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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 18:55:35 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 18:55:35 -0700 |
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margin-left: 7em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + +.trans-heading { + font-size: 1.2em; + text-align:center; +} + +.toc_century { + text-align:center; + padding-top:2em; +} + +.toc_chapter { + text-align:left; + text-indent:-1.5em; + padding-left:1.5em; + font-size:0.8em; +} + +.chapter-sub { + margin-left: 5%; + margin-right: 5%; + margin-bottom: 2em; + text-align:center; +} + +.sub-heading { + display:inline-block; + text-align:justify; + text-indent:-1.5em; + padding-left:1.5em; + font-size:0.8em; +} + +.toc_page { + text-align:right; + vertical-align:bottom; +} + +.small { + font-size:0.6em; +} + +.big { + font-size:1.3em; +} + +.heading{ + margin-top:2em; + font-size:1.3em; + text-align:center; +} + +.spaced-above { + margin-top: 4em; +} + +.rulers { + margin-top:2em; +} + +.dynast { + padding-top: 1em; +} + +.sovereign{ + text-indent:-1em; + padding-left: 2em; + text-align: left; +} + +.year-list { + text-align:right; + line-height:2em; +} + +.year-top { + vertical-align:top; 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+} + + </style> + </head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44703 ***</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> + +<h1> +<span class="small">THE</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Eighteen Christian Centuries</span>. +</h1> + +<p class="center"> +<span class="small">BY</span><br /> +THE REV. JAMES WHITE,<br /> +<span class="small">AUTHOR OF A “HISTORY OF FRANCE.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="center spaced-above big">With a Copious Index.</p> + +<p class="center spaced-above">FROM THE SECOND EDINBURGH EDITION.</p> + +<p class="center spaced-above">NEW YORK:<br /> +D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,<br /> +549 & 551 BROADWAY.<br /> +1878. +</p> +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> +<a name="NOTE_BY_THE_AMERICAN_PUBLISHERS" id="NOTE_BY_THE_AMERICAN_PUBLISHERS">NOTE BY THE AMERICAN PUBLISHERS.</a></h2> + +<p class="spaced-above">This valuable work, which has been received with +much favour in Great Britain, is reprinted without +abridgment from the second Edinburgh edition. The +lists of names of remarkable persons in the present +issue have been somewhat enlarged, and additional +dates appended, thereby increasing the value of the +book.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> +<a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</a></h2> + +<div class="center"> +<table class="table-center" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="right" class="small">PAGE</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_century" colspan="2">FIRST CENTURY.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_chapter">THE BAD EMPERORS</td><td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_century" colspan="2">SECOND CENTURY.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_chapter">THE GOOD EMPERORS.</td><td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_century" colspan="2">THIRD CENTURY.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_chapter">ANARCHY AND CONFUSION — GROWTH OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH.</td><td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_century" colspan="2">FOURTH CENTURY.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_chapter">THE REMOVAL TO CONSTANTINOPLE — ESTABLISHMENT OF CHRISTIANITY —  APOSTASY +OF JULIAN — SETTLEMENT OF THE GOTHS.</td><td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_century" colspan="2">FIFTH CENTURY.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_chapter">END OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE — FORMATION OF MODERN STATES — GROWTH +OF ECCLESIASTICAL AUTHORITY.</td><td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_century" colspan="2">SIXTH CENTURY.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_chapter">BELISARIUS AND NARSES IN ITALY — SETTLEMENT OF THE LOMBARDS — LAWS +OF JUSTINIAN — BIRTH OF MOHAMMED.</td><td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_century" colspan="2">SEVENTH CENTURY.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_chapter">POWER OF ROME SUPPORTED BY THE MONKS — CONQUESTS OF THE +MOHAMMEDANS.</td><td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_century" colspan="2">EIGHTH CENTURY.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_chapter">TEMPORAL POWER OF THE POPES — THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE.</td><td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_century" colspan="2">NINTH CENTURY.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_chapter">DISMEMBERMENT OF CHARLEMAGNE’S EMPIRE — DANISH INVASION +OF ENGLAND — WEAKNESS OF FRANCE — REIGN OF ALFRED.</td><td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_century" colspan="2">TENTH CENTURY.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_chapter">DARKNESS AND DESPAIR.</td><td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_century" colspan="2">ELEVENTH CENTURY.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_chapter">THE COMMENCEMENT OF IMPROVEMENT — GREGORY THE SEVENTH — FIRST +CRUSADE.</td><td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_century" colspan="2">TWELFTH CENTURY.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_chapter">ELEVATION OF LEARNING — POWER OF THE CHURCH — THOMAS +À-BECKETT.</td><td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_269">269</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_century" colspan="2">THIRTEENTH CENTURY.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_chapter">FIRST CRUSADE AGAINST HERETICS — THE ALBIGENSES — MAGNA +CHARTA — EDWARD I.</td><td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_century" colspan="2">FOURTEENTH CENTURY.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_chapter">ABOLITION OF THE ORDER OF THE TEMPLARS — RISE OF MODERN +LITERATURES — SCHISM OF THE CHURCH.</td><td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_325">325</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_century" colspan="2">FIFTEENTH CENTURY.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_chapter">DECLINE OF FEUDALISM — AGINCOURT — JOAN OF ARC — THE PRINTING-PRESS — DISCOVERY +OF AMERICA.</td><td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_359">359</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_century" colspan="2">SIXTEENTH CENTURY.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_chapter">THE REFORMATION — THE JESUITS — POLICY OF ELIZABETH.</td><td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_401">401</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_century" colspan="2">SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_chapter">ENGLISH REBELLION AND REVOLUTION — DESPOTISM OF LOUIS THE +FOURTEENTH.</td><td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_447">447</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_century" colspan="2">EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc_chapter">INDIA — AMERICA — FRANCE</td><td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_491">491</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" style="padding-top:2em;">INDEX</td><td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_527">527</a></td></tr> +</table> +</div> +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +<a name="FIRST_CENTURY" id="FIRST_CENTURY">FIRST CENTURY.</a></h2> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="4" class="big">Emperors.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td colspan="3" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Augustus Cæsar.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">14.</td><td colspan="3" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Tiberius.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">37.</td><td colspan="3" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Caius Caligula.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">41.</td><td colspan="3" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Claudius.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">54.</td><td colspan="3" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Nero.</span> First Persecution of the Christians.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">68.</td><td colspan="3" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Galba.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">69.</td><td class="sovereign-list"> +<span class="smcap">Otho.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Vitellius </span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Vespasian.</span><br /> +</td><td class="mustache3">}</td><td style="width:100%"></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">79.</td><td colspan="3" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Titus.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">81.</td><td colspan="3" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Domitian.</span> Second Persecution of the Christians.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">96.</td><td colspan="3" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Nerva.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">98.</td><td colspan="3" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Trajan.</span></td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p class="heading">Authors.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Livy</span>, <span class="smcap">Ovid</span>, <span class="smcap">Tibullus</span>, <span class="smcap">Strabo</span>, <span class="smcap">Columella</span>, <span class="smcap">Quintus Curtius</span>, +<span class="smcap">Seneca</span>, <span class="smcap">Lucan</span>, <span class="smcap">Petronius</span>, <span class="smcap">Silius Italicus</span>, <span class="smcap">Pliny the Elder</span>, +<span class="smcap">Martial</span>, <span class="smcap">Quinctilian</span>, <span class="smcap">Tacitus</span>.</p> + +<p class="heading">Christian Fathers and Writers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Barnabas</span>, <span class="smcap">Clement of Rome</span>, <span class="smcap">Hermas</span>, <span class="smcap">Ignatius</span>, <span class="smcap">Polycarp</span>.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p class="title"> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +<span class="small">THE</span><br /> +EIGHTEEN CHRISTIAN CENTURIES.</p> + + +<hr class="chap" /></div> + +<div> +<h2><a name="THE_FIRST_CENTURY" id="THE_FIRST_CENTURY">THE FIRST CENTURY.</a></h2> + + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="sub-heading ">THE BAD EMPERORS.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nobody</span> disputes the usefulness of History. Many +prefer it, even for interest and amusement, to the best +novels and romances. But the extent of time over which +it has stretched its range is appalling to the most laborious +of readers. And as History is growing every day, +and every nation is engaged in the manufacture of +memorable events, it is pitiable to contemplate the fate +of the historic student a hundred years hence. He is +not allowed to cut off at one end, in proportion as he increases +at the other. He is not allowed to forget Marlborough, +in consideration of his accurate acquaintance +with Wellington. His knowledge of the career of +Napoleon is no excuse for ignorance of Julius Cæsar. +All must be retained—victories, defeats—battles, sieges—knights +in armour, soldiers in red; the charge at +Marathon, the struggle at Inkermann—all these things, +a thousand other things, at first apparently of no importance, +but growing larger and larger as time develops +their effects, till men look back in wonder that the acorn +escaped their notice which has produced such a majestic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> +oak,—a thousand other things still, for a moment rising +in apparently irresistible power, and dying off apparently +without cause, must be folded up in niches of the memory, +ready to be brought forth when needed, and yet room be +left for the future. And who can pretend to be qualified +for so great a work? Most of us confess to rather dim +recollections of things occurring in our own time,—in +our own country—in our own parish; and some, contemplating +the vast expanse of human history, its innumerable +windings and perplexing variations, are inclined +to give it up in despair, and have a sulky sort of +gratification in determining to know nothing, since they +cannot know all. All kings, they say, are pretty much +alike, and whether he is called John in England, or Louis +in France, doesn’t make much difference. Nobles also +are as similar as possible, and peoples are everywhere +the same. Now, this, you see, though it ambitiously +pretends to be ignorance, is, in fact, something infinitely +worse. It is false knowledge. It might be very injurious +to liberty, to honour, and to religion itself, if this wretched +idea were to become common, for where would be the +inducement to noble endeavour? to reform of abuses? +to purity of life? Kings and nobles and peoples are not +everywhere the same. They are not even <i>like</i> each +other, or like themselves in the same land at different +periods. They are in a perpetual series, not only of +change, but of contrast. They are “variable as the sea,”—calm +and turbulent, brilliant and dark by turns. And +it is this which gives us the only chance of attaining +clearness and distinctness in our historic views. It is by +dissimilarities that things are individualized: now, how +pleasant it would be if we could simplify and strengthen +our recollections of different times, by getting personal +portraits, as it were, of the various centuries, so as +to escape the danger of confounding their dress or features.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +It would be impossible in that case to mistake +the Spanish hat and feather of the sixteenth century for +the steel helmet and closed vizor of the fourteenth. We +should be able, in the same way, to distinguish between +the modes of thought and principles of action of the +early ages, and those of the present time. We should +be able to point out anachronisms of feeling and manners +if they occurred in the course of our reading, as well as +of dress and language. It is surely worth while, therefore, +to make an attempt to individualize the centuries, +not by affixing to them any arbitrary marks of one’s +own, but by taking notice of the distinguishing quality +they possess, and grouping round that, as a centre, the +incidents which either produce this characteristic or are +produced by it. What should we call the present century, +for instance? We should at once name it the +Century of Invention. The great war with Napoleon +ending in 1815, exciting so many passions, and calling +forth such energy, was but the natural introduction to +the wider efforts and amazing progress of the succeeding +forty years. Battles and bulletins, alliances and quarrels, +ceased, but the intellect aroused by the struggle dashed +into other channels. Commerce spread its humanizing +influences over hitherto closed and unexplored regions; +the steamboat and railway began their wondrous career. +The lightning was trained to be our courier in the electric +telegraph, and the sun took our likenesses in the daguerreotype. +How changed this century is in all its attributes +and tendencies from its predecessor, let any man +judge for himself, who compares the reigns of our first +Hanoverian kings with that of our gracious queen.</p> + +<p>In nothing, indeed, is the course of European history +so remarkable as in the immense differences which intervals +of a few years introduce. In the old monarchies +of Asia, time and the world seem almost to stand still.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +The Indian, the Arab, the Chinese of a thousand years +ago, wore the same clothes, thought the same thoughts, +and led the same life as his successor of to-day. But +with us the whole character of a people is changed in a +lifetime. In a few years we are whirled out of all our associations. +Names perhaps remain unaltered, but the +inner life is different; modes of living, states of education, +religious sentiments, great national events, foreign +wars, or deep internal struggles—all leave such ineffaceable +marks on the history of certain periods, that their +influence can be traced through all the particulars of the +time. The art of printing can be followed, on its first +introduction, into the recesses of private life, as well as +in the intercourse of nations. The Reformation of religion +so entirely altered the relations which the states +of the world bore to each other, that it may be said to +have put a limit between old history and new, so that +human character itself received a new development; and +actions, both public and private, were regulated by +principles hitherto unknown.</p> + +<p>In one respect all the past centuries are alike,—that +they have done their part towards the formation of this. +We bear the impress, at this hour, of the great thoughts +and high aspirations, the struggles, and even the crimes, +of our ancestral ages; and yet they have no greater resemblance +to the present, except in the unchangeable +characteristics of human nature itself, than the remotest +forefathers in a long line of ancestry, whose likenesses +hang in the galleries of our hereditary nobles, bear to the +existing owner of title and estate. The ancestor who +fought in the wars of the Roses has a very different expression +and dress from the other ancestor who cheated +and lied (politically, of course) in the days of the early +Georges. Yet from both the present proprietor is descended. +He retains the somewhat rusty armour on an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +ostentatious nail in the hall, and the somewhat insincere +memoirs in a secret drawer in the library, and we cannot +deny that he is the joint production of the courage +of the warrior and the duplicity of the statesman; +anxious to defend what he believes to be the right, like +the supporter of York or Lancaster—but trammelled +by the ties of party, like the patriot of Sir Robert Walpole.</p> + +<p>If we could affix to each century as characteristic a +presentment as those portraits do of the steel-clad hero +of Towton, or the be-wigged, be-buckled courtier of +George the Second, our object would be gained. We +should see a whole history in a glance at a century’s +face. If it were peculiarly marked by nature or accident, +so much the more easy would it be to recognise the likeness. +If the century was a warlike, quarrelsome century, +and had scars across its brow; if it was a learned, plodding +century, and wore spectacles on nose; if it was a +frivolous, gay century, and simpered forever behind +bouquets of flowers, or tripped on fantastic toe with a +jewelled rapier at its side, there would be no mistaking +the resemblance; there would also be no chance of confusing +the actions: the legal century would not fight, the +dancing century would not depose its king.</p> + +<p>Taking our stand at the beginning of our era, there +are only eighteen centuries with which we have to do, +and how easily any of us get acquainted with the features +and expression of eighteen of our friends! Not that we +know every particular of their birth and education, or +can enter into the minute parts of their character and +feelings; but we soon know enough of them to distinguish +them from each other. We soon can say of which of the +eighteen such or such an action or opinion is characteristic. +We shall not mistake the bold deed or eloquent +statement of one as proceeding from another.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i-1">“Boastful and rough, your first son is a squire.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The next a tradesman, meek, and much a liar:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Tom struts a soldier, open, bold, and brave:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Will sneaks a scrivener, an exceeding knave.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Is he a churchman? then he’s fond of power:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">A Quaker? sly: a Presbyterian? sour:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">A smart free-thinker? all things in an hour.”<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>Now, though it is impossible to put the characteristics +of a whole century into such terse and powerful language +as this, it cannot be doubted that each century, or considerable +period, has its prevailing Thought,—a thought +which it works out in almost all the ramifications of its +course; which it receives from its predecessor in a totally +different shape, and passes on to its successor in a still +more altered form. Else why do we find the faith of one +generation the ridicule and laughing-stock of the next? +How did knighthood rise into the heroic regions of +chivalry, and then sink in a succeeding period into the +domain of burlesque? How did aristocracy in one age +concentrate into kingship in another? And in a third, +how did the golden ring of sovereignty lose its controlling +power, and republics take their rise? How did +the reverence of Europe settle at one time on the sword +of Edward the Third, and at another on the periwig of +Louis the Fourteenth? These and similar inquiries +will lead us to the real principles and motive forces of a +particular age, as they distinguished it from other ages. +We shall label the centuries, as it were, with their +characteristic marks, and know where to look for +thoughts and incidents of a particular class and type.</p> + +<p>Let us look at the first century.</p> + +<p>Throughout the civilized world there is nothing but +Rome. Under whatever form of government—under +consuls, or triumvirs, or dictators—that wonderful city +was mistress of the globe. Her internal dissensions had +not weakened her power. While her streets were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> +running with the blood of her citizens, her eagles were +flying triumphant in Farther Asia and on the Rhine. +Her old constitution had finally died off almost without +a blow, and unconsciously the people, still talking of +Cato and Brutus, became accustomed to the yoke. For +seven-and-twenty years they had seen all the power of +the state concentrated in one man; but the names of the +offices of which their ancestors had been so proud were +retained; and when Octavius, the nephew of the conqueror +Julius Cæsar, placed himself above the law, it was +only by uniting in his own person all the authority +which the law had created. He was consul, tribune, +prætor, pontifex, imperator,—whatever denomination +conferred dignity and power; and by the legal exercise +of all these trusts he had no rival and no check. He +was finally presented by the senate with the lofty title +of Augustus, which henceforth had a mysterious significance +as the seal of imperial greatness, and his commands +were obeyed without a murmur from the Tigris to the +Tyne. But whilst in the enjoyment of this pre-eminence, +the Roman emperor was unconscious that in a village +of Judea, in the lowest rank of life, among the most +contemned tribe of his dominions, his Master was +born. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>By this event the whole current of the +world’s history was changed. The great became small +and the small great. Rome itself ceased to be the capital +of the world, for men’s eyes and hearts, when the wonderful +story came to be known, were turned to Jerusalem. +From her, commissioned emissaries were to proceed +with greater powers than those of Roman prætors +or governors. From her gates went forth Peter and +John to preach the gospel. Down her steep streets rode +Paul and his companions, breathing anger against the +Church, and ere they reached Damascus, behold, the +eyes of the persecutor are blinded with lightning, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +his understanding illuminated with the same flash; and +henceforth he proceeds, in lowliness and humility, to +convey to others the glad tidings that had been revealed +to himself. Away in all directions, but all radiating +from Jerusalem, travelled the messengers of the amazing +dispensation. Everywhere—in all centuries—in all +regions, we shall encounter the results of their ministry; +and as we watch the swelling of the mighty tide, first +of Christian faith and then of priestly ambition, which +overspread the fairest portions of the globe, we shall +wonder more and more at the apparent powerlessness +of its source, and at the vast effects for good and evil +which it has produced upon mankind.</p> + +<p>What were they doing at Rome during the thirty-three +years of our Saviour’s sojourn upon earth? For +the first fourteen of them Augustus was gathering +round him the wits, and poets, and sages, who have +made his reign immortal. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 14.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>After that date his +successor, Tiberius, built up by stealthy and slow +degrees the most dreadful tyranny the world had ever +seen,—a tyranny the results of which lasted long after +the founders of it had expired. For from this period +mankind had nothing to hope but from the bounty of +the emperor. It is humiliating to reflect that the history +of the world for so long a period consists of the +deeds and dispositions of the successive rulers of Rome. +All men, wherever their country, or whatever their +position, were dependent, in greater or less degree, for +their happiness or misery on the good or bad temper of +an individual man. If he was cruel, as so many of them +were, he filled the patricians of Rome with fear, and +terrified the distant inhabitants of Thrace or Gaul. His +benevolence, on the other hand, was felt at the extremities +of the earth. No wonder that every one was on +the watch for the first glimpse of a new emperor’s<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +character and disposition. What rejoicings in Italy and +Greece and Africa, and all through Europe, when a trait +of goodness was reported! and what a sinking of the +heart when the old story was renewed, and a monster +of cruelty succeeded to a monster of deceit! For the +fearfullest thing in all the descriptions of Tiberius is the +duplicity of his behaviour. He withdrew to an island in +the sunniest part of the Mediterranean, and covered it +with gorgeous buildings, and supplied it with all the implements +of luxury and enjoyment. From this magnificent +retirement he uttered a whisper, or made a motion +with his hand, which displaced an Eastern monarch +from his throne, or doomed a senator to death. He was +never seen. He lived in the dreadful privacy of some +fabled deity, and was only felt at the farthest ends of +his empire by the unhappiness he occasioned; by his +murders, and imprisonments, and every species of suffering, +men’s hearts and minds were bowed down beneath +this invisible and irresistible oppressor. Self-respect +was at an end, and liberty was not even wished for. The +emperor had swallowed up the empire, and there was no +authority or influence beside. This is the main feature +of the first or Imperial Century, that, wherever we +look, we see but one,—one gorged and bloated brutalized +man, sitting on the throne of earthly power, and all the +rest of mankind at his feet. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 37.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Humanity at its flower had +culminated into a Tiberius; and when at last he was +slain, and the world began to breathe, the sorrow was +speedily deeper than before, for it was found that +the Imperial tree had blossomed again, and that +its fruit was a Caligula.</p> + +<p>This was a person with much the same taste for blood +as his predecessor, but he was more open in the gratification +of this propensity. He did not wait for trial +and sentence,—those dim mockeries of justice in which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +Tiberius sometimes indulged. He had a peculiar way +of nodding with his head or pointing with his finger, +and the executioner knew the sign. The man he nodded +to died. For the more distinguished of the citizens he +kept a box,—not of snuff, like some monarchs of the +present day, but of some strong and instantaneous +poison. Whoever refused a pinch died as a traitor, and +whoever took one died of the fatal drug. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 41.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Even the +degenerate Romans could not endure this long, and +Chæreas, an officer of his guard, put him to +death, after a sanguinary reign of four years.</p> + +<p>Still the hideous catalogue goes on. Claudius, a +nephew of Tiberius, is forced upon the unwilling senate +by the spoilt soldiers of the capital, the Prætorian +Guards. Colder, duller, more brutal than the rest, +Claudius perhaps increased the misery of his country by +the apathy and stupidity of his mind. The other tyrants +had some limit to their wickedness, for they kept all the +powers of the State in their own hands, but this man +enlisted a countless host of favourites and courtiers in +his crusade against the happiness of mankind. Badly +eminent among these was his wife, the infamous Messalina, +whose name has become a symbol of all that is detestable +in the female sex. Some people, indeed, in +reading the history of this period, shut the book with a +shudder, and will not believe it true. They prefer to +think that authors of all lands and positions have agreed +to paint a fancy picture of depravity and horror, than +that such things were. But the facts are too well +proved to be doubted. We see a dull, unimpassioned, +moody despot; fond of blood, but too indolent to shed it +himself, unless at the dictation of his fiendish partner +and her friends; so brutalized that nothing amazed or +disturbed him; so unobservant that, relying on his +blindness, she went through the ostentatious ceremony<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> +of a public marriage with one of her paramours during +the lifetime, almost under the eyes, of her husband; and +yet to this frightful combination of ferocity and stupidity +England owes its subjection to the Roman power, and +all the blessings which Roman civilization—bringing as +it did the lessons of Christianity in its train—was calculated +to bestow. In the forty-fourth year of this century, +and the third year of the reign of Claudius, Aulus +Plautius landed in Britain at the head of a powerful +army; and the tide of Victory and Settlement never +subsided till the whole country, as far north as the Solway, +submitted to the Eagles. The contrast between +the central power at Rome, and the officials employed +at a distance, continued for a long time the most remarkable +circumstance in the history of the empire. +Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, vied with each other in exciting +the terror and destroying the happiness of the +world; but in the remote extremities of their command, +their generals displayed the courage and virtue of an +earlier age. They improved as well as conquered. +They made roads, and built bridges, and cut down +woods. They established military stations, which soon +became centres of education and law. They deepened +the Thames, and commenced those enormous embankments +of the river, to which, in fact, London owes its +existence, without being aware of the labour they bestowed +upon the work. If by some misfortune a great +fissure took place—as has occurred on a small scale +once before—in these artificial dikes, it would task the +greatest skill of modern engineers to repair the damage. +They superseded the blood-stained ceremonies of the +Druids with the more refined worship of the heathen +deities, making Claudius himself a tutelary god, with +priest and temple, in the town of Colchester; and this, +though in our eyes the deification of one of the worst<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +of men, was, perhaps, in the estimation of our predecessors, +only the visible embodiment of settled government +and beneficent power. But murder and treachery, and +unspeakable iniquity, went their way as usual in the +city of the Cæsars. Messalina was put to death, and +another disgrace to womanhood, in the person of Agrippina, +took her place beside the phlegmatic tyrant. +Thirteen years had passed, when the boundary of human +patience was attained, and Rome was startled one +morning with the joyful news that her master was no +more. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 54.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>The combined cares of his loving spouse and a +favourite physician had produced this happy result,—the +one presenting him with a dish of deadly mushrooms, +and the other painting his throat for a hoarseness +with a poisoned feather.</p> + +<p>Is there no hope for Rome or for mankind? Is there +to be a perpetual succession of monster after monster, +with no cessation in the dreadful line? It would be +pleasant to conceal for a minute or two the name of the +next emperor, that we might point to the glorious prospect +now opening on the world. But the name has +become so descriptive that deception is impossible. +When the word Nero is said, little more is required. +But it was not so at first; a brilliant sunrise never had +so terrible a course, or so dark a setting. We still see +in the earlier statues which remain of him the fine outline +of his face, and can fancy what its expression must +have been before the qualities of his heart had stamped +their indelible impression on his features. For the first +five years of his reign the world seemed lost as much in +surprise as in admiration. Some of his actions were +generous; none of them were cruel or revengeful. He +was young, and seemed anxious to fulfil the duties of his +position. But power and flattery had their usual effect. +All that was good in him was turned into evil. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +tortured the noblest of the citizens; and degraded the +throne to such a degree by the expositions he made of +himself, sometimes as a musician on the stage, sometimes +as a charioteer in the arena, that if there had +been any Romans left they would have despised the +tyrant more than they feared him. But there were no +Romans left. The senators, the knights, the populace, +vied with each other in submission to his power and +encouragement of his vices. The rage of the monster, +once excited, knew no bounds. He burned the city in +the mere wantonness of crime, and fixed the blame on +the unoffending Christians. These, regardless of age or +condition or sex, he destroyed by every means in his +power. He threw young maidens into the amphitheatre, +where the hungry tigers leapt out upon them; he exposed +the aged professors of the gospel to fight in +single combat with the trained murderers of the circus, +called the Gladiators; and once, in ferocious mockery +of human suffering, he enclosed whole Christian families +in a coating of pitch and other inflammable materials, +and, setting fire to the covering, pursued his sport all +night by the light of these living flambeaux. Some of +his actions it is impossible to name. It will be sufficient +to say that at the end of thirteen years the purple +he disgraced was again reddened with blood. Terrified +at the opposition that at last rose against him—deserted, +of course, by the confederates of his wickedness—shrinking +with unmanly cowardice from a defence +which might have put off the evil day, he fled and hid +himself from his pursuers. Agonized with fear, howling +with repentant horror, he was indebted to one of his +attendants for the blow which his own cowardly hand +could not administer, and he died the basest, lowest, and +most pitiless of all the emperors. And all those hopes +he had disappointed, and all those iniquities he had perpetrated,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +at the age of thirty-two. He was the last of +the line of Cæsar; and if that conqueror had foreseen +that in so few years after his death the Senate of +Rome would have been so debased, and the people of +Rome so brutalized, he would have pardoned to Brutus +the precautionary blow which was intended to prevent +so great a calamity.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 68.</div> + +<p>Galba was elected to fill his place, and was murdered +in a few months.</p> + +<p>The degraded prætorians then elevated one of the +companions of Nero’s guilty excesses to the throne in +the person of Otho, but resistance was made to their +selection. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 69.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>The forces in Germany nominated +Vitellius to the supreme authority; and Otho, +either a voluptuary tired of life, or a craven incapable +of exertion, committed suicide to save the miseries of +civil war. But this calamity was averted by a nobler +hand. Vitellius had only time to show that, in addition +to the usual vices of the throne, he was addicted to the +animal enjoyments of eating and drinking to an almost +incredible degree, when he heard a voice from the walls +of Jerusalem which hurled him from the seat he had so +lately taken; for the legions engaged in that most +memorable of sieges had decided on giving the empire +of the world to the man who deserved it best, and had +proclaimed their general, Flavius Vespasian, Imperator +and Master of Rome.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 70.</div> + +<p>Now we will pause, for we have come to the year +seventy of this century, and a fit breathing-time +to look round us and see what condition mankind +has fallen into within a hundred years of the end of the +Republic. We leave out of view the great empires of +the farther East, where battles were won, and dynasties +established on the plains of Hindostan, and within the +Chinese Wall. The extent of our knowledge of Oriental<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +affairs is limited to the circumference of the Roman power. +Following that vast circle, we see it on all sides surrounded +by tribes and nations who derive their sole illumination +from its light, for unless the Roman conquests +had extended to the confines of those barbaric states, we +should have known nothing of their existence. Beyond +that ring of fire it is almost matter of conjecture what +must have been going on. Yet we learn from the traditions +of many peoples, and can guess with some accuracy +from the occurrences of a later period, what was +the condition of those “outsiders,” and what were their +feelings and intentions with regard to the civilized portions +of the world. Bend your eyes in any direction you +please, and what names, what thoughts, suggest themselves +to our minds! We see swarms of wild adventurers +with wives and cattle traversing with no definite +object the uncultivated districts beyond the Danube; +occasionally pitching their tents, or even forming more +permanent establishments, around the roots of Caucasus +and north of the Caspian Sea, where grass was more +plentiful, and hills or marshes formed an easily defended +barrier against enemies as uncivilized as themselves. +Coming from no certain region—that is, forgetting in a +few years of wandering the precise point from which +they set out, pushed forward by the advancing waves of +great national migrations in their rear—moving onward +across the upper fields of Europe, but keeping themselves +still cautiously from actual contact with the Roman limits, +from those hordes of homeless, lawless savages are derived +the most polished and greatest nations of the present +day. Forming into newer combinations, and taking +different names, their identity is scarcely to be recognised +when, three or four centuries after this, they come +into the daylight of history; but nobody can doubt that, +during these preliminary ages, they were gathering their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +power together, hereafter, under the impulse of fresh +additions, to be hurled like a dammed-up river upon the +prostrate realm, carrying ruin and destruction in their +course, but no less certainly than the overflowing Nile +leaving the germs of future fertility, and enriching with +newer vegetation the fields they had so ruthlessly submerged. +And year by year the mighty mass goes on +accumulating. The northern plains become peopled no +one knows how. The vast forests eastward of the Rhine +receive new accessions of warriors, who rapidly assimilate +with the old. United in one common object of retaining +the wild freedom of their tribe, and the possession +of the lands they have seized, they have opposed +the advance of the Roman legions into the uncultivated +districts they call their own; they have even succeeded +in destroying the military forces which guarded the +Rhine, and have with difficulty been restrained from +crossing the great river by a strong line of forts and +castles, of which the remains astonish the traveller of +the present day, as, with Murray’s Guide-Book in his +hand, he gazes upon their ruins between Bingen and +Aix-la-Chapelle.</p> + +<p>Repelled by these barriers, they cluster thicker than +ever in the woods and valleys, to which the Romans +have no means of penetrating. Southern Gaul submits, +and becomes a civilized outpost of the central power; +but far up in the wild regions of the north, and even to +the eastward of the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, the +assemblage goes on. Scandinavia itself becomes over-crowded +by the perpetual arrival of thousands of these +armed and expatriated families, and sends her teeming +populations to the east and south. But all these incidents, +I must remind you, are occurring in darkness. We only +know that the desert is becoming peopled with crowded +millions, and that among them all there floats a confused<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +notion of the greatness of the Roman power, the wealth +of the cities and plains of Italy; and that, clustering in +thicker swarms on the confines of civil government, the +watchful eyes of unnumbered savage warriors are fixed +on the territories lying rich and beautiful within the +protection of the Roman name. So the whole Roman +boundary gets gradually surrounded by barbaric hosts. +Their trampings may be heard as they marshal their +myriads and skirt the upper boundaries of Thrace; but +as yet no actual conflict has occurred. A commotion +may become observable among some of the farthest distant +of the half intimidated of the German tribes; or +an enterprising Roman settler beyond the frontier, or +travelling merchant, who has penetrated to the neighbourhood +of the Baltic, may bring back amazing reports +of the fresh accumulations of unknown hordes of strange +and threatening aspect; but the luxurious public in +Rome receive them merely as interesting anecdotes to +amuse their leisure or gratify their curiosity: they have +no apprehension of what may be the result of those multitudinous +arrivals. They do not foresee the gradual +drawing closer to their outward defences—the struggle +to get within their guarded lines—the fight that is surely +coming between a sated, dull, degraded civilization on +the one side, and a hungry, bold, ambitious savagery on +the other. They trust every thing to the dignity of the +Eternal City, and the watchfulness of the Emperor: for +to this, his one idea of irresistible power equally for +good or evil, the heart of the Roman was sure to turn. +And for the eleven years of the reigns of Vespasian and +Titus, the Roman did not appeal for protection against +a foreign enemy in vain. Rome itself was compensated +by shows and buildings—with a triumph and an arch—for +the degradation in which it was held. But prætor +and proconsul still pursued their course of oppressing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +the lands committed to their defence; and the subject, +stripped of his goods, and hopeless of getting his wrongs +redressed, had only the satisfaction of feeling that the +sword he trembled at was in the hand of a man and not +of an incarnate demon. A poor consolation this when +the blow was equally fatal. Vespasian, in fact, was +fonder of money than of blood, and the empire rejoiced +in having exchanged the agony of being murdered +for the luxury of being fleeced. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 79.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>With Titus, whom +the fond gratitude of his subjects named the Delight of +the human race, a new age of happiness was about to +open on the world; but all the old horrors of the Cæsars +were revived and magnified when he was succeeded, +after a reign of two years, by his brother, the +savage and cowardly Domitian. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 81.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>With the exception +of the brief period between the years 70 and 81, the +whole century was spent in suffering and inflicting pain. +The worst excesses of Nero and Caligula were now +imitated and surpassed. The bonds of society became +rapidly loosened. As in a shipwreck, the law of self-preservation +was the only rule. No man could rely +upon his neighbour, or his friend, or his nearest of kin. +There were spies in every house, and an executioner at +every door. An unconsidered word maliciously reported, +or an accusation entirely false, brought death to the rich +and great. To the unhappy class of men who in other +times are called the favourites of fortune, because they +are born to the possession of great ancestral names and +hereditary estates, there was no escape from the jealous +and avaricious hatred of the Emperor. If a patrician +of this description lived in the splendour befitting his rank—he +was currying favour with the mob! If he lived retired—he +was trying to gain reputation by a pretence of +giving up the world! If he had great talents—he was +dangerous to the state! If he was dull and stupid—oh!<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> +don’t believe it—he was only an imitative Brutus, concealing +his deep designs under the semblance of fatuity! +If a man of distinguished birth was rich, it was not a +fitting condition for a subject—if he was poor, he was +likely to be seduced into the wildest enterprises. So +the prisons were filled by calumny and suspicion, and +emptied by the executioner. A dreadful century this—the +worst that ever entered into tale or history; for the +memory of former glories and comparative freedom was +still recent. A man who was sixty years old, in the +midst of the terrors of Tiberius, had associated in his +youth with the survivors of the Civil War, with men +who had embraced Brutus and Cassius; he had seen the +mild administration of Augustus, and perhaps had supped +with Virgil and Horace in the house of Mæcenas. And +now he was tortured till he named a slave or freedman +of the Emperor his heir, and then executed to expedite +the succession. There was a hideous jocularity in some +of these imperial proceedings, which, however, was no +laughing-matter at the time. When a senator was very +wealthy, it was no unusual thing for Tiberius and his +successors to create themselves the rich man’s nearest +relations by a decree of the Senate. The person so +honoured by this graft upon his family tree seldom survived +the operation many days. The emperor took +possession of the property as heir-at-law and next of +kin; and mourned for his uncle or brother—as the case +might be—with the most edifying decorum.</p> + +<p>But besides giving the general likeness of a period, it +is necessary to individualize it still further by introducing, +in the background of the picture, some incident by which +it is peculiarly known, as we find Nelson generally represented +with Trafalgar going on at the horizon, and Wellington +sitting thoughtful on horseback in the foreground +of the fire of Waterloo. Now, there cannot be a more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +distinguishing mark than a certain great military achievement +which happened in the year 70 of this century, and +is brought home to us, not only as a great historical event +in itself, but as the commencement of a new era in human +affairs, and the completion of a long line of threats and +prophecies. This was the capture and destruction of +Jerusalem. The accounts given us of this siege transcend +in horror all other records of human sorrow. It +was at the great annual feast of the Passover, when Jews +from all parts of the world flocked to the capital of their +nation to worship in the Temple, which to them was the +earthly dwelling-place of Jehovah. The time was come, +and they did not know it, when God was to be worshipped +in spirit and in truth. More than a million +strangers were resident within the walls. There was no +room in house or hall for so vast a multitude; so they +bivouacked in the streets, and lay thick as leaves in the +courts of the holy place. Suddenly the Roman trumpets +blew. The Jews became inspired with fanatical hatred +of the enemy, and insane confidence that some miracle +would be wrought for their deliverance. They deliberated, +and chose for their leaders the wildest and most +enthusiastic of the crowd. They refused the offers of +mercy and reconciliation made to them by Titus. They +sent back insulting messages to the Roman general, and +stood expectant on the walls to see the idolatrous legions +smitten by lightning or swallowed up by an earthquake. +But Titus advanced his forces and hemmed in the countless +multitude of men, and women, and children—few +able to resist, but all requiring to be fed. Famine and +pestilence came on; but still the mad fanatics of the +Temple determined to persevere. They occasionally +opened a gate and rushed out with the cry of “The +sword of the Lord and of Gideon!” and were slaughtered +by the unpitying hatred of the Roman soldiers. Their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +cruelty to their prisoners, when they succeeded in carrying +off a few of their enemies, was great; but the patience +of Titus at last gave way, and he soon bettered the +instruction they gave him in pitilessness and blood. He +drew a line of circumvallation closer round the city, and +intercepted every supply; when deserters came over, he +crucified them all round the trenches; when the worn-out +people came forth, imploring to be suffered to pass +through his ranks, he drove them back, that they might +increase the scarcity by their lives, or the pestilence by +adding to the heaps of unburied dead. Dissensions were +raging all this time among the defenders themselves. +They fought in the streets, in the houses, and heaped +the floor and outcourts of the Temple with thousands of +the slain. There was no help either from heaven or +earth; eleven hundred thousand people had died of +plague and the sword; and the rest were doomed to +perish by more lingering torments. Nearest relations—sisters, +brothers, fathers, wives—all forgot the ties of +natural affection under this great necessity, and fought +for a handful of meal, or the possession of some reptile’s +body if they were lucky enough to trace it to its hiding-place; +and at last—the crown of all horrors—the +daughter of Eleazer killed her own child and converted +it into food. The measure of man’s wrong and Heaven’s +vengeance was now full. The daily sacrifice ceased to be +offered; voices were audible to the popular ear uttering +in the Holy of Holies, “Let us go hence.” The Romans +rushed on—climbed over the neglected walls—forced +their way into the upper Temple, and the gore flowed +in streams so rapid and so deep that it seemed like a +purple river! Large conduits had been made for the +rapid conveyance away of the blood of bulls and goats +offered in sacrifice; they all became choked now with +the blood of the slaughtered people. At last the city<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +was taken; the inhabitants were either dead or dying. +Many were crushed as they lay expiring in the great +tramplings of the triumphant Romans; many were recovered +by food and shelter, and sold into slavery. The +Temple and walls were levelled with the ground, and +not one stone was left upon another. The plough passed +over where palace and tower had been, and the Jewish +dispensation was brought to a close.</p> + +<p>History in ancient days was as exclusive as the court +newsman in ours, and never published the movements +of anybody below a senator or a consul. All the Browns +and Smiths were left out of consideration; and yet to +us who live in the days when those families—with the +Joneses and Robinsons—form the great majority both +in number and influence, it would be very interesting to +have any certain intelligence of their predecessors during +the first furies of the Empire. We have but faint descriptions +even of the aristocracy, but what we hear of +them shows, more clearly than any thing else, the frightful +effect on morals and manliness of so uncontrolled a +power as was vested in the Cæsars, and teaches us that +the worst of despotisms is that which is established by +the unholy union of the dregs of the population and +the ruling power, against the peace and happiness and +security of the middle class. You see how this combination +of tyrant and mob succeeded in crushing all the +layers of society which lay between them, till there were +left only two agencies in all the world—the Emperor on +his throne, and the millions fed by his bounty. The +hereditary nobility—the safest bulwark of a people and +least dangerous support of a throne—were extirpated +before the end of the century, and impartiality makes +us confess that they fell by their own fault. As if the +restraints of shame had been thrown off with the last +hope of liberty, the whole population broke forth into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> +the most incredible licentiousness. If the luxury of +Lucullus had offended the common sense of propriety +in the later days of the republic, there were numbers +now who looked back upon his feasts as paltry entertainments, +and on the wealth of Crœsus as poverty. +The last of the Pompeys, in the time of Caligula, had +estates so vast, that navigable rivers larger than the +Thames performed the whole of their course from their +fountain-head to the sea without leaving his domain. +There were spendthrifts in the time of Tiberius who +lavished thousands of pounds upon a supper. The pillage +of the world had fallen into the hands of a few +favoured families, and their example had introduced a +prodigality and ostentation unheard of before. No one +who regarded appearances travelled anywhere without +a troop of Numidian horsemen, and outriders to clear +the way. He was followed by a train of mules and +sumpter-horses loaded with his vases of crystal—his +richly-carved cups and dishes of silver and gold. But +this profusion had its natural result in debt and degradation. +The patricians who had been rivals of the +imperial splendour became dependants on the imperial +gifts; and the grandson of the conqueror of a kingdom, +or the proconsul of the half of Asia, sold his ancestral +palace, lived for a while on the contemptuous bounty of +his master, and sank in the next generation into the +nameless mass. Others, more skilful, preserved or +improved their fortunes while they rioted in expense. +By threats or promises, they prevailed on the less +powerful to constitute them their heirs; they traded +on the strength, or talents, or the beauty of their +slaves, and lent money at such usurious interest that +the borrower tried in vain to escape the shackles of +the law, and ended by becoming the bondsman of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +the kind-hearted gentleman who had induced him to +accept the loan.</p> + +<p>If these were the habits of the rich, how were the +poor treated? The free and penniless citizens of the +capital were degraded and gratified at the same time. +The wealthy vied with each other in buying the favour +of the mob by shows and other entertainments, by gifts +of money and donations of food. But when these arts +failed, and popularity could no longer be obtained by +merely defraying the expense of a combat of gladiators, +the descendants of the old patricians—of the men who +had bought the land on which the Gauls were encamped +outside the gates of Rome—went down into the +arena themselves and fought for the public entertainment. +Laws indeed were passed even in the reign of +Tiberius, and renewed at intervals after that time, +against this shameful degradation, and the stage was +interdicted to all who were not previously declared infamous +by sentence of a court. But all was in vain. +Ladies of the highest rank, and the loftiest-born of the +nobility, actually petitioned for a decree of defamation, +that they might give themselves up undisturbed to their +favourite amusement. This perhaps added a zest to +their enjoyment, and rapturous applauses must have +hailed the entrance of the beautiful grandchild of +Anthony or Agrippa, in the character and drapery of a +warlike amazon—the louder the applause and greater +the admiration. Yet in order to gratify them with such +a sight, she had descended to the level of the convict, +and received the brand of qualifying disgrace from a +legal tribunal. But the faint barrier of this useless prohibition +was thrown down by the policy and example +of Domitian. The emperor himself appeared in the +arena, and all restraint was at an end. Rather, there +was a fury of emulation to copy so great a model, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +“Rome’s proud dames, whose garments swept the +ground,” forgot more than ever their rank and sex, and +were proud, like their lovers and brothers, not merely +to mount the stage in the lascivious costume of nymph +or dryad, but to descend into the blood-stained lists of +the Coliseum and murder each other with sword and +spear. There is something strangely horrible in this +transaction, when we read that it occurred for the first +time in celebration of the games of Flora—the goddess +of flowers and gardens, who, in old times, was worshipped +under the blossomed apple-trees in the little +orchards surrounding each cottage within the walls, +and was propitiated with children’s games and chaplets +hung upon the boughs. But now the loveliest of the +noble daughters of the city lay dead upon the trampled +sand. What was the effect upon the populace of these +extraordinary shows?</p> + +<p>Always stern and cruel, the Roman was now never +satisfied unless with the spectacle of death. Sometimes +in the midst of a play or pantomime the fierce lust of +blood would seize him, and he would cry out for a +combat of gladiators or nobles, who instantly obeyed; +and after the fight was over, and the corpses removed, +the play would go on as if nothing had occurred. The +banners of the empire still continued to bear the initial +letters of the great words—the Senate and people of +Rome. We have now, in this rapid survey, seen what +both those great names have come to—the Senate crawling +at the feet of the emperor, and the people living on +charity and shows. The slaves fared worst of all, for +they were despised by rich and poor. The sated voluptuary +whose property they were sometimes found an +excitement to his jaded spirits by having them tortured +in his sight. They were allowed to die of starvation +when they grew old, unless they were turned to use, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +was done by one of their possessors, Vidius Pollio, who +cast the fattest of his domestics into his fish-pond to feed +his lampreys. The only other classes were the actors +and musicians, the dwarfs and the philosophers. They +contributed by their wit, or their uncouth shape, or their +oracular sentences, to the amusement of their employers, +and were safe. They were licensed characters, and could +say what they chose, protected by the long-drawn countenance +of the stoic, or the comic grimaces of the buffoon. +So early as the time of Nero, the people he tyrannized +and flattered were not less ruthless than himself. In +his cruelty—in his vanity—in his frivolity, and his +entire devotion to the gratification of his passions—he +was a true representative of the men over whom he +ruled. Emperor and subject had even then become +fitted for each other, and flowers, we are credibly told +by the historians, were hung for many years upon his +tomb.</p> + +<p>Humanity itself seemed to be sunk beyond the possibility +of restoration; but we see now how necessary it +was that our nature should reach its lowest point of +depression to give full force to the great reaction which +Christianity introduced. Men were slavishly bending +at the footstool of a despot, trembling for life, bowed +down by fear and misery, when suddenly it was reported +that a great teacher had appeared for a while +upon earth, and declared that all men were equal in the +sight of God, for that God was the Father of all. The +slave heard this in the intervals of his torture—the captive +in his dungeon—the widow and the orphan. To +the poor the gospel, or good news, was preached. It +was this which made the trembling courtiers of the +worst of the emperors slip out noiselessly from the +palace, and hear from Paul of Tarsus or his disciples +the new prospect that was opening on mankind. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> +spread quickly among those oppressed and hopeless +multitudes. The subjection of the Roman empire—its +misery and degradation—were only a means to an end. +The harsher the laws of the tyrant, the more gracious +seemed the words of Christ. The two masters were +plainly set before them, which to choose. And who +could hesitate? One said, “Tremble! suffer! die!” +The other said, “Come unto me, all ye that are weary +and heavy laden, and I will give you rest!”</p> + +<hr class="chap" /></div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +<a name="SECOND_CENTURY" id="SECOND_CENTURY">SECOND CENTURY.</a></h2> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Emperors.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Trajan</span>—(<i>continued.</i>) Third Persecution of the Christians.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">117.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Adrian.</span> Fourth Persecution of the Christians.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">138.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Antoninus Pius.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">161.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Marcus Aurelius.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">180.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Commodus.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">193.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Pertinax</span>—<span class="smcap">Didius</span>, and <span class="smcap">Niger</span>—Defeated by</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">193.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Septimius Severus.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="heading">Authors.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pliny the Younger</span>, <span class="smcap">Plutarch</span>, <span class="smcap">Suetonius</span>, <span class="smcap">Juvenal</span>, <span class="smcap">Arrian</span>, +<span class="smcap">Ælian</span>, <span class="smcap">Ptolemy</span>, (Geographer,) <span class="smcap">Appian</span>, <span class="smcap">Epictetus</span>, <span class="smcap">Pausanias</span>, +<span class="smcap">Galen</span>, (Physician,) <span class="smcap">Athenæus</span>, <span class="smcap">Tertullian</span>, <span class="smcap">Justin Martyr</span>, +<span class="smcap">Tatian</span>, <span class="smcap">Irenæus</span>, <span class="smcap">Athenagoras</span>, <span class="smcap">Theophilus of Antioch</span>, <span class="smcap">Clement +Of Alexandria</span>, <span class="smcap">Marcion</span>, (Heretic.)</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> +<a name="THE_SECOND_CENTURY" id="THE_SECOND_CENTURY">THE SECOND CENTURY.</a></h2> +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="sub-heading">THE GOOD EMPERORS.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">In</span> looking at the second century, we see a total difference +in the expression, though the main features continue +unchanged. There is still the central power at +Rome, the same dependence everywhere else; but the +central power is beneficent and wise. As if tired of the +hereditary rule of succession which had ended in such a +monster as Domitian, the world took refuge in a new +system of appointing its chiefs, and perhaps thought it +a recommendation of each successive emperor that he +had no relationship to the last. We shall accordingly +find that, after this period, the hereditary principle is +excluded. It was remarked that, of the twelve first +Cæsars, only two had died a natural death—for even in +the case of Augustus the arts of the poisoner were suspected—and +those two were Vespasian and Titus, men +who had no claim to such an elevation in right of lofty +birth. Birth, indeed, had ceased to be a recommendation. +All the great names of the Republic had been carefully +rooted out. Few people were inclined to boast of their +ancestry when the proof of their pedigree acted as a sentence +of death; for there was no surer passport to destruction +in the times of the early emperors than a connection +with the Julian line, or descent from a historic family. +No one, therefore, took the trouble to inquire into the +genealogy of Nerva, the old and generous man +who succeeded the monster Domitian. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 96.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>His nomination +to the empire elevated him at once out of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +sphere of these inquiries, for already the same superstitious +reverence surrounded the name of Augustus +which spreads its inviolable sanctity on the throne of +Eastern monarchs. Whoever sits upon that, by whatever +title, or however acquired, is the legitimate and +unquestioned king. No rival, therefore, started up to +contest the position either of Nerva himself, or of the +stranger he nominated to succeed him. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 102.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Men bent in +humble acquiescence when they knew, in the third year +of this century, that their master was named +Trajan,—that he was a Spaniard by birth, and +the best general of Rome. For eighty years after that +date the empire had rest. Life and property were comparatively +secure, and society flowed on peaceably in +deep and well-ascertained channels. A man might have +been born at the end of the reign of Domitian, and die +in extreme old age under the sway of the last of the +Antonines, and never have known of insecurity or oppression—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i-1">“Malice domestic, foreign levy, nothing<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Could touch him farther!”<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>No wonder those agreeable years were considered by +the fond gratitude of the time, and the unavailing regrets +of succeeding generations, the golden age of man. +Nerva, Trajan, Adrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius +Antoninus—these are still great names, and are everywhere +recognised as the most wonderful succession of +sovereigns the world has ever seen. They are still called +the “Good Emperors,” the “Wise Rulers.”</p> + +<p>It is easy, indeed, to be good in comparison with Nero, +and wise in comparison with Claudius; but the effect +of the example of those infamous tyrants made it +doubly difficult to be either good or wise. The world +had become so accustomed to oppression, that it seemed +at first surprised at the change that had taken place.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> +The emperors had to create a knowledge of justice before +their just acts could be appreciated. The same +opposition other men have experienced in introducing +bad and cruel measures was roused by their introduction +of wise and salutary laws. What! no more summary +executions, nor forfeitures of fortunes, nor banishments +to the Danube? All men equal before the dread +tribunal of the imperial judge? The world was surely +coming to an end, if the emperor did not now and then +poison a senator, or stab his brother, or throw half a +dozen courtiers to the beasts! It is likely enough that +some of the younger Romans at first lamented those +days of unlimited license and perpetual excitement; +but in the course of time those wilder spirits must have +died out, and the world gladly acquiesced in an existence +of dull security and uninteresting peace. By the +end of the reign of Trajan the records of the miseries +of the last century must have been studied as curiosities—as +historical students now look back on the extravagances +and horrors of the French Revolution. Fortunately, +men could not look forward to the times, more pitiable +still, when their descendants should fall into greater +sorrows than had been inflicted on mankind by the +worst of the Cæsars, and they enjoyed their present +immunity from suffering without any misgivings about +the future. But a government which does every thing +for a people renders it unable to do any thing for itself. +The subject stood quietly by while the emperor filled all +the offices of the State—guarded him, fed him, clothed +him, treated him like a child, and reduced him at last +to childlike dependence. An unjust proconsul, instead +of being supported and encouraged in his exactions, was +dismissed from his employment and forced to refund +his ill-got gains,—the population, relieved from their +oppressor, saw in his punishment the hand of an avenging<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +Providence. The wakeful eye of the governor in +Rome saw the hostile preparations of a tribe of barbarians +beyond the Danube; and the legions, crossing +the river, dispersed and subdued them before they had +time to devastate the Roman fields. The peaceful +colonist saw, in the suddenness of his deliverance, the +foresight and benevolence of a divinity. No words were +powerful enough to convey the sentiments of admiration +awakened, by such vigour and goodness, in the breast +of a luxurious and effeminate people; and accordingly, +if we look a little closely into the personal attributes of +the five good emperors, we shall see that some part of +their glory is due to the exaggerations of love and gratitude.</p> + +<p>Nerva reigned but sixteen months, and had no time +to do more than display his kindness of disposition, and +to name his successor. This was Trajan, a man who +was not even a Roman by birth, but who was thought +by his patron to have retained, in the distant province +of Spain where he was born, the virtues which had disappeared +in the centre and capital of the empire. The +deficiency of Nerva’s character had been its softness +and want of force. The stern vigilance of Trajan made +ample amends. He was the best-known soldier of his +time, and revived once more the terror of the Roman +arms. He conquered wherever he appeared; but his +warlike impetuosity led him too far. He trod in the +footsteps of Alexander the Great, and advanced farther +eastward than any of the Roman armies had previously +done. But his victories were fruitless: he attached no +new country permanently to the empire, and derives all +his glory now from the excellence of his internal administration. +He began his government by declaring himself +as subordinate to the laws as the meanest of the +people. His wife, Pompeia Plotina, was worthy of such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +a husband, and said, on mounting the steps of the +palace, that she should descend them unaltered from +what she was. The emperor visited his friends on +terms of equality, and had the greatness of mind, generally +deficient in absolute princes, to bestow his confidence +on those who deserved it. Somebody, a member +perhaps of the old police who had made such fortunes +in the time of Domitian by alarming the tyrant with +stories of plots and assassinations, told Trajan one day +to beware of his minister, who intended to murder him +on the first opportunity. “Come again, and tell me +all particulars to-morrow,” said the emperor. In the +mean time he went unbidden and supped with the +accused. He was shaved by his barber—was attended +for a mock illness by his surgeon—bathed in his bath—and +ate his meat and drank his wine. On the following +day the informer came. “Ah!” said Trajan, interrupting +him in his accusation of Surenus, “if Surenus had +wished to kill me, he would have done it last night.”</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 117.</div> + +<p>The emperor died when returning from a distant expedition +in the East, and Pompeia declared that he +had long designated Adrian as his successor. This +evidence was believed, and Adrian, also a Spaniard by +birth, and eminent as a military commander, began his +reign. Trajan had been a general—a conqueror, and +had extended for a time the boundaries of the Roman +power. But Adrian believed the empire was large +enough already. He withdrew the eagles from the half-subdued +provinces, and contented himself with the +natural limits which it was easy to defend. But within +those limits his activity was unexampled. He journeyed +from end to end of his immense domain, and for seventeen +years never rested in one spot. News did not +travel fast in those days—but the emperor did. Long +before the inhabitants of Syria and Egypt heard that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +he had left Rome on an expedition to Britain, he had +rushed through Gaul, crossed the Channel, inquired into +the proceedings of the government officers at York, +given orders for a wall to keep out the Caledonians, (an +attempt which has proved utterly vain at all periods of +English history, down to the present day,) and suddenly +made his appearance among the bewildered dwellers in +Ephesus or Carthage, to call tax-gatherers to order and +to inspect the discipline of his troops. The master’s +eye was everywhere, for nobody knew on what point it +was fixed. And such a master no kingdom has been +able to boast of since. His talents were universal. He +read every thing and forgot nothing. He was a musician, +a poet, a philosopher. He studied medicine and +mineralogy, and plead causes like Cicero, and sang +like a singer at the opera. Perhaps it is difficult to +judge impartially of the qualities of a Roman emperor. +One day he found fault on a point of grammar with a +learned man of the name of Favorinus. Favorinus +could have defended himself and justified his language, +but continued silent. His friends said to him, “Why +didn’t you answer the emperor’s objections?” “Do you +think,” said the sensible grammarian, “I am going to +enter into disputes with a man who commands thirty +legions?” But the greatness of Adrian’s character is, +that he <i>did</i> command those thirty legions. He was +severe and just; and Roman discipline was never more +exact. The result of this was shown on the grand scale +only once during this reign, and that was in the case of +the revolted Jews. We have seen the state to which +their Temple at Jerusalem was reduced by Titus. Fifty +years had now passed, and the passionate love of the +people for their native land had congregated them once +more within their renovated walls, and raised up another +temple on the site of the old. They still expected the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> +Messiah, for the Messiah to them represented vengeance +upon the Romans and triumph over the world. An impostor +of the name of Barcho-chebas led three hundred +thousand of them into the field. They were mad with +national hatred, and inspired with fanatical hope. It +took three years of desperate effort to quell this sedition; +and then Adrian had his revenge. The country +was laid waste. Fifty towns and a thousand villages +were sacked and burned. The population, once more +nearly exhausted by war and famine, furnished slaves, +which were sold all over the East. Jerusalem itself felt +the conqueror’s hatred most. Its name was blotted out—it +was called Ælia Capitolina; and, with ferocious +mockery, over the gate of the new capital of Judea was +affixed the statue of the unclean beast, the abomination +of the Israelite. But nothing could keep the Jews from +visiting the land of so many promises and so much glory. +Whenever they had it in their power, they crept back +from all quarters, if it were only to weep and die amid +the ruins of their former power.</p> + +<p>Trajan and Adrian had now made the world accustomed +to justice in its rulers; and as far as regards their +public conduct, this character is not to be denied. Yet +in their private relations they were not so faultless. +Trajan the great and good was a drunkard. To such a +pitch did he carry this vice, that he gave orders that +after a certain hour of the day none of his commands +were to be obeyed. Adrian was worse: he was regardless +of life; he put men to death for very small offences. +An architect was asked how he liked a certain series of +statues designed by the emperor and ranged in a sitting +attitude round a temple which he had built. The architect +was a humourist, not a courtier. “If the goddesses,” +he said, “take it into their heads to rise, they +will never be able to get out at the door.” A poor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +criticism, and not a good piece of wit, but not bad +enough to justify his being beheaded; yet the answer +cost the poor man his life. As Adrian grew older, he +grew more reckless of the pain he gave. He had a +brother-in-law ninety years of age, and there was a +grandson of the old man aged eighteen. He had them +both executed on proof or suspicion of a conspiracy. +The popular feeling was revolted by the sight of the +mingled blood of two sufferers so nearly related, at the +opposite extremities of life. The old man, just before +he died, protested his innocence, and uttered a revengeful +prayer that Adrian might wish to die and find death +impossible! This imprecation was fulfilled. The emperor +was tortured with disease, and longed for deliverance +in vain. He called round him his physicians, and +priests, and sorcerers, but they could give him no relief. +He begged his slaves to kill him, and stabbed himself +with a dagger; but in spite of all he could not die. +Lingering on, and with no cessation of his pain, he +must have had sad thoughts of the past, and no pleasant +anticipations of the future, if, as we learn from the verses +attributed to him, he believed in a future state. His lines +still remain, but are indebted to Pope, who paraphrased +them, for their Christian spirit and lofty aspiration:—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i-1">“Vital spark of heavenly flame!<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Quit, oh, quit this mortal frame!<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Trembling, hoping, lingering, flying,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Oh, the pain, the bliss of dying!<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Cease, fond nature, cease thy strife,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And let me languish into life!<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i-1">“Hark! they whisper! angels say,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Sister spirit, come away!<br /></span> +<span class="i0">What is this absorbs me quite,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Steals my senses, shuts my sight,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Drowns my spirits, draws my breath?<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Tell me, my soul, can this be death?<br /></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i-1">“The world recedes; it disappears!<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Heaven opens on my eyes! my ears<br /></span> +<span class="i1">With sounds seraphic ring:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Lend, lend your wings! I mount! I fly!<br /></span> +<span class="i0">O Grave! where is thy victory?<br /></span> +<span class="i1">O Death! where is thy sting?”<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>His wish was at last achieved. He died aged sixty-two, +having reigned twenty-one years. In travelling +and building his whole time was spent. Temples, theatres, +bridges—wherever he went, these evidences of his wisdom +or magnificence remained. He persecuted the Christians, +but found persecution a useless proceeding against a sect +who gloried in martyrdom, and whose martyrdoms were +only followed by new conversions. He tried what an +opposite course of conduct would do, and is said to have +intended to erect a temple to Jesus Christ. “Take care +what you do,” said one of his counsellors: “if you +permit an altar to the God of the Christians, those of +the other gods will be deserted.”</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 138.</div> + +<p>But now came to supreme authority the good and +wise Antoninus Pius, who was as blameless in +his private conduct as in his public acts. His +fame extended farther than the Roman arms had ever +reached. Distant kings, in lands of which the names +were scarcely known in the Forum, took him as arbiter +of their differences. The decision of the great man in +Rome gave peace on the banks of the Indus. The barbarians +themselves on the outskirts of his dominions +were restrained by respect for a character so pure and +power so wisely used. An occasional revolt in Britain +was quelled by his lieutenants—an occasional conspiracy +against his authority was caused by the discontent +which turbulent spirits feel when restrained by law. +The conspiracies were repressed, and on one occasion +two of the ringleaders were put to death. The Senate +was for making further inquiry into the plot. “Let us<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +stop here,” said the emperor. “I do not wish to find +out how many people I have displeased.” Some stories +are told of him, which show how little he affected the +state of a despotic ruler. A pedantic philosopher at +Smyrna, of the name of Polemo, returned from a +journey at a late hour, and found the proconsul of +Rome lodged in his house. This proconsul was Antonine, +who at that time had been appointed to the office +by Adrian. Instead of being honoured by such a guest, +the philosopher stormed and raged, and made so much +noise, that in the middle of the night the sleepless proconsul +left the house and found quarters elsewhere. +When years passed on, and Antonine was on the throne, +Polemo had the audacity to present himself as an old +acquaintance. “Ha! I remember him,” said the emperor: +“let him have a room in the palace, but don’t let +him leave it night or day.” The imprisonment was not +long, for we find the same Polemo hero of another anecdote +during this visit to Rome. He hissed a performer in +the theatre, and stamped and screeched, and made such +a disturbance that the unfortunate actor had to leave +the stage. He complained of Polemo to the emperor. +“Polemo!” exclaimed Antonine; “he forced you off the +stage in the middle of the day, but he drove me from his +house in the middle of the night, and yet I never appealed.” +It would be pleasant if we could learn that +Polemo did not get off so easily. But the twenty-two +years of this reign of mildness and probity were brought +to a close, and Marcus Aurelius succeeded in 161.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 161</div> + +<p>Marcus Aurelius did no dishonour to the discernment +of his friend and adoptive father Antoninus Pius. +Studying philosophy and practising self-command, +he emulated and surpassed the virtues of the self-denying +leaders of his sect, and only broke through the rule he +imposed on himself of clemency and mildness, when he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +found philosophy in danger of being counted a vain deceit, +and the active duties of human brotherhood preferred +to the theoretic rhapsodies on the same subject +with which his works were filled. Times began to +change. Men were dissatisfied with the unsubstantial +dream of Platonist and Stoic. There were symptoms +of an approaching alteration in human affairs, which +perplexed the thoughtful and gave promise of impunity +to the bad. Perhaps a man who, clothed in the imperial +purple, bestowed so much study on the intellectual +niceties of the Sophists, and endeavoured to keep his +mind in a fit state for abstract speculation by scourging +and starving his body, was not so fitted for the approaching +crisis as a rougher and less contemplative nature +would have been. Britain was in commotion, there were +tumults on the Rhine, and in Armenia the Parthians +cut the Roman legions to pieces. And scarcely were +those troubles settled and punished, when a worse +calamity befell the Roman empire. Its inviolability became +a boast of the past. The fearful passions for conquest +and rapine of the border-barbarians were roused. +Barbaric cohorts encamped on the fields of Italy, and +the hosts of wild men from the forests of the North pillaged +the heaped-up treasures of the garden of the world. +The emperor flew to the scene of danger, but the fatal +word had been said. Italy was accessible from the Alps +and from the sea; and, though a bloody defeat at Aquileia +flung back the invaders, disordered and dispirited, over +the mountains they had descended with such hopes, the +struggle was but begun. The barbarians felt their +power, and the old institutions of Rome were insufficient +to resist future attacks. But to the aid of the old +Roman institutions a new institution came, an institution +which was destined to repel the barbarians by overcoming +barbarism itself, and save the dignity of Rome<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> +by giving it the protection of the Cross. But at present—that +is, during the reign of the philosophic Marcus +Aurelius—a persecution raged against the Christians +which seemed to render hopeless all chance of their +success. The mild laws of Trajan and Adrian, and the +favourable decrees of Antoninus Pius, were set aside by +the contemptuous enmity of this explorer of the mysterious +heights of virtue, which occasionally carried him +out of sight of the lower but more important duties of +life. An unsocial tribe the Christians were, who rigorously +shut their eyes to the beauties of abstract perfection, +and preferred the plain orders of the gospel to the +most ambitious periods of the emperor. But the persecution +of a sect so small and so obscure as the Christian +was at that time, is scarcely perceptible as a diminution +of the sum of human happiness secured to the +world by the gentleness and equity which regulated all +his actions. Here is an example of the way in which he +treated rebels against his authority. An insurrection +broke out in Syria and the East, headed by a pretended +descendant of the patriot Cassius, who had conspired +against Julius Cæsar. The emperor hurried to meet +him—some say to resign the empire into his hands, to +prevent the effusion of blood; but the usurper died in +an obscure commotion, and nothing was left but to take +vengeance on his adherents. This is the letter the conqueror +wrote to the Senate:—“I beseech you, conscript +Fathers! not to punish the guilty with too much rigour. +Let no Senator be put to death. Let the banished return +to their country. I wish I could give back their +lives to those who have died in this quarrel. Revenge +is unworthy of an emperor. You will pardon, therefore, +the children of Cassius, his son-in-law, and his wife. +Pardon, did I say? Ah! what crime have they committed? +Let them live in safety, let them retain all +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> +that Cassius possessed. Let them live in whatever +place they choose, to be a monument of your clemency +and mine.”