounded. He saw
with grief of heart the holy Sabbath profaned, the worship of God
neglected, and his house and ordinances defiled. While a sorrowful
witness to their gross abominations, he saw the punishments that
awaited their immorality, and then wept over what he could not amend.
He gave them faithful admonitions from God, but they disregarded them,
and drank in iniquity like water, and drew sin as with a cart-rope:
because they had been _taught_ to do evil (for so the margin reads,)
trained up in their evil ways, had learned to sin by precept and
example, and were great proficients in vicious pursuits: from their
youth their natural propensity to evil had increased by continued
practice, till sinning was become habitual, and there was little hope
left of amendment. Therefore he exclaims, “Can the Ethiopian change
his skin, or the Leopard his spots? then may ye also do good, that
are accustomed to do evil.” The Ethiopian’s skin is of so sable a
hue, that no water can wash it white. A Leopard’s skin is beautifully
spotted, which is not the result of accident, but nature, and cannot
be defaced. By these two similes the prophet designs to represent,
not only the natural impossibility without Divine aid, but also the
extreme difficulty of habitual sinners learning to do well, after they
have long accustomed themselves to do evil. The least sin is to be
avoided, the least growth of sin to be prevented; for sin indulged in
thought will beget desire, desire will break out into action, action
will grow into custom, custom will settle into habit, and then, there
is the utmost danger of both body and soul being irrecoverably lost.

When our Saviour sent forth his apostles to preach the Gospel, he
informed them of the hardships, dangers, and discouragements they
would have to encounter, in the faithful discharge of their ministry;
especially after his resurrection, when they would be deprived of
his personal presence; for we do not read of any great persecutions
they endured while he was with them. These sufferings he foretold,
that they might not be surprised at their approach; and that, by the
accomplishment of this prediction, their faith might be confirmed.
“Behold, I send you forth as sheep in the midst of Wolves.” Here we
have a prediction of their perilous condition; they were to be as Sheep
in the midst of Wolves. And what situation more dangerous! What can
sheep, that are feeble creatures, and destitute of natural armour to
defend themselves, expect, in the midst of ravenous wolves, but to be
rent and torn to pieces? So those, amongst whom the apostles were to be
sent, would have as great an inclination, arising from their malicious
dispositions, to destroy them, as wolves have from their nature to
devour sheep. Wicked men are like wolves, whose nature it is to destroy
and devour sheep; they are of a diabolical disposition towards the
ministers of the Gospel.

Our Saviour also gave his apostles advice, how to conduct themselves in
such very unpleasant and dangerous circumstances. “Be ye therefore wise
as serpents,” not cunning as foxes, whose aim is to deceive others; but
as serpents, whose policy is only to defend themselves, when they are
in danger. A serpent’s wisdom appears in a care to guard and secure its
head, that it may not be hurt; in stopping its ears against the voice
of the charmer, which it does, says a certain naturalist, by laying
one ear close to the ground, and stopping the other with its tail;
and in sheltering itself in the clefts of a rock, when in danger. So
should Christ’s ministers, in a time of peril, use all lawful means for
their own safety and preservation; they should be wary and circumspect
to keep themselves from harm, either of body or soul. “And harmless
as doves.” Ministers should be meek, do no person any harm, bear no
ill-will, be without gall, as is said of the dove; though their enemies
should be fierce and savage, like wolves, yet they must not study how
to revenge the injuries done them. It should be their continual care
to be inoffensive, in word and deed: wisdom and innocence should dwell
together. Ministers must not be altogether doves, lest they fall into
danger; nor altogether serpents, lest they injure others; but they
must be both serpents and doves, the one for wisdom, the other for
innocence.

    “That thou mayst injure no man, dove-like be,
    And serpent-like, that none may injure thee!”

Our Saviour likewise cautions his followers against false teachers.
“Beware of false prophets.” The term _prophet_ in the Scripture,
signifies one who foretells things to come; this is the most proper
signification of the word. It also means one who expounds the
predictions of the Old Testament. And sometimes we are to understand
by it, one employed in the ministry of the Gospel; in this sense a
prophet and a teacher are reciprocal terms. So that by prophet here
our Saviour means false teachers, who, pretending authority from God,
exercised themselves in the ministry, and published false doctrine,
or at least represented truth in a corrupt manner, with a fraudulent
intention, from base motives, and for vile ends; by whose doctrine
persons were in no small danger of being seduced from their simplicity,
and drawn away from the truth, sincerity, and power of godliness; into
a dead and lifeless formality, and an empty show of religion and piety.
Now against such men, Christ, in the days of his public ministry,
warned his hearers, to prevent their deception, apprising them that
they would “come in sheep’s clothing.” They disguised their dangerous
principles and base intentions, under a show of external religion, and
fair professions of love, that, thereby they might deceive others. “But
inwardly they are ravening Wolves.” They were as dangerous to the souls
of men, as ravenous Wolves are to Sheep, which watch for an opportunity
to seize their prey, silently approach the sheep-fold to see whether
the dogs be asleep, or the shepherd be absent: so false teachers with
wretched hypocrisy and sophistry, counterfeit sincerity, humility, and
sanctity; and were it not for this semblance of piety, their efforts
to injure the church of God would be ineffectual. He compares these
false teachers to Wolves, especially on account of their cruelty. These
animals are not content to satisfy their hunger, but will destroy
multitudes merely to gratify their voracious nature. So false teachers
strive to injure the whole church of God, and thus destroy souls.

Our Saviour exhorted his auditory to the exercise of Christian
prudence, in the dispensing of spiritual things. “Give not that which
is holy unto the Dogs, neither cast ye your pearls before Swine, lest
they trample them under their feet, and turn again and rend you.” The
deep things of God, relating to doctrines, are not to be divulged to
those who are wallowing in sin; neither are the great things he has
done in his people to be declared to profane, furious persecutors:
but both classes of wicked men may be reproved on proper occasions.
By Dogs, our Saviour means froward, perverse, malicious, revengeful,
boisterous, incorrigible, and irreclaimable sinners, who scorn holy
institutions, mock at every thing sacred, scoff at religion, deride
the word of God, and all serious reproofs and admonitions, whether
given by parents, masters, ministers, governors, and others; who are
ready to persecute those who preach the Gospel, and endeavor to promote
their salvation. By Swine, he means such sinners as are profane and
sensual, and like Swine wallow in the mud of sin and wickedness; to
whom it is as pleasant to live in their beastly lusts, as it is for
Swine to wallow in the mire; and to disregard, abuse, and trample on
holy things.

St. Peter, in showing what all men are in the sight of God, before
they receive his grace, and what those are who turn apostates from the
truth, alludes to two offensive actions of Dogs and Swine. “It has
befallen to them according to the true proverb, the Dog is turned to
his vomit, and the Sow that was washed to her wallowing in the mire.”
Blackwall says, this proverb, with great propriety and strength, marks
out the sottishness and odious manners of persons enslaved to sensual
appetites and carnal lusts; and the extreme difficulty of reforming
vicious and inveterate habits. As a Dog, observe Bishop Patrick, when
he has vomited up his meat which made him sick, is no sooner well but
he returns to it, and eats it up again, forgetting how ill it agreed
with him; so an imprudent person commits the same error over again,
for which he formerly smarted. The evil nature remaining, and at last
gaining the ascendency, in a man, who had through grace reformed
his life, renders him like the loathsome and detestable Sow, as Dr.
Doddridge remarks; for the Sow that was washed from the filthiness she
had before contracted, having still the same unclean nature prevailing,
is returned to wallow in the mire, and so makes herself as filthy as
she had ever been before. And, adds Dr. Whitby, these two proverbs are
expressive of the folly of those men who return to those vices they had
formerly renounced.

       *       *       *       *       *


_Section_ II.--MAN.

    BODY: -- Its Creator -- Formation -- Vitality -- Blood
    -- Heart -- Arteries and Veins -- Digestion --Respiration --
    Glands -- Absorbents -- Nervous System -- Organs of Sense --
    Bones -- Sinovia --Muscles -- Tendons -- Cellular Membrane --
    Skin. SOUL: -- Its Immateriality -- Freedom --Immortality --
    Moral Image -- Adam’s Dominion over the Creatures -- Woman --
    Paradise.

All things necessary, convenient, and delightful, being prepared
for the accommodation of Man: light, that he might see; air, that
he might hear and breathe; dry land, on which he might walk; herbs
and fruit-trees, for his gratification and sustenance; fish, fowl,
cattle, and creeping things, for his service: then God proceeded to
make him, as the last and greatest display of his wisdom and power,
the master-piece of all sublunary creatures, whose creation alone is
represented in the sacred History, as an effect resulting from a
divine consultation. “And God said, Let us make man in our image, after
our likeness. So God created man in his own image, in the image of God
created he him; male and female created he them.” It appears from the
ingenious Parable of Protagoras in Plato, it was a very ancient opinion
that _man_ was last created after the other living creatures.

In all the former works, God only said, Let such and such things be,
and they were; he spake the word, and it was done. But now, when Man
was to be made, God is spoken of as calling a council, “Let _us_ make
man, in _our_ image, after _our_ likeness.” This imports that Man
was to be a creature different from all that had been produced, and
far more excellent and wonderful in his constitution; a compound of
flesh and spirit, heaven and earth, put together, the visible image
of the Divine glory, and dedicated and devoted to his Creator’s
service. Man was the work of ELOHIM, the Divine Plurality, marked
here more distinctly by the plural pronouns US and OUR; all the Three
Subsistencies in the Godhead are represented as united in counsel and
effort to bring into existence this astonishing creature.

Aben Ezra, a Jewish Rabbi, imagined that the souls of all men were made
on the first day of the creation, and that God consulted them to obtain
their consent before he would assign them bodies of flesh, hereafter to
be created. This is a groundless hypothesis, derived from the Platonic
philosophy; for God says, “Let us make man in our image,” which shows
that Adam’s soul had then no existence, for in that case, it doubtless
would have been in the image of God.

Some other Jewish Doctors, as Manasseh ben Israel, ridiculously
conceived that God spake to the elements. But this is more absurd than
the former; for the expression, “Let us make man,” implies capacity of
consultation in those spoken to, and real efficiency. But the elements
are not intelligent beings, neither efficient, but only material parts
of man.

Nor does God here speak to the angels, as the authority of the
Paraphrase, which is called Jonathan’s, suggests. The words of the
Paraphrase are these: “God said to the angels, which ministered before
him, Let us make man.” It is a noted saying of the Jewish Rabbis,
that God does nothing without consulting his family above: they mean,
his holy angels. Several heretics, in the first and second centuries
of Christianity, were of opinion, that this lower world was made by
angels. This notion is likewise erroneous: God here speaks to those in
whose image man was to be formed, but he was not made in the image of
angels.

It is pretended by those who are enemies to the orthodox doctrine
of the Trinity, that this is a figurative way of speaking, only to
express the dignity of God, not to denote any plurality in him; that
he here speaks in the plural number after the manner of princes, who
say, We will and require, or, It is our pleasure. But this is only a
far-fetched invention, to evade the doctrine of the Trinity, by persons
in latter times, and no way agreeable to the first ages of the world,
or the Hebrew style. Melchizedeck, Abimelech, Pharoah, and Balak, all
speak in the singular number. The kings of Israel used the same style,
as did Saul, David, and even Solomon in all his glory. And also the
Eastern monarchs: “I (Darius) make a decree. I, even I, Artaxerxes the
king, do make a decree.” Nor is there in the Scriptures one example to
the contrary.

Beside, how absurd it is to suppose that God would borrow his mode
of speaking from a practice which did not exist! And even granting
this possible, yet the cases are not parallel. For though a King, or
Governor, may say _us_ and _we_, there is certainly no figure of speech
that will allow a single person to say, _one of us_, when he speaks of
_himself_. It is a phrase that can have no meaning, unless there be
more persons than one concerned. Yet in addition to US and OUR, this we
find is the style in which God has spoken of himself.

There are some persons who maintain, in opposition to the clear light
of revelation, that there is but one Subsistence in the Divine Nature.
This was the opinion of the Sabellians, a denomination which arose in
the third century; and, certain persons, in modern times, have embraced
the same. These contend that God here speaks to himself, as consulting
with himself, to create man, and that, though the words be plural, yet
the sense is singular, as if he had said, Let _me_ make man.

One of the Persons, or Subsistencies in the Godhead, here speaks to the
other Two, and who more likely than the Father, who is first in the
order of arrangement, as given by the sacred Writers. The Father, not
the Son, is the first; the Son, not the Holy Spirit, is the second;
and the Holy Spirit, not the Father, is the third. Hence, the Father,
when he said, “Let us make man,” addressed himself to the Son, and to
the Holy Spirit, who were therein joint and equal Creators with him.
“None saith, Where is God my Maker?” in the Hebrew, _Makers_, is the
language used in the Book of Job, implying a Plurality of Persons in
a Unity of Essence: a phraseology like that of Solomon, “Remember thy
Creator,” in the original, _Creators_. The prophet Isaiah adopts the
same style, “Thy Maker is thine husband,” in the Hebrew, _thy Makers
are thy Husbands_. Thus it evidently appears, that this consultation
was among the Persons in the Godhead; that all the Three, the Father,
the Son, and the Holy Spirit, were concerned in man’s creation; and
were therein joint Creators, equal in nature, power, and efficiency.

Dr. Waterland says, that this text, _Let us make man_, has been
understood of Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, or at least of Father and
Son, by the whole succession of Christian writers, from the times of
the apostles; which is a circumstance of considerable importance, and
will impress the minds of sincere and impartial men. That the Christian
Fathers were unanimous in their judgment, that these words were spoken
by the Father to the Son, or Spirit, or both, appears in their works,
from which we shall adduce a few proofs.

_Barnabas_ says:--“And for this the Lord was contented to suffer for
our souls, though he be the Lord of the world; to whom God said, the
day before the formation of the world, Let us make man after our image
and similitude.”[175]

_Hermas_:--“He was present in counsel with his Father for the forming
of the creature.”[176]

_Theophilus_ of Antioch:--“He directed these words, _Let us make man_,
to none other than his own Word and his own Wisdom.”[177]

_Irenæus_:--“His Word and Wisdom, his Son and Spirit, are always
present with him, to whom also he spake, saying, _Let us make man_,
&c.”[178] Again:--“Man was fashioned after the image and likeness of
the uncreated God, the Father willing his creation, the Son ministering
and forming him, the Holy Ghost nourishing and increasing him.”[179]

_Tertullian_:--“Nay, because his Son is ever present with him, the
second person, his Word; and the third, the Spirit in the Word;
therefore he spake in the plural, _Let us make man in our image_.”[180]

_Novatian_:--“Who does not acknowledge the Son to be the second person
after the Father, when he reads that it was said to the Son by the
Father, _Let us make man_.”[181]

_Origen_:--“To him also spake he (the Father,) _Let us make man after
our image_.”[182]

_Athanasius_:--“Who is this that God converses with here? To whom are
these notifications and determinations of his pleasure directed? Not
to any of the creatures already made; much less to those things which
were not yet created; but, undoubtedly to some person, who was then
present with the Father, to whom he communicated his councils, and of
whose agency he made use in the creation of them. And who could this
be but his eternal Word? With whom can we conceive the Father holding
his conference, but with his Son, the divine LOGOS, that Wisdom of God,
that was present with him, and acted with him, in the creation of the
world, who was in the beginning with God, and was God? and who saith of
himself, _When he prepared the heavens, I was there; when he appointed
the foundations of the earth, then was I by him, as one brought up with
him_.”

_St. Augustine_:--“Had God said no more than, Let _us make man_, it
might, with some color, be understood as spoken to the angels, whom
the Jews pretend he employed in framing the body of man, and other
creatures; but seeing it immediately follows, _after our image_, it is
highly profane to believe, that man was made after the similitude of
angels; and that the similitude of God and angels is one and the same.”

_St. Ambrose_ speaks to the same purpose:--“God would not speak thus
to his servants, because it is not to be thought, that servants were
partners with their Lord, in his works of creation; or the works with
their Author. And, supposing this should be admitted, that the work was
common to God and angels, yet the image was not common.”

Nay, the second Council of Sirmium, which was held in 351, pronounced
an anathema on all those who denied this. The words of the Council are
these:--“If any say, that the Father did not speak to the Son, when
he said, _Let us make man_, but that he spake to himself, let him be
accursed.”[183]

_Epiphanius_:--“This is the language of God to his Word, and
Only-begotten, as all the faithful believe.”[184] And again he says,
“Adam was formed by the hand of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy
Ghost.”[185]

I observe more at large from _Irenæus_, that he rejects the notion
of the Jews and Heretics, who supposed God spake to his angels.
For disputing against Heretics, who attributed the creation of the
world to angels, and powers separate from the one true God, he says
thus:--“Angels did not make us, nor did they form us; neither was it
in their power to make the image of God: none but the Logos could do
this; no powers distinct from the Father of all things: for God did not
want their assistance in making the things which he had ordained. For
his Word and his Wisdom, the Son and the Holy Ghost, are always with
him; by whom and with whom, he made all things freely, and of his own
accord; to whom also he spake in these words, _Let us make man in our
image and likeness_.”[186]

The testimony of Dr. Kennicott will be respected by those who are
lovers of the truth. “God, says he, being about to create man, is
introduced saying--_Let_ US _make man in_ OUR _image, after our
likeness_; in consequence of which the historian tells us--_so God
created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him_.
It is evident then, that God created man in his own image; this is
mentioned thrice by way of emphasis, and to prevent, if possible, all
possibility of misconstruction. Now what God did, was certainly what
he proposed to do; God created man in his own image, that is, in the
image of the Godhead, and therefore God proposed to create him in the
image of the Godhead. But if God proposed to create him in the image of
the Godhead, the proposal must have been made to the Godhead; because
the words are--_Let us make man in_ OUR _image_. And if the proposal be
here made by God to the Godhead, it is absurd to suppose it made to the
same Person that makes it; and consequently reasonable to think it made
to the other two persons in the Unity of the Godhead.”[187]

The creature now to be made is man.[188] _And God said, Let us make
man._ It is evident that God, by introducing the creation of man with
this peculiar phraseology, intends to impress the mind with a sense of
something extraordinary in his formation. The word אדם _Adam_, which
is translated _man_, is intended to designate the _species_ of animal,
which is vastly superior to all the rest. Though the same kind of
organization may be found in Man, as appears in the lower animals, yet,
as one observes, there is a variety and complication in the parts, a
delicacy of structure, a nice arrangement, a judicious adaptation of
the various members to their great offices and different functions, a
dignity of mien, and perfection of the whole, which are sought for in
vain in all other creatures.

Man is a compound creature, consisting of two distinct essential parts,
body and soul. The union of these constitutes man, for neither of
them when separated can be so denominated. The body was made before
the soul, and formed out of the earth, or, as עפר _âpher_ implies,
the _dust_. “The Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground.” He
afterwards pronounced, _Dust thou art_. This led Solomon to affirm,
“All are of the dust.” The Apostle adds, “The first man was of the
earth, dusty,” as Ainsworth renders it. And we are said to “dwell in
houses of clay,” and to have our “foundation in the dust.” Of the soul
it is said, “God breathed into his nostrils the breath of life:” רוח
חיים _ruach chayim_, the breath of LIVES; i.e. animal, intellectual, and
spiritual. While this breath of God expanded the lungs, and set them to
play, his inspiration gave both spirit, understanding, and felicity.
Thus we see that the soul and the body are not the same thing; the one
is of the earth, the other is from God. The Rabbins say, “The form of
the soul is not compounded of the elements, &c, but is of the Lord
from heaven. Therefore when the material body, which is compounded
of the elements, is separated, and the breath perishes because it is
not found, but with the body, and is needful for the body in all its
actions; this form (i.e. the soul) is not destroyed, &c, but continues
for ever. This is that which Solomon by his wisdom said, ‘Then shall
the dust return unto the earth as it was; and the spirit shall return
unto God who gave it.’”

As the formation of man’s body was effected previously to the infusion
of his soul, we shall attend to the same order, in attempting to
elucidate this important and very interesting subject. The word ייצר
_jitzer_, rendered _he formed_, observes Mr. Benson, is not used
concerning any other creature, and implies a gradual process in the
work, with great accuracy and exactness. It is properly used of potters
forming vessels on the wheel; and Rabbi D. Kimchi says, that, when
used concerning the creation of man, it signifies the formation of his
members. Bishop Patrick intimates, that the body of man was made not of
_dry_, but _moist_ dust; and that this agrees with the Hebrew JITZER,
_formed_, which is used concerning potters, who make their vessels of
_clay_, not of _dry_ earth. Diodorus Siculus says, “Man was made out of
the _slime_, or _mud_, of the Nile.” The word of the Lord once came to
Jeremiah, saying, “Arise, and go down to the potter’s house, and there
I will cause thee to hear my words. Then I went down to the potter’s
house, and, behold, he wrought a work on the wheel. And the word of
the Lord came to me, saying, Behold, as the clay is in the potter’s
hand, so are ye in mine hand!” A scene like this is presented to our
imagination by the words of Moses; the Lord God _formed_, moulded, or
modelled man, as a potter does; we see the work, observes Bishop Horne,
as it were upon the wheel, rising and growing under the hands of the
Divine Artificer!

But, to give the thing a stronger impression on the mind, we will
suppose, says Judge Hale, that this figure rises by degrees, and is
finished part by part, in some succession of time; and that, when
the whole is completed, the veins and arteries bored, the sinews and
tendons laid, the joints fitted, and liquor (transmutable in blood
and juices) lodged in the ventricles of the heart, God infuses into
it a vital principle, whereupon the liquor in the heart begins to
descend, and thrill along the veins, and a heavenly blush arises in the
countenance, such as scorns the help of art, and is above the power of
imitation. The image moves, it walks, it speaks; it moves with such
a majesty, as proclaims it the lord of the creation, and talks with
such an accent and sublimity, as makes every ear attentive, and even
its great Creator enter into converse with it: were we to see all this
transacted before our eyes, I say, we could not but stand astonished at
the thing; and yet this is the exact emblem of man’s formation.