</p> + +<p>In such hands as these the fortune of mankind was +safe. A pity that the father’s feelings got the better of +his judgment in the choice of his successor. It is the +one blot on his otherwise perfect disinterestedness. In +dying, with such a monster as Commodus ready to leap +into his seat, he must have felt how inexpressibly valuable +his life would be to the Roman people. He perhaps +saw the danger to which he exposed the world; for he +committed his son to the care of his wisest counsellors, +and begged him to continue the same course of government +he had pursued. Perhaps he was tired of life, perhaps +he sought refuge in his self-denying philosophy from +the prospect he saw before him of a state of perpetual +struggle and eventual overthrow. When the Tribune +came for the last time to ask the watchword of the day, +“Go to the rising sun,” he said; “for me, I am just +going to set.”</p> + +<p>And here the history of the Second Century should +close. It is painful to go back again to the hideous +scenes of anarchy and crime from which we have been +delivered so long. What must the sage counsellors, the +chosen companions and equals in age of the Antonines, +have thought when all at once the face of affairs, which +they must have believed eternal, was changed?—when +the noblest and wisest in the land were again thrown +heedlessly into the arena without trial?—when spies +watched every meal, and the ferocious murderer on the +throne seemed to gloat over the struggles of his victims? +Yet, if they had reflected on the inevitable course of +events, they must have seen that a government depending +on the character of one man could never be +relied on. Where, indeed, could any element of security<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +be found? The very ground-work of society was overthrown. +There was no independent body erect amid +the general prostration at the footstool of the emperor. +Local self-government had ceased except in name. All +the towns which hitherto had been subordinate to Rome, +but endowed at the same time with privileges which +were worth defending, had been absorbed into the great +whirlpool of imperial centralization, and were admitted +to the rights of Roman citizenship,—now of little value, +since it embraced every quarter of the empire. Jupiter +and Juno, and the herd of effete gods and goddesses, +if they had ever held any practical influence over the +minds of men, had long sunk into contempt, except in +so far as their rich establishments were defended by +persons interested in their maintenance, and the processions +and gaudy display of a foul and meretricious worship +were pleasing to the depraved taste of the mob. +But the religious principle, as a motive of action, or as +a point of combination, was at an end. Augurs were +still appointed, and laughed at the uselessness of their +office; oracles were still uttered, and ridiculed as the +offspring of ignorance and imposture; conflicting deities +fought for pre-eminence, or compromised their differences +by an amalgamation of their altars, and perhaps a division +of their estates. It was against this state of society +the early Fathers directed their warnings and denunciations. +The world did certainly lie in darkness, and it +was indispensable to warn the followers of Christ not +to be conformed to the fashion of that fleeting time. +Some, to escape the contagion of this miserable condition, +when men were without hope, and without even +the wretched consolation which a belief in a false god +would have given them, fled to the wilds and caves. +Hermits escaped equally the perils of sin and the hostility +of the heathen. Believers were exhorted to flee<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> +from contamination, and some took the words in their +literal meaning. But not all. Many remained, and +fought the good fight in the front of the battle, as +became the soldiers of the cross. In the midst of the +anarchy and degradation which characterized the last +years of the century, a society was surely and steadily +advancing towards its full development, bound by rules +in the midst of the helplessness of external law, and +combined by strong faith, in a world of utter unbelief—an +empire within an empire—soon to be the only specimen +left either of government or mutual obligation, and +finally to absorb into its fresh and still-spreading organization +the withered and impotent authority which had +at first seen in it its enemy and destroyer, and found +it at last its refuge and support. Yet at this very time +the empire had never appeared so strong. By a stroke +of policy, which the event proved to be injudicious, +Marcus Aurelius, in the hope of diminishing the number +of his enemies, had converted many thousands of the +barbarians into his subjects. They had settlements +assigned them within the charmed ring. What they +had not been able to obtain by the sword was now +assured to them by treaty. But the unity of the Roman +empire by this means was destroyed. Men were admitted +within the citadel who had no reverence implanted +in them from their earliest years for the majesty +of the Roman name. They saw the riches contained in +the stronghold, and were only anxious to open the gates +to their countrymen who were still outside the walls.</p> + +<p>But before we enter on the downward course, and +since we are now arrived at the period of the greatest +apparent force and extent of the Roman empire, let us +see what it consisted of, and what was the real amount +of its power.</p> + +<p>Viewed in comparison with some of the monarchies<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +of the present day, neither its extent of territory, nor +amount of population, nor number of soldiers, is very +surprising. The Queen of England reigns over more +subjects, and commands far mightier fleets and armies, +than any of the Roman emperors. The empire of +Russia is more extensive, and yet the historians of a few +generations ago are lost in admiration of the power of +Rome. The whole military force of the empire amounted +to four hundred and fifty thousand men. The total +number of vessels did not exceed a thousand. But see +what were the advantages Rome possessed in the compactness +of its territory and the unity of its government. +The great Mediterranean Sea, peopled and cultivated on +both its shores, was but a peaceful lake, on which the +Roman galley had no enemy to fear, and the merchant-ship +dreaded nothing but the winds and waves. There +were no fortresses to be garrisoned on what are now the +boundaries of jealous or hostile kingdoms. If the great +circuit of the Roman State could be protected from barbarian +inroads, the internal defence of all that vast enclosure +could be left to the civil power. If the Black +Sea and the Sea of Azoff could be kept clear of piratical +adventurers, the broad highway of the Mediterranean +was safe. A squadron near Gibraltar, a squadron at the +Dardanelles, and the tribes which might possibly venture +in from the ocean—the tribes which, slipping down from +the Don or the Dnieper, might thread their way through +the Hellespont and emerge into the Egean—were caught +at their first appearance; and when the wisdom of the +Romans had guarded the mouths of the Danube from +the descent, in canoe or coracle, of the wild settlers on +its upper banks, the peace and commerce of the whole +empire were secured. With modern Europe the case is +very different. There are boundaries to be guarded +which occupy more soldiers than the territories are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> +worth. Lines are arbitrarily fixed across the centre of +a plain, or along the summit of a mountain, which it is +a case of war to pass. Belgium defends her flats with a +hundred thousand men, and the marshes of Holland are +secured by sixty thousand Dutch. The State of Dessau +in Germany, threatens its neighbours with fifteen hundred +soldiers, while Reuss guards its dignity and independence +with three hundred infantry and fifty horse. +But the Great Powers, as they are called, take away +from the peaceable and remunerative employments of +trade or agriculture an amount of labour which would +be an incalculable increase to the riches and happiness +of the world. The aggregate soldiery of Europe is upwards +of five millions of men,—just eleven times the +largest calculation of the Roman legions. The ships of +Europe—to the smaller of which the greatest galleys of +the ancient world would scarcely serve as tenders—amount +to 2113. The number of guns they carry, against +which there is nothing we can take as a measure of +value in ancient warfare, but which are now the greatest +and surest criterions of military power, amounts to +45,367. But this does not give so clear a view of the +alteration in relative power as is yielded by an inspection +of some of the separate items. Gaul, included +within the Rhine, was kept in order by six or seven +legions. The French empire has on foot an army of six +hundred and fifty thousand men, and a fleet of four hundred +sail. Britain, which was garrisoned by thirty +thousand men, had, in 1855, an army at home and abroad +of six hundred and sixty thousand men, and a fleet of +five hundred and ninety-one ships of war, with an armament +of seventeen thousand guns. The disjointed States +which now constitute the Empire of Austria, and which +occupied eight legions in their defence, are now in possession +of an army of six hundred thousand men; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +Prussia, whose array exceeds half a million of soldiers, +was unheard of except in the discussions of geographers.<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a></p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 181.</div> + +<p>With the death of the excellent Marcus Aurelius the +golden age came to a close. Commodus sat on +the throne, and renewed the wildest atrocities +of the previous century. Nero was not more cruel—<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>Domitian +was not so reckless of human life. He fought +in the arena against weakly-armed adversaries, and +slew them without remorse. He polluted the whole city +with blood, and made money by selling permissions to +murder. Thirteen years exhausted the patience of the +world, and a justifiable assassination put an end to his life. +There was an old man of the name of Pertinax, originally +a nickname derived from his obstinate or pertinacious +disposition, who now made his appearance on the throne +and perished in three months. It chanced that a certain +rich man of the name of Didius was giving a supper the +night of the murder to some friends. The dishes were +rich, and the wine delicious. Inspired by the good cheer, +the guests said, “Why don’t you buy the empire? The +soldiers have proclaimed that they will give it to the +highest bidder.” Didius knew the amount of his treasure, +and was ambitious: he got up from table and hurried to +the Prætorian camp. On the way he met the mutilated +body of the murdered Pertinax, dragged through the +streets with savage exultation. Nothing daunted, he +arrived at the soldiers’ tents. Another had been before +him—Sulpician, the father-in-law and friend of the late +emperor. A bribe had been offered to each soldier, so +large that they were about to conclude the bargain; but +Didius bade many sesterces more. The greedy soldiery +looked from one to the other, and shouted with delight, +as each new advance was made. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 193.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>At last Sulpician was +silent, and Didius had purchased the Roman world +at the price of upwards of £200 to each soldier +of the Prætorian guard. He entered the palace in state, +and concluded the supper, which had been interrupted +at his own house, on the viands prepared for Pertinax. +But the excitement of the auction-room was too pleasant +to be left to the troops in Rome. Offers were made to +the legions in all the provinces, and Didius was threatened<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +on every side. Even the distant garrisons of Britain +named a candidate for the throne; and Claudius Albinus +assumed the imperial purple, and crossed over into Gaul. +More irritated still, the army in Syria elected its general, +Pescennius Niger, emperor, and he prepared to dispute +the prize; but quietly, steadily, with stern face and unrelenting +heart, advancing from province to province, +keeping his forces in strict subjection, and laying claim +to supreme authority by the mere strength of his indomitable +will, came forward Septimius Severus, and +both the pretenders saw that their fate was sealed. +Illyria and Gaul recognised his title at once. Albinus +was happy to accept from him the subordinate title of +Cæsar, and to rule as his lieutenant. Didius, whose bargain +turned out rather ill, besought him to be content +with half the empire. Severus slew the messengers +who brought this proposition, and advanced in grim +silence. The Senate assembled, and, by way of a +pleasant reception for the Illyrian chief, requested +Didius to prepare for death. The executioners found +him clinging to life with unmanly tenacity, and killed +him when he had reigned but seventy days. One other +competitor remained, the general of the Syrian army—the +closest friend of Severus, but now separated from +him by the great temptation of an empire in dispute. +This was Niger, from whom an obstinate resistance was +expected, as he was equally famous for his courage and +his skill. But fortune was on the side of Severus. Niger +was conquered after a short struggle, and his head presented +to the victor. Was Albinus still to live, and approach +so near the throne as to have the rank of Cæsar? +Assassins were employed to murder him, but he escaped +their assault. The treachery of Severus brought many +supporters to his rival. The Roman armies were ranged +in hostile camps. Severus again was fortunate, and Albinus,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> +dashing towards him to engage in combat, was +slain before his eyes. He watched his dying agonies +for some time, and then forced his horse to trample on +the corpse. A man of harsh, implacable nature—not so +much cruel as impenetrable to human feelings, and perhaps +forming a just estimate of the favourable effect +upon his fortunes of a disposition so calm, and yet so +relentless. The Prætorians found they had appointed +their master, and put the sword into his hand. He used +it without remorse. He terrified the boldest with his +imperturbable stillness; he summoned the seditious +soldiery to wait on him at his camp. They were to +come without arms, without their military dress, almost +like suppliants, certainly not like the ferocious libertines +they had been when they had sold the empire at +the highest price. “Whoever of you wishes to live,” +said Severus, frowning coldly, “will depart from this, +and never come within thirty leagues of Rome. Take +their horses,” he added to the other troops who had +surrounded the Prætorians, “take their accoutrements, +and chase them out of my sight.” Did the Senate +receive a milder treatment? On sending them the head +of Albinus, he had written to the Conscript Fathers +alarming them with the most dreadful threats. And +now the time of execution had come. He made them +an oration in praise of the proscriptions of Marius and +Sylla, and forced them to deify the tyrant Commodus, +who had hated them all his life. He then gave a signal +to his train, and the streets ran with blood. All who +had borne high office, all who were of distinguished +birth, all who were famous for their wealth or popular +with the citizens, were put to death. He crossed over +to England and repressed a sedition there. His son +Caracalla accompanied him, and commenced his career +of warlike ardour and frightful ferocity, which can only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +be explained on the ground of his being mad. He tried +even to murder his father, in open day, in the sight of +the soldiers. He was stealing upon the old man, when +a cry from the legion made him turn round. His inflexible +eye fell upon Caracalla—the sword dropped from +his unfilial hand—and dreadful anticipations of vengeance +filled the assembly. The son was pardoned, but his accomplices, +whether truly or falsely accused, perished by +cruel deaths. At last the emperor felt his end approach. +He summoned his sons Caracalla and Geta into his presence, +recommended them to live in unity, and ended by +the advice which has become the standing maxim of +military despots, “Be generous to the soldiers, and +trample on all beside.”</p> + +<p>With this hideous incarnation of unpitying firmness +on the throne—hopeless of the future, and with dangers +accumulating on every side, the Second Century came to +an end, leaving the amazing contrast between its miserable +close and the long period of its prosperity by which +it will be remembered in all succeeding time.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +<a name="THIRD_CENTURY" id="THIRD_CENTURY">THIRD CENTURY.</a></h2> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Emperors.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="left"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Septimius Severus</span>—(<i>continued.</i>) Fifth Persecution of the Christians.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">211.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Caracalla</span> and <span class="smcap">Geta</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">217.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Macrinus.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">218.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Heliogabalus.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">222.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Alexander Severus.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">235.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Maximin.</span> Sixth Persecution.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">238.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Maximus</span> and <span class="smcap">Balbinus</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">238.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Gordian.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">244.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Philip the Arabian.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">249.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Decius.</span> Seventh Persecution.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">251.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Vibius.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">251.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Gallus.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">254.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Valerian.</span> Eighth Persecution.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">260.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Gallien.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">268.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Claudius the Second.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">270.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Aurelian.</span> Ninth Persecution.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">275.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Tacitus.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">276.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Florian.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">277.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Probus.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">278.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Carus.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">278.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Carinus</span> and <span class="smcap">Numerian</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">284.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Diocletian</span> and <span class="smcap">Maximian</span>. Tenth and Last Persecution.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="heading">Authors.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Clement of Alexandria</span>, <span class="smcap">Dion Cassius</span>, <span class="smcap">Origen</span>, <span class="smcap">Cyprian</span>, +<span class="smcap">Plotinus</span>, <span class="smcap">Longinus</span>, <span class="smcap">Hippolitus Portuensis</span>, <span class="smcap">Julius Africanus +Celsus</span>, <span class="smcap">Origen</span>.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> +<a name="THE_THIRD_CENTURY" id="THE_THIRD_CENTURY">THE THIRD CENTURY.</a></h2> +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="sub-heading">ANARCHY AND CONFUSION — GROWTH OF THE CHRISTIAN +CHURCH.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">We</span> are now in the twelfth year of the Third Century. +Septimius Severus has died at York, and Caracalla is let +loose like a famished tiger upon Rome. He invites his +brother Geta to meet him to settle some family feud in +the apartment of their mother, and stabs him in her +arms. The rest of his reign is worthy of this beginning, +and it would be fatiguing and perplexing to the memory +to record his other acts. Fortunately it is not required; +nor is it necessary to follow minutely the course of his +successors. What we require is only a general view of +the proceedings of this century, and that can be gained +without wading through all the blood and horrors with +which the throne of the world is surrounded. Conclusive +evidence was obtained in this century that the +organization of Roman government was defective in +securing the first necessities of civilized life. When we +talk of civilization, we are too apt to limit the meaning +of the word to its mere embellishments, such as arts and +sciences; but the true distinction between it and barbarism +is, that the one presents a state of society under +the protection of just and well-administered law, and +the other is left to the chance government of brute force. +There was now great wealth in Rome—great luxury—a +high admiration of painting, poetry, and sculpture—much +learning, and probably infinite refinement of +manners and address. But it was not a civilized state.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> +Life was of no value—property was not secure. A +series of madmen seized supreme authority, and overthrew +all the distinctions between right and wrong. +Murder was legalized, and rapine openly encouraged. +It is a sort of satisfaction to perceive that few of those +atrocious malefactors escaped altogether the punishment +of their crimes. If Caracalla slays his brother and +orders a peaceable province to be destroyed, there is a +Macrinus at hand to put the monster to death. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 218.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>But +Macrinus, relying on the goodness of his intentions, +neglects the soldiery, and is supplanted by +a boy of seventeen—so handsome that he won the admiration +of the rudest of the legionaries, and so gentle +and captivating in his manners that he strengthened +the effect his beauty had produced. He was priest of +the Temple of the Sun at Emesa in Phœnicia; and by +the arts of his grandmother, who was sister to one of +the former empresses, and the report that she cunningly +spread abroad that he was the son of their +favourite Caracalla, the affection of the dissolute soldiery +knew no bounds. Macrinus was soon slaughtered, and +the long-haired priest of Baal seated on the throne of +the Cæsars, under the name of Heliogabalus. As might +be expected, the sudden alteration in his fortunes was +fatal to his character. All the excesses of his predecessors +were surpassed. His extravagance rapidly exhausted +the resources of the empire. His floors were +spread with gold-dust. His dresses, jewels, and golden +ornaments were never worn twice, but went to his +slaves and parasites. He created his grandmother a +member of the Senate, with rank next after the consuls; +and established a rival Senate, composed of ladies, presided +over by his mother. Their jurisdiction was not +very hurtful to the State, for it only extended to dresses +and precedence of ranks, and the etiquette to be observed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> +in visiting each other. But the evil dispositions of the +emperor were shown in other ways. He had a cousin of +the name of Alexander, and entertained an unbounded +jealousy of his popularity with the soldiers. Attempts +at poison and direct assassination were resorted to in +vain. The public sympathy began to rise in his favour. +The Prætorians formally took him under their protection; +and when Heliogabalus, reckless of their menaces, +again attempted the life of Alexander, the troops revolted, +proclaimed death to the infatuated emperor, and +slew him and his mother at the same time.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 222.</div> + +<p>Alexander was now enthroned—a youth of sixteen; +gifted with higher qualities than the debased +century in which he lived could altogether appreciate. +But the origin of his noblest sentiments is +traced to the teaching he had received from his mother, +in which the precepts of Christianity were not omitted. +When he appointed the governor of a province, he published +his name some time before, and requested if any +one knew of a disqualification, to have it sent in for his +consideration. “It is thus the Christians appoint their +pastors,” he said, “and I will do the same with my representatives.” +When his justice, moderation, and equity +were fully recognised, the beauty of the quotation, which +was continually in his mouth, was admired by all, +even though they were ignorant of the book it came +from: “Do unto others as you would that they should +do unto you.” He trusted the wisest of his counsellors, +the great legalists of the empire, with the introduction +of new laws to curb the wickedness of the time. But +the multiplicity of laws proves the decline of states. +In the ancient Rome of the kings and earlier consuls, +the statutes were contained in forty decisions, which +were afterwards enlarged into the laws of the Twelve +Tables, consisting of one hundred and fifty texts. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> +profligacy of some emperors, the vanity of others, had +loaded the statute-book with an innumerable mass of +edicts, senatus-consultums, prætorial rescripts, and customary +laws. It was impossible to extract order or +regularity from such a chaos of conflicting rules. The +great work was left for a later prince; at present we +can only praise the goodness of the emperor’s intention. +But Alexander, justly called Severus, from the simplicity +of his life and manners, has held the throne too +long. The Prætorians have been thirteen years without +the donation consequent on a new accession.</p> + +<p>Among the favourite leaders selected by Alexander +for their military qualifications was one Maximin, a +Thracian peasant, of whose strength and stature incredible +things are told. He was upwards of eight feet high, +could tire down a horse at the gallop on foot, could +break its leg by a blow of his hand, could overthrow +thirty wrestlers without drawing breath, and maintained +this prodigious force by eating forty pounds of meat, +and drinking an amphora and a half, or twelve quarts, +of wine. This giant had the bravery for which his +countrymen the Goths have always been celebrated. +He rose to high rank in the Roman service; and when +at last nothing seemed to stand between him and the +throne but his patron and benefactor, ambition blinded +him to every thing but his own advancement. He murdered +the wise and generous Alexander, and presented +for the first time in history the spectacle of a barbarian +master of the Roman world. Other emperors had been +born in distant portions of the empire; an African had +trampled on Roman greatness in the person of Septimius +Severus; a Phœnician priest had disgraced the +purple in the person of Heliogabalus; Africa, however, +was a Roman province, and Emesa a Roman town. But +here sat the colossal representative of the terrible Goths<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> +of Thrace, speaking a language half Getic, half Latin, +which no one could easily understand; fierce, haughty, +and revengeful, and cherishing a ferocious hatred of the +subjects who trembled before him—a hatred probably +implanted in him in his childhood by the patriotic songs +with which the warriors of his tribe kept alive their +enmity and contempt for the Roman name. The Roman +name had indeed by this time lost all its authority. The +army, recruited from all parts of the empire, and including +a great number of barbarians in its ranks, was +no longer a bulwark against foreign invasion. Maximin, +bestowing the chief commands on Pannonians and other +mercenaries, treated the empire as a conquered country. +He seized on all the wealth he could discover—melted +all the golden statues, as valuable from their artistic +beauty as for the metal of which they were composed—and +was threatening an approach to Rome to exterminate +the Senate and sack the devoted town. In this +extremity the Senate resumed its long-forgotten power, +and named as emperors two men of the name of Gordian—father +and son—with instructions “to resist the +enemy.” But father and son perished in a few weeks, +and still the terrible Goth came on. His son, a giant +like himself, but beautiful as the colossal statue of a +young Apollo, shared in all the feelings of his father. +Terrified at its approaching doom, the Senate once more +nominated two men to the purple, Maximus and Balbinus: +Balbinus, the favourite, perhaps, of the aristocracy, +by the descent he claimed from an illustrious +ancestry; while Maximus recommended himself to the +now perverted taste of the commonalty by having been +a carter. Neither was popular with the army; and, to +please the soldiers, a son or nephew of the younger +Gordian was associated with them on the throne. But +nothing could have resisted the infuriated legions of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> +gigantic Maximin; they were marching with wonderful +expedition towards their revenge. At Aquileia they +met an opposition; the town shut its gates and manned +its walls, for it knew what would be the fate of a city +given up to the tender mercies of the Goths. Meanwhile +the approach of the destroyer produced great +agitation in Rome. The people rose upon the Prætorians, +and enlisted the gladiators on their side. Many +thousands were slain, and at last a peace was made by +the intercession of the youthful Gordian. Glad of the +cessation of this civic tumult, the population of Rome +betook itself to the theatres and shows. Suddenly, while +the games were going on, it was announced that the +army before Aquileia had mutinied and that both the +Maximins were slain. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 235.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>All at once the amphitheatre +was emptied; by an impulse of grateful +piety, the emperors and people hurried into the temples +of the gods, and offered up thanks for their deliverance. +The wretched people were premature in their rejoicing. +In less than three months the spoiled Prætorians were +offended with the precaution taken by the emperors in +surrounding themselves with German guards. They +assaulted the palace, and put Maximus and Balbinus +to death. Gordian the Third was now sole emperor, +and the final struggle with the barbarians drew nearer +and nearer.</p> + +<p>Constantly crossing the frontiers, and willingly received +in the Roman ranks, the communities who had +been long settled on the Roman confines were not the +utterly uncultivated tribes which their name would seem +to denote. There was a conterminous civilization which +made the two peoples scarcely distinguishable at their +point of contact, but which died off as the distance +from the Roman line increased. Thus, an original settler +on the eastern bank of the Rhine was probably as cultivated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +and intelligent as a Roman colonist on the other +side; but farther up, at the Weser and the Elbe, the old +ferocity and roughness remained. Fresh importations +from the unknown East were continually taking place; +the dwellers in the plains of Pannonia, now habituated +to pasturage and trade, found safety from the hordes +which pressed upon them from their own original settlements +beyond the Caucasus, by crossing the boundary +river; and by this means the banks were held by cognate +but hostile peoples, who could, however, easily be reconciled +by a joint expedition against Rome. New combinations +had taken place in the interior of the great +expanses not included in the Roman limits. The Germans +were no longer the natural enemies of the empire. +They furnished many soldiers for its defence, and several +chiefs to command its forces. But all round the external +circuit of those half-conciliated tribes rose up vast confederacies +of warlike nations. There were Cheruski, and +Sicambri, and Attuarians, and Bruttuarians, and Catti, +all regularly enrolled under the name of “Franks,” or +the brave. The Sarmatians or Sclaves performed the +same part on the northeastern frontier; and we have +already seen that the irresistible Goths had found their +way, one by one, across the boundary, and cleared the +path for their successors. The old enemies of Rome on +the extreme east, the Parthians, had fallen under the +power of a renovated mountain-race, and of a king, who +founded the great dynasty of the Sassanides, and claimed +the restoration of Egypt and Armenia as ancient dependencies +of the Persian crown. To resist all these, +there was, in the year 241, only a gentle-tempered youth, +dressed in the purple which had so lost its original grandeur, +and relying for his guidance on the wisdom of his +tutors, and for his life on the forbearance of the Prætorians. +The tutors were wise and just, and victory at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> +first gave some sort of dignity to the reign of Gordian. +<span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 244.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>The Franks were conquered at Mayence; but Gordian, +three years after, was murdered in the East; and +Philip, an Arabian, whose father had been a +robber of the desert, was acknowledged emperor by +senate and army. Treachery, ambition, and murder +pursued their course. There was no succession to the +throne. Sometimes one general, luckier or wiser than +the rest, appeared the sole governor of the State. At +other times there were numberless rivals all claiming +the empire and threatening vengeance on their opponents. +Yet amidst this tumult of undistinguishable +pretenders, fortune placed at the head of affairs some +of the best and greatest men whom the Roman world +ever produced. There was Valerian, whom all parties +agreed in considering the most virtuous and enlightened +man of his time. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 253.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Scarcely any opposition +was made to his promotion; and yet, with all his +good qualities, he was the man to whom Rome owed the +greatest degradation it had yet sustained. He was +taken prisoner by Sapor, the Persian king, and condemned, +with other captive monarchs, to draw the car +of his conqueror. No offers of ransom could deliver the +brave and unfortunate prince. He died amid his deriding +enemies, who hung up his skin as an offering to +their gods. Then, after some years, in which there were +twenty emperors at one time, with army drawn up +against army, and cities delivered to massacre and rapine +by all parties in turn, there arose one of the strong +minds which make themselves felt throughout a whole +period, and arrest for a while the downward course of +states. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 276.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>The emperor Probus, son of a man who +had originally been a gardener, had distinguished +himself under Aurelian, the conqueror of Palmyra, and, +having survived all his competitors, had time to devote<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> +himself to the restoration of discipline and the introduction +of purer laws. His victories over the encroaching +barbarians were decided, but ineffectual. New myriads +still pressed forward to take the place of the slain. On +one occasion he crossed the Rhine in pursuit of the revolted +Germans, overtook them at the Necker, and +killed in battle four hundred thousand men. Nine kings +threw themselves at the emperor’s feet. Many thousand +barbarians enlisted in the Roman army. Sixty great +cities were taken, and made offerings of golden crowns. +The whole country was laid waste. “There was nothing +left,” he boasted to the Senate, “but bare fields, as if +they had never been cultivated.” So much the worse +for the Romans. The barbarians looked with keener +eyes across the river at the rich lands which had never +been ravaged, and sent messages to all the tribes in the +distant forests, that, having no occasion for pruning-hooks, +they had turned them into swords. But Probus +showed a still more doubtful policy in other quarters. +When he conquered the Vandals and Burgundians, he +sent their warriors to keep the Caledonians in subjection +on the Tyne. The Britons he transported to Mœsia or +Greece. What intermixtures of race may have arisen +from these transplantations it is impossible to say; but +the one feeling was common to all the barbarians, that +Rome was weak and they were strong. He settled a +large detachment of Franks on the shores of the Black +Sea; and of these an almost incredible but well-authenticated +story is told. They seized or built themselves +boats. They swept through the Dardanelles, and ravaged +the isles of Greece. They pursued their piratical career +down the Mediterranean, passed the pillars of Hercules +into the Great Sea, and, rounding Spain and France, rowed +up the Elbe into the midst of their astonished countrymen, +who had long given them up for dead. A fatal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +adventure this for the safety of the Roman shores; for +there were the wild fishermen of Friesland, and the +audacious Angles of Schleswig and Holstein, who heard +of this strange exploit, and saw that no coast was too +distant to be reached by their oar and sail. But if these +forced settlements of barbarians on Roman soil were impolitic, +the generous Probus did not feel their bad effect. +His warlike qualities awed his foes, and his inflexible +justice was appreciated by the hardy warriors of the +North, who had not yet sunk under the debasing civilization +of Rome. In Asia his arms were attended with +equal success. He subdued the Persians, and extended +his conquests into Ethiopia and the farthest regions of +the East, bringing back some of its conquered natives to +swell the triumph at Rome and terrify the citizens with +their strange and hideous appearance. But Probus himself +must yield to the law which regulated the fate +of Roman emperors. He died by treachery and the +sword. All that the empire could do was to join in the +epitaph pronounced over him by the barbarians, “Here +lies the emperor Probus, whose life and actions corresponded +to his name.”</p> + +<p>Three or four more fantastic figures, “which the likeness +of a kingly crown have on,” pass before our eyes, +and at last we observe the powerful and substantial form +of Diocletian, and feel once more we have to do +with a real man. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 284.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>A Druidess, we are told, had +prophesied that he should attain his highest wish if he +killed a wild boar. In all his hunting expeditions he +was constantly on the look-out, spear in hand, for an encounter +with the long-tusked monster. Unluckily for a +man who had offended Diocletian before, and who had +basely murdered his predecessor, his name was Aper; +and unluckily, also, <i>aper</i> is Latin for a boar. This fact +will perhaps be thought to account for the prophecy. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> +accounts, at all events, for its fulfilment; for, the wretched +Aper being led before the throne, Diocletian descended +the steps and plunged a dagger into his chest, exclaiming, +“I have killed the wild boar of the prediction.” +This is a painful example of how unlucky it is to have +a name that can be punned upon. Determined to secure +the support of what he thought the strongest body in +the State, he gratified the priests by the severest of all +the many persecutions to which the Christians had been +exposed. By way of further showing his adhesion to +the old faith, he solemnly assumed the name of Jove, +and bestowed on his partner on the throne the inferior +title of Hercules. In spite of these truculent and absurd +proceedings, Diocletian was not altogether destitute of +the softer feelings. The friend he associated with him +on the throne—dividing the empire between them as too +large a burden for one to sustain—was called Maximian. +They had both originally been slaves, and had neither +of them received a liberal education. Yet they protected +the arts, they encouraged literature, and were the +patrons of modest merit wherever it could be found. +They each adopted a Cæsar, or lieutenant of the empire, +and hoped that, by a legal division of duties among four, +the ambition of their generals would be prevented. But +the limits of the empire were too extended even for the +vigilance of them all. In Britain, Carausius raised the +standard of revolt, giving it the noble name of national +independence; and, with the instinctive wisdom which +has been the safeguard of our island ever since, he +rested his whole chance of success upon his fleet. Invasion +was rendered impossible by the care with which he +guarded the shore, and it is not inconceivable that even +at that early time the maritime career of Britain might +have been begun and maintained, if treason, as usual, +had not cut short the efforts of Carausius, who was soon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +after murdered by his friend Allectus. The subdivision +of the empire was a successful experiment as regarded +its external safety, but within, it was the cause of bitter +complaining. There were four sumptuous courts to be +maintained, and four imperial armies to be paid. Taxes +rose, and allegiance waxed cold. The Cæsars were +young, and looked probably with an evil eye on the two +old men who stood between them and the name of emperor. +However it may be, after many victories and +much domestic trouble, Diocletian resolved to lay aside +the burden of empire and retire into private life. His +colleague Maximian felt, or affected to feel, the same +distaste for power, and on the same day they quitted the +purple; one at Nicomedia, the other at Milan. Diocletian +retired to Salona, a town in his native Dalmatia, and +occupied himself with rural pursuits. He was asked +after a while to reassume his authority, but he said to +the persons who made him the request, “I wish you +would come to Salona and see the cabbages I have +planted with my own hands, and after that you would +never wish me to remount the throne.”</p> + +<p>The characteristic of this century is its utter confusion +and want of order. There was no longer the unity even +of despotism at Rome to make a common centre round +which every thing revolved. There were tyrants and +competitors for power in every quarter of the empire—no +settled authority, no government or security, left. In +the midst of this relaxation of every rule of life, grew +surely, but unobserved, the Christian Church, which +drew strength from the very helplessness of the civil +state, and was forced, in self-defence, to establish a +regular organization in order to extend to its members +the inestimable benefits of regularity and law. Under +many of the emperors Christianity was proscribed; its +disciples were put to excruciating deaths, and their property<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> +confiscated; but at that very time its inner development +increased and strengthened. The community +appointed its teachers, its deacons, its office-bearers of +every kind; it supported them in their endeavours—it +yielded to their directions; and in time a certain amount +of authority was considered to be inherent in the office +of pastor, which extended beyond the mere expounding +of the gospel or administration of the sacraments. The +chief pastor became the guide, perhaps the judge, of the +whole flock. While it is absurd, therefore, in those disastrous +times of weakness and persecution to talk in +pompous terms of the succession of the Bishops of Rome, +and make out vain catalogues of lordly prelates who +sat on the throne of St. Peter, it is incontestable that, +from the earliest period, the Christian converts held +their meetings—by stealth indeed, and under fear of +detection—and obeyed certain canons of their own constitution. +These secret associations rapidly spread their +ramifications into every great city of the empire. When +by the friendship, or the fellowship, of the emperor, as +in the case of the Arabian Philip, a pause was given to +their fears and sufferings, certain buildings were set +apart for their religious exercises; and we read, during +this century, of basilicas, or churches, in Rome and other +towns. The subtlety of the Greek intellect had already +led to endless heresies and the wildest departures from +the simplicity of the gospel. The Western mind was +more calm, and better adapted to be the lawgiver of a +new order of society composed of elements so rough and +discordant as the barbarians, whose approach was now +inevitably foreseen. With its well-defined hierarchy—its +graduated ranks, and the fitness of the offices for the +purposes of their creation; with its array of martyrs +ready to suffer, and clear-headed leaders fitted to command, +the Western Church could look calmly forward<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> +to the time when its organization would make it the +most powerful, or perhaps the only, body in the State; +and so early as the middle of this century the seeds of +worldly ambition developed themselves in a schism, not +on a point of doctrine, but on the possession of authority. +A double nomination had made the anomalous appointment +of two chief pastors at the same time. Neither +would yield, and each had his supporters. All were +under the ban of the civil power. They had recourse +to spiritual weapons; and we read, for the first time in +ecclesiastical history, of mutual excommunications. Novatian—under +his breath, however, for fear of being +thrown to the wild beasts for raising a disturbance—thundered +his anathemas against Cornelius as an intruder, +while Cornelius retorted by proclaiming Novatian +an impostor, as he had not the concurrence of the +people in his election. This gives us a convincing proof +of the popular form of appointing bishops or presbyters +in those early days, and prepares us for the energy with +which the electors supported the authority of their +favourite priests.</p> + +<p>But, while this new internal element was spreading +life among the decayed institutions of the empire, we +have, in this century, the first appearance, in great +force, of the future conquerors and renovators of the +body politic from without. It is pleasant to think that +the centuries cast themselves more and more loose from +their connection with Rome after this date, and that the +barbarians can vindicate a separate place in history for +themselves. In the first century, the bad emperors +broke the strength of Rome by their cruelty and extravagance. +In the second century, the good emperors carried +on the work of weakening the empire by the softening +and enervating effects of their gentle and protective +policy. The third century unites the evil qualities<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> +of the other two, for the people were equally rendered +incapable of defending themselves by the unheard-of +atrocities of some of the tyrants who oppressed them +and the mistaken measures of the more benevolent +rulers, in committing the guardianship of the citizens to +the swords of a foreign soldiery, leaving them but the +wretched alternative of being ravaged and massacred +by an irruption of savage tribes or pillaged and insulted +by those in the emperor’s pay.</p> + +<p>The empire had long been surrounded by its foes. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 273.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>It will suffice to read the long list of captives who were +led in triumph behind the car of Aurelian when he returned +from foreign war, to see the fearful array +of harsh-sounding names which have afterwards +been softened into those of great and civilized nations. +It is in following the course of some of these that we +shall see how the present distribution of forces in Europe +took place, and escape from the polluted atmosphere of +Imperial Rome. In that memorable triumph appeared +Goths, Alans, Roxolans, Franks, Sarmatians, Vandals, +Allemans, Arabs, Indians, Bactrians, Iberians, Saracens, +Armenians, Persians, Palmyreans, Egyptians, and ten +Gothic women dressed in men’s apparel and fully armed. +These were, perhaps, the representatives of a large body +of female warriors, and are a sign of the recent settlement +of the tribe to which they belonged. They had +not yet given up the habits of their march, where all +were equally engaged in carrying the property and arms +of the nation, and where the females encouraged the +young men of the expedition by witnessing and sometimes +sharing their exploits in battle.</p> + +<p>The triumph of Probus, when only seven years had +passed, presents us with a list of the same peoples, often +conquered but never subdued. Their defeats, indeed, +had the double effect of showing to them their own<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> +ability to recruit their forces, and of strengthening the +degraded people of Rome in the belief of their invincibility. +After the loss of a battle, the Gothic or Burgundian +chief fell back upon the confederated tribes in his +rear; a portion of his army either visited Rome in the +character of captives, or enlisted in the ranks of the +conquerors. In either case, the wealth of the great +city and the undefended state of the empire were permanently +fixed in their minds; the populace, on the +other hand, had the luxury of a noble show and double +rations of bread—the more ambitious of the emperors +acting on the professed maxim that the citizen had no +duty but to enjoy the goods provided for him by the governing +power, and that if he was fed by public doles, and +amused with public games, the purpose of his life was +attained. The idlest man was the safest subject. A +triumph was, therefore, more an instrument of degradation +than an encouragement to patriotic exertion. The +name of Roman citizen was now extended to all the +inhabitants of the empire. The freeman of York was a +Roman citizen. Had he any patriotic pride in keeping +the soil of Italy undivided? The nation had become +too diffuse for the exercise of this local and combining +virtue. The love of country, which in the small states +of Greece secured the individual’s affection to his native +city, and yet was powerful enough to extend over the +whole of the Hellenic territories, was lost altogether +when it was required to expand itself over a region as +wide as Europe. It is in this sense that empires fall to +pieces by their own weight. The Roman power broke +up from within. Its religion was a source of division, +not of union—its mixture of nations, and tongues, and +usages, lost their cohesion. And nothing was left at the +end of this century to preserve it from total dissolution, +but the personal qualities of some great rulers and the +memory of its former fame.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> +<a name="FOURTH_CENTURY" id="FOURTH_CENTURY">FOURTH CENTURY.</a></h2> + +<div style="margin-left:4em;"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" summary="" class="table-center" > +<tr><td align="center" colspan="4" class="big">Emperors.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">304.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Galerius</span> and <span class="smcap">Constantius</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">305.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Maximin.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">306.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Constantine.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">337.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Constantine II.</span>, <span class="smcap">Constans</span> and <span class="smcap">Constantius</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">361.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Julian the Apostate.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">363.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Jovian.</span></td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="" class="table-center"> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td><td align="center"><i>West.</i></td><td style="width:30%"></td><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td><td align="center"><i>East.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">364.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Valentinian.</span></td><td></td><td align="right">364.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Valens.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">367.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Gratian.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">375.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Valentinian II.</span></td><td></td><td align="right">379.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Theodosius.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">395.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Honorius.</span></td><td></td><td align="right">395.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Arcadius.</span></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="heading">Authors.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Donatus</span>, <span class="smcap">Eutropius</span>, <span class="smcap">St. Athanasius</span>, <span class="smcap">Ausonius</span>, <span class="smcap">Claudian</span>, +<span class="smcap">Arnobius</span>, (303,) <span class="smcap">Lactantius</span>, (306,) <span class="smcap">Eusebius</span>, (315,) <span class="smcap">Arius</span>, (316,) +<span class="smcap">Gregory Nazianzen</span>, (320-389,) <span class="smcap">Basil the Great</span>, Bishop Of +Cesarea, (330-379,) <span class="smcap">Ambrose</span>, (340-397,) <span class="smcap">Augustine</span> (353-429,) +<span class="smcap">Theodoret</span>, (386-457,) <span class="smcap">Martin</span>, Bishop of Tours.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> +<a name="THE_FOURTH_CENTURY" id="THE_FOURTH_CENTURY">THE FOURTH CENTURY.</a></h2> +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="sub-heading">THE REMOVAL TO CONSTANTINOPLE — ESTABLISHMENT OF +CHRISTIANITY — APOSTASY OF JULIAN — SETTLEMENT OF +THE GOTHS.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">As</span> the memory of the old liberties of Rome died out, +a nearer approach was made to the ostentatious despotisms +of the East. Aurelian, in 270, was the first emperor +who encircled his head with a diadem; and Diocletian, +in 284, formed his court on the model of the +most gorgeous royalties of Asia. On admission into his +presence, the Roman Senator, formerly the equal of the +ruler, prostrated himself at his feet. Titles of the most +unmanly adulation were lavished on the fortunate slave +or herdsman who had risen to supreme power. He was +clothed in robes of purple and violet, and loaded with +an incalculable wealth of jewels and gold. It was from +deep policy that Diocletian introduced this system. +Ceremony imposes on the vulgar, and makes intimacy +impossible. Etiquette is the refuge of failing power, +and compensates by external show for inherent weakness, +as stiffness and formality are the refuge of dulness +and mediocrity in private life. There was now, therefore, +seated on the throne, which was shaken by every +commotion, a personage assuming more majestic rank, +and affecting far loftier state and dignity, than Augustus +had ventured on while the strength of the old Republic +gave irresistible force to the new empire, or than the +Antonines had dreamt of when the prosperity of Rome +was apparently at its height. But there was still some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> +feeling, if not of self-respect, at least of resistance to +pretension, in the populace and Senators of the capital. +Diocletian visited Rome but once. He was attacked in +lampoons, and ridiculed in satirical songs. His colleague +established his residence in the military post of Milan. +We are not, therefore, to feel surprised that an Orientalized +authority sought its natural seat in the land of +ancient despotisms, and that many of the emperors had +cast longing eyes on the beautiful towns of Asia Minor, +and even on the far-off cities of Mesopotamia, as more +congenial localities for their barbaric splendours. By a +sort of compromise between his European origin and +Asiatic tastes, the emperor Constantine, after many +struggles with his competitors, having attained the sole +authority, transferred the seat of empire from Rome to +a city he had built on the extreme limits of Europe, and +only divided from Asia by a narrow sea. All succeeding +ages have agreed in extolling the situation of this city, +called, after its founder, Constantinople, as the finest +that could have been chosen. All ages, from the day of +its erection till the hour in which we live, have agreed +that it is fitted, in the hands of a great and enterprising +power, to be the metropolis and arbiter of the world; +and Constantinople is, therefore, condemned to the +melancholy fate of being the useless and unappreciated +capital of a horde of irreclaimable barbarians. To this +magnificent city Constantine removed the throne in +329, and for nearly a thousand years after that, while +Rome was sacked in innumerable invasions, and all the +capitals of Europe were successively occupied by contending +armies, Constantinople, safe in her two narrow +outlets, and rich in her command of the two continents, +continued unconquered, and even unassailed.</p> + +<p>Rome was stripped, that Constantinople might be +filled. All the wealth of Italy was carried across the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> +Ægean. The Roman Senator was invited to remove +with his establishment. He found, on arriving at his +new home, that by a complimentary attention of the +emperor, a fac-simile of his Roman palace had been +prepared for him on the Propontis. The seven hills of +the new capital responded to the seven hills of the old. +There were villas for retirement along the smiling +shores of the Dardanelles or of the Bosphorus, as fine in +climate, and perhaps equal in romantic beauty, to Baiæ +or Brundusium. There was a capital, as noble a piece +of architecture as the one they had left, but without the +sanctity of its thousand years of existence, or the glory +of its unnumbered triumphs. One omission was the +subject of remark and lamentation. The temples were +nowhere to be seen. The images of the gods were left +at Rome in the solitude of their deserted shrines, for +Constantine had determined that Constantinople should, +from its very foundation, be the residence of a Christian +people. Churches were built, and a priesthood appointed. +Yet, with the policy which characterized the +Church at that time, he made as little change as possible +in the external forms. There is still extant a transfer +of certain properties from the old establishment to the +new. There are contributions of wax for the candles, +of frankincense and myrrh for the censers, and vestures +for the officiating priests as before. Only the object of +worship is changed, and the images of the heathen gods +and heroes are replaced with statues of the apostles and +martyrs.</p> + +<p>It is difficult to gather a true idea of this first of the +Christian emperors from the historians of after-times. +The accounts of him by contemporary writers are equally +conflicting. The favourers of the old superstition describe +him as a monster of perfidy and cruelty. The +Church, raised to supremacy by his favour, sees nothing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> +in him but the greatest of men—the seer of visions, the +visible favourite of the Almighty, and the predestined +overthrower of the powers of evil. The easy credulity +of an emancipated people believed whatever the flattery +of the courtiers invented. His mother Helena made a +journey to Jerusalem, and was rewarded for the pious +pilgrimage by the discovery of the True Cross. Chapels +and altars were raised upon all the places famous in +Christian story; relics were collected from all quarters, +and we are early led to fear that the simplicity of the +gospel is endangered by its approach to the throne, +and that Constantine’s object was rather to raise and +strengthen a hierarchy of ecclesiastical supporters than +to give full scope to the doctrine of truth. But not the +less wonderful, not the less by the divine appointment, +was this unhoped-for triumph of Christianity, that its +advancement formed part of the ambitious scheme of a +worldly and unprincipled conqueror. Rather it may be +taken as one among the thousand proofs with which +history presents us, that the greatest blessings to mankind +are produced irrespective of the character or qualities +of the apparent author. A warrior is raised in the +desert when required to be let loose upon a worn-out +society as the scourge of God; a blood-stained soldier +is placed on the throne of the world when the time has +come for the earthly predominance of the gospel. But +neither is Attila to be blamed nor Constantine to be +praised.</p> + +<p>It was the spirit of his system of government to form +every society on a strictly monarchical model. There +was everywhere introduced a clearly-defined subordination +of ranks and dignities. Diocletian, we saw, surrounded +the throne with a state and ceremony which +kept the imperial person sacred from the common gaze. +Constantine perfected his work by establishing a titled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> +nobility, who were to stand between the throne and the +people, giving dignity to the one, and impressing fresh +awe upon the other. In all previous ages it had been +the office that gave importance to the man. To be a +member of the Senate was a mark of distinction; a long +descent from a great historic name was looked on with +respect; and the heroic deeds of the thousand years of +Roman struggle had founded an aristocracy which owed +its high position either to personal actions or hereditary +claims. But now that the emperors had so long concentrated +in themselves all the great offices of the State—now +that the bad rulers of the first century had degraded +the Senate by filling it with their creatures, the +good rulers of the second century had made it merely +the recorder of their decrees, and the anarchy of the +third century had changed or obliterated its functions +altogether—there was no way left to the ambitious +Roman to distinguish himself except by the favour of +the emperor. The throne became, as it has since continued +in all strictly monarchical countries, the fountain +of honour. It was not the people who could name a +man to the consulship or appoint him to the command +of an army. It was not even in the power of the +emperor to find offices of dignity for all whom he wished +to advance. So a method was discovered by which +vanity or friendship could be gratified, and employment +be reserved for the deserving at the same time. Instead +of endangering an expedition against the Parthians by +intrusting it to a rich and powerful courtier who desired +to have the rank of general, the emperor simply named +him Nobilissimus, or Patricius, or Illustris, and the +gratified favourite, the “most noble,” the “patrician,” +or the “illustrious,” took place with the highest officers +of the State. A certain title gave him equal rank with +the Senator, the judge, or the consul. The diversity of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> +these honorary distinctions became very great. There +were the clarissimi—the perfectissimi—and the egregii—bearing +the same relative dignity in the court-guide +of the fourth century, as the dukes, marquises, earls, +and viscounts of the peerage-books of the present day. +But so much did all distinction flow from proximity to +the throne, that all these high-sounding names owed +their value to the fact of their being bestowed on the +associates of the sovereign. The word Count, which +is still the title borne by foreign nobles, comes from the +Latin word which means “companion.” There was a +Comes, or Companion, of the Sacred Couch, or lord +chamberlain—the Companion of the Imperial Service, +or lord high steward—a Companion of the Imperial +Stables, or lord high constable; through all these dignitaries, +step above step, the glorious ascent extended, till +it ended in the Companion of Private Affairs, or confidential +secretary. At the head of all, sacred and unapproachable, +stood the embodied Power of the Roman +world, who, as he had given titles to all the magnates of +his court, heaped also a great many on himself. His +principal appellation, however, was not as in our degenerate +days “Majesty,” whether “Most Catholic,” “Most +Christian,” or “Most Orthodox,” but consisted in the +rather ambitious attribute—eternity. “Your Eternity” +was the phrase addressed to some miserable individual +whose reign was ended in a month. It was proposed by +this division of the Roman aristocracy to furnish the +empire with a body for show and a body for use; the +latter consisting of the real generals of the armies and +administrators of the provinces. And with this view +the two were kept distinct; but military discipline +suffered by this partition. The generals became discontented +when they saw wealth and dignities heaped upon +the titular nobles of the court; and to prevent the danger<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> +arising from ill will among the legions on the frontier, +the emperor withdrew the best of his soldiers from the +posts where they kept the barbarians in check, and +entirely destroyed their military spirit by separating +them into small bodies and stationing them in towns. +This exposed the empire to the foreign foes who still +menaced it from the other side of the boundary, and +gave fresh settlements in the heart of the country to the +thousands of barbarian youth who had taken service +with the eagles. In every legion there was a considerable +proportion of this foreign element: in every district +of the empire, therefore, there were now settled the advanced +guards of the unavoidable invasion. Men with +barbaric names, which the Romans could not pronounce, +walked about Roman towns dressed in Roman uniforms +and clothed with Roman titles. There were consulars +and patricians in Ravenna and Naples, whose fathers +had danced the war-dance of defiance when beginning +their march from the Vistula and the Carpathian range.</p> + +<p>All these troops must be supported—all these dignitaries +maintained in luxury. How was this done? +The ordinary revenue of the empire in the time of Constantine +has been computed at forty millions of our +money a year. Not a very large amount when you consider +the number of the population; but this is the sum +which reached the treasury. The gross amount must +have been far larger, and an ingenious machinery was invented +by which the tax was rigorously collected; and +this machinery, by a ludicrous perversion of terms, was +made to include one of the most numerous classes of the +artificial nobility created by the imperial will. In all +the towns of the empire some little remains were still +to be found of the ancient municipal government, of +which practically they had long been deprived. There +were nominal magistrates still; and among these the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> +<i>Curials</i> held a distinguished rank. They were the men +who, in the days of freedom, had filled the civic dignities +of their native city—the aldermen, we should perhaps +call them, or, more nearly, the justices of the peace. +They were now ranked with the peerage, but with certain +duties attached to their elevation which few can have +regarded in the light of privilege or favour. To qualify +them for rank, they were bound to be in possession of a +certain amount of land. They were, therefore, a territorial +aristocracy, and never was any territorial aristocracy +more constantly under the consideration of the +government. It was the duty of the curials to distribute +the tax-papers in their district; but, in addition to +this, it was unfortunately their duty to see that the sum +assessed on the town and neighbourhood was paid up to +the last penny. When there was any deficiency, was +the emperor to suffer? Were the nobilissimi, the patricii, +the egregii, to lose their salaries? Oh, no! As long +as the now ennobled curial retained an acre of his estate, +or could raise a mortgage on his house, the full amount +was extracted. The tax went up to Rome, and the +curial, if there had been a poor’s house in those days, +would have gone into it—for he was stripped of all. His +farm was seized, his cattle were escheated; and when the +defalcation was very great, himself, his wife and children +were led into the market and sold as slaves. Nothing +so rapidly destroyed what might have been the germ of +a middle class as this legalized spoliation of the smaller +landholders. Below this rank there was absolutely +nothing left of the citizenship of ancient times. Artificers +and workmen formed themselves into companies; +but the trades were exercised principally by slaves for +the benefit of their owners. These slaves formed now +by far the greatest part of the Roman population, and +though their lot had gradually become softened as their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> +numbers increased, and the domestic bondsman had +little to complain of except the greatest of all sorrows, +the loss of freedom, the position of the rural labourers +was still very bad. There were some of them slaves in +every sense of the word—mere chattels, which were not +so valuable as horse or dog. But the fate of others was +so far mitigated that they could not be sold separate +from their family—that they could not be sold except +along with the land; and at last glimpses appear of a +sort of rent paid for certain portions of the lord’s estate +in full of all other requirements. But this process had +again to be gone through when many centuries had +elapsed, and a new state of society had been fully established, +and it will be sufficient to remind you that in the +fourth century, to which we are now come, the Roman +world consisted of a monarchy where all the greatness +and magnificence of the empire were concentrated on +the emperor and his court; that the monarchical system +was rapidly pervading the Church; and that below +these two distinct but connected powers there was no +people, properly so called—the country was oppressed +and ruined, and the ancient dignity of Rome transplanted +to new and foreign quarters, at the sacrifice of +all its oldest and most elevating associations. The half-depopulated +city of Romulus and the Kings—of the +Consuls and Augustus, looked with ill-disguised hatred +and contempt on the modern rival which denied her the +name of Capital, and while fresh from the builder’s hand, +robbed her of the name of the Eternal City. We shall +see great events spring from this jealousy of the two +towns. In the mean time, we shall finish our view of +Constantine by recording the greatness of his military +skill, and merely protest against the enrolment in the +list of <i>saints</i> of a man who filled his family circle with +blood—who murdered his wife, his son, and his nephew,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> +encouraged the contending factions of the now disputatious +Church—gave a fallacious support to the orthodox +Athanasius, and died after a superstitious baptism at +the hands of the heretical Arius. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 337.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>An unbiassed +judgment must pronounce him a great politician, +who played with both parties as his tools, a Christian +from expediency and not from conviction. It is a pity +that the subserviency of the Greek communion has +placed him in the number of its holy witnesses, for we +are told by a historian that when the emperor, after the +dreadful crimes he had perpetrated, applied at the +heathen shrines for expiatory rites, the priests of the +false gods had truly answered, “there are no purifications +for such deeds as these.” But nothing could be +refused to the benefactor of the Church. The great +ecclesiastical council of this age, (325), consisting of +three hundred and eighteen bishops, and presided over +by Constantine in person, gave the Nicene Creed as the +result of their labours—a creed which is still the symbol +of Christendom, but which consists more of a condemnation +of the heresies which were then in the ascendant, +than in the plain enunciation of the Christian faith. A +layman, we are told, an auditor of the learned debates +in this great assembly, a man of clear and simple common +sense, met some of the disputants, and addressed them +in these words:—“Arguers! Christ and his apostles delivered +to us, not the art of disputation, nor empty +eloquence, but a plain and simple rule which is maintained +by faith and good works.” The disputants, we +are further told, were so struck with this undeniable +truth that they acknowledged their error at once.</p> + +<p>But not yet firm and impregnable were the bulwarks +of Christianity. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 360.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>While dreaming anchorites in the deserts +of Thebais were repeating the results of fasting and insanity +as the manifestation of divine favour, the world<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> +was startled from its security by the appalling +discovery that the emperor himself, the young +and vigorous Julian, was a follower of the old philosophers, +and a worshipper of the ancient gods. And a +dangerous antagonist he was, even independent of his +temporal power. His personal character was irreproachable, +his learning and talent beyond dispute, and +his eloquence and dialectic skill sharpened and improved +by an education in Athens itself. Less than forty years +had elapsed since Constantine pronounced the sentence +of banishment on the heathen deities. It was not possible +that the Christian truth was in every instance +received where the old falsehood was driven away. +We may therefore conclude, without the aid of historic +evidence, that there must have been innumerable districts—villages +in far-off valleys, hidden places up among +the hills—where the name of Christ had not yet penetrated, +and all that was known was, that the shrine of +the local gods was overthrown, and the priests of the old +ceremonial proscribed. When we remember that the +heathen worship entered into almost all the changes of +the social and family life—that its sanction was necessary +at the wedding—that its auguries were indispensable at +births—that it crowned the statue of the household god +with flowers—that it kept alive the fire upon the altar of +the emperor—and that it was the guardian of the tombs +of the departed, as it had been the principal consolation +during the funeral rites,—we shall perceive that, +irrespective of absolute faith in his system of belief, the +cessation of the priest’s office must have been a serious +calamity. The heathen establishment had been enriched +by the piety or ostentation of many generations. There +must have been still alive many who had been turned +out of their comfortable temples, many who viewed the +assumption of Christianity into the State as a political<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> +engine to strengthen the tyranny under which the +nations groaned. We may see that self-interest and +patriotism may easily have been combined in the effort +made by the old faith to regain the supremacy it had +lost. The Emperor Julian endeavoured to lift up the +fallen gods. He persecuted the Christians, not with +fire and sword, but with contempt. He scorned and +tolerated. He preached moderation, self-denial, and +purity of life, and practised all these virtues to an +extent unknown upon a throne, and even then unusual +in a bishop’s palace.</p> + +<p>How those Christian graces, giving a charm and +dignity to the apostate emperor, must have received a +still higher authority from the painful contrast they +presented to the agitated condition and corrupted morals +of the Christian Church! Everywhere there was war +and treachery, and ambition and unbelief. Half the +great sees were held by Arians, who raved against the +orthodox; and the other half were held by Athanasius +and his followers, who accused their adversaries of being +“more cruel than the Scythians, and more irreconcilable +than tigers.” At Rome itself there was an orthodox +bishop and an Arian rival. It is not surprising that +Julian, disgusted with the scenes presented to him by +the mutual rage of the Christian sects, thought the +surest method of restoring unity to the empire would +be to silence all the contending parties and reintroduce +the peaceful pageantries of the old Pantheon. If some +of the fanciful annotators of the new faith had allegorized +the facts of Christianity till they ceased to be +facts at all, Julian performed the same office for the +heathen gods. Jupiter and the rest were embodiments +of the hidden powers of nature. Vulcan was the personification +of human skill, and Venus the beautiful representative +of connubial affection. But men’s minds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> +were now too sharpened with the contact they had had +with the real to be satisfied with such fallacies as these. +Eloquent teachers arose, who separated the eternal +truths of revelation from the accessories with which +they were temporarily combined. Ridicule was retorted +on the emperor, who had sneered at the Christian services. +Who, indeed, who had caught the slightest view +of the spirituality of Christ’s kingdom, could abstain +from laughing at the laborious heathenism of the master +of the world? He cut the wood for sacrifice, he slew +the goat or bull, and, falling down on his knees, puffed +with distended cheeks the sacred fire. He marched to +the temple of Venus between two rows of dissolute and +drunken worshippers, striving in vain by face and attitude +to repress the shouts of riotous exultation and the +jeers of the spectators. Then, wherever he went he +was surrounded by pythonesses, and augurs, and fortune-tellers, +magicians who could work miracles, and necromancers +who could raise the dead. When he restored a +statue to its ancient niche, he was rewarded by a shake +of its head; when he hung up a picture of Thetis or +Amphitrite, she winked in sign of satisfaction. Where +miracles are not believed, the performance of them is +fatal. But his expenditure of money in honouring the +gods was more real, and had clearer results. He nearly +exhausted the empire by the number of beasts he slew. +He sent enormous offerings to the shrines of Dodona, +and Delos, and Delphi. He rebuilt the temples, which +time or Christian hatred had destroyed; and, by way +of giving life to his new polity, he condescended to +imitate the sect be despised, in its form of worship, in +its advocacy of charity, peace, and good will, and in its +institutions of celibacy and retirement, which, indeed, +had been a portion of heathen virtue before it was admitted +into the Christian Church. But his affected contempt<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> +soon degenerated into persecution. He would +have no soldiers who did not serve his gods. Many resigned +their swords. He called the Christians “Galileans,” +and robbed them of their property and despitefully +used them, to try the sincerity of their faith. +“Does not your law command you,” he said, “to submit +to injury, and to renounce your worldly goods? +Well, I take possession of your riches that your march +to heaven may be unencumbered.” All moderation +was now thrown off on both sides. Resistance was +made by the Christians, and extermination threatened +by the emperor. In the midst of these contentions he +was called eastward to resist the aggression of Sapor, the +Persian king. An arrow stretched Julian on his couch. +He called round him his chief philosophers and priests. +With them, in imitation of Socrates, he entered into +deep discussions about the soul. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 363.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Nothing more +heroic than his end, or more eloquent than his +parting discourse. But death did not soften the animosity +of his foes. The Christians boasted that the +arrow was sent by an angel, that visions had foretold +the persecutor’s fall, and that so would perish all the +enemies of God. The adherents of the emperor in +return blamed the Galileans as his assassins, and boldly +pointed to Athanasius, the leader of the Christians, as the +culprit. Athanasius would certainly not have scrupled +to rid the world of such an Agag and Holofernes, but it +is more probable that the death occurred without either +a miracle or a murder. The successors of Julian were +enemies of the apostate. They speedily restored their +fellow-believers to the supremacy they had lost. A +ferocious hymn of exultation by Gregory of Nazianzen +was chanted far and wide. Cries of joy and execration +resounded in market-places, and churches, and theatres. +The market-places had been closed against the Christians,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> +their churches had been interdicted, and the +theatres shut up, by the overstrained asceticism of the +deceased. It was perceived that Christianity had taken +deeper root than the apostate had believed, and henceforth +no effort could be made to revivify the old superstition. +After a nominal election of Jovian, the choice +of the soldiers fell on two of their favourite leaders, +Valentinian and Valens, brothers, and sufferers in the +late persecutions for their faith. Named emperors of +the Roman world, they came to an amicable division of +the empire into East and West. Valens remained in +Constantinople to guard the frontiers of the Danube and +the Euphrates; while Valentinian, who saw great clouds +darkening over Italy and Gaul, fixed his imperial residence +in the strong city of Milan. The separation took +place in 364, and henceforth the stream of history +flows in two distinct and gradually diverging channels. +This century has already been marked by the removal +of the seat of power to Constantinople; by the attempt +at the restoration of Paganism by Julian; and we have +now to dwell for a little on the third and greatest incident +of all, the invasion of the Goths, and final settlement +of hostile warriors on the Roman soil.