The human body is an excellent piece of workmanship, the shape and
contexture of it admirable, evidently superior to that of all other
animals, and the brightest visible display of the wisdom of the Divine
Architect. The erect posture, figure, stature, use of every part, and
symmetry of the whole, cannot but excite admiration. The fabric of the
eye, the texture of the brain, the configuration of the muscles, the
disposition of the nerves, the construction of the bones; the veins and
arteries, spread throughout the system, the former to return the blood
to the heart, and keep that mysterious engine playing, which throws
the vital fluid through the latter with prodigious force, to animate
and invigorate every part; and many other important particulars, which
we shall now proceed to mention and illustrate, are not only manifest
proofs of the great excellence of this system, but also of the skill,
contrivance, and consummate wisdom of God.

When we take a general view of the animal world, we find the numerous
individuals which compose it, differing considerably in the phenomena
which their economy exhibits. Man, and the higher orders of animals,
are characterized by the constant performance of many complex and
active functions; as respiration, digestion, circulation, &c. Torpid
or hibernating animals display this singular peculiarity, that these
functions are performed for several months, and suspended for several
months, alternately. In another modification of animated matter, namely
the egg, the evidences of vitality would not be exhibited, were not
certain agents applied to evolve them, and, when thus called forth,
they cannot be resumed after long suspension.

Although we are ignorant of the nature of the cause which regulates
the uniform performance of this series of phenomena, thus more or less
extensively displayed in the economy of different animals, we are
nevertheless convinced that such a cause must exist, and are hence
naturally led to distinguish the phenomena by some appropriate term.
Thus observing that the human body, and the bodies of animals which
bear it resemblance, possess locomotive powers, can regulate their
actions, and are capable not only of resisting the laws which govern
inanimate substances, but are enabled to act upon these substances in
direct opposition to these laws, we employ the terms life, vitality,
and vital power, to express the phenomena which thus distinguish
animate from inanimate matter; and in order simply to determine the
import of those terms, we may take a general view of those powers which
a living animal body possesses, and which cease with its existence.

When we compare the living with the dead body, the most striking
circumstance we observe is, that the former was surrounded by the same
chemical agents which are capable of producing the decomposition and
destruction of its soft parts after death; hence it becomes evident,
that its component elements must have been sustained and preserved
by some superior power, which ceases to act at the moment of its
dissolution.

Of all the phenomena which enter into the general idea of life, this
power of self-preservation, or the capability of resisting the laws
which govern inanimate matter, appears the most essential. Without
this principle we can form no conception of life, since it evidently
exists without interruption till the moment of dissolution. It is
this principle which, communicated to an egg, enables it to resist
for a certain period the powers of heat, cold, and putrefaction; a
principle of which the addle or barren egg is entirely devoid. Thus
we find from Mr. J. Hunter’s experiments, that an impregnated egg
is longer in freezing than an addle egg, and every one knows that
the former remains sweet or free from putrefaction much longer. This
principle, which we may consider the most simple state of existence,
is limited in its duration; and for its maintenance, the performance
of no active function is necessary. Hence it continues in the egg
either quiescent for a certain time, and is gradually destroyed; or,
by the agency or stimulus of heat, it acquires the accession of the
power of action, which assimilates inanimate matter into a living
form, and, at length, exhibits in the chick all the phenomena of a
more perfect state of existence, which may be distinguished by the
term active life. In this state, many other phenomena of vitality
are exhibited. Besides the power of self-preservation, an internal
principle of support and reparation, and the power of performing the
important actions of circulation, respiration, digestion, &c, which
are subservient to this principle, is given to animals. These form the
features of what we call life, as it appears in man, and the higher
orders of animals, and certainly constitute its most useful, though not
most essential part. For how little superior is an egg, or a torpid
animal, to vegetable or inanimate matter, till the former contain a
living chick, the latter become an active animal? Thus, though life
may subsist under the quiescent form of self-preservation, it requires
the accession of certain principles, and a power of performing various
important actions, to display its chief characters. The economy then
of an egg, and of a perfect animal, such as man, may be considered
as examples of the most simple and extensive phenomena of vitality.
These, however, are more or less perfectly exhibited in the different
orders of animals. It belongs, for instance, to the economy of certain
animals, which at one time of the year perform active functions,
to become torpid at the approach of winter. In these creatures,
respiration, digestion, and every function which characterizes active
life, is suspended; as in the egg, the principle of self-preservation,
that latent spark of vitality, alone remains, by which we distinguish
torpidity from death. This condition, however, is not of long
continuance; at the approach of summer’s warmth, the power of action is
again called forth, active functions are superadded to the principle of
self-preservation, and life, before quiescent and obscure, now resumes
its most perfect form; or, in other words, the animal just now inert
and motionless, respires again; its heart beats, its blood circulates,
its muscles resume their accustomed motions, and it leaves its winter
quarters in search of food. Having now assumed the nature of an active
animal, the performance of the functions characteristic of that state
(which we shall now proceed to describe) becomes requisite; and, first,
the circulation of a fluid which we call _blood_.[189]

This fluid differs in its appearance in the different orders of
animals, though, in its essential properties there is little variety;
the appearance of the blood in man, and the more perfect animals, is
that of a red fluid, having a certain degree of viscidity, not being
limpid like common water. Though it appears to be a homogenous fluid
whilst circulating, or at the moment it escapes from its vessels, it
is composed of three parts, essentially differing from each other; of
_particles_, upon which the color of the blood depends; of _coagulating
lymph_, which has the property of becoming spontaneously solid under
certain circumstances, and from which various structures in the body
are formed; and of a limpid fluid called _serum_, which dilutes the
coagulating lymph, and fits it for circulating through blood vessels of
a very minute size. In some of the lower orders of animals, however,
the color of the particles of the blood is green, in others white,
corresponding with the color of the animal; in others there is no
color whatever in the blood, so that it is either void of particles,
or they are transparent, so as not to be seen. But this deficiency
must be considered as making no great difference in the blood itself,
as its particles do not appear to be its most essential part. Many
microscopical observations have been made to determine the size of a
single particle of the blood, and according to the observations of
several philosophers, the diameter of a single particle in man has been
computed at the 3,000th part of an inch. The size of the particles in
red blooded animals, is found not to correspond with the size of the
animal. They are as large in the mouse as the elephant, larger in some
insects than in man, smaller in the ox. They are in prodigious numbers,
so as to give color to the blood, and of all its parts appear to be
renewed the most slowly; thus when animals are frequently bled, the
flesh becomes paler and paler.[190]

The next part of the blood, or coagulating lymph, is of the greatest
importance. This constituent part becomes apparent, when blood is drawn
from a vein into a cup, from its power of spontaneously coagulating
into a solid mass, which appears red from a mixture of red particles:
the color of the lymph however is transparent. This coagulation of
the blood differs very essentially from the coagulation of inanimate
substances, and is considered by many physiologists to be the last
exertion of a living principle, which the blood is supposed to possess.
This opinion, although not capable of absolute proof, is rendered
extremely probable from a variety of facts, and by none more than the
analogy between the coagulation of the blood, and the contraction of
the muscles at death. These two actions appear to be influenced in
some degree by the same causes. Thus, sudden death from lightning,
or a blow upon the stomach, prevents the muscles from becoming rigid
after death, and prevents also the coagulation of the blood. Under
these circumstances it remains fluid. Besides violent death, several
circumstances influence its tendency to coagulate and become solid,
such as a great loss of blood--inflammation--pregnancy in females, and
other causes.[191]

The third important part of the blood is the serum. This is limpid like
water, and remains permanently fluid, unless certain substances are
employed to coagulate it, such as alcohol, alum, or a certain degree
of heat. It dilutes the other parts of the blood, so as to reduce the
whole to a proper state of fluidity. It is secreted, or naturally
separated from the blood, and poured out by exhalent vessels in various
cavities and parts of the body, as the chest, abdomen, cellular
membrane, &c. It facilitates the easy motion of the various organs upon
each other, and, when accumulated in large quantities, forms the fluid
of dropsies.

Besides these constituent parts, a quantity of water always circulates
with the blood, varying according to the quantity of fluids taken
in, and regulated in its proportion by the kidneys. Thus if a large
quantity of water is taken into the stomach, particularly if it contain
a little spirit in the form of punch, the kidneys are stimulated to
an increased action, so as to separate from the blood the redundant
quantity. A variety of other substances also are occasionally
introduced into the blood, along with the aliment, alkaline substances
producing their effect upon the nature of the urine, rhubarb on bile
giving it a yellow color, and turpentine or asparagus altering its
odor; all these substances, before passing off by urine, must have been
mixed with the blood, from whence the urine is formed, being in fact
its excrementitious part.[192]

It is necessary for the blood thus formed, to pass to every part of
the body, that it may be converted into the nature of these parts, and
thus become subservient to their growth; that fluids, serving important
purposes in animal bodies, may be separated or secreted from it; and
that the temperature of the body may be equably maintained. The blood,
however, has no power of motion in itself; if it be not propelled by
certain parts of the body, it remains quiescent like any extraneous
fluid.

In two very numerous classes of animals, insects and zoophites, the
motion of the blood is very simple; they are nourished like vegetables,
by the absorption of the fluid, which is prepared in their alimentary
canal, and have no circulation properly so called.

But in man, and the higher orders of animals, a complex apparatus for
the motion of the blood becomes necessary, consisting of an heart,
arteries, and veins. The _heart_ may be considered as the chief agent
in circulation, the general reservoir, and source from whence the blood
flows. It is composed of two principles, one a principle of reception,
the other a principle of propulsion. That cavity of the heart, which
is called its auricle, receives the blood from the veins; the cavity
called its ventricle, propels it through the arteries.

Although the heart in all animals is formed on the same general
principle, and for the same purpose, yet the economy of some animals
admits of a greater simplicity in the conformation of this organ, than
others. The most simple kind of heart is composed of one cavity, with
a tube entering into it, by which it receives the blood, and another
passing out of it, by which the blood is conveyed over the body. The
next simple heart is composed of two cavities, an auricle, which
receives the blood, and propels it into a ventricle, which diffuses it
over the body. Another kind of heart is composed of three cavities;
two auricles, and one ventricle; one auricle receiving the blood from
the lungs, the other from the body generally; the blood from these two
sources is mixed together in a single ventricle. This structure we
find in some amphibious animals, in which it is not necessary that the
blood should circulate with so much influence from the oxygenous part
of the atmosphere, as in other animals. Accordingly we find the heart
adapted to transmit only one half of the blood through the lungs at
each circulation, whilst in more perfect animals the whole mass passes
by this route. The last kind of heart is formed of four cavities, two
auricles and two ventricles, and is the most perfect apparatus as
it is found in man, and quadrupeds generally.--It must, however, be
considered as composed of two distinct parts, or two simple hearts
adhering together, and performing distinct parts of the circulation;
and one part intended to receive the blood from the body, and circulate
it through the lungs; the other part to receive the blood from the
lungs, and propel it over the rest of the body. It is better suited
to the economy of some animals, as the cuttle fish, that these parts
should be separated to a considerable distance from each other. The
reason why the heart is formed of two parts in most animals is, that
it is necessary that the blood should receive the impulse of the heart
twice, first to propel it through the lungs, next to propel it over the
rest of the body.

The blood is conveyed from the heart to every part of the body, by
means of elastic tubes, called _arteries_. These arise from the
ventricles of the heart by two large trunks, which branch out in
every part of the body, into arteries of great minuteness, conveying
the blood from the heart to its most distant parts, so that it is
impossible to wound any part of the body with the finest point,
without opening one of these vessels. This gives a good idea of their
minuteness.

From the minute termination of the arteries, begins a second set of
vessels, the _veins_, which, having a contrary course, return the blood
from every part of the body into the auricles of the heart.

The larger arteries and veins, near the heart, differ very much
from each other in their structure and action. This difference,
however, does not descend to their minute ramifications, which must
be considered as having the same structure, and performing the same
office, the one passing into the other by such imperceptible degrees,
that we cannot mark where the one terminates or the other begins.

If we consider these tubes as subservient to the circulation of the
blood, we shall see the necessity of certain principles entering into
their structure. As the blood is forcibly thrown from the heart, these
vessels must be distended; one of their properties therefore, must be a
capability of being distended, which is given to them by elastic matter
entering into their composition. As the vessels, however, are not to
remain in a distended state, a power of reaction is added, which arises
also out of their elasticity, and assists in propelling the blood
forwards.

Thus the elastic matter allows the vessels to be distended to a certain
degree, and also reduces them to a smaller size. But it is necessary
that the heart shall be assisted considerably, in the circulation
of the blood, by a contractile power of the vessels themselves; and
the same quantity of blood is not to circulate in the same body at
all times, for animals are liable to frequent injuries, by which the
quantities of blood in their bodies may be very suddenly reduced. Hence
the vessels have given to them a further power of contraction to assist
the heart, and accommodate themselves, under certain circumstances, to
a smaller quantity of blood. For this purpose, a muscular structure is
added to them, which is present in largest proportion in the smaller
arteries; by this means, they are enabled so far to withstand the
power of the heart, as to shut their cavities, and prevent the escape
of blood when divided, forming one of the means by which the effusion
of blood is spontaneously checked in living animals. And it may be
remarked, that this power, for the purpose of self-preservation, is
extended to larger arteries in the brute creation; for Mr. Hunter
found, that the flow of blood from the large artery in the neck of an
ass was checked by an exertion of this power, whilst every one knows
that its division in man is fatal.

Besides these parts, arteries have an internal lining, which is
perfectly smooth, and of considerable density, that the blood may
circulate with as little resistance, and be contained as completely as
possible within its proper channels.

The same observations will apply to the veins, though some of their
properties are less strongly marked. They possess an elastic power
capable of distension and reaction, a muscular structure endowed with
contractility, and an internal lining over which the blood circulates
with as little resistance as possible. By these powers the blood
is circulated through every part of the body with great velocity.
According to the best calculations, the heart alone exerts a power
equal to the pressure of 51½ pounds, which propels the blood through
the arteries at the velocity of 149 feet in a minute; in which time it
expels from its cavities about 160 ounces.

Thus all animals are provided with an organ for propelling the blood,
by certain channels, to the different parts of the body; but, as the
functions of these parts are various, they require to be visited by
very different proportions of blood, according to their activity or
powers of life. Some parts of the body may be said to be inert, and
merely possessed of a principle of life, to connect them with the
other organs of the body, as parts of a living system, and to enable
them to go through certain processes in their healthy and diseased
states. Other parts are formed for active functions, and possess great
sensibility. It is accordingly observed, that a smaller quantity of
blood is distributed to bones, tendons, and similar inert parts, than
to muscles and glands, whose exertions are more considerable.

This then is the general apparatus in perfect animals, by which the
blood performs its circulation through the various parts of the body,
but during its course it is subject to constant exhaustion from various
sources. It is converted in its passage into the nature of all the
component parts of the body, and has the different secreted fluids
derived from it, and these processes go on with more activity in a
young, than an adult person: hence we see the necessity of a constant
supply of materials to the blood, and this in the greatest proportion
at an early period of life.

Animals are furnished with the means of this supply, by their power of
converting animal and vegetable substances into the nature of blood, by
a process called _digestion_. Some animals are led by their nature to
live on vegetable food, others on animal food only, whilst others can
subsist on either, or any mixture of both.[193] The digestive powers
of man fit him for any proportion of animal or vegetable foods, and
are the most perfect of all animals. Other creatures may be said to be
confined to a certain district, but the curiosity of man is to lead him
over the whole world, and frequently place him in situations where only
one kind of food is attainable.

The first change which takes place in the food, in order that it shall
be converted into the nature of the blood, is its division into smaller
parts, by the teeth or gizzards of animals. It is then passed into
the stomach, where it remains for some time exposed to the action of
a fluid, formed in the stomach, which is called gastric juice. This
possesses a very strong power of coagulating and dissolving various
animal and vegetable substances. As far as we know, it acts on the
principle of any other solvent, for it produces the same change in
substances out of the body, or even within the body after death. It
frequently happens, for instance, when a person has been killed, by
accident, in full health, that, on inspection, the stomach is found
dissolved, and reduced to a gelatinous mass in several parts, arising
from the action of the gastric juice, which had been formed in it
before death. The gastric juice, however, cannot act upon living
substances: hence the stomach resists its action, and worms sometimes
reside and are even generated in the stomach. Every substance capable
of being acted upon in the stomach, is reduced, by the solvent power
of the gastric juice, into a pulpy mass, which has been called chyme,
the exact chemical properties of which have not been ascertained; in
this state it is by degrees transferred into the beginning of the small
intestines, where it is mixed with the bile and pancreatic fluid, and
undergoes a change into a milky fluid, which is called chyle. It is
then diffused by an undulating motion of the intestines over their
inner surface, that it may be absorbed, and carried into the general
mass of blood.

As far as has yet been ascertained by experiment, the chyle of animals,
most opposite to each other in their food, structure, and habits of
life, is so much alike as to have no distinguishable difference. The
chyle of a Dog, or Wolf, differs in nothing from that of a Sheep or
an Ox. This would appear surprising, were it not ascertained that
almost every alimentary matter undergoes a chemical change before it
is converted into chyle, and that the ultimate analysis of either
animal or vegetable matter presents us with the same elements as those
of the blood, which, though only three or four in number, are capable
of forming the various substances of which the body is composed, by
combining with each other, and in different proportions. There is,
however, this difference observable in the chyle, that in reptiles and
insects it is transparent like lymph.

The lacteals are the vessels by which the chyle is absorbed from the
intestines: they form small processes on the internal surface of the
intestines like the pile of velvet, which are hence called villi.
A small portion of chyle being received into their open mouths, is
propelled by successive contractions of these vessels into their large
trunk, the _thoracic duct_, from whence it is poured into a great
vein near the heart, and, by circulating through the lungs, probably
receives its final change into blood; and this change would seem to
be easily effected, as the chyle already possesses the principal
properties of blood, being formed of particles swimming in a thinner
fluid, and having a power of coagulating spontaneously.[194]

This is the apparatus by which the food is digested in man so as to
replenish the blood; but the digestive organs of different animals
exhibit considerable varieties, some being more simple, others more
complex in their structure, adapted to the kind of food with which the
animal is nourished. Ruminating animals, or animals which chew the
cud, such as the Cow, have several stomachs, and the food undergoes
mastication several times, at each time being passed into a different
stomach, before being finally acted upon by the gastric juice, after
which it is transmitted through a long tract of intestines. This is an
example of the most complex digestive organ fitted to act upon hard
and fibrous food, which must be subjected to the action of several
menstrua preparatory to its being acted upon by the gastric juice.

In birds who live on grain as has been noticed, we meet with a
different apparatus to prepare it to be acted upon by the gastric
juice. The food first passes into the crop, which forms a kind of
reservoir from whence it may pass by degrees into the gizzard, by which
the grain is ground into small particles, before it is transmitted into
the stomach: and it is surprising with how great power the gizzard acts
for this purpose. The Abbé Spallanzani introduced a garnet, which is a
very hard and angular stone, into the gizzard of a Wood-Pigeon, and, in
the course of a day, it was ground perfectly smooth, by the action of
the gizzard. He also introduced a leaden ball stuck full of tin points,
and another with fine lancets, into the gizzard of a Turkey, and in
about 18 hours, the whole of the points were rubbed down. The gizzard
also possesses an amazing power of compression. Raumeur introduced into
the gizzard of a Turkey tubes of tinned iron, seven lines in length,
and two in diameter, closed with solder at each end; some were indented
by the action of the gizzard, and others crushed flat. Similar tubes,
introduced into the teeth of a vice, required the weight of about 440
lb. to produce the same effect. The gizzard thus reduces into small
particles whatever food the animal selects, that it may be more readily
acted upon by the gastric juice in the stomach; for the gastric juice
acts like any other solvent, and therefore acts most advantageously
when the food is reduced into small parts.--The digestive organs
of some of the lower orders of animals form a striking contrast to
these. In the most simple apparatus with which we are acquainted, the
stomach and the intestines are composed of a simple bag which has but
one opening, which serves both to receive the food, and discharge the
excrement. It composes in fact the whole bulk of a fresh-water Polypus.
In these animals the chyle is absorbed by small vessels in the sides of
the bag, and is conveyed to every part of the body.

Thus we find that the supply of materials to the blood is commensurate
to its exhaustion, that in young animals where a more active process
of formation is going on, a larger proportion of food is requisite,
and more chyle formed; this, however, is not all that is necessary
to prepare the blood for its important purposes within the body. The
blood, by passing through the various parts of the body, is so changed
by the abstraction of certain properties, as to render it unfit for
circulation, which implies the necessity of an organ, which may restore
to the blood its requisite qualities. This office is performed by
_respiration_, that function in animals by which the blood receives the
influence of atmospherical air.

There is a great variety in the structure of the organ for exposing the
blood to the air, suited to the mode of life in different animals. In
man and quadrupeds generally the lungs serve this purpose; they are
composed of a number of blood vessels spread out upon minute air cells,
which communicate with and receive the air by means of the trachea
or windpipe, in consequence of the expansion of the chest by certain
muscular powers. These vessels and cells are connected together by
cellular membrane, so as to form a spongy mass called lungs, which are
commonly placed in the chests of animals.--But besides this kind of
organ, which in birds is very large, they have air bags, or appendages
to the lungs, diffused through various parts of the body; even some
of their long bones contain nothing but air, and communicate with the
lungs. It was from a knowledge of this fact that Mr. J. Hunter made
a Turkey breathe by its wings, by making an opening into their large
bones, and closing the animal’s mouth.