</p> + +<p>Names that have retained their sound and established +themselves as household words in Europe now meet as +at every turn. Valentinian is engaged in resisting the +Saxons. The Britons, the Scots, the Germans, are +pushing their claims to independence; and in the farther +East, the persecutions and tyranny of the contemptible +Valens are suddenly suspended by the news that a people +hitherto unheard of had made their appearance within +an easy march of the boundary, and that universal terror +had taken possession of the soldiers of the empire. Who +were those soldiers? We have seen for many years that +the policy of the emperors had been to introduce the barbarians<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> +into the military service of the State, and to +expose the wasted and helpless inhabitants to the rapacity +of their tax-gatherers. This system had been +carried to such a pitch, that it is probable there were +none but mercenaries of the most varying interests in +the Roman ranks. Yet such is the effect of discipline, +and the pride of military combination, that all other +feelings gave way before it. The Gothic chief, now invested +with command in the Roman armies, turned his +arms against his countrymen. The Albanian, the Saxon, +the Briton, elevated to the rank of duke or count, looked +back on Marius and Cæsar as their lineal predecessors +in opposing and conquering the enemies of Rome. The +names of the generals and magistrates, accordingly, +which we encounter after this date, have a strangely +barbaric sound. There are Ricimer, and Marcomir, and +Arbogast—and finally, the name which overtopped and +outlived them all, the name of Alaric the Goth. Now, +the Goths, we have seen, had been settled for many +generations on the northern side of the Danube. Much +intercourse must have taken place between the inhabitants +of the two banks. There must have been +trade, and love, and quarrellings, and rejoicings. At +shorter and shorter intervals the bravest of the tribes +must have passed over into the Roman territory and +joined the Legions. Occasionally a timid or despotic +emperor would suddenly order his armies across, and +carry fire and sword into the unsuspecting country. +But on the whole, the terms on which they lived were +not hostile, for the ties which united the two peoples +were numerous and strong. Even the languages in the +course of time must have come to be mutually intelligible, +and we read of Gothic leaders who were excellent +judges of Homer and seldom travelled without a few +chosen books. This being the case, what was the consternation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> +of the almost civilized Goths in the fertile +levels of the present Wallachia and Moldavia to hear +that an innumerable horde of dreadful savages, calling +themselves Huns and Magyars, had appeared on the +western shore of the Black Sea, and spread over the +land, destroying, murdering, burning whatever lay in +their way! Cooped up for an unknown period, it appeared, +on the northeastern side of the Palus Mæotis, now +better known to us as the Sea of Azof—living on fish +out of the Don, and on the cattle of the long steppes +which extend across the Volga, these sons of the Scythian +desert had never been heard of either by the +Goths or Romans. A hideous people to behold, as the +perverted imagination of poet or painter could produce. +They were low in stature, but broad-shouldered and +strong. Their wide cheek-bones and small eyes gave +them a savage and cruel expression, which was increased +by their want of nose, for the only visible appearance +of that indispensable organ consisted of two holes sunk +into the square expanse of their faces. Fear is not a +flattering painter, but from these rude descriptions it is +easy to recognise the Calmuck countenance; and when +we add their small horses, long spears, and prodigious +lightness and activity, we shall see a very close resemblance +between them and their successors in the +same district, the Russian Cossacks of the Don. On, on, +came the torrent of these pitiless, fearless, ugly, dirty, +irresistible foes. The Goths, terrified at their aspect, +and bewildered with the accounts they heard of their +numbers and mode of warfare, petitioned the emperor +to give them an asylum on the Roman side. Their +prayer was granted on condition of depositing their +children and arms in Roman hands. They had no time +to squabble about terms. Every thing was agreed to. +Boats manned by Roman soldiers were busy, day and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> +night in transporting the Gothic exiles to the Roman +side. Arms and jewels, and wives and children, the +furniture of their tents, and idols of their gods, all got +safely across the guarding river. The Huns, the Alans, +and the other unsightly hordes who had gathered in the +pursuit, came down to the bank, and shouted useless +defiance and threats of vengeance. The broad Danube +rolled between; and there rested that night on the +Roman soil a whole nation, different in interest, in +manners and religion, from the population they had +joined, numbering upwards of a million souls, bound +together by every thing that constitutes the unity of a +people. The avarice and injustice of the Roman authorities +negatived the clause of the agreement that stipulated +for the surrender of the Gothic arms. To redeem +their swords and spears, they parted with the silver and +gold they had amassed in their predatory incursions on +the Roman territory. They know that once in possession +of their weapons they could soon reclaim all they +gave—and in no long time the attempt was made. Fritigern, +the leader of their name, led them against the +armies of Rome. Insulted at their audacity, the Emperor +Valens, at the head of three hundred thousand +men, met them in the plain of Adrianople. The existence +of the Gothic people was at stake. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 379.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>They +fought with desperation and hatred. The emperor +was defeated, leaving two-thirds of his army on +the field of battle. Seeking safety in a cottage at the +side of the road, he was burned by the inexorable pursuers, +who, gathering up their broken lines, marched +steadily through the intervening levels and gazed with +enraptured eyes on the glittering towers and pinnacles +of Constantinople itself. But the walls were high and +strongly armed. The barbarians were inveigled into a +negotiation, and mastered by the unequal powers of lying<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> +at all times characteristic of the Greeks. Fritigern consented +to withdraw his troops: some were embodied in +the levies of the empire, and others dispersed in different +provinces. Those settled in Thrace were faithful to their +employers, and resisted their ancient enemies the Huns; +but the great body of the discontented conquerors were +ready for fresh assaults on the Roman land. Theodosius, +called to the throne in 379, succeeded in staving +off the evil day; but when the final partition of the +empire took place between his two sons—Honorius and +Arcadius—there was nothing to oppose the +terrible onset of the Goths. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 394.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>At their head was +Alaric, the descendant of their original chiefs, and himself +the bravest of his warriors. He broke into Greece, +forcing his way through Thermopylæ, and devastated +the native seats of poetry and the arts with fire and +sword. The ruler at Constantinople heard of his advance +with terror, and opposed to him the Vandal Stilicho, +the greatest of his generals. But the wily Alaric +declined to fight, and out-manœuvred his enemies, escaping +to the sure fastnesses of Epirus, and sat down +sullen and discontented, meditating further expeditions +into richer plains, and already seeing before him the +prostrate cities of Italy. The terror of Arcadius tried +in vain to soften his rage, or satisfy his ambition with +vain titles, among others, that of Count of the Illyrian +Border. The spirit of aggression was fairly roused. All +the Gothic settlers in the Roman territory were ready to +join their countrymen in one great and combined attack;—and +with this position of the personages of the drama, +the curtain falls on the fourth century, while preparations +for the great catastrophe are going on.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> +<a name="FIFTH_CENTURY" id="FIFTH_CENTURY">FIFTH CENTURY.</a></h2> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Emperors.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td><td align="center"><i>West.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Honorius</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">424.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Valentinian III.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">455.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Petronius Maximus.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">455.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Avitus.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">457.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Majorianus.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">461.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Severus.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">467.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Anthemius.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">472.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Olibius.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">473.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Glycerius.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">474.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Julius Nepos.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">475.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Augustulus Romulus.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td><td align="center"><i>East.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Arcadius</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">408.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Theodosius II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">450.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Marcian.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">457.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Leo the Great.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">474.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Zeno.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">491.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Anastasius.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">King of the Franks.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td style="width:20%" align="right">481.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Clovis.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">King of Italy.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">489.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Theodoric.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="heading">Authors.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chrysostom</span>, <span class="smcap">Jerome</span>, <span class="smcap">Augustine</span>, <span class="smcap">Pelagius</span>, (405,) <span class="smcap">Sidonius</span> +<span class="smcap">Apollinaris</span>, <span class="smcap">Patricius</span>, <span class="smcap">Macrobius</span>, <span class="smcap">Vicentius of Lerins</span>, (died +450,) <span class="smcap">Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria</span>, (412-444.)</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> +<a name="THE_FIFTH_CENTURY" id="THE_FIFTH_CENTURY">THE FIFTH CENTURY.</a></h2> +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="sub-heading">END OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE — FORMATION OF MODERN +STATES — GROWTH OF ECCLESIASTICAL AUTHORITY.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">We</span> find the same actors on the stage when the curtain +rises again, but circumstances have greatly changed. +After his escape from Stilicho, Alaric had been “lifted +on the shield,” the wild and picturesque way in which +the warlike Goths nominated their kings, and henceforth +was considered the monarch of a separate and independent +people, no longer the mere leader of a band of +predatory barbarians. In this new character he entered +into treaties with the emperors of Constantinople or +Rome, and broke them, as if he had already been the +sovereign of a civilized state.</p> + +<p>In 403 he broke up from his secure retreat on the +Adriatic, and burst into Italy, spreading fire and famine +wherever he went. Honorius, the Emperor of the West, +fled from Milan, and was besieged in Asti by the Goths. +Here would have ended the imperial dynasty, some +years before its time, if it had not been for the watchful +Stilicho. This Vandal chief flew to the rescue of Honorius, +repulsed Alaric with great slaughter, and delivered +his master from his dangerous position. The grateful +emperor entered Rome in triumph, and for the last time +the Circus streamed with the blood of beasts and men. +<span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 408.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>He retired after this display to the inaccessible marshes +of Ravenna, at the mouths of the Po, and, secure in +that fortress, sent an order to have his preserver and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> +benefactor murdered; Stilicho, the only hope of +Rome, was assassinated, and Alaric once more +saw all Italy within his grasp. It was not only the +Goths who followed Alaric’s command. All the barbarians, +of whatever name or race, who had been transplanted +either as slaves or soldiers—Alans, Franks, and +Germans—rallied round the advancing king, for the impolitic +Honorius had issued an order for the extermination +of all the tribes. There were Britons, and Saxons, +and Suabians. It was an insurrection of all the manly +elements of society against the indescribable depravation +of the inhabitants of the Peninsula. The wildest +barbarian blushed in the midst of his ignorance and +rudeness to hear of the manners of the highest and +most distinguished families in Rome. Nobody could +hold out a hand to avert the judgment that was about +to fall on the devoted city. Ambassadors indeed appeared, +and bought a short delay at the price of many +thousand pounds’ weight of gold and silver, and of large +quantities of silk; but these were only additional incitements +to the cupidity of the invader. Tribe after tribe +rose up with fresh fury; warriors of every hue and +shape, and with every manner of equipment. The +handsome Goth in his iron cuirass; the Alan with his +saddle covered with human skin; the German making a +hideous sound by shrieking on the sharp edge of his +shield; and the countryman of Alaric himself sounding +the “horn of battle,” which terrified the Romans with +its ominous note—all started forward on the march. At +the head of each detachment rode a band, singing songs +of exultation and defiance; and the Romans, stupefied +with fear, saw these innumerable swarms defile towards +the Milvian bridge and close up every access to the +town. There was no corn from Sicily or Africa; a pest +raged in every house, and hunger reduced the inhabitants<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> +to despair. The gates were thrown open, and all +the pent-up animosity of the desert was poured out upon +the mistress and corrupter of the world. For six days +the city was given up to remorseless slaughter and universal +pillage. The wealth was incalculable. The captives +were sold as slaves. The palaces were overthrown, +and the river choked with carcasses and the treasures +of art which the barbarians could not appreciate. “The +new Babylon,” cries Bossuet, the great Bishop of Meaux, +“rival of the old, swelled out like her with her successes, +and, triumphing in her pleasures and riches, encountered +as great a fall.” And no man lamented her fate.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 410.</div> + +<p>Alaric, who had thus achieved a victory denied to +Hannibal and Pyrrhus, resolved to push his conquests +to the end of Italy. But on his march +towards the Straits of Sicily, illness overtook him. His +life had been unlike that of other men, and his burial +was to excite the wonder of the Bruttians, among +whom he died. A large river was turned from its +course, and in its channel a deep grave was dug and +ornamented with monumental stone. To this the body +of the barbaric king was carried, clothed in full armour, +and accompanied with some of the richest spoils of +Rome; and then the stream was turned on again, the +prisoners who had executed the works were slaughtered +to conceal the secret of the tomb, and nobody has ever +found out where the Gothic king reposes. But while +the Busentino flowed peaceably on, and guarded the +body of the conqueror from the revenge of the Romans, +new perils were gathering round the throne of the +Western emperor. As if the duration of the empire had +been inseparably connected with the capital, the reverence +of mankind was never bestowed on Milan or Ravenna, +in which the court was now established, as it +had been upon Rome. Britain had already thrown off<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> +the distant yoke, and submitted to the Saxon invaders. +Spain had also peaceably accepted the rule of the three +kindred tribes of Sueves and Alans and Vandals. Gaul +itself had given its adhesion to the Burgundians (who +fixed their seat in the district which still bears their +name) and offered a feeble resistance to any fresh invader. +Ataulf, the brother of Alaric, came to the rescue +of the empire, and of course completed the destruction. +He married the sister of Honorius, and retained +her as a hostage of the emperor’s good faith. He promised +to restore the revolted provinces to their former +master, and succeeded in overthrowing some competitors +who had started up to dispute with Ravenna the wrecks +of former power. He then forced his way into Spain, +and the hopes of the degenerate Romans were high. +But murder, as usual, stopped the career of Ataulf, and +all was changed. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 415.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>The emperor ratified the possessions +which he could not dispute, and in the first +twenty years of this century three separate +kingdoms were established in Europe. This was soon +followed by a Vandal conquest of the shores of Africa, +which raised Carthage once more to commercial importance, +united Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia to the new-founded +state, and by the creation of a fleet gained the +command of the Mediterranean Sea, and threatened +Constantinople itself.</p> + +<p>With so many provinces not only torn from the +empire, but erected into hostile kingdoms, nothing was +wanting but some new irruption into the still dependent +territories to put a final end to the Roman name. And +a new incursion came. In the very involved relations +existing between the emperors of the East and West, it +is difficult to follow the course of events with any clearness. +While the deluded populace of Constantinople +were rejoicing in the fall of their Italian rival, they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> +heard with amazement, in 441, that a savage potentate, +who had pitched his tents in the plains of Pannonia and +Thrace, and kept round him, for defence or conquest, +seven hundred thousand of those hideous-featured Huns +who had spread devastation and terror all over the +populations of Asia, from the borders of China to the +Don, had determined on stretching his conquests over +the whole world, and merely hesitated with which of +the doomed empires to begin his career. His name was +Attila, or, according to its native pronunciation, Etzel; +and it soon resounded, louder and more terrifying than +that of Alaric the Goth. The Emperor of the East sent +an embassy to this dreadful neighbour, a minute account +of which remains, and from which we learn the barbaric +pomp and ceremony of the leader of the Huns, and the +perfidy and debasement of the Greeks. An attempt +was made to poison the redoubtable chief, and he complained +of the guilty ambassador to the very person +who had given him his instructions for the deed. Unsatisfied +with the result, the Hunnish monarch advanced +his camp. Constantinople, anxious to ward off the blow +from itself, descanted to the savage king on the exposed +condition and ill-defended wealth of the Italian towns. +Treachery of another kind came to his aid. An offended +sister of the emperor sent to Attila her ring as a mark +of espousal, and he now claimed a portion of the empire +as the dowry of his bride. When this was refused, he +reiterated his old claim of satisfaction for the attempt +upon his life, and ravaged the fields of Belgium and +Gaul, in the double character of avenger of an insult +and claimant of an inheritance. It does not much +matter under what plea a barbarous chieftain, with six +hundred thousand warriors, makes a demand. It must +be answered sword in hand, or on the knees. The +newly-established Frankish and Burgundian kings<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> +gathered their forces in defence of their Christian faith +and their recently-acquired dominions. Attila retired +from Orleans, of which he had commenced the siege, +and chose for the battle-field, which was to decide the +destiny of the world, a vast plain not far from Châlons, +on the Marne, where his cavalry would have room to +act, and waited the assault of all the forces that France +and Italy could collect. The Visigoths prepared for the +decisive engagement under their king, Theodoric; the +Franks of the Saal under Meroveg; the Ripuarian +Franks, the Saxons, and the Burgundians were +under leaders of their own. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 451.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>It was a fight in +which were brought face to face the two conquering +races of the world, and upon its result it depended +whether Europe was to be ruled by a dynasty of Calmucks +or left to her free progress under her Gothic and +Teutonic kings. Three hundred thousand corpses +marked the severity of the struggle, but victory rested +with the West. Attila retreated from Gaul, and wreaked +his vengeance on the Italian cities. He destroyed Aquileia, +whose terrified inhabitants hid themselves in the +marshes and lagoons which afterwards bore the palaces +of Venice; Vicenza, Padua, and Verona were spoiled +and burned. Pavia and Milan submitted without resistance. +On approaching Rome, the venerable bishop, +Saint Leo, met the devastating Hun, and by the gravity +of his appearance, the ransom he offered, and perhaps +the mystic dignity which still rested upon the city whose +cause he pleaded, prevailed on him to retire. Shortly +after, the chief of this brief and terrible visitation died +in his tent on the banks of the Danube, and left no +lasting memorial of his irruption except the depopulation +his cruelty had caused, and the ruin he had spread +over some of the fairest regions of the earth.</p> + +<p>But Rome, spared by the influence of the bishop from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> +the ravage of the Huns, could not escape the destroying +enmity of Genseric and the Vandals. Dashing across +from Africa, these furious conquerors destroyed for destruction’s +sake, and affixed the name of Vandalism on +whatever is harsh and unrefined. For fourteen days the +spoilers were at work in Rome, and it is only wonderful +that after so many plunderings any thing worth plundering +remained. When the sated Vandals crossed to Carthage +again, the Gothic and Suevic kings gave the +purple to whatever puppet they chose. Afraid still to invest +themselves with the insignia of the Imperial power, +they bestowed them or took them away, and at last +rendered the throne and the crown so contemptible, +that when Odoacer was proclaimed King of Italy, the +phantom assembly which still called itself the Roman +Senate sent back to Constantinople the tiara and purple +robe, in sign that the Western Empire had passed away. +Zeno, the Eastern ruler, retained the ornaments of the +departed sovereignty, and sent to the Herulean Odoacer +the title of “Patrician,” sole emblem left of the greatness +and antiquity of the Roman name. It may be interesting +to remember that the last who wore the Imperial +crown was a youth who would probably have escaped +the recognition of posterity altogether, if he had not, +by a sort of cruel mockery of his misfortunes, borne +the names of Romulus Augustulus—the former recalling +the great founder of the city, and the latter the first of +the Imperial line.</p> + +<p>Thus, then, in 476, Rome came to her deserved and +terrible end; and before we trace the influence of this +great event upon the succeeding centuries, it will be +worth while to devote a few words to the cause of its +overthrow. These were evidently three—the ineradicable +barbarity and selfishness of the Roman character, +the depravation of manners in the capital, and the want<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> +of some combining influence to bind all the parts of the +various empire into a whole. From the earliest incidents +in the history of Rome, we gather that she was +utterly regardless of human life or suffering. Her treatment +of her vanquished enemies, and her laws upon +parental authority, upon slaves and debtors, show the +pitiless disposition of her people. Look at her citizens +at any period of her career—her populace or her consuls—in +the field of battle or in the forum, you will +always find them the true descendants of those blood-stained +refugees, who established their den of robbers +on the seven hills, and pretended they were led by a +man who had been suckled by a wolf. While conquest +was their object, this sanguinary disposition enabled +them to perform great exploits; but when victory had +secured to them the blessings of peace and safety, the +same thirst for excitement continued. They cried out +for blood in the amphitheatre, and had no pleasure in +any display which was not accompanied with pain. The +rival chief who had perilled their supremacy in the field +was led in ferocious triumph at the wheel of his conqueror, +and beheaded or flogged to death at the gate of +the Capitol. The wounded gladiator looked round the +benches of the arena in hopes of seeing the thumbs of +the spectators turned down—the signal for his life being +spared; but matrons and maids, the high and the low, +looked with unmoved faces upon his agonies, and gave +the signal for his death without remorse. They were +the same people, even in their amusements, who gave +order for the destruction of Numantium and Carthage. +But cruelty was not enough. They sank into the +wildest vices of sensuality, and lost the dignity of manhood, +and the last feelings of self-respect. Never was a +nation so easily habituated to slavery. They licked the +hand that struck them hardest. They hung garlands<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> +for a long time on the tomb of Nero. They insisted on +being revenged on the murderers of Commodus, and +frequently slew more citizens in broils in the street and +quarrels in the theatre, than had fought at Cannæ or +Zama. It might have been hoped that the cruelty +which characterized the days of their military aggression +would be softened down when they had become +the acknowledged rulers of the world. Luxury itself, +it might be thought, would be inconsistent with the +sight of blood. But in this utterly detestable race the +two extremes of human society seemed to have the +same result. The brutal, half-clothed savage of an early +age conveyed his tastes as well as his conquests to the +enervated voluptuary of the empire. The virtues, such +as they were, of that former period—contempt of danger, +unfaltering resolution, and a certain simplicity of +life—had departed, and all the bad features were exaggerated. +Religion also had disappeared. Even a false +religion, if sincerely entertained, is a bond of union +among all who profess its faith. But between Rome +and its colonies, and between man and man, there was +soon no community of belief. The sweltering wretches +in the Forum sneered at the existence of Bacchus in +the midst of his mysteries, and imitated the actions of +their gods, while they laughed at the hypocrisy of +priests and augurs, who treated them as divine. A +cruel, depraved, godless people—these were the Romans +who had enslaved the world with their arms and corrupted +it with their civilization. When their capital +fell, men felt relieved from a burden and shame. The +lessons of Christianity had been thrown away on a +population too gross and too truculent to receive them. +Some of gentler mould than others had received the +Saviour; but to the mass of Romans the language of +peace and justice, of forgiveness and brotherhood, was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> +unknown. It was to be the worthier recipients of a +pure and elevating faith, that the Goth was called from +his wilderness and the German from his forest.</p> + +<p>But the faith had to be purified itself before it was +fitted for the reception of the new conquerors of the +world. The dissensions of the Christian Churches had +added only a fresh element of weakness to the empire +of Rome. There were heretics everywhere, supporting +their opinions with bigotry and violence—Arians, Sabellians, +Montanists, and fifty names besides. Torn by +these parties, dishonoured by pretended conversions, the +result of flattery and ambition, the Christian Church +was further weakened by the effect of wealth and +luxury upon its chiefs. While contending with rival +sects upon some point of discipline or doctrine, they +made themselves so notorious for the desire of riches, +and the infamous arts they practised to get themselves +appointed heirs of the rich members of their congregations, +that a law was passed making a conveyance in +favour of a priest invalid. And it is not from Pagan +enemies or heretical rivals we learn this—it is from the +letters still extant of the most honoured Fathers of the +Church. One of them tells us that the Prefect Pretextatus, +alluding to the luxury of the Pontiffs, and to +the magnificence of their apparel, said to Pope Damasus, +“Make me Bishop of Rome, and I will turn Christian.” +“Far, then,” says a Roman Catholic historian of our +own day, “from strengthening the Roman world with +its virtues, the Christian society seemed to have adopted +the vices it was its office to overcome.” But the fall of +Roman power was the resurrection of Christianity. It +had a Resurrection, because it had had a Death, and a +new world was now prepared for its reception. Its +everlasting truths, indeed, had been full of life and +vigour all through the sad period of Roman depravation,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> +but the ground was unfitted for their growth; and +the great characteristic of this century is not the conquest +of Rome by Alaric the Goth, or the dreadful +assault on Europe by Attila the Hun, or the final abolition +of the old capital of the world by Odoacer the +Herulean, but rather the ecclesiastical chaos which +spread over the earth. The age of martyrs had passed—the +philosophers had begun their pestiferous tamperings +with the facts of revelation—and over all rioted +and stormed an ambitious and worldly priesthood, who +hated their opponents with more bitterness than the +heathens had displayed against the Christians, and ran +wild in every species of lawlessness and vice. The +deserts and caves which used to give retreat to meditative +worshippers or timid believers, now teemed with +thousands of furious and fanatical monks, who rushed +occasionally into the great cities of the empire, and filled +their streets with blood and rapine. Guided by no less +fanatical bishops, they spread murder and terror over +whole provinces. Alexandria stood in more fear of +these professed recluses than of an army of hostile +soldiers. “There is a race,” says Eunapius, “called +monks—men indeed in form, but hogs in life, who practise +and allow abominable things. Whoever wears a +black robe, and is not ashamed of filthy garments, and +presents a dirty face to the public view, obtains a tyrannical +authority.” False miracles, absurd prophecies, +and ludicrous visions were the instruments with which +these and other impostors established their power. Mad +enthusiasts imprisoned themselves in dungeons, or exposed +themselves on the tops of pillars, naked, except +by the growth of their tangled hair, and the coating of +filth upon their persons,—and gained credit among the +ignorant for self-denial and abnegation of the world.</p> + +<p>All the high offices of the Church were so lucrative<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> +and honourable as to be the object of universal +desire.</p> + +<p>To be established archbishop of a diocese cost more +lives than the conquest of a province. When the Christian +community needed support from without, they had +recourse to some rich or powerful individual, some +general of an army, or governor of a district, and begged +him to assume the pastoral staff in exchange for his +military sword. Sometimes the assembled crowd cried +out the name of a favourite who was not even known +to be a Christian, and the mitre was conveyed by acclamation +to a person who had to undergo the ceremonies +of baptism and ordination before he could place it on +his head. Sometimes the exigencies of the congregation +required a scholar or an orator for its head. It +applied to a philosopher to undertake its direction. He +objected that his philosophy had been declared inconsistent +with the Christian faith, and his mode of life contrary +to Christian precept. They forgave him his philosophy, +his horses and hounds, his wife and children, +and constituted him their chief. Age was of no consequence. +A youth of eighteen has been saluted bishop +by a cry which seemed to the multitude the direct inspiration +of Heaven, and seated in the chair of his dignity +almost without his knowledge. Once established on his +episcopal seat, he had no superior. The Roman Bishop +had not yet asserted his supremacy over the Church. +Each prelate was sovereign Pontiff of his own see, and +his doctrines for a long time regulated the doctrines of +his flock. Under former bishops, Milan had been Arian, +under Ambrose it was orthodox, and with a change of +master might have been Arian again. The emperors had +occasionally interfered with their authoritative decisions, +but generally the dispute was left in divided dioceses +to be settled by argument, when the rivals’ tempers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> +allowed such a mode of warfare, but more frequently +by armed bands of the retainers of the respective creeds, +and sometimes by an appeal to miracles. But with this +century a new spirit of bitterness was let loose upon +the Church. Councils were held, at which the doctrines +of the minority were declared dangerous to the State, +and the civil power was invoked to carry the sentence +into effect. In Africa, where the great name of Augustin +of Hippo admitted no opposition, the Donatists, though +represented by no less than two hundred and seventy-nine +prelates, were condemned as heretics, and given +over to the persecuting sword. But in other quarters +the dissidents looked for support to the civil power, when +it happened to be of their opinion in Church affairs. +Rome chose Clovis, the politic and energetic Frank, for +its guardian and protector, and the Arians threw themselves +in the same way on the support of the Visigoths +and Burgundians. A difference of faith became a pretext +for war. Clovis, who envied his neighbours their +territories south of the Loire, led an expedition against +them, crying, “It is shameful to see those Arians in +possession of such goodly lands!” and everywhere a vast +activity was perceptible in the Church, because its +interests were now connected with those of kings and +peoples. In earlier times, discussions were carried on +on a great variety of doctrines which, though widely +spread, were not yet authoritatively declared to be +articles of faith. St. Jerome himself, and others, had +had to defend their opinions against the attacks of +various adversaries, who, without ceasing to be considered +true members of the Church, wrote powerfully +against the worship of martyrs and their relics; against +the miracles professedly wrought at their tombs; against +fasting, austerities, and celibacy. No appeal was made +on those occasions either to the Bishop of Rome as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> +head of the Church, or to the emperor as head of the +State. Now, however, the spirit of moderation was +banished, and the decrees of councils were considered +superior to private or even diocesan judgment. Life +and freedom of discussion were at an end under an +enforced and rigid uniformity. But the struggle lasted +through the century. It was the period of great convulsions +in the State, and disputations, wranglings, and +struggle in the Church. How these, in a State tortured +by perpetual change, and a Church filled with energy +and fire, acted upon each other, may easily be supposed. +The doubtful and unsteady civil government had subordinated +itself to the turbulent ardour of the perplexed +but highly-animated Church. After the conquest of +Rome, where was the barbaric conqueror to look for +any guide to internal unity, or any relic of the vanished +empire by which to connect himself with the past? +There was only the Church, which was now not only +the professed teacher of obedience, peace, and holiness, +but the only undestroyed institution of the State. The +old population of Rome had been wasted by the sword, +and famine, and deportation. The emperors of the West +had left the scene; the Roman Senate was no more. +There was but one authority which had any influence +on the wretched crowd who had returned to their +ancient capital, or sought refuge in its ruined palaces or +grass-grown streets from the pursuit of their foes; and +that was the Bishop of the Christian congregation—whose +palace had been given to him by Constantine—who +claimed already the inheritance of St. Peter—and +who carried to the new government either the support +of a willing people, or the enmity of a seditious mob.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 489.</div> + +<p>A new hero came upon the scene in the person +of Theodoric, the Ostrogoth. Odoacer tried +in vain to resist the two hundred thousand warriors of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> +this tribe who poured upon Italy in 490, and, after a +long resistance in Ravenna, yielded the kingdom of +Italy to his rival. Theodoric, though an Arian, cultivated +the good opinion of the orthodox, and gained the +favour of the Roman Bishop. He had almost a superstitious +veneration for the dignities of ancient Rome. +He treated with respect an assembly which called itself +the Senate, but did not allow his love of antiquity to +blind him to the degeneracy of the present race. He +interdicted arms to all men of Roman blood, and tried +in vain to prevent his followers from using the appellation +“Roman” as their bitterest form of contempt. +Lands were distributed to his followers, and they occupied +and improved a full third of Italy. Equal laws +were provided for both populations, but he forbade the +toga and the schools to his countrymen, and left the +studies and refinements of life, and offices of civil dignity, +to the native race. The hand that holds the pen, he +said, becomes unfitted for the sword. But, barbarian +as he was called, he restored the prosperity which the +fairest region of the earth had lost under the emperors. +Bridges, aqueducts, theatres, baths, were repaired; +palaces and churches built. Agriculture was encouraged, +attempts were made to drain the Pontine Marshes; iron-mines +were worked in Dalmatia, and gold-mines in Bruttium. +Large fleets protected the coasts of the Mediterranean +from pirates and invaders. Population increased, +taxes were diminished; and a ruler who could neither +read nor write attracted to his court all the learned men +of his time. Already the energy of a new and enterprising +people was felt to the extremities of his dominions. +A new race, also, was established in Gaul. Klodwig, +leader of the Franks, received baptism at the hands +of St. Remi in 496, and began the great line of French +rulers, who, passing his name through the softened<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> +sound of Clovis, presented, in the different families who +succeeded him, eighteen kings of the name of Louis, as +if commemorative of the founder of the monarchy.</p> + +<p>In England the petty kingdoms of the Heptarchy +were in the course of formation, and though, when +viewed closely, we seemed a divided and even hostile +collection of individual tribes, the historian combines +the separate elements, and tells us that, before the fifth +century expired, another branch of the barbarians had +settled into form and order, and that the Anglo-Saxon +race had taken possession of its place.</p> + +<p>With these newly-founded States rising with fresh +vigour from among the decayed and festering remains +of an older society, we look hopefully forward to what +the future years will show us.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> +<a name="SIXTH_CENTURY" id="SIXTH_CENTURY">SIXTH CENTURY.</a></h2> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of the Franks.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Clovis.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">511.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Childebert</span>, <span class="smcap">Thierry</span>, <span class="smcap">Clotaire</span>, <span class="smcap">Clodomir</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">559.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Clotaire</span> (sole King).</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">562.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Charibert</span>, <span class="smcap">Gontran</span>, <span class="smcap">Sigebert</span> and <span class="smcap">Childeric</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">584.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Clotaire II.</span>, (of Soissons.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">596.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Thierry II.</span>, <span class="smcap">Theodobert</span>, (of Paris and Austrasia.)</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Emperors of the East.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Anastasius.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">518.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Justin.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">527.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Justinian I.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">565.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Justin II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">578.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Tiberius II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">582.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Maurice.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="heading">Authors.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Boethius</span>, <span class="smcap">Procopius</span>, <span class="smcap">Gildas</span>, <span class="smcap">Gregory of Tours</span>, <span class="smcap">Columba</span>, +(520-597,) <span class="smcap">Priscian</span>, <span class="smcap">Columbanus</span>, <span class="smcap">Benedict</span>, <span class="smcap">Evagrius</span>, (<span class="smcap">Scholasticus</span>,) +<span class="smcap">Fulgentius</span>, <span class="smcap">Gregory the Great</span>.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> +<a name="THE_SIXTH_CENTURY" id="THE_SIXTH_CENTURY">THE SIXTH CENTURY.</a></h2> +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="sub-heading">BELISARIUS AND NARSES IN ITALY — SETTLEMENT OF THE +LOMBARDS — LAWS OF JUSTINIAN — BIRTH OF MOHAMMED.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Theodoric</span>, though not laying claim to universal +empire in right of his possession of Rome and Italy, +exercised a sort of supremacy over his contemporaries +by his wisdom and power. He also strengthened his +position by family alliances. His wife was sister of +Klodwig or Clovis, King of the Franks. He married +his own sister to Hunric, King of the Vandals, his niece +to the Thuringian king. One of his daughters he gave +to Sigismund, King of the Burgundians, and the other +to Alaric the Second, King of the Visigoths. Relying +on the double influence which his relationship and reputation +secured to him, he rebuked or praised the potentates +of Europe as if they had been his children, and +gave them advice in the various exigencies of their +affairs, to which they implicitly submitted. He would +fain have kept alive what was left of the old Roman +civilization, and heaped honours on the Senator Cassiodorus, +one of the last writers of Rome. “We send you +this man as ambassador,” he said to the King of the +Burgundians, “that your people may no longer pretend +to be our equals when they perceive what manner of +men we have among us.” But his rule, though generous, +was strict. He imprisoned the Bishop of Rome +for disobedience of orders in a commission he had given +him, and repressed discontent and the quarrels of the +factions with an unsparing hand. But the death of this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> +great and wise sovereign showed on what unstable +foundations a barbaric power is built. Frightful tragedies +were enacted in his family. His daughter was +murdered by her nephew, whom she had associated +with her in the guardianship of her son. But vengeance +overtook the wrong-doer, and a strange revolution +occurred in the history of the world. The emperor +reigning at Constantinople was the celebrated Justinian. +He saw into what a confused condition the affairs of the +new conquerors of Italy had fallen. Rallying round +him all the recollections of the past—giving command +of his armies to one of the great men who start up unexpectedly +in the most hopeless periods of history, +whose name, Belisarius, still continues to be familiar to +our ears—and rousing the hostile nationalities to come +to his aid, he poured into the peninsula an army with +Roman discipline and the union which community of +interests affords. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 535.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>In a remarkably short space +of time, Belisarius achieved the conquest of +Italy. The opposing soldiers threw down their arms +at sight of the well-remembered eagles. The nations +threw off the supremacy of the Ostrogoths. Belisarius +had already overthrown the kingdom of the Vandals +and restored Africa to the empire of the East. He took +Naples, and put the inhabitants to the sword. He advanced +upon Rome, which the Goths deserted at his +approach. The walls of the great city were restored, +and a victory over the fugitives at Perugia seemed to +secure the whole land to its ancient masters. But +Witig, the Ostrogoth, gathered courage from despair. +He besought assistance from the Franks, who had now +taken possession of Burgundy; and volunteers from all +quarters flocked to his standard, for he had promised +them the spoils of Milan. Milan was immensely rich, +and had espoused the orthodox faith. The assailants<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> +were Arians, and intent on plunder. Such destruction +had scarcely been seen since the memorable slaughter of +the Huns at Châlons on the Marne. The Ostrogoths and +Burgundian Franks broke into the town, and the streets +were piled up with the corpses of all the inhabitants. +There were three hundred thousand put to death, and +multitudes had died of famine and disease. The ferocity +was useless, and Belisarius was already on the march; +Witig was conquered, in open fight, while he was busy +besieging Rome; Ravenna itself, his capital, was taken, +and the Ostrogothic king was led in triumph along the +streets of Constantinople.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 540.</div> + +<p>But the conqueror of the Ostrogoths fell into disfavour +at court. He was summoned home, and a great +man, whom his presence in Italy had kept in +check, availed himself of his absence. Totila seemed +indeed worthy to succeed to the empire of his countryman +Theodoric. He again peopled the utterly exhausted +Rome; he restored its buildings, and lived +among the new-comers himself, encouraging their efforts +to give it once more the appearance of the capital of the +world. But these efforts were in vain. There was no +possibility of reviving the old fiction of the identity of +the freshly-imported inhabitants and the countrymen of +Scipio and Cæsar. Only one link was possible between +the old state of things and the new. It was strange +that it was left for the Christian Bishop to bridge over +the chasm that separated the Rome of the Consulship +and the Empire from the capital of the Goths. Yet so +it was. While the short duration of the reigns of the +barbaric kings prevented the most sanguine from looking +forward to the stability of any power for the future, +the immunity already granted to the clerical order, and +the sanctuary afforded, in the midst of the wildest excesses +of siege and storm, by their shrines and churches,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> +had affixed a character of inviolability and permanence +to the influence of the ecclesiastical chief. At Constantinople, +the presence of the sovereign, who affected a +grandeur to which the pretensions to divinity of the +Roman emperors had been modesty and simplicity, kept +the dignity of the Bishop in a very secondary place. +But at Rome there was no one left to dispute his rank. +His office claimed a duration of upwards of four hundred +years; and though at first his predecessors had been +fugitives and martyrs, and even now his power had no +foundation except in the willing obedience of the members +of his flock, the necessity of his position had forced +him to extend his claims beyond the mere requirements +of his spiritual rule. During the ephemeral occupations +of the city by Vandals and Huns and Ostrogoths, and +all the tribes who successively took possession of the +great capital, he had been recognised as the representative +of the most influential portion of the inhabitants. +As it naturally followed that the higher the rank of a +ruler or intercessor was, the more likely his success +would be, the Christians of the orthodox persuasion had +the wisdom to raise their Bishop as high as they could. +He had stood between the devoted city and the Huns; +he had promised obedience or threatened resistance to +the Goths, according to the conduct pursued with regard +to his flock by the conquerors. He had also lent to +Belisarius all the weight of his authority in restoring +the power of the emperors, and from this time the +Bishop of Rome became a great civil as well as ecclesiastical +officer. All parties in turn united in trying to +win him over to their cause—the Arian kings, by kindness +and forbearance to his adherents; and the orthodox, +by increasing the rights and privileges of his see. And +already the policy of the Roman Pontiffs began to take +the path it has never deserted since. They looked out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> +in all quarters for assistance in their schemes of ambition +and conquest. Emissaries were despatched into many +nations to convert them, not from heathenism to Christianity, +but from independence to an acknowledgment +of their subjection to Rome. It was seen already that +a great spiritual empire might be founded upon the +ruins of the old Roman world, and spread itself over the +perplexed and unstable politics of the barbaric tribes. +No means, accordingly, were left untried to extend the +conquests of the spiritual Cæsar. When Clovis the +Frank was converted by the entreaties of his wife from +Arianism to the creed of the Roman Church, the orthodox +bishops of France considered it a victory over +their enemies, though these enemies were their countrymen +and neighbours. And from henceforth we find the +different confessions of faith to have more influence in +the setting up or overthrowing of kingdoms than the +strength of armies or the skill of generals. Narses, +who was appointed the successor of Belisarius, was a +believer in the decrees of the Council of Nice. His orthodoxy +won him the support of all the orthodox Huns +and Heruleans and Lombards, who formed an army of +infuriated missionaries rather than of soldiers, and +gained to his cause the majority of the Ostrogoths +whom it was his task to fight. Totila in vain tried to +bear up against this invasion. The heretical Ostrogoths, +expelled from the towns by their orthodox fellow-citizens, +and ill supported by the inhabitants of the lands they +traversed, were defeated in several battles; and at last, +when the resisting forces were reduced to the paltry +number of seven thousand men, their spirits broken by +defeat, and a continuance in Italy made useless by the +hostile feelings of the population, they applied to Narses +for some means of saving their lives. He furnished them +with vessels, which carried them from the lands which,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> +sixty years before, had been assigned them by the great +Theodoric, and they found an obscure termination to so +strange and checkered a career, by being lost and mingled +in the crowded populations of Constantinople. This was +in 553. The Ostrogoths disappear from history. The +Visigoths have still a settlement at the southwest of France +and in the rich regions of Spain, but they are isolated by +their position, and are divided into different branches. +The Franks are a great and seemingly well-cemented +race between the Rhine and the sea. The Burgundians +have a form of government and code of laws which keep +them distinct and powerful. There are nations rising +into independence in Germany. In England, Christianity +has formed a bond which practically gives firmness +and unity to the kingdoms of the Heptarchy; and +it might be expected that, having seen so many tribes +of strange and varying aspect emerge from the unknown +regions of the East, we should have little to do but +watch the gradual enlightenment of those various races, +and see them assuming, by slow degrees, their present +respective places; but the undiscovered extremities of +the earth were again to pour forth a swarm of invaders, +who plunged Italy back into its old state of barbarism +and oppression, and established a new people in the +midst of its already confused and intermixed populations.</p> + +<p>Somewhere up between the Aller and the Oder there +had been settled, from some unknown period, a people +of wild and uncultivated habits, who had occasionally +appeared in small detachments in the various gatherings +of barbarians who had forced their way into the South. +Following the irresistible impulse which seems to impel +all the settlers in the North, they traversed the regions +already occupied by the Heruleans and the Gepides, and +paused, as all previous invasions had done, on the outer +boundary of the Danube. These were the Longobards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> +or Lombards, so called from the spears, <i>bardi</i>, with +which they were armed; and not long they required to +wait till a favourable opportunity occurred for them to +cross the stream. In the hurried levies of Narses some +of them had offered their services, and had been present +at the victory over Totila the Goth. They returned, in +all probability, to their companions, and soon the hearts +of the whole tribe were set upon the conquest of the +beautiful region their countrymen had seen. If they +hesitated to undertake so long an expedition, two incidents +occurred which made it indispensable. Flying in +wild fury and dismay from the face of a pursuing enemy, +the Avars, themselves a ferocious Asiatic horde which +had terrified the Eastern Empire, came and joined themselves +to the Lombards. With united forces, all their +tents, and wives and children, their horses and cattle, +this dreadful alliance began their progress to Italy. The +other incident was, that in revenge for the injustice of +his master, and dreading his further malice, Narses himself +invited their assistance. Alboin, the Lombard +king, was chief of the expedition. He had been refused +the hand of Rosamund, the daughter of Cunimond, +chief of the Gepides. He poured the combined armies +of Lombards and Avars upon the unfortunate tribe, +slew the king with his own hand, and, according to the +inhuman fashion of his race, formed his drinking-cup +of his enemy’s skull. He married Rosamund, and pursued +his victorious career. He crossed the Julian Alps, +made himself master of Milan and the dependent territories, +and was lifted on the shield as King of Italy. At +a festival in honour of his successes, he forced his +favourite wine-goblet into the hands of his wife. She +recognised the fearful vessel, and shuddered while she +put her lips to the brim. But hatred took possession of +her heart. She promised her hand and throne to Kilmich,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> +one of her attendants, if he would take vengeance +on the tyrant who had offered her so intolerable a +wrong. The attendant was won by the bride, and slew +Alboin. But justice pursued the murderers. They +were discovered, and fled to Ravenna, where the Exarch +held his court. Saved thus from human retribution, +Rosamund brought her fate upon herself. Captivated +with the prospect of marrying the Exarch, she presented +a poisoned cup to Kilmich, now become her husband, as +he came from the bath. The effect was immediate, and +the agonies he felt told him too surely the author of his +death. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 575.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>He just lived long enough to stab the wretched +woman with his dagger, and this frightful domestic +tragedy was brought to a close.</p> + +<p>Alboin had divided his dominion into many little +states and dukedoms. A kind of anarchy succeeded +the strong government of the remorseless and clear-sighted +king, and enemies began to arise in different +directions. The Franks from the south of France +began to cross the Alps. The Greek settlements began +to menace the Lombards from the South. Internal disunion +was quelled by the public danger, and Antharis, +the son of Cleph, was nominated king. To strengthen +himself against the orthodox Franks, he professed himself +a Christian and joined the Arian communion. With +the aid of his co-religionists he repelled the invaders, +and had time, in the intervals of their assaults, to extend +his conquests to the south of the peninsula. There +he overthrew the settlements which owned the Empire +of the East; and coming to the extreme end of Italy, +the savage ruler pushed his war-horse into the water as +deep as it would go, and, standing up in his stirrups, +threw forward his javelin with all his strength, saying, +“That is the boundary of the Lombard power.” Unhappily +for the unity of that distracted land, the warrior’s<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> +boast was unfounded, and it has continued ever +since a prey to discord and division. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 591.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Another kingdom, +however, was added to the roll of European states; and +this was the last settlement permanently made +on the old Roman territory.</p> + +<p>The Lombards were a less civilized horde than any +of their predecessors. The Ostrogoths had rapidly assimilated +themselves to the people who surrounded +them, but the Lombards looked with haughty disdain +on the population they had subdued. By portioning +the country among the chiefs of the expedition, they +commenced the first experiment on a great scale of +what afterwards expanded into the feudal system. +There were among them, as among the other northern +settlers, an elective king and an hereditary nobility, +owing suit and service to their chief, and exacting the +same from their dependants; and already we see the +working of this similarity of constitution in the diffusion +throughout the whole of Europe of the monarchical and +aristocratic principle, which is still the characteristic of +most of our modern states. From this century some +authors date the origin of what are called the “Middle +Ages,” forming the great and obscure gulf between +ancient and modern times. Others, indeed, wish to fix +the commencement of the Middle Ages at a much +earlier date—even so far back as the reign of Constantine. +They found this inclination on the fact that to +him we are indebted for the settlement of barbarians +within the empire, and the institution of a titled nobility +dependent on the crown. But many things were needed +besides these to constitute the state of manners and +polity which we recognise as those of the Middle Ages, +and above them all the establishment of the monarchical +principle in ecclesiastical government, and the recognition<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> +of a sovereign priest. This was now close at hand, +and its approach was heralded by many appearances.</p> + +<p>How, indeed, could the Church deprive itself of the +organization which it saw so powerful and so successful +in civil affairs? A machinery was all ready to produce +an exact copy of the forms of temporal administration. +There were bishops to be analogous to the great feudataries +of the crown; priests and rectors to represent the +smaller freeholders dependent on the greater barons; +but where was the monarch by whom the whole system +was to be combined and all the links of the great chain +held together by a point of central union? The want +of this had been so felt, that we might naturally have +expected a claim to universal superiority to have long +ere this been made by a Pope of Rome, the ancient seat +of the temporal power. But with his residence perpetually +a prey to fresh inroads, a heretical king merely +granting him toleration and protection, the pretension +would have been too absurd during the troubles of Italy, +and it was not advanced for several years. The necessity +of the case, however, was such, that a voice was +heard from another quarter calling for universal obedience, +and this was uttered by the Patriarch of Constantinople. +Rome, we must remember, had by this time +lost a great portion of her ancient fame. It was reserved +for this wonderful city to rise again into all her +former grandeur, by the restoration of learning and the +knowledge of what she had been. At this period all +that was known of her by the ignorant barbarians was, +that she was a fresh-repaired and half-peopled town, +which had been sacked and ruined five times within a +century, that her inhabitants were collected from all +parts of the world, and that she was liable to a repetition +of her former misfortunes. They knew nothing +of the great men who had raised her to such pre-eminence.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> +She had sunk even from being the capital of Italy, and +could therefore make no intelligible claim to be considered +the capital of the world. Constantinople, on +the other hand, which, by our system of education, we +are taught to look upon as a very modern creation +compared with the Rome of the old heroic ages of the +kings and consuls, was at that period a magnificent metropolis, +which had been the seat of government for +three hundred years. The majesty of the Roman name +had transferred itself to that new locality, and nothing +was more natural than that the Patriarch of the city of +Constantine, which had been imperial from its origin, +and had never been defiled by the presence of a Pagan +temple, should claim for himself and his see a pre-eminence +both in power and holiness. Accordingly, a +demand was made in 588 for the recognition throughout +the Christian world of the universal headship of the +bishopric of Constantinople. But at that time there +was a bishop of Rome, whom his successors have gratefully +dignified with the epithet of Great, who stood up +in defence, not of his own see only, but of all the bishoprics +in Europe. Gregory published, in answer to the +audacious claim of the Eastern patriarch, a vigorous +protest, in which these remarkable words occur:—“This +I declare with confidence, that whoso designates himself +Universal Priest, or, in the pride of his heart, consents +to be so named—he is the forerunner of Antichrist.” It +was therefore to Rome, on the broad ground of the +Christian equality of all the chief pastors of the Church, +that we owe this solemn declaration against the pretensions +of the ambitious John of Constantinople.</p> + +<p>But Constantinople itself was about to fade from the +minds of men. Dissatisfied with the opposition to its +supremacy, the Eastern Church became separated in +interest and discipline and doctrine from its Western<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> +branch. The intercourse between the two was hostile, +and in a short time nearly ceased. The empire also +was so deeply engaged in defending its boundaries +against the Persians and other enemies in Asia, that +it took small heed of the proceedings of its late dependencies, +the newly-founded kingdoms in Europe. It +is probable that the refined and ostentatious court of +Justinian, divided as it was into fanatical parties about +some of the deepest and some of the most unimportant +mysteries of the faith, and contending with equal bitterness +about the charioteers of the amphitheatre according +as their colours were green or blue, looked with profound +contempt on the struggles after better government +and greater enlightenment of the rabble of Franks, +and Lombards, and Burgundians, who had settled themselves +in the distant lands of the West. The interior +regulations of Justinian formed a strange contrast with +the grandeur and success of his foreign policy. By his +lieutenants Belisarius and Narses, he had reconquered +the lost inheritance of his predecessors, and held in full +sovereignty for a while the fertile shores of Africa, +rescued from the debasing hold of the Vandals; he had +cleared Italy of Ostrogoths, Spain even had yielded an +unwilling obedience, and his name was reverenced in +the great confederacy of the Germanic peoples who +held the lands from the Atlantic eastward to Hungary, +and from Marseilles to the mouth of the Elbe. But his +home was the scene of every weakness and wickedness +that can disgrace the name of man. Kept in slavish +submission to his wife, he did not see, what all the rest +of the world saw, that she was the basest of her sex, +and a disgrace to the place he gave her. Beginning as +a dancer at the theatre, she passed through every grade +of infamy and vice, till the name of Theodora became a +synonym for every thing vile and shameless. Yet this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> +man, successful in war and politic in action, though contemptible +in private life, had the genius of a legislator, +and left a memorial of his abilities which extended its +influence through all the nations which succeeded to +any portion of the Roman dominion, and has shaped +and modified the jurisprudence of all succeeding times. +He was not so much a maker of new laws, as a restorer +and simplifier of the old; and as the efforts of Justinian +in this direction were one of the great features by which +the sixth century is distinguished, it will be useful to +devote a page or two to explain in what his work consisted.</p> + +<p>The Roman laws had become so numerous and so +contradictory that the administration of justice was +impossible, even where the judges were upright and +intelligent. The mere word of an emperor had been +considered a decree, and legally binding for all future +time. No lapse of years seems to have brought a law +once promulgated into desuetude. The people, therefore, +groaned under the uncertainty of the statutes, +which was further increased by the innumerable glosses +or interpretations put upon them by the lawyers. All +the decisions which had ever been given by the fifty-four +emperors, from Adrian to Justinian, were in full force. +All the commentaries made upon them by advocates +and judges, and all the sentences delivered in accordance +with them, were contained in thousands of volumes; +and the result was, when Justinian came to the throne +in 526, that there was no point of law on which any +man could be sure. He employed the greatest jurisconsults +of that time, Trebonian and others, to bring some +order into the chaos; and such was the diligence of the +commissioners, that in fourteen months they produced +the Justinian Code in twelve books, containing a +condensation of all previous constitutions. <span class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 527.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span></span>In the course of seven years, two hundred laws and fifty +judgments were added by the emperor himself, and a +new edition of the Code was published in 534. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 533.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Under +the name of Institutes appeared a new manual for the +legal students in the great schools of Constantinople, +Berytus, and Rome, where the principles +of Roman law are succinctly laid down. The third of +his great works was one for the completion of which he +gave Trebonian and his assessors ten years. It is called +the Digest or Pandects of Justinian, because in it were +digested, or put in order in a general collection, the best +decisions of the courts, and the opinions and treatises +of the ablest lawyers. All previous codes were ransacked, +and two thousand volumes of legal argument +condensed; and in three years the indefatigable law-reformers +published their work, wherein three million +leading judgments were reduced to a hundred and fifty +thousand. Future confusion was guarded against by a +commandment of the emperor abolishing all previous +laws and making it penal to add note or comment to +the collection now completed. The sentences delivered +by the emperor, after the appearance of the Pandects, +were published under the name of the Novellæ; and +with this great clearing-out of the Augean stable of +ancient law, the salutary labours of Trebonian came to +a close. In those laws are to be seen both the virtues +and the vices of their origin. They sprang from the +wise liberality of a despot, and handle the rights of subjects, +in their relation to each other, with the equanimity +and justice of a power immeasurably raised above +them all. But the unlimited supremacy of the ruler is +maintained as the sole foundation for the laws themselves. +So we see in these collections, and in the spirit +which they have spread over all the codes which have +taken them for their model, a combination of humanity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> +and probity in the civil law, with a tendency to exalt +to a ridiculous excess the authority of the governing +power.</p> + +<p>This has been a century of wonderful revolutions. +We have seen the kingdom of the Ostrogoths take the +lead in Europe under the wise government of Theodoric +the Great. We have seen it overthrown by an army of +very small size, consisting of the very forces they had +so recently triumphed over in every battle; and finally, +after the victories over them of Belisarius and Narses, +we have seen the last small remnant of their name removed +from Italy altogether and eradicated from history +for all future time. But, strange as this reassertion +of the Greek supremacy was, the rapidity of its overthrow +was stranger still. A new people came upon the +stage, and established the Lombard power. The empire +contracted itself within its former narrow bounds, and +kept up the phantom of its superiority merely by the +residence of an Exarch, or provincial governor, at +Ravenna. The fiction of its power was further maintained +by the Emperor’s official recognition of certain +rulers, and his ratification of the election of the Roman +bishops. But in all essentials the influence had departed +from Constantinople, and the Western monarchies were +separated from the East.</p> + +<p>In the Northwest, the confederacy of the Franks, +which had consolidated into one immense and powerful +kingdom under Clovis, became separated, weakened, +and converted into open enemies under his degenerate +successors.</p> + +<p>But as the century drew to a close, a circumstance +occurred, far away from the scene of all these proceedings, +which had a greater influence on human affairs +than the reconquest of Italy or the establishment of +France. This was the marriage of a young man in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> +town of Arabia with the widow of his former master. +In 564 this young man was born in Mecca, where his +family had long held the high office of custodiers and +guardians of the famous Caaba, which was popularly +believed to be the stone that covered the grave of +Abraham. But when he was still a child his father +died, and he was left to the care of his uncle. The +simplicity of the Arab character is shown in the way in +which the young noble was brought up. Abu Taleb +initiated him in the science of war and the mysteries of +commerce. He managed his horse and sword like an +accomplished cavalier, and followed the caravan as a +merchant through the desert. Gifted with a high poetical +temperament, and soaring above the grovelling +superstitions of the people surrounding him, he used +to retire to meditate on the great questions of man’s +relation to his Maker, which the inquiring mind can +never avoid. Meditation led to excitement. He saw +visions and dreamed dreams. He saw great things +before him, if he could become the leader and lawgiver +of his race. But he was poor and unknown. His mistress +Cadijah saw the aspirations of her noble servant, +and offered him her hand. He was now at leisure to +mature the schemes of national regeneration and religious +improvement which had occupied him so long, +and devoted himself more than ever to study and contemplation. +This was Mohammed, the Prophet of +Islam, who retired in 594 to perfect his scheme, and +whose empire, before many years elapsed, extended from +India to Spain, and menaced Christianity and Europe +at the same time from the Pyrenees and the Danube.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> +<a name="SEVENTH_CENTURY" id="SEVENTH_CENTURY">SEVENTH CENTURY.</a></h2> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of the Franks.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Thierry</span> II. and <span class="smcap">Theodobert</span> II.—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">614.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Clotaire III.</span> (sole king.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">628.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Dagobert</span> and <span class="smcap">Charibert</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">638.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Sigebert</span> and <span class="smcap">Clovis II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">654.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Childeric II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">679.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Thierry IV.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">692.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Clovis III.</span> (<span class="smcap">Pepin</span>, Mayor.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">695.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Childebert III.</span> (do.)</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Emperors of the East.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Maurice</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">602.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Phocas.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">611.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Heraclius.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">641.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Constantine</span>, (and others.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">642.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Constans.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">668.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Constantius V.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">685.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Justinian II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">695.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Leontius.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">697.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Tiberius.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="heading">Authors.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nennius</span>, (620,) <span class="smcap">Bede</span>, (674-735,) <span class="smcap">Aldhelm</span>, <span class="smcap">Adamnanus</span>.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> +<a name="THE_SEVENTH_CENTURY" id="THE_SEVENTH_CENTURY">THE SEVENTH CENTURY.</a></h2> +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="sub-heading">POWER OF ROME SUPPORTED BY THE MONKS — CONQUESTS +OF THE MOHAMMEDANS.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">This</span>, then, is the century during which Mohammedanism +and Christianity were marshalling their forces—unknown, +indeed, to each other, but preparing, according +to their respective powers, for the period when they +were to be brought face to face. We shall go eastward, +and follow the triumphant march of the warriors of the +Crescent from Arabia to the shores of Africa; but first +we shall cast a desponding eye on the condition and +prospects of the kingdoms of the West. Conquest, +spoliation, and insecurity had done their work. Wave +after wave had passed over the surface of the old Roman +State, and obliterated almost all the landmarks of the +ancient time. The towns, to be sure, still remained, but +stripped of their old magnificence, and thinly peopled by +the dispossessed inhabitants of the soil, who congregated +together for mutual support. Trade was carried +on, but subject to the exactions, and sometimes the +open robberies, of the avaricious chieftains who had +reared their fortresses on the neighbouring heights. +Large tracts of country lay waste and desolate, or were +left to the happy fertility of nature in the growth of +spontaneous woods. Marshes were formed over whole +districts, and the cattle picked up an uncertain existence +by browsing over great expanses of poor and unenclosed +land. These flocks and herds were guarded by +hordes of armed serfs, who camped beside them on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> +fields, and led a life not unlike that of their remote +ancestors on the steppes of Tartary. A man’s wealth +was counted by his retainers, and there was no supreme +authority to keep the dignitaries, even of the same +tribe, from warring on each other and wasting their +rival’s country with fire and sword. Agriculture, therefore, +was in the lowest state, and famines, plagues, and +other concomitants of want were common in all parts +of Europe. One beautiful exception must be made to +this universal neglect of agriculture, in favour of the +Benedictine monks, established in various parts of Italy +and Gaul in the course of the preceding century. Religious +reverence was a surer safeguard to those lowly +men than castles or armour could have been. No +marauder dared to trespass on lands which were under +the protection of priest and bishop. And these Western +recluses, far from imitating the slothful uselessness of +the Eastern monks, turned their whole attention to the +cultivation of the soil. In this they bestowed a double +benefit on their fellow-men, for, in addition to the positive +improvement of the land, they rescued labour from +the opprobrium into which it had fallen, and raised it to +the dignity of a religious duty. Slavery, we have seen, +was universally practised in all the conquered territories, +and as only the slaves were compelled to the drudgeries +of the field, the work itself borrowed a large portion of +the degradation of the unhappy beings condemned to +it; and robbery, pillage, murder, and every crime, were +considered far less derogatory to the dignity of free +Frank or Burgundian than the slightest touch of the +mattock or spade. How surprised, then, were the +haughty countrymen and descendants of Clovis or +Alboin to see the revered hands from which they believed +the highest blessings of Heaven to flow, employed +in the daily labour of digging, planting, sowing, reaping,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> +thrashing, grinding, and baking! At first they looked +incredulously on. Even the monks were disposed to +consider it no part of their conventual duties. But the +founder of their institution wrote to them, “to beware +of idleness, as the greatest enemy of the soul,” and not +to be uneasy if at any time the cares of the harvest +hindered them from their formal readings and regulated +prayers. “No person is ever more usefully employed +than when working with his hands or following the +plough, providing food for the use of man.” And the +effects of these exhortations were rapidly seen. Wherever +a monastery was placed, there were soon fertile +fields all round it, and innumerable stacks of corn. Generally +chosen with a view to agricultural pursuits, we +find sites of abbeys at the present day which are the +perfect ideal of a working farm; for long after the outburst +of agricultural energy had expired among the +monks of St. Benedict, the choice of situation and knowledge +of different soils descended to the other ecclesiastical +establishments, and skill in agriculture continued +at all times a characteristic of the religious orders. What +could be more enchanting than the position of their +monastic homes? Placed on the bank of some beautiful +river, surrounded on all sides by the low flat lands enriched +by the neighbouring waters, and protected by +swelling hills where cattle are easily fed, we are too +much in the habit of attributing the selection of so +admirable a situation to the selfishness of the portly +abbot. When the traveller has admired the graces of +Melrose or of Tintern—the description applies equally +to almost all the foundations of an early date—and has +paid due attention to the chasteness of the architecture, +and beauty of “the long-resounding aisle and fretted +vault,” he sometimes contemplates with a sneer the +matchless charm of the scenery, and exceeding richness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> +of the haugh or strath in which the building stands. +“Ah,” he says, “they were knowing old gentlemen, +those monks and priors. They had fish in the river, fat +beeves upon the meadow, red-deer on the hill, ripe corn +on the water-side, a full grange at Christmas, and snowy +sheep at midsummer.” And so they had, and deserved +them all. The head of that great establishment was +not wallowing in the fat of the land to the exclusion of +envious baron or starving churl. He was, in fact, setting +them an example which it would have been wise +in them to follow. He merely chose the situation most +fitted for his purpose, and bestowed his care on the +lands which most readily yielded him his reward. It +was not necessary for the monks in those days to seek +out some neglected corner, and to restore it to cultivation, +as an exercise of their ingenuity and strength. +They were free to choose from one end of Europe to the +other, for the whole of it lay useless and comparatively +barren. But when these able-bodied recluses, if such +they may be called, had shown the results of patient +industry and skill, the peasants, who had seen their +labours, or occasionally been employed to assist them, +were able to convey to their lay proprietors or masters +the lessons they had received. And at last something +venerable was thought to reside in the act of farming +itself. It was so uniformly found an accompaniment of +the priestly character, that it acquired a portion of its +sanctity, and the rude Lombard or half-civilized Frank +looked with a kind of awe upon waving corn and rich +clover, as if they were the result of a higher intelligence +and purer life than he possessed. Even the +highest officers in the Church were expected to attend +to these agricultural conquests. In this century we +find, that when kings summoned bishops to a council, or +an archbishop called his brethren to a conference, care<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> +was taken to fix the time of meeting at a season which +did not interfere with the labours of the farm. Privileges +naturally followed these beneficial labours. The +kings, in their wondering gratitude, surrounded the +monasteries with fresh defences against the envy or +enmity of the neighbouring chiefs. Their lands became +places of sanctuary, as the altar of the Church had been. +Freedmen—that is, persons manumitted from slavery, +but not yet endowed with property—were everywhere +put under the protection of the clergy. Immunities +were heaped upon them, and methods found out of +making them a separate and superior race. At the +Council of Paris, in 613, it was decreed that the priest +who offended against the common law should be tried +by a mixed court of priests and laymen. But soon this +law, apparently so just, was not considered enough, and +the trial of ecclesiastics was given over to the ecclesiastical +tribunals, without the admixture of the civil +element. Other advantages followed from time to time. +The Church was found in all the kingdoms to be so useful +as the introducer of agriculture, and the preserver +of what learning had survived the Roman overthrow, +that the ambitious hierarchy profited by the royal and +popular favour. They were the most influential, or perhaps +it would be more just to say they were the only, +order in the State. There was a nobility, but it was +jarring and disunited; there were citizens, but they +were powerless and depressed; there was a king, but he +was but the first of the peers, and stood in dignified isolation +where he was not subordinate to a combination of +the others. The clergy, therefore, had no enemy or +rival to dread, for they had all the constituents of +power which the other portions of the population wanted. +Their property was more secure; their lands were +better cultivated; they were exempt from many of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> +the dangers and burdens to which the lay barons were +exposed; they were not liable to the risks and losses of +private war; they had more intelligence than their +neighbours, and could summon assistance, either in +advice, or support, or money, from the farthest extremity +of Europe. Nothing, indeed, added more, at +the commencement of this century, to the authority of +those great ecclesiastical chieftains, than the circumstance +that their interests were supported, not only by +their neighbouring brethren, but by mitred abbot and +lordly bishop in distant lands. If a prior or his monks +found themselves ill used on the banks of the Seine, +their cause was taken up by all other monks and priors +wherever they were placed. And the rapidity of their +intercommunication was extraordinary. Each monastery +seems to have had a number of active young +brethren who traversed the wildest regions with letters +or messages, and brought back replies, almost with the +speed and regularity of an established post. A convent +on Lebanon was informed in a very short time of what +had happened in Provence—the letter from the Western +abbot was read and deliberated on, and an answer intrusted +to the messenger, who again travelled over the +immense tract lying between, receiving hospitality at +the different religious establishments that occurred upon +his way, and everywhere treated with the kindness of a +brother. Monasteries in this way became the centres +of news as well as of learning, and for many hundred +years the only people who knew any thing of the state +of feeling in foreign nations, or had a glimpse of the +mutual interests of distant kingdoms, were the cowled +and gowned individuals who were supposed to have +given up the world and to be totally immersed in penances +and prayers. What could Hereweg of the strong +hand do against a bishop or abbot, who could tell at any<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> +hour what were the political designs of conquerors or +kings in countries which the astonished warrior did not +know even by name; who retained by traditionary +transmission the politeness of manner and elegance of +accomplishment which had characterized the best period +of the Roman power, when Christianized noblemen, on +being promoted to an episcopal see, had retained the +delicacies of their former life, and wrote love-songs as +graceful as those of Catullus, and epigrams neither so +witty nor so coarse as those of Martial? Intelligence +asserted its superiority over brute force, and in this century +the supremacy of the Church received its accomplishment +in spite of the depravation of its principles. +It gained in power and sank in morals. A hundred +years of its beneficial action had made it so popular and +so powerful that it fell into temptations, from which +poverty or unpopularity would have kept it free. The +sixth century was the period of its silent services, its +lower officers endearing themselves by useful labour, and +its dignitaries distinguishing themselves by learning and +zeal. In the seventh century the fruit of all those virtues +was to be gathered by very different hands. Ambitious +contests began between the different orders composing +the gradually rising hierarchy, from the monk in his +cell to the Bishop of Rome or Constantinople on their +pontifical thrones. It is very sad, after the view we +have taken of the early benefits bestowed on many +nations by the labours and example of the priests and +monks, to see in the period we have reached the total +cessation of life and energy in the Church;—of life and +energy, we ought to say, in the fulfilment of its duties; +for there was no want of those qualities in the gratification +of its ambition. Forgetful of what Gregory had +pronounced the chief sign of Antichrist, when he opposed +the pretension of his rival metropolitan to call<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> +himself Universal Bishop, the Bishops of Rome were +deterred by no considerations of humility or religion +from establishing their temporal power. Up to this +time they had humbly received the ratification of their +election from the Emperors of the East, whose subjects +they still remained. But the seat of their empire was +far off, their power was a tradition of the past, and +great thoughts came into the hearts of the spiritual +chiefs, of inroads on the territory of the temporal rulers. +In this design they looked round for supporters and +allies, and with a still more watchful eye on the quarters +from which opposition was to be feared. The bishops as +a body had fallen not only into contempt but hatred. +One century had sufficed to extinguish the elegant +scholarship I have mentioned, at one time characteristic +of the Christian prelates. Ignorance had become the +badge of all the governors of the Church—ignorance +and debauchery, and a tyrannical oppression of their +inferiors. The wise old man in Rome saw what advantage +he might derive from this, and took the monks +under his peculiar protection, relieved them from the +supervision of the local bishop, and made them immediately +dependent on himself. By this one stroke he +gained the unflinching support of the most influential +body in Europe. Wherever they went they held forth +the Pope as the first of earthly powers, and began +already, in the enthusiasm of their gratitude, to speak +of him as something more than mortal. To this the +illiterate preachers and prelates had nothing to reply. +They were sunk either in the grossest darkness, or involved +in the wildest schemes of ambition, bishoprics +being even held by laymen, and by both priest and laymen +used as instruments of advancement and wealth. +From these the Pontiff on the Tiber, whose weaknesses +and vices were unknown, and who was held up for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> +invidious contrast with the bishops of their acquaintance +by the libellous and grateful monks, had nothing to +fear. He looked to another quarter in the political sky, +and perceived with satisfaction that the kingly office also +had fallen into contempt. Having lost the first impulse +which carried it triumphantly over the dismembered +Roman world, and made it a tower of strength in the +hands of warriors like Theodoric the Goth and Clovis the +Frank, it had forfeited its influence altogether in the pitiful +keeping of the bloodthirsty or do-nothing kings who had +submitted to the tutelage of the Mayors of the Palace.