In Fish, the gills serve the purpose of lungs. They are composed of
a number of processes arising from cartilages, having distributed
upon them minute blood-vessels, which receive the influence of air
contained in water: and hence distilled water, which contains little
air, destroys fish, in the same manner as the exhausted receiver of an
air pump does a breathing animal.

There is another mode of conveying air for the use of the blood in many
insects, by means of a number of tubes or spiracula: these receive
the external air, and, by ramifying in the body of the animal, convey
its influence to the blood. Thus these animals may be said to respire
like vegetables, throughout the whole of their surface, by vessels
which introduce the air at different points into their bodies. In some
insects the rectum forms the principal organ of respiration, and, in
the class of animals called Zoophites, there are no visible organs of
respiration.

These different modifications, in the respiratory organs of the higher
and lower orders of animals, are all formed with the same intention,
viz. that the blood may be exposed more or less to atmospherical
air. In consequence of this the blood undergoes a process similar to
combustion, which extracts from it a part of its carbon, in the form of
carbonic acid, and by this means increases the relative proportion of
its remaining elements. The inspired air at the same time is deprived
of a part of its oxygen, which is the elastic fluid which commonly
supports respiration. All the corresponding effects produced upon
the blood are not yet fully explained. But by this means the color
of the blood is changed from a dark to a florid red, it acquires the
power of exciting the action of the heart, and is fitted for its
various purposes within the body.[195] By these organs, respiration
is performed more or less extensively in the different orders of
animals, corresponding in a great degree, to their activity, digestive
powers, and the heat maintained in their bodies. Birds, whose extensive
respiratory organs consume a larger quantity of air, are capable
of greater exertion; make more frequent meals than quadrupeds, and
maintain a superior temperature. Quadrupeds hold a middle place between
birds and reptiles. Respiration appears in the class of reptiles, as
Frogs and Toads, to be a subordinate function only; they can exist
without it nearly as long as they please; at the same time they make
very long fasts, and the heat of their bodies is more variable and
lower than quadrupeds; hence they are called cold blooded animals.
Their other habits accord well with their organs of respiration. They
generally live in impure air, their motions are languid, and they pass
a great part of their existence in a state of torpidity.

A subordinate use of respiration in most animals, is the formation of
the voice: for this purpose there are membranes stretched across the
narrow part of the windpipe, which are thrown into a state of vibration
by the current of air: the vibrations thus produced, being modified by
other accessory parts, produce the voice. In many animals, however,
it is produced by a very different mechanism. Some animals employ the
friction of certain elastic parts of the body, as Grasshoppers and
Crickets; others employ the vibration of certain parts in the air,
whilst others impress a rapid motion on portions of air inclosed in
certain parts of their bodies.

There is a particular part of the heart in man, intended merely to
propel the blood, which passes through the lungs to receive the
influence of the air; this is the right ventricle; from whence the
blood passes, by the pulmonary artery, through the minute vessels
expanded on the air cells, and is changed from a dark to a florid
color: it is then returned back to the left ventricle, by the pulmonary
veins, and is propelled over the rest of the body, where it is again
changed (by the abstraction of certain properties) to the dark color
peculiar to venous blood: the blood is lastly conveyed by the veins
to the right side of the heart from whence it set out, having passed
through two circles.

The blood thus prepared by the lungs for circulation, passes in
different quantities to different parts of the body, according to
their activity, and has various fluids formed from it, which are
called secreted fluids, as gastric juice, milk, bile, &c. The parts
of the body forming many of these fluids, are very peculiar in their
structure, and are called _glands_. They consist in an arrangement of
vessels, endowed with a mode of action, with which we are unacquainted,
by which the component parts of the blood are disposed to enter into
new combinations, and to form compounds differing from the blood
itself. Thus the vessels are arranged on the inside of the stomach, in
such a way, as by their action to form gastric juice from the blood; on
the same principle, milk is produced from the blood which circulates
in the breast, or bile in the liver. As gastric juice, milk, and bile,
differ very much from each other in their properties, we must infer,
that there is a considerable variety in the action, by which these
vessels form these fluids from the blood; and this is necessarily
connected with a variety in arrangement, which is the case in all the
glands of the body. In one gland, for example, the blood-vessels form a
minute net-work; in another, are convoluted at their extremities; in a
third, a large branch suddenly divides into a number of small branches,
like the hairs of a painter’s brush; in a fourth, they are disposed in
an arborescent form, each gland differing from every other in the mode
of distribution of its blood-vessels, and forming different products
from the blood.

The substances formed by many of the glands of the body, are applied
to useful purposes, within or without the body. An instance of the
former we have in the bile formed by the liver, or the gastric juice
formed by the stomach; and of the latter, in the milk.--Other secreted
fluids are rejected as excrementitious: the best example of this is
the urine formed by the kidneys. This gland separates from the blood
a great variety of substances, which might otherwise prove noxious by
circulating along with it; many of these have occasionally very curious
chemical properties, and under a certain state of the body, the altered
secretion of this organ is very remarkable, in as far as it produces
a large quantity of a familiar substance, which in this instance is
composed within the body. In the disease called diabetes, for example,
a patient sometimes makes four or five gallons of urine in the 24
hours, in which is dissolved a considerable quantity of matter, like
common sugar or treacle, probably to the amount of two or three pounds.

Besides these fluids formed from the blood, each by an appropriate
glandular apparatus, there are watery fluids constantly secreted in
various parts of the body; and, that these may not accumulate, or
remain after they have performed their office, it is necessary for the
body to be furnished with vessels, whose powers of removal may keep
pace with the deposition of these fluids. This introduces the system
of vessels called _absorbents_, which are distinct in their office
and nature from the blood-vessels, and are widely diffused over the
whole body. In every part of the body a limpid fluid is thrown out for
the purpose of easy motion, moistening the cellular membrane, which
connects the various parts of the body to each other, and lubricating
the contents of all the cavities of the body; this fluid is thrown out
in the form of vapor by the exhalents, which belong to the arterial
system, whilst the lymphatic absorbent vessels, by their action,
remove what is not convenient for the function of the part; and these
two actions, of deposition, by the exhalents, and absorption, by the
lymphatics, go on during health, so nicely balanced, that when we open
into any of the great cavities of the body, as the belly or chest,
the quantity of fluid we find is extremely small. When, however, the
balance between these two orders of vessels is destroyed, when the
exhalents throw out more fluid than usual, and the lymphatics only
absorb their natural quantity; or the exhalents deposit their natural
quantity, whilst the lymphatics absorb less than natural, accumulation
of water in the cellular membrane, or great cavities of the body, takes
place, and produces dropsies.

There is another set of vessels, which have been already mentioned,
a part of the same system of absorbents, which from their office of
absorbing a white fluid, the chyle, have been denominated lacteals;
these arise from the inner surface of the intestines, in great numbers,
and convey the chyle into the general mass of blood.--Whilst the
minute beginnings of the lacteal vessels, from the internal surface
of the intestines, is a matter of ocular demonstration, we have only
presumptive proof of the origin of the lymphatics, which make the
greatest part of the absorbent system. We have, however, good grounds
for concluding, that they arise from every external and internal
surface of the body. We find, for example, that certain remedies, as
mercurial ointment, or turpentine, rubbed on the skin of any part of
the body, produce effects on distant parts; the mercury by removing
affections of various parts of the body, the turpentine increasing
the flow of urine, and giving it a peculiar odor: these effects are
explained by presuming the absorption of these substances, by the
lymphatics, arising from the surface of the skin. We have further proof
of this from the occasional absorption of watery fluids, under peculiar
circumstances. Sailors at sea, in want of fresh water, have quenched
their thirst by dipping their clothes in salt water, and applying them
to the surface of the body, from which only the elementary part was
absorbed by these vessels. A jockey, after reducing himself to a great
degree has become in a short time too heavy to ride his match, merely
by drinking a glass of wine, which had stimulated the absorbents of
the skin to take up a large quantity of aqueous matter from the air.
Or a person gibbeted alive, has been observed to make a considerable
quantity of urine as long as he lived, without any liquid being taken
by the mouth. These are all considered as evidences that the lymphatic
absorbent vessels arise from every external surface of the skin, and
are capable of taking up substances applied to them.

We find next that water accumulated in the large cavities of the chest
or abdomen, or underneath the skin in the cellular membrane, of every
part of the body, is occasionally removed from these situations, by
remedies which have the power of increasing the action of the absorbent
vessels. We hence conclude, that these vessels arise from every
internal part, and are, in short, widely diffused over the whole body,
though their beginnings are too minute to be detected by any mode of
examination with which we are acquainted.

The absorbent vessels, from whatever part they arise, terminate in the
blood-vessels, principally by one vessel or trunk, which is called the
_thoracic duct_. This commences in the cavity of the abdomen, passes
through the chest on the right side of the spine, and, at length,
enters a large vein situated on the left side of the neck. Through
this vessel, besides the fluids taken up in various parts of the body,
the whole of the nourishment from digested aliment passes into the
blood; it may therefore be said to be the most important vessel in the
body,[196] and it is situated in one of the safest positions in the
body, so that an injury done to it is a very rare occurrence.

Thus the absorbent system is formed of two sets of vessels, having the
same structure, the same absorbing office, and the same termination,
but differing in the fluids they convey, and the parts of the body they
occupy. The one widely diffused over the whole body, and from their
office of usually absorbing limpid fluids, called lymphatics; the other
arising only from the intestines, and denominated lacteals, from the
milky whiteness of the chyle they absorb.

Thus far the absorbent vessels have been described, as employed in
taking up fluids only. The action of the absorbent system, however,
is not considered as confined to the fluid parts of the body; there
are a variety of instances, in which the most solid parts appear to be
removed by the absorbents. Thus when a tooth is extracted, or drops out
in old age, its bony socket is removed by the action of the absorbents.
The pressure of a pulsating tumor, called aneurism, against the ribs,
or thigh bone, has produced their removal in the same way. These are
considered as instances of solid matter being removed by the absorbent
vessels, from internal parts of the body, without any external opening.
It is, however, a matter of doubt, which we cannot at present discuss,
whether a bone is broken down by the absorbents themselves, so as to
be removed in small particles; or whether, as is more probable, its
presence or irritation (as an extraneous body) produces the secretion
of a fluid, similar in its properties to the gastric juice, by which
it is first reduced into minute particles, or entirely dissolved, so as
thus to enter the absorbent vessels.

Another important part of the office of these vessels, is to
model the shape of the body, and to concur with the action of the
blood-vessels in regulating its growth. For the human body does
not, like a marble statue, constantly contain the same identical
particles in its composition. As the stream of a river is formed of
a constant succession of aqueous particles, sometimes increasing,
sometimes diminishing its natural bulk; so the human body is constantly
undergoing an imperceptible change of parts. The absorbents, by their
action, remove exhausted particles, whilst the arteries form from the
blood an adequate supply of new parts. When these two powers are equal,
the body continues of the same bulk; when from disease or contingent
circumstances, the one or the other predominates, the body increases in
growth, becomes corpulent, or emaciated.

Thus we have seen a variety of organs necessary to carry on the
functions of perfect animals: these, however, are inert, and incapable
of motion in themselves. Hence a _nervous system_ becomes requisite,
which may excite and influence the whole. We find in man, and
quadrupeds generally, the nervous system placed principally in the
brain and spinal marrow; from these sources, the nerves are distributed
like white cords, and pass in various proportions to the different
parts of the body, conveying the excitements of the brain.

One of the most important excitements conveyed from the brain, through
the medium of the nerves, is volition; by this means the muscles become
obedient to the will, and perform the voluntary actions of animals.
If, for instance, I wish to take up a pen, I exert my volition towards
the action, and the consequence of this is, that the muscles employed
in the action, are stimulated to contract, from a peculiar excitement
being conveyed to them from the brain, through the medium of the
nerves. We are totally ignorant, however, of the state of the brain,
whilst giving out the excitement, or the change which takes place in
the nerves whilst conveying it. We know, however, that the brain may
be rendered incapable of giving rise to the excitement, and it may be
arrested in its progress down the nerves by artificial means. If a
ligature be applied upon a nerve by tying a piece of thread round it,
the nerve is rendered incapable of transmitting the excitement, so as
to produce motion in muscles. The same state is frequently produced in
the brain and nerves, by the disease called palsy, or by fractures of
the skull. There are also various excitements passing from the brain
to the vital organs of the body, whose actions are not regulated by
the will, and are therefore called involuntary, or automatic actions,
as circulation, parturition, &c. Thus if a person have ever so strong
a desire, he cannot make his heart beat more frequently; nor can he
prevent it from beating more frequently, if any one should put him in
bodily fear; although the heart is formed of muscular flesh, similar to
the muscles, which he can command in his arm. The reason of this is,
that the nerves of the heart cannot convey the influence of volition;
for the wisest reasons the heart acts without it.

It is also necessary for various influences to be communicated from
external objects to the brain, to keep up a correspondence between
animals, and the material world around them, and to communicate
those impressions from which the brain is afterwards to carry on its
functions. As the parts formed for this purpose differ from ordinary
parts of the body, in having a larger share of nervous influence given
to them, they have been called the _organs of sense_, which in an
anatomical point of view, may be said to be five in number, the eye,
the ear, the tongue, the nose, and the skin.

In the _eye_, we discover a most accurate optical instrument, adapted
to converge the rays of light at its posterior part. It is composed of
a spherical box, containing transparent media of different densities,
by which the rays of light are conveyed to a point, so as to impress
a minute image of the visible appearance of external objects upon
the retina or expansion of the optic nerve, by which the impression
is conveyed to the brain, so as to bring us acquainted with external
objects.

The _ear_ is formed to receive impressions from bodies in a state of
vibration, which are conveyed to the brain by an apparatus composed of
various substances, and eminently calculated to transmit the slightest
tremors. The vibrations of the air, for instance, first strike the drum
of the ear; are thence communicated to a delicate chain composed of
four minute bones. By these the vibration is increased, and transmitted
to a fluid, contained in several small winding canals, in which the
delicate filaments of the nerves of hearing are arranged, so as to
transmit the impressions they receive from the surrounding fluids,
and produce in the brain the perception of sound; these two senses,
by the infinitely varied modification of their impressions, convey a
prodigious supply of materials for the action of the mind.

The organ of _touch_ is next in point of importance; it has its seat
in the extremities of the nerves distributed over the skin, and is the
only sense which belongs to every class of animals. This organ gives
rise to sensations, which have no natural alliance with each other.
By this sense we compare different degrees of temperature with each
other; from this we derive our idea of distance between bodies; of
their tangible figure, of their roughness, smoothness, hardness, and
other qualities, from the relative position with respect to ourselves,
or the degree or kind of resistance they offer. And, when man has
been deprived of his communication with many external objects, by the
loss of vision, we find the organ of touch gradually encroaching upon
the function of the eye, and from attention to its finer impressions,
becoming, through the education of necessity, a much more extensive
source of information. As an instance of this, I may adduce Mr. Gough,
who can accurately distinguish the color and character of flowers, by
the nice sense of touch possessed by the tip of the tongue.

The other senses may be said to be of less importance. The _nose_
affords a passage for the air to the lungs, and is impressed by the
odorous particles of bodies diffused through it, and, whilst it thus
occasionally administers to our gratification, it gives us notice of
the presence of those aeriform fluids which are noxious to respiration.
Like the organ of _taste_, which is impressed by sapid bodies, it has
a peculiar sympathy with the stomach; thus the taste, or smell, of any
disagreeable substance, very commonly excites sickness and vomiting.

Thus each of the organs of sense are formed in a peculiar manner, and
are supplied with nerves of a peculiar structure, which are capable
of being excited by certain impressions only, so as to give rise to
sensation. The odorous particles of bodies, for instance, if applied to
the nerves of the nose, excite an impression, which, when conveyed to
the brain, gives rise to the perception of smell; but, every one knows
that they produce no such effect when applied to the nerves of the
skin. In the same way, the rays of light applied to the nerves of the
eye produce vision; but, no such effect takes place when they impinge
upon the tongue.--Each of the organs of sense then possess a peculiar
modification of nerves, which are excited by appropriate impressions.

By these organs we become acquainted with what passes around us; but
the nervous system gives us notice of many changes which take place
within our bodies. Internal pains point out to us the presence and
situation of diseases; and the disagreeable sensations of hunger,
thirst, and fatigue, incline us to give refreshment and repose to the
body. It is also by means of the nervous system, that we experience the
passions and emotions of the mind.

There are some animals so simple in their structure, that neither
brain, nor organs of sense have been detected; yet they are endowed
with motion, and are capable of selecting and swallowing their
food, and expelling their excrement; and as these acts appear to be
voluntary, we must conclude, that they possess nervous matter, though
it be so interwoven with the rest of their structure that we cannot
exhibit or detect it.

All these different structures which have been described as entering
into the formation of a perfect animal, are soft and flexible in
themselves, and, in order to the right performance of their functions,
require the support of a substance of considerable firmness, which
may preserve them in their relative situations, and give a general
shape to the body. For this purpose, _bones_ are formed in the higher
orders of animals. They consist of a certain portion of animal matter,
on which their powers of life depend, mixed with a portion of earthy
matter, which gives them a degree of solidity. The firmest substance
in the body, composed entirely of animal matter, is cartilage, which
possesses, however, too little solidity for the support of animals of
considerable size, living in so rare a medium as air. Hence it happens
that when the earthy part is, by disease, abstracted from the bones,
they become bent and deformed by the weight of the body, or the action
of its moving powers. In fishes, however, who inhabit a denser medium,
cartilage becomes a convenient structure, being sufficiently firm
for their support, and, from its lightness, better suited to their
condition.

Had the osseous system been merely intended to give shape to animals,
and preserve the relative position of their parts, it might, for any
useful purpose, have been as well formed of one piece; and accordingly,
when almost all the bones of the body have been anchylosed, or
immoveably united to each other by disease, the functions of life have
gone on uniformly to an advanced age. There is a remarkable skeleton
of this kind preserved at Trinity College, Dublin; where all the large
bones of the body are immoveably united together, except the lower jaw,
and the joints of the fingers; every joint in the body was immoveable,
and yet this person lived to an old age. In order, however, that
animals may enjoy a power of changing their situation, the osseous
system has been composed of a variety of pieces, and an apparatus added
by which this may be easily effected. This is accomplished by adapting
the ends of bones to each other so as to form joints, which vary in
different parts of the body according to the motion of the part, some
being formed for strength, others for extent and variety of motion; the
two being incompatible, and never found in the same joint.

In the formation of a joint, however, it appears that two surfaces
of bone would move with considerable attrition upon each other, not
being capable of a sufficient degree of smoothness; it is therefore
necessary, in order to diminish attrition, that a substance be
interposed having a high degree of polish; this is supplied by
cartilage, with which the ends of all bones, performing motion, are
covered; and as animals, both from the common occurrences of life, and
from accident, are liable to considerable shocks, in order to guard
the system, as much as possible, against injury from these sources,
cartilages are endowed with a considerable degree of elasticity, and
thus by their reaction are capable of evading certain degrees of
violence.

The smoothness of cartilage, however, only prevents attrition to a
certain degree; that joints therefore may move with all possible ease
and freedom, a fluid is interposed called _sinovia_. This is separated
from the blood, by the vessels distributed to the inner surface of the
joint, and is the most slippery of all fluids.

In order that bones may not be separated from each other, but preserve
their relative situations, with a certain capacity of motion, it is
requisite that they should be joined together; this is done by the
ligaments surrounding a joint, which are of two kinds. The one adapted
to the firm junction of the bones with each other, upon which the
strength of the joint depends; the other loosely attached round the
ends of contiguous bones, to secrete sinovia, and retain it in its
proper situation; and hence called capsular or purse-like ligament.

This kind of structure, endowed with a power of secreting sinovia, is
not confined to the joints alone; for in many parts of the body, where
muscles during their action rub on bones, or tendon on tendon, small
bags are formed for supplying sinovia, which are called bursæ mucosæ.

As all these parts subservient to motion are inert in themselves,
that animals may enjoy the means of changing their situations and
attitudes, a power must be applied to the bones for this purpose, which
is supplied by muscular action. Thus we find the bones clothed with
_muscles_, which give, in a great measure, the external shape to the
body, and act in considerable numbers on the joints, particularly those
which possess much motion.

All animals have a muscular structure entering into their composition,
with some variety in its appearance. Muscles are generally fibrous
to the eye, and in Man and Quadrupeds are of a red color; in some
animals, however, these circumstances are not at all obvious. Thus in
many fishes, the muscles are white, and put on a flaky appearance;
whilst in the fresh water Polypus, which possesses a great degree of
contractile power, no fibres can be seen. So that it is not necessary
that these properties should be obvious in the muscles of all animals.
Thus no person has ever seen the fibres in the muscles of a Flea, yet
no animal can exert greater muscular power. In the same way, many parts
of the body possess a contractile power, which have no apparent fibrous
structure; the best example of this, is the skin of the scrotum. The
redness of a muscle, in fact, depends in a great measure on the degree
of exertion it undergoes; thus when a limb becomes motionless from
palsy, the muscles uniformly become pale.--The function of a muscle
consists in its contracting or shortening itself, in consequence of
the application of certain stimuli or excitements; the effect of this
contraction is, that the different bones to which the muscles are
attached are moved in various directions. Thus (to give an example) a
muscle affixed to two contiguous bones, by shortening itself, brings
those points to which it is affixed nearer to each other; and, from
this mechanism, arise all the motions of the body. The greatest part
of the muscles which put the limbs in motion by their contractions,
are said to act under the excitement of volition, or, in other words,
are under the control and influence of the will, and are therefore
called voluntary muscles. There are many muscles, however, which are
not excited by volition, and are therefore called involuntary. As these
are directed by influences, and perform the actions on which life
immediately depends, they, for obvious reasons, are not only put beyond
the powers of the will, but are enabled to carry on their contractions
and motions without interruption or fatigue, entirely independent of
its direction or our consciousness. In this manner the heart performs
the circulation of the blood, and the stomach and intestines give the
requisite motion to the food.--There are many other excitements which
produce contraction in muscles, such as the passions and emotions of
the mind, and various mechanical and chemical stimuli. Some of them
occasionally excite the voluntary muscles of the body to a degree
of action, over which volition has no control. Thus a person in an
ordinary state of mind, can walk more or less quietly as suits his
convenience; but it occasionally happens, we shall say in the field of
battle, that the passion of fear is excited; this excitement frequently
disregards the power of the will, and strongly excites the muscles
employed in running away.[197]

In most animals, there is connected with the muscles another kind of
structure called _tendon_, which consists in a white substance very
different from muscles, but having a fibrous structure. Although
tendons are not necessary to the action of muscles, yet there are
several advantages derived from them; they occupy much less room than
muscles, and can be placed in greater numbers around the joints, so
as to preserve the beauty and uniformity of the limbs. They may be
considered as living cords, joining the muscle to the bone on which it
is to act, and, being more scantily supplied with blood than muscles,
make a smaller quantity of blood necessary to the system, which is
certainly a convenience. Although the different parts of the body
vary very much in their functions and degree of motion; yet, it is
convenient, that they should be all united together by a substance of
considerable elasticity. This is done by the interposition of _cellular
membrane_, which is the general connecting medium throughout the body,
attaching each organ to its neighbor, but allowing sufficient play for
the performance of its function.

It is in the cellular membrane of different parts of the body that fat
is deposited; and from the seeming caprice of nature, in overloading
some animals, and entirely denying it to others, its use has been
thought inconsiderable in the system. When, however, we remark, that
fat is taken up in some diseases where the appetite is impaired; and
that torpid animals, before hibernation, have a large quantity of it
accumulated, and come out of that state quite emaciated: and that
bees, who have no fat in their bodies, lay up a stock of food, having
the same chemical properties, against their hibernating season; it
appears very probable, that one use of fat is to form a reservoir of
nutriment, which supplies the wants of an animal when food is not
introduced by the stomach.

If we add the _skin_ to the cellular membrane, we may say, without
these the beauty and symmetry of the exterior would have been much
diminished. We should have seen the raw muscles in all their actions,
and the naked nerves exposed to the air and to injury. There would have
existed deep fissures between the muscles, cavities in almost every
part, and the body would have presented the sad appearance it now does
in consumption.[198] But the cellular substance in some places only
separates one part from another, or affords a slippery surface for one
muscle to slide over the other: in others forming membranes or fascia
to hide, to bind down and strengthen different organs; while in others
admitting into its cells an oily substance, becomes fat, and fills up
all the interstices, rounds off all prominences, softens acute lines,
and gives a graceful softness and contour to the whole. And the skin
enveloping in a close case, keeps all compact, and hides from the eye
whatever might be offensive: while, at the same time the cutis or
true skin serves for a surface for the nerves and exhalent vessels to
terminate, the cuticle or scarf skin defends them from injury, and
moderates their excessive sensibility.

As all animals are to live in media where the heat varies, it was
necessary either to form them in such a way, that their functions
should not be affected by varieties in temperature, or that they should
be enabled to keep up the heat of their bodies at a regular point.
Animals have been endowed with the latter power, and can accordingly
maintain their heat, whether exposed to a high or low degree of
temperature, with some exception as to the degree in the lower orders
of animals, in some of which the temperature varies with that of the
medium in which they are placed. This is the case with the Frog.--This
animal, when placed in warm water, has the temperature of its body
raised several degrees, and, on the other hand, may be reduced to
the freezing point, without producing death. The heat of the human
body, however, is little changed, whether it be exposed to intense
cold, or much above the heat of boiling water. In the experiments
made in heated rooms by Dr. Fordyce, and Sir Charles Blagden, these
gentlemen remained several minutes in the heat of 260 degrees, nearly
50 degrees more than boiling water. At this heat a beefsteak and eggs
were cooked near the stove, and yet the heated air produced no bad
effect upon their bodies: it raised the temperature of their bodies
only a few degrees.--The lungs are the chief agents by which heat is
introduced into animal bodies. By their means, the blood is exposed to
the air, and consumes its oxygenous part, which contains the principle
of heat in a combined state. This, during circulation, is evolved by
the minute blood vessels, so as to become sensible on every part of
the body: and it is an important fact, that the quantity of oxygen
consumed is greater in cold than warm weather; by this wise provision,
in proportion as the heat is more quickly carried off by the coldness
of the surrounding medium, the animal receives an increased internal
supply. Many experiments have been instituted to ascertain the quantity
of oxygen consumed in a given time by ordinary respiration, and,
according to the best calculations, it appears that the consumption
amounts to about 33½ ounces troy weight, in 24 hours; and it has been
computed by philosophers, that the quantity of heat, which the oxygen
consumes and will supply to the body, is nearly equal to that given out
by a common candle.[199] I have thus attempted to give a short view of
the different structures and functions of the body, and have briefly
pointed out some of their varieties in the different classes of animals.

This corporeal system, which by its uniform and harmonious action
contributes so essentially and largely to our terrestrial enjoyment,
exhibits an astonishing display of the infinite wisdom, almighty power,
and boundless goodness of its glorious Creator. Galen, an ancient Pagan
physician, on contemplating the different parts of the human body, and
the disposition of them, fell on his knees in humble adoration of the
wisdom with which the whole is contrived; and was excited to challenge
any one, after a hundred years’ study, to tell how the least fiber or
particle could have been more commodiously placed, either for use or
beauty. His seventeen books on the subject are like so many hymns of
praise to the almighty and all-wise God, the Creator. Lactantius calls
his writings on the body of man, a marvellous comment on his creation,
and Galen himself managed the subject as a full demonstration of a
Deity which every man carries about with him.

But what is still more deserving of our attention is the _soul_ of man:
for if the external structure be so admirable a piece of mechanism,
what shall we say of the immaterial and intellectual spirit resident
in it? This noble, constituent, essential part of man, is yet a more
astonishing production of infinite skill and power. Elihu says, “The
Spirit of God hath made me, and the breath of the Almighty hath given
me life. There is a spirit in man, and the inspiration of the Almighty
giveth them understanding.” God, by his creating energy, called all
things out of nothing, but there was neither order, light, nor motion,
till the Divine Spirit moved on the lifeless chaos; so the same
all-wise and powerful Architect formed of clay the wonderful fabric
of man’s body, which remained without life and action, till the Holy
Spirit infused a vital spirit into him, thereby enduing him with sense,
motion, understanding, will, and active powers. This soul, therefore,
became a living principle of intelligence, consciousness, and activity,
in man.

The great Creator said, “Let us make man in _our image_, after _our
likeness_.” Now, as the Divine Being is infinite, he is neither
limited by parts, nor definable by passions: therefore he can have
no _corporeal image_ after which he formed the body of man. The
_image_ and _likeness_ in which he was created must necessarily be
intellectual: his soul must have been formed after the nature and
perfections of God. The Creator was now producing a spirit, formed
after himself. He is the fountain whence it issued; hence the stream
must resemble the spring which produced it.

The most perfect description of God, given to us in the Scripture,
is that by our Saviour:--“God is a Spirit.” It has been observed by
expositors, that this assertion is no where else to be found in the
sacred Writings. That passage, “Now the Lord is that Spirit,” sounds
something like it, but in meaning is different. The word _God_ here
is not to be understood personally, either for the Father, or the
Son, or the Holy Ghost, alone, but essentially for the Divine Nature,
which each of these glorious Persons possesses. The Divine Nature is
_spirit_. This shows, that, according to the popular and common use of
the word, he is a Being entirely separated from matter or body, in all
its properties and affections; that he is a pure mind, and possessed of
the most excellent powers and perfections, which belong to spiritual
beings.

It is difficult, for persons of a low understanding, who are
unaccustomed to abstract reflections, and who have imbibed their
knowledge by means of the external senses, employed on material
objects, to raise their minds to the contemplation of the existence
of immaterial, invisible beings. But that there really are such, and
particularly that God is such, admits of the clearest proof, and will
not be called in question by any who on rational grounds acknowledge
his existence. It is usually granted, that it is much more easy to say
what a spirit is not, than to define what it is. It is not in the power
of the wisest and most knowing of men, to declare its nature. Nay, who
can explain what the consistence of any piece of matter is, which we
every day see and touch!

But as, notwithstanding our ignorance of the essence of material
objects, we are not only sure of their existence, but also know many
of their properties; so in like manner, though we are ignorant of the
nature of spirits, yet from their manifest operations and effects, we
are both convinced that such beings exist, and have some notion of
several of their faculties and powers.

The powers and capacities that we observe in all the operations and
works of God, are utterly inconsistent with the properties we discern
in matter. In the works of creation we perceive evident proofs of
thought, intention, contrivance, and design; which powers, we are sure,
having no affinity with solidity, figure, and a capacity of being moved
by the impulse of another, cannot arise from the composition or mixture
of any of the known properties of matter. Not only the existence, but
many of the perfections of God, may be discerned in various parts of
the universe.

In short, we can say nothing higher of God, than that he is a Spirit.
This notion leads us to conceive of him as a most perfect Being, and
to reject concerning him whatever would argue any imperfection. It
leads us to believe him to be perfectly immaterial, free from all the
imperfections of matter, and from all the infirmities of corporeal
creatures. But though _spirit_ signifies a being of higher rank than
body or matter, yet the word is too low to express the essence of God,
any otherwise than analogically, or metaphorically. He is infinitely
more excellent than the highest created spirits, being eternal, and
immutable. But some may inquire, if God be such a Spirit, how is it
that in Scripture we read of his having bodily members, and natural
affections, like men; such as head, eyes, ears, mouth, hands, and feet;
and the affections, or passions, of anger, grief, love, joy, &c? these
are ascribed to him, or rather assumed by him. I answer; this is done
in condescension to our narrow capacities; for if God should speak
to us of himself, as he is in himself, our understandings could not
comprehend him. As the inconceivable glories of the world to come, are
explained to us by the honors and pleasures of this life; so the nature
of God, by a gracious condescension to our weakness, is signified to
us by a likeness to our own. By human members being ascribed to God,
are implied the moral excellencies of his spiritual nature, or rather
his operations, which are more sensible to us than his invisible
nature. His eyes are emblems of his knowledge, wisdom, omniscience, and
providence. His face indicates his favor, and sometimes is expressive
of his displeasure, because both these appear in the countenance of
a man. His mouth is the symbol of the revelation of his will. His
hand, or arm, is indicative of the less or greater exercises of his
power.--Such a _Spirit_ is the Creator of man, whom he made in his
_image_ or _likeness_.

Whoever reflects with attention on the human soul, may easily
perceive it to be of a nature entirely different from the body. Being
immaterial, it is not compounded of material principles, nor consists
of innumerable parts which may be separated from each other; neither
is it capable of solidity, figure, extension, and other properties
of matter; but is a simple, uncompounded substance, though possessed
of various and distinct powers; and therefore is neither visible nor
divisible, nor has it any dimensions or shape.

The soul has a power of _thought_, with which mere matter can never
be endued. If it pass through all the changes, and assume all the
shapes of which it is capable, thought will never be the result. It may
be differently modified, framed, and disposed, but cannot think. “I
find in me something that _thinks_,” says a celebrated author, “which
neither earth, water, air, fire, nor any mixture of them, can possibly
do. Something which sees, hears, smells, tastes, and feels, all which
are so many modes of thinking.” Thought is the privilege of immaterial
beings.[200]

This inward principle is capable not only of thinking, but of love,
desire, hope, joy; hatred, fear, sorrow, anger, and a whole train of
inward emotions, which are commonly called _passions_ or _affections_.
A something apprehended to be good in itself, or calculated to be
beneficial to us, is the object of love. If that good be absent,
it excites desire: if there be a probability of obtaining it, that
produces hope; and the possession of the desired object yields delight
and joy. Evil, whether real, or imaginary only, is the object of
dislike and aversion. If there be any probability of this evil coming
in contact with us, it causes fear; and if it unavoidably come upon us,
it produces sorrow or anger. These passions or affections seem to be
the only spring of action in the soul.

The soul has received from God a principle of motion, whereby
it governs at pleasure every part of the body, and directs its
operations: only with this exception, that all the vital motions,
which are absolutely necessary for the continuance of animal life,
are involuntarily going on, whether we advert to them or not; which
is a marvellous instance of the wisdom and goodness of God. With the
exception of these, I direct the motion of my whole body. By a single
act of my will, I put my head, eyes, hands, or any part into motion:
although the manner of doing this I do not comprehend. Every one feels
that he has an inherent power to move this or that part of his body or
not, and to give it a direction this way or the contrary, just as he
pleases. I can, as I choose, open or shut my eyes, speak or be silent,
rise up or sit down, stretch out my hand or draw it in, and use any of
my limbs according to my pleasure, as well as my whole body. Matter may
be moved, but it can never move itself.

The soul is free in its operations; it possesses this property, which
is capable of being exerted with regard to all its faculties, as well
as all the motions of the body. It is a power of self-determination,
which, though not affecting all our thoughts and imaginations, yet
extends to our words and actions in general, with but few exceptions.
I am certain, that I am free to speak or not to speak, to act or not
to act, to do this or to do the contrary, as I am of my own existence.
I have not only what is termed a _liberty of contradiction_, but what
is termed a _liberty of contrariety_, a power to act one way, or the
contrary: to deny this would be to contradict the uniform experience
of all human kind. The soul is not necessitated to judge or act by any
bodily impulse. Let things appear as they may to the senses, the soul
can suspend its judgment, till it has examined and considered them more
thoroughly. Let the appetites and inclinations of the body strongly
urge their own gratification, the soul can refuse their solicitations,
and maturely weigh what the consequences would be. Let all the
allurements of sensible objects, the assurance of sensual enjoyments,
or the influence of custom and example, try to corrupt the integrity
of the soul, and lead it astray from the paths of peace and purity;
unless it consent, the attempts will prove ineffectual. We can reason,
discourse, study, contrive, choose, and refuse with discretion; begin
a work, and cease again at pleasure. We can reflect on what we have
done, and either rejoice and delight in it, or be ashamed and grieved
for it. We distinguish truth from error, moral good and evil; we fear
punishment on having committed evil, and hope for reward on having done
well. And, through the grace of God assisting us, we have a power to
embrace and resolve to do good, as well as evil. We are free to choose
whom we will serve, and, if we determine in favor of the better part,
to continue therein.

_Conscience_ is not a faculty of the soul distinct from the
understanding, memory, will, and affections, but that power by which we
are conscious of our own state, reflect on our actions, and pronounce
them either good or evil. This supposes, that we are acquainted with
the law of God, either natural or written, which is the rule of our
duty. The name is derived from the Latin word _conscientia_, into which
the Greek word συνειδησις is exactly translated. Both these words for
conscience, signify, that the mind is possessed of a consciousness of
the actions and thoughts of the man, and passes a judgment on them,
according to some rule. The Jews have no proper word in their language
for conscience, and therefore use the term _heart_; which is also
used in the New Testament. Conscience is the journal or diary of the
actions of man. Its office is, 1. To call, urge, and excite us to duty.
2. To testify and bear witness either for or against us, according
as we perform or neglect our duty. 3. Either to excuse or acquit, or
accuse and condemn us, on the evidence it gives of the moral nature
and quality of our actions: if they be conformable to the Divine rule,
as to matter and manner, it acquits us; if they be contrary to it,
conscience accuses, condemns, and passes sentence upon us. 4. And if
its sentence be true and just, conformable to rule, it is ratified by
God the Supreme Judge, whose deputy and vicegerent it is in the breast
of every man.

Though the soul is not under the imperious influence of the body, yet
for many ages it has been allowed by sensible men, that “there is
nothing in the understanding which is not first perceived by some of
the senses.” The imagination is the place where the images of things
are first engendered, and from which they are transferred to the
understanding. And therefore those who want any sense, cannot have the
least knowledge or idea of the objects peculiar to that sense: as they
who never had sight, have not the least conception of light or colors.
But there is a great difference between our senses, considered as the
avenues of knowledge. Some of them have a narrow sphere of action:
others a more extensive one. By _feeling_ we discern only those objects
which touch some part of our body; and consequently this sense extends
only to a small number of objects. Our senses of _taste_ and _smell_
extend to fewer still. But, on the other hand, our nobler sense of
_hearing_ has a wide sphere of action: especially in the case of loud
sounds, as thunder, the roaring of the sea, or the discharge of cannon:
the last of which sounds has been frequently heard at the distance
of near a hundred miles. Yet the space to which the hearing itself
extends is small, compared to that through which the _sight_ extends.
This sense takes in at one view, not only the most unbounded prospects
on earth, but also the moon, and the other planets, the sun, yea, the
fixed stars, though at such an immeasurable distance.

But still none of our senses can reach beyond the bounds of this
visible world. They supply us with such knowledge of the material
world, as answers all the purposes of life. But as this was the design
for which they were given, beyond this they cannot go. They furnish
us with no information at all, concerning the _invisible world_.
But the wise and gracious Governor of the worlds, both visible and
invisible, has prepared a remedy for this defect. He has favored us
with a _revelation_, concerning himself, his existence, perfections,
and will; and another world, its nature, certainty, and duration: and
this revelation is contained in the Scriptures. And he has appointed
_faith_ to supply the defect of sense; to take us up where sense sets
us down, and help us over the great gulf. Its office begins where that
of sense ends. Sense is the evidence of things that are seen; of the
visible, the material world, and the several parts of it. Faith, on
the other hand, is the “evidence of things not seen,” of the invisible
world: of all these invisible things, which are revealed in the Oracles
of God.[201] Though eternal things come not within the reach of sense,
yet, by faith, they are as present to the mind, in their reality,
excellence, and continuance, as if they were seen with the eye of the
body. The testimony of the God of truth, is the foundation and reason
of this faith; for what he says must be true, because he cannot lie:
this is a principle concerning which all agree who own his existence.

The soul has a vast intellectual capacity; for the knowledge of God,
nature, providence, the original and present state of man, the visible
world, sublime speculations, and useful discoveries, come within its
comprehension. It can reason, infer, reflect, and carry on a chain of
thoughts, with perspicuity and close connection, concerning things. Its
powers take in objects of all dimensions; yet they are not situated
as bodies in a material place, where the greater occupy more space
than the less: for the thought of a mile, or ten thousand miles, does
no more fill or stretch the soul, than that of a foot, an inch, or a
mathematical point. And whereas all matter has its parts, and those
extended, one without another, into length, breadth, and thickness, and
so is measurable by inches, yards, or solid measures; there is nothing
of measurable extension in any thing belonging to the soul, neither
length, breadth, nor thickness; nor is it possible to form an idea of
a foot of thought, a yard of reason, a pound of wisdom, or a quart of
virtue.[202] The soul is capable of abstract notions, mathematical and
metaphysical conceptions. Its powers are so great, that we can explore
nature, span the surface of the earth, dive into its capacious seas,
and there discover the numerous inhabitants of the watery world. We
can travel to the sun, continue our journey through our own spherical
system, from planet to planet, tell their dimensions, measure their
distances, and accompany them through their various revolutions. We can
pass the boundaries of our own, and enter into other systems; and from
thence, into eternity itself: ascending from region to region, from
world to world, from the creature till we reach the abode of the great
Creator, who is the first cause of all things; and then, with ravished
eyes, gaze on that glorious Luminary of the moral world, till we are
amazed, delighted, and overpowered, with the splendor of his infinite
perfections.

The soul is _immortal_ in its duration: it once began to be, but will
never cease to exist. When the whole of time is elapsed, it will live
in the vigorous exercise of its active powers, and its existence run
parallel with eternity. The death of the soul cannot be effected by the
operation of second causes; and God, who is the first cause, will never
annihilate it. The Sadducees denied the immateriality and immortality
of the soul, saying, that, except God, there was no spirit: they were
much like the Epicureans among the Gentile philosophers. In refutation
of this Sadducean notion, our Saviour referred them to the five Books
of Moses, which they acknowledged as of Divine authority, where God
says, “I am the God of Abraham, and the God of Isaac, and the God of
Jacob.” Abraham had been dead upwards of 300 years when these words
were spoken to Moses. Now, says our Saviour, “God is not the God of
the dead, but of the living.” Though the bodies of these renowned
patriarchs had been long dead, and ceased to exist among mortals, their
souls were still living, not only in a future state, but with God.
He also warned his disciples of the opposition they would meet with,
in the faithful discharge of their religious and ministerial duties,
from the prejudice, rage, and fury of men; but urged them to take
courage, and not suffer themselves to be intimidated, so as to neglect
in any degree the execution of the important commission he had given
them, saying, “Fear not them which kill the body, but are not able to
kill the soul.” Hence the soul is a principle distinct from the body,
actually survives it, and can subsist without it, not only retaining
its vital existence, but its consciousness, reflection, and activity.
The following lines of Addison are strongly and beautifully descriptive
of the immortality of the soul:

    “The soul, secure in her existence, smiles
    At dissolution, and defies its power.
    The stars shall fade away, the sun himself
    Grow dim with age, and nature sink in years;
    But thou shalt flourish in immortal youth--
    Unhurt, amidst the war of elements,
    The wreck of matter, and the crash of worlds.”

In a word, since the soul is not material, it can have no parts; if it
have no parts, then it cannot be separated; if it cannot be separated,
then it cannot be dissolved; if it cannot be dissolved, then it is
incorruptible; and if it be incorruptible, then it is immortal.

Thus it is evident, from all the perceptions of the soul, that it
is not compounded like the body. Those powers and affections, such
as thought and reason, judgment and liberty, love and hatred, joy
and sorrow, can never be the properties or effects of matter, in any
possible variation or modification of its parts. Nor can matter ever
produce those noble and just sentiments, those sublime and generous
affections, to which the soul sometimes rises in its contemplations of
God, the phenomena of the universe, and the operation of Providence
which sustains and governs all things. All this can never be produced
by matter, which is altogether inactive of itself; and when motion
is impressed on it, the only change produced is in the situation and
contexture of its parts. Surely all attempts to account for these
things, by any laws of nature known in the corporeal world, are
absolutely ridiculous.