</p> + +<p>One of the great supports of the royal influence was +the fiction of the law by which all lands were supposed +to hold of the Crown. As in ancient days, in the German +or Scythian deserts, the ambitious chieftain had +presented his favourite with spear or war-horse in token +of approval, so in the early days of the conquest of +Gaul, the leader had presented his followers with tracts +of land. The war-horse, under the old arrangement, +died, and the spear became rotten; but the land was +subject neither to death nor decay. What, then, was to +become of the warrior’s holding when he died? On this +question, apparently so personal to the barbaric chiefs +of the time of Dagobert of Gaul, depended the whole +course of European history. The kings claimed the +power of re-entering on the lands in case of the demise +of the proprietor, or even in case of his rebellion or disobedience. +The Leud, as he was called—or feudatory, +as he would have been named at a later time—disputed +this, and contended for the perpetuity and inalienability +of the gift. It is easy to perceive who were the winners +in this momentous struggle. From the success of the +leuds arose the feudal system, with limited monarchies +and national nobilities. The success of the kings would +have resulted in despotic thrones and enslaved populations.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> +Foremost in the struggle for the royal supremacy +had been the famous and unprincipled Brunehild, a +woman more resembling the unnatural creation of a +romance than a real character. She had succeeded at +one time in subordinating the leuds, by exterminating +the recusants with remorseless cruelty; and her triumph +might have been final and irrevocable if she had not +had the bad luck or impolitic hardihood to offend the +Church. The Abbot Columba, a holy man from the far-distant +island of Iona in the Hebrides of Scotland, had +ventured to upbraid her with her crimes. She banished +him from the Abbey of Luxeuil with circumstances of +peculiar harshness, and there was no hope for her more. +The leuds she might have overcome singly, for they +were disunited and scattered; but now there was not a +monastery in Europe which did not side with her foes. +Clotaire, her grandson, marched against her at the instigation +of priests and leuds combined. She was conquered +and taken. She was tortured for three days +with all the ingenuity of hatred, and on the fourth was +tied to the tails of four wild horses and torn to pieces, +though the mother, sister, daughter, of kings, and now +more than eighty years of age. And this brings us to +the institution and use of the strange officers we have +already named Mayors of the Palace.</p> + +<p>To aid them in their efforts against the royal assumptions, +the leuds long ago had elected one of themselves +to be domestic adviser of the king, and also to command +the armies in war. This soon became the recognised +right of the Mayor of the Palace; and as in that state +of society the wars were nearly perpetual, and bearers +of arms the only wielders of power, the person invested +with the command was in reality the supreme authority +in the State. When the king happened to be feeble +either in body or mind, the mayor supplied his place,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> +without even the appearance of inferiority; and when +Dagobert, the last active member of the Merovingian +family, died in 638, his successors were merely the +nominal holders of the Crown. A new race rose into +importance, and it will not be very long before we meet +the hereditary Mayors of the Palace as hereditary +Kings of the Franks. Here, then, was the whole of +Europe heaving with some inevitable change. It will +be interesting to look at the position of its different +parts before they settled into their new relations. The +constitutions of the various kingdoms were very nearly +alike at this time. There were popular assemblies in +every nation. In France they were called the “Fields +of May” or of “March,” in England the “Wittenagemot,” +in Spain the “Council of Toledo.” These meetings +consisted of the freemen and landholders and bishops. +But it was soon found inconvenient for the freemen and +smaller proprietors to attend, in consequence of the +length of the journey and the miserable condition of the +roads; and the nobles and bishops were the sole persons +who represented the State. The nobles held a parallel +rank to each other in all countries, though called by +different names. In France, a person in possession of +any office connected with the court, or of lands presented +by the Crown, was called a leud or entrustion, +a count or companion, or vassal. In England he was +called a royal thane. The lower order of freemen were +called herimans, or inferior thanes; in Latin <i>liberi</i>, or +more simply, <i>boni homines</i>, good men. Below these were +the Romans, or old inhabitants of the country; below +these, the serfs or bondmen attached to the soil; and far +down, below them all, out of all hope or consideration, +the slaves, who were the mere chattels of their lords. +This, then, was the constitution of European society +when the Arabian conquests began—at the head of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> +nation the King, at the head of the people the Church; +the nobles followed according to their birth or power; +the freemen, whether citizens engaged in the first infant +struggles of trade, or occupying a farm, came next; and +the wretched catalogue was ended by the despoiled +serf, from whom every thing, even his property in himself, +had been taken away. There were laws for the +protection or restraint of each of these orders, and we +may gather an idea of the ranks they held in public +estimation by the following table of the price of blood:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="price of blood" class="table-center"> +<tr><td class="crime"></td><td class="price">Sols.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="crime">For the murder of a freeman, companion, or leud of the king, +killed in his palace by an armed band</td><td class="price">1800</td></tr> +<tr><td class="crime">A duke—among the Bavarians, a bishop</td><td class="price">960</td></tr> +<tr><td class="crime">A relation of a duke</td><td class="price">640</td></tr> +<tr><td class="crime">The king’s leud, a count, a priest, a judge</td><td class="price">600</td></tr> +<tr><td class="crime">A deacon</td><td class="price">500</td></tr> +<tr><td class="crime">A freeman, of the Salians or Ripuarians</td><td class="price">200</td></tr> +<tr><td class="crime">A freeman, of the other tribes</td><td class="price">160</td></tr> +<tr><td class="crime">The slave—a good workman in gold</td><td class="price">100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="crime">The man of middle station, a colon, or good workman in silver</td><td class="price">100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="crime">The freedman</td><td class="price">80</td></tr> +<tr><td class="crime">The slave, if a barbarian—that is, of the conquering tribe</td><td class="price">55</td></tr> +<tr><td class="crime">The slave, a workman in iron</td><td class="price">50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="crime">The serf of the Church or the king</td><td class="price">45</td></tr> +<tr><td class="crime">The swineherd</td><td class="price">30</td></tr> +<tr><td class="crime">The slave, among the Bavarians</td><td class="price">20</td></tr> +</table> +</div> +<p>Distinctions of dress pointed out still more clearly the +difference of rank and station. The principal variety, +however, was the method of wearing the hair. The +chieftain among the Franks considered the length and +profusion of his locks as the mark of his superiority. +His broad flowing tresses were divided up the middle +of his head, and floated over his shoulders. They were +curled and oiled—not with common butter, like some +other nations, says an author quoted by Chateaubriand; +not twisted in little plaits, like those of the Goths, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> +carefully combed out to their full luxuriance. The +common soldier, on the other hand, wore his hair long +in front, but trimmed close behind. They swore by +their hair as the most sacred of their oaths, and offered +a tress to the Church on returning from a successful +war. From this peculiar consideration given to the +hair arose the custom, still prevalent, of shaving the +heads of ecclesiastics. They were the serfs of God, and +sacrificed their locks in token that they were no longer +free. When a chief was dishonoured, when a king was +degraded, when a rival was to be rendered incapable of +opposition, he was not, as in barbarous countries, put to +death: he was merely made bald. No amount of popularity, +no degree of right, could rouse the people in support +of a person whose head was bare. When his hair +grew again, he might again become formidable; but the +scissors were always at hand. A tyrannical king clipped +his enemies’ hair, instead of taking off their heads. +They were condemned to the barber instead of the executioner, +and sometimes thought the punishment more +severe. The sons of Clothilde sent an emissary to her, +bearing in his hand a sword and a pair of scissors. +“O queen,” he said, “your sons, our masters, wish to +know whether you will have your grandchildren slain +or clipped.” The queen paused for a moment, and then +said, “If my grandchildren are doomed not to mount +the throne, I would rather have them dead than hairless.”</p> + +<p>Distinguished thus from the lower orders, the nobility +soon found that their interests differed from those of the +Church. The Church placed itself at the head of the democracy +in opposition to the overweening pretensions +of the chiefs. It opened its ranks to the conquered +races, and invested even the converted serf with dignities +which placed him above the level of Thane or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> +Count. The head of the Western Church, now by +general consent recognised in the Bishop of Rome, was +not slow to see the advantage of his position as leader +of a combination in favour of the million. The doctrine +of the equality of all men in the sight of Heaven was +easily commuted into a demand of universal submission +to the Holy See; and so wide was the range given to +this claim to obedience that it embraced the proudest +of the nobles and haughtiest of kings. It was a satisfaction +to the slave in his dungeon to hear that the +great man in his castle had been forced to do homage to +the Church. There was one earthly power to which +the oppressed could look up with the certainty of support. +It was this intimate persuasion in the minds of +the people which gave such undying vigour to the +counsels and pretensions of the ecclesiastical power. It +was a power sprung from the people, and exercised for +the benefit of the people. The Popes themselves were +generally selected from the lowest rank. But what did +it matter to the man who led the masses of the trampled +nations, and stood as a shield between them and their +tyrants, whether he claimed relationship with emperors +or slaves? What did it matter, on the other hand, to +those hoping and trusting multitudes, whether the object +of their confidence was personally a miracle of goodness +and virtue,or a monster of sin and cruelty? It was his +office to trample on the necks of kings and nobles, and +bid the captive go free. While he continued true to the +people, the people were true to him. Monarchs who +governed mighty nations, and dukes who ruled in provinces +the size of kingdoms, looked on with surprise at +the growth of a power supported apparently by no +worldly arms, but which penetrated to them through +their courts and armies. There was no great mind to +guide the opposition to its claims. The bishops were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> +sunk in ignorance and sloth, and had lost the respect of +their countrymen. The populations everywhere were +divided. The succession to the throne was uncertain. +The Franks, the leading nation, were never for any +length of time under one head. Neustria, or the +Western State, comprising all the land between the +Meuse, the Loire, and the Mediterranean, Austrasia, or +the Eastern State, comprising the land between the +Rhine, the Meuse, and the Moselle, and Burgundy, extending +from the Loire to the Alps, were at one time +united under a common head, and at another held by +hostile kings. The Visigoths were obscurely quarrelling +about points of divinity within their barrier of the Pyrenees. +England was the battle-field of half a dozen +little chieftains who called themselves kings; Germany +was only civilized on its western border. Italy was cut +up into many States, Lombards looking with suspicion +on the Exarchate, which was still nominally attached to +the Eastern Empire, and Greeks established in the South, +sighing for the restoration of their power. Over all this +chaos of contending powers appeared the mitre and +crozier of the Pope; always at the head of the disaffected +people, supported by the monks, who felt the +tyranny of the bishops as keenly as the commonalty +felt the injustice of their lords; always threatening +vengeance on overweening baron or refractory monarch—enhancing +his influence with the glory of new miracles +wrought in his support, and witnessed unblushingly by +preaching friars, who were the missionaries of papal +power; concentrating all authority in his hands, and +gradually laying the foundation for a trampling and +domination over mind and body such as the world had +never seen. From this almost universal prostration +before the claims of Rome, it is curious to see that the +native Irish were totally free. With contemptuous independence,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> +they for a long time rejected the arrogant +assumptions of the successor of St. Peter, and were firm +in their maintenance of the equality of all the Sees. It +was from the newly-converted Anglo-Saxons that the +chief recruits in the campaign against the liberties of +the national churches were collected. Almost all the +names of missionaries on behalf of the Roman pontiff +in this century have the home-sound in our ears of +“Wigbert,” “Willibald,” “Wernefried,” or “Adalbert.” +But there are no Gaelic patronymics from the Churches +of Ireland or Wales. They were sisters, they haughtily +said, not daughters of the Roman See, as the Anglo-Saxon +Church had been; and dwelt with pride on the antiquity +of their conversion before the pretensions of the Roman +Bishops had been heard of; and thus was added one +more to the elements of dissension which wasted the +strength of Europe at the very time when unanimity +was most required.</p> + +<p>But towards the end of this period the rumours of +a new power in the East drew men’s attention to the +defenceless state in which their internal disagreements +had left them. The monasteries were filled with exaggerated +reports of the progress of this vast invasion, +which not only threatened the national existences of +Europe, but the Christian faith. It was a hostile creed +and a destroying enemy. What had the Huns been, +compared with this new swarm—not of savage warriors +turned aside with a bribe or won by a prayer, but enthusiasts +in what they considered a holy cause, flushed +with victory, armed and disciplined in a style superior +to any thing the West could show? We should try to +enter into the feelings of that distant time, when day +by day myriads of strange and hitherto unconquerable +enemies were reported to be on their march.</p> + +<p>In the year 621 of the Christian era, Mohammed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> +made his triumphant entry into Medina, a great city of +Arabia, having been expelled from Mecca by the enmity +of the Jews and the tribe of Koreish. This entry is +called the Hegira or Flight, and forms the commencement +of the Moslem chronology. All their records are +dated from this event. The persons who accompanied +him were few in number—his father-in-law, some of his +wives, and some of his warriors; but the procession was +increased by the numerous believers in his prophetship +who resided in the town. At this place began the public +worship inculcated by the leader. The worshippers +were summoned by a voice sounding from the highest +pinnacle of the mosque or church, and pronouncing the +words which to this hour are heard from every minaret +in the East:—“God is great! God is great! There is no +God but God. Mohammed is the apostle of God. Come +to prayers, come to prayers!” and when the invitation +is given at early dawn, the declaration is added, “Prayer +is better than sleep! prayer is better than sleep.” These +exhortations were not without their intended effect. +Prayer was uttered by many lips, and sleep was banished +from many eyes; but the prayers were never thought +so effectual as when accompanied by sword and lance. +Courage and devotedness were now the great supports +of the faith. Ali, the husband of Fatima the favourite +daughter of the chief, fought and prayed with the same +irresistible force. He conquered the unbelieving Jews +and Koreishites, cleaving armed men from the crown to +the chin with one blow, and wielding a city gate which +eight men could not lift, as a shield. Abou Beker, +whose daughter was one of the wives of Mohammed, +was little inferior to Ali; and Mohammed himself saw +visions which comforted and inspired his followers in +the midst of battle, and shouted, “On, on! Fight and +fear not! The gates of Paradise are under the shade +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> +of swords. He will assuredly find instant admission +who falls fighting for the faith!” It was impossible to +play the hypocrite in a religion where such strength of +arm and sharpness of blade were required. Prayers +might indeed be mechanical, or said for show, but the +fighting was a real thing, and, as such, prevailed over +all the shams which were opposed to it. Looking forth +already beyond the narrow precincts of his power, Mohammed +saw in the distance, across the desert, the +proud empires of Persia and Constantinople. To both +he wrote letters demanding their allegiance as God’s +Prophet, and threatening vengeance if they disobeyed. +Chosroes, the Persian, tore the letter to pieces. “Even +so,” said Mohammed, “shall his kingdom be torn.” +Heraclius the Greek was more respectful. He placed +the missive on his pillow, and very naturally fell asleep, +and thought of it no more. But his descendants were +not long of having their pillows quite so provocative of +repose. The city of Medina grew too small to hold +the Prophet’s followers, and they went forth conquering +and to conquer. There were Abou Beker the wise, and +Omar the faithful, and Khaled the brave, and Ali the +sword of God. Mecca fell before them, and city after +city sent in its adhesion to the claims of a Prophet who +had such dreadful interpreters as these. The religion +he preached was comparatively true. He destroyed the +idols of the land, inculcated soberness, chastity, charity, +and, by some faint transmission of the precepts of the +Bible, inculcated brotherly love and forgiveness of +wrong. But the sword was the true gospel. Its light +was spread in Syria and all the adjoining territories. +People in apparently sheltered positions could never be +sure for an hour that the missionaries of the new faith +would not be climbing over their walls with shouts of +conquest, and giving them the option of conversion or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> +death. Power spread in gradually-widening circles, but +at the centre sad things were going on. Mohammed +was getting old. He lost his only son. He laid him in +the grave with tears and sighs, and made his farewell +pilgrimage to Mecca. Had he no relentings at the +visible approach of the end? Was he to go to the grave +untouched by all the calamities he had brought upon +mankind? the blood he had shed, the multitudes he had +beguiled? He had no touch of remorse for any of these +things; rather he continued firmer in his course than +ever—seemed more persuaded of the genuineness of his +mission, and uttered prophecies of the universal extension +of his faith. “When the angels ask thee who thou +art,” he said, as the body of his son was lowered into +the tomb, “say, God is my Lord, the Prophet of God +was my father, and my faith was Islam!” Islam continued +his own faith till the last. He tottered to the +mosque where Abou Beker was engaged in leading the +prayers of the congregation, and addressed the people +for the last time. “Every thing happens,” he said, “according +to the will of God, and has its appointed time, +which is not to be hastened or avoided. My last command +to you is that you remain united; that you love, +honour, and uphold each other; that you exhort each +other to faith and constancy in belief, and to the performance +of pious deeds: by these alone men prosper; +all else leads to destruction.” A few days after this +there was grief and lamentation all over the faithful +lands. He died on his sixty-third birthday, in the +eleventh year of the Hegira, which answers to our +year 632.</p> + +<p>Great contentions arose among the chief disciples for +the succession to the leadership of the faithful. Abou +Beker was father-in-law of the Prophet, and his daughter +supported his cause. Omar was also father-in-law of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> +Prophet, and his daughter supported his cause. Othman +had married two of the daughters of the Prophet, but +both were dead, and they had left no living child. Ali, +the hero of the conquest, was cousin-german of the +Prophet, and husband of his only surviving daughter. +Already the practices of a court were perceptible in the +Emir’s tent. The courtiers caballed and quarrelled; but +Ayesha, the daughter of Abou Beker, had been Mohammed’s +favourite wife, and her influence was the most +effectual. How this influence was exercised amid the +Oriental habits of the time, and the seclusion to which +the women were subjected, it is difficult to decide; but, +after a struggle between her and Hafya, the daughter +of Omar, the widowed Othman was found to have no +chance; and only Ali remained, still young and ardent, +and fittest, to all ordinary judgments, to be the leader +of the armies of Allah. While consulting with some +friends in the tent of Fatima, his rivals came to an +agreement. In a distant part of the town a meeting +had been called, and the claims of the different pretenders +debated. Suddenly Omar walked across to +where Abou Beker stood, bent lowly before him, and +kissed his hand in token of submission, saying, “Thou +art the oldest companion and most secret friend of the +Prophet, and art therefore worthy to rule us in his +place.” The example was contagious, and Abou Beker +was installed as commander and chief of the believers. +A resolution was come to at the same time, that any +attempt at seizing the supremacy against the popular +will should be punished with death. Ali was constrained +to yield, but lived in haughty submission till Fatima +died. He then rose up in his place, and taking his two +sons with him, Hassan and Hossein, retired into the +inner district of Arabia, carrying thus from the camp +of the usurping caliph the only blood of the Prophetchief<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> +which flowed in human veins. Yet the spirit of +the Prophet animated the whole mass. Energy equal to +Ali’s was exhibited in Khaled. Omar was earnest in the +collection of all the separated portions of the Koran. +Othman was burning to spread the new empire over the +whole earth; and in this combination of courage, ambition, +and fanaticism all Arabia found its interest to join, +and ere a year had elapsed from the death of the Prophet, +the whole of that peninsula, and all the swart +warriors who travelled its sandy steppes, had accepted +the great watchword of his religion—“There is no God +but God, and Mohammed is the Prophet of God.” Ere +another year had elapsed the desert had sent forth its +swarms. The plains of Asia were overflowed. The +battle-cry of Zeyd, the general of the army, was heard +in the great commercial cities of the East, and in the +lands where the gospel of peace had first been uttered, +Emasa and Damascus, and on the banks of Jordan. It +was natural that the first effort of the false should be +directed against the true. But not indiscriminate was +the wrath of Abou Beker against the professors of Christianity. +The claims of that dispensation were ever +treated with respect, but the depraved priesthood were +held up to contempt. “Destroy not fruit-tree nor fertile +field on your path,” these were the instructions of the +Caliph to the leaders of the host. “Be just, and spare +the feelings of the vanquished. Respect all religious +persons who live in hermitages or convents, and spare +their edifices. But should you meet with a class of unbelievers +of a different kind, who go about with shaven +crowns, and belong to the synagogue of Satan, be sure +you cleave their skulls, unless they embrace the true +faith or render tribute.”</p> + +<p>Gentle and merciful, therefore, to the peaceful inhabitants, +respectful to the gloomy anchorite and industrious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> +monk, but breathing death and disgrace +against the proud bishop and ambitious presbyter, the +mighty horde moved on. Syria fell; the Persian monarchy +was menaced, and its western provinces seized; +a Christian kingdom called Hira, situated on the confines +of Babylonia, was made tributary to Medina; and +Khaled stood triumphant on the banks of the Euphrates, +and sent a message to the Great King, commanding him +either to receive the faith, or atone for his incredulity +with half his wealth. The despot’s ears were unaccustomed +to such words, and the fiery deluge went on. At +the end of the third year, Abou Beker died, and Omar +was the successor appointed by his will. This was +already a departure from the law of popular election, +but Islam was busy with its conquests far from its +central home, and accepted the nomination. Khaled’s +course continued westward and eastward, forcing his +resistless wedge between the exhausted but still majestic +empires of the Greeks and Persians. Blow after blow +resounded as the great march went on. Constantinople, +and Madayn upon the Tigris, the capitals of Christianity +and Mithrism, were equally alarmed and equally powerless. +Omar, the Caliph—the word means the Successor +of the Apostle—determined to join the army which was +encamped against the walls of Jerusalem, and added +fresh vigour to the assailants by the knowledge that +they fought under his eye.</p> + +<p>Heraclius, the degenerate inheritor of the throne of +Constantine, and Yezdegird, the successor of Darius and +Xerxes, if they had moved towards the seat of war +would have been surrounded by all the pomp of their +exalted stations. Battalions of guards would have encompassed +their persons, and countless officers of their +courts attended their progress.</p> + +<p>Omar, who saw already the world at his feet, journeyed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> +by slow stages on a wretched camel, carrying his provisions +hanging from his saddle-bow, and slept at night +under the shelter of some tree, or on the margin of +some well. He had but one suit, and that of worsted +material, and yet his word was law to all those breathless +listeners, and wherever he placed his foot from +that moment became holy ground. Jerusalem and +Aleppo yielded; Antioch, the chief seat of Grecian +government, fell into his hands; Tyre and Tripoli submitted +to his power; and the Saracenic hosts only +paused when they reached the border of the sea, which +they knew washed the fairest shores of Africa and +Europe. It did not much matter who was in nominal +command. Khaled died; Amru took his place; and yet +the tide went on. The great city of Alexandria, which +disputed with Constantinople the title of Capital of the +World, with its almost fabulous wealth, its four thousand +palaces, and five thousand baths, and four hundred +theatres, was twice taken, and brought on the submission +and conversion of the whole of Egypt. Amru in +his hours of leisure was devoted to the cultivation of +taste and genius. In John the Grammarian, a Christian +student, he found a congenial spirit. Poetry, philosophy, +and rhetoric were treated of in the conversations +of the Arabic conqueror and the monkish scholar. +At last, in reliance on his literary taste, the priest confided +to the Moslem that in a certain building in the +town there was a library so vast that it had no equal on +earth either for number or value of the manuscripts it +contained. This was too important a treasure to be +dealt with without the express sanction of the Caliph. +So the Christian legend is, that Omar replied to the +announcement of his general, “Either what those books +contain is in the Koran, or it is not. If it is, these +volumes are useless; if it is not, they are wicked. Burn +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> +them.” The skins and parchments heated the baths of +Alexandria for many months, irrecoverable monuments +of the past, and an everlasting disgrace to the Saracen +name. Yet the story has been doubted; at least, the +extent of the destruction. Rather, it has been supposed, +the ignorant fanaticism of the illiterate monks, in +covering with the legends of saints the obliterated lines +of the classic authors, has been more destructive to the +literary treasures of those ancient times than the furious +zeal of Amru or the bigotry of Omar.</p> + +<p>If this great overflow from the desert of Arabia had +consisted of nothing but armed warriors or destructive +fanatics, its course would have been as transient as it +was terrible. The Gothic invaders who had desolated +Europe fortunately possessed the flexibility and adaptiveness +of mind which fitted them for the reception of +the purer faith and more refined manners of the vanquished +races. They mixed with the people who submitted +to their power, and in a short time adopted their +habits and religion. Whatever faith they professed in +their original seats, seems to have worn out in the long +course of their immigration. The powers they had +worshipped in their native wilds were local, and dependent +on clime and soil. An easy opening, therefore, +was left for Christianity into hearts where no hostile +deity guarded the portal of approach. But with the +Saracens the case was reversed. Incapable of assimilation +with any rival belief—jealously exclusive of the +commonest intercourse with the nations they subdued—unbending, +contemptuous to others, and carried on +by burning enthusiasm in their own cause, and confidence +in the Prophet they served, there was no possibility +of softening or elevating them from without. The +pomps of religious worship, which so awed the wondering<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> +tribes of Franks and Lombards, were lost on a +people who considered all pomp offensive both to God +and man. They saw the sublimity of simple plainness +both in word and life. Their caliph lived on rice, and +saddled his camel with his own hands. He ordered a +palace to be burned, which Seyd, who had conquered for +him the capital of Persia, had built for his occupation. +Unsocial, bigoted, austere, drinking no wine, accumulating +no personal wealth, how was the mind of this +warrior of the wilderness to be trained to the habits of +civilized society, or turned aside from the rude instincts +of destructiveness and domination? But the Arab intellect +was subtle and active. Mohammedanism, indeed, +armed the multitude in an exciting cause, and sent them +forth like a destroying fire; but there was wisdom, +policy, refinement, among the chiefs. While they devastated +the worn-out territories of the Persian, and laid +waste his ostentatious cities, which had been purposely +built in useless places to show the power of the king, +they founded great towns on sites so adapted for the +purposes of trade and protection that they continue to +the present time the emporiums and fortresses of their +lands. Balsorah, at the top of the Persian Gulf, at the +junction of the Tigris and the Euphrates, was as wisely +selected for the commercial wants of that period as +Constantinople itself. Bagdad was encouraged, Cufa +built and peopled in exchange for the gorgeous but unwholesome +Madayn, from which Yezdegird was driven. +Many other towns rose under the protection of the +Crescent; and by the same impulse which made the +Saracens anxious to raise new centres of wealth and +enterprise in the East, they were excited to the most +amazing efforts to make themselves masters of the +greatest city in the world, the seat of arts, of literature,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> +and religion; and they pushed forward from river to +river, from plain to plain, till, in the year 672, they +raised their victorious standard in front of the walls of +Constantinople. Here, however, a new enemy came to +the encounter, and for the first time scattered dismay +among the Moslem ranks. From the towers and turrets +came down a shower of fire, burning, scorching, +destroying, wherever it touched. Projected to great +distances, and wrapping in a moment ship after ship +in unextinguishable flames, these discharges appeared +to the warriors of the Crescent a supernatural interference +against them. This was the famous Greek fire, +of which the components are not now known, but it was +destructive beyond gunpowder itself. Water could not +quench it, nor length of time weaken its power. For +five successive years the assault was renewed by fresh +battalions of the Saracens, but always with the same +result. So, giving up at last their attempts against a +place guarded by lightning and by the unmoved courage +of the Greek population, they poured their thousands +along the northern shores of Africa. Cyrene, the once +glorious capital of the Pentapolis, in which Carthage +saw her rival and Athens her superior, yielded to their +power. Everywhere high-peaked mosques, rising where +a short time before the shore had been unoccupied or in +cities where the Basilicas of Christian worship had been +thrown down, marked the course of conquest. Carthage +received its new lords. Hippo, the bishopric of +the best of ancient saints, the holy Augustine, saw its +church supplanted by the temples of the Arabian impostor. +A check was sustained at Tchuda, where their +course was interrupted by a combined assault of Christian +Greeks and the indigenous Berbers. Internal +troubles also arrested their career, for there were disputes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> +for the succession, and court intrigues and open +murders, and all the usual accompaniments of a contest +for an elective throne. One after another, the Caliphs +had been murdered, or had died of broken hearts. The +old race—the “Companions,” as they were called, because +they had been the contemporaries and friends of +Mohammed—had died out. Ali, after three disappointments, +had at last been chosen. His sons Hassan and +Hossein had been put to death; and it was only in the +time of the eighth successor, when Abdelmalek had +overcome all competition, that the unity of the Moslem +Empire was restored, and the word given for conquest +as before. This was in the 77th year of the Hegira, +(698 of our era,) and an army was let loose upon the +great city of Carthage, at the same time that movements +were again ordered across the limits of the +Grecian Empire, in Asia, and advances made towards +Constantinople. Carthage fell—Tripoli was occupied—and +now, with their territories stretching in unbroken +line from Syria along the two thousand miles of the +southern shore of the great Mediterranean Sea, the conquerors +rested from their labours for a while, and prepared +themselves for a dash across the narrow channel, +from which the hills of Atlas and the summits of Gibraltar +are seen at the same time. What has Europe, with +its divided peoples, its worn-out kings, its indolent +Church, and exhausted fields, to oppose to this compact +phalanx of united blood, burning with fanatical faith, +submissive to one rule, and supported by all the wealth +of Asia and Africa; whose fleets sweep the sea, and +whose myriads are every day increased by the accession +of fresh nations of Berbers, Mauritanians, and the +nameless children of the desert?</p> + +<p>This is the hopeless century. Manhood, patriotism,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> +Christianity itself, are all at the lowest ebb. But let +us turn to the next, and see how good is worked out of +evil, and acknowledge, as in so many instances the historian +is obliged to do, that man can form no estimate +of the future from the plainest present appearances, but +that all things are in the hands of a higher intelligence +than ours.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> +<a name="EIGHTH_CENTURY" id="EIGHTH_CENTURY">EIGHTH CENTURY.</a></h2> + + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="4" class="big">Kings of the Franks.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td colspan="3" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Childebert III.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="year-list">711.<br />716.<br />720.</td> + <td class="sovereign-list"><span class="smcap">Dagobert III.<br />Childeric.<br />Thierry.</span></td> + <td class="mustache3">}</td> + <td style="width:100%"><span class="smcap">Charles Martel</span> Mayor.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td align="right">742.</td><td colspan="3" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Childeric III.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td colspan="2" align="center" class="dynast"><i>Carlovingian Line.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">751.</td><td colspan="3" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Pepin the Short.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">768.</td><td colspan="3" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Charlemagne.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Emperors of the East.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Tiberius.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">711.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Philippicus Bardanes.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">713.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Anastasius II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">714.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Theodosius III.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">716.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Leo the Isaurian.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">741.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Constantine Copronymus.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">775.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Leo IV.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">781.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Constantine Porphyrogenitus.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">802.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Nicephorus.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="heading">Authors.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Alcuin</span>, (735-804,) <span class="smcap">Bede</span>, (674-735,) <span class="smcap">Egbert</span>, <span class="smcap">Clemens</span>, <span class="smcap">Dungal</span>, +<span class="smcap">Acca</span>, <span class="smcap">John Damascanus</span>.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> +<a name="THE_EIGHTH_CENTURY" id="THE_EIGHTH_CENTURY">THE EIGHTH CENTURY.</a></h2> +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="sub-heading">TEMPORAL POWER OF THE POPES — THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">This</span> is indeed a great century, which has Pepin of +Heristhal at its commencement and Charlemagne at its +end. In this period we shall see the course of the dissolution +of manners and government arrested throughout +the greater part of Europe, and a new form given +to its ruling powers. We must remember that up to this +time the progress of what we now call civilization was +very slow; or we may perhaps almost say that the +extent of civilized territory was smaller than it had +been at the final breaking up of the Roman Empire four +hundred years before. England had lost the elevating +influences which the residence of Roman generals and +the presence of disciplined forces had spread from the +seats of their government. Every occupied position +had been a centre of life and learning; and we see still, +from the discoveries which the antiquaries of the present +day are continually making, that the dwellings of the +Prætors and military commanders were constructed in +a style of luxury and refinement which argues a high +state of culture and art. All round the circumference +of the Romanized portion of Britain these head-quarters +of order and improvement were fixed; outside of it lay +the obscure and tumultuous populations of Wales and +Scotland; and if we trace the situations of the towns +with terminations derived from <i>castra</i>, (a camp,) we shall +see, by stretching a line from Winchester in the south<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> +to Ilchester, thence up to Gloucester, Worcester, Wroxeter, +and Chester, how carefully the Western Gael were +prevented from ravaging the peaceful and orderly inhabitants; +and, as the same precautions were taken to +the North against the Picts and Scots, we shall easily +be able to estimate the effect of those numerous schools +of life and manners on the country-districts in which +they were placed. All these establishments had been +removed. Barbarism had reasserted her ancient reign; +and at the century we have now reached, the institution +which alone could compete in its elevating effect with +the old imperial subordination, the Christian Church, +had not yet established its authority except for the +benefit of ambitious bishops; and the same anarchy +reigned in the ecclesiastical body as in the civil orders. +The eight or nine kingdoms spread over the land were +sufficiently powerful in their separate nationalities to +prevent any unity of feeling among the subjects of the +different crowns. A prelate of the court of Deiria had +no point of union with a prelate protected by the kings +of Wessex. And it was this very incapacity of combination +at home, from the multiplicity of kings, which +led to the astonishing spectacle in this century of the +efforts of the Anglo-Saxon clergy in behalf of the Bishop +of Rome in distant countries. In this great struggle to +extend the power of the Popes, the regular orders particularly +distinguished themselves. The fact of submitting +to convent-rules, of giving up the stormy pleasures +of independence for the safe placidity of unreasoning +obedience, is a proof of the desire in many human +minds of having something to which they can look up, +something to obey, in obeying which their self-respect +may be preserved, even in the act of offering up their +self-will—a desire which, in civil actions and the atmosphere +of a court, leads to slavery and every vice, but in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> +a monastery conducts to the noblest sacrifices, and fills +the pages of history with saints and martyrs. The +Anglo-Saxon, looking out of his convent, saw nothing +round him which could give him hope or comfort. Laws +were unsettled, the various little principalities were +either hostile or unconnected, there was no great combining +authority from which orders could be issued with +the certainty of being obeyed; and even the clergy, +thinly scattered, and dependent on the capricious favour +or exposed to the ignorant animosity of their respective +sovereigns, were torn into factions, and practically without +a chief. But theoretically there was the noblest +chiefship that ever was dreamed of by ambition. The +lowly heritage of Peter had expanded into the universal +government of the Church. In France this claim had +not yet been urged; in the East it had been contemptuously +rejected; in Italy the Lombard kings were hostile; +in Spain the Visigoths were heretic, and at war +among themselves; in Germany the gospel had not yet +been heard; in Ireland the Church was a rival bitterly +defensive of its independence; but in England, among +the earnest, thoughtful Anglo-Saxons, the majestic idea +of a great family of all the Christian Churches, wherever +placed, presided over by the Vicar of Christ and receiving +laws from his hallowed lips, had impressed itself +beyond the possibility of being effaced. Rome was to +them the residence of God’s vicegerent upon earth; +obedience to him was worship, and resistance to his +slightest wish presumption and impiety. So at the +beginning of this century holy men left their monasteries +in Essex, and Warwickshire, and Devon, and knelt at +the footstool of the Pope, and swore fealty and submission +to the Holy See.</p> + +<p>It has often been observed that the Papacy differs +from other powers in the continued vitality of its members<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> +long after the life has left it at the heart. Rome +was weak at the centre, but strong at the extremity of +its domain. The Emperor of Constantinople looked on +the Pope as his representative in Church-affairs, ratified +his election, and exacted tribute on his appointment. +The Exarch of Ravenna, representing as he did the civil +majesty of the successor of the Cæsars, looked down on +him as his subordinate. There was also a duke in Rome +whose office it was to superintend the proceedings of the +bishop, and another officer resident in the Grecian court +to whom the bishop was responsible for the management +of his delegated powers. But outside of all this +depression and subordination, among tribes of half-barbaric +blood, among dreamy enthusiasts contemplating +what seemed to them the simple and natural scheme of +an earthly judge infallible in wisdom and divinely inspired; +among bewildered and trampled ecclesiastics, +looking forth into the night, and seeing, far above all +the storms and darkness that surrounded them in their +own distracted land, a star by which they might steer +their course, undimmed and unalterable—the Pope of +Rome was the highest and holiest of created men. No +thought is worth any thing that continues in barren +speculation. Honour, then, to the brave monks of +England who went forth the missionaries of the Papal +kings! Better the struggles and dangers of a plunge +among the untamed savages of Friesland, and the blood-stained +forests of the farthest Germany, in fulfilment of +the office to which they felt themselves called, than the +lazy, slumbering way of life which had already begun to +be considered the fulfilment of conventual vows. Soldiers +of the Cross were they, though fighting for the +advancement of an ambitious commander more than the +success of the larger cause; and we may well exult in +the virtues which their undoubting faith in the supremacy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> +of the pontiff called forth, since it contrasts so nobly +with the apathy and indifference to all high and self-denying +co-operation which characterized the rest of the +world. We shall see the monk Winifried penetrate, as +the Pope’s minister, into the darkness beyond the Rhine, +and emerge, with crozier and mitre, as Boniface the +Archbishop of Mayence, and converter to the Christian +faith of great and populous nations which were long the +most earnest supporters of the rights and pre-eminence +of Rome. This is one strong characteristic of this century, +the increased vigour of the Papacy by the efforts +of the Anglo-Saxons on its behalf; and now we are going +to another still stronger characteristic, the further increase +of its influence by the part it played in the change +of dynasty in France.</p> + +<p>A strange fortune, which in the old Greek mythologies +would have been looked on as a fate, overshadowing +the blood-stained house of Clovis, had befallen his descendants +through all their generations for more than a +hundred years. Feeble in mind, and even degenerated +in body, the kings of that royal line had been a sight of +grief and humiliation to their nominal subjects. Married +at fifteen, they had all sunk into premature old age, or +died before they were thirty. Too listless for work, +and too ignorant for council, they had accepted the restricted +sphere within which their duties were confined, +and showed themselves, on solemn occasions, at the +festivals of the Church, and other great anniversaries, +bearing, like their ancestors, the long flowing locks +which were the natural sign of their crowned supremacy, +seated in a wagon drawn by oxen, and driven by a +wagoner with a goad—a primitive relic of vanished +times, and as much out of place in Paris in the eighth +century as the state carriage of the Queen or the Lord-Mayor’s +coach of the present day among ourselves<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> +Strange thoughts must have passed through the minds +of the spectators as they saw the successors of the rough +leader of the Franks degraded to this condition; but the +change had been gradual; the public sentiment had +become reconciled to the apparent uselessness of the +highest offices of the State; for under another title, and +with much inferior rank, there was a man who held the +reins of government with a hand of iron, and whose +power was perhaps strengthened by the fiction which +called him the servant and minister of the <i>fainéant</i> or +do-nothing king. A succession of men arose in the +family of the mayors of the palace, as remarkable for +policy and talent as the representatives of the royal line +were for the want of these qualities. The origin of +their office was conveniently forgotten, or converted by +the flattery of their dependants into an equality with +the monarchs. Chosen, they said, by the same elective +body which nominated the king, they were as much entitled +to the command of the army and the administration +of the law as their nominal masters to the possession +of the palace and royal name. And when for a +long period this claim was allowed, who was there to +stand up in opposition, either legal or forcible, to a man +who appointed all the judges and commanded all the +troops? The office at last became hereditary. The +successive mayors left their dignity to their sons by +will; and time might have been slow in bringing power +and title into harmony with each by giving the name +of king to the man who already exercised all the kingly +power and fulfilled all the kingly duties, if Charles Martel, +the mayor, had not, in 732, established such claims +to the gratitude of Europe by his defeat of the Saracens, +who were about to overrun the whole of Christendom, +that it was impossible to refuse either to himself or +his successor the highest dignity which Europe had to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> +bestow. When other rulers and princes were willing to +acknowledge his superiority, not only in power, but in +rank and dignity, it was necessary that their submission +should be offered, not to a mere Major-domo, or chief +domestic of a court, but to a free sovereign and anointed +king. The two most amazing fictions, therefore, which +ever flourished on the contemptuous forbearance of mankind, +were both about to expire beneath the breath of +reality at this time—the kingship of the descendants of +Clovis, and the pretensions of the successors of Constantine. +The Saracens appeared upon the scene, and those +gibbering and unsubstantial ghosts, as if they scented +the morning air, immediately disappeared. The Emperors +of the East, by a self-deluding process, which preserved +their dignity and flattered their pride, professed +still to consider themselves the lords of the Roman +Empire, and took particular pains to acknowledge the +kings and potentates, who established themselves in the +various portions of it, as their representatives and lieutenants. +They lost no time in sending the title of Patrician +and the ensigns of royal rank to the successful +founders of a new dynasty, and had gained their object +if they received the new ruler’s thanks in return. At +Rome, as we have said, they protected the bishop, and +gave him the investiture of his office. They retained +also the territories called the Exarchate of Ravenna, +but with no power of vindicating their authority if it +was disputed, or of exacting revenue, except what the +gratitude of the bishop or the Exarch might induce +them to present to their patron on their nomination or +instalment. A long-haired, sad-countenanced, decrepit +young man in a wagon drawn by oxen, and a vain +voluptuary, wrapped in Oriental splendour, without influence +or wealth, were the representatives at this time +of the irresistible power of the Frankish warriors, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> +the glories of Julius and Augustus. But the present had +its representatives as well as the past. Charles Martel +had still the Frankish sword at his command; the +Roman Pontiff had thousands ready to believe and support +his claims to be the spiritual ruler of the world. +Something was required to unite them in one vast effort +at unity and independence, and this opportunity was +afforded them by the common danger to which the +Saracenic invasion exposed equally the civil and ecclesiastical +power. Africa, we have seen, was fringed +along the whole of the Mediterranean border with +the followers of the Prophet. In one generation the +blood of the Arabian and Mauritanian deserts became +so blended, that no distinction whatever existed between +the men of Mecca and Medina and the native tribes. +Where Carthaginian and Roman civilization had never +penetrated, the faith of Mohammed was accepted as an +indigenous growth. Fanaticism and ambition sailed +across the Channel; and early in this century the hot +breath of Mohammedanism had dried up the promise +of Spain; countless warriors crossed to Gibraltar; their +losses were supplied by the inexhaustible populations +from the interior, (the ancestors of the Abd-el Kaders +and Ben Muzas of modern times,) and, elate with hopes +of universal conquest, the crowded tents of the Moslem +army were seen on the northern slopes of the Pyrenees, +and presently all the plains of Languedoc, and the central +fields of France as far up as the Loire, were inundated +by horse and man. Incredible accounts are given +of the number and activity of the desert steeds +bestrode by these turbaned apostles. A march of a +hundred miles—a village set on fire, and all the males +extirpated—strange-looking visages, and wild arrays +of galloping battalions seen by terrified watchers from +the walls of Paris itself; then, in the twinkling of an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> +eye, nothing visible but the distant dust raised up in +their almost unperceived retreat,—these were the peculiarities +of this new and unheard-of warfare. And +while these dashes were made from the centre of the +invasion, alarming the inhabitants at the extremities +of the kingdom, the host steadily moved on, secured +the ground behind it before any fresh advance, and +united in this way the steadiness of European settlement +with the wild fury of the original mode of attack. +Already the provinces abutting on the Pyrenees had +owned their power. Gascony up to the Garonne, and +the Narbonnais nearly to the Rhine, had submitted to +the conquerors; but when the dispossessed proprietors +of Novempopulania and Septimania, as those districts +were then called, and the powerful Duke of Aquitaine, +also fled before the advancing armies; when all the +churches were filled with prayer, and all the towns +were in momentary expectation of seeing the irresistible +horsemen before their walls, patriotism and religion +combined to call upon all the Franks and all the +Christians to expel the infidel invader. So Charles, the +son of Pepin, whose exploits against the Frisons and +other barbaric peoples in the North had already acquired +for him the complimentary name of Martel, or +the Hammer, put himself at the head of the military +forces of the land, and encountered the Saracenic myriads +on the great plain round Tours. The East and +West were brought front to front—Christianity and +Mohammedanism stood face to face for the first time; +and it is startling to consider for a moment what the +result of an Asiatic victory might have been. If ever +there was a case in which the intervention of Divine +Providence may be claimed without presumption on the +conquering side, it must be here, where the truths of +revelation and the progress of society were dependent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> +on the issue. The two faiths, according to all human +calculation, had rested their supremacy on their respective +champions. If Charles and his Franks and Germans +were defeated, there was nothing to resist the +march of the perpetually-increasing numbers of the Saracens +till they had planted their standards on the pinnacles +of Rome. The first glow of Christian belief had been +exchanged, we have seen, for ambitious disputes, or died +off in many of the practices of superstition. The very +man in whom the Christian hope was placed was suspected +of leaning to the Wodenism of his Northern ancestors, +and was scarcely bought over to the defence of +the Church’s faith by a permission to pillage the Church’s +wealth. Mohammedanism, on the other hand, was fresh +and young. Its promises were clear and tempting—its +course triumphant, and its doctrines satisfactory equally +to the pride and the indolence of the human heart. But +in the former, though unperceived by the warriors at +Tours and the prelates at Rome, lay the germ of countless +blessings—elevating the mind by the discovery of +its strength at the same moment in which it is abased +by the feeling of its weakness, and gifted above all with +the power of expansion and universality; themselves +proofs of its divine original, to which no false religion +can lay the slightest claim. Cultivate the Christian +mind to the highest—fill it with all knowledge—place +round it the miracles of science and art—station it in +the snows of Iceland or the heats of India—Christianity, +like the all-girding horizon of the sky, widens +its circle so as to include the loftiest, and contain within +its embrace the utmost diversities of human life and +speculation. But with the Mohammedan, as with other +impostures, the range is limited. When intellect expands, +it bursts the cerement in which it has been involved; +and with Buddhism, and Mithrism, and Hindooism, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> +will be as it was with Druidism, and the more elegant +heathendom of Greece and Rome: there will be no +safety for them but in the ignorance and barbarism of +their disciples. On the result of that great day at Tours +in the year 732, therefore, depended the intellectual improvement +and civil freedom of the human race. Few +particulars are preserved of this momentous battle; but +the result showed that the light cavalry, in which the +Saracens excelled, were no match for the firm line of +the Franks. When confusion once began among the +swarthy cavaliers of Abderachman, there was no restoration +possible. In wild confusion the <i>mêlée</i> was continued; +and all that can be said is, that the slaughter of +upwards of three hundred thousand of these impulsive +pilgrims of the desert so weakened the Saracenic power +in Europe, that in no long time their hosts were withdrawn +from the soil of Gaul, and guarded with difficulty +the conquest they had made behind the barrier of +the Pyrenees. Could the gratitude of Church or State +be too generous to the man who preserved both from the +sword of the destroyer? If Charles pillaged a monastery +or seized the revenues of a bishopric, nobody found +any fault. It was almost just that he should have the +wealth of the cathedral from which he had driven away +the mufti and muezzin. But monasteries and bishops +were still powerful, and did not look on the proceedings +of Charles the Hammer with the equanimity of the +unconcerned spectators. They perhaps thought the +battle of Tours had only given them a choice of spoilers, +instead of protection from spoliation. In a short time, +however, the policy of the sagacious leader led him to +see the necessity of gaining over the only united body +in the State. He became a benefactor of the Church, +and a staunch ally of the Roman bishop. Both had an +object to obtain. What the phantom king was to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> +Charles, the phantom emperor was to the Pope. If +there was unison between the two dependants, it would +be easy to get rid of the two superiors. Presents and +compliments were interchanged, and moral support +trafficked for material aid. Wherever the one sent +missionaries with the Cross, the other sent warriors to +their support. The Pontiff bestowed on the Mayor the +keys of the sepulchre of St. Peter, and the title of Consul +and Patrician, and begged him to come to his assistance +against Luitprand, the Lombard king. But this was far +too great an exploit to be expected by a simple Bishop, +and performed by a simple Mayor of the Palace. So +the next great thing we meet with in this century is the +investiture of the Mayor with the title of king, and of +the Bishop with the sovereignty of Rome and Ravenna. +This happened in 752. Pepin the Short, as he was unflatteringly +called by his subjects, succeeded Charles in +the government of the Franks. The king was Childeric +the Third, who lived in complete seclusion and +cherished his long hair as the only evidence of monarchy +left to the sons of Clovis. Wars in various regions established +the reputation of Pepin as the worthy successor +of Charles; and by a refinement of policy, the crown, +the consummation of all his hopes, was reached in a +manner which deprived it of the appearance of injustice, +for it was given to him by the hands of saints and popes, +and ratified by the council of the nation. He had +already asked Pope Zachariah, “who had the best right +to the name of king?—he who had merely the title, or +he who had the power?” And in answer to this, which +was rather a puzzling question, our countryman Winifried, +in his new character of Boniface and archbishop, +placed upon his head the golden round, and Might and +Right were restored to their original combination. But +St. Boniface was not enough. In two years the Pope<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> +himself clambered over the Alps and anointed the new +monarch with holy oil; and by the same act stripped +the long hair from the head of the Merovingian puppet, +and condemned him and his descendants to the privacy +of a cloister.</p> + +<p>Now then that Pepin is king, let Luitprand, or any +other potentate, beware how he does injury to the Pope +of Rome. Twice the Frank armies are moved into +Italy in defence of the Holy See; and at last the Exarchate +is torn from the hands of its Lombard oppressor, +and handed over in sovereignty to the Spiritual Power. +Rome itself is declared at the same time the property of +the Bishop, and free forever from the suzerainty of the +Emperors of the East. No wonder the gratitude of the +Popes has made them call the kings of France the eldest +sons of the Church. Their donations raised the bishopric +to the rank of a royal state; yet it has been remarked +that the generosity of the French monarchs +has always been limited to the gift of other people’s +lands. They were extremely liberal in bestowing large +tracts of country belonging to the Lombard kings or +the Byzantine Cæsars; but they kept a very watchful +eye on the possessions of pope and bishop within their +own domain. They reserved to themselves the usufruct +of vacant benefices, and the presentations to church and +abbey. At almost all periods, indeed, of their history, +they have seemed to retain a very clear remembrance +of the position which they held towards the Papacy +from the beginning, and, while encouraging its arrogance +against other principalities and powers, have held +a very contemptuous language towards it themselves.</p> + +<p>This, then, is the great characteristic of the present +century, the restoration of the monarchical principle in +the State, and its establishment in the Church. During +all these wretched centuries, from the fall of the Roman<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> +Empire, the progress has been towards diffusion and +separation. Kings rose up here and there, but their +kingships were local, and, moreover, so recent, that +they were little more than the first officer or representative +of the warriors whose leaders they had been. A +longing for some higher and remoter influence than this +had taken possession of the chiefs of all the early invasions, +and we have seen them (even while engaged in +wresting whole districts from the sway of the old Roman +Empire) accepting with gratitude the ensigns of Roman +authority. We have seen Gothic kings glorying in the +name of Senator, and Hunnish savages pacified and contented +by the title of Prætor or Consul. The world +had been accustomed to the oneness of Consular no less +than Imperial Rome for more than a thousand years; +for, however the parties might be divided at home, the +great name of the Eternal City was the sole sound +heard in foreign lands. The magic letters, the initials +of the Senate and People, had been the ornament of +their banners from the earliest times, and a division of +power was an idea to which the minds of mankind found +it difficult to become accustomed. It was better, therefore, +to have only a fragment of this immemorial unity +than the freshness of a new authority, however extensive +or unquestionable. Vague traditions must have +come down—magnified by distance and softened by +regret—of the great days before the purple was torn +in two by the transference of the seat of power to Constantinople. +There were nearly five hundred years +lying between the periods; and all the poetic spirits of +the new populations had cast longing, lingering looks +behind at the image of earthly supremacy presented to +them by the existence of an acknowledged master of +the world. A pedantic sophist, speaking Greek—the +language of slaves and scholars—wearing the loftiest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> +titles, and yet hemmed in within the narrow limits of a +single district, assumed to be the representative of the +universal “Lord of human kind,” and called himself +Emperor of the East and West. The common sense +of Goth and Saxon, of Frank and Lombard, rebelled +against this claim, when they saw it urged by a person +unable to support it by fleets and armies. When, in +addition to this want of power, they perceived in this +century a want of orthodox belief, or even what they +considered an impious profanity, in the successor of +Augustus and Constantine, they were still more disinclined +to grant even a titular supremacy to the Byzantine +ruler. Leo, at that time wearing the purple, and +zealous for the purity of the faith, issued an order for +the destruction of the marble representations of saints +and martyrs which had been used in worship; and +within the limits of his personal authority his mandate +was obeyed. But when it reached the West, a furious +opposition was made to his command. The Pope stood +forward as champion of the religious veneration of +“storied urn and animated bust.” The emperor was +branded with the name of Iconoclast, or the Image-breaker, +and the eloquence of all the monks in Europe +was let loose upon the sacrilegious Cæsar. Interest, it +is to be feared, added fresh energy to their conscientious +denunciations, for the monks had attracted to themselves +a complete monopoly of the manufacture of these +aids to devotion—and obedience to Leo’s order would +have impoverished the monasteries all over the land. +A Western emperor, it was at once perceived, would +not have been so blind to the uses of those holy sculptures, +and soon an intense desire was manifested throughout +the Western nations for an emperor of their own. +Already they were in possession of a spiritual chief, +who claimed the inheritance of the Prince of the Apostles,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> +and looked down on the Patriarchs of Constantinople +as bishops subordinate to his throne. Why should +not they also have a temporal ruler who should renew +the old glories of the vanished Empire, and exercise +supremacy over all the governors of the earth? Why, +indeed, should not the first of those authorities exert +his more than human powers in the production of the +other? He had converted a Mayor of the Palace into +a King of the Franks. Could he not go a step further, +and convert a King of the Franks into an Emperor of +the West? With this hope, not yet perhaps expressed, +but alive in the minds of Pepin and the prelates of +France, no attempt was made to check the Roman pontiffs +in the extravagance of their pretensions. Lords +of wide domains, rich already in the possession of large +tracts of country and wealthy establishments in other +lands, they were raised above all competition in rank +and influence with any other ecclesiastic; and relying +on spiritual privileges, and their exemption from active +enmity, they were more powerful than many of the +greatest princes of the time. Everywhere the mystic +dignity of their office was dwelt upon by their supporters. +For a long time, as we have seen, their omnipotence +was acknowledged by the two classes who +saw in the use of that spiritual dominion a counterpoise +to the worldly sceptres by which they were crushed. +But now the worldly sceptres came to the support of the +spiritual dominion. Its limit was enlarged, and made to +include the regulation of all human affairs. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 768.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>It was its +office to subdue kings and bind nobles in links of +iron; and when the son of Pepin, Charles, justly +called the Great, though travestied by French vanity +into the name of Charlemagne, sat on the throne of +the Franks, and carried his arms and influence into the +remotest States, it was felt that the hour and the man<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> +were come; and the Western Empire was formally renewed.</p> + +<p>The curious thing is, that this longing for a restoration +of the Roman Empire, and dwelling on its usefulness +and grandeur, were dominant, and productive of +great events, in populations which had no drop of +Roman blood in their veins. The last emperor resident +in Rome had never heard the names of the hordes of +savages whose descendants had now seized the plains +of France and Italy. Yet it seemed as if, with the territory +of the Roman Empire, they had inherited its +traditions and hopes. They might be Saxons, or Franks, +or Burgundians, or Lombards, by national descent, but +by residence they were Romans as compared with the +Greeks in the East,—and by religion they were Romans +as compared with the Sclaves and Saracens, who pressed +on them on the North and South. It would not be difficult +in this country to find the grandchildren of French +refugees boasting with patriotic pride of the English +triumphs at Cressy and Agincourt—or the sons of +Scottish parents rejoicing in their ancestors’ victory +under Cromwell at Dunbar; and here, in the eighth +century, the descendants of Alaric and Clovis were +patriotically loyal to the memory of the old Empire, +and were reminded by the victories of Charlemagne of +the trophies of Scipio and Marius. These victories, +indeed, were not, as is so often found to be the case, the +mere efforts of genius and ambition, with no higher +object than to augment the conqueror’s power or reputation. +They were systematically pursued with a view +to an end. In one advancing tide, all things tended to +the Imperial throne. Whatever nation felt the force of +Charlemagne’s sword felt also a portion of its humiliation +lightened when its submission was perceived to be +only an advancement towards the restoration of the old<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> +dominion. It might have been degrading to acknowledge +the superiority of the son of Pepin—but who +could offer resistance to the successor of Augustus? +So, after thirty years of uninterrupted war, with campaigns +succeeding each in the most distant regions, and +all crowned with conquest; after subduing the Saxons +beyond the Weser, the Lombards as far as Treviso, the +Arabs under the walls of Saragossa, the Bavarians in +the neighbourhood of Augsburg, the Sclaves on the +Elbe and Oder, the Huns and Avars on the Raab and +Danube, and the Greeks themselves on the coast of Dalmatia; +when he looked around and saw no rebellion +against his authority, but throughout the greater part +of his domains a willing submission to the centralizing +power which rallied all Christian states for the defence +of Christianity, and all civilized nations for the defence +of civilization,—nothing more was required than the +mere expression in definite words of the great thing +that had already taken place, and Charlemagne, at the +extreme end of this century, bent before the successor +of St. Peter at Rome, and stood up crowned Emperor +of the West, and champion and chief of Christendom.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 786-814.</div> + +<p>The period of Charlemagne is a great date in history; +for it is the legal and formal termination of +an antiquated state of society. It was also +the introduction to another, totally distinct from itself +and from its predecessor. It was not barbarism; it was +not feudalism; but it was the bridge which united the +two. By barbarism is meant the uneasy state of governments +and peoples, where the tribe still predominated +over the nation; where the Frank or Lombard continued +an encamped warrior, without reference to the +soil; and where his patriotism consisted in fidelity to +the traditions of his descent, and not to the greatness or +independence of the land he occupied. In the reign of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> +Charlemagne, the land of the Frank became practically, +and even territorially, France; the district occupied by +the Lombards became Lombardy. The feeling of property +in the soil was added to the ties of race and +kindred; and at the very time that all the nations of +the Invasion yielded to the supremacy of one man as +emperor, the different populations asserted their separate +independence of each other, as distinct and self-sufficing +kingdoms—kingdoms, that is to say, without +the kings, but in all respects prepared for those individualized +expressions of their national life. For though +Charlemagne, seated in his great hall at Aix-la-Chapelle, +gave laws to the whole of his vast domains, in each +country he had assumed to himself nothing more than +the monarchic power. To the whole empire he was +emperor, but to each separate people, such as Franks +and Lombards, he was simply king. Under him there +were dukes, counts, viscounts, and other dignitaries, but +each limited, in function and influence, to the territory +to which he belonged. A French duke had no pre-eminence +in Lombardy, and a Bavarian graf had no +rank in Italy. Other machinery was at times employed +by the central power, in the shape of temporary messengers, +or even of emissaries with a longer tenure of +office; but these persons were sent for some special purpose, +and were more like commissioners appointed by +the Crown, than possessors of authority inherent in themselves. +The term of their ambassadorship expired, their +salary, or the lands they had provisionally held in lieu +of salary, reverted to the monarch, and they returned +to court with no further pretension to power or influence +than an ambassador in our days when he returns from the +country to which he is accredited. But when the great +local nobility found their authority indissolubly connected +with their possessions, and that ducal or princely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> +privileges were hereditary accompaniments of their +lands, the foundations of modern feudalism were already +laid, and the path to national kingship made easy and +unavoidable. When Charlemagne’s empire broke into +pieces at his death, we still find, in the next century, +that each piece was a kingdom. Modern Europe took +its rise from these fragmentary though complete portions; +and whereas the breaking-up of the first empire +left the world a prey to barbaric hordes, and desolation +and misery spread over the fairest lands, the disruption +of the latter empire of Charlemagne left Europe united +as one whole against Saracen and savage, but separated +in itself into many well-defined states, regulated in +their intercourse by international law, and listening +with the docility of children to the promises or threatenings +of the Father of the Universal Church. For with +the empire of Charlemagne the empire of the Papacy +had grown. The temporal power was a collection of +forces dependent on the life of one man; the spiritual +power is a principle which is independent of individual +aid. So over the fragments, as we have said, of the +broken empire, rose higher than ever the unshaken +majesty of Rome. Civil authority had shrunk up within +local bounds; but the Papacy had expanded beyond the +limits of time and space, and shook the dreadful keys +and clenched the two-edged sword which typified its +dominion over both earth and heaven.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> +<a name="NINTH_CENTURY" id="NINTH_CENTURY">NINTH CENTURY.</a></h2> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Emperors.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td><td align="center"><i>West.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">800.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Charlemagne</span>, (crowned by the Pope.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">814.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Louis the Debonnaire.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">840.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Charles the Bald.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">877.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Louis the Stammerer.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">879.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Louis III.</span> and <span class="smcap">Carloman</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">884.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Charles the Fat.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">887.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Arnold.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">899.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Louis IV.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td><td align="center"><i>East.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Nicephorus</span>—(<i>cont</i>.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">811.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Michael.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">813.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Leo the Armenian.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">821.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Michael the Stammerer.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">829.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Theophilus.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">842.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Michael III.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">886.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Leo the Philosopher.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of France.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">887.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Eudes</span>, (Count of Paris.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">898.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Charles the Simple.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of England.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">827.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Egbert.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">837.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Ethelwolf.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">857.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Ethelbald.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">860.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap"> Ethelbert.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">866.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Ethelred</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">872.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Alfred the Great.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="heading">Authors.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">John Scotus</span>, (<span class="smcap">Erigena</span>,) <span class="smcap">Hincmar</span>, <span class="smcap">Heric</span>, (preceded Des +Cartes in philosophical investigation,) <span class="smcap">Macarius</span>.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> +<a name="THE_NINTH_CENTURY" id="THE_NINTH_CENTURY">THE NINTH CENTURY.</a></h2> +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="sub-heading">DISMEMBERMENT OF CHARLEMAGNE’S EMPIRE — DANISH INVASION +OF ENGLAND — WEAKNESS OF FRANCE — REIGN OF +ALFRED.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> first year of this century found Charlemagne +with the crown of the old Empire upon his head, and +the most distant parts of the world filled with his reputation. +As in the case of the first Napoleon, we find +his antechambers crowded with the fallen rulers of the +conquered territories, and even with sovereigns of neighbouring +countries. Among others, two of our Anglo-Saxon +princes found their way to the great man’s court +at Aix-la-Chapelle. Eardulf of Northumberland pleaded +his cause so well with Charlemagne and the Pope, that +by their good offices he was restored to his states. But +a greater man than Eardulf was also a visitor and careful +student of the vanquisher and lawgiver of the Western +world. Originally a Prince of Kent, he had been expelled +by the superior power or arts of Beortrick, King +of the West Saxons, and had betaken himself for protection, +if not for restoration, to the most powerful ruler +of the time. Whether Egbert joined in his expeditions +or shared his councils, we do not know, but the history +of the Anglo-Saxon monarchies at this date (800 to 830) +shows us the exact counterpart, on our own island, of +the actions of Charlemagne on the wider stage of continental +Europe. Egbert, on the death of Beortrick, obtained +possession of Wessex, and one by one the separate +States of the British Heptarchy were subdued;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> +some reduced to entire subjection, others only to subordinate +rank and the payment of tribute, till, when all +things were prepared for the change, Egbert proclaimed +the unity of Southern Britain by assuming the title of +Bretwalda, in the same way as his prototype had restored +the unity of the empire by taking the dignity of +Emperor. It is pleasant to pause over the period of +Charlemagne’s reign, for it is an isthmus connecting two +dark and unsatisfactory states of society,—a past of +disunion, barbarity, and violence, and a future of ignorance, +selfishness, and crime. The present was not, +indeed, exempt from some or all of these characteristics. +There must have been quarrellings and brutal animosities +on the outskirts of his domain, where half-converted +Franks carried fire and sword, in the name of religion, +among the still heathen Saxons; there must have been +insolence and cruelty among the bishops and priests, +whose education, in the majority of instances, was +limited to learning the services of the Church by heart. +Many laymen, indeed, had seized on the temporalities +of the sees; and, in return, many bishops had arrogated +to themselves the warlike privileges and authority of +the counts and viscounts. But within the radius of +Charlemagne’s own influence, in his family apartments, +or in the great Hall of Audience at Aix-la-Chapelle, the +astonishing sight was presented of a man refreshing himself, +after the fatigues of policy and war, by converting his +house into a college for the advancement of learning +and science. From all quarters came the scholars, and +grammarians, and philosophers of the time. Chief of +these was our countryman, the Anglo-Saxon monk +Alcuin, and from what remains of his writings we can +only regret that, in the infancy of that new civilization, +his genius, which was undoubtedly great, was devoted +to trifles of no real importance. Others came to fill up<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> +that noble company; and it is surely a great relief from +the bloody records with which we have so long been +familiar, to see Charlemagne at home, surrounded by +sons and daughters, listening to readings and translations +from Roman authors; entering himself into disquisitions +on philosophy and antiquities, and acting as president +of a select society of earnest searchers after information. +To put his companions more at their ease, he +hid the terrors of his crown under an assumed name, +and only accepted so much of his royal state as his +friends assigned to him by giving him the name of King +David. The best versifier was known as Virgil. Alcuin +himself was Horace; and Angelbert, who cultivated +Greek, assumed the proud name of Homer. These +literary discussions, however, would have had no better +effect than refining the court, and making the days pass +pleasantly; but Charlemagne’s object was higher and +more liberal than this. Whatever monastery he founded +or endowed was forced to maintain a school as part of +its establishment. Alcuin was presented with the great +Abbey of St. Martin of Tours, which possessed on its +domain twenty thousand serfs, and therefore made him +one of the richest land-owners in France. There, at full +leisure from worldly cares, he composed a vast number +of books, of very poor philosophy and very incorrect +astronomy, and perhaps looked down from his lofty +eminence of wealth and fame on the humble labours of +young Eginhart, the secretary of Charlemagne, who has +left us a Life of his master, infinitely more interesting +and useful than all the dissertations of the sage. From +this great Life we learn many delightful characteristics +of the great man, his good-heartedness, his love of justice, +and blind affection for his children. But it is with +his public works, as acting on this century, that we have +now to do. Throughout the whole extent of his empire<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> +he founded Academies, both for learning and for useful +occupations. He encouraged the study and practice of +agriculture and trade. The fine arts found him a munificent +patron; and though the objects on which the artist’s +skill was exercised were not more exalted than the +carving of wooden tables, the moulding of metal cups, +and the casting of bells, the circumstances of the time +are to be taken into consideration, and these efforts may +be found as advanced, for the ninth century, as the +works of the sculptors and metallurgists of our own +day. It is painful to observe that the practice of what +is now called adulteration was not unknown at that +early period. There was a monk of the name of Tancho, +in the monastery of St. Gall, who produced the first bell. +Its sound was so sweet and solemn, that it was at once +adopted as an indispensable portion of the ornament of +church and chapel, and soon after that, of the religious +services themselves. Charlemagne, hearing it, and perhaps +believing that an increased value in the metal +would produce a richer tone, sent him a sufficient +quantity of silver to form a second bell. The monk, +tempted by the facility of turning the treasure to his +own use, brought forward another specimen of his skill, +but of a mixed and very inferior material. What the +just and severe emperor might have done, on the discovery +of the fraud, is not known; but the story ended +tragically without the intervention of the legal sword. +At the first swing of the clapper it broke the skull of +the dishonest founder, who had apparently gone too +near to witness the action of the tongue; and the bell +was thenceforth looked on with veneration, as the +discoverer and punisher of the unjust manufacturer.</p> + +<p>The monks, indeed, seem to have been the most refractory +of subjects, perhaps because they were already +exempted from the ordinary punishments. In order to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> +produce uniformity in the services and chants of the +Church, the emperor sent to Rome for twelve monkish +musicians, and distributed them in the twelve principal +bishoprics of his dominions. The twelve musicians +would not consent to be musical according to order, and +made the confusion greater than ever, for each of them +taught different tunes and a different method. The disappointed +emperor could only complain to the Pope, and +the Pope put the recusant psalmodists in prison. But it +appears the fate of Charlemagne, as of all persons in +advance of their age, to be worthy of congratulation +only for his attempts. The success of many of his +undertakings was not adequate to the pains bestowed +upon them. He held many assemblages, both lay and +ecclesiastical, during his lengthened reign; he published +many excellent laws, which soon fell into disuse; he +tried many reforms of churches and monasteries, which +shared the same fortune; he held the Popes of Rome +and the dignitaries of his empire in perfect submission, +but professed so much respect for the office of Pontiff +and Bishop, that, when his own overwhelming superiority +was withdrawn, the Church rebelled against the +State, and claimed dominion over it. His sense of justice, +as well as the custom of the time, led him to divide +his states among his sons, which not only insured enmity +between them, but enfeebled the whole of Christendom. +Clouds, indeed, began to gather over him some time +before his reign was ended. One day he was at a city +of Narbonese Gaul, looking out upon the Mediterranean +Sea. He saw some vessels appear before the port. +“These,” said the courtiers, “must be ships from the +coast of Africa, Jewish merchantmen, or British traders.” +But Charlemagne, who had leaned a long time against +the wall of the room in a passion of tears, said, “No! +these are not the ships of commerce; I know by their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> +lightness of movement. They are the galleys of the +Norsemen; and, though I know such miserable pirates +can do me no harm, I cannot help weeping when I think +of the miseries they will inflict on my descendants and +the lands they shall rule.” A true speech, and just occasion +for grief, for the descents of these Scandinavian +rovers are the great characteristic of this century, by +which a new power was introduced into Europe, and +great changes took place in the career of France and +England.</p> + +<p>It would perhaps be more correct to say that, by this +new mixture of race and language, France and England +were called into existence. England, up to this date, +had been a collection of contending states; France, a +tributary portion of a great Germanic empire. Slowly +stretching northward, the Roman language, modified, +of course, by local pronunciation, had pushed its way +among the original Franks. Latin had been for many +years the language of Divine Service, and of history, +and of law. All westward of the Rhine had yielded to +those influences, and the old Teutonic tongue which +Clovis had brought with him from Germany had long +disappeared, from the Alps up to the Channel. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 814.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>When +the death of Charlemagne, in 814, had relaxed +the hold which held all his subordinate states +together, the diversity of the language of Frenchman +and German pointed out, almost as clearly as geographical +boundaries could have done, the limits of the respective +nations. From henceforward, identity of speech +was to be considered a more enduring bond of union +than the mere inhabiting of the same soil. But other +circumstances occurred to favour the idea of a separation +into well-defined communities; and among these +the principal was a very long experience of the disadvantages +of an encumbered and too extensive empire.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> +Even while the sword was held by the strong hand of +Charlemagne, each portion of his dominions saw with +dissatisfaction that it depended for its peace and prosperity +on the peace and prosperity of all the rest, and +yet in this peace and prosperity it had neither voice nor +influence. The inhabitants of the banks of the Loire +were, therefore, naturally discontented when they found +their provisions enhanced in price, and their sons called +to arms, on account of disturbances on the Elbe, or hostilities +in the south of Italy. These evils of their position +were further increased when, towards the end of +Charlemagne’s reign, the outer circuit of enemies became +more combined and powerful. In proportion as he had +extended his dominion, he had come into contact with +tribes and states with whom it was impossible to be on +friendly terms. To the East, he touched upon the irreclaimable +Sclaves and Avars—in the South, he came on +the settlements of the Italian Greeks—in Spain, he +rested upon the Saracens of Cordova. It was hard for +the secure centre of the empire to be destroyed and +ruined by the struggles of the frontier populations, with +which it had no more sympathy in blood and language +than with the people with whom they fought. Already, +also, we have seen how local their government had +become. They had their own dukes and counts, their +own bishops and priests to refer to. The empire was, in +fact, a name, and the land they inhabited the only +reality with which they were concerned. We shall not +be surprised, therefore, when we find that universal rebellion +took place when Louis the Debonnaire, the just +and saint-like successor of Charlemagne, endeavoured +to carry on his father’s system. Even his reforms served +only to show his own unselfishness, and to irritate the +grasping and avaricious offenders whom it was his object +to amend. Bishops were stripped of their lay lordships<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>—prevented +from wearing sword and arms, and even +deprived of the military ornament of glittering spurs to +their heels. The monks and nuns, who had almost universally +fallen into evil courses, were forcibly reformed +by the laws of a second St. Benedict, whose regulations +were harsh towards the regular orders, but useless to +the community at large—a sad contrast to the agricultural +and manly exhortations of the first conventual +legislator of that name. Nothing turned out well with +this simplest and most generous of the Carlovingian +kings. His virtues, inextricably interlaced as they +were with the weaknesses of his character, were more +injurious to himself and his kingdom than less amiable +qualities would have been. Priest and noble were equally +ignorant of the real characteristics of a Christian life. +When he refunded the exactions of his father, and restored +the conquests which he considered illegally acquired, +the universal feeling of astonishment was only +lost in the stronger sentiment of disdain. An excellent +monk in a cell, or judge in a court of law, Louis the +Debonnaire was the most unfit man of his time to keep +discordant nationalities in awe. His children were as +unnatural as those of Lear, whom he resembled in some +other respects: for he found what little reverence waits +upon a discrowned king; and personal indignities of the +most degrading kind were heaped upon him by those +whose duty it was to maintain and honour him. Superstition +was set to work on his enfeebled mind, and twice +he did public penance for crimes of which he was not +guilty; and on the last occasion, stripped of his military +baldric—the lowest indignity to which a Frankish monarch +could be subjected—clothed in a hair shirt by the +bands of an ungrateful bishop, he was led by his triumphant +son, Lothaire, through the streets of +Aix-la-Chapelle. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 833.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>But natural feeling was not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> +extinguished in the hearts of the staring populace. +They saw in the meek emperor’s lowly behaviour, and +patient endurance of pain and insult, an image of that +other and holier King who carried his cross up the +steeps of Jerusalem. They saw him denuded of the +symbols of earthly power and of military rank, oppressed +and wronged—and recognised in that down-trodden +man a representation of themselves. This sentiment +spread with the magic force of sympathy and remorse. +All the world, we are told, left the unnatural +son solitary and friendless in the very hour of his success; +and Louis, too pure-minded himself to perceive +that it was the virtue of his character which made him +hated, persisted in pushing on his amendments as if he +had the power to carry them into effect. He ordered all +lands and other goods which the nobles had seized from +the Church to be restored—a tenderness of conscience +utterly inexplicable to the marauding baron, who had +succeeded by open force, and in a fair field, in despoiling +the marauding bishop of land and tower. It was arming +his rival, he thought, with a two-edged sword, this +silence as to the inroads of the churchman on the property +of the nobles, and prevention of their just reprisals +on the property of the prelate, by placing it under the +safeguard of religion. The rugged warrior kept firm +hold of the bishopric or abbey he had secured, and the +belted bishop reimbursed himself by appropriating the +wealth of his weaker neighbours.</p> + +<p>But Louis was as unfortunate in his testamentary +arrangement as in all the other regulations of his life. +Lothaire was to retain the eastern portion of the empire; +Charles, his favourite, had France as far as the Rhine; +while Louis was limited to the distant region of Bavaria. +<span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 840.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>And having made this disposition of his power, +the meek and useless Louis descended into the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> +tomb—a striking example, the French historians tell +us, of the great historic truth renewed at such distant +dates, that the villanies and cruelties of a race of kings +bring misery on the most virtuous of their descendants. +All the crimes of the three preceding reigns—the violence +and disregard of life exhibited by Charlemagne himself—found +their victim and expiation in his meek and +gentle-minded son. The harshness of Henry VIII. of +England, they add, and the despotic claims of James, +were visited on the personally just and amiable Charles; +and they point to the parallel case of their own Louis +XVI., and see in the sad fortune of that mild and guileless +sovereign the final doom of the murderous Charles +IX., and the voluptuous and hypocritical Louis XIV. +But these kings are still far off in the darkness of the +coming centuries. It is a strange sight, in the middle +of the ninth century, to see the successor of the great +Emperor stealing through the confused and chaotic +events of that wretched period, stripped as it were of +sword and crown, but everywhere displaying the beauty +of pure and simple goodness. He refused to condemn +his enemies to death. He was only inexorable towards +his own offences, and sometimes humbled himself for +imaginary sins. A protector of the Church, a zealous +supporter of Rome, it would give additional dignity to +the act of canonization if the name of Louis the Debonnaire +were added to the list of Saints.</p> + +<p>But we have left the empire which it had taken so +long to consolidate, now legally divided into three. +There is a Charles in possession of the western division; +a Louis in the farther Germany; and Lothaire, the unfilial +triumpher at Aix-la-Chapelle, invested with the +remainder of the Roman world. But Lothaire was not +to be satisfied with remainders. Once in power, he was +determined to recover the empire in its undivided state.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> +He was King of Italy; master of Rome and of the +Pope; he was eldest grandson of Charlemagne, and +defied the opposition of his brothers. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 842.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>A Battle +was fought at Fontenay in 842, in which these +pretensions were overthrown; and the final severance +took place in the following year between the French +and German populations. The treaty between the +brothers still remains. It is written in duplicate—one +in a tongue still intelligible to German ears, and the +other in a Romanized speech, which is nearer the French +of the present day than the English of Alfred, or even +of Edward the Confessor, is to ours.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 843.</div> + +<p>France, which had hitherto attained that title in right +of its predominant race, held it henceforth on +the double ground of language and territory. +But there is a curious circumstance connected with the +partition of the empire, which it may be interesting to +remember. France, in gaining its name and language, +lost its natural boundary of the Rhine. Up to this time, +the limit of ancient Gaul had continued to define the +territory of the Western Franks. In rude times, indeed, +there can be no other divisions than those supplied by +nature; but now that a tongue was considered a bond +of nationality, the French were contented to surrender +to Lothaire the Emperor a long strip of territory, +running the whole way up from Italy to the North Sea, +including both banks of the Rhine, and acting as a wall +of partition between them and the German-speaking +people on the other side,—a great price to pay, even for +the easiest and most widely-spread language in Europe. +Yet the most ambitious of Frenchmen would pause +before he undid the bargain and reacquired the “exulting +and abounding river” at the sacrifice of his inimitable +tongue.</p> + +<p>Very confused and uncertain are all the events for a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> +long time after this date. We see perpetual attempts +made to restore the reality as well as the name of the +Empire. These battles and competitions of the line of +Charlemagne are the subject of chronicles and treaties, +and might impose upon us by the grandeur of their appearance, +if we did not see, from the incidental facts +which come to the surface, how unavailing all efforts +must be to arrest the dissociation of state from state. +The principle of dissolution was at work everywhere. +Kingship itself had fallen into contempt, for the great +proprietors had been encouraged to exert a kind of personal +power in the reign of Charlemagne, which contributed +to the strength of his well-consolidated crown; +but when the same individual influence was exercised +under the nominal supremacy of Louis the Debonnaire +or Charles the Bald, it proved a humiliating and dangerous +contrast to the weakness of the throne. A combination +of provincial dignitaries could at any time outweigh +the authority of the king, and sometimes, even +singly, the owners of extensive estates threw off the +very name of subject. They claimed their lands as not +only hereditary possessions, but endowed with all the +rights and privileges which their personal offices had +bestowed. If their commission from the emperor had +given them authority to judge causes, to raise taxes, or +to collect troops, they maintained from henceforth that +those high powers were inherent in their lands. The +dukes, therefore, invested their estates with ducal +rights, independent of the Crown, and left to the holder +of the kingly name no real authority except in his own +domains. Brittany, and Aquitaine, and Septimania, +withdrew their allegiance from the poor King of France. +He could not compel the ambitious owners of those +duchies to recognise his power, and condescended even +to treat them as rival and acknowledged kings. Then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> +there were other magnates who were not to be left mere +subjects when dukes had risen to such rank. So the +Marquises of Toulouse and Gothia, a district of Languedoc, +and Auvergne, were treated more as equals than as +appointed deputies recallable at pleasure. But worse +enemies of kingly dignity than duke or marquis were +the ambitious bishops, who looked with uneasy eyes on +the rapid rise of their rivals the lay nobility. Already +the hereditary title of those territorial potentates was an +accomplished fact; the son of the count inherited his +father’s county. But the general celibacy of the clergy +fortunately prevented the hereditary transmission of +bishopric and abbey. To make up for the want of this +advantage, they boldly determined to assert far higher +claims as inherent in their rank than marquis or count +could aim at. Starting from the universally-conceded +ground of their right to reprimand and punish any +Christian who committed sin, they logically carried +their pretension to the right of deposing kings if they +offended the Church. More than fifty years had passed +since Charlemagne had received the imperial crown from +the hands of the Pope of Rome. Dates are liable to fall +into confusion in ignorant times and places, and it was +easy to spread a belief that the popes had always exercised +the power of bestowing the diadem upon kings. +To support these astounding claims with some certain +guarantee, and give them the advantage of prescriptive +right by a long and legitimate possession, certain documents +were spread abroad at this time, purporting to be +a collection by Isidore, a saint of the sixth century, of +the decretals or judicial sentences of the popes from a +very early period, asserting the unquestioned spiritual +supremacy of the Roman See at a date when it was in +reality but one of many feeble seats of Christian authority; +and to equalize its earthly grandeur with its religious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> +pretension, the new edition of Isidore contained +a donation by Constantine himself, in the beginning of +the fourth century, of the city of Rome and enormous +territories in Italy, to be held in sovereignty by the +successors of St. Peter. These are now universally +acknowledged to be forgeries and impostures of the +grossest kind, but at the time they appeared they served +the purpose for which they were intended, and gave a +sanction to the Papal assumptions far superior to the +rights of any existing crown.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 859.</div> + +<p>Charles the Bald was a true son of Louis the Debonnaire +in his devotion to the Church. When the +bishops of his own kingdom, with Wenilon of +Sens as their leader, offended with some remissness he +had temporarily shown in advancing their worldly interests, +determined to depose him from the throne, and +called Louis the German to take his place, Charles fled +and threw himself on the protection of the Pope. And +when by submission and promises he had been permitted +to re-enter France, he complained of the conduct of the +prelates in language which ratified all their claims. +“Elected by Wenilon and the other bishops, as well as +by the lieges of our kingdom, who expressed their consent +by their acclamations, Wenilon consecrated me +king according to ecclesiastic tradition, in his own diocese, +in the Church of the Holy Cross at Orleans. He +anointed me with the holy oil; he gave me the diadem +and royal sceptre, and seated me on the throne. After +that consecration I could not be removed from the +throne, or supplanted by any one, at least without being +heard and judged by the bishops, by whose ministry I +was consecrated king. It is they who are as the thrones +of the Divinity. God reposes upon them, and by them +he gives forth his judgments. At all times I have been +ready to submit to their fatherly corrections, to their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> +just castigations, and am ready to do so still.” What +more could the Church require? Its wealth was the +least of its advantages, though the abbacies and bishoprics +were richer than dukedoms all over the land. Their +temporal power was supported by the terrors of their +spiritual authority; and kings, princes, and people appeared +so prone to the grossest excesses of credulity and +superstition, that it needed little to throw Europe itself +at the feet of the priesthood, and place sword and sceptre +permanently in subordination to the crozier. Blindly +secure of their position, rioting in the riches of the subject +land, the bishops probably disregarded, as below +their notice, the two antagonistic principles which were +at work at this time in the midst of their own body—the +principle of absolute submission to authority in +articles of faith, and the principle of free inquiry into all +religious doctrine. The first gave birth to the great +mystery of transubstantiation, which now first made its +appearance as an indispensable belief, and was hailed by +the laity and inferior clergy as a crowning proof of the +miraculous powers inherent in the Church. The second +was equally busy, but was not productive of such permanent +effects. At the court of Charles the Bald there +was a society of learned and ingenious men, presided +over by the celebrated John Scot Erigena, (or native of +Ireland,) who had studied the early Fathers and the +Platonic philosophy, and were inclined to admit human +reason to some participation in the reception of Christian +truths. There were therefore discussions on the +real presence, and free-will, and predestination, which +had the usual unsatisfactory termination of all questions +transcending man’s understanding, and only embittered +their respective adherents without advancing the settlement +on either side. While these exercitations of talent +and dialectic quickness were carried on, filling the different<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> +dioceses with wonder and perplexity, the great body of +the people in various countries of Europe were recalled +to the practical business of life by disputes of a far more +serious character than the wordy wars of Scotus and his +foes. Michelet, the most picturesque of the recent historians +of France, has given us an amazing view of the +state of affairs at this time. It is the darkest period +of the human mind; it is also the most unsettled period +of human society. Outside of the narrowing limits of +peopled Christendom, enemies are pressing upon every +side. Saxons on the East are laying their hands in +reverence on the manes of horses, and swearing in the +name of Odin; Saracens, in the South and West, are +gathering once more for the triumph of the Prophet; +and suddenly France, Germany, Italy, and England, are +awakened to the presence and possible supremacy of a +more dreaded invader than either, for the Vikinger, or +Norsemen, were abroad upon the sea, and all Christendom +was exposed to their ravages. Wherever a river +poured its waters into the ocean, on the coast of Narbonne, +or Yorkshire, or Calabria, or Friesland, boats, +small in size, but countless in number, penetrated into +the inland towns, and disembarked wild and fearless +warriors, who seemed inspired by the mad fanaticism +of some inhuman faith, which made charity and mercy +a sin. Starting from the islands and rugged mainland +of the present Denmark and Norway, they swept across +the stormy North Sea, shouting their hideous songs of +glory and defiance, and springing to land when they +reached their destination with the agility and bloodthirstiness +of famished wolves. Their business was to +carry slaughter and destruction wherever they went. +They looked with contempt on the lazy occupations of +the inhabitants of town or farm, and, above all, were +filled with hatred and disdain of the monks and priests<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> +Their leaders were warriors and poets. Gliding up +noiseless streams, they intoned their battle-cry and +shouted the great deeds of their ancestors when they +reached the walls of some secluded monastery, and +rejoiced in wrapping all its terrified inmates in flames. +Bards, soldiers, pirates, buccaneers, and heathens, destitute +of fear, or pity, or remorse, amorous of danger, +and skilful in management of ship and weapon, these +were the most ferocious visitants which Southern Europe +had ever seen. No storm was sufficient to be a protection +against their approach. On the crest of the highest +waves those frail barks were seen by the affrighted +dwellers on the shore, careering with all sail set, and +steering right into their port. All the people on the +coast, from the Rhine to Bayonne, and from Toulouse +to the Grecian Isles, fled for protection to the great proprietors +of the lands. But the great proprietors of the +lands were the peaceful priors of stately abbeys, and +bishops of wealthy sees. Their pretensions had been +submitted to by kings and nobles; they were the real +rulers of France; and even in England their authority +was very great. Excommunications had been their +arms against recusant baron and refractory count; but +the Danish Northmen did not care for bell, book, and +candle. The courtly circle of scholars and divines could +give no aid to the dishoused villagers and trembling +cities, however ingenious the logic might be which reconciled +Plato to St. Paul; and Charles the Bald, surprised, +no doubt, at the inefficacy of prayers and processions, +was forced to replace the influence in the hands, +not which carried the crozier and cross, but which +curbed the horse and couched the spear. The invasion +of the Danes was, in fact, the resuscitation of the courage +and manliness of the nationalities they attacked. Dreadful +as the suffering was at the time, it was not given to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> +any man then alive to see the future benefits contained +in the present woe. We, with a calmer view, look back +upon the whole series of those events, and in the intermixture +of the new race perceive the elements of greatness +and power. Priest-ridden, down-trodden populations +received a fresh impulse from those untamed +children of the North; and in the forcible relegation of +ecclesiastics to the more peaceable offices of their calling, +we see the first beginning of the gradation of ranks, and +separation of employments, which gave honourable occupation +to the respective leaders in Church and State; +which limited the clergyman to the unostentatious discharge +of his professional duties, and left the baron to +command his warriors and give armed protection to all +the dwellers in the land. For feudalism, as understood +in the Middle Ages, was the inevitable result of the relative +positions of priest and noble at the time of the +Norsemen’s forays. It was found that the possession +of great domains had its duties as well as its rights, and +the duty of defence was the most imperative of all. +Men held their grounds, therefore, on the obligation of +keeping their vassals uninjured by the pirates; the +bishops were found unable to perform this work, and the +territory passed away from their keeping. Vast estates, +no doubt, still remained in their possession, but they +were placed in the guardianship of the neighbouring +chateaux; and though at intervals, in the succeeding +centuries, we shall see the prelate dressing himself in a +coat of mail, and rendering in person the military service +entailed upon his lands, the public feeling rapidly +revolted against the incongruity of the deed. The steel-clad +bishop was looked on with slender respect, and was +soon found to do more damage to his order, by the contrast +between his conduct and his profession, than he +could possibly gain for it by his prowess or skill in war.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> +Feudalism, indeed, or the reciprocal obligation of protection +and submission, reached its full development by +the formal deposition of a descendant of Charlemagne, +on the express ground of his inability to defend his +people from the enemies by which they were +surrounded. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 879.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>A congress of six archbishops, and +seventeen bishops, was held in the town of Mantela, near +Vienne; and after consultation with the nobility, they +came to the following resolution:—“That whereas the +great qualities of the old mayors of the palace were +their only rights to the throne, and Charlemagne, +whom all willingly obeyed, did not transmit his talents, +along with his crown, to his posterity, it was right to +leave that house.” They therefore sent an offer of the +throne of Burgundy to Boso, Count of the Ardennes, +with the conditions “that he should be a true patron +and defender of high and low, accessible and friendly to +all, humble before God, liberal to the Church, and true +to his word.”</p> + +<p>By this abnegation of temporal weapons, and dependence +on the armed warrior for their defence, the prelates +put themselves at the head of the unarmed peoples +at the same moment that they exercised their spiritual +authority over all classes alike. It was useless for them +to draw the sword themselves, when they regulated +every motion of the hand by which the sword was held.</p> + +<p>While this is the state of affairs on the Continent—while +the great Empire of Charlemagne is falling to +pieces, and the kingly office is practically reduced to a +mere equality with the other dignities of the land—while +this disunion in nations and weakness in sovereigns is +exposing the fairest lands in Europe to the aggressions +of enemies on every side—let us cast our eyes for a +moment on England, and see in what condition our +ancestors are placed at the middle of this century. A<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> +most dreadful and alarming condition as ever Old England +was in. For many years before this, a pirate’s boat or +two from the North would run upon the sand, and send +the crews to burn and rob a village on the coast of Berwick +or Northumberland. Pirates we superciliously +call them, but that is from a misconception of their +point of honour, and of the very different estimate they +themselves formed of their pursuits and character. They +were gentleman, perhaps, “of small estate” in some outlying +district of Denmark or Norway, but endowed +with stout arms and a great wish to distinguish themselves—if +the distinction could be accompanied with an +increase of their worldly goods. They considered the +sea their own domain, and whatever was found on it as +theirs by right of possession. They were, therefore, +lords of the manor, looking after their rights, their +waifs and strays, their flotsams and jetsams. They +were also persons of a strong religious turn, and united +the spirit of the missionary to the courage of the warrior +and the avidity of the conqueror. Odin was still their +god, the doors of the Walhalla were still open to them +after death, and the skulls of their enemies were foaming +with intoxicating mead. The English were renegades +from the true faith, a set of drivelling wretches +who believed in a heaven where there was no beer, and +worshipped a god who bade them pray for their enemies +and bless the very people who used them ill. The remaining +similarity in the language of the two peoples +must have added a bitterness to the contemptuous feelings +of the unreclaimed rovers of the deep; and probably, +on their return, these enterprising warriors were +as proud of the number of priests they had slain, as of +the more valuable trophies they carried home. Denmark +itself, up to this time, had been distracted with +internal wars. It was only the more active spirits who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> +had rushed across from the Sound, and solaced themselves, +in the intervals of their own campaigns, with an +onslaught upon an English town. But now the scene +was to change. The inroads of separate crews were to +be exchanged for national invasions. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 838.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Harold of +the Fair Hair was seated on an undisputed throne, +and repressed the outrages of these adventurous warriors +by a strong and determined will. He stretched his +sceptre over all the Scandinavian world, and neither the +North Sea nor the Baltic were safe places for piracy +and spoil. One of his countrymen had founded the royal +line of Russia, and from his capital of Kieff or Novgorod +was civilizing, with whip and battle-axe, the original +hordes which now form the Empire of the Czars. Already, +from their lurking-places on the shores of the +Black Sea, the Norwegian predecessors of the men of +Odessa and Sebastopol were threatening a dash upon +Constantinople; while sea-kings and jarls, compelled to +be quiet and peaceable at home, but backed by all the +wild populations of the North, anxious for glory, and +greedy of gold and corn, resolved to reduce England +to their obedience, and collected an enormous fleet in the +quiet recesses of the Baltic, withdrawn from the observation +of Harold. It seems fated that France is always, +in some sort or other, to set the fashion to her neighbours. +We have seen, at the beginning of this century, how +England followed the example of the Frankish peoples +in consolidating itself into one dominion. Charlemagne +was recognised chief potentate of many states, and +Egbert was sovereign of all the Saxon lands, from Cornwall +to the gates of Edinburgh. But the model was +copied no less closely in the splitting-up of the central +authority than in its consolidation. While Louis the +Debonnaire and Charles the Bald were weakening the +throne of Charlemagne, the states of Egbert became<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> +parcelled out in the same way between the descendants +of the English king. Ethelwolf was the counterpart of +Louis, and carried the sceptre in too gentle a hand. He +still further diminished his authority by yielding to the +dissensions of his court. Like the Frankish ruler, also, +he left portions of his territory to his four sons; of +whom it will be sufficient for us to remember that the +youngest was the great Alfred—the foremost name in +all mediæval history; and by an injudicious marriage +with the daughter of Charles the Bald, and his unjust +divorce of the mother of all his sons, he offended the +feelings of the nation, and raised the animosity of his +children. Ethelbald his son completed the popular discontent +by marrying his father’s widow, the French +princess, who had been the cause of so much disagreement; +and while the people were thus alienated, and the +guiding hand of a true ruler of men was withdrawn, +the terrible invasion of Danes and Jutlanders +went on. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 839.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>They sailed up the Thames and pillaged +London. Winchester was given to the flames. +The whole isle of Thanet was seized and permanently +occupied. The magic standard, a raven, embroidered +by the daughters of the famous Regner Lodbrog, (who +had been stung to death by serpents in a dungeon into +which he was thrown by Ella, King of Northumberland,) +was carried from point to point, and was thought to be +the symbol of victory and revenge. The offending +Northumbrian now felt the wrath of the sons of Lodbrog. +They landed with a great army, and after a +battle, in which the chiefs of the English were slain, +took the Northumbrian kingdom. Nottingham was +soon after captured and destroyed. It was no longer a +mere incursion. The nobles and great families of Denmark +came over to their new conquest, and stationed +themselves in strong fortresses, commanding large circles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> +of country, and lived under their Danish regulations. +The land, to be sure, was not populous at that +time, and probably the Danish settlements were accomplished +without the removal of any original occupiers. +<span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 860.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>But the castles they built, and the towns which rapidly +grew around them, acted as outposts against the remaining +British kingdoms; and at last, when fleet after fleet +disembarked their thousands of warlike colonists—when +Leicester, Lincoln, Stamford, York, and +Chester, were all in Danish hands, and stretched a line +of intrenchments round the lands they considered their +own—the divided Anglo-Saxons were glad to purchase a +cessation of hostilities by guaranteeing to them forever +the places and territories they had secured. And there +was now a Danish kingdom enclosed by the fragments +of the English empire; there were Danish laws and +customs, a Danish mode of pronunciation, and for a +good while a still broader gulf of demarcation established +between the peoples by their diversity in religious +faith. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 872.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>But when Alfred attained the supreme +power—and although respecting the treaties between +the Danes and English, yet evidently able to defend his +countrymen from the aggressions of their foreign neighbour—the +pacified pirate, tired of the sea, and softened +by the richer soil and milder climate of his new home, +began to perceive the very unsatisfactory nature of his +ancient belief, and rapidly gave his adhesion to the +lessons of the gospel. Guthrum, the Danish chieftain, +became a zealous Christian according to his lights, and +was baptized with all his subjects. Alfred acted as godfather +to the neophyte, and restrained the wildest of his +followers within due bounds. Perhaps, even, he was +assisted by his Christianized allies in the great and final +struggle against Hastings and a new swarm of Scandinavian +rovers, whose defeat is the concluding act of this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> +tumultuous century. Alfred drew up near London, and +met the advancing hosts on the banks of the river Lea, +about twenty miles from town. The patient angler in +that suburban river seldom thinks what great events +occurred upon its shore. Great ships—all things are +comparative—were floating upon its waters, filled with +armed Danes. Alfred cut certain openings in the banks +and lowered the stream, so that the hostile navy stranded. +Out sprang the Danes, astonished at the interruption to +their course, and retreated across the country, nor +stopped till they had placed themselves in inaccessible +positions on the Severn. But the century came to a +close. Opening with the great days of Charlemagne, it +is right that it should close with the far more glorious +reign of Alfred the patriot and sage;—-a century illuminated +at its two extremes, but in its middle period dark +with disunion and ignorance, and not unlikely, unless +controlled to higher uses, to give birth to a state of more +hopeless barbarism than that from which the nations of +Europe had so recently emerged.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> +<a name="TENTH_CENTURY" id="TENTH_CENTURY">TENTH CENTURY.</a></h2> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Emperors of Germany.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Louis IV.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">911.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Conrad.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">920.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Henry the Fowler.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">936.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Otho the Great.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">973.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Otho II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">983.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Otho III.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Emperors of the East.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Leo.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">911.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Constantine IX.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">915.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Constantine</span> and <span class="smcap">Romanus</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">959.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Romanus II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">963.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Nicephorus Phocas.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">969.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">John Zimisces.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">975.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Basilius and Constantine X.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of France.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Charles the Simple.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">923.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Rodolph.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">936.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Louis IV.</span>, (d’Outremer.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">954.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Lothaire.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">986.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Louis V.</span>, (le Fainéant.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">987.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Hugh Capet</span>, (new Dynasty.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">996.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Robert the Wise.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of England.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Alfred.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">901.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Edward the Elder.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">925.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Athelstane.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">941.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Edmund I.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">948.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Eldred.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">955.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Edwy.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">959.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Edgar.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">976.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Edward II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">978.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Ethelred II.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="heading">Authors.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Suidas</span>, (Lexicographer), <span class="smcap">Gerbert</span>, <span class="smcap">Odo</span>, <span class="smcap">Dunstan</span>.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> +<a name="THE_TENTH_CENTURY" id="THE_TENTH_CENTURY">THE TENTH CENTURY.</a></h2> +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="sub-heading">DARKNESS AND DESPAIR.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> tenth century is always to be remembered as the +darkest and most debased of all the periods of modern +history. It was the midnight of the human mind, far +out of reach of the faint evening twilight left by Roman +culture, and further still from the morning brightness of +the new and higher civilization. If we try to catch any +hope of the future, we must turn from the oppressed +and enervated populations of France and Italy to the +wild wanderers from the North. By following the +latter detachment of Norsemen who made their settlements +on the Seine, we shall see that what seemed the +wedge by which the compactness of an organized kingdom +was to be split up turned out to be the strengthening +beam by which the whole machinery of legal government +had been kept together. Romanized Gauls, +effeminated Franks, Goths, and Burgundians, were found +unfitted for the duties either of subjects or rulers. They +were too ambitious to obey, and too ignorant to command. +Religion itself had lost its efficacy, for the populations +had been so fed with false legends, that they had +no relish for the truths of the gospel, which, indeed, as +an instrument of instruction, had fallen into complete +disuse. Ship-loads of false relics, and army-rolls of +imaginary saints, were poured out for the general veneration. +The higher dignitaries of the Church were +looked on with very different feelings, according to the +point of view taken of them. When regarded merely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> +as possessors of lands and houses, they were loved or +hated according to the use they made of their power; +but at the very time when cruelties and vices made them +personally the objects of detestation or contempt, the +sacredness of their official characters remained. Petitions +were sent to the kings against the prelates being +allowed to lead their retainers into battle, not entirely +from a scruple as to the unlawfulness of such a proceeding, +but from the more serious consideration that their +death or capture would be taken as a sign of the vengeance +of Heaven, and damp the ardour of the party they +supported. Churches and cathedrals were filled with +processionary spectacles, and their altars covered with +the offerings of the faithful; and yet so brutal were the +manners of the times, and so small the respect entertained +for the individual priest, that laymen of the +highest rank thought nothing of knocking down the +dignitaries of the Church with a blow on the head, even +while solemnly engaged in the offices of devotion. The +Roman pontiffs, we have seen, did not scruple to avail +themselves of the forgeries of their enthusiastic supporters +to establish their authority on the basis of antiquity, +and at the middle of this century we should find, +if we inquired into it, that the sacred city and chair of +St. Peter were a prey to the most violent passions. +Many devout Roman Catholics have been, at various +periods, so horrified with the condition of their chiefs, +and of the perverted religion which had arisen from +tradition and imposture, that they have claimed the +mere continued existence of the Papacy as a proof of +its Divine institution, and a fulfilment of the prophecy +that “the gates of hell should not prevail against it.” +Yet even in the midst of this corruption and ignorance, +there were not wanting some redeeming qualities, which +soften our feelings towards the ecclesiastic power. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> +was at all times, in its theory, a protest against the +excesses of mere strength and violence. The doctrines +it professed to teach were those of kindness and charity; +and in the great idea of the throned fisherman at Rome, +the poorest saw a kingdom which was not of this world, +and yet to which all the kingdoms of this world must +bow. Temporal ranks were obliterated when the descendants +of kings and emperors were seen paying +homage to the sons of serfs and workmen. The immunity, +also, from spoil and slaughter, which to a certain +extent still adhered to episcopal and abbatial lands, reflected +a portion of their sanctity on the person of the +bishop and abbot. Mysterious reverence still hung +round the convents, within which such ceaseless prayers +were said and so many relics exposed, and whither it +was also known that all the learning and scholarship of +the land had fled for refuge. The doles at monastery-doors, +however objected to by political economists, as +encouragements of mendicancy and idleness, were viewed +in a very different light by the starving crowds, who, +besides being qualified by destitution and hunger for the +reception of charitable food, had an incontestable right, +under the founder’s will, to be supported by the establishment +on whose lands they lived. The abbot who neglected +to feed the poor was not only an unchristian contemner +of the precepts of the faith, but ran counter to the +legal obligations of his place. He was administrator of +certain properties left for the benefit of persons about +whose claims there was no doubt; and when the rapacious +methods of maintaining their adherents, which +were adopted by the count and baron, were compared +with the baskets of broken victuals, and the jugs of +foaming beer, which were distributed at the buttery of +the abbey, the decision was greatly in favour of the +spiritual chief. His ambling mule, and swift hound, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> +hooded hawks, were not grudged, nor his less defensible +occupations seriously inquired into, as long as the beef +and mutton were not stinted, and the liquor flowed in +reasonable streams. As to his theological tenets, or +knowledge of history, either sacred or profane, the +highest ecclesiastic was on the same level of utter ignorance +and indifference with the lowest of his serfs. +There were no books of controversial divinity in all this +century. There were no studies exacted from priest or +prelate. All that was required was an inordinate zeal +in the discovery of holy relics, and an acquaintance with +the unnumbered ceremonies performed in the celebration +of the service. Morals were in as low a state as +learning. Debauchery, drunkenness, and uncleanness +were the universal characteristics both of monk and +secular. So it is a satisfaction to turn from the wretched +spectacle of the decaying and corrupt condition of an +old society, to the hardier vices of a new and undegenerated +people. Better the unreasoning vigour of the +Normans, and their wild trust in Thor and Odin—their +spirit of personal independence and pride in the manly +exercises—than the creeping submission of an uneducated +population, trampled on by their brutal lay superiors, +and cheated out of money and labour by the +artifices of their priests.</p> + +<p>Rollo, the Norman chief, had pushed his unresisted +galleys up the Seine, and strongly intrenched himself +in Rouen, in the first year of this century. From this +citadel, so admirably selected for his purposes, whether +of defence or conquest, he spread his expeditions on +every side. The boats were so light that no shallowness +of water hindered their progress even to the great +valleys where the river was still a brook. When impediments +were encountered on the way, in the form of +waterfall, or, more rarely, of bridge or weir, the adventurers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> +sprang to shore and carried their vessels along +the land. When greater booty tempted them, they +even crossed long tracts of country, hauling their boats +along with them, and launching them in some peaceful +vale far away from the sea. Every islet in the rivers +was seized and fortified; so that, dotted about over all +the beautiful lands between the Seine and the borders +of Flanders, were stout Norman colonies, with all the +pillage they had obtained securely guarded in those unassailable +retreats, and ready to carry their maritime +depredations wherever a canoe could swim. Their +rapidity of locomotion was equal to that of the Saracenic +hordes who had poured down from the Pyrenees in the +days of Charles the Hammer. But the Norsemen were +of sterner stuff than the light chivalry of Abderachman. +Where they stopped they took root. They found +it impossible to carry off all the treasure they had +seized, and therefore determined to stay beside it. +Rouen was at first about to be laid waste, but the policy +of the bishop preserved it from destruction, while the +wisdom of the rovers converted it into a fortress of the +greatest strength. Strong walls were reared all round. +The beautiful river was guarded night and day by their +innumerable fleet, and in a short time it was recognised +equally by friend and foe as the capital and headquarters +of a new race. Nor were the Normans left entirely to +Scandinavia for recruits. The glowing reports of their +success, which successively arrived at their ancient +homes, of course inspired the ambitious listeners with +an irresistible desire to launch forth and share their +fortune; but there were not wanting thousands of volunteers +near at hand. King and duke, bishop and baron, +were all unable to give protection to the cultivator of +the soil and shepherd of the flock. These humble sufferers +saw their cabins fired, and all their victuals destroyed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> +Rollo was too politic to make it a war of +extermination against the unresisting inhabitants, and +easily opened his ranks for their reception. The result +was that, in those disastrous excursions, shouting the +war-cry of Norway, and brandishing the pirate’s axe, +were many of the original Franks and Gauls, allured by +the double inducement of escaping further injury themselves +and taking vengeance on their former oppressors. +Religious scruples did not stand in their way. They +gave in their adhesion to the gods of the North, and +proved themselves true converts to Thor and Odin, by +eating the flesh of a horse that had been slain in sacrifice. +It is perhaps this heathen association with horseflesh +as an article of food, which has banished it from +Christian consumption for so long a time. But an effort +is now made in France to rescue the fattened and roasted +steed from the obloquy of its first introduction; and the +success of the movement would be complete if there +were no other difficulty to contend against than the +stigma of its idolatrous origin. Yet the recruits were +not all on one side, for we read of certain sea-kings who +have grown tired of their wandering life, and taken service +under the kings of France. Of these the most +famous was Hastings, whom we saw defeated at the end +of the last century, on the banks of the river Lea. He is +old now, and so far forgetful of his Scandinavian origin +that some French annalists claim him as a countryman +of their own, and maintain that he was the son of a +husbandman near Troyes. He is now a great landed +lord, Count of Chartres, and in high favour with the +French king. When Rollo had established his forces on +the banks of the Eure, one of the tributaries of the +Seine, the ancient pirate went at the head of an embassy +to see what the new-comer required. Standing on the +farther bank of the little river, he raised his voice, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> +in good Norwegian demanded who they were, and who +was their lord. “We have no lord!” they said: “we +are all equal.” “And why do you come into this land, +and what are you going to do?” “We are going to +chase away the inhabitants, and make the country our +home. But who are you, who speak our language so +well?” The count replied, “Did you never hear of +Hastings the famous pirate, who had so many ships +upon the sea, and did such evil to this realm?” “Of +course,” replied the Norsemen: “Hastings began well, +but has ended poorly.” “Have you no wish, then,” +said Hastings, “to submit yourselves to King Charles, +who offers you land and honours on condition of fealty +and service?” “Off! off!—we will submit ourselves to +no man; and all we can take we shall keep, without +dependence on any one. Go and tell the king so, if you +like.” Hastings returned from his unsuccessful embassy, +and the attempt at compromise was soon after followed +by a victory of Rollo, which decided the fate of the kingdom. +The conquerors mounted the Seine, and laid siege +to Paris; but failing in this, they retraced their course to +Rouen, and made themselves masters of Bayeux, and of +other places. Rollo was now raised to supreme command +by the voices of his followers, and took rank as an +independent chief. But he was too sagacious a leader to +rely entirely on the favour or success of his countrymen. +He protected the native population, and reconciled them +to the absence of their ancient masters, by the increased +security in life and property which his firmness produced. +He is said to have hung a bracelet of gold in an +exposed situation, with no defence but the terror of his +justice, and no one tried to remove it. He saw, also, that +however much his power might be dreaded, and his +family feared, by the great nobility of France with whom +he was brought into contact, his position as a heathen and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> +isolated settler placed him in an inferior situation. The +Archbishop of Rouen, who had been his ally in the +peaceable occupation of the city, was beside him, with +many arguments in favour of the Christian faith. The +time during which the populations had been intermixed +had smoothed many difficulties on either side. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 911.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>The +worship of Thor and Odin was felt to be out of place in +the midst of great cathedrals and wealthy monasteries, +and it created no surprise when, in a few years, the +ambitious Rollo descended from his proud independence, +did suit and service to his feeble adversary +Charles the Simple, and retained all his conquests +in full property as Duke of Normandy and Peer +of France.</p> + +<p>Already the divinity that hedged a king placed the +crown, even when destitute of real authority, at an immeasurable +height above the loftiest of the nobles; and +it will be well to preserve this in our memory; for to +the belief in this mystical dignity of the sovereign, the +monarchical principle was indebted for its triumph in +all the states of Europe. No matter how powerless the +anointed ruler might be—no matter how greatly a combination +of vassals, or a single vassal, might excel him +in men and money—the ineffable supremacy of the +sacred head was never denied. This strange and ennobling +sentiment had not yet penetrated the mind of +Rollo and his followers, at the great ceremonial of his +reception as a feudatory of the Crown. He declined to +bend the knee before his suzerain, but gave him his oath +of obedience and faith, standing at his full height. +When a stickler for court etiquette insisted on the final +ceremony of kissing the foot of the feudal superior, the +duke made a sign to one of his piratical attendants to +go through the form instead of him. Forth stalked the +Norseman towards the overjoyed Charles, and without<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> +stooping his body laid hold of the royal boot, and, lifting +it with all his strength up to his mouth, upset the unfortunate +and short-legged monarch on his back, to the +great consternation of his courtiers, and the hilarious +enjoyment of his new subjects. But there was henceforth +a new element in French society. The wanderers +were unanimously converted to Christianity, and the +shores of the whole kingdom perpetually guarded from +piratical invaders by the contented and warlike countrymen +of Hastings and Rollo. Normandy and Brittany +were the appanage of the new duke, and perhaps they +were more useful to the French monarch, as the well-governed +territories of a powerful vassal, than if he had +held them in full sovereignty in their former disorganized +and helpless state. Language soon began to exert +its combining influence on the peoples thus brought into +contact, and in a few years the rough Norse gave place +to the Romanized idiom of the rest of the kingdom, and +the descendants of Rollo in the next generation required +an interpreter if any of their relatives came to visit +them from Denmark.</p> + +<p>But the true characteristic event of this century was +the first establishment of real feudalism. The hereditary +nature of lands and tenements had long been recognised; +the original granter had long surrendered his +right to reclaim the property on the death of the first +possessor. Gradually also, and by sufferance, the offices +to which, in the stronger periods of royalty, the favoured +subjects had been promoted for life or a definite time +were considered to belong to the descendant of the +holder. But it was only now, in the weak administration +of a series of nominal kings, that the rights and +privileges of a titular nobility were legally recognised, +and large portions of the monarchy forever conveyed +away from the control of the Crown. There is a sort<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> +of natural feudalism which must always exist where +there are degrees of power and influence, and which is +as potent at this moment as in the time we are describing. +A man who expects a favour owes and performs +suit and service to the man who has the power of bestowing +it. A man with land to let, with money to +lend, with patronage to exert, is in a sort of way the +“superior” of him who wants to take the farm, or borrow +the money, or get the advancement. The obligations +of these positions are mutual; and only very advanced +philosophers in the theory of disunion and ingratitude +would object to the reciprocal feelings of kindness +and attachment they naturally produce. In a less +settled state of society, such as that now existing, or +which lately existed, at the Cape of Good Hope and in +New Zealand, the feudal principle is fresh and vigorous, +though not recognised under that name, for the peaceful +or weak are glad to pay deference and respect to the +wielder of the protective sword. In the tenth century +there were customs, but no laws, for laws presuppose +some external power able to enforce them, and the decay +of the kingly authority had left the only practical +government in the hands of the great and powerful. +They gave protection in return for obedience. But +when more closely inquired into, this assumption of +authority by a nobility or upper class is found to have +been purely defensive on the part of the lay proprietors, +against the advancing tide of a spiritual Democracy, +which threatened to submerge the whole of Europe. +Already the bishops and abbots had got possession of +nearly half the realm of France, and in other countries +they were equally well provided. Those great officers +were the leaders of innumerable priests and monks, and +owed their dignities to the popular will. The Pope +himself—a sovereign prince when once placed in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> +chair of St. Peter—was indebted for his exaltation to a +plurality of votes of the clergy and people of Rome. +Election was, in fact, the universal form of constituting +the rule under which men were to live. But who were +the electors? The appointment was still nominally in +the people, but the people were almost entirely under +the influence of the clerical orders. Mechanics and +labourers were the serfs or dependants of the rich +monasteries, and tillers of the episcopal lands. The +citizens had not yet risen into wealth or intelligence, +and, though subject in their persons to the baron whose +castle commanded their walls, they were still under the +guidance of their priests. No middle class existed to +hold the balance even between the nobility and the +Church; and the masses of the population were naturally +disposed to throw power into the hands of persons who +sprang, in most instances, from families no better than +their own, and recommended themselves to popular +favour by opposition (often just, but always domineering) +to the proceedings of the lay aristocracy. The labouring +serfs, who gave the vote, were not much inferior in +education or refinement to the ordained serfs who canvassed +for their favour. Abbacies, priories, bishoprics, +parochial incumbencies, and all cathedral dignities, were +held by a body distinct from the feudal gentry, and +elevated, mediately or immediately, by universal suffrage. +If some stop had not been put to the aggressions +of the priesthood, all the lands in Christendom would +have been absorbed by its insatiable greed—all the +offices of the State would have been conveyed to sacerdotal +holders; all kings would have been nominated by +the clerical voice alone, and freedom and progress would +never have had their birth. The monarchs—though it +is almost mockery to call them so in England—were +waging an unsuccessful war with the pretensions of St.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> +Dunstan, who was an embodiment of the pitiless harshness +and blind ambition of a zealot for ecclesiastic +supremacy. In France a succession of imbecile rulers, +whose characters are clearly enough to be guessed from +the descriptive epithets which the old chroniclers have +attached to their names, had left the Crown a prey to +all its enemies. What was to be expected from a +series of governors whose mark in history is made by +such nicknames as “The Bald,” “The Stammerer,” +“The Fat,” and finally, without circumlocution, “The +Fool”? Everybody tried to get as much out of the +royal plunder as he could. Bishops got lands and +churches. Foreign pirates, we have seen, got whole +counties at a time, and in self-defence the nobility were +forced to join in the universal spoil. Counties as large +as Normandy were retained as rightful inheritances, independent +of all but nominal adhesion to the throne. +Smaller properties were kept fast hold of, on the same +pretence. And by this one step the noble was placed +in a position of advantage over his rival the encroaching +bishop. His power was not the mere creation of a vote +or the possession of a lifetime. His family had foundations +on which to build through a long succession of +generations. Marriage, conquest, gift, and purchase, all +tended to the consolidation of his influence; and the result +was, that, instead of one feeble and decaying potentate +in the person of the king, to resist the aggressions +of an absorbing and levelling Church, there were hundreds +all over the land, democratic enough in regard to +their dislike of the supremacy of the sovereign, but +burning with a deep-seated aristocratic hatred of the +territorial aggrandizement of the dissolute and low-born +clergy. Europe was either in this century to be ruled +by mailed barons or surpliced priests. Sometimes they +played into each other’s hands. Sometimes the warrior<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> +overwhelmed an adversary by enlisting on his side the +sympathies of the Church. Sometimes the Church, in +its controversies with the Crown, cast itself on the protection +of the warrior, but more frequently it threw its +weight into the scale of the vacillating monarch, who +could reward it with such munificent donations. But +those munificent donations were equivalent to aggressions +on the nobles. There was no use in their trying to check +the aggrandizement of the clerical power, if the Crown +continued its gifts of territory and offices to the priests +and churches. And at last, when the strong-handed +barons of France were tired out with the fatuity of their +effete kings, they gave the last proof of the supremacy +they had attained, by departing from the line of Charlemagne +and placing one of themselves upon the throne. +Hugh Capet, the chief of the feudal nobles, was chosen +to wear the crown as delegate and representative of the +rest. The old Mayors of the Palace had been revived +in his family for some generations; and when Louis the +son of Lothaire died, after a twelvemonth’s permissive +reign, in 987, the warriors and land-owners turned instinctively +to the strongest and most distinguished +member of their body to be the guardian of the privileges +they had already secured. This was an aristocratic +movement against the lineal supremacy of the Crown, +and in reply to the democratic policy of the Church. +But the Pope was too clear-sighted to lose the chance of +attaching another champion to the papal chair. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 987.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>He made haste to ratify the new nomination to the +throne, and pronounced Hugh Capet “King of +France in right of his great deeds.”</p> + +<p>Hugh Capet had been first of the feudal nobility; but +from thenceforth he laboured to be “every inch a king.” +He tried to please both parties, and to humble them at +the same time. He did not lavish crown-lands or lofty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> +employments on the clergy; he took a new and very +economical way of attaching them to his cause. He +procured his election, it is not related by what means, +to the highest dignities in the Church, and, although not +in holy orders, was invested with the abbacies of St. +Denis and St. Martin’s and St. Germain’s. The clergy +were delighted with the increase to the respectability +of their order, which had thus a king among its office-bearers. +The Pope, we have seen, was first to declare +his legitimacy; the bishops gave him their support, as +they felt sure that, as a threefold abbot, he must have +interests identical with their own. He was fortunate, +also, in gaining still more venerated supporters; for +while he was building a splendid tomb at St. Valery, +the saint of that name appeared to him and said, with +larger promise than the witches to Banquo, “Thou and +thy descendants shall be kings to the remotest generations.”</p> + +<p>With the nobles he proceeded in a different manner. +His task, you will remember, was to regain the universal +submission of the nation; and success at first seemed +almost hopeless, for his real power, like that of the +weakest of his immediate predecessors, extended no +further than his personal holdings. In his fiefs of +France proper (the small district including Paris) and +Burgundy he was all-powerful; but in the other principalities +and dukedoms he was looked on merely as a +neighbouring potentate with some shadowy claims of +suzerainty, with no right of interference in their internal +administration. The other feudatories under the +old monarchy, but who were in reality independent sovereigns +under the new, were the Dukes of Normandy and +Flanders, and Aquitaine and Toulouse. These made the +six lay peerages of the kingdom, and, with the six ecclesiastical +chief rulers, made the Twelve Peers of France.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> +Of the lay peerages it will be seen that Hugh was in +possession of two—the best situated and most populous +of all. The extent of his possessions and the influence +of his name were excellent starting-points in his efforts +to restore the power of the Crown; but other things +were required, and the first thing he aimed at was to +place his newly-acquired dignity on the same vantage-ground +of hereditary succession as his dukedoms had +long been. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 989.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>With great pomp and solemnity he himself +was anointed with the holy oil by the hands of the +Pope; and he took advantage of the self-satisfied security +of the other nobles to have the ceremony of +a coronation performed on his son during his +lifetime, and by this arrangement the appearance of +election was avoided at his death. Its due weight must +be given to the universal superstition of the time, when +we attribute such importance to the formal consecration +of a king. Externals, in that age, were all in all. +Something mystic and divine, as we have said before, +was supposed to reside in the very fact of having the +crown placed on the head with the sanction and prayers +of the Church. Opposition to the wearer became not +only treason, but impiety; and when the same policy +was pursued by many generations of Hugh’s successors, +in always procuring the coronation of their heirs before +their demise, and thus obliterating the remembrance of +the elective process to which they owed their position, +the royal power had the vast advantage of hereditary +descent added to its unsubstantial but never-abandoned +claim of paramount authority. The effects of this momentous +change in the dynasty of one of the great +European nations were felt in all succeeding centuries. +The family connection between the house of France +and the Empire was dissolved; and the struggle between +the old condition of society and the rising intelligence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> +of the peoples—which is the great characteristic of the +Middle Ages—took a more defined form than before: +aristocracy assumed its perfected shape of king and +nobility combined for mutual defence on one side, and +on the other the towns and great masses of the nations +striving for freedom and privilege under the leadership +of the sympathizing and democratic Church; for the +Church was essentially democratic, in spite of the arrogance +and grasping spirit of some of its principal leaders. +From hereditary aristocracy and hereditary royalty it +was equally excluded; and the celibacy of the clergy +has had this good effect, if no other: Its members were +recruited from the people, and derived all their influence +from popular support. In Germany the same process +was going on, though without the crowning consummation +of making the empire non-elective. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 962.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Otho, however—worthier +of the name of Great than many who have +borne that ambitious title—succeeded in limiting that +highest of European dignities to the possessors of the +German crown, and commenced the connection +between Upper Italy and the Emperors which +still subsists (so uneasily for both parties) under the +house of Austria.</p> + +<p>In England the misery of the population had reached +its maximum. The immigration of the Norsemen had +been succeeded by numberless invasions, accompanied +with all the horrors of barbarism and religious hatred; +for the Danes who devastated the shores in this age +were as remorselessly savage, and as bitterly heathen, +as their predecessors a hundred years before. No place +was safe for the unhappy Christianized Saxons. Their +sufferings were of the same kind as those of the inhabitants +of Normandy when Rollo began his ravages. +Their priest-ridden kings and impoverished nobles could +give them no protection. Bribes were paid to the assailants,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> +and only brought over increasing and hungrier +hordes. The land was a prey to wretchedness of every +kind, and it was slender consolation to the starving and +trampled multitudes that all the world was suffering to +almost the same extent. Saracens were devastating the +coasts of Italy, and a wild tribe of Sclaves trying to +burst through the Hungarian frontier. At Rome itself, +the capital of intellect and religion, such iniquities were +perpetrated on every side that Protestant authors themselves +consent to draw a veil over them for the sake of +human nature; and in those sketches we require to do +nothing more than allude to the crimes and wickedness +of the papal court as one of the features by which the +century was marked. Women of high rank and infamous +character placed the companions of their vices +in the highest offices of the Church, and seated their +sons or paramours on the papal throne. Spiritual pretensions +rose almost in proportion to personal immorality, +and the curious spectacle was presented of a power losing +all respect at home by conduct which the heathen emperors +of the first century scarcely equalled; of popes +alternately dethroning and imprisoning each other—sometimes +of two popes at a time—always dependent +for life or influence on the will of the emperor, or whoever +else might be dominant in Italy—and yet successfully +claiming the submission and reverence of distant +nations as “Bishop of all the world” and lineal “successors +of the Prince of the Apostles.” This claim had +never been expressly made before, and is perhaps the +most conclusive proof of the darkness and ignorance of +this period. Men were too besotted to observe the incongruity +between the life and profession of those blemishes +of the Church, even when by travelling to the seat of +government they had the opportunity of seeing the +Roman pontiff and his satellites and patrons. The rest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> +of the world had no means of learning the real state of +affairs. Education had almost died out among the +clergy themselves. Nobody else could write or read. +Travelling monks gave perverted versions, we may believe, +of every thing likely to be injurious to the interests +of the Church; and the result was, that everywhere +beyond the city-walls the thunder of a Boniface the +Seventh, or a John the Twelfth, was considered as good +thunder as if it had issued from the virtuous indignation +of St. Paul.</p> + +<p>But just as this century drew to a close, various circumstances +concurred to produce a change in men’s +minds. It was a universally-diffused belief that the +world would come to an end when a thousand years +from the Saviour’s birth were expired. The year 999 +was therefore looked upon as the last which any one +would see. And if ever signs of approaching dissolution +were shown in heaven and earth, the people of this +century might be pardoned for believing that they were +made visible to them. Even the breaking up of morals +and law, and the wide deluge of sin which overspread +all lands, might be taken as a token that mankind were +deemed unfit to occupy the earth any more. In addition +to these appalling symptoms, famines were renewed +from year to year in still increasing intensity and brought +plague and pestilence in their train. The land was left +untilled, the house unrepaired, the right unvindicated; +for who could take the useless trouble of ploughing or +building, or quarrelling about a property, when so few +months were to put an end to all terrestrial interests? +Yet even for the few remaining days the multitudes +must be fed. Robbers frequented every road, entered +even into walled towns; and there was no authority left +to protect the weak, or bring the wrong-doer to punishment. +Corn and cattle were at length exhausted; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> +in a great part of the Continent the most frightful extremities +were endured; and when endurance could go +no further, the last desperate expedient was resorted to, +and human flesh was commonly consumed. One man +went so far as to expose it for sale in a populous market-town. +The horror of this open confession of their needs +was so great, that the man was burned, but more for +the publicity of his conduct than for its inherent guilt. +Despair gave a loose to all the passions. Nothing was +sacred—nothing safe. Even when food might have been +had, the vitiated taste made bravado of its depravation, +and women and children were killed and roasted in the +madness of the universal fear. Meantime the gentler +natures were driven to the wildest excesses of fanaticism +to find a retreat from the impending judgment. Kings +and emperors begged at monastery-doors to be admitted +brethren of the Order. Henry of Germany and Robert +of France were saints according to the notions of the +time, and even now deserve the respect of mankind for +the simplicity and benevolence of their characters. +Henry the Emperor succeeded in being admitted as a +monk, and swore obedience on the hands of the gentle +abbot who had failed in turning him from his purpose. +“Sire,” he said at last, “since you are under my orders, +and have sworn to obey me, I command you to go +forth and fulfil the duties of the state to which God has +called you. Go forth, a monk of the Abbey of St. Vanne, +but Emperor of the West.” Robert of France, the son +of Hugh Capet, placed himself, robed and crowned, +among the choristers of St. Denis, and led the musicians +in singing hymns and psalms of his own composition. +Lower men were satisfied with sacrificing the marks of +their knightly and seignorial rank, and placed baldrics +and swords on the altars and before the images of saints. +Some manumitted their serfs, and bestowed large sums<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> +upon charitable trusts, commencing their disposition +with words implying the approaching end of all. +Crowds of the common people would sleep nowhere +but in the porches, or at any rate within the shadow, of +the churches and other holy buildings; and as the day +of doom drew nearer and nearer, greater efforts were +made to appease the wrath of Heaven. Peace was proclaimed +between all classes of men. From Wednesday +night till Monday evening of each week there was to be +no violence or enmity or war in all the land. It was to +be a Truce of God; and at last, all their strivings after +a better state, acknowledgments of a depraved condition, +and heartfelt longings for something better, purer, +nobler, received their consummation, when, in the place +of the unprincipled men who had disgraced Christianity +by carrying vice and incredulity into the papal chair, +there was appointed to the highest of ecclesiastical dignities +a man worthy of his exaltation; and the good and +holy Gerbert, the tutor, guide, and friend of Robert of +France, was appointed Pope in 998, and took the name +of Sylvester the Second.