How strange is it then, that such a spiritual being should be united so
closely to flesh and blood, imprisoned in a tenement of clay, and use
the body as the instrument of active operations.--Several philosophers,
among whom is Socrates, have called the body της ψυχης οικητηριον, _the
habitation of the soul_; yea, φυλακη και ταφος, her moveable _prison_,
and living _sepulchre_. These two essential parts of man, which God,
at his creation, united so closely together, that both make but one
person, is a great mystery; considering the different natures that
adhere, soul and body, matter and spirit. All this is unintelligible
to the human intellect, however improved and capacious. The disputers
of this world will find themselves completely perplexed, in attempting
to explain by what ties a spirit is united to a piece of clay; and
what holds it confined to its habitation. The adhesion of the material
particles in the human body, the flame of animal life kindled and
burning clear and strong within us, and the union of spirit and matter,
so that the one is the tenement of the other, and the instrument of
its operations, are, as to their manner, mysterious, and attended with
difficulties that would perplex and confound the most penetrating and
sagacious mind.

Man then was created in the _natural_ image of God, which consisted
chiefly in the spiritual nature, amazing powers, and immortality of
his soul; like God, it is a _spirit_, immaterial, invisible, active,
intelligent, free, and immortal: and partly, in a lower sense, in the
privilege of his body, which, in his state of innocence, was, by the
promise of his Creator, entitled to a gratuitous immortality. Some
make reason or understanding to be the image in which God created man:
but, though this may be included, yet, it is not the principal thing
intended by the Divine _image_: for if rationality were the image, it
could never be lost. Sin, which defaces this beautiful image, does not
deprive man of intellect: his nature will for ever continue rational;
he can never, I presume, be deprived of his reason so as not to possess
it any more. Thought and consciousness are inseparable from the nature
of man, and therefore this _image_ of God in which Adam was created,
must be something distinct from reason. Indeed reasonable creatures
only can be the subjects of it, but reason is not the thing itself.
To suppose that mere reason is God’s image in man, is an hypothesis
unworthy of a reasonable nature; and with how much confidence soever
some assert, the assertion is reproachful to our Maker.

The chief thing intended by the Divine _image_, is moral rectitude;
man was created in the _moral image_ of God; but that image in man
was only a _likeness_, it did not equal, but resembled its high
original--a disparity which necessarily exists between a creature
and its Creator. According to any rational opinion we can form of
God, we must believe that he is a spiritual Being; which includes the
simplicity of his nature, his indivisibility, and his immortality;
possessed not only of every natural perfection, but of all moral
excellencies. He is not only an intelligent, omnipresent, omniscient,
almighty Being, but wise, holy, righteous, and good. Without moral
perfections, his character would not be very interesting to us. If he
had no radical and constitutional principle in his nature that could
move him to regard the temper of our minds, and the complexion of our
actions, or cause him to be either pleased or displeased with our
behavior, however conducted, we should have no reason to act either
from motives of love or fear of him. His natural attributes alone, are
very far from finishing his character; in conjunction with these, his
moral excellencies complete his glory, exhibit him as the most perfect
Agent, and render him in the most exalted sense our Governor. His
holiness, justice, goodness, and truth, are called moral attributes,
or communicable perfections; because we can trace some resemblance
in angels and men; though there is an infinite disproportion between
these perfections as they exist in God, and are faintly displayed in
the creatures: in him they are infinite, in the creatures finite and
limited.

These moral perfections constitute God a proper object of religious
adoration, and without which no worship would be due or could be
rendered to him. The Divine Nature is the foundation of that worship
which we, as rational beings, are under obligations to perform; and the
revelation of the will of God, with which he has graciously favored us
in the Scripture, is the constant rule of his worship. On believing his
existence, and cultivating the knowledge of his attributes, especially
those which are so astonishingly displayed and harmonized in the
redemption of mankind by Jesus Christ, it very naturally follows, to
every reflecting mind, that we owe him ourselves, and are bound by the
strongest ties to present to him the most spiritual worship of which
our intelligent nature is capable.

The moral image of God, after which man was created, was his greatest
excellence. His _understanding_ possessed a large capacity for
improvement, equal to an extensive and accurate acquaintance with
things both natural and divine, the acquisition of which would
facilitate his own happiness, by rendering him more competent to
answer the benevolent design which his Creator projected in calling
him into existence. This capacity was amply supplied by his Creator;
for all divine knowledge is given by revelation; which he must either
communicate to man, or he must remain ignorant of him. The capacity
is one thing, and its improvement is another; which, as it is not
naturally inherent in man, so it must be acquired. The knowledge of
the nature, perfections, and will of God, can, in the first instance,
only be made known by himself; for there is not a correct notion of him
in the whole intellectual and moral world, but what has been received
from either Divine revelation, or his own immediate influence. Adam,
then, as an intelligent creature, was endued with the knowledge of
God, so far as was necessary to enable him to fear, love, and serve
him. Without a perception of his existence and perfections, and the
knowledge of his will, he could not perform any acts of adoration,
reverence, reliance, regard, and delight, toward him. If therefore
man, in his primitive state, was obliged to worship his Creator (of
which certainly no one can doubt,) it must be granted that he possessed
knowledge equal to the nature and extent of his obligations. In his
state of innocence, he did not perform a blind devotion, or worship he
knew not what. Such ignorance is the consequence of sin; therefore he
could not be the unhappy subject of it before he transgressed.

Some persons have thought that Adam, in his primeval state, understood
the doctrine of a Trinity of Persons or Subsistencies in the Godhead.
Though the knowledge of this important doctrine cannot be attained by
reasoning on the operations of Divine wisdom, power, and goodness,
visibly and conspicuously displayed in the universe; yet, as Adam
received by immediate revelation some truths, why may we not suppose
that this mystery was not conveyed to him in the same way, that his
acts of devotion might comport with the honors due to each of the
Sacred Three? The Divine Nature is without multiplicity, it is one; but
the Three Subsistencies in that Essence are essential to the Godhead:
this arrangement is radical, constitutional, and eternal. Therefore why
should not God be worshipped according to his own natural distinction
of Persons in his undivided Essence, by man in his primitive state? A
Trinity in Unity is the most correct view of God; and, consequently,
the worship that accords with it, being the most accurate, must be
acceptable to him. The Christian religion has not given existence to
this doctrine of the Trinity; for independently of the mediatorial
scheme of redemption and salvation by Christ, God was from eternity the
same Triune Being, and cannot change. It is not improbable that man,
while he retained his pristine state, worshipped the Father, the Son,
and the Holy Spirit, in all his acts of religious worship. Lord Bacon,
in his Confession of Faith, says,--“I believe that nothing is without
beginning but God; no nature, no matter, no spirit, but one only, and
the same God. That God, as he is eternally almighty, only wise, only
good, in his nature; so he is eternally Father, Son, and Spirit, in
Persons.”

We cannot rationally suppose that Adam was a stranger to his _duty_,
either in its nature, manner, or extent. If he had not known what
duties his Creator required him to perform, it would have been
impossible for him to act agreeably to his will. Obedience to any
authority necessarily supposes a knowledge of what it enjoins: and,
consequently, Adam must have known what he ought to practise, in what
manner, and with what views; for, otherwise, he could not be obedient
to the will of God in what he did. Hence we must conclude, that he was
acquainted with the whole compass of his duty. As his understanding was
not blinded by contracted prejudices, so it was free from any natural
defect. His mind was furnished with correct views of God, his own
dependence upon him, relations and obligations to him, and the way to
please and enjoy him.

Adam, in his primitive state, knew wherein his _happiness_ consisted.
If he had been ignorant of that happiness to which he was entitled
so long as he preserved his integrity, how could he have enjoyed it
while in his possession; for a delight in any present good arises from
a perception of its nature and value. Neither was he ignorant of the
misery, into which an action committed against the will of his Creator
would bring him. He certainly knew that sinning against God would
inevitably be attended with fatal effects to himself. His unclouded
reason could not but discern, that rebellion against the dignity and
sovereignty of his Maker would unavoidably expose him to his righteous
displeasure.

As the judgment of Adam could not but entirely approve of the supreme
Good, in all the perfections of its nature, and revelation of the
Divine Mind; so his _will_, with great freedom following its dictates,
readily embraced what was right, and exactly harmonized with every
requisition. He had a holy disposition, such as comported with the
infinite perfection of holiness, so resplendent in the Divine Nature.
Some have asserted, that God formed man without any direction in his
will either to good or evil. But this imagination is irrational, for
it supposes that he was neither holy nor unholy. It is evident from
Scripture, that he was created good in an ethical or moral sense,
for he was made in the _image_ of God, which chiefly consisted in a
conformity to his moral perfections. He resembled these, particularly
that of holiness; so that, though in an infinitely lower degree, he was
holy as God is holy; without the least taint of sin in his nature, or
any inclination to evil, all his powers and faculties being disposed to
comply with his utmost requisition.

Adam’s _affections_ were subordinate and obedient to the higher
faculties of his soul, and moved without the least tumult or disorder.
Being pure and regular, there was no depravity or discord among them.
No temptation arose from vanity seated in any of the inferior powers:
neither was there a rebellious disposition among the passions directed
against his reason. No unlawful love, delight, or aversion had any
place in his innocent nature, and therefore the dictates of reason
did not meet with any control from corruption in the affections; and,
consequently, obedience to his Creator was not rendered difficult by
unruliness in the passions. Being thus made after the _likeness_ of
God, he had the moral law written on his heart: that hereby he might
have a perfect rule of obedience, and be easily apprised of his duty
to him. And as he was indispensably obliged to yield obedience to this
law, and the consequence of violating it would be endless ruin, God, as
a just and gracious Sovereign, gave him ability to keep it. Herein he
treated him as a rational creature, and a subject of moral government.

The inferior _appetites_ of Adam were in a state of perfect subjection,
and never indulged to the least excess. The animal structure requiring
food for its support, there was a great variety provided. But while
surrounded with plenty, he was strictly temperate; his appetite was
regular, consistent with purity, and in harmony with his devotions.
The _senses_ also corresponded to the faculties of the soul, and
were inlets to wisdom and enjoyment. Thus, as one observes, all his
faculties both of body and mind were subservient to the glory of God,
and contributed to his own felicity: a state which we are to regain by
Christ.

    “Enslav’d to sense, to pleasure prone,
        Fond of created good;
    Father, our helplessness we own,
        And trembling taste our food.

    Trembling we taste; for, ah! no more
        To thee the creatures lead;
    Chang’d, they exert a baneful power,
        And poison, while they feed.

    Curs’d for the sake of wretched man,
        They now engross him whole;
    With pleasing force on earth detain!
        And sensualize his soul.

    Groveling on earth we still must lie,
        Till Christ the curse repeal:
    Till Christ descending from on high
        Infected nature heal.

    Come then, our heavenly Adam, come,
        Thy healing influence give;
    Hallow our food, reverse our doom,
        And bid us eat, and live.

    Turn the full stream of nature’s tide:
        Let all our actions tend
    To thee their source; thy love the guide,
        Thy glory be the end.

    Earth then a scale to heaven shall be,
        Sense shall point out the road;
    The creatures all shall lead to thee,
        And all we taste be God.”

Man was _happy_ in his original state; he not only was free from pain
and misery, but enjoyed delight. His pleasure was of a pure nature, not
only such as God approved, but derived from a Divine source. If his
mind had not been possessed of correct knowledge, his will disposed
to obedience, his affections regular and holy, and his appetites and
senses subject to a rational control, what pleasure could he have taken
in the contemplation of infinite perfections, and in a compliance to
the requisitions of the moral law? Happiness necessarily supposes
delight, and delight as necessarily supposes a concordance between
the disposition of the soul, and the objects from which its pleasure
springs. Man was happy while innocent; he therefore enjoyed pleasure,
which was pure, arising from positive holiness, and the presence
and blessing of God. Surely it is reasonable to conclude, that Adam
performed devotional acts with holy reverence and supreme delight. He
could not but give the tribute of praise to his beneficent Creator, for
his superabundant goodness toward him; being favored with every thing,
not only necessary to his sustenance, in the excellent circumstances
in which he was placed, but with whatever he could desire for the
entertainment and delight of his innocent and heavenly mind. Above
all, his grateful soul most certainly adored his Creator, for the
glorious and beneficial displays of his wisdom, power, and goodness,
and rejoiced in the interest he had in his approbation, protection,
and kindness. While he retained his integrity, and enjoyed free access
to his Maker, intimate communion with him, and was free from his
displeasure, what serenity, satisfaction, and pleasure must fill his
soul! He possessed that first and greatest of blessings, mentioned by
Horace, _mens sana in corpore sano_, a sound mind in a healthy body.

Notwithstanding the excellent state in which Adam was created, and
advantageous circumstances in which he was placed, yet he was liable
to fall. By reason of the spiritual and intelligent principle in him,
he became a moral agent, and a subject of moral government. He knew
his duty, and had the power of determining his own choice and actions.
He could choose good, and refuse evil, and be influenced by the hope
of reward and the fear of punishment. He had no disposition to sin in
his nature: for God could not create him in a sinful state, since that
would render him the author of sin. He had full power to stand: but
God could not interfere with the freedom of his will; and herein he
acted toward him in a way agreeable to his condition of probation. The
mutability of his will was essential to him as a rational creature,
placed in a state of responsibility for his actions to the great
Governor of the world. Dr. Paley says, “Free agency in its very essence
contains liability to abuse. Yet, if you deprive man of his free
agency, you subvert his nature.” God answers for himself in Milton:--

                    ----“Man had of me
    All he could have: I made him just and right,
    Sufficient to have stood, though free to fall.”

The sentiments of Faber are very appropriate. “When the Almighty ceased
from the work of creation, he pronounced all that he had made to be
very good. The new world was as yet free from the inroads of sin, and
from the curse of sterility.

                        ---- ‘Nature then
    Wanton’d as in her prime, and play’d at will
    Her virgin fancies.’

“The whole creation smiled upon man, and the golden age of the poets
was realized. Blessed with perfect health, both mental and corporeal,
our heaven-born progenitor was equally unconscious of the stings
of guilt and the pangs of disease. His understanding was unclouded
with the mists of vice, ignorance, and error; his will, though
absolutely free, was yet entirely devoted to the service of God; and
his affections warm, vigorous, and undivided, were ardently bent upon
the great Fountain of existence. Though vested in an earthly body,
his soul was as the soul of an angel, pure, just, and upright. He was
uncontaminated with the smallest sin, and free from even the slightest
taint of pollution. His passions perfectly under the guidance of his
reason, yielded a ready and cheerful obedience to the dictates of
his conscience; an obedience, not constrained and irksome, but full,
unreserved, and attended with sensations of unmixed delight. Such was
man when he came forth from the hand of his Creator, the image of God
stamped upon his soul and influencing all his actions.”[203]

We may add, the authority and _dominion_ with which God invested Adam.
This extended “over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air,
and over the cattle, and over the earth, and over every living thing
that creepeth upon the earth.” God constituted him the ruler, under
him, of all the inferior creatures. He probably inducted him into this
office when he caused the creatures to pass in review before him.
“And the Lord God brought every beast of the field, and every fowl
of the air, unto Adam to see what he would call them: and Adam gave
names to all cattle, and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast
of the field: and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that
was the name thereof.” Man alone, says Smellie, enjoys the power of
communicating and expressing his ideas by articulate and artificial
language. This inestimable prerogative is a great source of improvement
to the human intellect. Without artificial language, though the Author
of nature has bestowed on every animal a mode of expressing its wants
and desires, its pleasures and pains, what a humiliating figure would
the human species exhibit?

Dr. Beattie, in defining the human voice, says, it is air sent out
from the lungs, and so agitated, or modified, in its passage through
the windpipe and larynx, as to become distinctly audible. The windpipe
conveys air into the lungs for the purpose of respiration and speech;
the top or upper part of which is called the larynx, consisting of
four or five cartilages, that may be expanded or brought together,
by the agency of certain muscles which operate all at the same time.
In the middle of the larynx there is a small aperture, called the
_glottis_, through which the breath and voice are conveyed, but which,
when we swallow any thing, is covered by a lid called the _epiglottis_.
Authors have determined that the voice is produced by two semi-circular
membranes in the middle of the larynx, which form by their separation
the aperture that is termed the glottis. The space between them is not
wider than one-tenth of an inch; through which the breath transmitted
from the lungs must pass with considerable velocity. In its passage
it is supposed to give a brisk vibratory motion to the membranous
lips of the glottis, and so to form the sound which we call _voice_:
in order to the production of which, it, however, seems necessary,
that, by an energy of the will, a certain degree of tenseness should
be communicated to the larynx, or at least to the two membranes in the
middle of it. The voice, thus formed, is strengthened and mellowed by
a reverberation from the palate, and other hollow places in the inside
of the mouth and nostrils; and as these are better or worse shaped
for this reverberation, it is said to be more or less agreeable. The
glottis is found to be narrower in women and young persons than in men;
hence the voices of the latter are deeper, or more grave, than those
of the former. We can at pleasure dilate or contract this aperture,
so as to form the tones of the voice to every variety of the musical
scale. If we consider the many variations of sound, which the same
human voice is capable of uttering, together with the small diameter
of the glottis; and reflect that the same diameter must always produce
the same tone, and, consequently, that to every change of tone a
correspondent change of diameter is necessary: we must be astonished
at the mechanism of these parts and the fineness of the fibers,
producing effects so minute, various, and uniform. For it admits of
proof, that the glottis is capable of at least sixty distinct degrees
of contraction and enlargement, by each of which a different note is
produced.[204]

Concerning the origin of language, numerous conjectures have been
formed. As an instance how far the human mind, unassisted by a Divine
revelation, can go, Diodorus Siculus and Vitruvius have asserted, “that
men at first lived like beasts in woods and caves, forming only strange
and uncouth noises, till their fears caused them to associate together;
and that on growing acquainted with each other, they came to correspond
about things, first by signs, then to make names for them, and in time,
to frame and perfect a language; and that the languages of the world
are different, because different companies of men happening thus to
come together in different places, would, of course, form different
sounds or names of things; hence would arise the variety observable
even in ancient languages.” Thus we perceive the necessity of the
Scriptures relative even to this subject.

“The Mosaic History,” observes Dr. A. Clarke, “represents man as
being immediately capable of conversing with his Maker: of giving
names to the various tribes and classes of animals; and of reasoning
consecutively, and in perfectly appropriate terms, concerning his own
situation, and the relation he stood in to the creatures. As in man’s
first attempt at speech, according to this account, there appear no
crudeness of conception, no barrenness of ideas, and no inexpressive
or unappropriate terms, it is most rational to conclude, that God who
made and endued him with corporeal and mental powers, perfectly suited
to his state and condition in life, endued him also, not only with the
faculty of speech, but with speech or language itself; which latter was
as necessary to his comfort, and, indeed, to the perfection and end
of his being, as any other power or faculty which his Creator thought
proper to bestow upon him.”

Some assert that Adam _gave names_, from an intimate knowledge of the
nature and properties of each creature: that this shows the perfection
of his knowledge, for the names affixed to the different animals
in Scripture always express some prominent feature and essential
characteristic of the creatures to which they are applied; and that had
he not possessed an intuitive knowledge of the grand and distinguishing
properties of those animals, he never could have given them such names.
Dr. Leland states, that man was immediately endued with the gift of
language, which necessarily supposes that he was furnished with a stock
of ideas, a specimen of which he gave in giving names to the inferior
animals, which were brought to him for that purpose. Dr. Johnson
affirms, that the origin of language must have come by inspiration.
But Bishop Warburton conjectures, that God, in this transaction with
Adam, taught him language. Here, says he, by a common figure of speech,
the historian, instead of directly relating the fact, that God taught
man language, represents it, by showing God in the _act_ of doing it,
in a particular _mode_ of information; and that the most apposite we
can conceive in elementary instruction; namely, the giving of names
to substances; things with which Adam was to be conversant, and which
therefore had need of being distinguished each by its proper name.
And what a familiar image do these words give one of a learner of his
rudiments? _And God brought every beast to Adam to_ SEE _what he would
call them_. But though it appears that God taught man language, yet we
cannot reasonably suppose it any other than what served his present
occasions, he being now of himself able to improve and enlarge it, as
his future necessities should require. The celebrated Cowper, touching
this subject says:--

    “One man alone, the father of us all,
    Drew not his life from woman; never gaz’d,
    With mute unconsciousness of what he saw,
    On all around him: learn’d not by degrees,
    Nor aw’d articulation to his ear;
    But, moulded by his Maker into man
    At once, upstood intelligent, survey’d
    All creatures, with precision understood
    Their purport, uses, properties, assign’d
    To each his name significant, and, fill’d
    With love, and wisdom, render’d back to Heaven
    In praise harmonious the first air he drew.
    He was excus’d the penalties of dull
    Minority. No tutor charg’d his hand
    With the thought-tracing quill, or task’d his mind
    With problems.”

However, by the creatures passing before Adam, probably in pairs,
and he giving them names as they passed according to the nature and
properties of each, one thing evidently appears, namely, he was
convinced that none of these animals could be a suitable companion for
him; for, among all which he had named, “there was not a help-meet for
him:” one suitable and proper as an intimate companion and friend.

              “He views the vast creation o’er,
    Marks his own structure more than e’er before;
    Sees all the creatures with their co-mates blest,
    Himself left pensive, far unlike the rest;
    Without compeer with whom his hours to spend,
    Or jointly at the sacred altar bend.
    _Religion_--sacred to the first great Cause:
    _Philosophy_--the voice of Nature’s laws;
    And _social dictates_, all at once combine
    To teach their pupil, that the whole design
    Is not completed, while his lonely life
    Is left without a helper, friend, and wife.
    Refulgent Sol, while traversing his way,
    Has Luna shining with her lucid ray;
    And though her glory is a borrow’d light,
    She reigns sole empress of the sable night.
    Soft purling streams to rivers speed their course,
    And blend themselves with their capacious source.
    The spreading branches of uxorious vines,
    Clasp round each other with encircling twines.
    The climbing Ivy does the Oak embrace,
    And meets with verdant wreaths his bending face.
    The feather’d tribes that wing the firmament,
    By instinct led, to wedded love consent:
    They range the neighb’ring meads in quest of food,
    And guard and cherish their young callow brood.
    And shall the creatures without just pretence,
    Alone possess this high pre-eminence?
    Though with abounding earthly comforts blest,
    Shall man pre-eminent still want the best:--
    A bosom friend, than virgin rose more sweet,
    And whom he can with heart-felt rapture greet;
    Of pleasing form, equal and tender mind,
    To whom he can in closest ties be join’d?”

God did not approve of this state of solitude: he said, “It is not good
that man should be alone,” or only himself. The Creator had not yet
finished his works. He saw it necessary to relieve man in his solitary
situation; and his goodness and power were ready to concur with the
dictates of his wisdom. He said, “I will make him a _help-meet_ for
him;” i.e. his counterpart, one like himself in shape, constitution,
and disposition; exactly adapted to both his body and mind, the very
image of himself, _a second self_.

    “Must the fair creature promis’d to be giv’n,
    Be sent to earth from the abode of heav’n?
    Angelic nature could not well supply
    The craving void, remote, and far too high.
    Will God select amongst the brutal race,
    One, and refine it for his fond embrace?
    Nay, that would be too mean for his respect,
    Beneath his nature, void of intellect.
    The wise Creator, to complete his plan,
    Resolves to make a _help-meet_ from the Man,
    Procure the stamina from him alone,
    Thus constitute her “bone of his own bone.”
    From Man! but where? what part can he forego,
    From head majestic to the servile toe?
    The head imperial would be much too high,
    Lest she, perchance, should for the mast’ry try.
    The toilsome feet are base, of low renown,
    Lest he should trample the fair creature down.
    In Man’s organic structure, mark! the part
    Is that which lies contiguous to the heart;
    Main spring of life, whence all the frame looks gay,
    Centre, where all the lovely passions play;
    Under the shield of the protecting arm,
    Which can defend her from impending harm.”

Accordingly, God proceeded in his work: not as before, when he made
man, and formed his body of the dust of the earth; but he took of the
substance of man, and of that formed an associate for him. The process
is mentioned by Moses, “And the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall
upon Adam, and he slept: and he took one of his ribs, and closed up
the flesh instead thereof; and the rib, which the Lord God had taken
from man, made he a woman.” The word תרדמה translated _a deep sleep_,
signifies such a sleep as renders a man insensible of any thing done to
him; which was not natural but an extraordinary sleep; not occasioned
by any act of violence done to nature, but the immediate effect of the
hand of God upon him. Sleep, says a German author, is one of the most
remarkable effects of the Divine goodness. It is certainly a proof of
the wisdom of our Creator, that we fall asleep imperceptibly. Sleep
comes unsummoned: it is the only change in our manner of existence
in which reflection bears no part; and is alike independent of the
understanding and the will. Our situation, indeed, during the time of
sleep, is wonderful. We live, but without knowing or perceiving it! The
palpitations of the heart, the circulation of the blood, the process
of digestion, and, in a word, all the animal functions continue to
be performed without interruption. The mind appears, as it were, to
suspend its activity, for a time: by degrees, it looses all sensation,
every distinct idea. The senses are deadened, and stop their wonted
operations. The muscles, by degrees, are moved more slowly, till all
voluntary motion ceases. This change begins in the forehead: then the
muscles of the eye-lids, and of the neck, arms, and feet, are so much
deprived of their activity, that the man seems to be metamorphosed
into a plant. The situation of the brain becomes such, that it cannot
transmit to the soul the same ideas as when we are awake. The soul
perceives no object, though the nerve of vision is not altered; and
it would see nothing, were the eyes to be even open. The ears are not
shut, and yet they hear nothing. In a word, we find an unceasing source
of admiration, in the wonderful preparations, and the tender care,
which the Divine Being has employed, to procure us the blessings of
sleep. The following epigram, translated from the Latin by Dr. Wolcott,
is beautiful:--

    “Come, gentle sleep, attend thy votary’s prayer,
    And, though death’s image, to my couch repair!
    How sweet, thus lifeless, yet with life to lie,
    Thus without dying, oh how sweet to die!”

The word צלע _tsela_, and in the Septuagint πλευρα, rendered a _rib_,
most probably means _bone_, and _flesh_, not a naked bone, but one
with flesh adhering to it. “And the rib which the Lord God had taken
from man, _made_ he a woman,” or, according to the Hebrew, _builded it
up_ to be a woman; signifying, that the human species was perfect when
the woman was created, which before was like an imperfect building.
This implies, an old author intimates, that as children are derived
from their parents to build up the family, so the woman was derived
from Adam to build up his great family, mankind, of his own nature and
substance; and that his posterity might spring wholly from him, both
in respect of himself, and of his wife, their common mother, who was
taken out of him. What amazing wisdom is herein displayed; not only in
producing a creature _like_ man, but out of _a part of man himself_!
God could have animated and organized the dust of the earth, and of
it formed the woman; but had he done so, she would have appeared
in the eyes of man as a distinct being, to whom he had no natural
relation.[205]

      “Her form completed, lo! she rises fair,
    Possess’d of beauties far beyond compare!
    This last production of the Artist’s skill,
    Best effort of his wisdom, might, and will,
    Gains science’ height: the high-wrought features shine,
    Her form displays a symmetry divine.
    Her pleasing gesture, as she walks along,
    Exceeds the powers of harmony and song.
    Her fine exterior, by her Maker drest,
    Is but the mansion of a brighter guest,
    To flesh superior far, howe’er refin’d;--
    A pure, reflective, comprehensive mind!
    Expression soft sits sparkling in her eyes,
    While from her bosom heavenly raptures rise;
    Intrinsic worth, comprising every grace,
    Displays its radiance in her roseate face.”

When the woman was formed, “God brought her unto the man,” i.e. he
presented her to him to be his wife. We are not to imagine, by
_bringing her to the man_, is meant, that God merely placed her before
his eyes, and thus exhibited her: but that he joined the man and the
woman together in marriage.

      “Attending angels strike the choral lay,
    And hymn your anthems on this bridal day;
    While the first Pair unite their willing hands,
    Whose hearts are join’d in love’s eternal bands.”

On receiving the woman, Adam said, “This is now bone of my bones, and
flesh of my flesh.” Adam was the common stock and root of all mankind;
not only all his posterity were wholly contained in him alone, but also
the first woman, the mother of us all, had her vital life in him, and
was part of his living flesh and bones: he saw that she was of the same
nature, the same identical flesh and blood, the same constitution in
all respects, having the same physical powers, mental faculties, and
inalienable rights. He added, “She shall be called _Woman_, because she
was taken out of man;” i.e. she shall partake of my name as she does
of my nature. A literal version of the Hebrew would appear strange,
says Dr. A. Clarke, and yet a literal version is the only proper
one. איש _Ish_, signifies _man_; and the word used to express what
we term _woman_, is the same with feminine termination, אשה _ishah_,
and literally means _she-man_. Most of the ancient versions have felt
the force of the term, and have endeavored to express it as literally
as possible. The Vulgate Latin renders the Hebrew _virago_, which is
a feminine form of _vir_, a man. Symmachus used ανδρις _andris_, a
female form of ανηρ, _aner_, a man. Our own term is equally proper,
when understood: it is a literal translation of the original; and we
may thank the discernment of our Anglo-Saxon ancestors for giving it.
Wombman, of which _woman_ is a contraction, means the _man with the
womb_. Verstegan, in his Restitution of Decayed Intelligence, justifies
this sense of the word, on the ground of antiquity and propriety, and
says it should be so written. The term _woman_ was not peculiar to
her, but common to the sex; she differing from man in sex only, not in
nature. Afterward Adam called her חוה _chavah_, which answers exactly
to ζωη of the Septuagint, both signifying _life_, because she was the
mother of all _living_.

      “Oh blest existence! (now the man exclaims,
    And higher praises of his God proclaims.)
    My cup with blessings hast thou amply fill’d,
    Consummate joys for my great portion will’d:
    No wants are left, no good hast thou denied,
    Thy lib’ral hand has all I wish’d supplied.
    Thou Fount of being! source of pure delight!
    In thee my comforts center and unite:
    Thyself I love, thy vast perfections see,
    And all thy gifts receiv’d enjoy in Thee.

      He turns to Eve, whose charms are all in view,
    The perfect form which highest wisdom drew:
    Her sweet attractions touch his yielding mind,
    As three-fold cords his willing passions bind.
    Sensations soft with quick transition roll,
    And raise the transports of his grateful soul:
    While thrilling raptures through his bosom move,
    He feels his heart the seat of GOD--and _love_.

      Their minds now glowing with celestial fire,
    They jointly bend before their gracious SIRE;
    Devotion’s flame with greater ardor burns,
    And both are vocal in his praise by turns.
    While thus their pow’rs in pleasing acts employ,
    The _social_ worship much augments their joy:
    Their warm addresses to the sacred throne,
    Ascend as incense, and bring blessings down.”

The relation between _husband_ and _wife_ is the strongest union that
results from the highest obligations of nature. “Therefore,” said Adam,
“shall a man leave his father and mother, and shall cleave unto his
wife: and they shall be one flesh.” Here we perceive, as Dr. Delany
intimates, that Adam had a perfect idea of father and mother, before
any existed; that he had clear ideas of the affection arising from
that relation, before any children were born into the world: and yet
perceived that the endearment arising from marriage should be stronger
than these ties, so as to attach a man with warmer affection to his
wife, than to those very parents to whom he was indebted for life. Now
if the received doctrines of philosophy be true, that the senses are
the inlets of ideas, and that we can have no ideas without objects:
then we must conclude, that as he had these ideas, and had them not
from nature, he must have received them from express revelation. Hence
our Saviour, in his answer to the Pharisees, informs us, that the
words pronounced by Adam on this occasion, were the declaration of God
himself. “Have ye not read that he which made them at the beginning,
made them male and female, and said, For this cause shall a man leave
father and mother, and shall cleave to his wife: and they twain shall
be one flesh.” These two shall be considered as _one body_, having no
separate or independent interests: or, these two shall be _for the
production_ of one flesh; from their union a posterity shall spring,
as exactly resembling themselves as they do each other. The Greek word
προσκολληθησεται, translated _one flesh_, signifies shall be _glued_ to
her.

How happy must such a state be, where the parties married come up to
the design of this sacred institution! Dr. Hunter observes, “What
an important era in the life of Adam! What a new display of the
Creator’s power, skill, and goodness! How must the spirit of devotion
be heightened, now that man could join in _social_ worship! What
additional satisfaction in contemplating the frame, order, and course
of nature, now that he possessed the most exalted of human joys, that
of conveying knowledge to a beloved object! Now he could instruct
Eve in the wonders of creation, and unfold to her their Maker’s
nature, perfections, and will!” Oh happy state! They are happy in the
constitution of their nature,--being innocent, upright creatures; and
in having their pure minds perfectly united in love and kindness to
each other. They were happy in all their united acts of adoration and
praise to their Creator,--exact harmony, unmixed delight, and untainted
piety, residing in each breast! They lived in communion with God,
enjoyed a transporting sense of his favor, walked in the light of his
countenance, and were raptured in their meditations on the Divine glory!

We have here the first institution of marriage, and we see in it
several things worthy of peculiar attention and regard. 1. God
pronounces the state of celibacy _not a good one_: and the Lord God
said, “It is not good that man should be alone,” לבדו _lebaddo_ only
himself. It was neither for his comfort, who was formed for society,
nor for the accomplishment of God’s purpose in the increase of mankind.
Though he was created in the image of God, and enjoyed delightful
intercourse with him, his solitary condition required a suitable
companion. 2. God made the woman _for_ the man; he was not made _for
her_, but she was made _for him_, and derived, under God, her being
from him. The apostle says, “Neither was the man created for the woman:
but the woman for the man,” to be a suitable helper and comfort to him.
And thus God has shown us, that every son of Adam should be united to a
daughter of Eve to the end of the world. 3. God made the woman _out_ of
the man: as Adam was immediately from God, so Eve was immediately from
Adam; “the man is not of the woman, but the woman of the man:” made of
a part of his body, taken out, not of his head, to show that she was
not to exercise dominion over him; nor of his foot, to indicate that
she must not be his slave; but of his side, to intimate that she needs
his counsel and direction; from under his arm, to teach him that he
must protect her; and near his heart, to tell him that he must love her
as himself. The closest union, and the most affectionate attachment,
should subsist in the matrimonial connection. The man should ever
consider and treat the woman as a _part of himself_; and as no one ever
hated his own flesh, but nourishes and supports it, so should a husband
evince the greatest tenderness and affection for his wife: and on the
other hand, considering that the woman derived her being from man, and
was made _for_ him, therefore the wife should “see that she reverence
her husband.” “For as man is the image and glory of God; so the woman
is the glory of the man.” 4. God himself instituted the marriage union,
and being appointed and established by him, it must be an honorable
state. “Marriage is honorable in all,” being a Divine institution; and
consequently suitable for persons of any rank, or employment, either
civil or sacred. The corruption of manners has strangely perverted
this original purpose and institution of God. However, he will never
accommodate his morality to the times, nor to the inclinations of men.
What was settled at the beginning, he judged most worthy of his glory,
most profitable for man, and most suitable to his nature. 5. Marriage
was instituted immediately on the creation of man and formation of
the woman; whence it is evident that God never designed that mankind
should be preserved, and the earth peopled any other way. And as the
marriage union took place while man was in a state of innocence,
upright and pure, just such as his Creator made him, it is therefore
suitable to the greatest purity both of heart and life. 6. The design
of this institution was, that man and woman might be mutually helpful
to each other, in all the necessities and uses of life partaking of the
cares and labors of each other, reciprocally sharing in each other’s
delights and pleasures, and combining together to love, serve, and
please God.

The _situation_ of Adam and Eve is worthy of our attention. The sacred
historian says, “And the Lord God planted a garden eastward in Eden;
and there he put the man whom he had formed.” The word עדן _Eden_,
signifying _pleasure_ or _delight_, is expressive of their excellent
residence. The Septuagint render the passage thus: εφυτευσεν ὁ Θεος
παραδεισου εν Εδεμ, _God planted a Paradise in Eden_. The Fathers of
the Church; says Huet, both Latin and Greek, all the Interpreters of
Scripture, ancient and modern, and all the Orientals, do agree, that
Eden is a local name taken from the beauty of the place. The Garden
or Paradise was situated in Eden, being two different places, as the
whole from its part. “And a river went out of Eden to water the garden;
and from thence it was parted, and became into four heads. And the
name of the first is Pison; that is it which compasseth the whole land
of Havilah, where there is gold; and the gold of that land is good;
there is bdellium and the onyx stone. And the name of the second river
is Gihon: the same is it that compasseth the whole land of Ethiopia.
And the name of the third river is Hiddekel: that is it which goeth
toward the east of Assyria. And the fourth river is Euphrates.” The
most probable account of the situation of the terrestrial Paradise,
says Dr. A. Clarke, is that given by Hadrian Reland. He supposes it to
have been in Armenia, near the sources of the great rivers, Euphrates,
Tigris, Phasis, and Araxes. He thinks Pison was the Phasis, a river of
Cholchis, emptying itself into the Euxine Sea, where there is a city
called Chabala, the pronunciation of which is nearly the same with that
of Havilah, or חוילה _Chavilah_, according to the Hebrew, the _vau_ ו
being changed in Greek to _beta_ β. This country was famous for gold,
whence the fable of the Golden Fleece, attempted to be carried away
from that country by the heroes of Greece. The Gihon he thinks to be
the Araxes, which runs into the Caspian Sea, both the words having
the same signification, namely, a _rapid motion_. The land of Cush,
washed by the river, he supposes to be the country of the Cussæi of
the ancients; a nation of Asia, destroyed by Alexander to appease the
manes of Hephæstion. The Hiddekel all agree to be the Tigris; and the
other river, Phrat, or פרת _Perath_, to be the Euphrates. All these
rivers rise in the same tract of mountainous country, though they do
not proceed from one head.

Man, says Faber, was placed by the Deity in the garden of Paradise. The
beauty of its scenery, the salubrity of its climate, the variety and
excellence of its fruits, all contributed to the beatitude of the first
pair, and tended to elevate their thoughts to that Being, who was the
author and contriver of such numerous blessings. Trained, says Bishop
Horne, in the school of Eden by the material elements of a visible
world, to the knowledge of one that is immaterial and invisible, Adam
found himself excited by the beauty of the picture, to aspire after the
transcendent excellence of the Divine original.

From this, says Dr. A. Clarke, the ancient heathens borrowed their
ideas of the gardens of Hesperides, where the trees bore golden
fruit; the gardens of Adonis, a word which is evidently derived from
the Hebrew עדן _Aden_; and hence the origin of sacred gardens, or
inclosures, dedicated to purposes of devotion, some comparatively
innocent, others impure. From the holiness of the garden of Eden,
says Faber, the Pagans probably borrowed their ancient custom of
consecrating groves to the worship of their various deities. The
description given by Quintus Curtius of the sacred grove of Jupiter
Hammon is singularly beautiful, and almost presents to the imagination
the deep shades and the crystal streams of Eden. “At length,” says
he, “they arrived at the consecrated habitation of the deity, which,
incredible as it may seem, was situated in the midst of a desert, and
shaded from the sun by so luxuriant a vegetation, that its beams could
scarcely penetrate through the thickness of the foliage. The groves
are watered by the meandering streams of numerous fountains; and a
wonderful temperature of climate, resembling most of all the delightful
season of spring, prevails through the whole year with an equal degree
of salubrity.”

This golden age is described by Plato, in a manner which, independently
of his confession (namely, that he gained his information from the
Phœnicians, who received it from their ancestors,) proves him to have
derived it, not from written records, but from traditional reports.
His mansion of primeval bliss was not in this dark, diminished, and
deformed, this corrupted globe, but in a pure, ethereal, and lucid orb
of unlimited extent, where men breathed, not air, but light, drank
nectar, and partook of fruits spontaneously produced. The inclement
seasons were unknown, raiment was not yet invented, and nakedness
produced no distress. When weary, the inhabitants reclined to sleep on
soft herbage, which received the influence of one eternal spring. In
these delightful regions no stormy winds interrupted their calm repose;
no evil passion disturbed their serenity of soul; and reason, guided
by benevolence, bore a universal sway. Whilst this state continued,
man conversed freely with those animals, which, now wild, avoid his
presence, and fly at his approach.

Virgil was no stranger to a golden age; and Seneca has well
described the peaceful state whilst Saturn reigned. But of all the
representations, that which we find in Ovid is the most beautiful, and,
allowing for poetic imagery, is accurately just.

    “The golden age was first; when man, yet new,
    No rule but uncorrupted reason knew,
    And with a native bent did good pursue.
    Unforc’d by punishment, unaw’d by fear,
    His words were simple, and his soul sincere.
    Needless was written law where none opprest:
    The law of man was written in his breast.
    No suppliant crowds before the judge appear’d;
    No court erected yet, nor cause was heard;
    But all was safe, for conscience was their guard.”

Such notions of the felicity enjoyed by man in a state of innocence,
were not confined to Italy and Greece, but have been discovered equally
among the Persians, Indians, and Chinese. The Brahmins say, that in the
beginning of the world, plenty was every where diffused, and milk, with
wine and honey, flowed from fountains. Similar images were used by the
Persian magi to convey a notion of primeval happiness.[206]

Thus Adam and Eve were happy in their situation, being placed
in Paradise, which was delightful for agreeable and pleasing
accommodations of every kind to regale their senses; it was stored with
the utmost profusion of Divine bounty!

    “O Jesus! at thy feet we wait,
      Till thou shalt bid us rise,
    Restor’d to our unsinning state,
      To love’s sweet paradise.”

       *       *       *       *       *

Footnotes - Chapter VII

    [157] The _marine_ Polypus is different in form from the
    fresh-water Polype; but is nourished, increased, and may be
    propagated after the same manner. When it produces its young,
    they issue from its sides, as branches from a tree; these young
    shoots are no sooner detached from their parents, than they
    become separate Polypuses, and fish for prey.

    It seems that every part of this animal possesses a
    principle of life. If it be cut into three pieces, it is so far
    from being destroyed, that it becomes three polypuses: the head
    produces a body and tail; the body, a head and tail; and the
    tail, a head and body. When a Polypus is cut in two lengthways,
    these close themselves, the wounds are healed in a few moments,
    and in the course of some hours they will eat greedily. If
    these Polypuses be again cut into four, or six pieces, these
    divisions of the animal will also become Polypuses; but they
    will not be matured, nor capable of eating, for some days.
    If this creature be turned like a glove, by pushing the tail
    into the body until it come out of the mouth, after such an
    operation it will still eat, and continue to produce young
    ones; so strong and vigorous is the principle of life which it
    possesses.

    There are other insects which possess similar properties;
    and it is certain that nearly all plants which are produced
    from suckers, have no part which may not become either a stem
    or branch, and which will germinate, and furnish one, or even
    many plants.]

    [158] For the contrary opinion, see Fragments appended to
    Calmet’s Dictionary, pp. 114-117.

    [159] “Some time ago, a person in the Isle of Wight,
    digging the ground for the foundation of an out-house,
    discovered the nest or magazine of a field-mouse. It was of
    large dimension, and was stored with acorns, which were laid up
    in the neatest and most compact manner imaginable. These were
    so numerous that he was induced to count them, and found, in
    the whole, no fewer than _eight hundred and two_. How wonderful
    are those faculties with which the beneficent Creator of the
    world has endowed his creatures, for the purpose of providing
    for wants which they have no power to foresee, and yet, without
    which provision, they must, during the severity of winter, be
    inevitably destroyed!”--New Monthly Magazine, July, 1814, p.
    531.