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> +<a name="ELEVENTH_CENTURY" id="ELEVENTH_CENTURY">ELEVENTH CENTURY.</a></h2> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Emperors of Germany.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Otho III.</span>—(<i>cont</i>.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1002.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Henry of Bavaria.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1024.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Conrad II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1039.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Henry III.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1056.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Henry IV.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of England.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Ethelred II.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="year-list">1013.<br />1015.<br />1017.<br />1039.</td> +<td class="sovereign-list"> +<span class="smcap">Sweyn.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Canute the Great.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Edmund II.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Harold</span> and <span class="smcap">Hardicanute</span>. +</td> +<td class="mustache4">}</td> +<td style="width:100%">Danes</td> +</tr> +<tr><td align="right">1042.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Edward the Confessor.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1066.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Harold</span>, (son of Godwin.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1066.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">William the Conqueror.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1087.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">William Rufus.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="3" class="big">Emperors of the East.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td colspan="2" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Basilius.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1028.</td><td colspan="2" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Romanus III.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1042.</td><td colspan="2" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Empress Zoe</span> and <span class="smcap">Theodora</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1056.</td><td colspan="2" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Michael VI.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1057.</td><td colspan="2" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Isaac Comnenus.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1059.</td><td colspan="2" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Constantine X.</span>, (<span class="smcap">Ducas.</span>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1067.</td><td colspan="2" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Eudoxia</span> and <span class="smcap">Constantine XI.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1068.</td><td colspan="2" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Romanus IV.</span>, (<span class="smcap">Diogenes.</span>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1071.</td><td colspan="2" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Michael.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="year-list">1078.<br />1081.</td> +<td class="mustache2">{</td> +<td align="left">Two princes of the House of the Comneni.</td> +<td style="width:10%"></td> +</tr> +<tr><td align="right">1081.</td><td colspan="2" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Alexis I.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of France.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Robert the Wise.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1031.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Henry I.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1060.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Philip I.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="left">1096.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The First Crusade</span>.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="heading">Authors.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anselm</span>, (1003-1079,) <span class="smcap">Abelard</span>, (1079-1142,) <span class="smcap">Berengarius</span>, +<span class="smcap">Roscelin</span>, <span class="smcap">Lanfranc</span>, <span class="smcap">Theophylact</span>, (1077.)</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> +<a name="THE_ELEVENTH_CENTURY" id="THE_ELEVENTH_CENTURY">THE ELEVENTH CENTURY.</a></h2> +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="sub-heading">THE COMMENCEMENT OF IMPROVEMENT — GREGORY THE +SEVENTH  —  FIRST CRUSADE.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">And</span> now came the dreaded or hoped-for year. The +awful Thousand had at last commenced, and men held +their breath to watch what would be the result of its +arrival. “And he laid hold of the dragon, that old serpent, +which is the Devil, and Satan, and bound him for +a thousand years, and cast him into the bottomless pit, +and shut him up, and set a seal upon him, that he should +deceive the nations no more, till the thousand years +should be fulfilled: and after that he must be loosed a +little season.” (Revelation xx. 2, 3.) With this text +all the pulpits in Christendom had been ringing for a +whole generation. And not the pulpits only, but the refection-halls +of convents, and the cottages of the starving +peasantry. Into the castle also of the noble, we have +seen, it had penetrated; and the most abject terror pervaded +the superstitious, while despair, as in shipwrecked +vessels, displayed itself amid the masses of the population +in rioting and insubordination. The spirit of evil +for a little season was to be let loose upon a sinful +world; and when the observer looked round at the real +condition of the people in all parts of Europe—at the +ignorance and degradation of the multitude, the cruelty +of the lords, and the unchristian ambition and unrestrained +passions of the clergy—it must have puzzled +him how to imagine a worse state of things even when +the chain was loosened from “that old serpent,” and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> +the world placed unresistingly in his folds. Yet, as if +men’s minds had now reached their lowest point, there +was a perpetual rise from the beginning of this date. +When the first day of the thousand-and-first year shone +upon the world, it seemed that in all nations the torpor +of the past was to be thrown off. There were strivings +everywhere after a new order of things. Coming events +cast their shadows a long way before; for in the very +beginning of this century, when it was reported that +Jerusalem had been taken by the Saracens, Sylvester +uttered the memorable words, “Soldiers of Christ, arise +and fight for Zion.” By a combination of all Christian +powers for one object, he no doubt hoped to put an end +to the party quarrels by which Europe was torn in +pieces. And this great thought must have been germinating +in the popular heart ever since the speech was +spoken; for we shall see at the end of the period we are +describing how instantaneously the cry for a crusade +was responded to in all lands. In the mean time, the +first joy of their deliverance from the expected destruction +impelled all classes of society in a more honourable +and useful path than they had ever hitherto trod. As +if by universal consent, the first attention was paid to +the maintenance of the churches, those holy buildings +by whose virtues the wrath of Heaven had been turned +away. In France, and Italy, and Germany, the fabrics +had in many places been allowed to fall into ruin. They +were now renovated and ornamented with the costliest +materials, and with an architectural skill which, if it +previously existed, had had no room for its display. +Stately cathedrals took the place of the humble buildings +in which the services had been conducted before. Every +thing was projected on a gigantic scale, with the idea +of permanence prominently brought forward, now that +the threatened end of all things was seen to be postponed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> +The foundations were broad and deep, the walls +of immense thickness, roofs steep and high to keep off +the rain and snow, and square buttressed towers to sustain +the church and furnish it at the same time with +military defence. It was a holy occupation, and the +clergy took a prominent part in the new movement. +Bishops and monks were the principal members of a +confraternity who devoted themselves to the science of +architecture and founded all their works on the exact +rules of symmetry and fitness. Artists from Italy, +where Roman models were everywhere seen, and enthusiastic +students from the south of France, where the +great works of the Empire must have exercised an ennobling +influence on their taste and fancy, brought their +tribute of memory or invention to the design. Tall +pillars supported the elevated vault, instead of the flat +roof of former days; and gradually an approach was +made to what, in after-periods, was recognised as the +pure Gothic. Here, then, was at last a real science, the +offspring of the highest aspirations of the human mind. +Churches rising in rich profusion in all parts of the +country were the centres of architectural taste. The +castle of the noble was no longer to be a mere mass of +stones huddled on each other, to protect its inmates +from outward attack. The skill of the learned builder +was called in, and on picturesque heights, safe from hostile +assault by the difficulty of approach, rose turret and +bartizan, arched gateway and square-flanked towers, to +add new features to the landscape, and help the march +of civilization, by showing to that allegorizing age the +result, both for strength and beauty, of regularity and +proportion. For at this time allegory, which gave an +inner meaning to outward things, was in full force. +There was no portion of the parish church which had +not its mystical significance; and no doubt, at the end<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> +of this century, the architectural meaning of the external +alteration of the structure was perceived, when the +great square tower, which typified resistance to worldly +aggression, was exchanged for the tall and graceful spire +which pointed encouragingly to heaven. Occasions were +eagerly sought for to give employment to the ruling +passion. Building went on in all quarters. The beginning +of this century found eleven hundred and eight +monasteries in France alone. In the course of a few +years she was put in possession of three hundred and +twenty-six more. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1035.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>The magnificent Abbey of +Fontenelle was restored in 1035 by William of +Normandy; and this same William, whom we shall +afterwards see in the somewhat different character of +Conqueror and devastator of England, was the founder +and patron of more abbeys and monasteries than any +other man. Many of them are still erect, to attest the +solidity of his work; the ruins of the others raise our +surprise that they are not yet entire—so vast in their +extent and gigantic in their materials. But the same +character of permanence extended to all the works of +this great builder’s<a name="FNanchor_A_4" id="FNanchor_A_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_4" class="fnanchor">[B]</a> hands—the systems of government +no less than the fabrics of churches. The remains of his +feudalism in our country, no less than the fragments of +his masonry at Bayeux, Fecamp, and St. Michael’s, +attest the cyclopean scale on which his superstructures +were reared. Nor were these great architectural efforts +which characterize this period made only on behalf of +the clergy. It gives a very narrow notion, as Michelet +has observed, of the uses and purposes of those enormous +buildings, to view them merely as places for public +worship and the other offices of religion. The church +in a district was, in those days, what a hundred other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> +buildings are required to make up in the present. It +was the town-hall, the market-place, the concert-room, +the theatre, the school, the news-room, and the vestry, +all in one. We are to remember that poverty was +almost universal. The cottages in which the serfs and +even the freemen resided were wretched hovels. They +had no windows, they were damp and airless, and were +merely considered the human kennels into which the +peasantry retired to sleep. In contrast to this miserable +den there arose a building vast and beautiful, consecrated +by religion, ornamented with carving and colour, +large enough to enable the whole population to wander +in its aisles, with darker recesses under the shade of +pillars, to give opportunity for familiar conversation or +the enjoyment of the family meal. The church was the +poor man’s palace, where he felt that all the building +belonged to him and was erected for his use. It was +also his castle, where no enemy could reach him, and +the love and pride which filled his heart in contemplating +the massive proportions and splendid elevation of +the glorious fane overflowed towards the officers of the +church. The priest became glorified in his eyes as the +officiating servant in that greatest of earthly buildings, +and the bishop far outshone the dignity of kings when +it was known that he had plenary authority over many +such majestic fabrics. Ascending from the known to +the unknown, the Pope of Rome, the Bishop of Bishops, +shone upon the bewildered mind of the peasant with a +light reflected from the object round which all his veneration +had gathered from his earliest days—the scene +of all the incidents of his life—the hallowed sanctuary +into which he had been admitted as an infant, and +whose vaults should echo to the funeral service when he +should have died.</p> + +<p>But this century was distinguished for an upheaving<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> +of the human mind, which found its development in +other things besides the bursting forth of architectural +skill. It seemed that the chance of continued endurance, +vouchsafed to mankind by the rising of the sun on +the first morning of the eleventh century, gave an impulse +to long-pent-up thoughts in all the directions of +inquiry. The dulness of unquestioning undiscriminating +belief was disturbed by the freshening breezes of +dissidence and discussion. The Pope himself, the venerable +Sylvester the Second, had acquired all the wisdom +of the Arabians by attending the Mohammedan schools +in the royal city of Cordova. There he had learned the +mysteries of the secret sciences, and the more useful +knowledge—which he imported into the Christian world—of +the Arabic numerals. The Saracenic barbarism +had long yielded to the blandishments of the climate +and soil of Spain; and emirs and sultans, in their +splendid gardens on the Guadalquivir, had been discussing +the most abstruse or subtle points of philosophy +while the professed teachers of Christendom were sunk +in the depths of ignorance and credulity. Sylvester had +made such progress in the unlawful learning accessible +at the head-quarters of the unbelievers, that his simple +contemporaries could only account for it by supposing +he had sold himself to the enemy of mankind in exchange +for such prodigious information. He was accused +of the unholy arts of magic and necromancy; and +all that orthodoxy could do to assert her superiority +over such acquirements was to spread the report, which +was very generally credited, that when the years of the +compact were expired, the paltering fiend appeared in +person and carried off his debtor from the midst of the +affrighted congregation, after a severe logical discussion, +in which the father of lies had the best of the argument. +This was a conclusive proof of the danger of all logical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> +acquirements. But as time passed on, and the darkness +of the tenth century was more and more left behind, +there arose a race of men who were not terrified by +the fate of the philosophic Sylvester from cultivating +their understandings to the highest pitch. Among +those there were two who particularly left their marks +on the genius of the time, and who had the strange fortune +also of succeeding each other as Archbishops of +Canterbury. These were Lanfranc and Anselm. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1042.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>When +Lanfranc was still a monk at Caen, he had attracted +to his prelections more than four thousand +scholars; and Anselm, while in the same humble +rank, raised the schools of Bec in Normandy to a great +reputation. From these two men, both Italians by +birth, the Scholastic Philosophy took its rise. The old +unreasoning assent to the doctrines of Christianity had +now new life breathed into it by the permitted application +of intellect and reason to the support of truth. In +the darkness and misery of the previous century, the +deep and mysterious dogma of Transubstantiation had +made its first authoritative appearance in the Church. +Acquiesced in by the docile multitude, and accepted by +the enthusiastic and imaginative as an inexpressible gift +of fresh grace to mankind, and a fitting crown and consummation +of the daily-recurring miracles with which +the Mother and Witness of the truth proved and maintained +her mission, it had been attacked by Berenger of +Tours, who used all the resources of reason and ingenuity +to demonstrate its unsoundness. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1059.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>But Lanfranc came to +the rescue, and by the exercise of a more vigorous dialectic, +and the support of the great majority of the +clergy, confuted all that Berenger advanced, had him +stripped of his archdeaconry of Angers and other preferments, +and left him in such destitution and disfavour +that the discomfited opponent of the Real Presence was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> +forced to read his retractation at Rome, and +only expiated the enormity of his fault by the +rigorous seclusion of the remainder of his life. The +hopeful feature in this discussion was, that though the +influence of ecclesiastic power was not left dormant, in +the shape of temporal ruin and spiritual threats, the +exercise of those usual weapons of authority was accompanied +with attempts at argument and conviction. +Lanfranc, indeed, in the very writings in which he used +his talents to confute the heretic, made such use of his +reasoning and inductive faculties that he nearly fell +under the ban of heresy himself. He had the boldness +to imagine a man left to the exercise of his natural +powers alone, and bringing observation, argument, and +ratiocination to the discovery of the Christian dogmas; +but he was glad to purchase his complete rehabilitation, +as champion of the Church, by a work in which he +admits reason to the subordinate position of a supporter +or commentator, but by no means a foundation or inseparable +constituent of an article of the faith. Any +thing was better than the blindness and ignorance of +the previous age; and questions of the purest metaphysics +were debated with a fire and animosity which +could scarcely have been excited by the greatest worldly +interests. The Nominalists and Realists began their +wordy and unprofitable war, which after occasional +truces may at any moment break out, as it has often +done before, though it would now be confined to the +professorial chairs in our universities, and not exercise +a preponderating influence on the course of human +affairs. The dispute (as the names of the disputants +import) arose upon the question as to whether universal +ideas were things or only the names of things, and on +this the internecine contest went on. All the subtlety +of the old Greek philosophies was introduced into the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> +scholasticisms and word-splittings of those useless +arguers; and vast reputations, which have not yet decayed, +were built on this very unsubstantial foundation.</p> + +<p>It shows how immeasurably the efforts of the intellect, +even when misapplied, transcend the greatest triumphs +of military skill, when we perceive that in this age, +which was illustrated by the Conquest of England, first +by the Danes, and then by William, by the marvellous +rise and triumphant progress of the sons of Tancred of +Hauteville, and by the startling incidents of the First +Crusade,—the central figure is a meagre, hard-featured +monk, who rises from rank to rank, till he governs and +tramples on the world under the name of Gregory the +Seventh. It may seem to some people, who look at the +present condition of the Romish Church, that too prominent +a place is assigned in these early centuries to +the growth and aggrandizement of the ecclesiastical +power; but as the object of these pages is to point out +what seems the main distinguishing feature of each of +the periods selected for separate notice, it would be unpardonable +to pass over the Papacy, varying in extent +of power and pretension at every period when it comes +into view, and always impressing a distinct and individualizing +character on the affairs with which it is concerned. +It is the most stable, and at the same time the +most flexible, of powers. Kingdoms and dynasties +flourish and decay, and make no permanent mark on +the succeeding age. The authority of a ruler like +Charlemagne or Otho rises in a full tide, and, having +reached its limits, yields to the irresistible ebb. But +Roman influence knows no retrocession. Even when its +pretensions are defeated and its assaults repulsed, it +claims as <i>de jure</i> what it has lost <i>de facto</i>, and, though it +were reduced to the possession of a single church, +would continue to issue its orders to the habitable globe.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span></p> + +<p>Like the last descendant of the Great Mogul, who +professed to rule over Hindostan while his power was +limited to the walls of his palace at Delhi, the bearer of +the Tiara abates no jot of his state and dignity when +every vestige of his influence has disappeared. While +ridiculed as a puppet or pitied as a sufferer at home, he +arrogates more than royal power in regions which have +long thrown off his authority, and announces his will by +the voice of blustering and brazen heralds to a deaf and +rebellious generation, which looks on him with no more +respect than the grotesquely-dressed conjurers before a +tent-door at a fair. But the herald’s voice would have +been listened to with respect and obedience if it had +been heard at the Pope’s gate in 1073. There had never +been such a pope before, and never has been such a +pope since. Others have been arrogant and ambitious, +but no one has ever equalled Hildebrand in arrogance +and ambition. Strength of will, also, has been the +ruling character of many of the pontiffs, but no one has +ever equalled Hildebrand in the undying tenacity with +which he pursued his object. He was like Roland, the +hero of Roncesvalles, who even in defeat knew how to +keep his enemies at a distance by blowing upon his +horn. When Durandal foiled the vanquished Gregory, +he spent his last breath in defiant blasts upon his Olifant.</p> + +<p>But there were many circumstances which not only +rendered the rise of such a person possible, but made +his progress easy and almost unavoidable. First of all, +the crusading spirit which commenced with this century +had introduced a great change in the principles and +practice of the higher clergy. It is a mistake to suppose +that the expedition to Jerusalem, under the preaching +of Peter the Hermit, which took place in 1094, was the +earliest manifestation of the aggressive spirit of the +Christian, as such, against the unbeliever. A holy war<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> +was proclaimed against the Saracens of Italy at an early +date. An armed assault upon the Jews, as descendants +of the murderers of Christ, had taken place in 1080. +Even the Norman descent on England was considered +by the more devout of the Papist followers in the light +of a crusade against the enemies of the Cross, as the +Anglo-Saxons were not sufficiently submissive to the +commands of Rome. Bishops, we saw, were held in a +former century to derogate from the sanctity of their +characters when they fought in person like the other +occupants of fiefs. But the sacred character which expeditions +like those against Sicily and Salerno gave to +the struggle made a great difference in the popular estimate +of a prelate’s sphere of action. He was now held +to be strictly in the exercise of his duty when he was +slaying an infidel with the edge of the sword. He was +not considered to be more in his place at the head of a +procession in honour of a saint than at the head of an +army of cavaliers destroying the enemies of the faith. +Warlike skill and personal courage became indispensable +in a bishop of the Church; and in Germany these qualities +were so highly prized, that the inhabitants of a diocese +in the empire, presided over by a man of peace and +holiness, succeeded in getting him deposed by the Pope +on the express ground of his being “placable and far +from valiant.” The epitaph of a popular bishop was, +that he was “good priest and brave chevalier.” The +manners and feelings of the camp soon became disseminated +among the reverend divines, who inculcated +Christianity with a battle-axe in their hands. They +quarrelled with neighbouring barons for portions of +land. They seized the incomes of churches and abbeys. +Bishop and baron strove with each other who could get +most for himself out of the property of the Church. The +layman forced his serfs to elect his infant son to an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> +abbacy or bishopric, and then pillaged the estate and +stripped the lower clergy in the minor’s name. Other +abuses followed; and though the strictness of the rule +against the open marriage of priests had long ceased, and +in some places the superiority of wedded incumbents had +been so recognised that the appointment of a pastor +was objected to unless he was accompanied by a wife—still, +the letter of the Church-law, enjoining celibacy on +all orders of the clergy, had never been so generally +neglected as at the present time. No attempt was +made to conceal the almost universal infraction of the +rule. Bishops themselves brought forward their wives +on occasions of state and ceremony, who disputed the +place of honour with the wives of counts and barons. +When strictly inquired into, however, these alliances +were not allowed to have the effect of regular matrimony. +They were looked upon merely as a sort of +licensed and not dishonourable concubinage, and the +children resulting from them were deprived of the rights +of legitimacy. Yet the wealth and influence of their +parents made their exclusion from the succession to +land of little consequence. They were enriched sufficiently +with the spoil of the diocese to be independent of +the rights of heirship. This must have led, however, to +many cases of hardship, when the feudal baron, tempted +by the riches of the neighbouring see, had laid violent +hands on the property, and by bribery or force procured +his own nomination as bishop. The children of any +marriage contracted after that time lost their inheritance +of the barony by the episcopal incapacity of their +father, and must have added to the general feeling of +discontent caused by the junction of the two characters. +For when the tyrannical lord became a prelate, it only +added the weapons of ecclesiastic domination to the +baronial armory of cruelty and extortion. He could<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> +now withhold all the blessings of the Church, as bishop, +unless the last farthing were yielded up to his demands +as landlord. An appalling state of things, when the refractory +vassal, who had escaped the sword, could be +knocked into submission by the crozier, both wielded by +the same man. The Church, therefore, in its highest +offices, had become as mundane and ambitious as the +nobility. And it must have been evident to a far dimmer +sight than Hildebrand’s, that, as the power and independence +of the barons had been gained at the expense +of the Crown, the wealth and possessions of the bishops +would weaken their allegiance to the Pope. Sprung +from the lowest ranks of the people, the grim-hearted +monk never for a moment was false to his order. He +looked on lords and kings as tyrants and oppressors, on +bishops themselves as lording it over God’s heritage and +requiring to be held down beneath the foot of some +levelling and irresistible power, which would show them +the nothingness of rank and station; and for this end +he dreamed of a popedom, universal in its claims, domineering +equally over all conditions of men—an incarnation +of the fiercest democracy, trampling on the people, +and of the bitterest republicanism, aiming at more than +monarchical power. He had the wrath of generations +of serfdom rankling in his heart, and took a satisfaction, +sweetened by revenge, in bringing low the haughty +looks of the proud. And in these strainings after the +elevation of the Papacy he was assisted by several +powers on which he could securely rely.</p> + +<p>The Normans, who by a wonderful fortune had made +themselves masters of England under the guidance of +William, were grateful to the Pope for the assistance he +had given them by prohibiting all opposition to their +conquest on the part of the English Church. Another +branch of Normans were still more useful in their support<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span> +of the papal chair. A body of pilgrims to Jerusalem, +amounting to only forty men, had started from +Scandinavia in 1006, and, having landed at Salerno, +were turned aside from completing their journey by the +equally meritorious occupation of resisting the Saracens +who were besieging the town. They defeated them +with great slaughter, and were amply rewarded for +their prowess with goods and gear. News of their +gallantry and of their reward reached their friends and +relations at home. In a few years they were followed +by swarms of their countrymen, who disposed of their +acquisitions in Upper Italy to the highest bidder, and +were remunerated by grants of land in Naples for +their exertion on behalf of Sergius the king. But in +1037 a fresh body of adventurers proceeded from the +neighbourhood of Coutances in Normandy, under the +command of three brothers of the family of Hauteville, +to the assistance of the same monarch, and, with the +usual prudence of the Norman race, when they had +chased the enemy from the endangered territory, made +no scruple of keeping it for themselves. Robert, called +Guiscard, or the Wise, was the third brother, and succeeded +to the newly-acquired sovereignty in 1057. In +a short time he alarmed the Pope with the prospect of +so unscrupulous and so powerful a neighbour. His +Holiness, therefore, demanded the assistance of the +German Emperor, and boldly took the field. The Normans +were no whit daunted with the opposition of the +Father of Christendom, and dashed through all obstacles +till they succeeded in taking him prisoner. Instead of +treating him with harshness, and exacting exorbitant +ransom, as would have been the action of a less sagacious +politician, the Norman threw himself on his knees +before the captive pontiff, bewailed his hard case in +being forced to appear so contumacious to his spiritual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> +lord and master, and humbly besought him to pardon +his transgression, and accept the suzerainty of all the +lands he possessed and of all he should hereafter +subdue. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1059.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>It was a delightful surprise to +the Pope, who immediately ratified all the proceedings +of his repentant son, and in a short time was rewarded +by seeing Apulia and the great island of Sicily +held in homage as fiefs of St. Peter’s chair. From +thenceforth the Italian Normans were the bulwarks of +the papal throne. But, more powerful than the Normans +of England, and more devoted personally to the +popes than the greedy adventurers of Apulia, the +Countess Matilda was the greatest support of all the +pretensions of the Holy See. Young and beautiful, the +holder of the greatest territories in Italy, this lady was +the most zealous of all the followers of the Pope. +Though twice married, she on both occasions separated +from her husband to throw herself with more undivided +energy into the interests of the Church. With men +and money, and all the influence that her position as a +princess and her charms as a woman could give, the +sovereign pontiff had no enemy to fear as long as he +retained the friendship of his enthusiastic daughter.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1060.</div> + +<p>Hildebrand was the ruling spirit of the papal court, +and was laying his plans for future action, +while the world was still scarcely aware of his +existence. He began, while only Archdeacon of Rome, +by a forcible reformation of some of the irregularities +which had crept into the practice of the clergy, as a +preparatory step to making the clergy dominant over +all the other orders in the State. He gave orders, in +the name of Stephen the Tenth, for every married priest +to be displaced and to be separated from his wife. For +this end he stirred up the ignorant fanaticism of the +people, and encouraged them in outrages upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span> +offending clergy, which frequently ended in death. The +virtues of the cloister had still a great hold on the popular +veneration, in spite of the notorious vices of the +monastic establishments, both male and female; and +Hildebrand’s invectives on the wickedness of marriage, +and his praises of the sanctity of a single life, were +listened to with equal admiration. The secular clergy +were forced to adopt the unsocial and demoralizing +principles of their monkish rivals; and when all family +affections were made sinful, and the feelings of the +pastor concentrated on the interests of his profession, +the popes had secured, in the whole body of the Church, +the unlimited obedience and blind support which had +hitherto been the characteristic of the monastic orders. +With the assistance of the warlike Normans, the wealth +and influence of the Countess Matilda, the adhesion of +the Church to his schemes of aggrandizement, he felt it +time to assume in public the power he had exercised so +long in the subordinate position of counsellor of the +popes; and the monk seated himself on what he considered +the highest of earthly thrones, and immediately +the contest between the temporal and spiritual +powers began. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1073.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>The King of France (Philip the +First) and the Emperor of Germany (Henry the Fourth) +were both of disreputable life, and offered an easy mark +for the assaults of the fiery pontiff. He threatened +and reprimanded them for simony and disobedience, +proclaimed his authority over kings and princes as a +fact which no man could dispute without impiety, and +had the inward pleasure of seeing the proudest of the +nobles, and finally the most powerful of the sovereigns, +of Europe, forced to obey his mandates. The +pent-up hatred of his race and profession was gratified +by the abasement of birth and power.</p> + +<p>The struggle with the Empire was on the subject of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> +investiture. The successors of Charlemagne had always +retained a voice in the appointment of the bishops and +Church dignitaries in their states; they had even frequently +nominated to the See of Rome, as to the other +bishoprics in their dominions. The present wearer of +the iron crown had displaced three contending popes, +who were disturbing the peace of the city by their +ferocious quarrels, and had appointed others in their +room. There was no murmur of opposition to their +appointment. They were pious and venerable men; +and of each of them the inscrutable Hildebrand had +managed to make himself the confidential adviser, and +in reality the guide and master. Even in his own case +he waited patiently till he had secured the emperor’s +legal ratification of his election, and then, armed with +legitimacy, and burning with smothered indignation, he +kicked down the ladder by which he had risen, and +wrote an insulting letter to the emperor, commanding +him to abstain from simony, and to renounce the right +of investiture by the ring and cross. These, he maintained, +were the signs of spiritual dignity, and their +bestowal was inherent in the Pope. The time for the +message was admirably chosen; for Henry was engaged +in a hard struggle for life and crown with the Saxons +and Thuringians, who were in open revolt. Henry +promised obedience to the pontiff’s wish, but when his +enemies were defeated he withdrew his concession. +The Pope thundered a sentence of excommunication +against him, released his subjects from their oath of +fealty, and pronounced him deprived of the throne. +The emperor was not to be left behind in the race of +objurgation. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1076.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>He summoned his nobles and prelates +to a council at Worms, and pronounced +sentence of deprivation on the Pope. Then arose such +a storm against the unfortunate Henry as only religious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span> +differences can create. His subjects had been oppressed, +his nobility insulted, his clergy impoverished, and all +classes of his people were glad of the opportunity of +hiding their hatred of his oppressions under the cloak +of regard for the interests of religion. He was forced +to yield; and, crossing the Alps in the middle of winter, +he presented himself at the castle of Canossa. Here +the Pope displayed the humbleness and generosity of +his Christian character, by leaving the wretched man +three days and nights in the outer court, shivering with +cold and barefoot, while His Holiness and the Countess +Matilda were comfortably closeted within. And after +this unheard-of degradation, all that could be wrung +from the hatred of the inexorable monk was a promise +that the suppliant should be tried with justice, and that, +if he succeeded in proving his innocence, he should be +reinstated on his throne; but if he were found guilty, +he should be punished with the utmost rigour of ecclesiastical +law.</p> + +<p>Common sense and good feeling were revolted by this +unexampled insolence. Friends gathered round Henry +when the terms of his sentence were heard. The +Romans themselves, who had hitherto been blindly submissive, +were indignant at the presumption of their +bishop. None continued faithful except the imperturbable +Countess Matilda. He was still to her the +representative of divine goodness and superhuman +power. But her troops were beaten and her money +was exhausted in the holy quarrel. Robert Guiscard, +indeed, came to the rescue, and rewarded himself for +delivering the Pope by sacking the city of Rome. Half +the houses were burned, and half the population killed +or sold as slaves. It was from amidst the desolation +his ambition had caused that the still-unsubdued Hildebrand +was guarded by the Normans to the citadel of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> +Salerno, and there he died, issuing his orders and curses +to his latest hour, and boasting with his last breath that +“he had loved righteousness and hated iniquity, and +that therefore he expired in exile.” <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1085.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>After this +man’s throwing off the mask of moderation +under which his predecessors had veiled their claims, +the world was no longer left in doubt of the aims and +objects of the spiritual power. There seems almost a +taint of insanity in the extravagance of his demands. +In the published collection of his maxims we see the full +extent of the theological tyranny he had in view. +“There is but one name in the world,” we read; “and +that is the Pope’s. He only can use the ornaments of +empire. All princes ought to kiss his feet. He alone +can nominate or displace bishops and assemble or dissolve +councils. Nobody can judge him. His mere +election constitutes him a saint. He has never erred, +and never shall err in time to come. He can depose +princes and release subjects from their oaths of fidelity.” +Yet, in spite of the wildness of this language, the ignorance +of the period was so great, and the relations of +European nations so hostile, that the most daring of +these assumptions found supporters either in the superstitious +veneration of the peoples or the enmity and +interests of the princes. The propounder of those +amazing propositions was apparently defeated, and died +disgraced and hated; but his successors were careful +not to withdraw the most untenable of his claims, even +while they did not bring them into exercise. They +lay in an armory, carefully stored and guarded, to be +brought out according to the exigencies either of the +papal chair itself, or of the king or emperor who for the +moment was in possession of the person of the Pope. +None of the great potentates of Europe, therefore, was +anxious to diminish a power which might be employed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> +for his own advantage, and all of them by turns encouraged +the aggressions of the Papacy, with a short-sighted +wisdom, to be an instrument of offence against +their enemies. Little encouragement, indeed, was offered +at this time to opposition to the spiritual despot. +Though Hildebrand had died a refugee, it was remarked +with pious awe that Henry the Fourth, his rival and +opponent, was punished in a manner which showed the +highest displeasure of Heaven. His children, at the +instigation of the Pope, rebelled against him. He was +conquered in battle and taken prisoner by his youngest +son. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1106<span class="hidev">|</span></span>He was stripped of all his possessions, and at last +so destitute and forsaken that he begged for a subchanter’s +place in a village church for the sake of its +wretched salary, and died in such extremity of +want and desolation that hunger shortened his +days. For five years his body was left without the +decencies of interment in a cellar in the town of Spires.</p> + +<p>But an immense movement was now to take place in +the European mind, which had the greatest influence +on the authority of Rome. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1095<span class="hidev">|</span></span>A crusade against the +enemies of the faith was proclaimed in the year +1095, and from all parts of Europe a great cry +of approval was uttered in all tongues, for it hit the +right chord in the ferocious and superstitious heart of +the world; and it was felt that the great battle of the +Cross and the Crescent was most fitly to be decided forever +on the soil of the Holy Land.</p> + +<p>From the very beginning of this century the thought +of armed intervention in the affairs of Palestine had +been present in the general mind. Religious difference +had long been ready to take the form of open war. +As the Church strengthened and settled into more dogmatic +unity, the desire to convert by force and retain +within the fold by penalty and proscription had increased. +As yet some reluctance was felt to put a professing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> +Christian to death on merely a difference of +doctrine, but with the open gainsayers of the faith no +parley could be held. Thousands, in addition to their +religious animosities, had personal injuries to avenge; +for pilgrimage to Jerusalem was already in full favour, +and the weary wayfarers had to complain of the hostility +of the turbaned possessors of the Holy Sepulchre, +and the indignities and peril to which they were exposed +the moment they came within the infidel’s domain. +Why should the unbelievers be allowed any +longer to retain the custody of such inherently Christian +territories as the Mount of Olives and the Garden +of Gethsemane? Why should the unbaptized followers +of Mohammed, those children of perdition, pollute with +hostile feet the sacred ground which had been the witness +of so many miracles and still furnished so many +relics which manifested superhuman power? Besides, +what was the wealth of other cities—their gold and +precious jewels—to the store of incalculable riches contained +in the very stones and woodwork of the metropolis +and cradle of the faith? Bones of martyrs—garments +of saints—nails of the cross—thorns of the +crown—were all lying ready to be gathered up by the +faithful priesthood who would lead the expedition. +And who could be held responsible, in this world or the +next, for any sins, however grievous, who had washed +them out by purifying the floors of Zion with the blood +of slaughtered Saracens and saying prayers and kneeling +in contemplation within sight of the Sepulchre itself? +So Peter the Hermit, an enthusiast who preached a holy +war, was listened to as if he spake with the tongues of +angels. The ravings of his lunacy had a prodigious +effect on all classes and in all lands; and suddenly there +was gathered together a confused rabble of pilgrims, +armed in every variety of fashion—princes and beggars, +robbers and adventurers—the scum of great cities<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span> +and the simple-hearted peasantry from distant farms—upwards +of three hundred thousand in number, all +pouring down towards the seaports and anxious to +cross over to the land where so many high hopes were +placed. Vast numbers of this multitude found their +way from France through Italy; and luckily for Urban +the Second—the fifth in succession from Gregory—they +took the opportunity of paying a visit to the city +of Rome, scarcely less venerable in their eyes than Jerusalem +itself. They were the soldiers of the Cross, and +in that character felt bound to pay a more immediate +submission to the Chief of Christianity than to their +native kings. They found the city divided between +two rivals for the tiara, and, having decided in favour +of Urban, chased away the anti-pope who was appointed +by the Imperial choice. Terrified at the accession +of such powerful supporters, the Germans were +withdrawn from Italy, and Urban felt that the claims +of Hildebrand were not incapable of realization if he +could get quit of unruly barons and obstinate monarchs +by engaging them in a distant and ruinous expedition. +It needed little to spread the flame of fanaticism over +the whole of Christendom. The accounts given of this +first Crusade transcend the wildest imaginings of romance. +An indiscriminate multitude of all nations and +tongues seemed impelled by some irresistible impulse +towards the East. Ostensibly engaged in a religious +service, enriched with promises and absolutions from +the Pope, giving up all their earthly possessions, and +filled with the one idea of liberating the Holy Land, it +might have been expected that the sobriety and order +of their march would have been characteristic of such +elevating aspirations. But the infamy of their behaviour, +their debauchery, irregularity, and dishonesty, have +never been equalled by the basest and most degraded of +mankind. Like a flood they poured through the lands<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span> +of Italy, Bohemia, and Germany, polluting the cities +with their riotous lives, and poisoning the air with the +festering corruption of their innumerable dead. They +at last found shipping from the ports, and presented +themselves, drunk with fanatical pride, and maddened +with the sufferings they had undergone, before the +astonished people of Constantinople. That enervated +and over-civilized population looked with disgust on the +unruly mass. Of the vast multitudes who had started +under the guidance of Peter the Hermit, not more than +20,000 survived; and of these none found their way to +the object of their search. The Turks, who had by +this time obtained the mastery of Asia, cut them in +pieces when they had left the shelter of Constantinople, +and Alexis Comnenus, the Grecian emperor, had little +hope of aid against the Mohammedan invaders from the +unruly levies of Europe.</p> + +<p>But in the following year a new detachment made +their appearance in his states. This was the second +ban, or crusade of the knights and barons. Better regulated +in its military organization than the other, it +presented the same astonishing scenes of debauchery +and vice; and dividing, for the sake of sustenance, into +four armies, and taking four different routes, they at +length, in greatly-diminished numbers, but with unabated +hope and energy, presented themselves before +the walls of Constantinople. This was no mob like +their famished and fainting predecessors. All the gallant +lords of Europe were here, inspired by knightly courage +and national rivalries to distinguish themselves in fight +and council. Of these the best-known were Godfrey of +Bouillon, Baldwyn of Flanders, Robert of Normandy, +(William the Conqueror’s eldest son,) Hugh the Great, +Count of Vermandois, and Raymond of St. Gilles. Six +hundred thousand men had left their homes, with innumerable +attendants—women, and jugglers, and servants,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> +and workmen of all kinds. Tens of thousands perished +by the way; others established themselves in the cities +on their route to keep up the communication; and at +last the Genoese and Pisan vessels conveyed to the +Golden Horn the strength of all Europe, the hardy survivors +of all the perils of that unexampled march—few +indeed in number, but burning with zeal and bravery. +Alexis lost no time in diverting their dangerous strength +from his own realms. He let them loose upon Nicea, +and when it yielded to their valour he had the cleverness +to outwit the Christian warriors, and claimed the +city as his possession. On pursuing their course, they +found themselves, after a victory over the Turks at +Dorylæum, in the great Plain of Phrygia. Hunger, +thirst, the extremity of heat, and the difficulty of the +march, brought confusion and dismay into their ranks. +All the horses died. Knights and chevaliers were seen +mounted on asses, and even upon oxen; and the baggage +was packed upon goats, and not unfrequently on swine +and dogs. Thirst was fatal to five hundred in a single +day. Quarrels between the nationalities added to these +calamities. Lorrains and Italians, the men of Normandy +and of Provence, were at open feud. And yet, in spite +of these drawbacks, the great procession advanced. +Baldwyn and Tancred succeeded in getting possession +of the town of Edessa, on the Euphrates, and opened a +communication with the Christians of Armenia. +<span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1098.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>The siege of Antioch was their next operation, +and the luxuries of the soil and climate were more fatal +to the Crusaders than want and pain had been. On the +rich banks of the Orontes, and in the groves of Daphne, +they lost the remains of discipline and self-command +and gave themselves up to the wildest excesses. But +with the winter their enjoyment came to an end. Their +camp was flooded; they suffered the extremities of +famine; and when there were no more horses and impure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span> +animals to eat, they satiated their hunger on the +bodies of their slaughtered enemies. Help, however, +was at hand, or they must have perished to the last +man. Bohemund corrupted the fidelity of a renegade +officer in Antioch, and, availing themselves of a dark +and stormy night, they scaled the walls with ladders, +and rushed into the devoted city, shouting the Crusaders’ +war-cry:—“It is the will of God!” and Antioch became +a Christian princedom. But not without difficulty was +this new possession retained. The Turks, under the +orders of Kerboga, surrounded it with two hundred +thousand men. There was neither entrance nor exit +possible, and the worst of their previous sufferings +began to be renewed. But Heaven came to the rescue. +A monk of the name of Peter Bartholomew dreamt +that under the great altar of the church would be found +the spear which pierced the Saviour on the cross. The +precious weapon rewarded their toil in digging, and +armed with this the Christian charge was irresistible, +and the Turks were cut in pieces or dispersed. Instead +of making straight for Jerusalem, they lingered six +months longer in Antioch, suffering from plague and the +fatigues they had undergone. When at last the forward +order was given, a remnant, consisting of fifty thousand +men out of all the original force, began the march. As +they got nearer the object of their search, and recognised +the places commemorated in Holy Writ, their enthusiasm +knew no bounds. The last elevation was at +length surmounted, and Jerusalem lay in full view. “O +blessed Jesus,” cries a monk who was present, “when +thy Holy City was seen, what tears fell from our eyes!” +Loud shouts were raised of “Jerusalem! Jerusalem! +God wills it! God wills it!” They stretched out their +hands, fell upon their knees, and embraced the consecrated +ground. But Jerusalem was yet in the hands of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> +the Saracens, and the sword must open their way into +its sacred bounds. The governor had offered to admit +the pilgrims within the walls, but in their peaceful dress +and merely as visitors. This they refused, and determined +to wrest it from its unbelieving lords. On the +15th of July, 1099, they found that their situation was +no longer tenable, and that they must conquer or give +up the siege. The brook Kedron was dried up, the sun +poured upon them with unendurable heat, their provisions +were exhausted, and in agonies of despair as +well as of military ardour they gave the final assault. +The struggle was long and doubtful. At length the +Crusaders triumphed. Tancred and Godfrey were the +first to leap into the devoted town. Their soldiers followed, +and filled every street with slaughter. The Mosque +of Omar was vigorously defended, and an indiscriminate +massacre of Mussulmans and Jews filled the +whole place with blood. In the mosque itself the stream +of gore was up to the saddle-girths of a horse. The onslaught +was occasionally suspended for a while, to allow +the pious conquerors to go barefoot and unarmed to +kneel at the Holy Sepulchre; and, this act of worship +done, they returned to their ruthless occupation, and +continued the work of extermination for a whole week. +The depopulated and reeking town was added to the +domains of Christendom, and the kingdom of Jerusalem +was offered to Godfrey of Bouillon. With a modesty +befitting the most Christian and noble-hearted of the +Crusaders, Godfrey contented himself with the humbler +name of Baron of the Holy Sepulchre; and with three +hundred knights—which were all that remained to him +when that crowning victory had set the other survivors +at liberty to revisit their native lands—he established a +standing garrison in the captured city, and anxiously +awaited reinforcements from the warlike spirits they +had left at home.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> +<a name="TWELFTH_CENTURY" id="TWELFTH_CENTURY">TWELFTH CENTURY.</a></h2> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Emperors of Germany.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Henry IV.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1106.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Henry V.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td align="left" class="dynast"><i>House of Suabia.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1138.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Conrad III.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1152.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Frederick Barbarossa.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1190.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Henry VI.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1198.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Philip</span> and <span class="smcap">Otho IV.</span>, (of Brunswick.)</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of England.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1100.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Henry I.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1135.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Stephen.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1154.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Henry II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1189.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Richard I.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1199.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap"> John.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Emperors of the East.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Alexis I.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1118.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">John.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1143.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Manuel.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1183.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Andronicus I.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1185.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Isaac II.</span>, (the Angel.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1195.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Alexis III.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of France.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap"> Philip I.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1108.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Louis VI.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1137.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Louis VII.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1180.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Philip Augustus.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">King of Scotland.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1165.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">William.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td class="year-top">1147.</td><td><span class="smcap">Second Crusade</span>, led by Louis VII. of France.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="year-top">1189.</td><td><span class="smcap">Third Crusade</span>, led by Frederick Barbarossa, Philip Augustus, and Richard of England.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="heading">Authors.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bernard</span>, (1091-1153,) <span class="smcap">Becket</span>, (1119-1170,) <span class="smcap">Eustathius</span>, +<span class="smcap">Theodorus</span>, <span class="smcap">Balsamon</span>, <span class="smcap">Peter Lombard</span>, <span class="smcap">William of Malmesbury</span>, +(1096-1143.)</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span> +<a name="THE_TWELFTH_CENTURY" id="THE_TWELFTH_CENTURY">THE TWELFTH CENTURY.</a></h2> +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="sub-heading">ELEVATION OF LEARNING — POWER OF THE CHURCH — THOMAS +À-BECKETT.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> effect of the first Crusade had been so prodigious +that Europe was forced to pause to recover from its exhaustion. +More than half a million had left their homes +in 1095; ten thousand are supposed to have returned; +three hundred were left with Godfrey in the Christian +city of Jerusalem; and what had become of all the +rest? Their bones were whitening all the roads that led +to the Holy Land; small parties of them must have +settled in despair or weariness in towns and villages on +their way; many were sold into slavery by the rapacity +of the feudal lords whose lands they traversed; and +when the madness of the time had originated a Crusade +of Children, and ninety thousand boys of ten or twelve +years of age had commenced their journey, singing +hymns and anthems, and hoping to conquer the infidels +with the spiritual arms of innocence and prayer, the +whole band melted away before they reached the coast. +Barons, and counts, and bishops, and dukes, all swooped +down upon the devoted march, and before many weeks’ +journeying was achieved the Crusade was brought to a +close. Most of the children had died of fatigue or starvation, +and the survivors had been seized as legitimate +prey and sold as slaves.</p> + +<p>Meantime the brave and heroic Godfrey—the true +hero of the expedition, for he elevated the ordinary +virtues of knighthood and feudalism into the nobler<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span> +feelings of generosity and romance—gained the object +of his earthly ambition. Having prayed at the sepulchre, +and cleansed the temple from the pollution of the +unbelievers’ presence, wearied with all his labours, and +feeling that his task was done, he sank into deep +despondency and died. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1100.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Volunteers in small +numbers had occasionally gone eastward to support the +Cross Ambition, thoughtlessness, guilt, and fanaticism +sent their representatives to aid the conqueror of Judea; +and his successors found themselves strong enough to +bid defiance to the Turkish power. They carried all +their Western ideas along with them. They had their +feudal holdings and knightly quarrels. The most venerated +names in Holy Writ were desecrated by unseemly +disputes or the most frivolous associations. The combination, +indeed, of their native habits and their new +acquisitions might have moved them to laughter, if the +men of the twelfth century had been awake to the ridiculous. +There was a Prince of Galilee, a Marquis of +Joppa, a Baron of Sidon, a Marquis of Tyre. Our own +generation has renewed the strange juxtaposition of the +East and West by the language employed in steamboats +and railways. Trains will soon cross the Desert with +warning whistles and loud jets of steam and all the +phraseology of an English line. For many years the +waters of the mysterious Red Sea have been dashed +into foam by paddles made in Liverpool or Glasgow. +But these are visitors of a very different kind from Bohemund +and Baldwyn. Baldwyn, indeed, seemed less inclined +than his companions to carry his European training +to its full extent. He Orientalized himself in a small +way, perhaps in imitation of Alexander the Great, and, +dressed in the long flowing robes of the country, he +made his attendants serve him with prostrations, and +almost with worship. He married a daughter of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> +land, and in other respects endeavoured to ingratiate +himself with the Saracens by treating them with kindness +and consideration. The bravery of those warriors +of the Desert endeared them to the rough-handed barons +of the West. It was impossible to believe that men +with that one pre-eminent virtue could be so utterly +hateful as they had been represented; and when the intercourse +between the races became more unrestrained, +even the religious asperities of the Crusaders became +mitigated, they found so many points of resemblance +between their faiths. There was not an honour which +the Christian paid to the Virgin which was not yielded +by the Mohammedan to Fatima. All the doctrines of +the Christian creed found their counterparts in the professions +of the followers of the Law. Allah was an incarnation +of the Deity; and even the mystery of the +Trinity was not indistinctly seen in the legend of the +three rays which darted from the idea of Mohammed in +the mind of the Creator. While this community of +sentiment softened the animosity of the crusading +leaders towards their enemies, a still greater community +of suffering and danger softened their feelings towards +their followers and retainers. In that scarcity of +knights and barons, the value of a serf’s arm or a +mechanic’s skill was gratefully acknowledged. There +had been many mutual kindnesses between the two +classes all through those tedious and blood-stained +journeys and desperate fights. A peasant had brought +water to a wounded lord when he lay fainting on the +burning soil; a workman had had the revelation of the +true crown: they were no longer the property and +slaves of the noble, who considered them beings of a +different blood, but fellow-soldiers, fellow-sufferers, fellow-Christians. +They were not spoken of in the insulting +language of the West, and called “our thralls,” <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span>“our +slaves,” “our bondsmen;” at the worst they were called +“our poor,” and lifted by that word into the quality of +brothers and men. The precepts of the gospel in favour +of the humble and suffering were felt for the first time +to have an application to the men who had toiled on +their lands and laboured in their workshops, but who +were now their support in the shock of battle, and companions +when the victory was won. Only they were +poor; they had no lands; they had no arms upon their +shields. So Baldwyn gave them large tracts of country; +and they became vassals and feudatories for fertile fields +near Jericho and rich farms on the Jordan. They were +gentlemen by the strength of their own right hands, as +the fathers of their lords and suzerains had been.</p> + +<p>But the amalgamation of race and condition was not +carried on in the East more surely or more extensively +than in the West. The expenses of preparing for the +pilgrimage had impoverished the richest of the lords of +the soil. They had been forced to borrow money and +to mortgage their estates to the burghers of the great +commercial towns, which, quietly and unobserved, had +spread themselves in many parts of France and Italy. +Genoa had already attained such a height of prosperity +that she could furnish vessels for the conveyance of half +the army of the Crusade. In return for her cargoes of +knights and fighting-men, she brought back the wealth +of the East,—silks, and precious stones, and spices, and +vessels of gold and silver. The necessities of the time +made the money-holder powerful, and the men who +swung the hammer, and shaped the sword, and embroidered +the banner, and wove the tapestry, indispensable. +And what hold, except kindness, and privilege, +and grants of land, had the baron on the skilful +smith or the ingenious weaver who could carry his skill +and energy wherever he chose? Besides, the multitudes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span> +who had been carried away from the pursuits of industry +to fall at the siege of Antioch or perish by thirst in +the Desert had given a greatly-increased value to their +fellow-labourers left at home. While the castle became +deserted, and all the pomp of feudalism retreated from +its crumbling walls, the village which had grown in +safety under its protection flourished as much as ever—flourished, +indeed, so much that it rapidly became a +town, and boasted of rich citizens who could help to pay +off their suzerain’s encumbrances and present him with +an offering on his return. The impoverished and grateful +noble could do no less, in gratitude for gift and contribution, +than secure them in the enjoyment of greater +franchises and privileges than they had possessed before. +The Church also gained by the diminished number and +power of the lords, who had seized upon tithe and offering +and had looked with disdain and hostility on the +aggressions of the lower clergy. True to its origin, the +Church still continued the leader of the people, in opposition +to the pretensions of the feudal chiefs. It was +still a democratic organization for the protection of the +weak against the powerful; and though we have seen +that the bishops and other dignitaries frequently assumed +the state and practised the cruelties of the grasping +and illiterate baron, public opinion, especially in the +North of Europe, was not revolted against these instances +of priestly domination, for whatever was gained +by the crozier was lost to the sword. It was even a +consolation to the injured serf to see the truculent landlord +who had oppressed him oppressed in his turn by a +still more truculent bishop, especially when that bishop +had sprung from the dregs of the people, and—crown +and consummation of all—when the Pope, God’s vicegerent +upon earth, who dethroned emperors and made +kings hold his stirrup as he mounted his mule, was descended<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span> +from no more distinguished a family than himself. +It was the effort of the Church, therefore, in all +this century, to lower the noble and to elevate the poor. +To gain popularity, all arts were resorted to. The +clergy were the showmen and play-actors of the time. +The only amusement the labourer could aim at was +found for him, in rich processions and gorgeous ceremony, +by the priest. How could any fault of the abbot +or prelate turn away the affection of the peasant from +the Church, which was in a peculiar manner his own +establishment? Never had the drunkenness, the debauchery +and personal indulgences of the upper ecclesiastics +reached such a pitch before. The gluttony of +friars and monks became proverbial. The community +of certain monasteries complained of the austerity of +their abbots in reducing their ordinary dinners from +sixteen dishes to thirteen. The great St. Bernard describes +many of the rulers of the Church as keeping sixty +horses in their stables, and having so many wines upon +their board that it was impossible to taste one-half of them. +Yet nothing shook the attachment of the uneducated +commons. Their priest got up dances and concerts and +miracles for their edification, and had a right to enjoy all +the luxuries of life. Once freed, therefore, from the watchful +enmity of lord and king, the Church was well aware +that its power would be irresistible. The people were devoted +to it as their earthly defender against their earthly +oppressors, the caterer of all their amusements, and as +their guide in the path to heaven. Gratitude and credulity, +therefore, were equally engaged in its behalf. And +new influences came to its support. Romance and wonder +gathered round the champions of the Faith fighting +in the distant regions of the East. Every thing became +magnified when seen through the medium of ignorance +and fanaticism. The tales, therefore, strange enough in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span> +themselves, which were related by pilgrims returning +from the Holy Land, and amplified a hundredfold by +the natural exaggeration of the vulgar, raised higher +than ever the glory of the Church. The fastings and +self-inflicted scourgings of holy men, it was believed, +effected more than the courage of Godfrey or Bohemund; +and even of Godfrey it was said that his ascetic +life and painful penances caused more losses to the +enemy than his matchless strength and military skill.</p> + +<p>It would be delightful if we could place ourselves in +the position of the breathless crowds at that time listening +for the news from Palestine. No telegraphic despatch +from the Crimea or Hindostan was ever waited +for with such impatience or received with such emotion. +The baron summoned the palmer into his hall, and +heard the strange history of the march to Jerusalem, +and the crowning of a Christian king, and the creation +of a feudal court, with a pang, perhaps, of regret that +he had not joined the pilgrimage, which might have made +him Duke of Bethlehem or monarch of Tiberias. But +the peasants in their workshops, or the whole village +assembled in the long aisles of their church, lent far +more attentive ears to the wayfaring monk who had escaped +from the prison of the Saracen, and told them of +the marvels accomplished by the bones of martyrs and +apostles which had been revealed to holy pilgrims in +their dream on the Mount of Olives. Footprints on the +heights of Calvary, and portions of the manger in +Bethlehem, were described in awe-struck voice; and +when it was announced that in the belt of the narrator, +enwrapped in a silken scarf,—itself a fabric of incalculable +worth,—was a hair of an apostle’s head, (which +their lord had purchased for a large sum,) to be deposited +upon their altar, they must have thought the +sacrifices and losses of the Crusade amply repaid. And<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span> +no amount of these sacred articles seemed in the least +to diminish their importance. The demand was always +greatly in advance of the supply, however vast it +might be. And as the mines of California and Australia +have hitherto deceived the prophets of evil, by +having no perceptible effect on the price of the precious +metals, the incalculable importation of saints’ teeth, and +holy personages’ clothes, and fragments of the true +Cross, and prickles of the real Crown of Thorns, had no +depressing effect on the market-value of similar commodities +with which all Christian Europe was inundated. +Faith seemed to expand in proportion as relics became +plentiful, as credit expands on the security of a supply +of gold. And as many of those articles were actually +of as clearly-recognised a pecuniary value as houses or +lands, and represented in any market or banking-house +a definite and very considerable sum, it is not too much +to say that the capital of the West was greatly increased +by these acquisitions from the East. The cup +of onyx, carved in one stone, which was believed to +have been that in which the wine of the Last Supper +was held when our Saviour instituted the Communion, +was pledged by its owner for an enormous sum, and—what +is perhaps more strange—was redeemed when the +term of the loan expired by the repayment of principal +and interest. The intercourse, therefore, between power +and money showed that each was indispensable to the +other. The baron relaxed his severity, and the citizen +opened his purse-strings; the Church inculcated the +equality of all men in presence of the altar; and when the +kings perceived what merchandise might be made of privileges +and exemptions accorded to their subjects, and how +at one great blow the townsman’s squeezable riches would +be increased and the baron’s local influence diminished, +there was a struggle between all the crowned heads as to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span> +which should be most favourable to the commons. It was +in this century, owing to the Crusades, which made the +commonalty indispensable and the nobility weak, which +strengthened the Crown and the Church and made it +their joint interest to restrain the exactions of the feudal +proprietors, that the liberties of Europe took their rise +in the establishment of the third estate. In the county +of Flanders, the great towns had already made themselves +so wealthy and independent that it scarcely +needed a legal ratification of their franchise to make +them free cities. But in Italy a step further had been +made, and the great word Republic, which had been +silent for so many years, had again been heard, and had +taken possession of the general mind. In spite of the +opposition and the military successes of Roger, the Norman +king of Sicily, the spirit which animated those +great trading communities was never subdued. In +Venice itself—the greatest and most illustrious of those +republics, the first founded and last overthrown—the +original municipal form of government had never been +abolished. At all times its liberties had been preserved +and its laws administered by officers of its own choice, +and from it proceeded at this time a feeling of social +equality and an example of commercial prosperity +which had a strong effect on the nascent freedom of the +lower and industrious classes over all the world. Genoa +was not inferior either in liberty or enterprise to any of +its rivals. Its fleets traversed the Mediterranean, and, +being equally ready to fight or to trade, brought wealth +and glory home from the coasts of Greece and Asia. It +is to be observed that the first reappearance of self-government +was presented in the towns upon the coast, +whose situation enabled them to compensate for smallness +of territory by the command of the sea. The +shores of Italy and the south of France, and the indented<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span> +sea-line of Flanders, followed in this respect the +example set in former ages by Greece, and Tyre, and +Pentapolis, and Carthage. There can be no doubt that +the sight of these powerful communities, governed by +their consuls and legislated for by their parliamentary +assemblies, must have put new thoughts into the heads +of the serfs and labourers returning, in vessels furnished +by citizens like themselves, from the conquest of Cyprus +and Jerusalem, where the whole harvest of wealth and +glory had been reaped by their lords. Encouraged by +these examples, and by the protection of the King of +France and Emperor of Germany, the towns in Central +and Western Europe exerted themselves to emulate the +republican cities of the South. The nearest approach +they could hope to the independence they had seen in +Pisa or Venice was the possession of the right of electing +their own magistrates and making their own laws. +These privileges, we have seen, were insured to them by +the helplessness and impoverishment of the feudal aristocracy +and the countenance of the Church.</p> + +<p>But the Church towards the middle of this century +found that the countenance she had given to liberty in +other places was used as an argument against herself in +the central seat of her power. Rome, the city of consuls +and tribunes, was carried away by the great idea; +and under the guidance of Arnold of Brescia, a monk +who believed himself a Brutus, the standard was again +hoisted on the Capitol, displaying the magic letters S. +P. Q. R., (Senatus Populus que Romanus.) The Pope +was expelled by the population, the freedom of the city +proclaimed, the separation of the spiritual and temporal +powers pronounced by the unanimous voice, the government +of priests abolished, and measures taken to maintain +the authority the citizens had assumed. The +banished Pope had died while these things were going<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span> +on, and his successor was hunted down the steps of the +Capitol, and the revolution was accomplished. “Throughout +the peninsula,” says a German historian, “except in +the kingdom of Naples, from Rome to the smallest city, +the republican form prevailed.” Every thing had concurred +to this result,—the force of arms, the rise of commerce, +and the glorious remembrance of the past. St. +Bernard himself acquiesced in the position now occupied +by the Pope, and he wrote to his scholar Eugenius the +Third, to “leave the Romans alone, and to exchange the +city against the world,” (“urbem pro orbe mutatam.”) +But the effervescence of the popular will was soon at an +end. The fear of republicanism made common cause +between the Pope and Emperor. Frederick Barbarossa +revenged the indignities cast on the chair of St. Peter +by burning the rebellious Arnold and re-establishing the +ancient form of government by force. Yet the spirit +of equality which was thus repressed by violence fermented +in secret; nor was equality all that was aimed +at amid some of the swarming seats of population and +commerce. We find indeed, from this time, that in a +great number of instances the original relations between +the town and baron were reversed: the noble put himself +under the protection of the municipality, and received +its guarantee against the assaults or injuries of +the prouder and less politic members of his class. It was +a strange thing to see a feudal lord receive his orders +from the municipal officers of a country town, and still +stranger to perceive the low opinion which the courageous +and high-fed burghers entertained of the pomp and +circumstance of the mailed knights of whom they had +been accustomed to stand in awe. Their ramparts were +strong, their granaries well filled, their companions +stoutly armed; and they used to lean over the wall, +when a hostile champion summoned them to submit to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span> +the exactions of a great proprietor, and watch the +clumsy charger staggering under his heavy armour, +with shouts of derision. Men who had thus thrown off +their hereditary veneration for the lords of the soil, and +contentedly saw the deposition of the Roman Pope by +a Roman Senate and People, were not likely to pay a +blind submission to the spiritual dictation of their +priests. In the towns, accordingly, a spirit of free inquiry +into the mysteries of the faith began; and, while +country districts still heard with awe the impossible +wonders of the monkish legends, there were rash and +daring scholars in several countries, who threw doubt +upon the plainest statements of Revelation. Of these +the best-known is the still famous Abelard, whose exertions +as a religious inquirer have been thrown into the +shade by his more interesting character of the hero of +a love-story. The letters of Eloisa, and the unfortunate +issue of their affection, have kept their names from the +oblivion which has fallen upon their metaphysical +triumphs. And yet during their lives the glory of Abelard +did not depend on the passionate eloquence of his +pupil, but arose from the unequalled sharpness of his +intellect and his skill in argumentation. Of noble +family, the handsomest man of his time, wonderfully +gifted with talent and accomplishment, he was the first +instance of a man professing the science of theology +without being a priest. Wherever he went, thousands +of enthusiastic scholars surrounded his chair. His +eloquence was so fascinating that the listener found +himself irresistibly carried away by the stream; and if +an opponent was hardy enough to stand up against him, +the acuteness of his logic was as infallible as the torrent +of his oratory had been, and in every combat he carried +away the prize. He doubted about original sin, and +by implication about the atonement, and many other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span> +articles of the Christian belief. The power and constitution +of the Church were endangered by the same +weapons which assailed the groundworks of the faith; +and yet in all Europe no sufficient champion for truth +and orthodoxy could be found. Abelard was triumphant +over all his gainsayers, till at length Bernard of Clairvaux, +who even in his lifetime was looked on with the +veneration due to a saint, who refused an archbishopric, +and the popedom itself, took up the gauntlet thrown +down by the lover of Eloisa, and reduced him to silence +by the superiority of his reasonings and the threats of +a general council. It is sufficient to remark the appearance +of Abelard in this century, as the commencement +of a reaction against the dogmatic authority of the +Church. It was henceforth possible to reason and to +inquire; and there can be no doubt that Protestantism +even in this modified and isolated form had a beneficial +effect on the establishment it assailed. A new armory +was required to meet the assaults of dialectic and scholarship. +Dialecticians and scholars were therefore, henceforth, +as much valued in the Church as self-flagellating +friars and miracle-performing saints. The faith was +now guarded by a noble array of highly-polished intellects, +and the very dogma of the total abnegation of the +understanding at the bidding of the priest was supported +by a show of reasoning which few other questions +had called forth. With the enlargement of the clerical +sphere of knowledge, refinement in taste and sentiment +took place. And at this time, as philosophic discussion +took its rise with Abelard, the ennobling and idealization +of woman took its birth contemporaneously with +the sufferings of Eloisa. Up to this period the Church +had avowedly looked with disdain on woman, as inheriting +in a peculiar degree the curse of our first parents, +because she had been the first to break the law<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span> +Knightly gallantry, indeed, had thought proper to elevate +the feminine ideal and clothe with imaginary virtues +the heroines of its fictitious idolatry. It made her +the aim and arbiter of all its achievements. The principal +seat in hall and festival was reserved for the softer +sex, which hitherto had been considered scarcely worthy +of reverence or companionship. Perhaps this courtesy +to the ladies on the part of knights and nobles began in +an opposition to the wife-secluding habits of the Orientals +against whom they fought, as at an earlier date the +worship of images was certainly maintained by Rome +as a protest against the unadorned worship of the Saracens. +Perhaps it arose from the gradual expansion of +wealth and the security of life and property, which left +time and opportunity for the cultivation of the female +character. Ladies were constituted chiefs of societies +of nuns, and were obeyed with implicit submission. +Large communities of young maidens were presided +over by widows who were still in the bloom of youth; +and so holy and pure were these sisterhoods considered, +that brotherhoods and monks were allowed to occupy +the same house, and the sexes were only separated from +each other, even at night, by an aged abbot sleeping on +the floor between them. Though this experiment failed, +the fact of its being tried proved the confidence inspired +by the spotlessness of the female character. +Other things conspired to give a greater dignity to what +had been called the inferior sex. The death of whole +families in the Crusade had left the daughters heiresses +of immense possessions. In every country but France +the Crown itself was open to female succession, and it +was henceforth impossible to affect a superiority over a +person merely because she was corporeally weak and +beautiful, who was lady of strong castles and could summon +a thousand retainers beneath the banners of her<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span> +house. The very elevation of the women with whom +they were surrounded—the peeresses, and princesses, +and even the ladies of lower rank, to whom the voice +of the troubadours attributed all the virtues under +heaven—necessitated in the mind of the clergy a corresponding +elevation in the character of the queen and +representative of the female sex, whom they had already +worshipped as personally without sin and endowed with +superhuman power. At this time the immaculate conception +of the Holy Virgin was first broached as an +article of belief,—a doctrine which, after being dormant +at intervals and occasionally blossoming into declaration, +has finally received its full ratification by the +authority of the present Pope,—Pius the Ninth. In the +twelfth century it was acknowledged and propagated as +a fresh increase to the glory of the mother of God; but +it is now fixed forever as indispensable to the salvation +of every Christian.