    [160] See Dr. Paley’s Natural Theology, pp. 296-299.

    [161] To this may be referred an economical experiment
    well known to the Dutch, that when eight Cows have been in a
    pasture, and can no longer get nourishment, two horses will do
    very well there for some days; and when nothing is left for the
    Horses, four Sheep will live on it.

    [162] The Arabians, when travelling, and in want of water,
    frequently kill their camels to obtain a supply, which, though
    taken out of the animal, they find perfectly good.

    [163] Dr. Paley’s Natural Theology, p. 278.

    [164] Dr. Percival’s Instructions, p. 23.

    [165] See Annual Register, vol. iii, p. 90.

    [166] Dr. Beattie’s Dissertations, Moral and Critical.

    [167] Dr. Percival’s Instructions, p. 8.

    The Chinese consider the flesh of this animal as a dainty,
    and public shambles are erected for the sale of it. In Canton
    particularly, there is a street appropriated to that purpose;
    and, what is very extraordinary, whenever a dog-butcher
    appears, all the dogs in the place pursue him in full cry.
    They know their enemy, and persecute him as far as they are
    able.--Goldsmith’s History of the Earth.

    [168] Wesley’s Philosophy, vol. i, p. 233.

    [169] For a description of the _Crocodile_, given by
    Divine inspiration, see Job chap. xli. It is a great question
    among learned men, says Mr. Benson, what creature is meant by
    לויתן, _leviathan_. Our translators were evidently uncertain
    respecting it, and therefore have given us the original term
    untranslated. The Seventy, however, have rendered it δρακων,
    _the dragon_; but that is far from being correct. The dragon is
    a genus belonging to the order of amphibia reptilia. There are
    two species, 1. The volans, or flying dragon, with the wings
    entirely distinct from the fore-legs, which is found in Africa
    and the East Indies. 2. The præpos, with the wings fixed to the
    fore-legs, which is a native of America. They are both harmless
    creatures; and feed on flies, ants, and small insects. The word
    לויתן, _leviathan_ is supposed to be derived from לוי, _levi_,
    _joined_, or _coupled_, and תן, _than_, or תנין _thannin,
    a dragon_, that is, a _large serpent_, or _fish_, the word
    _thannin_ being used both for a land-serpent, and a kind of
    fish. And “after comparing what Bochart and others have written
    on the subject, it appears to me,” says Parkhurst, “that the
    compound word לויתן, _leviathan, the coupled dragon_, denotes
    some animal, partaking of the nature both of the land serpents,
    and fishes, and, in this place, signifies the _crocodile_,
    which lives as well under water as on the shore.”

    [170] Bingley’s Animal Biography, vol. ii, p. 410, &c.

    [171] Dr. Paley’s Natural Theology, p. 286.

    [172] Aristotle asserts that _spinning_ and _weaving_ were
    first learned from the spider. Thence it has its Greek name
    αραχνης, Latin _Aranea_, French _Araignce_, from the Hebrew
    _Aragnevit_, _texuit_, or _Arach, textura_. And it is not
    improbable that our English word _Spider_ is but a corruption
    of _Spinner_, for _Spinn_ is the German word for _Spider_. With
    this agrees that poetic fancy, that _Arachne_ an excellent
    _spinster_, was by _Pallas_ turned into a _Spider_. Pallas
    was the goddess of wisdom, war, weaving, spinning, and the
    liberal arts; and she was invoked by almost every artist,
    particularly such as worked in wool, embroidery, painting, and
    sculpture.--Edward’s Demonstration, &c.

    [173] See Jones’s Disquisition concerning clean and unclean
    Animals.

    [174] See D’Assigny on the Hieroglyphics of Egypt.

    [175] Epist. cap. v.

    [176] Simil. ix, sect. 13.

    [177] Ad. Autol. lib. 2, p. 96.

    [178] Lib. iv, cap. 37, et lib. v. c. 15.

    [179] Lib. iv, cap. 75.

    [180] Adv. Prax. c. 12.

    [181] Cap. 21, 25.

    [182] Cont. Cel. lib. i, p. 63.

    [183] Socrat. lib. ii. c. 30, where the Creed may be seen
    at large.

    [184] Hæres. 23, n. 2.

    [185] Hæres. 44, n. 4. See Bibliotheca Biblica on the place.

    [186] Lib. iv, cap. 37.

    [187] Two Dissertations, &c. pp. 29, 30.

    [188] Among the numerous traditions of the New-Zealanders,
    says Nicholas, there is one which is very remarkable. It
    refers to the creation of man, and has been handed down from
    father to son, through all generations. They believe the first
    man to have been created by three gods, Mowheerangaranga, or
    Toopoonah, or grandfather, Mowheermooha, and Mowheebotakee; but
    give the greatest share in the business to the first-mentioned
    of these deities.

    [189] Moses says, “the _life_, נפש nephesh, of the flesh is
    in the _blood_.” And St. Paul affirms, “God hath made of _one
    blood_ all nations of men.” This sentence of Moses, which, in
    conjunction with that of St. Paul, contains a most important
    truth, had existed in the sacred Scriptures for 3,600 years,
    before it arrested the attention of any philosopher. This is
    more surprising, as the nations in which philosophy flourished,
    were those which especially enjoyed the Divine oracles in
    their respective languages. That the blood actually possesses
    a _living principle_, and that the life of the whole body
    is derived from it, is a doctrine of Divine revelation, and
    which the observations and experiments of the most accurate
    anatomists have served strongly to confirm. The proper
    _circulation_ of this important fluid through the _whole_ human
    system, was taught by Solomon in figurative language, Eccles.
    xii, 6; and discovered, as it is called, and demonstrated by
    Dr. Harvey in 1628; though some Italian philosophers had the
    same notion a little before. This distinguished anatomist was
    the first who fully revived the Mosaic notion of the _vitality_
    of the blood; and which correct view was afterwards adopted by
    the justly celebrated Mr. John Hunter, whose strong reasoning
    and accurate experiments have served to sanction and give
    publicity to a fact so long unknown to mankind. The doctrine of
    Moses and St. Paul proves the truth of the doctrine of Harvey
    and Hunter: and the reasonings and experiments of the latter,
    illustrate and confirm the doctrine of the former.--See Dr. A.
    Clarke on Lev. xvii, 11.

    [190] As an instance of this I may mention the case of
    a gentleman who was subject to frequent attacks of asthma,
    to such a degree, that if he were not relieved immediately
    by bleeding, he was in danger of suffocation: by being so
    frequently bled in that state, his blood at length became so
    pale as scarcely to stain a linen cloth, in consequence of the
    particles of the blood being so slowly renewed.

    [191] Two of these causes are peculiarly important and
    interesting. When an animal has lost a considerable quantity
    of blood, and faints in consequence, the power of the blood to
    coagulate quickly is greatly increased.--When, for example, a
    sheep is bled to death, if you receive a cupful of the blood
    which first issues from the throat, and a cupful of the last,
    you will find that the latter will coagulate sooner, and become
    much more solid than the first portion. By way of experiment,
    the large artery of the thigh of a dog has been divided and
    laid open; the animal bled till he fainted, and on recovering
    had no return of the bleeding. On examining the artery, its
    divided end was found plugged up by coagulated blood, and much
    contracted in its diameter; this natural means, however, of
    checking hæmorrhage, we shall afterwards find, is assisted by
    the contractile power possessed by the vessel from whence it
    is effused. Hence it appears that fainting is favorable to
    checking hæmorrhages, as far as it puts a temporary check on
    the circulation, and should always be encouraged to a certain
    degree. Another cause which influences the coagulation of the
    blood, is inflammatory diseases. Under such circumstances it
    remains much longer in a fluid state, but coagulates at length
    more firmly. This coagulation of the lymph is the first step
    towards its conversion into various parts of the body, or the
    union of divided parts. When, for example, the coagulating
    lymph is thrown out upon inflamed internal parts of the body
    which lie in contact, as the intestines or lungs, it becomes
    solid, and connects them loosely together. Blood vessels shoot
    into it, and convert it at length into cellular membrane,
    forming what are called adhesions, and in a similar way it
    is converted into the nature of various parts of the body.
    We may therefore say, that the coagulating lymph is the most
    important part of the blood, inasmuch as it is subservient
    to the formation of various organs in the body. Many parts,
    particularly the muscles, very nearly resemble it in their
    nature.

    [192] Substances may even be introduced into the blood
    directly. By way of experiment, Ipecacuanha, or a small
    portion of Emetic Tartar, or Jalap, have been infused into the
    veins: the result of this has been found to be, that they have
    produced the same effect as if introduced by the stomach; the
    former produced vomiting, the latter purging.

    [193] Mr. Hunter, however, found that this natural
    inclination might be changed by education, for he taught
    an Eagle, which is a carnivorous animal, to subsist on
    farinaceous food alone. The plan he adopted was this: he began
    by abstracting the flesh meat, and substituting bread and
    butter, till at length the meat was entirely taken away; he
    then by degrees diminished the quantity of butter, till at
    length the animal fed on bread alone. It appears, however, from
    experiment, that this transition cannot be made suddenly, as
    the gastric juice of the animal is not adapted to act upon an
    opposite kind of food. It has been found that a quantity of
    pear or apple introduced into the stomach of a Buzzard Hawk
    was not digested, but remained unacted upon when the fowl was
    killed for inspection many hours afterwards; yet the stomach of
    this animal habitually digested bone.

    [194] Dr. A. Hunter says, “When we consider the delicacy
    of the internal structure of the stomach, and the high and
    essential consequence of its office, we may truly say, it is
    treated with too little tenderness and respect on our parts.
    The stomach is the chief organ of the human system, upon the
    state of which all the powers and feelings of the individual
    depend.

    “The stomach is the kitchen that prepares our discordant
    food, and which, after due maceration, it delivers over by
    a certain undulatory motion, to the intestines, where it
    receives a further concoction. Being now reduced into a white
    balmy fluid, it is sucked up by a set of small vessels, called
    lacteals, and carried to the thoracic duct. This duct runs up
    the back-bone, and is in length about sixteen inches, but in
    diameter it hardly exceeds a crow quill. Through this small
    tube, the greatest part of what is taken in at the mouth
    passes, and when it has arrived at its greatest height, it is
    discharged into the left subclavian vein; when mixing with the
    general mass of blood, it becomes, very soon, blood itself.”

    [195] Dr. O. Gregory observes, “Animal heat is preserved
    _entirely_ by the inspiration of atmospheric air! The lungs
    which imbibe the oxygen gas from the air, impart it to the
    blood; and the blood, in its circulation, gives out the
    caloric to every part of the body. Nothing can afford a more
    striking proof of creative wisdom, than this provision for
    the preservation of an equable animal temperature. By the
    decomposition of atmospheric air, caloric is evolved, and
    this caloric is taken up by the arterial blood, without its
    temperature being at all raised by the addition. When it passes
    to the veins, its capacity for caloric is diminished, as much
    as it had been before increased in the lungs: the caloric,
    therefore, which had been absorbed, is again given out; and
    this slow and constant evolution of the caloric in the extreme
    vessels over the whole body, is the source of that uniform
    temperature which we have so much occasion to admire. Dr.
    Crawford ascertained, that whenever an animal is placed in a
    medium the temperature of which is considerably high, the usual
    change of arterial venous blood does not go on; consequently,
    no evolution of caloric will take place, and the animal heat
    will not rise much above the natural standard. How pleasing it
    is to contemplate the arrangements which the Deity has made for
    the preservation and felicity of his creatures, and to observe
    that he has provided for every possible exigency!”--Lessons,
    Astronomical and Philosophical, 4th edit. p. 87.

    [196] A London Alderman, who had accidentally heard of the
    thoracic duct, was so struck with the importance and delicacy
    of the vessel, that he became very apprehensive lest it should
    be in the least obstructed; and, being one day caught in a
    crowd, from whence he could not extricate himself, he most
    earnestly entreated those who pressed on him, to take care of
    his thoracic duct.

    [197] This is a good example of muscles, which, under
    ordinary circumstances, are directed by the will, becoming
    involuntary from an altered excitement.

    [198] Dr. A. Hunter remarks, “Were it possible for us to
    view through the skin and integuments, the mechanism of our
    bodies, after the manner of a watch-maker when he examines
    a watch, we should be struck with an awful astonishment!
    Were we to see the stomach and intestines busily employed in
    the concoction of our food by a certain undulatory motion;
    the heart working, day and night, like a forcing pump; the
    lungs blowing alternate blasts; the humors filtrating through
    innumerable strainers; together with an incomprehensible
    assemblage of tubes, valves, and currents, all actively and
    unceasingly employed in support of our existence, we could
    hardly be induced to stir from our places!”

    [199] Mr. Cruikshank, late Professor of Chemistry at
    Woolwich, judiciously observes, says Dr. Olinthus Gregory, that
    the size of the body, the quantity of food taken in, the vigor
    with which the system is acting, the passions of the mind,
    and external heat or cold, are circumstances which will ever
    occasion considerable variety in the quantity of the insensible
    perspiration. This gentleman, assuming that the surface of the
    hand is to that of the rest of the body as one to sixty (an
    assumption which Mr. Abernethy thinks much too small for the
    body,) and that every part of that surface perspired equally
    with his hand, concluded that he lost during an hour, by
    insensible perspiration from the skin, 3 ounces, 6 drams; and
    in 24 hours, at that rate, would have lost 7 pounds, 6 ounces.
    Also, that he lost 124 grains of vapor by respiration, in an
    hour; or 6 ounces, 1 dram, and 36 grains, in 24 hours; which,
    added to the former cutaneous exhalation, would make the whole
    insensible perspiration, in 24 hours, equal to 8 pounds, 1
    dram, and 36 grains: the evaporation from the lungs will be
    little more than one-fifteenth of the whole.

    Mr. Cruikshank has not the smallest doubt, but that
    _electric fluid_ is also perspired from the pores of the skin:
    it appearing to him impossible that an enraged Lion, or Cat,
    should erect the hairs of the tail on any other principle:
    indeed he strongly suspects that, as electric fire is now known
    to be the prime conductor of the variation in the atmosphere,
    so it is also the grand conductor of insensible perspiration.
    He likewise states it as a matter beyond doubt, that,
    independent of aqueous vapor (of fixed air and phlogiston,)
    emitted from the skin in insensible perspiration, there is
    an odorous effluvia, which, though generally insensible
    to ourselves and the by standers, is perceptible to other
    animals.--Hence it happens, that a Dog follows the footsteps of
    his master by the smell; and, in like manner, with regard to
    other animals: the Fox-Hound knows _afar_ the smell of the Fox;
    the Pointer that of the Partridge, the Snipe, or the Pheasant;
    and every carnivorous animal that of its prey.--Haüy’s Natural
    Philosophy, vol. i, p. 27.

    [200] Dr. Priestley has positively asserted, that the
    doctrine of the soul has no foundation in reason or the
    Scriptures. But Dr. Jortin, in his sermon on John xi, 25, vol.
    vi, and Dean Sherlock, in his discourse on the immortality of
    the soul, completely refute the Doctor’s arguments. In the
    fourth volume of the Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical
    Society of Manchester, there is a very valuable paper, by Dr.
    Ferriar, proving, by evidence apparently complete, that every
    part of the brain has been injured without affecting the act of
    thought; the reasoning of which memoir, being built on matters
    of fact and experience, appears to have shaken the modern
    theory of the materialists from its very foundation.

    [201] See Wesley’s Sermon on Heb. xi, 1.

    [202] Dr. Scott’s Christian Life, vol. v, p. 14.

    [203] Practical Treaties on the Holy Spirit, pp. 7, 8.

    [204] See Dr. Beattie’s Theory of Language, chap. ii.

    [205] It is very singular, says Nicholas, in his very
    interesting history of New-Zealand, that the natives believe
    that the first woman was made of one of man’s ribs; and, what
    adds still more to this strange coincidence, their general
    term for bone is _hevee_, which, for ought we know, may be
    a corruption of the name of our first parent, communicated
    to them, perhaps, originally, by some means or other, and
    preserved, without being much disfigured, among the records of
    ignorance.


    [206] See Townsend’s Character of Moses, pp. 66-68.

       *       *       *       *       *




CHAPTER VIII.

SEVENTH DAY.

ON THE SABBATH.

    Sabbath Instituted -- Blessed and Sanctified -- Given to
    Adam as a General Precept for his Posterity -- Renewed before
    and at the giving of the Law -- A Sign between God and his
    People -- Worldly Business prohibited -- Works of Necessity
    and Mercy excepted -- Advantages resulting from observing it
    -- A Seventh Day regarded by the Heathens -- The Sabbath of
    universal and perpetual obligation -- The Lord’s Day.


When God had made the world, and furnished it with a variety of
creatures, suited to the different elements of which it is composed;
had created man after his own image, far superior to all the other
species of beings, endued with rational faculties, whom he therefore
constituted lord over them, situated in a residence curiously and
beautifully adorned, and plentifully stored with every thing adapted
for sustenance and delight; he exacted a reasonable service, which
consisted in the worship of himself, the one only true God, in
celebrating the expressions of his almighty power, infinite wisdom,
and boundless goodness, displayed in his works. And to perpetuate, as
well as give a solemnity to this worship, he set apart a portion of
time for the exercise of it; by the constant and regular observation
of which, a just sense of his infinite perfections, the recollection
of his wondrous works, and the true worship of him, might be retained
among men.

Moses, the sacred historian, says, “Thus the heavens and the earth were
finished, and all the host of them. And God rested the seventh day, and
sanctified it: because that in it he had rested from all his work which
God created and made.” Here we have the origin of the Sabbath, _because
that in it he rested_, says Moses; שבה _shebath_, from _shabath_, he
rested; and hence _sabbath_, the name of the seventh day, signifying
_a day of rest_. Not that he was weary with working, but he ceased to
work, or rested from making any more creatures, or species of beings,
all kinds being already either actually or virtually made. When he had
finished the works of creation, in which he was employed six days, he
rested on the seventh, and _blessed_ and _sanctified_ it; consecrated
it for man to rest from all secular labors, and religiously employ this
portion of time. This _blessing_ and _sanctifying_ the seventh day has
the force of a law or command. God separated it from a common to a
religious use, to be a standing memorial of his works of creation; and
to be a sign to Adam and his posterity, who, by working six days and
resting on the seventh, should show themselves to be the worshippers of
that Being who made the world in six days, and rested on the seventh.

The method pursued in creating the world, presenting a regular
succession of astonishing events, was doubtless intended to convey
useful instruction to mankind. Considering the almighty power of the
Creator, his _fiat_ would have been sufficient instantly to produce
the whole apparatus of nature, in beautiful and regular order. But he
proceeded by degrees in this work, probably to teach us, that, after
working six days, we also should rest on the seventh. What other reason
can be assigned for his procedure, when a more expeditious plan would
have been as easy to him, and more consonant to his omnipotence: but
only, that all mankind from this measure should have a perpetual reason
and obligation to consecrate a seventh day, after six days labor, to
be a holy rest to the Lord; and it is reasonable to suppose that God
expressly declared his will to our first parents as to this matter.

As the command for observing the seventh day was given to Adam, as
a general precept for all his posterity, no doubt he and his sons
regarded it. Afterwards, through the impiety of the ante-deluvians,
it might be obliterated in the earth, except in the solitary family
of Noah; who, being a preacher of righteousness, cannot be supposed
to have neglected the observation of this day, or to have omitted
recommending such an important point of religion to the new world after
the Flood. And though after this, when men were again multiplied on
the earth, wickedness and idolatry were introduced, and the lapse of
time had effaced from their minds this and other precepts of religion
received from Noah; yet, we cannot but suppose that this important
institution, with other things relating to the worship of God, was
retained in the family of Abraham, and the succeeding Patriarchs, till
their bondage in Egypt. But when, through the iniquity and idolatry
of succeeding generations, the particular time, at first designed and
allotted for this special service, became forgotten, and Divine worship
was entirely neglected by the generality of mankind, God then revealed
and instituted the Jewish religion, prescribed the mode of worship to
be used, and by a special law appointed a certain season for the more
solemn exercise of it; and to be a token of the sincere worshippers of
the true God, who created all things: and the day thus appointed and
consecrated to public worship, was called the _Sabbath_, on account of
the rest required to be strictly observed on it, and a command given to
all that they observe and sanctify it.

This command originally given to Adam, was renewed before the giving
of either the moral, judicial, or ceremonial law. It is expressly
taken notice of at the fall of the manna, which was granted to the
children of Israel in the wilderness of Sin, before they came to
Sinai, Exod. xvi, 23-27. It was afterwards inserted in the body of
the moral law. Exod. xx, 8. It is annexed to the judicial laws; i.e.
the laws determining right between man and man, and the punishment of
transgressors, Exod. xxiii, 12. And it is added to the first part of
the ceremonial law, or Levitical rites and ceremonies, Exod. xxxi,
13-18; in which passage it is repeated four times in the compass of
four verses. In the fourth command God says, “Remember the Sabbath-day,
to keep it holy.” What day is meant, the following words determine,
“Six days shall thou labor, and do all thy work: but the seventh is
the Sabbath of the Lord thy God: in it thou shall not do any work.”
That is after six days of labor, the seventh shall be a day of holy
rest, set apart for the public worship of God. The reason to enforce
this is added, “Because in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the
sea, and all that in them is, and rested the seventh day.” The Jews,
in many of their feasts, were commanded to rest from servile labor,
on which account these are sometimes called _sabbaths_; but we also
read of one day, which, by way of eminence, is styled the Sabbath, or
day of rest. Thus we see, that the precept which God gave the Jews for
the observation of the Sabbath, appears to be only the repetition or
renewal of the law given to mankind from the beginning of the world,
and not the first publication of it. A new reason indeed is added for
the observation of it, namely, their redemption from Egyptian bondage,
which was effected on the seventh day of the week, when God overthrew
Pharaoh and his host in the Red Sea, and thereby delivered them.
“Remember that thou wast a servant in the land of Egypt, and that the
Lord thy God brought thee out thence through a mighty hand, and by a
stretched out arm: therefore the Lord thy God commanded thee to keep
the Sabbath-day.” And the Jews kept their Sabbath on the seventh day of
the week, in remembrance of their redemption from slavery in Egypt.