</p> + +<p>Such, then, are the great features by which to mark +this century,—the combination of rank with rank caused +by the mutual danger of lord and serf in the Crusade, +the rise of freedom by the commercial activity imparted +by the same cause to the towns, the elevation of the +idea of woman, without which no true civilization can +take place. These are the leading and general characteristics: +add to them what we have slightly alluded to,—the +first specimens of the joyous lays and love-sonnets +of the young knights returning from Palestine and +pouring forth their admiration of birth and beauty in +the soft language of Italy or Languedoc,—the intercourse +between distant nations, which was indispensable +in the combined expeditions against the common foe, so +that the rough German cavalier gathered lessons in +manner or accomplishment from the more polished +princes of Anjou or Aquitaine,—and it will be seen that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span> +this was the century of awakening mind and softening +influences. There were scholars like Abelard, introducing +the hitherto unknown treasures of the Greek +and Hebrew tongues, and yet presenting the finest +specimens of gay and accomplished gentlemen, unmatched +in sweetness of voice and mastery of the harp; +and there were at the other side of the picture saints +like Bernard of Clairvaux, not relying any longer on +visions and the traditionary marvels of the past, but +displaying the power of an acute diplomatist and wide-minded +politician in the midst of the most extraordinary +self-denial and the exercises of a rigorous asceticism, +which in former ages had been limited to the fanatical +and insane. To this man’s influence was owing the +Second Crusade, which occurred in 1147. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1147.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Different +from the first, which had been the result +of popular enthusiasm and dependent for its success on +undisciplined numbers and religious fury, this was a +great European and Christian movement, concerted +between the sovereigns and ratified by the peoples. +Kings took the command, and whole nations bestowed +their wealth and influence on the holy cause. Louis the +Seventh of France led all the paladins of his land; and +Conrad, the German Emperor, collected all the forces of +the West to give the finishing-blow to the power of the +Mohammedans and restore the struggling kingdom +of Jerusalem. Seventy thousand horsemen and two +hundred and fifty thousand foot-soldiers were the +smallest part of the array. Whole districts were depopulated +by the multitudes of artificers, shopmen, +women, children, buffoons, mimics, priests, and conjurers +who accompanied the march. It looked like one of the +great movements which convulsed the Roman Empire +when Goths or Burgundians poured into the land. But +the results were nearly the same as in the days of Godfrey<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span> +and Bohemund. Valour and discipline, national +emulation and knightly skill, were of no avail against +climate and disease. Again the West astonished the +Turks with the impetuosity of its courage and the display +of its hosts, but lay weakened and exhausted when +the convulsive effort was past. A million perished in +the useless struggle. Forty years scarcely sufficed to +restore the nobility to sufficient power to undertake +another suicidal attempt. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1191.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>But in 1191 the +Third Crusade departed under the conduct of +Richard of England, and earned the same glory and unsuccess. +The century was weakened by those wretched +but not fruitless expeditions, which, in round numbers, +cost two millions of lives, and produced such memorable +effects on the general state of Europe; yet it will be +better remembered by us if we direct our attention to +some of the incidents which have a more direct bearing +on our own country. Of these the most remarkable is +the commencement of the long-continued enmity between +France and England, of the wars which lasted so +many years, which made our most eminent politicians +at one time believe that the countries were natural +enemies, incapable of permanent union or even of mutual +respect; and these took their rise, as most great wars +have done, from the paltriest causes, and were continued +on the most unfounded pretences.</p> + +<p>Henry the First was the son of William the Conqueror. +On the death of his brother William Rufus he +seized the English crown, though the eldest of the family, +Robert, was still alive. Robert was fond of fighting +without the responsibility of command, and delighted +to be religious without the troubles of a religious life. +He therefore joined the First Crusade to gratify this +double desire, and mortgaged his dukedom of Normandy +to Henry to supply him with horses and arms<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span> +and enable him to support his dignity as a Christian +prince at Jerusalem. His dukedom he never could recover, +for his extravagances prevented him from repayment +of the loan. He tried to reconquer it by force, +but was defeated at the battle of Tinchebray, and was +guarded by the zealous affection of his brother all the +rest of his life in the Tower of London. He left a son, +who was used as an instrument of assault against Henry +by the Suzerain of Normandy, Louis the Sixth, King of +France. Orders were issued to the usurping feudatory +to resign his possessions into the hands of the rightful +heir; but, however obedient the Duke of Normandy +might profess to be to his liege lord the King of France, +the King of England held a very different language, +and took a different estimate of his position. +<span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1153.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>And in the time of the second Henry a change +took place in their respective situations which seemed +to justify the assumptions of the English king. That +grandson of Henry the First had opposed his liege lord +of France by arms and arts, and at last by one great +master-stroke turned his own arms upon his rival and +strengthened himself on his spoils. In the Second +Crusade the scrupulous delicacy of Louis the Seventh +of France had been revolted by the indiscreet or guilty +conduct of Eleanor his wife. He repudiated her as unworthy +of his throne; and Henry, who had no delicacies +of conscience when they interfered with his interest, +offered the rejected Eleanor his hand; for she continued +the undoubted mistress of Poitou and Guienne. No +stain derived from her principles or conduct was reflected +in the eyes of the ambitious Henry on those +noble provinces, and from henceforth his Continental +possessions far exceeded those of his suzerain. The +other feudatories, encouraged by this example, owned a +very modified submission to their nominal head; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span> +the inheritors of the throne of the Capets were again +reduced to the comparative weakness of their predecessors +of the Carlovingian line. Yet there was one +element of vitality of which the feudal barons had not +deprived the king. A fief, when it lapsed for want of +heirs, was reattached to the Crown; and in the turmoil +and adventure of those unsettled times the extinction +of a line of warriors and pilgrims was not an uncommon +event. Even while a family was numerous and healthy +the uncertain nature of their possession deprived it of +half its value, for at the end of that gallant line of +knights and cavaliers, slain as they might be in battle, +carried off by the pestilences which were usual at that +period, or wasted away in journeys to the Holy Land +and sieges in the heats of Palestine, stood the feudal +king, ready to enter into undisputed possession of the +dukedoms or counties which it had cost them so much +time and danger to make independent and strong. In +the case of Normandy or Guienne themselves, Louis +might have looked without much uneasiness on the +building of castles and draining of marshes, when he +reflected that but a life or two lay between him and the +enriched and strengthened fief; and when those lives +were such desperadoes as Richard and such cowards as +John, the prospect did not seem hopeless of an immediate +succession. But the French kings were still more +fortunate in being opposed to such unamiable rivals as the +coarse and worldly descendants of the Conqueror. The +personal characters of those men, however their energy +and courage might benefit them in actual war, made +them feared and hated wherever they were known. +They were sensual, cruel, and unprincipled to a degree +unusual even in those ages of rude manners and undeveloped +conscience. Their personal appearance itself +was an index of the ungovernable passions within<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span> +Fat, broad-shouldered, low-statured, red-haired, loud-voiced, +they were frightful to look upon even in their +calmest moods; but when the Conqueror stormed, no +feeling of ruth or reverence stood in his way. When +he was refused the daughter of the Count of Boulogne, +he forced his way into the chamber of the countess, +seized her by the hair of her head, dragged her round +the room, and stamped on her with his feet. Robert +his son was of the same uninviting exterior. William +Rufus was little and very stout. Henry the Second was +gluttonous and debauched. Richard the Lion-Heart +was cruel as the animal that gave him name; and John +was the most debased and contemptible of mankind. A +race of gentle and truthful men, on the other hand, +ennobled the crown of France. The kings, from Louis +the Debonnaire to Louis the Seventh, or Young, were +favourites of the Church and champions of the people. +The harsh and violent nobility despised them, but they +were venerated in the huts where poor men lie. The +very scruple which induced Louis to divorce his wife, +whose conduct had stained the purity of the Crusade, +almost repaid the loss of her great estates by the increased +love and respect of his subjects. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1180.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>And when the +line of pure and honourable rulers was for a while interrupted +by the appearance, upon a throne so +long established in equity, of an armed warrior +in the person of Philip Augustus, it was felt that the +sword was at last in the hands of an avenger, who was +to execute the decrees of Heaven upon the enemies +whom the moderation, justice, and mercy of his predecessors +had failed to move.</p> + +<p>But before we come to the personal relations of the +French and English kings we must take a rapid view +of one of the great incidents by which this century is +marked,—an incident which for a long time attracted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span> +the notice of all Europe, and was productive of very important +consequences within our own country. Hitherto +England had played the part of a satellite to the Court +of Rome. Previous to the quarrels with France, indeed, +one great tie between her and the Continental nations +was the community of their submission to the Pope. +Foreigners have at all times found wealth and kind +treatment here. Germans, Italians, Frenchmen, any +one who could make interest with the patrons of large +livings, held rank and honours in the English Church. +<span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1154-1159.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Little enough, it was felt, was all that could be done in +behalf of foreign ecclesiastics to repay them for +the condescension they showed in elevating +Nicholas Breakspear, an Anglo-Saxon of St. Alban’s, to +the papal chair. But Nicholas, in taking another name, +lost his English heart. As Adrian the Fourth, he preferred +Rome to England, and maintained his authority +with as high a hand as any of his predecessors. Knights +and nobles, and even the higher orders of the clergy, +were at length discontented with the continual exactions +of the Holy See; and in 1162 the same battle which had +agitated the world between Henry the Fourth of Germany +and Gregory the Seventh was fought out in a still +bitterer spirit between Henry the Second of England +and Thomas à-Beckett. All the story-books of English +history have told us the romantic incidents of the birth +of the ambitious priest. It is possible the obscurity of +his origin was concealed by his contemporaries under +the interesting legend, which must have been a very +early subject for the fancy of the poet and troubadour, +of a love between a Red-Cross pilgrim and a Saracen +emir’s daughter. It shows a remarkable softening of +the ancient hatred to the infidels, that the votaress of +Mohammed should have been chosen as the mother of a +saint. But whatever doubt there may arise about the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span> +reality of the deserted maiden’s journey in search of her +admirer, and her discovery of his abode by the mere +reiteration of his name, which is beautifully said to be +the only word of English she remembered, there is no +doubt of the early favour which the young Anglo-Saracen +attained with the king, or of the desire the sagacious +Henry entertained to avail himself of the great talents +which made his favourite delightful as a companion and +indispensable as a chancellor, in the higher position still +of Archbishop of Canterbury and Comptroller of the +English Church. For high pretensions were put forward +by the clergy: they insisted upon the introduction of the +canon laws; they claimed exemption from trial by civil +process; they were to be placed beyond the reach of the +ordinary tribunals, and were to be under their own +separate rulers, and directly subject in life and property +to the decrees of Rome.</p> + +<p>Henry knew but one man in his dominions able to +contend in talent and acuteness with the advocates of +the Church, and that was his chancellor and friend, the +gay and generous and affectionate à-Beckett. So one +day, without giving him much time for preparation, he +persuaded him to be made a priest, and at the same +moment named him Archbishop of Canterbury and +Primate of all England. Now, he thought, we have a +champion who will do battle in our cause and stand up +for the liberties of his native land. But à-Beckett had +dressed himself in a hair shirt and flogged himself with +an iron scourge. He had invited the holiest of the +priests to favour him with their advice, and had thrown +himself on his knees on the approach of the most ascetic +of the monks and friars. All his fine establishments +were broken up; his horses were sent away; his silver +table-services sold; and the new archbishop fasted on +bread and water and lay on the hard floor. Henry was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span> +astonished and uneasy; and he had soon very good +cause for his uneasiness, for his favourite orator, his +boon-companion, his gallant chancellor, from whom he +had expected support and victory, turned against him +with the most ruthless animosity, and pushed the pretensions +of Rome to a pitch they had never reached +before. Nobody, however he may blame the double-dealing +or the ambition of à-Beckett, can deny him the +praise of personal courage in making opposition to the +king. The Norman blood was as hot in him as in any +of his predecessors. When he got into a passion, we +are told by a contemporary chronicler, his blue eyes +became filled with blood. In a fit of rage he bit a page’s +shoulder. A favourite servant having contradicted him, +he rushed after the man on the stair, and, not being +able to catch him, gnawed the straw upon the boards. +We may therefore guess with what feelings the injured +Plantagenet received the behaviour of his newly-created +primate. He stormed and raged, terrified the other +prelates to join him in his measures for curbing the +power of the Church, chafed himself for several years +against the unconquerable firmness of the arrogant archbishop, +and finally failed in every object he had aimed +at. The violence of the king was met with the affected +resignation of the sufferer; and at last, when the impatience +of Henry gave encouragement to his followers +to put the refractory priest to death, the quarrel was +lifted out of the ordinary category of a dispute between +the crown and the crozier: it became a combat between +a wilful and irreligious tyrant and a martyred saint. It +requires us to enter into the feelings of the twelfth century +to be able to understand the issue of this great conflict. +In our own day the assumptions of à-Beckett, and +his claims of exemption from the ordinary laws, have +no sympathizers among the lovers of progress or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span> +freedom. But in the time of the second Henry the only +chance of either, in England, was found under the +shelter of the Church. That great establishment was +still the only protection against the lawless violence of +the king and nobles. The Norman possessors of the +land were still an army encamped on hostile soil and +levying contributions by the law of the strong hand. +Disunion had not yet arisen between the sovereign and +his lords, except as to the division of the spoil. The +Crusades had not depopulated England to the same extent +as some of the other countries in Europe; and the +wars of the troubled days of Stephen and Matilda, +though fatal to the prosperity of the land, and destructive +of many of the nobles on either side, had attracted +an immense number of high-born and strong-handed +adventurers, who amply supplied their place. The +clergy had been forced to retain their original position +as leaders of the popular mind, superintendents of the +interests of their flocks, and teachers and comforters of +the oppressed: à-Beckett, therefore, was not in their +eyes an ambitious priest, sacrificing every thing for the +elevation of his order. He was a champion fighting the +battles of the poor against the rich,—a ransomer of at +least one powerful body in the State from the capricious +cruelty of Henry and the grasping avarice of the Norman +spoliation. The down-trodden Saxons received +with the transports of gratified revenge any humiliation +inflicted on the proud aristocracy which had thriven +on the ruin of their ancestors. The date of the Conquest +was not yet so distant as to hinder the feeling of +personal wrong from mingling in the conflict between +the races. A man of sixty remembered the story told +him by his father of his dispossession of holt and field, +on which the old manor-house had stood since Alfred’s +days, and which now had been converted into a crenelated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span> +tower by the foreign conqueror. Nor are we to +forget, in the midst of the idea of antiquity conveyed +at the present time by the fact of a person’s ancestor +having “come in with William,” that the bitterness of +dispossession was increased in the eyes of the long-descended +Saxon franklin by the lowness of his dispossessor’s +birth. Half the roll-call of the Norman army was +made up of the humblest names,—barbers and smiths, +and tailors and valets, and handicraftsmen of all descriptions. +And yet, seated in his fortified keep, supported +by the sixty thousand companions of his success, enriched +by the fertile harvests of his new domain, this +upstart adventurer filled the wretched cottages of the +land with a distressed and starving peasantry; and +where were those friendless and helpless outcasts to +look for succour and consolation? They found them in +the Church. Their countrymen generally filled the +lower offices, speaking in good Saxon, and feeling as +good Saxons should; while the lordly abbot or luxurious +bishop kept high state in his monastery or palace, and +gave orders in Norman French with feelings as foreign +as his tongue. But à-Beckett was an Englishman; +à-Beckett was Archbishop of Canterbury, and chief of +all the churchmen in the land. To honour à-Beckett +was to protest against the Conquest; and when the +crowning glory came, and the crimes of Henry against +themselves attained their full consummation in the murder +of the prelate at the altar,—the patriot in his resistance +to oppression,—the enthusiasm of the country knew +no bounds. The penitential pilgrimage which the proudest +of the Plantagenets made to the tomb of his victim +was but small compensation for so enormous a wickedness, +and for ages the name of à-Beckett was a household +word at the hearths of the English peasantry, as +their great representative and deliverer,—only completing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span> +the care he took of their temporal interests while +on earth by the superintendence he bestowed on their +spiritual benefit now that he was a saint in heaven. +Curses fell upon the head and heart of the royal murderer, +as if by a visible retribution. His children rebelled +and died; the survivors were false and hostile. +Richard, who had the one sole virtue of animal courage, +was incited by his mother to resist his father, and was +joined in his unnatural rebellion by his brother John, +who had no virtue at all. His mind, before he died, had +lost the energy which kept the sceptre steady; and the +century went down upon the glory of England, which +lay like a wreck upon the water, and was stripped +gradually, and one by one, of all the possessions which +had made it great, and even the traditions of military +power which had made it feared. John was on the +throne, and the nation in discontent.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span> +<a name="THIRTEENTH_CENTURY" id="THIRTEENTH_CENTURY">THIRTEENTH CENTURY.</a></h2> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Emperors of Germany.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Otho</span>, (of Brunswick.)—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1212.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Frederick II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1247.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">William</span>, (of Holland.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1257.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Richard</span>, (of Cornwall.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1257.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Alphonso</span>, (of Castile.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1273.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Rodolph</span>, (of Hapsburg.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1291.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Adolph</span>, (of Nassau.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1298.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Albert I.</span>, (of Austria.)</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of France.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Philip Augustus.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1223.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Louis VIII.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1226.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Louis IX.</span>, (the Fat.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1270.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Philip III.</span>, (the Hardy.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1285.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Philip IV.</span>, (the Handsome.)</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of Scotland.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">William.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1214.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Alexander II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1249.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Alexander III.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1286.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Margaret.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1291.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">John Baliol</span>, deposed 1296.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Emperors of Constantinople.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1203.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Isaac.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1204.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Alexis IV.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1204.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Ducas</span>, (Usurper,) dethroned by warriors of Fourth Crusade.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="2" align="left"><i>Latin Empire.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1204.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Baldwyn</span>, (of Flanders.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1206.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Henry</span>, (his brother.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1216.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Peter</span>, (of Courtney.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1219.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Robert</span>, (his son.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1228.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">John</span>, (of Brienne.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1231.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Baldwyn.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="2" align="left"><i>Greek Empire of Nicæa.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1222.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">John Ducas.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1255.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Theodorus II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1261.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">John Lascaris</span>—retakes Constantinople.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1261.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Michael.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1282.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Andronicus II.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of England.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">John.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1216.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Henry III.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1276.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Edward I.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td class="year-top">1201.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Fourth Crusade.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="year-top">1217.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Fifth Crusade.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="year-top">1228.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Sixth Crusade.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="year-top">1248.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Seventh Crusade.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="year-top">1270.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Eighth and Last Crusade</span>, by St. Louis against Tunis.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="heading">Authors.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Roger Bacon</span>, <span class="smcap">Matthew Paris</span>, <span class="smcap">Alexander Hales</span>, (Irrefragable +Doctor,) <span class="smcap">Thomas Aquinas</span>, (the Angelic Doctor.)</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span> +<a name="THE_THIRTEENTH_CENTURY" id="THE_THIRTEENTH_CENTURY">THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY.</a></h2> +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="sub-heading">FIRST CRUSADE AGAINST HERETICS — THE ALBIGENSES — MAGNA +CHARTA — EDWARD I.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> progress and enlightenment of Europe proceed +from this period at a constantly-increasing rate. The +rise of commercial cities, the weakening of the feudal +aristocracy, the introduction of the learning of the Saracenic +schools, and the growth of universities for the +cultivation of science and language, contributed greatly +to the result. Another cause used to be assigned for +this satisfactory advance, in the discovery which had +been made in the last century at Amalfi, of a copy of +the long-forgotten Pandects of Justinian, and the reintroduction +of the Roman laws, in displacement of the +conflicting customs and barbarous enactments of the +various states; but the fact of the continued existence +of the Roman Institutes is not now denied, though it is +probable that the discovery of the Amalfi manuscript +may have given a fresh impulse to the improvement of +the local codes. But an increase of mental activity had +at first its usual regretable accompaniment in the contemporaneous +rise of dangerous and unfounded opinions. +Philosophy, which began with an admiration of the skill +and learning of Aristotle, ended by enthroning him as +the uncontrolled master of human reason. Wherever +he was studied, all previous standards of faith and argument +were overthrown. The cleverest intellects of the +time could find themselves no higher task than to reconcile +the Christian Scriptures with the decrees of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span> +Stagyrite, for it was felt that in the case of an irreconcilable +divergence between the teaching of Christ and +of Aristotle the scholars of Christendom would have +pronounced in favour of the Greek. A formulary, +indeed, was found out for the joint reception of both; +many statements were declared to be “true in philosophy +though false in religion,” so that the most orthodox +of Churchmen could receive the doctrines of the Church +by an act of belief, while he gave his whole affection to +Aristotle by an act of the understanding. When teachers +and preachers tamper with the human conscience, the +common feelings of honour and fair play revolt at the +degrading attempt. Men of simple minds, who did not +profess to understand Aristotle and could not be blinded +by the subtleties of logic, endeavoured to discover “the +more excellent way” for themselves, but were bewildered +by the novelty of their search for Truth. There were +mystic dreamers who saw God everywhere and in every +thing, and counted human nature itself a portion of the +Deity, or maintained that it was possible for man to +attain a share of the divine by the practice of virtue. +This Pantheism gave rise to numerous displays of popular +ignorance and impressibility. Messiahs appeared in +many parts of Europe, and were followed by great multitudes. +Some enthusiasts taught that a new dispensation +was opening upon man; that God was the Governor +of the world during the Old Testament period; +that Christ had reigned till now, but that the reign of +the Holy Spirit was about to commence, and all things +would be renewed. Others, more hardy, declared their +adhesion to the Persian principle of a duality of persons +in heaven, and revived the old Manichean heresy that +the spirit of Hatred was represented in the Jewish +Scriptures and the spirit of Love in the Christian; that +the Good god had created the soul, and the Evil god<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span> +the body,—on which were justified the sufferings they +voluntarily inflicted on the workmanship of Satan, and +the starvings and flagellations required to bring it into +subjection. This belief found few followers, and would +have died out as rapidly as it had arisen; but the malignity +of the enemies of any change found it convenient +to identify those wild enthusiasts with a very different +class of persons who at this time rose into prominent +notice. The rich counties of the South of France were +always distinguished from the rest of the nation by the +possession of greater elegance and freedom. The old +Roman civilization had never entirely deserted the +shores of the Mediterranean or the valleys of Languedoc +and Provence. In Languedoc a sect of strange +thinkers had given voice to some startling doctrines, +which at once obtained the general consent. Toulouse +was the chief encourager of these new beliefs, and in its +hostility to Rome was supported by its reigning sovereign, +Count Raymond VI. This potentate, from the position +of his States,—abutting upon Barcelona, where the +Spaniards, who remembered their recent emancipation +from the Mohammedan yoke, were famous for their +tolerance of religious dissent,—and deriving the greater +portion of his wealth from the trade and industry of the +Jews and Arabs established in his seaport towns, saw +no great evil in the principles professed by his people. +Those principles, indeed, when stripped of the malicious +additions of his enemies, were not different from the +creed of Protestantism at the present time. They consisted +merely of a complete denial of the sovereignty +of the Pope, the power of the priesthood, the efficacy +of prayers for the dead, and the existence of purgatory.</p> + +<p>The other princes of the South looked on religion as a +mere instrument for the advancement of their own interests, +and would have imitated the greater sovereigns<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span> +of Europe, several of whom for a very slender consideration +would have gone openly over to the standard of +Mohammed. The inhabitants, therefore, of those opulent +regions, by the favour of Raymond and the indifference +of the rest, were left for a long time to their +own devices, and gave intimation of a strong desire to +break off their connection with the hierarchy of Rome. +And no wonder they were tired of their dependence on +so grasping and unprincipled a power as the Church had +proved to them. More depraved and more exacting in +this district than in any other part of Europe, the clergy +had contrived to alienate the hearts of the common +people without gaining the friendship of the nobility. +Equally hated by both,—despised for their sensuality, +and no longer feared for their spiritual power,—the +priests could offer no resistance to the progress of the +new opinions. Those opinions were in fact as much due +to the vices of the clergy as to the convictions of the +congregations. Any thing hostile to Rome was welcomed +by the people. A musical and graceful language +had grown up in Languedoc, which was universally +recognised as the fittest vehicle for descriptions of +beauty and declarations of love, and had been found +equally adapted for the declamations of political hatred +and denunciations of injustice. But now the whole +guild of troubadours, ceasing to dedicate their muses to +ladies’ charms or the quarrels of princes, poured forth +their indignation in innumerable songs on their clerical +oppressors. The infamies of the whole order—the monks +black and white, the deacons, the abbots, the bishops, +the ordinary priests—were now married to immortal +verse. Their spoiling of orphans, their swindling of +widows and wards, their gluttony and drunkenness, +were chronicled in every township, and were incapable +of denial. Their dishonesty became proverbial. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span> +simplest peasant, on hearing of a scandalous action, was +in the habit of saying, “I would rather be a priest than +be guilty of such a deed.” But there were two men +then alive exactly adapted to meet the exigencies of the +time. One was a noble Castilian of the name of Dominic +Guzman, who had become disgusted with the world, and +had taken refuge from temptations and strife among the +brethren of a reformed cathedral in Spain. But temptations +and strife forced their way into the cells of Asma, +and the eloquent friar was torn away from his prayers +and penances and brought prominently forward by the +backslidings of the men of Languedoc. The saturnine +and self-sacrificing Spaniard had no sympathy with the +joyous proceedings of the princes and merchants of the +South. He saw sin in their enjoyment even of the gifts +of nature,—their gracious air and beautiful scenery. +How much more when the gayety of their meetings +was enlivened by interludes throwing ridicule on the +pretensions of the bishops, by hootings at any ecclesiastic +who presented himself in the street, and by sneers and +loud laughter at the predictions and miracles with which +the Church resisted their attack! The unbelieving +populace did not spare the personal dignity of the missionary +himself. They pelted him with mud, and fixed +long tails of straw at the back of his robe; they outraged +all the feelings of his heart, his Castilian pride, +his Christian belief, his clerical obedience. There is no +denying the energy with which he exerted himself to +recall those wandering sheep to the true fold. His +biographer tells us of the successes of his eloquence, +and of the irresistible effect of the inexhaustible fountain +of tears with which he inundated his face till they +formed a river down to his robes. His writings, we are +assured, being found unanswerable by the heretics, +were submitted to the ordeal of fire. Twice they resisted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span> +the hottest flames which could be raised by wood +and brimstone, and still without converting the incredulous +subjects of Count Raymond. His miracles, which +were numerous and undeniable, also had no effect. +Even his prayers, which seem to have moved houses +and walls, had no efficacy in moving the obdurate +hearts of the unbelievers; and at last, tired out with +their recalcitrancy, the dreadful word was spoken. He +cursed the men of Languedoc, the inhabitants of its +towns, the knights and gentlemen who received his +oratory with insult, and in addition to his own anathemas +called in the spiritual thunder of the Pope.</p> + +<p>This was the other man peculiarly fitted for the work he +had to do. His cruelty would have done no dishonour +to the blood-stained scutcheon of Nero, and his ambition +transcended that of Gregory the Seventh. His name was +Innocent the Third. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1207.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>For one-half of the crimes +alleged against those heretics, who, from their +principal seat in the diocese of Albi, were known as Albigenses, +he would have turned the whole of France into a +desert; and when, with greedy ear, he heard the denunciations +of Dominic, he declared war on the devoted peasants,—war +on the consenting princes; a holy war—more +meritorious than a Crusade against the Turks and infidels—where +no life was to be spared, and where houses and +lands were to be the reward of the assailants. All the wild +spirits of the age were wakened by the call. It was a pilgrimage +where all expenses were paid, without the danger +of the voyage to the East or the sword of the Saracen. +Foremost among those who hurried to this mingled harvest +of money and blood, of religious absolution and military +fame, was the notorious Simon de Montfort, a man +fitted for the commission of any wickedness requiring a +powerful arm and unrelenting heart. Forward from all +quarters of Europe rushed the exterminating emissaries<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span> +of the Pope and soldiers of Dominic. “You shall ravage +every field; you shall slay every human being: strike, +and spare not. The measure of their iniquity is full, and +the blessing of the Church is on your heads.” These +words, sung in sweet chorus by the Pope and the Monk, +were the instructions on which De Montfort was prepared +to act; and what could the sunny Languedoc, +the land of song and dance, of olive-yard and vineyard, +do to repel this hostile inroad? Suddenly all the music +of the troubadours was hushed in dreadful expectation. +Raymond was alarmed, and tried to temporize. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1208.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Promises +were made and explanations given, but without +any offer of submission to the yoke of Rome: so the +infuriated warriors came on, burning, slaying, +ravaging, in terms of their commission, till +Dominic himself grew ashamed of such blood-stained +missionaries; and when their slaughters went on, when +they had murdered half the population in cold blood, +and ridden down the peasantry whom despair had summoned +to the defence of their houses and properties, the +saintly-minded Spaniard could no longer honour their +hideous butcheries with his presence. He contented +himself with retiring to a church and praying for the +good cause with such zeal and animation that De Montfort +and eleven hundred of his ruffians put to flight a +hundred thousand of the armed soldiers of the South, +who felt themselves overthrown and scattered by an invisible +power. Yet not even the prayers of Dominic +could keep the outraged people in unresisting acquiescence. +Simon de Montfort was expelled from the territories +he had usurped, and found a mysterious death +under the walls of Toulouse in 1218.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1223.</div> + +<p>The old family was restored in the person of Raymond +the Seventh, and preparations made for +defence. But Louis the Eighth of France came<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span> +to the aid of the infuriated Pope. Two hundred thousand +men followed in the holy campaign. All the +atrocities of the former time were renewed and surpassed. +Town after town yielded, for all the defenders +had died. Pestilence broke out in the invading force, +and Louis himself was carried off by fever. Champions, +however, were ready in all quarters to carry on the +glorious cause. Louis the Ninth was now King of +France, and under the government of his mother, +Blanche of Castile, the work commenced by her countryman +was completed. The final victory of the crusaders +and punishment of the rebellious were celebrated by the +introduction of the Inquisition, of which the ferocious +Dominic was the presiding spirit. The fire of persecution +under his holy stirrings burnt up what the sword +of the destroyer had left, and from that time the voice +of rejoicing was heard no more in Languedoc: her freedom +of thought and elegance of sentiment were equally +crushed into silence by the heel of persecution. The +“gay science” perished utterly; the very language in +which the sonnets of knight and troubadour had been +composed died away from the literatures of the earth; +and Rome rejoiced in the destruction of poetry and the +restoration of obedience. This is a very mark-worthy +incident in the thirteenth century, as it is the first experiment, +on a great scale, which the Church made to +retain her supremacy by force of arms. The pagan and +infidel, the denier of Christ and the enemies of his +teaching, had hitherto been the objects of the wrath of +Christendom. This is the first instance in which a difference +of opinion between Christians themselves had +been the ground for wholesale extermination; for those +unfortunate Albigenses acknowledged the divinity of +the Saviour and professed to be his disciples. It is the +crowning proof of the totally-secularized nature of the established<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span> +faith. Its weapons were no longer argument and +proof, or even persuasion and promise. The horse up to +his fetlocks in blood, the sword waved in the air, the trampling +of marshalled thousands, were henceforth the supports +of the religion of love and charity; and fires +glowing in every market-place and dungeons gaping in +every episcopal castle were henceforth the true expositors +of the truth as it is in Jesus. Fires, indeed, and +dungeons, were required to compensate for the incompleteness, +as it appeared to the truly orthodox, of the +vengeance inflicted on the rebels. The Abbot of +Citeaux, who gave his spiritual and corporeal aid to the +assault on Beziers, was for a moment made uneasy by +the difficulty his men experienced in distinguishing between +the heretics and believers at the storm of the +town. At last he got out of the difficulty by saying, +“Slay them all! The Lord will know his own.” The +same benevolent dignitary, when he wrote an account +of his achievement to the Pope, lamented that he had +only been able to cut the throats of twenty thousand. +And Gregory the Ninth would have been better pleased +if it had been twice the number. “His vast revenge +had stomach for them all,” and already a quarter of a +million of the population were the victims of his anger. +Every thing had prospered to his hand. Raymond was +despoiled of the greater portion of his estates, the voice +of opposition was hushed, the castles of the nobles confiscated +to the Church; and yet, when the treaty of +Meaux, in 1229, by which the war was concluded, came +to be considered, it was perceived that the pacification +of Languedoc turned not so much to the profit of Rome +as of the rapidly-coalescing monarchy of France.</p> + +<p>Long before this, in 1204, Philip Augustus had found +little difficulty in tearing the continental possessions of +the English crown, except Guienne, from the trembling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span> +hands of John. The possession of Normandy had already +made France a maritime power; and now, by the acquisition +of the Narbonnais and Maguelonne from Raymond +the Seventh, she not only extended her limits to the +Mediterranean, but, by the extinction of two such vassals +as the Count of Toulouse and the Duke of Normandy, +incalculably strengthened the royal crown. Extinguished, +indeed, was the power of Toulouse; for by +the same treaty the unfortunate Raymond bought his +peace with Rome by bestowing the county of Venaissin +and half of Avignon on the Holy See. These sacrifices +relieved him from the sentence of excommunication, +and made him the best-loved son of the Church, and the +poorest prince in Christendom.</p> + +<p>While monarchy was making such strides in France, +a counterbalancing power was formed in England by +the combination of the nobility and the rise of the +House of Commons. The story of Magna Charta is so +well known that it will be sufficient to recall some of its +principal incidents, which could not with propriety be +omitted in an account of the important events of the +thirteenth century. No event, indeed, of equal importance +occurred in any other country of Europe. However +more startling a crusade or a victory might be at +the time, the results of no single incident have ever been +so enduring or so wide-spread as those of the meeting +of the barons at Runnymede and the summoning of the +burgesses to Parliament.</p> + +<p>The whole reign of John (1199-1216) is a tale of +wickedness and degradation. Richard of the Lion-Heart +had been cruel and unprincipled; but the sharpness +of his sword threw a sort of respectability over the +worst portions of his character. His practical talents, +also, and the romantic incidents of his life, his confinement, +and even of his death, lifted him out of the ordinary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span> +category of brutal and selfish kings and converted +a very ferocious warrior into a popular hero. But John +was hateful and contemptible in an equal degree. He +deserted his father, he deceived his brother, he murdered +his nephew, he oppressed his people. He had the pride +that made enemies, and wanted the courage to fight +them. A knight without truth, a king without justice, +a Christian without faith,—all classes rebelled against +him. Innocent the Third scented from afar the advantage +he might obtain from a monarch whose nobility +despised him and who was hated by his people. And +when John got up a quarrel about the nomination of an +archbishop to Canterbury, the Pope soon saw that +though Langton was no à-Beckett, still less was John +a Henry the Second. A sentence of excommunication +was launched at the coward’s head, and the crown of +England offered to Philip Augustus of France. Philip +Augustus had the modesty to refuse the splendid bribe, +and contented himself with aiding to weaken a throne +he did not feel inclined to fill. It is characteristic of +John, that in the agonies of his fear, and of his desire +to gain support against his people, he hesitated between +invoking the assistance of the Miramolin of Morocco +and the Pope of Rome. As good Mussulman with the +one as Christian with the other, he finally decided on +Innocent, and signed a solemn declaration of submission, +making public resignation of the crowns of England +and Ireland “to the Apostles Peter and Paul, to Innocent +and his legitimate successors;” and, aided by the +blessings of these new masters, and by the enforced +neutrality of France, he was enabled to defeat his indignant +nobles, and force them for two years to wear +the same chains of submission to Rome which weighed +upon himself. But in 1215 the patience of noble and +peasant, of bishop and priest, was utterly exhausted.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1215.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>John fled on the first outburst of the collected storm, +and thought himself fortunate in stopping its +violence by signing the Great Charter, the +written ratification of the liberties which had been conferred +by some of his predecessors, but whose chief +authority was in the traditions and customs of the land. +This was not an overthrow of an old constitution and +the substitution of a new and different code, but merely +a formal recognition of the great and fundamental +principles on which only government can be carried +on,—security of person and property, and the just administration +of equitable laws. All orders in the State +were comprehended in this national agreement. The +Church was delivered from the exactions of the king, +and left to an undisturbed intercourse on spiritual +matters with her spiritual head. She was to have perfect +freedom of election to vacant benefices, and the +king’s rapacity was guarded against by a clause reducing +any fine he might impose on an ecclesiastic to an +accordance with his professional income, and not with +the extent of his lay possessions. The barons, of course, +took equal care of their own interests as they had +shown for those of the Church. They corrected many +abuses from which they suffered, in respect to their feudal +obligations. They regulated the fines and quit-rents +on succession to their fiefs, the management of crown +wards, and the marriage of heiresses and widows. They +insisted also on the assemblage of a council of the great +and lesser barons, to consult for the general weal, and +put some check on the disposal of their lands by their +tenants, in order to keep their vassals from impoverishment +and their military organization unimpaired. But +when church and aristocracy were thus protected from +the tyranny of the king, were the interests of the great +mass of the people neglected? This has sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span> +been argued against the legislators of Runnymede, but +very unjustly; for as much attention was paid to the +liberties and immunities of the municipal corporations +and of ordinary subjects as to those of the prelates and +lords. Every person had the right to dispose of his +property by will. No arbitrary tolls could be exacted +of merchants. All men might enter or leave the kingdom +without restraint. The courts of law were no +longer to be stationary at Westminster, to which complainants +from Northumberland or Cornwall never could +make their way, but were to travel about, bringing justice +to every man’s door. They were to be open to +every one, and justice was to be neither “sold, refused, +nor delayed.” Circuits were to be held every year. No +man was to be put on his trial from mere rumour, but +on the evidence of lawful witnesses. No sentence could +be passed on a freeman except by his peers in jury assembled. +No fine could be imposed so exorbitant as to +ruin the culprit. But the bishops and clergy, the nobility +and their vassals, the corporations and freemen, were +not the main bodies of the State; and the framers of +Magna Charta have been blamed for neglecting the great +majority of the population, which consisted of serfs or +villeins. This accusation is, however, not true, even +with respect to the words of the Charter; for it is expressly +provided that the carts and working-implements +of that class of the people shall not be seizable in satisfaction +of a fine; and in its intention the accusation is +more untenable still; for although the reformers of 1215 +had no design of granting new privileges to any hitherto-unprivileged +order and their work was limited to the +legal re-establishment of privileges which John had attempted +to overthrow, the large and liberal spirit of +their declarations is shown by the notice they take of +the hitherto-unconsidered classes. For the protection<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span> +accorded to their ploughs and carts, which are specifically +named in the Charter, ratified at once their right +to hold property,—the first condition of personal freedom +and independence,—and, by an analogy of reasoning, +restrained their more immediate masters from +tyranny and injustice. It could not be long before a +man secured by the national voice in the possession of +one species of property extended his rights over every +thing else. If the law guaranteed him the plough he +held, the cart he drove, the spade he plied, why not the +house he occupied, the little field he cultivated? And +if the poorest freeman walked abroad in the pride of independence, +because the baron could no longer insult +him, or the priest oppress him, or the king himself strip +him of land and gear, how could he deny the same +blessings to his neighbour, the rustic labourer, who was +already master of cart and plough and was probably +richer and better fed than himself?</p> + +<p>But a firmer barrier against the encroachments of +kings and nobles than the written words of Magna +Charta was still required, and people were not long in +seeing how little to be trusted are legal forms when the +contracting parties are disposed to evade their obligations. +John indeed attempted, in the very year that +saw his signature to the Charter, to expunge his name +from the obligatory deed by the plenary power of the +Pope. Innocent had no scruple in giving permission to +his English vassal to break the oath and swerve from +his engagement. But the English spirit was not so +broken as the king’s, and the barons took the management +of the country into their own hands. When the +experience of a few years of Henry the Third had +shown them that there was no improvement on the +personal character of his predecessor, they took effectual +measures for the protection of all classes of the people.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span> +Henry began his inglorious reign in 1216, and ended it +in 1272. In those fifty-six years great changes took +place, but all in an upward direction, out of the darkness +and unimpressionable stolidity of previous ages. +The dawn of a more intellectual period seemed at hand, +and already the ghosts of ignorance and oppression +began to scent the morning air. In 1264 an example +was set by England which it would have been well if all +the other Western lands had followed, for by the institution +of a true House of Commons it laid the foundation +for the only possible liberal and improvable government,—the +only government which can derive its +strength from the consent of the governed legitimately +expressed, and vary in its action and spirit with the +changes in the general mind. In cases of error or temporary +delusion, there is always left the most admirable +machinery for retracing its steps and rectifying what is +wrong. In cases of universal approval and unanimous +exertion, there is no power, however skilfully wielded +by autocrats or despots, which can compare with the +combined energy of a whole and undivided people.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1226-1270.</div> + +<p>The contemporary of this Henry on the throne of +France was the gentle and honest Louis the +Ninth. If those epithets do not sound so high +as the usual phraseology applied to kings, we are to +consider how rare are the examples either of honesty or +gentleness among the rulers of that time, and how difficult +it was to possess or exercise those virtues. But +this gentle and honest king, who was scarcely raised in +rank when the Church had canonized him as a saint, +achieved as great successes by the mere strength of his +character as other monarchs had done by fire and sword. +His love of justice enabled him to extend the royal +power over his contending vassals, who chose him as +umpire of their quarrels and continued to submit to him<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span> +as their chief. He heard the complaints of the lower +orders of his people in person, sitting, like the kings of +the East, under the shade of a tree, and delivering +judgment solely on the merits of the case. His undoubted +zeal on behalf of his religion permitted him, +without the accusation of heresy, to put boundaries to +the aggressions of the Church. He resisted its more +violent claims, and gave liberty to ecclesiastics as well +as laymen, who were equally interested in the curtailment +of the Papal power. He granted a great number +of municipal charters, and published certain Establishments, +as they were called, which were improvements +on the old customs of the realm and were in a great +measure founded on the Roman law. The spirit of the +time was popular progress; and both in France and +England great advances were made; deliberative national +assemblies took their rise,—in France, under the conscientious +monarch, with the full aid and influence of +the royal authority, in England, under the feeble and +selfish Henry, by the necessity of gaining the aid of the +Commons against the Crown to the outraged and insulted +nobility. In both nations these assemblies bore +for a long time very distinguishable marks of their +origin. The Parliaments of France, sprung from the +royal will, were little else than the recorders of the decrees +of the monarch; while the Parliaments of England, remembering +their popular origin, have always had a +feeling of independence, and a tendency to make rather +hard bargains with our kings. Even before this time +the Great Council had occasionally opposed the exactions +of the Crown; but when the falsehood and avarice of +Henry III. had excited the popular odium, the barons +of 1263, in noble emulation of their predecessors of +1215, had risen in defence of the nation’s liberties, and +the last hand was put to the building up of our present<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span> +constitution, by the summoning, “to consult on public +affairs,” of certain burgesses from the towns, in addition +to the prelates, knights, and freeholders who had hitherto +constituted the parliamentary body. But those barons +and tenants-in-chief attended in their own right, and +were altogether independent of the principle of election +and representation. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1265.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>The summons issued by +Simon de Montfort (son of the truculent hero +of the Albigensian crusade, and brother-in-law of Henry) +invested with new privileges the already-enfranchised +boroughs. From this time the representatives of the +Commons are always mentioned in the history of parliaments; +and although this proceeding of De Montfort +was only intended to strengthen his hands against his +enemies, and, after his temporary object was gained, +was not designed to have any further effect on the constitutional +progress of our country, still, the principle +had been adopted, the example was set, and the right to +be represented in Parliament became one of the most +valued privileges of the enfranchised commons.</p> + +<p>It is observable that this increase of civil freedom in +the various countries of Europe was almost in exact +proportion to the diminution of ecclesiastical power. It +is equally observable that the weakening of the priestly +influence rapidly followed the infamous excesses into +which its intolerance and pride had hurried the princes +and other supporters of its claims. Never, indeed, had +it appeared in so palmy and flourishing a state as in the +course of this century; and yet the downward journey +was begun. The devastation it carried into Languedoc, +and the depopulation of all those sunny regions near the +Mediterranean Sea—the crusades against the Saracens +in Asia, to which it sent the strength of Europe, and +against the Moors in Africa, to which it impelled the +most obedient, and also, when his religious passions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span> +were roused, the most relentless, of the Church’s sons, no +other than St. Louis—and the submission of the Patriarchates +of Jerusalem and Alexandria to the Romish +See—these and other victories of the Church were succeeded, +before the century closed, by a manifest though +silent insurrection against its spiritual domination. +There were many reasons for this. The inferior though +still dignified clergy in the different nations were alienated +by the excessive exactions of their foreign head. +In France the submissive St. Louis was forced to become +the guardian of the privileges and income of the +Gallican Church. In England the number of Italian incumbents +exceeded that of the English-born; and in a +few years the Pope managed to draw from the Church +and State an amount equal to fifteen millions of our +present coin. In Scotland, poorer and more proud, the +king united himself to his clergy and nobles, and would +not permit the Romish exactors to enter his dominions. +The avarice and venality of Rome were repulsive equally +to priest and layman. The strong support, also, which +hitherto had arisen to the Holy See from the innumerable +monks and friars, could no longer be furnished by the +depressed and vitiated communities whom the coarsest +of the common people despised for their sensuality +and vice. In earlier times the worldly pretensions of +the secular clergy were put to shame by the poverty +and self-denial of the regular orders. Their ascetic retirement, +and fastings, and scourgings, had recommended +them to the peasantry round their monasteries, by the +contrast their peaceful lives presented to the pomp and +self-indulgence of bishops and priests. But now the +character of the two classes was greatly changed. The +parson of the parish, when he was not an Italian absentee, +was an English clergyman, whose interests and +feelings were all in unison with those of his flock; the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span> +monks were an army of mercenary marauders in the +service of a foreign prince, advocating his most unpopular +demands and living in the ostentatious disregard +of all their vows. Even the lowest class of all, +the thralls and villeins, were not so much as before in +favour of their tonsured brothers, who had escaped the +labours of the field by taking refuge in the abbey; for +Magna Charta had given the same protection against +oppression to themselves, and the enfranchisement of +the boroughs had put power into the hands of citizens +and freemen, who would not be so apt to abuse it as the +martial baron or mitred prelate had been. The same +principles were at work in France; and when the newly-established +Franciscans and Dominicans were pointed to +as restoring the purity and abnegation of the monks of +old, the time for belief in those virtues being inherent, +or even possible, in a cloister, was past, and little effect +was produced in favour of Rome by the bloodthirsty +brotherhood of the ferocious St. Dominic or the more +amiable professions of the half-witted St. Francis of +Assisi. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1272.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>The tide, indeed, had so completely turned after +the commencement of the reign of Edward the +First, that the Churchmen, both in England and +France, preferred being taxed by their own Sovereign +to being subjected to the arbitrary exactions of the Pope. +Edward gave them no exemption from the obligation to +support the expenses of the State in common with all +the other holders of property, and pressed, indeed, +rather more heavily upon the prelates and rich clergy +than on the rest of the contributors, as if to drive to a +decision the question, to which of the potentates—the +Pope or the sovereign—tribute was lawfully due. +When this object was gained, a bull was let loose upon +the sacrilegious monarch by Boniface the Eighth, which +positively forbids any member of the priesthood to contribute<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span> +to the national exchequer on any occasion or +emergency whatever. But the king made very light of +the papal authority when it stood between him and the +revenues of his crown, and the national clergy submitted +to be taxed like other men. In France the same +discussion led to the same result. The Gallican and +English Churches asserted their liberties in a way which +must have been peculiarly gratifying to the kings,—namely, +by subsidies to the Crown, and disobedience to +the fulminations of the Pope.</p> + +<p>But no surer proof of the increased wisdom of mankind +can be given than the termination of the Crusades. +Perhaps, indeed, it was found that religious excitement +could be combined with warlike distinction by assaults +on the unbelieving or disobedient at home. There +seemed little use in traversing the sea and toiling +through the deserts of Syria, when the same heavenly +rewards were held out for a campaign against the inhabitants +of Languedoc and the valleys of the Alps. +Clearer views also of the political effect of those distant +expeditions in strengthening the hands of the Pope, +who, as spiritual head of Christendom, was <i>ex officio</i> +commander of the crusading armies, must no doubt +have occurred to the various potentates who found +themselves compelled to aid the very authority from +whose arrogance they suffered so much. The exhaustion +of riches and decrease of population were equally +strong reasons for repose. But none of all these considerations +had the least effect on the simple and credulous +mind of Louis the Ninth. Resisting as he did the +interference of the Pope in his character of King of +France, no one could yield more devoted submission to +the commands of the Holy Father when uttered to him +in his character of Christian knight. At an early age +he vowed himself to the sacred cause, and in the year<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span> +1248 the seventh and last crusade to the Holy Land +took its way from Aigues-Mortes and Marseilles, under +the guidance of the youthful King and the Princes of +France. Disastrous to a more pitiful degree than any +of its predecessors, this expedition began its course in +Egypt by the conquest of Damietta, and from thenceforth +sank from misery to misery, till the army, surprised +by the inundations of the Nile, and hemmed in by the +triumphant Mussulmans, surrendered its arms, and the +nobility of France, with its king at its head, found itself +the prisoner of Almohadam. An insurrection in a short +time deprived their conqueror of life and crown, and a +treaty for the payment of a great ransom set the captives +free. Ashamed, perhaps, to return to his own +country, sighing for the crown of martyrdom, zealous at +all events for the privileges of a pilgrim, Louis betook +himself to Palestine, and, as he was bound by the convention +not to attack Jerusalem, he wasted four years +in uselessly rebuilding the fortifications of Ptolemais, +and Sidon, and Jaffa, and only embarked on his homeward +voyage when the death of his mother and the discontent +of his subjects necessitated his return. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1254.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>After an +absence of six years, the enfeebled and exhausted king +sat once more in the chair of judgment, and +gained all hearts by his generosity and truth. Yet the old fire was not extinct. His oath was binding +still, and in 1270, girt with many a baron bold, and accompanied +by his brother, Charles of Anjou, and the +gay Prince Edward of England, he fixed the red cross +upon his shoulder and led his army to the sea-shore. +The ships were all ready, but the destination of the war +was changed. A new power had established itself at +Tunis, more hostile to Christianity than the Moslem of +Egypt, and nearer at hand. In an evil hour the King +was persuaded to attack the Tunisian Caliph. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span> +landed at Carthage, and besieged the capital of the new +dominion. But Tunis witnessed the death of its besieger, +for Louis, worn out with fatigue and broken with disappointment, +was stricken by a contagious malady, and +expired with the courage of a hero and the pious resignation +of a Christian. With him the crusading spirit +vanished from every heart. All the Christian armies +were withdrawn. The Knights-Hospitallers, the Templars, +the Teutonic Order, passed over to Cyprus, and +left the hallowed spots of sacred story to be profaned +by the footsteps of the Infidel. Asia and Europe henceforth +pursued their separate courses; and it was left to +the present day to startle the nations of both quarters +of the world with the spectacle of a war about the possession +of the Holy Places.</p> + +<p>The century which has the slaughter of the Albigenses, +the Magna Charta, the rise of the Commons, the +termination of the Crusades, to distinguish it, will not +need other features to be pointed out in order to abide +in our memories. Yet the reign of Edward the First, +the greatest of our early kings, must be dwelt on a little +longer, as it would not be fair to omit the personal merits +of a man who united the virtues of a legislator to those +of a warrior. Whether it was the prompting of ambition, +or a far-sighted policy, which led him to attempt +the conquest of Scotland, we need not stop to inquire. +It might have satisfied the longings both of policy and +ambition if he had succeeded in creating a compact and +irresistible Great Britain out of England harassed and +Scotland insecure. And if, contented with his undivided +kingdom, he had devoted himself uninterruptedly +to the introduction and consolidation of excellent laws, +and had extended the ameliorations he introduced in +England to the northern portion of his dominions, he +would have earned a wider fame than the sword has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span> +given him, and would have been received with blessings +as the Justinian of the whole island, instead of establishing +a rankling hatred in the bosoms of one of the +cognate peoples which it took many centuries to allay, +if, indeed, it is altogether obliterated at the present +time; for there are not wanting enthusiastic Scotchmen +who show considerable wrath when treating of his assumptions +of superiority over their country and his interference +with their national affairs.</p> + +<p>Edward’s sister had been the wife of Alexander the +Third of Scotland. Two sons of that marriage had +died, and the only other child, a daughter, had married +Eric the Norwegian. In Margaret, the daughter of +this king, the Scottish succession lay, and when her +grandfather died in 1290, the Scottish states sent a +squadron to bring the young queen home, and great +preparations were made for the reception of the “Maid +of Norway.” But the Maid of Norway was weak in +health; the voyage was tempestuous and long; and +weary and exhausted she landed on one of the Orkney +Islands, and in a short time a rumour went round the +land that the hope of Scotland was dead. Edward was +among the first to learn the melancholy news. He determined +to assert his rights, and began by trying to +extend the feudal homage which several of the Scottish +kings had rendered for lands held in England, over the +Scottish crown itself. When the various competitors +for the vacant throne submitted their pretensions to his +decision he made their acknowledgment of his supremacy +an indispensable condition. Out of the three chief +candidates he fixed on John Baliol, who, in addition to +the most legal title, had perhaps the equal recommendation +of being the feeblest personal character. Robert +Bruce and Hastings, the other candidates, submitted to +their disappointment, and Baliol became the mere viceroy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span> +of the English king. He obeyed a summons to Westminster +as a vassal of Edward, to answer for his conduct, +and was treated with disdain. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1293.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>But the Scottish +barons had more spirit than their king. They +forced him to resist the pretensions of his overbearing +patron, and for the first time, in 1295, began the long +connection between France and Scotland by a treaty +concluded between the French monarch and the twelve +Guardians of Scotland, to whom Baliol had delegated +his authority before retiring forever to more peaceful +scenes. From this time we find that, whenever war was +declared by France on England, Scotland was let loose +on it to distract its attention, in the same way as, whenever +war was declared upon France, the hostility of +Flanders was roused against its neighbour. But the +benefits bestowed by England on her Low Country ally +were far greater than any advantage which France +could offer to Scotland. Facilities of trade and favourable +tariffs bound the men of Ghent and Bruges to the +interests of Edward. But the friendship of France was +limited to a few bribes and the loan of a few soldiers. +Scotland, therefore, became impoverished by her alliance, +while Flanders grew fat on the liberality of her powerful +friend. England itself derived no small benefit both +from the hostility of Scotland and the alliance of the +Flemings. When the Northern army was strong, and +the King was hard pressed by the great Wallace, the +sagacious Parliament exacted concessions and immunities +from its imperious lord before it came liberally to +his aid; and whenever we read in one page of a check +to the arms of Edward, we read in the next of an enlargement +of the popular rights. When the first glow +of the apparent conquest of Scotland was past, and the +nation was seen rising under the Knight of Elderslie +after it had been deserted by its natural leaders, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span> +lords and barons,—and, later, when in 1297 he gained +a great victory over the English at Stirling,—the +English Parliament lost no time in availing themselves +of the defeat, and sent over to the king, who was at the +moment in Flanders menacing the flanks of France, a +parchment for his signature, containing the most ample +ratification of their power of granting or withholding +the supplies. It was on the 10th of October, 1297, that +this important document was signed; and, satisfied with +this assurance of their privileges, the “nobles, knights +of the shire, and burgesses of England in parliament assembled” +voted the necessary funds to enable their sovereign +lord to punish his rebels in Scotland. Perhaps +these contests between the sister countries deepened the +patriotic feeling of each, and prepared them, at a later +day, to throw their separate and even hostile triumphs +into the united stock, so that, as Charles Knight says +in his admirable “Popular History,” “the Englishman +who now reads of the deeds of Wallace and Bruce, or +hears the stirring words of one of the noblest lyrics of +any tongue, feels that the call to ‘lay the proud usurper +low’ is one which stirs his blood as much as that of the +born Scotsman; for the small distinctions of locality +have vanished, and the great universal sympathies for +the brave and the oppressed stay not to ask whether +the battle for freedom was fought on the banks of the +Thames or of the Forth. The mightiest schemes of +despotism speedily perish. The union of nations is accomplished +only by a slow but secure establishment of +mutual interests and equal rights.”</p> + +<hr class="chap" /></div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span> +<a name="FOURTEENTH_CENTURY" id="FOURTEENTH_CENTURY">FOURTEENTH CENTURY.</a></h2> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="4" class="big">Emperors of Germany.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td colspan="3" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Albert.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1308.</td><td colspan="3" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Henry VII.</span>, (of Luxemburg.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1314.</td><td class="sovereign"><p><span class="smcap">Louis IV.</span>, (of Bavaria).</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Frederick III.</span>, (of Austria,) died 1330.</p></td> +<td class="mustache3">}</td><td>Rival Empe­rors</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1347.</td><td colspan="3" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Charles IV.</span>, (of Luxemburg.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1378.</td><td colspan="3" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Wenceslas</span>, (of Bohemia.)</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of France.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Philip IV.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1314.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Louis X.</span>, (Hutin.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1316.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Philip V.</span>, (the Long.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1322.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Charles IV.</span>, (the Handsome.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1328.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Philip VI.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1350.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">John II.</span>, (the Good.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1364.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Charles V.</span>, (the Wise.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1380.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Charles VI.</span>, (the Beloved.)</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Emperors of the East.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Andronicus II.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1332.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Andronicus III.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1341.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">John Palæologus.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1347.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">John Cantacuzenus.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1355.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">John Palæologus,</span> (restored.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1391.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Manuel Palæologus.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of England.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Edward I.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1307.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Edward II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1327.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Edward III.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1377.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Richard II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1399.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Henry IV.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of Scotland.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1306.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Robert Bruce</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1329.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">David II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1371.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Robert II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1390.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Robert III.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td class="year-top">1311.</td><td align="left">Suppression of the Knights Templars.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="year-top">1343.</td><td align="left">Cannon first used.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="year-top">1370.</td><td align="left">John Huss born.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="year-top">1383.</td><td align="left">Bible first translated into a vulgar tongue, (Wickliff’s.)</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="heading">Authors.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dante</span>, <span class="smcap">Petrarch</span>, <span class="smcap">Boccaccio</span>, <span class="smcap">Chaucer</span>, <span class="smcap">Froissart</span>, <span class="smcap">John Duns +Scotus</span>, <span class="smcap">Bradwardine</span>, <span class="smcap">William Occam</span>, <span class="smcap">Wickliff</span>.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span> +<a name="THE_FOURTEENTH_CENTURY" id="THE_FOURTEENTH_CENTURY">THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY.</a></h2> +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="sub-heading">ABOLITION OF THE ORDER OF THE TEMPLARS — RISE OF +MODERN LITERATURES — SCHISM OF THE CHURCH.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the year 1300 a jubilee was celebrated at Rome, +when remission of sins and other spiritual indulgences +were offered to all visitors by the liberal hand of Pope +Boniface the Eighth. And for the thirty days of the +solemn ceremonial, the crowds who poured in from all +parts of Europe, and pursued their way from church to +church and kissed with reverential lips the relics of the +saints and martyrs, gave an appearance of strength and +universality to the Roman Church which had long departed +from it. Yet the downward course had been so +slow, and each defection or defeat had been so covered +from observation in a cloud of magnificent boasts, that +the real weakness of the Papacy was only known +to the wise and politic. Even in the splendours and +apparent triumph of the jubilee processions it was perceived +by the eyes of hostile statesmen that the day of +faith was past.