It is worthy of remark, that the command for the religious observance
of the Sabbath, was delivered by Moses at Mount Sinai, in a way
different from all those ordinances which were only ceremonial. It was
written by the supreme Being himself on tables of stone, on which every
other thing written was confessedly moral, and of perpetual obligation:
but no part of the ceremonial law was written by the finger of God. The
fourth command was written on tables of stone, to signify that it was
to continue, as well as the other; and also it was put into the Ark,
with the rest of the moral precepts, and is referred to Deut. x, 4. as
being one of the number.

The sanctification of the Sabbath is considered as a _sign_ between
God and his people. “Verily my sabbaths ye shall keep: for it is a
sign between me and you, throughout your generations; that ye may know
that I am the Lord that doth sanctify you:” or, as the original may
be rendered, a sign to acknowledge that I Jehovah am your sanctifier.
Again--“And hallow my Sabbaths; and they shall be a sign between me and
you, that ye may know that I am the Lord your God.” Thus God made the
sanctification of the Sabbath a sign by which it might be known who
did belong to him. Working six days, and keeping a holy rest on the
seventh, is a sign of being the worshippers of the one living and true
God, who made heaven and earth in the space of six days, and rested the
seventh: consequently, the neglecting and profaning the Sabbath is a
tacit renouncing of him. Therefore the Jewish Rabbies have this saying
among them, Whoever breaks the other commands is a wicked Israelite;
but he who openly and avowedly profanes the Sabbath, is considered as
an infidel and idolater. Hence we read, that such were to be cut off
from the people, and put to death: as they would not comply with this
institution, so God would not own them as his people, but reject them.

To those who religiously observe the Sabbath, there are many particular
promises made. “If thou turn thy foot from the Sabbath, from doing thy
pleasure on my holy day; and call the Sabbath a delight, the Holy of
(or to) the Lord, honorable; and shalt honor him, not doing thine own
ways, not finding thine own pleasure, nor speaking thine own words:
then shalt thou delight thyself in the Lord; and I will cause thee to
ride upon the high places of the earth, and feed thee with the heritage
of Jacob thy father: for the mouth of the Lord hath spoken it.” Here
God secures to such persons the good of the land of Canaan, which he
has promised as an heritage to Jacob and his seed. Plenty, honor, and
security in the enjoyment of temporal blessings, are annexed to a
religious performance of the duty; he will bless the honest labors of
those who faithfully serve him, on the six days of the week, which he
has appointed for secular employments. The more sincere and devout any
person is in keeping the Sabbath, the more will his business prosper
on other days. Promises of this nature have been accomplished in all
ages, to those who have sanctified the Sabbath; and no doubt they will
continue to be so in every subsequent period of time.

Attending to worldly business on the Sabbath, is a profanation of it,
and strictly prohibited. God says, “Thou shalt not do any work, thou,
nor thy son, nor thy daughter, thy man-servant, nor thy maid-servant,
nor thy cattle, nor the stranger that is within thy gates.” Again: “Six
days shall work be done: but the seventh day is the Sabbath of rest;
ye shall do no work therein: it is the Sabbath of the Lord in all your
dwellings.” The Sabbath was awfully profaned in the days of Nehemiah.
He says, “In those days saw I in Judah some treading wine-presses on
the Sabbath, and bringing in sheaves, and leading asses; as also wine,
grapes, and figs, and all manner of burdens, which they brought into
Jerusalem on the Sabbath day: and I testified against them in the day
wherein they sold victuals. There dwelt men of Tyre also therein,
which brought fish, and all manner of ware, and sold on the Sabbath
unto the children of Judah and Jerusalem. Then I contended with the
nobles of Judah, and said unto them, What evil thing is this that ye
do, and profane the Sabbath-day? Did not your fathers thus, and did
not our God bring all this evil upon us, and upon this city? yet ye
bring more wrath upon Israel by profaning the Sabbath. And it came
to pass, that when the gates of Jerusalem begun to be dark before
the Sabbath, I commanded that the gates should be shut, and charged
that they should not be opened till after the Sabbath: and some of my
servants set I at the gates, that there should no burden be brought
in on the Sabbath-day. So the merchants, and sellers of all sorts
of ware, lodged without Jerusalem once or twice. Then I testified
against them, and said unto them, Why lodge ye about the wall? if ye
do so again I will lay hands on you. From that time forth came they no
more on the Sabbath.” This is a noble instance of well-directed zeal,
and successful effort, in that great and good governor. His example
ought to be followed by persons in authority, filling high official
situations. The prophet Jeremiah speaks to the same purpose, “Thus
saith the Lord, Take heed to yourselves, and bear no burden on the
Sabbath-day, nor bring it in by the gates of Jerusalem: neither carry
forth a burden out of your houses on the Sabbath-day, neither do ye any
work, but hallow ye the Sabbath-day, as I commanded your fathers.”

Works of necessity and mercy are here to be excepted: these may be
done consistently with the sanctification of the Sabbath, though they
are servile and laborious. But great care must be taken, not to plead
necessity where there really is none. By such works are meant things of
importance, which could not be done the day before, nor postponed till
after the Sabbath. A necessity which is occasioned by negligence, or
want of thought, or is only necessary to some worldly advantage, will
not be a sufficient excuse in this case. In seasons when people have
more than ordinary business in their hands, and therefore are apt to
plead necessity for encroachments on the Sabbath; yet, even then, God
has particularly commanded them to rest. “Six days shalt thou work; but
on the seventh day thou shalt rest: in earing-time and harvest thou
shalt rest.”

The religious observance of the Sabbath is adapted to promote the
spiritual advantage of God’s people. Its exercises tend to wean them
from this present world, and raise them above the attractions of sense.
By this holy rest there is a pause made in their earthly pursuits,
and they are called more solemnly to reflect on the invisible and
important realities of a better world, in order to excite their devout
affections. Had they no such intervals, their hearts would soon be
overcharged with the labors and cares of this life, and they would
be too regardless of a better state. God has made it even unlawful
for them to follow any secular employments on this day, on purpose to
preserve them from the undue influence of the objects of sense, and
that they might with more intenseness pursue spiritual and eternal
things. It is certain, as one judiciously observes, that much of
the power of godliness consists in persons living above the present
world, in being dead to it, in viewing it with a holy indifference,
and in setting their affections on things above. But this would be
very difficult, or next to impossible, if they were to be constantly
employed in worldly affairs; and therefore he who best knows the
composition and constitution of man, has wisely and graciously
appointed one day in seven, as a rest from terrestrial pursuits, and as
a season wherein he should set himself more intensely to prepare for
the heavenly world. When thus withdrawn from earthly concerns, persons
can more impartially examine, weigh, and consider how unsuitable a
portion they are for an immaterial soul, immortal in its duration.
They have leisure to meditate with greater freedom on the Author of
their being, on his end or design in placing them on the earth, and
on the results of their conduct awaiting them in a future state.
They, therefore, who are duly informed of the worth of the soul, and
suitably impressed with the awfulness of that world to which they are
hastening; who desire the felicity of heaven, and dread the misery
of hell; will rejoice at the return of the Sabbath, wherein they are
called diligently to prepare for the one, and most cautiously to avoid
the other. While thus abstracted from all sublunary things, and engaged
in the exercise of devotion, they gain a more intimate communion with
God. “Every one that keepeth the Sabbath from polluting it, and taketh
hold of my covenant; even them will I bring to my holy mountain, and
make them joyful in my house of prayer; their burnt-offerings and
their sacrifices shall be accepted upon mine altar.” When persons are
employed on this sacred day, in meditating on the infinite perfections
of God displayed in his works; when the desires of their souls are
after him, and they are engaged in offering up prayers and praises to
the glorious Author of their being and blessings; then he manifests
himself to them in a manner he does not to other men, sheds abroad his
love in their hearts, accepts their persons and services, and fills
them with joy and peace. This communion is most effectually promoted,
when they are disengaged from earthly things, and wholly employed in
the duties of religion: according to that very encouraging promise, “In
all places where I record my name, I will come unto thee, and I will
bless thee.”

The seventh day was observed by heathen nations, as well as the Jews.
Josephus ventured to affirm, “There is no city, whether Grecian or
Barbarian, there is no nation, which does not rest on the seventh
day.” Philo Judæus stated many years before, that the seventh day
was a festival, not to one city or one country, but to all; and he,
therefore, calls it the _universal festival_. The heathen writers speak
of the Sabbath as a high day among them. Clemens Alexandrinus gives
quotations from Linus, Homer, Hesiod, and Callimachus, who speak of the
seventh day as a day on which the work of the creation was finished,
and call it _the holy day_, and _the birth day of the world_. Lucian
informs us, in his Pseudologista, that children at school were exempted
from study on the seventh day. This day Suetonius calls a _sabbath_.
If any should say, that the Heathen, from the acquaintance they had
with the Jews and the writings of Moses, knew that the seventh day was
to be kept holy: I would answer; that is not probable, for some of the
Heathen writers who speak of the seventh-day Sabbath, lived near the
time of Moses. Beside, the Greeks were at that time wholly ignorant
of his writings: the Jews thought it a profanation to communicate any
part of them to the Heathen. Nor were the writings of Moses translated
into the Greek language till several hundred years after Homer: the
translation was made in the days of Ptolemy the second, king of Egypt,
about three hundred years before the Christian era. And it is not
of the Jews Saturday-sabbath that the Heathen writers speak, but of
another day in the week. It was not the seventh day of the week to
which the ancient heathens confined their rest, but _a_ seventh day,
_one_ day in seven. Their Sabbath or high festival was that day of the
week on which they worshipped the sun, their chief god. It remains
then, that the notice of the seventh day among the Heathen came to
them originally from the Patriarchs, whose descendants, in their
several dispersions, carried along with them some impressions of the
true religion, which partially continued with them afterward, though
awfully corrupted with idolatry. To cure mankind of this idolatry, and
secure the worship of him who made the sun, and the whole universe,
Moses, by Divine direction, appointed the last day of the week to be
the Jewish sabbath. We may also state, that the reason which God has
assigned for sanctifying the seventh day to be the Jewish sabbath,
namely, his creating the world in six days, and resting the seventh,
not only concerns the Jews, but also the Heathens, who are equally
bound to remember and adore their Creator. Hence the _Strangers_, or
Gentiles, who sojourned among the Jews, and were not obliged to keep
the ceremonial law, were bound to keep holy the Sabbath.

Thus we perceive, that this command is of a moral nature, and,
therefore, of universal and perpetual obligation. The Sabbath was
instituted from the beginning of the world, while all things were
perfectly good, and our first parents were innocent and adorned with
the beauty of holiness: even then the Creator appointed that the
seventh day should be employed in his more immediate service. Some have
thought, that there is no express command for the observance of the
Sabbath, till after the children of Israel had come out of Egypt; and,
therefore, that all the obligations to observe it must be derived from
the law of Moses. But this command was given before sin had infected
human nature, consequently previous to the ceremonial law, which, in
all its parts, was contrived on account of sin, and intended to point
to a Saviour: for in a state of innocence, there could be no propriety
in the adoption of such shadows and ceremonies. Nay, as Archbishop
Usher observes, the appointment of the Sabbath was not only before any
part of the ceremonial law, but before any promise or prediction of
Christ, to whom all the ceremonies of the law had respect. Therefore we
may conclude, that a command which was to be observed though man had
never sinned, and which stood in full force from the creation of the
world, cannot be made a part of the ceremonial law, which was not given
till after the expiration of 2,500 years. This is a duty incumbent
on all mankind, as is evident from the reason and end of its first
institution; all men being alike God’s creatures, and as such equally
concerned to worship him and commemorate his works. The Sabbath is as
obligatory on all succeeding generations of men, as it was formerly on
the Jews, or before the Mosaic economy, on the Patriarchs and their
contemporaries. Every creature of God on earth, endued with reason, is
obliged to separate this day from his common time, and to keep it holy
to the Lord.

When the Jewish ceremonial law was abrogated by Christ, the fourth
command continued in force, and was observed. Speaking of the moral
law, our Saviour says, “Think not that I am come to destroy the law or
the prophets. I am not come to destroy, but to fulfil. For verily I
say unto you, Till heaven and earth pass, one jot or one tittle shall
in no wise pass from the law, till all be fulfilled.” Now if not one
י _yod_, the smallest letter in the Hebrew alphabet, or _tittle_, or
_point_, κεραια, either meaning those _points_, as a learned author
remarks, which serve for vowels in this language, if they then existed;
or the _apices_, or points of certain letters, such as ר _resh_, or
ד _daleth_, ה _he_, or ח _cheth_, as the change of any of these into
the other would make a most essential alteration in the sense; I say,
if not one of these was to pass from the law, surely not the command
which is the longest of all the ten, is the only one to which a memento
is prefixed, and has more reasons to enforce it than any of the other
nine! Yea, so far from abolishing this command, our Saviour explains
it, in the case of his disciples plucking the ears of corn on the
Sabbath; which is a manifest proof that he intended it to be continued
for the use of the Christian Church. He also enjoined his disciples
to pray, when Jerusalem should be destroyed, which did not occur till
forty years after his death, and the consequent abolishing of all the
Jewish rites and ceremonies, that their _flight_ might not be on the
_Sabbath-day_.

From the beginning of the world to the Christian dispensation, the
seventh day of the week was the Sabbath: ever since the resurrection
of Christ from the dead, the first day of the week is the Christian
Sabbath. Our Saviour, who is “Lord of the Sabbath,” changed it from
the seventh to the first day of the week; which does not in the
least derogate from the honor and glory of God. If one Sabbath had
been abolished and not another instituted in the room of it, then he
would lose the honor of public worship, which he has appointed to be
performed on that day. However, if there be a greater work than that
of creation to be remembered and celebrated, to appoint a day for that
special purpose, tends much more to advance the glory of God, than if
it should be wholly neglected. And if “all men should honor the Son,
even as they honor the Father,” then it is expedient that a day should
be set apart for this worship, namely, the day on which Christ rested
from the work of redemption, or, as the apostle expresses it, “ceased
from his own works, as God did from his.” In altering the Sabbath,
from the seventh to the first day of the week, our Saviour displayed
his sovereign authority; herein he enjoined what time he would have
consecrated for his worship under the Gospel dispensation, as well as
what worship he would have performed on that day. In observing the
Christian sabbath, we express our faith in a public manner, that Christ
is come in the flesh, and has completed the work of our redemption;
and, consequently, that there is a way prepared for our justification,
access to God, and hope of finding pardon, acceptance, sanctification,
and eternal life. And as all the ordinances of Gospel-worship have a
peculiar relation to Christ, it is proper that the time in which they
are performed should likewise have respect to him; and, therefore, the
first day of the week is set apart in commemoration of his finishing
the work of our redemption.

That the Sabbath was actually changed from the seventh to the first day
of the week, appears from the example of the apostles, who, after the
resurrection of Christ, celebrated that day as a Sabbath. It was on the
first day of the week that the Holy Ghost was poured down in a most
miraculous manner on the apostles, to qualify them for the ministry,
and render them fit instruments for propagating Christianity in the
world. While St. Paul was at Troas, we read, that “upon the first day
of the week, when the disciples came together to break bread,” i.e.
to receive the Holy Sacrament, “Paul preached unto them.” This was
not a private, but a public meeting of the Church; nor was it a day
occasionally appointed by the apostle, but the stated time of their
meeting; and it was usual for the Christians on their Sabbath to
receive the Lord’s Supper. The apostle had continued at Troas seven
days; why did they not meet together, and he preach to them, on the
seventh day of the week? because it was no longer the Sabbath, but
changed to the first day. It was on the first day of the week that the
primitive Christians made collections for the poor.--“Now concerning
the collection for the saints, as I have given order to the churches of
Galatia, even so do ye. Upon the first day of the week let every one
of you lay by him in store as God hath prospered him, that there be no
gatherings when I come.” Every man at the conclusion of the week, was
to cast up his weekly earnings, and see how much God had prospered him;
and then to bring a right proportion, on the first day of the week, as
is most likely, to the church or assembly, that it might be put in the
common treasury. Thus it appears, as a learned commentator remarks,
that the first day of the week, which is the Christian sabbath, was the
day on which their principal religious meetings were held in Corinth,
and the churches of Galatia; and, consequently, in all other places
where Christianity had prevailed. The apostle John speaks of the Lord’s
day, “I was in the spirit on the Lord’s day.” He calls it the _Lord’s
day_, because on it Jesus Christ rose from the dead, and had appointed
it to be the Christian sabbath: thus one Gospel ordinance is called
the Lord’s Supper, from its having been instituted by Christ.--If any
should inquire when it was that Christ gave instruction to his apostles
concerning the change of the Sabbath; we may reply, that it was in
that interval of time, during which he “showed himself alive after his
passion by many infallible proofs, being seen of them forty days, and
speaking of the things pertaining to the kingdom of God;” of which we
may reckon the change of the Sabbath to have been one. But if this
should not be deemed sufficiently satisfactory, we have the highest
reason to conclude, that information was given to the apostles by the
inspiration of the Holy Spirit, whom Christ had promised to send them,
and that should guide them into all truth. And surely there could not
have been a more proper day fixed on for the Christian sabbath; and
which the Christian church has ever since continued to observe, and of
which God himself has signified his approbation. And as the reason of
the change now stands, we can neither observe the Jewish seventh-day
Sabbath, without disowning the redemption which Christ has accomplished
for us; nor can we refuse to comply with this alteration, and keep holy
the Lord’s day, without a manifest contempt not only of our Creator,
but of our gracious and merciful Redeemer, who, on this day of the
week, rose from the dead, and thereby confirmed our redemption from
sin, Satan, spiritual thraldom, and everlasting misery.

As the redemption of the Jews out of Egypt was typical of our
redemption by Christ, and the Jews on their Sabbath were to keep their
deliverance in remembrance; so surely Christians are under the greatest
obligations on the first day of the week to remember their redemption
by Christ. On this day our blessed Saviour rose from the dead, and his
resurrection is a demonstrative evidence that the Supreme Judge is
fully satisfied, and become the God of peace. There is no dispensing
with the honor of the moral law, no receding from the sacred rights of
justice. The obedience and death of Christ, as our surety, were such as
the law and justice required; and by which the honor of God is secured,
and of which he has most expressly declared his acceptance. When Christ
had laid down his life, in as ignominious death, which was all that
the law and justice could insist on, God himself unloosed the fetters
of the grave, threw open the prison door, and in his resurrection from
the dead, gave an evident and solemn testimony of his approval. This
was the accomplishment of the words of the prophet, “He was taken from
prison, and from judgment;” released and discharged, in full evidence
that he had made satisfaction, and that God had accepted the payment
at his hands. The apostle remarks on this important point, “Whom God
hath raised up, having loosed the pains of death: because it was not
possible that he should be holden of it.” Not possible, as it is not
just or righteous that a prisoner, who has satisfied every demand that
the law has on him, should be kept longer in prison. The resurrection
of Christ, therefore, was an open and authentic acknowledgment, that
God, considered as the moral Governor and Supreme Judge of mankind,
acquiesced in his death, as a proper, full, and perfect satisfaction
to Divine justice for sin. Hence he is represented, in raising Christ
from the dead, as acting under the peculiar character of the God of
peace. “Now the God of peace, that brought again from the dead our Lord
Jesus Christ, that great shepherd of the sheep, through the blood of
the everlasting covenant.” What a delightful view does this present
of the resurrection of Christ--a risen Saviour, and a reconciled God!
How safely may men trust in the one, and with what humble confidence
may they apply to the other, for pardon, holiness, and heaven. With
what holy joy should they on the Lord’s day call to remembrance his
resurrection, and meditate on the greatness of his love in shedding his
blood for “the remission of sins,” and to secure for them everlasting
happiness.

The ardent desire he manifested for our welfare was not extinguished,
or even abated, by the most discouraging considerations: not by the
unworthiness of those who were the objects of his compassion; not by
the thoughts of obscuring his Divine glory with frail humanity; not by
the prospect of being exposed to the contempt of men and contradiction
of sinners; not by the view of meeting with very ungrateful usage from
his friends, and falling under the most bitter persecutions of his
enemies; not by the necessity, arising from a covenant engagement,
of suffering the punishment due to sin, and submitting to a most
ignominious and painful death. In opposition to these formidable
obstacles, our blessed Redeemer resolutely and immoveably persevered
in his benevolent design of dying for us, and thereby effecting our
salvation; and when suspended on the cross, he cried, “It is finished,”
and gave up the ghost. For calling this to remembrance, was the
Christian sabbath instituted; and if the consideration of the love of
Christ in being “delivered for our offences, and rising again for our
justification,” will not constrain us to sanctify the Lord’s day, every
other motive or reason will fail.




THE END.

       *       *       *       *       *




    Transcriber’s Notes


    Punctuation has been standardised.

    Italic text has been denoted by _underscores_.

    Characters in small caps have been replaced by all caps.

    Non-printable superscripts are represented by a caret
    followed by the character(s) placed in {}, i.e. x^{23}.

    This book was written in a period when many words had not
    become standarized in their spelling. Numerous words have
    multiple spelling variations or inconsistent hyphenation in the
    text. These have been left unchanged while obvious spelling
    mistakes have been repaired. Non-typical corrections are noted
    below:

         Pg 57 - Location of footnote 33 was not marked in the
                 original text





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