</p> + +<p>Dante, the great poet of Italy, was there, piercing +with his Ithuriel spear the false forms under which the +spiritual tyranny concealed itself. Countless multitudes +deployed before him without blinding him for a moment +to the unreality of all he saw. Others were there, not +deriving their conclusions, like Dante, from the intuitive +insight into truth with which the highest imaginations +are gifted, but from the calmer premises of reason and +observation. Even while the pæans were loudest and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span> +the triumph at its height, thoughts were entering into +many hearts which had never been harboured before, +but which in no long space bore their fruits, not only in +opposition to the actual proceedings of Rome, but in +undisguised contempt and ridicule of all its claims. +Boniface himself, however, was ignorant of all these +secret feelings. He was now past eighty years of age, +and burning with a wilder personal ambition and more +presumptuous ostentation than would have been pardonable +at twenty. He appeared in the processions of the +jubilee, dressed in the robes of the Empire, with two +swords, and the globe of sovereignty carried before him. +A herald cried, at the same time, “Peter, behold thy +successor! Christ, behold thy vicar upon earth!” But +the high looks of the proud were soon to be brought +low. The King of France at that time was Philip the +Handsome, the most unprincipled and obstinate of men, +who stuck at no baseness or atrocity to gain his ends,—who +debased the Crown, pillaged the Church, oppressed +the people, tortured the Jews, and impoverished the nobility,—a +self-willed, strong-handed, evil-hearted despot, +and glowing with an intense desire to humble and spoil +the Holy Father himself. If he could get the Pope to be +his tax-gatherer, and, instead of emptying the land of +all its wealth for the benefit of the Roman exchequer, +pour Roman, German, English, European contributions +into his private treasury, the object of his life would be +gained. His coffers would be overflowing, and his principal +opponent disgraced. A wonderful and apparently +impossible scheme, but which nevertheless succeeded. +The combatants at first seemed very equally matched. +When Boniface made an extravagant demand, Philip +sent him a contemptuous reply. When Boniface turned +for alliances to the Emperor or to England, Philip threw +himself on the sympathy of his lords and the inhabitants<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span> +of the towns; for the parts formerly played by +Pope and King were now reversed. The Papacy, instead +of recurring to the people and strengthening itself by +contact with the masses who had looked to the Church +as their natural guard from the aggressions of their +lords, now had recourse to the more dangerous expedient +of exciting one sovereign against another, and weakened +its power as much by concessions to its friends as +by the hostility of its foes. The king, on the other hand, +flung himself on the support of his subjects, including +both the Church and Parliament, and thus raised a feeling +of national independence which was more fatal to +Roman preponderance than the most active personal +enmity could have been. Accordingly, we find Boniface +offending the population of France by his intemperate +attacks on the worst of kings, and that worst of kings +attracting the admiration of his people by standing up +for the dignity of the Crown against the presumption +of the Pope. The fact of this national spirit is shown +by the very curious circumstance that while Philip and +his advisers, in their quarrels with Boniface, kept within +the bounds of respectful language in the letters they +actually sent to Rome, other answers were disseminated +among the people as having been forwarded to the +Pope, outraging all the feelings of courtesy and respect. +It was like the conduct of the Chinese mandarins, who +publish vainglorious and triumphant bulletins among +their people, while they write in very different language +to the enemy at their gates. Thus, in reply to a very +insulting brief of Boniface, beginning, “Ausculta, fili,” +(Listen, son,) and containing a catalogue of all his complaints +against the French king, Philip published a +version of it, omitting all the verbiage in which the +insolent meaning was involved, and accompanied it in +the same way with a copy of the unadorned eloquence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span> +which constituted his reply. In this he descended to +very plain speaking. “Philip,” he says, “by the grace +of God, King of the French, to Boniface, calling himself +Pope, little or no salutation. Be it known to your +Fatuity that we are subject in temporals to no man +alive; that the collation of churches and vacant prebends +is inherent in our Crown; that their ‘fruits’ belong +to us; that all presentations made or to be made +by us are valid; that we will maintain our presentees in +possession of them with all our power; and that we +hold for fools and idiots whosoever believes otherwise.” +This strange address received the support of the great +majority of the nation, and was meant as a translation +into the vulgar tongue of the real intentions of the irritated +monarch, which were concealed in the letter really +despatched in a mist of polite circumlocutions. Boniface +perceived the animus of his foe, but bore himself as +loftily as ever. When a meeting of the barons, held in +the Louvre, had appealed to a General Council and had +passed a vote of condemnation against the Pope as +guilty of many crimes, not exclusive of heresy itself, +he answered, haughtily, that the summoning of a council +was a prerogative of the Pope, and that already the +King had incurred the danger of excommunication for +the steps he had taken against the Holy Chair. To +prevent the publication of the sentence, which might +have been made a powerful weapon against France in +the hands of Albert of Germany or Edward of England, +it was necessary to give notice of an appeal to a +General Council into the hands of the Pope in person. +He had retired to Anagni, his native town, where he +found himself more secure among his friends and relations +than in the capital of his See. Colonna, a discontented +Roman and sworn enemy of Boniface, and +Supino, a military adventurer, whom Philip bought<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span> +over with a bribe of ten thousand florins, introduced +Nogaret, the French chancellor and chief adviser of the +king, into Anagni, with cries from their armed attendants +of “Death to the Pope!” “Long live the King +of France!” The cardinals fled in dismay. The inhabitants, +not being able to prevent their visitors from pillaging +the shops, joined them in that occupation, and +every thing was in confusion. The Pope was in despair. +His own nephew had abandoned his cause and made +terms for himself. Accounts vary as to his behaviour +in these extremities. Perhaps they are all true at different +periods of the scene. At first, overwhelmed with +the treachery of his friends, he is said to have burst +into tears. Then he gathered his ancient courage, and, +when commanded to abdicate, offered his neck to the +assailants; and at last, to strike them with awe, or at +least to die with dignity, he bore on his shoulders the +mantle of St. Peter, placed the crown of Constantine on +his head, and grasped the keys and cross in his hands. +Colonna, they say, struck him on the cheek with his +iron gauntlet till the blood came. Let us hope that this +is an invention of the enemy; for the Pope was eighty-six +years old, and Colonna was a Roman soldier. There +is always a tendency to elevate the sufferer in the cause +we favour, by the introduction of ennobling circumstances. +In this and other instances of the same kind +there is the further temptation in orthodox historians to +make the most they can of the martyrdom of one of +their chiefs, and in a peculiar manner to glorify the +wrongs of their hero by their resemblance to the sufferings +of Christ. But the rest of the story is melancholy +enough without the aggravation of personal pain. +The pontiff abstained from food for three whole days. +He consumed his grief in secret, and was only relieved +at last from fears of the dagger or poison by an insurrection<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span> +of the people. They fell upon the French escort +when they perceived how weak it was, and carried the +Pope into the market-place. He said, “Good people, +you have seen how our enemies have spoiled me of my +goods. Behold me as poor as Job. I tell you truly, I have +nothing to eat or drink. If there is any good woman +who will charitably bestow on me a little bread and +wine, or even a little water, I will give her God’s blessing +and mine. Whoever will bring me the smallest +thing in this my necessity, I will give him remission of +all his sins.” All the people cried, “Long live the Holy +Father!” They ran and brought him bread and wine, +and any thing they had. Everybody would enter and +speak to him, just as to any other of the poor. In a +short time after this he proceeded to Rome, and felt +once more in safety. But his heart was tortured by +anger and a thirst for vengeance. He became insane; +and when he tried to escape from the restraints his state +demanded, and found his way barred by the Orsini, his +insanity became madness. He foamed at the mouth and +ground his teeth when he was spoken to. He repelled +the offers of his friends with curses and violence, and +died without the sacraments or consolations of the +Church. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1303.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>The people remembered the prophecy +made of him by his predecessor Celestin:—“You +mounted like a fox; you will reign like a lion; you will +die like a dog.”</p> + +<p>But the degradation of the papal chair was not yet +complete, and Philip was far from satisfied. Merely to +have harassed to death an old man of eighty-six was not +sufficient for a monarch who wanted a servant in the +Pope more than a victim. To try his power over Benedict +the Eleventh, the successor of Boniface, he began a +process in the Roman court against the memory of his +late antagonist. Benedict replied by an anathema in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span> +general terms on the murderers of Boniface, and all +Philip’s crimes and schemings seemed of no avail. But +one day the sister of a religious order presented His +Holiness with a basket of figs, and in a short time the +pontifical throne was vacant.</p> + +<p>Now was the time for the triumph of the king. He +had devoted much time and money to win over a number +of cardinals to his cause, and obtained a promise +under their hands and seals that they would vote for +whatever candidate he chose to name. He was not long +in fixing on a certain Bernard de Goth, Archbishop of +Bordeaux, the most greedy and unprincipled of the prelates +of France, and appointed a meeting with him to +settle the terms of a bargain. They met in a forest, +they heard mass together, and took mutual oaths of secrecy, +and then the business began. “See, archbishop,” +said the king: “I have it in my power to make you +Pope if I choose; and if you promise me six favours +which I will ask of you, I will assure you that dignity, +and give you evidence of the truth of what I say.” So +saying, he showed the letters and delegation of both the +electoral colleges. The archbishop, filled with covetousness, +and seeing at once how entirely the popedom depended +on the king, threw himself trembling with joy +at Philip’s feet. “My lord,” he said, “I now perceive +you love me more than any man alive, and that you +render me good for evil. It is for you to command,—for +me to obey; and I shall always be ready to do so.” +The king lifted him up, kissed him on the mouth, and +said to him, “The six special favours I have to ask of +you are these. First, that you will reconcile me entirely +with the Church, and get me pardoned for my misdeed +in arresting Pope Boniface. Second, that you will give +the communion to me and all my supporters. Third, +that you will give me tithes of the clergy of my realm +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span> +for five years, to supply the expenses of the war in +Flanders. Fourth, that you will destroy and annul the +memory of Boniface the Eighth. Fifth, that you will +give the dignity of Cardinal to Messer Jacopo, and +Messer Piero de la Colonna, along with certain others +of my friends. As for the sixth favour and promise, I +reserve it for the proper time and place, for it is a great +and secret thing.” The archbishop promised all by oath +on the Corpus Domini, and gave his brother and two +nephews as hostages. The king, on the other hand, +made oath to have him elected Pope.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1305.</div> + +<p>His Holiness Clement the Fifth was therefore the +thrall and servant of Philip le Bel. No office +was too lowly, or sacrifice too large, for the +grateful pontiff. He carried his subserviency so far as +to cross the Alps and receive the wages of his obedience, +the papal tiara, at Lyons. He became in fact a citizen +of France, and subject of the crown. He delivered over +the clergy to the relentless hands of the king. He gave +him tithes of all their livings; and as the Count of +Flanders owed money to Philip which he had no +means of paying, the generosity of the Pope came to +the rescue, and he gave the tithes of the Flemish clergy +to the bankrupt count in order to enable him to pay his +debt to the exacting monarch. But the gift of these +taxes was not a transfer from the Pope to the king or +count: His Holiness did not reduce his own demands in +consideration of the subsidies given to those powers. +He completed, indeed, the ruin the royal tax-gatherers +began; for he travelled in more than imperial state from +end to end of France, and ate bishop and abbot, and +prior and prebendary, out of house and home. Wherever +he rested for a night or two, the land became impoverished; +and all this wealth was poured into the lap +of a certain Brunissende de Périgord, who cost the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span> +Church, it was popularly said, more than the Holy +Land. But the capacity of Christian contribution was +soon exhausted; and yet the interminable avarice of +Pope and King went on. The honourable pair hit upon +an excellent expedient, and the Jews were offered as a +fresh pasture for the unimpaired appetite of the Father +of Christendom and the eldest son of the Church. +Philip hated their religion, but seems to have had a +great respect for the accuracy of their proceedings in +trade. So, to gratify the first, he stripped them of all +they had, and, to prove the second, confiscated the money +he found entered in their books as lent on interest to +Christians. He was found to be a far more difficult +creditor to deal with than the original lenders had been, +and many a baron and needy knight had to refund to +Philip the sums, with interest at twenty per cent., +which they might have held indefinitely from the sons +of Abraham and repudiated in an access of religious +fervour at last.</p> + +<p>But worse calamities were hanging over the heads of +knights and barons than the avarice of Philip and the +dishonesty of Clement. Knighthood itself, and feudalism, +were about to die,—knighthood, which had offered +at all events an ideal of nobleness and virtue, and feudalism, +which had replaced the expiring civilization of +Rome founded on the centralization of power in one +man’s hands, and the degradation of all the rest, with a +new form of society which derived its vitality from independent +action and individual self-respect. It was by +a still wider expansion of power and influence that feudalism +was to be superseded. Other elements besides +the possession of land were to come into the constitution +of the new state of human affairs. The man henceforth +was not to be the mere representative of so many +acres of ground. His individuality was to be still<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span> +further defined, and learning, wealth, knowledge, arts, +and sciences were from this time forth to have as much +weight in the commonwealth as the hoisted pennon and +strong-armed followers of the steel-clad warrior.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i-1">“The old order changeth, giving place to new,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Lest one good custom should corrupt the world.”<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>We have already seen the prosperity of the towns, +and have even heard the contemptuous laughter with +which the high-fed burghers of Ghent or Bruges received +the caracollings of their ponderous suzerain as, armed +<i>cap-à-pied</i>, he rode up to their impregnable walls. Not +less barricaded than the contemptuous city behind the +steel fortifications with which he protected his person, +the knight had nothing to fear so long as he bestrode +his war-horse and managed to get breath enough +through the openings of his cross-barred visor. He +was as safe in his iron coating as a turtle in its shell; +but he was nearly as unwieldy as he was safe. When +galloping forward against a line of infantry, nothing +could resist his weight. With heavy mace or sweeping +sword he cleared his ground on either side, and the unarmoured +adversary had no means of repelling his +assault. A hundred knights, therefore, we may readily +believe, very often have put their thousands or tens +of thousands to flight. We read, indeed, of immense +slaughters of the common people, accompanied with the +loss of one single knight; and this must be attributed to +the perfection which the armourer’s art had attained, by +which no opening for arrow or spear-point was left in +the whole suit. But military instruments had for some +time been invented, which, by projecting large stones +with enormous force, flattened the solid cuirass or +crushed the glittering helm. Once get the stunned or +wounded warrior on the ground, there was no further +danger to be apprehended. He lay in his iron prison<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span> +unable to get up, unable to breathe, and with the additional +misfortune of being so admirably protected that +his enemies had difficulty in putting him out of his pain. +This, however, was counterbalanced by the ample time +he possessed, during their futile efforts to reach a vital +part, to bargain for his life; and this was another +element in the safety of knightly war. A ransom +could at all times preserve his throat, whereas the disabled +foot-soldier was pierced with relentless point or +trodden down by the infuriated horse. The knight’s +position, therefore, was more like that of a fighter +behind walls, only that he carried his wall with him +wherever he went, and even when a breach was made +could stop up the gap with a sum of money. Nobody +had ever believed it possible for footmen to stand up +against a charge of cavalry. No manœuvres were +learned like the hollow squares of modern times, which, +at Waterloo and elsewhere, have stood unmoved against +the best swordsmen of the world. But once, at the +beginning of this century, in 1302, a dreadful event +happened, which gave a different view of the capabilities +of determined infantry in making head against +their assailants, and commenced the lesson of the resistibility +of mounted warriors which was completed +by Bannockburn in Scotland, and Crecy and Poictiers.</p> + +<p>The dreadful event was the entire overthrow of the +knights and gentlemen of France by the citizens of a +Flemish manufacturing town at the battle of Courtrai. +Impetuous valour, and contempt for smiths and weavers, +blinded the fiery nobles. They rushed forward with +loose bridles, and, as they had disdained to reconnoitre +the scene of the display, they fell headlong, one after +another, horse and plume, sword and spur, into one +enormous ditch which lay between them and their +enemies. On they came, an avalanche of steel and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span> +horseflesh, and floundered into the muddy hole. Hundreds, +thousands, unable to check their steeds, or afraid +to appear irresolute, or goggling in vain through the +deep holes left for their eyes, fell, struggled, writhed, +and choked, till the ditch was filled with trampled +knights and tumbling horses, and the burghers on the +opposite bank beat in the helmets of those who tried to +climb up, with jagged clubs, and hacked their naked +heads. And when the whole army was annihilated, and +the spoils were gathered, it was found there were princes +and lords in almost incredible numbers, and four thousand +golden spurs to mark the extent of the knightly +slaughter and give name to the engagement. It is +called the Battle of the Spurs,—for a nobler cause than +another engagement of the same name, which we shall +meet with in a future century, and which derived its +appellation from the fact that spurs were more in requisition +than swords.</p> + +<p>Philip was at this moment in the middle of his quarrel +with Boniface. He determined to compensate himself +for the loss he had sustained in military fame at Courtrai +by fiercer exactions on his clergy and bitterer +enmity to the Pope. We have seen how he pursued +the wretched Boniface to the grave, and persisted in +trying to force the obsequious Clement to blacken his +memory after he was dead. Clement was unwilling to +expose the vices and crimes of his predecessor, and yet +he had given a promise in that strange meeting in the +forest to work his master’s will; he was also resident in +France, and knew how unscrupulous his protector was. +Philip availed himself of the discredit brought on +knighthood by the loss of all those golden spurs, and +compounded for leaving the deceased pontiff alone, by +exacting the consent of Clement to his assault on the +order of the Templars, the wealthiest institution in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span> +world, who held thousands of the best manors in France, +and whose spoils would make him the richest king in +Christendom. Yet the Templars were no contemptible +foes. In number they were but fourteen thousand, but +their castles were over all the land; they were every +one of them of noble blood, and strong in the relationship +of all the great houses in Europe. If they had +united with their brethren, the Knights Hospitallers, no +sovereign could have resisted their demands; but, fortunately +for Philip, they were rivals to the death, and +gave no assistance to each other when oppressed. Both, +in fact, had outlived the causes of their institution, and +had forfeited the respect of the masses of the people by +their ostentatious abnegation of all the rules by which +they professed to be bound. Poverty, chastity, and +brotherly kindness were the sworn duties of the most +rich, sensual, and unpitying society which ever lived. +When Richard of England was dying, he made an +imaginary will, and said, “I leave my avarice to the +Citeaux, my luxury to the Grey Friars, and my pride to +the Templars.” And the Templars took possession of +the bequest. When driven from the Holy Land, they +settled in all the Christian kingdoms from Denmark to +the south of Italy, and everywhere presented the same +spectacle of selfishness and debauchery. In Paris they +had got possession of a tract of ground equal to one-third +of the whole city, and had covered it with towers +and battlements, and within the unapproachable fortress +lived a life of the most luxurious self-indulgence. Strange +rumours got abroad of the unholy rites with which their +initiations were accompanied. Their receptions into the +order were so mysterious and sacred that an interloper +(if it had been the King of France) would have been put +to death for his intrusion. Frightful stories were told +of their blasphemies and hideous ceremonials. Reports<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span> +came even from over the sea, that while in Jerusalem +they had conformed to the Mohammedan faith and had +exchanged visits and friendly offices with the chiefs of +the unbelievers. Against so dark and haughty an association +it was easy to stir up the popular dislike. Nobody +could take their part, they lived so entirely to +themselves and shunned sympathy and society with so +cold a disdain. They were men of religious vows without +the humility of that condition, so they were hated +by the nobles, who looked on priests as their natural inferiors; +they were nobles without the individual riches +of the barons and counts, and they were hated by the +priests, who were at all times the foes of the aristocracy. +Hated, therefore, by priest and noble, their policy would +have been to make friends of the lower orders, rising +citizens, and the great masses of the people. But they +saw no necessity for altering their lofty course. They +bore right onward in their haughty disregard of all the +rest of the world, and were condemned by the universal +feeling before any definite accusation was raised against +them.</p> + +<p>Clement yielded a faint consent to the proceedings of +Philip, and that honourable champion of the faith gave +full loose to his covetousness and hatred. First of all he +prayed meekly for admission as a brother of the order. +He would wear the red cross upon his shoulder and +obey their godly laws. If he had obtained his object, +he would have procured the grand-mastership for himself +and disposed of their wealth at his own discretion. +The order might have survived, but their possessions +would have been Philip’s. They perhaps perceived his +aim, and declined to admit him into their ranks. A rejected +candidate soon changes his opinion of the former +object of his ambition. He now reversed his plan, and +declared they were unworthy, not only to wallow in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span> +wealth and splendour of their commanderies, but to live +in a Christian land. He said they were guilty of all the +crimes and enormities by which human nature was ever +disgraced. James de Molay, the grand-master, and all +the knights of the order throughout France, were seized +and thrown into prison. Letters were written to all +other kings and princes, inciting them to similar conduct, +and denouncing the doomed fraternity in the +harshest terms. The promise of the spoil was tempting +to the European sovereigns, but all of them resisted the +inducement, or at least took gentler methods of attaining +the same end. But Philip was as much pleased with +the pursuit as with the catching of the game. He summoned +a council of the realm, and obtained at the same +time a commission of inquiry from the Pope. With +these two courts to back him, it was impossible to fail. +The knights were kept in noisome dungeons. They +were scantily fed, and tormented with alternate promises +and threats. When physically weak and mentally +depressed, they were tortured in their secret cells, and +under the pressure of fear and desperation confessed to +whatever was laid to their charge. Relieved from their +torments for a moment, they retracted their confessions; +but the written words remained. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1312.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>And in one day, before +the public had been prepared for such extremity +of wrong, fifty-four of these Christian soldiers—now +old, and fallen from their high estate—were publicly +burned in the place of execution, and no further +limit was placed to the rapacity of the king. Still the +odious process crept on with the appearance of law, for +already the forms of perverted justice were found safer +and more certain than either sword or fagot; and at +last, in 1314, the ruined brotherhood were allowed to +join themselves to other fraternities. The name of +Templar was blotted out from the knightly roll-call of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span> +all Europe; and in every nation, in England and Scotland +particularly, the order was despoiled of all its possessions. +Clement, however, was furious at seeing the +moderation of rulers like Edward II., who merely +stripped the Templars of their houses and lands, and +did not dabble, as his patron Philip had done, in their +blood, and rebuked them in angry missives for their +coldness in the cause of religion.</p> + +<p>Now, early in this century, a Pope had been personally +ill used, and his successor had become the pensioner +and prisoner of one of the basest of kings; a +glorious brotherhood of Christian knights had been +shamelessly and bloodily destroyed. Was there no outcry +from outraged piety?—no burst of indignation against +the perpetrator of so foul a wrong? Pity was at last +excited by the sufferings and humiliations of the brothers +of the Temple; but pity is not a feeling on which knighthood +can depend for vitality or strength. Perhaps, +indeed, the sympathy raised for the sad ending of that +once-dreaded institution was more fatal to its revival, +and more injurious to the credit of all surviving chivalry, +than the greatest amount of odium would have been. +Speculative discussions were held about the guilt or innocence +of the Templars, but the worst of their crimes +was the crime of being weak. If they had continued +united and strong, nobody would have heard of the excesses +laid to their charge. Passing over the impossible +accusations brought against them by ignorance and +hatred, the offence they were charged with which +raised the greatest indignation, and was least capable +of disproof, was that in their reception into the order +they spat upon the crucifix and trampled on the sign +of our salvation. Nothing can be plainer than that this, +at the first formation of the order, had been a symbol, +which in the course of years had lost its significance.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span> +At first introduced as an emblem of Peter’s denial and +of worldly disbelief, to be exchanged, when once they +were clothed with the Crusader’s mantle, for unflinching +service and undoubting Faith,—a passage from death +unto life,—it had been retained long after its intention +had been forgotten; and nothing is so striking as the +confession of some of the younger knights, of the reluctance, +the shame and trembling, with which, at the +request of their superior, they had gone through the repulsive +ceremony. This is one of the dangers of a symbolic +service. The symbol supersedes the fact. The +imitation of Peter becomes a falling away from Christ. +But a century before this time, who can doubt that all +Christendom would have rushed to the rescue of the +Pope if he had been seized in his own city and maltreated +as Boniface had been, and that every gentleman +in Europe would have drawn sword in behalf of the +noble Templars?</p> + +<p>But papacy, feudalism, and knighthood, as they had +risen and flourished together, were enveloped in the +same fall. The society of the Dark Ages had been perfect +in its symmetry and compactness. Kings were but +feudal leaders and chiefs in their own domains. Knighthood +was but the countenance which feudalism turned +to its enemies, while hospitality, protection, and alliance +were its offerings to its friends. Over all, representative +of the heavenly power which cared for the helpless multitudes, +the serfs and villeins, those who had no other +friend,—the Church extended its sheltering arms to the +lowest of the low. Feudalism could take care of itself; +knighthood made itself feared; but the multitudes could +only listen and be obedient. All, therefore, who had no +sword, and no broad acres, were natural subjects of the +Pope. But with the rise of the masses the relations +between them and the Church became changed. It was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span> +found that during the last two hundred years, since the +awakening of mercantile enterprise by the Crusades +and the commingling of the population in those wild and +yet elevating expeditions, by the progress of the arts, +by the privileges wrung from king and noble by flourishing +towns or purchased from them with sterling coin, +by the deterioration in the morals of priest and baron, +and the rise in personal importance of burghers, who +could fight like those of Courtrai or raise armies like +those of Pisa and Genoa,—that the state of society had +gradually been changed; that the commons were well +able to defend their own interest; that the feudal proprietor +had lost his relative rank; that the knight was no +longer irresistible as a warrior; and that the Pope had +become one of the most worldly and least scrupulous of +rulers. Far from being the friend of the unprotected, +the Church was the subject of all the ballads of every +nation, wherein its exactions and debaucheries were +sung at village fairs and conned over in chimney-corners. +Cannon were first used in this century at the +siege of Algesiras in 1343; and with the first discharge +knighthood fell forever from the saddle. The Bible was +first translated into a national tongue,<a name="FNanchor_A_5" id="FNanchor_A_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_5" class="fnanchor">[C]</a> and Popery fell +forever from its unopposed dominion. How, indeed, +even without this incident, could the Papacy have retained +its power? From 1305 till 1376 the wearers of +the tiara were the mere puppets of the Kings of France. +They lived in a nominal freedom at Avignon, but the +college of electors was in the pay of the French +sovereign, and the Pope was the creature of his hands. +This was fatal to the notion of his independence. But +a heavier blow was struck at the unity of the papal +power when a double election, in 1378, established two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span> +supreme chiefs, one exacting the obedience of the faithful +from his palace on the banks of the Rhone, and the +other advancing the same claim from the banks of the +Tiber. From this time the choice of the chief pontiff +became a political struggle between the principal kings. +There were French and German, and even English, +parties in the conclave, and bribes were as freely administered +as at a contested election or on a dubious +question in the time of Sir Robert Walpole. Family +interest also, from this time, had more effect on the +policy of the Popes than the ambition to extend their +spiritual authority. They sacrificed some portion of +their claims to insure the elevation of their relations. +Alliances were made, not for the benefit of the Roman +chair, but for some kinsman’s establishment in a principality. +Dukedoms became appanages of the papal +name, and every new Pope left the mark of his beneficence +in the riches and influence of the favourite +nephew whom he had invested with sovereign rank. +Italy became filled with new dynasties created by these +means, and the politics of the papal court became complicated +by this diversity of motive and influence. Yet +feudalism struggled on in spite of cannon and the rise +of the middle orders; and Popery struggled on in spite +of the spread of information and the diffusion of wealth +and freedom. For some time, indeed, the decline of +both those institutions was hidden by a factitious brilliancy +reflected on them by other causes. The increase +of refinement gave rise to feelings of romance, which +were unknown in the days of darkness and suffering +through which Europe had passed. A reverence for +antiquity softened the harsher features by which they +had been actually distinguished, and knighthood became +subtilized into chivalry. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1350.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>As the hard and uninviting +reality retreated into the past, the imagination clothed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span> +it in enchanting hues; and at the very time when the +bowmen and yeomanry of England had shown at Crecy +how unfounded were the “boast of heraldry, the pomp +of power,” Edward III. had instituted the Order of the +Garter,—a transmutation as it were of the rude +shocks of knighthood into carpet pacings in the +gilded halls of a palace; as in a former age the returned +Crusaders had supplied the want of the pride and circumstance +of the real charge against the Saracen by introducing +the bloodless imitation of it afforded by the +tournament. In the same way the personal disqualification +of the Pope was supplied by an elevation of the +ideal of his place and office. Religion became poetry +and sentiment; and though henceforth the reigning pontiff +was treated with the harshness and sometimes the +contempt his personal character deserved, his throne +was still acknowledged as the loftiest of earthly thrones. +The plaything of the present was nevertheless an idol +and representative of the past; and kings who drove +him from his home, or locked him up in their prisons, +pretended to tremble at his anger, and received his +letters on their knees.</p> + +<p>It must have been evident to any far-seeing observer +that some great change was in progress during the +whole of this century, not so much from the results of +Courtrai, or Crecy, or Poictiers, or the migration of the +Pope to Avignon, or the increasing riches of the trading +and manufacturing towns, as from the great uprising of +the human mind which was shown by the almost simultaneous +appearance of such stars of literature as Dante, +and Petrarch, and Boccaccio, and our English Chaucer. +I suppose no single century since has been in possession +of four such men. Great geniuses, indeed, and great +discoveries, seem to come in crops, as if a certain period +had been fixed for their bursting into flower; and we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span> +find the same grand ideas engaging the intellects of men +widely dispersed, so that a novelty in art or science is +generally disputed between contending nations. But +this synchronous development of power is symptomatic +of some wide-spread tendency, which alters the ordinary +course of affairs; and we see in the Canterbury Tales +the dawning of the Reformation; in Shakspeare and +Bacon the inauguration of a new order of government +and manners; in Locke and Milton a still further liberation +from the chains of a worn-out philosophy; in Watt, +and Fulton, and Cartwright, we see the spread of civilization +and power. In Walter Scott and Wordsworth, +and the wonderful galaxy of literary stars who illuminated +the beginning of this century, we see Waterloo +and Peace, a widening of national sympathies, and the +opening of a great future career to all the nations of the +world. For nothing is so true an index of the state and +prospects of a people as the healthfulness and honest +taste of its literature. It was in this sense that Fletcher +of Saltoun said, (or quoted,) “Give me the making +of the ballads of a people, and I don’t care who makes +the laws.” While we have such pure and wholesome +literature as is furnished us by Hallam, and Macaulay, +and Alison, by Tennyson, Dickens, Thackeray, and the +rest, philosophy like Hamilton’s, and science like Herschel’s +and Faraday’s, we have no cause to look forward +with doubt or apprehension.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i-1">“Naught shall make us rue</span> +<span class="i0">If England to herself do rest but true.”</span> +</div></div> + +<p>But those pioneers of the Fourteenth Century had +dangers and difficulties to encounter from which their +successors have been free. It is a very different thing +for authors to write for the applause of an appreciating +public, and for them to create an appreciating public for +themselves. Their audience must at first have been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span> +hostile. First, the critical and scholarly part of the +world was offended with the bad taste of writing in the +modern languages at all. Secondly, the pitch at which +they struck the national note was too high for the ears +of the vulgar. A correct and dignified use of the +spoken tongue, the conveyance, in ordinary and familiar +words, of lofty or poetical thoughts, filled both those +classes with surprise. To the scholar it seemed good +materials enveloped in a very unworthy covering. To +“the general” it seemed an attempt to deprive them of +their vernacular phrases and bring bad grammar and +coarse expressions into disrepute. Petrarch was so +conscious of this that he speaks apologetically of his +sonnets in Italian, and founds his hope of future fame +on his Latin verses. But more important than the +poems of Dante and Chaucer, or the prose of Boccaccio, +was the introduction of the new literature represented +by Froissart. Hitherto chronicles had for the most part +consisted of the record of such wandering rumours as +reached a monastery or were gathered in the religious +pilgrimages of holy men. Mingled, even the best of +them, with the credulity of inexperienced and simple +minds, their effect was lost on the contemporary generation +by the isolation of the writers. Nobody beyond +the convent-walls knew what the learned historians of +the establishment had been doing. Their writings were +not brought out into the light of universal day, and a +knowledge of European society gathered point by point, +by comparing, analyzing, and contrasting the various +statements contained in those dispersed repositories. +But at this time there came into notice the most inquiring, +enterprising, picturesque, and entertaining chronicler +that had ever appeared since Herodotus read the +result of his personal travels and sagacious inquiries to +the assembled multitudes of Greece.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span></p> + +<p>John Froissart, called by the courtesy of the time Sir +John, in honour of his being priest and chaplain, devoted +a long life to the collection of the fullest and most +trustworthy accounts of all the events and personages +characteristic of his time. From 1326, when his labours +commenced, to 1400, when his active pen stood still, +nothing happened in any part of Europe that the Paul +Pry of the period did not rush off to verify on the spot. +If he heard of an assemblage of knights going on at the +extremities of France or in the centre of Germany, of +a tournament at Bordeaux, a court gala in Scotland, or +a marriage festival at Milan, his travels began,—whether +in the humble guise of a solitary horseman with his +portmanteau behind his saddle and a single greyhound +at his heels, as he jogged wearily across the Border, till +he finally arrived in Edinburgh, or in his grander style +of equipment, gallant steed, with hackney led beside +him, and four dogs of high race gambolling round his +horse, as he made his dignified journey from Ferrara to +Rome. Wherever life was to be seen and painted, the +indefatigable Froissart was to be found. Whatever he +had gathered up on former expeditions, whatever he +learned on his present tour, down it went in his own +exquisite language, with his own poetical impression of +the pomps and pageantries he beheld; and when at the +end of his journey he reached the court of prince or +potentate, no higher treat could be offered to the “noble +lords and ladies bright” than to form a glittering circle +round the enchanting chronicler and listen to what he +had written. From palace to palace, from castle to +castle, the unwearied “picker-up of unconsidered trifles” +(which, however, were neither trifles nor unconsidered, +when their true value became known, as giving life and +reality to the annals of a whole period) pursued his +happy way, certain of a friendly reception when he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span> +arrived, and certain of not losing his time by negligence +or blindness on the road. If he overtakes a stately cavalier, +attended by squires and men-at-arms, he enters into +conversation, drawing out the experiences of the venerable +warrior by relating to him all he knew of things +and persons in which he took an interest. And when +they put up at some hostelry on the road, and while +the gallant knight was sound asleep on his straw-stuffed +couch, and his followers were wallowing amid the rushes +on the parlour floor, Froissart was busy with pen and +note-book, scoring down all the old gentleman had told +him, all the fights he had been present at, and the secret +history (if any) of the councils of priests and kings. In +this way knights in distant parts of the world became +known to each other. The same voice which described +to Douglas at Dalkeith the exploits of the Prince of +Wales sounded the praises of Douglas in the ears of the +Black Prince at Bordeaux. A community of sentiment +was produced between the upper ranks of all nations by +this common register of their acts and feelings; and +knighthood received its most ennobling consummation +in these imperishable descriptions, at the very time when +its political and military influence came to a close. +Froissart’s Chronicles are the epitaph of feudalism, +written indeed while it was yet alive, but while its +strength was only the convulsive energy of approaching +death. The standard of knightly virtue became raised +in proportion as knightly power decayed. In the same +way as the increased civilization and elevating influences +of the time clothed the Church in colours borrowed +from the past, while its real influence was seriously impaired, +the expiring embers of knighthood occasionally +flashed up into something higher; and in this century +we read of Du Guesclin of France, Walter Manny and +Edward the Third of England, and many others, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span> +illustrated the order with qualifications it had never +possessed in its palmiest state.</p> + +<p>Courtrai was fought and Amadis de Gaul written +almost at the same time. Let us therefore mark, as a +characteristic of the period we have reached, the decay +of knighthood, or feudalism in its armour of proof, and +the growth at the same time of a sense of honour and +generosity, which contrasted strangely in its softened +and sentimentalized refinement with the harshness and +cruelty which still clung to the ordinary affairs of life. +Thus the young conqueror of Poictiers led his captive +John into London with the respectful attention of a +grateful subject to a crowned king. He waited on him +at table, and made him forget the humiliation of defeat +and the griefs of imprisonment in the sympathy and +reverence with which he was everywhere surrounded. +This same prince was regardless of human life or suffering +where the theatrical show of magnanimity was not +within his reach, bloodthirsty and tyrannical, and is declared +by the chronicler himself to be of “a high, overbearing +spirit, and cruel in his hatred.” It shows, however, +what an advance had already been made in the +influence of public opinion, when we read how generally +the treatment of the noble captive, John of France, was +appreciated. In former ages, and even at present in +nations of a lower state of feelings, the kind treatment +of a fallen enemy, or the sparing of a helpless population, +would be attributed to weakness or fear. Chivalry, +which was an attempt to amalgamate the Christian +virtues with the rougher requirements of the feudal code, +taught the duty of being pitiful as well as brave. And +though at this period that feeling only existed between +knight and knight, and was not yet extended to their +treatment of the common herd, the principle was +asserted that war could be carried on without personal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span> +animosity, and that courage, endurance, and the other +knightly qualities were to be admired as much in an +enemy as a friend.</p> + +<p>There was, however, another reason for this besides +the natural admiration which great deeds are sure to +call forth in natures capable of performing them; and +that was, that Europe was divided into petty sovereignties, +too weak to maintain their independence without +foreign aid, too proud to submit to another government, +and trusting to the support their money or influence +could procure. In all countries, therefore, there +existed bodies of mercenary soldiers—or Free Lances, +as they were called—claiming the dignity and rank of +knights and noblemen, who never knew whether the +men they were fighting to-day might not be their comrades +and followers to-morrow. In Italy, always a +country of divisions and enmities, there were armed combatants +secured on either side. Unconnected with the +country they defended by any ties of kindred or allegiance, +they found themselves opposed to a body, perhaps +of their countrymen, certainly of their former companions; +and, except so much as was required to earn +their pay and preserve their reputation, they did nothing +that might be injurious to their temporary foes. Battles +accordingly were fought where feats of horsemanship +and dexterity at their weapons were shown; where rushes +were made into the vacant space between the armies +by contending warriors, and horse and man acquitted +themselves with the acclamations, and almost with the +safety, of a charge in the amphitheatre at Astley’s. +But no blood was spilt, no life was taken; and a long +summer day has seen a confused mêlée going on between +the hired combatants of two cities or principalities, +without a single casualty more serious than a cavalier +thrown from his horse and unable to rise from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span> +weight and tightness of his armour. Fights of this +kind could scarcely be considered in earnest, and we are +not surprised to find that the burden and heat of an +engagement was thrown upon the light-armed foot: we +gather, indeed, towards the end of Froissart’s Chronicles, +that while the cavaliers persisted in endeavouring to +distinguish their individual prowess, as at the battle of +Navareta in Spain, and got into confusion in their +eagerness of assault, “the sharpness of the English +arrows began to be felt,” and the fate of the battle depended +on the unflinching line and impregnable solidity +of the archers and foot-soldiers. These latter took a +deeper interest in the result than the more showy performers, +and were not carried away by the vanities of +personal display.</p> + +<p>Look at the year 1300, with the jubilee of Boniface +going on. Look at 1400, with the death of Chaucer and +Froissart, and the enthroning of Henry the Fourth, and +what an amount of incident, of change and improvement, +has been crowded into the space! The rise of +national literatures, the softening of feudalism, the decline +of Church power,—these—illustrated by Dante and +Chaucer, by the alteration in the art of war, and above +all, perhaps, by the translation of the Bible into the +vulgar tongue—were not only the fruits gained for the +present, but the promise of greater things to come. +There will be occasional backslidings after this time, +but the onward progress is steady and irresistible: the +regressions are but the reflux waves in an advancing +tide, caused by the very force and vitality of the great +sea beyond. And after this view of some of the main +features of the century, we shall take a very cursory +glance at some of the principal events on which the portraiture +is founded.</p> + +<p>It is a bad sign of the early part of this period that +our great landmarks are still battles and invasions.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1314.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>After Courtrai in 1302, where the nobility rushed blindfold +into a natural ditch, we come upon Bannockburn in +1314, where Edward the Second, not comprehending +the aim of his more politic father,—whose +object was to counterpoise the growing power of +the French monarchy by consolidating his influence at +home,—had marched rather to revenge his outraged +dignity than to establish his denied authority, and was +signally defeated by Robert Bruce. Is it not possible +that the stratagem by which the English chivalry +suffered so much by means of the pits dug for their reception +in the space in front of the Scottish lines was +borrowed from Courtrai,—art supplying in that dry +plain near Stirling what nature had furnished to the +marshy Brabant? However this may be, the same fatal +result ensued. Pennon and standard, waving plume +and flashing sword, disappeared in those yawning gulfs, +and at the present hour very rusty spurs and fragments +of broken helmets are dug from beneath the soil to mark +the greatness and the quality of the slaughter. Meantime, +in compact phalanx—protected by the knights and +gentlemen on the flanks, but left to its own free action—the +Scottish array bore on. Strong spear and sharp +sword did the rest, and the English army, shorn of its +cavalry, disheartened by the loss of its leaders, and +finally deserted by its pusillanimous king, retreated in +confusion, and all hope of retaining the country by the +right of conquest was forever laid aside. Poor Edward +had, in appalling consciousness of his own imperfections, +applied to the Pope for permission to rub himself with +an ointment that would make him brave. Either the +Pope refused his consent or the ointment failed of its +purpose. Nothing could rouse a brave thought in the +heart of the fallen Plantagenet. Sir Giles de Argentine +might have been more effectual than all the unguents in +the world. He led the king by the bridle till he saw<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span> +him in a place of safety. He then stopped his horse +and said, “It has never been my custom to fly, and here +I must take my fortune.” Saying this, he put spurs to +his horse, and, crying out, “An Argentine!” charged the +squadron of Edward Bruce, and was borne down by the +force of the Scottish spears. The fugitive king galloped +in terror to the castle of Dunbar, and shipped off by sea +to Berwick.</p> + +<p>The next battle is so strongly corroborative of the +failing supremacy of heavy armour, and the rising importance +of the well-trained citizens, that it is worth +mention, although at first sight it seems to controvert +both these statements; for it was a fight in which certain +courageous burghers were mercilessly exterminated +by gorgeously-caparisoned knights. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1328.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>The townsmen of +Bruges and Ypres had grown so proud and pugnacious +that in 1328 they advanced to Cassel to do +battle with the young King of France, Philip +of Valois, at the head of all his chivalry. There was a +vast amount of mutual contempt in the two armies. +The leader of the bold Flemings, who was known as +Little Jack, entered the enemy’s camp in disguise, and +found young lords in splendid gowns proceeding from +point to point, gossiping, visiting, and interchanging +their invitations. Making his way back, he ordered a +charge at once. The rush was nearly successful, and +was only checked within a few yards of the royal tent. +But the check was tremendous. The bloated burghers, +filled with pride and gorged with wealth, had thought +proper to ensconce their unwieldy persons in cuirasses +as brilliant and embarrassing as the armour of the +knights. The knights, however, were on horseback, +and the embattled townsfolk were on foot. Great was +the slaughter, useless the attempt to escape, and thirteen +thousand were overborne and smothered. Ten<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span> +thousand more were executed by some form of law, +and the Bourgeoisie taught to rely for its safety on its +agility and compactness, and not on “helm or hauberk’s +twisted mail.”</p> + +<p>The crop of battles grows rich and plentiful, for +Edward the Third and Philip of Valois are rival kings +and warriors, and may be taken as the representatives +of the two states of society which were brought at this +time face to face. For Edward, though as true a knight +as Amadis himself in his own person, in policy was a +favourer of the new ideas. When the war broke out, +Philip behaved as if no change had taken place in the +seat of power and the world had still continued divided +between the lords and their armed retainers. He threw +himself for support on the military service of his tenants +and the aristocratic spirit of his nobles. Edward, wiser +but less romantic, turned for assistance to the Commons +of England,—bought over their good will and copious +contributions by privileges granted to their trades,—invited +skilled workmen over from Flanders, which, with +the freest spirit in Europe, was under the least improved +of the feudal governments,—and established woollen-works +at York, fustian-works at Norwich, serges at Colchester, +and kerseys in Devonshire. Mills were whirling +round in all the counties, and ships coming in untaxed +at every harbour. Fortunately, as is always the case in +this country, it was seen that the success of one class +of the people was beneficial to every other class. The +baron got more rent for his land and better cloth for his +apparel by the prosperity of his manufacturing neighbours. +Money was voted readily in support of a king +who entered into alliance with their best customers, the +men of Ghent and Bruges; and at the head of all the +levies which the parliament’s liberality enabled him to +raise were the knights and gentlemen of England, totally +freed now from any bias towards the French or prejudice<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span> +against the Saxon; for they spoke the English tongue, +dressed in English broadcloth, sang English ballads, and +astonished the men of Gascony and Guienne with the +vehemence of their unmistakably English oaths. Yet +some of them held lands in feudal subjection to the +French king. Flanders itself confessed the same sovereignty; +and men of delicate consciences might feel uneasy +if they lifted the sword against their liege lord. To +soothe their scruples, James Van Arteveldt, the Brewer +of Ghent, suggested to Edward the propriety of his assuming +the title of King of France. The rebellious freeholders +would then be in their duty in supporting their +liege’s claims. So Edward, founding upon the birth of +his mother, the daughter of the last King, Philip le +Bel,—who was excluded by the Salic law, or at least by +French custom, from the throne,—made claim to the +crown of St. Louis, and transmitted the barren title to +all his successors till the reign of George the Fourth. +As if in right of his property on both sides of the Channel, +Edward converted it into his exclusive domain. +<span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1340.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>He so entirely exterminated the navy of France, and +impressed that chivalrous nation with the danger +of the seas by the victory of Helvoet Sluys, +that for several centuries the command of the strait was +left undisputed to England. Philip had endeavoured to +obtain the mastery of it with a fleet of a hundred and +fifty ships, mounted by forty thousand men. The Genoese +had furnished an auxiliary squadron, and also a +commander-in-chief, of the name of Barbavara. But +the French admiral was a civilian of the name of Bahuchet, +who thought the safest plan was the best, and kept +his whole force huddled up in the commodious harbour. +Edward collected a fleet of scarcely inferior strength, +and fell upon the enemy as they lay within the port. It +was in fact a fight on the land, for they ranged so close +that they almost touched each other, and the gallant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span> +Bahuchet preserved himself from sea-sickness at the +expense of all their lives. For the English archers made +an incredible havoc on their crowded decks, and the +pike-men boarded with irresistible power. Twenty +thousand were slain in that fearful <i>mêlée</i>; and Edward, +to show how sincere he was in his claim upon the throne +of France, hanged the unfortunate Bahuchet as a traitor. +The man deserved his fate as a coward: so we need not +waste much sympathy on the manner of his death. This +success with his ships was soon followed by the better-known +victory of Crecy, 1346, and the capture of Calais. +<span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1356.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>In ten years afterwards, the crowning triumph +of Poictiers completed the destruction of the +military power of France, by a slaughter nearly as great +as that at Sluys and Crecy. In addition to the loss of +lives in these three engagements, amounting to upwards +of ninety thousand men, we are to consider the impoverishment +of the country by the exorbitant ransoms +claimed for the release of prisoners. John, the French +king, was valued at three million crowns of gold,—an +immense sum, which it would have exhausted the kingdom +to raise; and, in addition to those destructive fights +and crushing exactions, France was further weakened +by the insurrection of the peasantry and the frightful +massacres by which it was put down. If to these +causes of weakness we add the depopulation produced +by the unequalled pestilence, called the Plague of +Florence, which spread all over the world, and in the +space of a year carried off nearly a third of the inhabitants +of Europe, we shall be justified in believing that +France was reduced to the lowest condition she has ever +reached, and that only the dotage of Edward, the death +of the Black Prince, and the accession of a king like +Richard II., saved that noble country from being, for a +while at least, tributary and subordinate to her island-conqueror.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span> +<a name="FIFTEENTH_CENTURY" id="FIFTEENTH_CENTURY">FIFTEENTH CENTURY.</a></h2> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Emperors of Germany.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1400.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Rupert.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1410.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Jossus.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1410.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Sigismund.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="2" align="left" class="dynast"><i>House of Austria.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1438.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Albert II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1440.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Frederick IV.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1493.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Maximilian I.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of England.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1399.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Henry IV.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1413.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Henry V.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1422.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Henry VI.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1461.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Edward IV.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1483.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Edward V.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1483.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Richard III.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1485.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Henry VII.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of Scotland.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Robert III.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1406.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">James I.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1437.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">James II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1460.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">James III.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1488.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">James IV.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Emperors of the East.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Manuel Palæologus.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1425.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">John Palæologus II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1448.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Constantine XIII.</span>, (<span class="smcap">Palæologus.</span>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1453.</td><td class="sovereign">Capture of Constantinople by the Turks, and close of the Eastern Empire.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Sultans of Turkey.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1451.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Mohammed II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1481.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Bajazet II.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of France.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Charles VI.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1422.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Charles VII.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1461.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Louis XI.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1483.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Charles VIII.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1498.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Louis XII.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of Spain.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1479.</td><td class="sovereign">Union of the Kingdom under <span class="smcap">Ferdinand</span> and <span class="smcap">Isabella</span>.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td class="year-top">1452.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Invention of Printing.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="year-top">1455.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Wars of the Roses Begin.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="year-top">1483.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Luther Born.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="year-top">1492.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Discovery of America.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="heading">Eminent Men.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">John Huss</span>, (1370-1415,) <span class="smcap">Ximines</span></p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span> +<a name="THE_FIFTEENTH_CENTURY" id="THE_FIFTEENTH_CENTURY">THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.</a></h2> +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="sub-heading">DECLINE OF FEUDALISM — AGINCOURT — JOAN OF ARC — THE +PRINTING-PRESS — DISCOVERY OF AMERICA.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> whole period from the twelfth to the fifteenth +century has generally been considered so unvarying in +its details, one century so like another, that it has been +thought sufficient to class them all under the general +name of the Middle Ages. Old Monteil, indeed, the +author of “The French People of Various Conditions,” +declines to individualize any age during that lengthened +epoch, for “feudalism,” he says, “is as little capable of +change as the castles with which it studded the land.” +But a closer inspection does by no means justify this +declaration. From time to time we have seen what +great changes have taken place. The external walls of +the baronial residence may continue the same, but vast +alterations have occurred within. The rooms have got +a more modern air; the moat has begun to be dried up, +and turned into a bowling-green; the tilt-yard is occasionally +converted into a garden; and, in short, in all +the civilized countries of Europe the life of society has +accumulated at the heart. Power is diffused from the +courts of kings; and instead of the spirit of independence +and opposition to the royal authority which +characterized former centuries, we find the courtiers’ arts +more prevalent now than the pride of local grandeur. +The great vassals of the Crown are no longer the rivals +of their nominal superior, but submissively receive his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span> +awards, or endeavour to obtain the sanction of his name +to exactions which they would formerly have practised +in their own. Monarchy, in fact, becomes the spirit of +the age, and nobility sinks willingly into the subordinate +rank. This itself was a great blow to the feudal system, +for the essence of that organized society was equality +among its members, united to subordination of conventional +rank,—a strange and beautiful style of feeling +between the highest and the lowest of that manly brotherhood, +which made the simple chevalier equal to the +king as touching their common knighthood,—of which +we have at the present time the modernized form in the +feeling which makes the loftiest in the land recognise +an equal and a friend in the person of an untitled gentleman. +But this latter was to be the result of the +equalizing effect of education and character. In the fifteenth +century, feudalism, represented by the great proprietors, +was about to expire, as it had already perished +in the decay of its armed and mailed representatives in +the field of battle. By no lower hand than its own +could the nobility be overthrown either in France or +England. The accident of a feeble king in both countries +was the occasion of an internecine struggle,—not, +as it would have been in the tenth century, for the possession +of the crown, but for the custody of the wearer +of it. The insanity of Charles VI. almost exterminated +the lords of France; the weakness of Henry VI. and +the Wars of the Roses produced the same result in +England. It seemed as if in both countries an epidemic +madness had burst out among the nobility, which drove +them to their destruction. Wildly contending with +each other, neglecting and oppressing the common +people, the lords and barons were unconscious of the +silent advances of a power which was about to overshadow +them all. And, as if to drive away from them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span> +the sympathy which their fathers had known how to +excite among the lower classes by their kindness and +protection, they seemed determined to obliterate every +vestige of respect which might cling to their ancient +possessions and historic names, by the most unheard-of +cruelty and falsehood in their treatment of each +other.</p> + +<p>The leader of one of the parties which divided France +was John, son of Philip the Hardy, prince of the blood +royal and Duke of Burgundy. The leader of the other +party was Louis of Orleans, brother of the demented +king, and the gayest cavalier and most accomplished +gentleman of his time. The Burgundian had many +advantages in his contest for the reins of government. +The wealth and population of the Low Countries made +him as powerful as any of the princes of Europe, and +he could at all times secure the alliance of England to +the most nefarious of his schemes by the bribe of a +treaty of trade and navigation. He accordingly brought +his great possessions in Flanders to the aid of his French +ambition, and secured the almost equally important +assistance of the University of Paris, by giving in his +adhesion to the Pope it had chosen and denying the +authority of the Pope of his rival Orleans. Orleans had +also offended the irritable population of Paris by making +his vows, on some solemn occasion, by the bones of St. +Denis which adorned the shrine of the town called after +his name,—whereas it was well known to every Parisian +that the real bones of the patron of France were those +which were so religiously preserved in the treasury of +Notre Dame. The clergy of the two altars took up +the quarrel, and as much hostility was created by the +rival relics of St. Denis and Paris as by the rival pontiffs +of Avignon and Rome. Thus the Church, which in +earlier times had been a bond of unity, was one of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span> +chief causes of dissension; and the result in a few years +was seen in the attempt made by France to shake off, +as much as possible, the supremacy of both the divided +Popes, as it managed to shake off entirely the yoke of +the divided nobility.</p> + +<p>Quarrels and reconciliations among the princes, feasts +and festivals among the peerage, and the most relentless +treatment of the citizens, were the distinguishing marks +of the opening of this century. Isabella of Bavaria, +the shameless wife of the hapless Charles, added a great +feature of infamy to the state of manners at the time, +by the openness of her profligacy, and her neglect of all +the duties of wife and queen. Rioting with the thoughtless +Orleans, while her husband was left to the misery +of his situation, unwashed, unshorn, and clothed in rags +and filth, the abandoned woman roused every manly +heart in all the land against the cause she aided. Relying +on this national disgust, the wily Burgundian waited +his opportunity, and revenged his private wrongs by +what he afterwards called the patriotic dagger of an +assassin. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1407.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>On the night of the 23d of December, +1407, the gay and handsome Louis was lured by +a false message from the queen’s quarters to a distant +part of the town, and was walking in his satin mantle, +twirling his glove in his hand, and humming the burden +of a song, when he was set on by ten or twelve of the +adherents of his enemy, stabbed, and beaten long after +he lay dead on the pavement, and was then left motionless +and uncared-for under the shade of the high house-walls +of the Vieille Rue du Temple.</p> + +<p>Public conscience was not very acute at that time; +and, although no man for a moment doubted the hand +that had guided the blow, the Duke of Burgundy was +allowed to attend the funeral of his murdered cousin, +and to hold the pall in the procession, and to weep<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span> +louder than any as the coffin was lowered into the vault. +But the common feelings of humanity were roused at +last. People remembered the handsome, kindly, merry-hearted +Orleans thus suddenly struck low, and the +ominous looks of the Parisians warned the powerful +Burgundy that it was time to take his hypocrisy and +his tears out of the sight of honest men. He slipped +out of the city, and betook himself to his Flemish +states. But the helm was now without a steersman; +and, while all were looking for a guide out of the confusion +into which the appalling incident had brought +the realm, the guilty duke himself, armed <i>cap-à-pie</i>, and +surrounded by a body-guard which silenced all opposition, +made his solemn entry into the town, and fixed on +the door of his hotel the emblematic ornament of two +spears, one sharp at the point as if for immediate battle, +and one blunted and guarded as if for a friendly joust. +Eloquence is never long absent when power is in want +of an oration. A great meeting was held, in which, by +many brilliant arguments and incontrovertible examples +from holy writ and other histories, John Petit proved, to +the entire satisfaction of everybody who did not wish +to be slaughtered on the spot, that the doing to death +of the Duke of Orleans was a good deed, and that the +doer was entitled to the thanks of a grateful country. +The thanks were accordingly given, and the murderer +was at the height of his ambition. As a warning to +the worthy citizens of what they had to expect if they +rebelled against his authority, he took the opportunity +of hurrying northward to his states, where the men of +Liege were in revolt, and, having broken their ill-formed +squares, committed such slaughter upon them as only +the madness of fear and hatred could have suggested. +Dripping with the blood of twenty-four thousand artisans, +he returned to Paris, where the citizens were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span> +hushed into silence, and perhaps admiration, by the +terrors of his appearance. They called him John the +Fearless,—a noble title, most inadequately acquired; +but, in spite of their flattery and their submission, he +did not feel secure without the presence of his faithful +subjects. He therefore summoned his Flemings and +Burgundians to share his triumphs, and a loose was +given to all their desires. They pillaged, burned, and +destroyed as if in an enemy’s country, encamping outside +the walls, and giving evident indications of an intention +to force their way into the streets. But the sight +of gore, though terrifying at first, sets the tamest of +animals wild. The Parisians smelt the bloody odour +and made ready for the fray. The formidable incorporation +of the Butchers rose knife in hand, and at the +command of their governor prepared to preserve the +peace of the city. Burgundians and Orleanists were +equally to be feared, and by a curious coincidence both +those parties were at the gate; for the Count of Armagnac, +father-in-law of the orphan Duke of Orleans, had +assumed the leadership of the party, and had come up +to Paris at the head of his infuriated Gascons and the +men of Languedoc. North and South were again +ranged in hostile ranks, and inside the walls there was a +reign of terror and an amount of misery never equalled +till that second reign of terror which is still the darkest +spot in the memory of old men yet alive. No man +could put faith in his neighbour. The murder of the +Duke of Orleans had dissolved all confidence in the +word of princes. One half of France was ready to +draw against the other. Each half was anxious for +support, from whatever quarter it came, and to gain the +destruction of their rivals would sacrifice the interests +of the nation.</p> + +<p>But the same spirit of disunion and extirpation of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span> +ancient landmarks was at work in England. The accession +of Henry the Fourth was not effected without the +opposition of the adherents of the former king and of +the supporters, on general principles, of the legitimate +line. There were treasons, and plots, and pitiless executions. +The feudal chiefs were no longer the compact +body which could give laws both to King and Parliament, +but ranged themselves in opposite camps and +waited for the spoils of the vanquished side. The +clergy unanimously came to the aid of the usurper on +his faithful promise to exempt them from taxation; and, +by thus throwing their own proportion of the public +burdens on the body of the people, they sundered the +alliance which had always hitherto subsisted between +the Church and the lower class. Another bribe was +held out to the clerical order for its support to the +unlineal crown by the surrender to their vengeance +of any heretics they could discover. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1401.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>In the second year of this reign, accordingly, we find a law +enabling the priests to burn, “on some high and conspicuous +piece of ground,” any who dissented from their +faith. This is the first legal sanction in England to the +logic of flame and fagot. How dreadfully this permission +was used, we shall see ere many years elapse. In +the mean time, it is worth while to remark that in proportion +as the Church lost in popularity and affection it +gained in legal privilege. While it was strong it did +not need to be cruel; and if it had continued its care of +the poor and helpless, it would have been able to leave +Wickliff to his dissertations on its doctrinal errors undisturbed. +A Church which is found to be nationally +beneficial, and which endears itself to its adherents by +the practical graces of Christianity, will never be overthrown, +or even weakened, by any theoretical defects in +its creeds or formularies. It was perhaps, therefore, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span> +fortunate circumstance that the Church of Rome had +departed as much by this time from the path of honesty +and usefulness as from the simplicity of gospel truth. +The Bible might have been looked at in vain, even in +Wickliff’s translation, if its meanings had not been +rendered plain by the lives and principles of the clergy. +Henry the Fifth, feeling the same necessity of clerical +support which had thrown his father into the hands of +the Church, left nothing untried to attach it to his cause. +All the opposition which had been offered to its claims +had hitherto been confined to men of low rank, and +generally to members of its own body. Wickliff himself +had been but a country vicar, and had been unnoticed +and despised in his small parsonage at Lutterworth. +But three-and-twenty years after he was dead, +his name was celebrated far and wide as the enemy of +constituted authority and a heretic of the most dangerous +kind. His guilt consisted in nothing whatever +but in having translated the Bible into English; but the +fact of his having done so was patent to all. No witnesses +were required. The bones of the old man were +dug up from their resting-place in the quiet churchyard +in Leicestershire, carried ignominiously to Oxford, and +burned amid the howls and acclamations of an infuriated +mob of priests and doctors. This was in 1409. But, in +his character of heretic and unbeliever, Wickliff had +high associates in this same year; for the General +Council sitting at Pisa declared the two Popes—of +Avignon and Rome—who still continued to divide the +Christian world, to be “heretics, perjurers, and schismatics.”</p> + +<p>Europe, indeed, was ripe for change in almost all the +relations both of Church and State. There would seem +no close connection between Bohemia and England; yet +in a very short time the doctrines of Wickliff penetrated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span> +to Prague. There Huss and Jerome preached against +the enormities and contradictions of the Romish system, +and bitterly paid for their presumption in the fires of +Constance before many years had passed. But in +England the effects of the new revelation of the hidden +gospel had been stronger than even at Prague. Public +opinion, however, divided itself into two very different +channels; and while the whole nation listened with open +ear to the denunciations rising everywhere against the +corruption, pride, and sensuality of the priesthood, it +rushed at the same time into the wildest excesses of +cruelty against the opponents of any of the doctrinal +errors or superstitious beliefs in which it had been +brought up. In the same year in which several persons +were burnt in Smithfield as supporters of Wickliff and +the Bible, the Parliament sent up addresses to the +Crown, advising the king to seize the temporalities of +the Church, and to apply the riches wasted on luxurious +monks and nuns to the payment of his soldiers. Henry +the Fifth adroitly availed himself of the double direction +in which the popular feeling ran. He gained over the +priesthood by exterminating the opponents of their +ceremonies and faith, and rewarded himself by occasionally +confiscating the revenues of a dozen or two of the +more notorious monasteries. In 1417 a heavier sacrifice +was demanded of him than his mere presence at the +burning of a plebeian heretic like John Badby, whose +execution he had attended at Smithfield in 1410. He +was required to give up into the hands of the Church +the great and noble Oldcastle, Lord Cobham. The +Church, as if to mark its triumph, did not examine the +accused on any point connected with civil or political +affairs. It questioned him solely on his religious beliefs; +and as it found him unconvinced of the necessity of confession +to a priest, of pilgrimages to the shrines of saints,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368]</a></span> +of the worship of images, and of the doctrine of transubstantiation, +it delivered him over to the secular arm, and +the stout old soldier was taken to St. Giles’s-in-the-Fields, +and suspended, by an iron chain round his body, above a +fire, to die by the slowest and most painful of deaths. +But, in this yielding up of a nobleman to the vengeance +of the priesthood, Henry had a double motive: he terrified +the proudest of the barons, and attached to himself +the other bodies in the State. The people were still +profoundly ignorant, and looked on the innovators as +the enemies both of God and man. And nothing but +this can account for the astonishing spectacle presented +by Europe at this date. The Church torn by contending +factions—three Popes at one time—and council arrayed +against council; every nation disgusted with its own +priesthood, and enthusiasm bursting out in the general +confusion into the wildest excesses of fanaticism and +vice,—and yet a total incapacity in any country of devising +means of amendment. Great efforts were made, +by wise and holy men within the Church itself, to shake +off the impediments to its development and increase. +Reclamations were made, more in sorrow than in anger, +against the universal depravation of morals and beliefs. +The Popes were not unmoved with these complaints, +and gave credence to the forebodings of evil which rose +from every heart. Yet the network of custom, the +authority of tradition, and the unchangeableness of +Roman policy marred every effort at self-reformation. +An opening was apparently made for the introduction +of improvement, by the declaration of the supremacy +of general councils, and the cessation of the great schism +of the West on the nomination of Martin the +Fifth to the undisputed chair. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1429.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>But the force of +circumstances was irresistible. Cardinals who approved +of the declaration while members of the council repudiated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span> +its acts when, by good fortune, they succeeded to +the tiara; and one of them even ventured the astounding +statement that in his character of Æneas Sylvius, +and approver of the decree of Basle, he was guilty of +damnable sin, but was possessed of immaculate virtue in +the character of Paul the Second. It was obvious that +this unnatural state of things could not last. An establishment +conscious of its defects, but unable to throw +them off, and finally forced to the awful necessity of defending +them by the foulest and most unpardonable +means, might have read the inevitable result in every +page of history. But worse remained behind. There +sat upon the chair of St. Peter, in the year 1492, the +most depraved and wicked of mankind. No earthly +ruler had equalled him in profligacy and the coarser +vices of cruelty and oppression since the death of the +Roman Nero. This was a man of the name of Borgia, +who fixed his infamous mark on the annals of the +Papacy as Alexander the Sixth. While this bloodthirsty +ruffian was at the summit of sacerdotal power—this +poisoner of his friends, this polluter of his family circle +with unimaginable crimes—as the visible representative +upon earth of the Church of Christ, what hope could +there be of amendment in the lower orders of the clergy, +or continuance of men’s belief in the popish claims? +Long before this, in 1442, the falsehood of the pretended +donation of Constantine, on which the Popes founded +their territorial rights, was triumphantly proved by the +learned Valla; and at the end of the century the reverence +of mankind for the successor of the Prince of the +Apostles was exposed to a trial which the authenticity +of all the documents in the world could not have successfully +stood, in the personal conduct of the Pope and +his familiars.</p> + +<p>While this was the general state of Europe in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span> +fifteenth century as regards the position of the clergy, +high and low, the Church, in all countries, threw itself +on the protection of the kings. By the middle, or +towards the end, of this period, there was no other +patronage to which they could have recourse. The +nobility in France and England were practically eradicated. +All confidence between baron and baron was at +an end, and all belief in knightly faith and honour in +the other classes of the people. As if the time for a new +state of society was arrived, and instruments were required +to clear the way for the approaching form, the +nobility and gentry of England first were effectual in +overthrowing their noble brethren in France, and then, +with infuriate bitterness, turned their swords upon each +other. The most rememberable general characteristic +of this century is the consolidation of royal power. The +king becomes despotic because the great nobility is +overthrown and the Church stripped of its authority. +Tired of hoping for aid from their ancient protector, the +lowest classes cast their eyes of helplessness to the +throne instead of to the crozier. They see in the reigning +sovereign an ideal of personified Power. All other +ideals with which the masses of the people have deluded +themselves have passed away. The Church is stripped +of the charm which its lofty claims and former kindness +gave it. It is detected for the thing it is,—a corporation +for the grinding of the poor and the support of +tyranny and wrong. The nobility is stripped also of the +glitter which covered its harsh outlines with the glow +of Christian qualifications. It is found to be selfish, +faithless, untrustworthy, and divided against itself. To +the king, then, as the last refuge of the unfortunate, as +the embodied State, a combination, in his own person, +of the manly virtues of the knight with the Christian +tenderness of the priest, the public transfers all the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span> +romantic confidence it had lavished on the other two. +And, as if to prove that this idea came to its completeness +without reference to the actual holder of sovereign +authority, we find that in France the first really despotic +king was Louis the Eleventh, and in England the first +king by divine right was Henry the Seventh. Two +more unchivalrous personages never disgraced the three-legged +stool of a scrivener. Yet they sat almost simultaneously +on two of earth’s proudest thrones.</p> + +<p>No century had ever witnessed so great a change in +manners and position as this. In others we have seen +a gradual widening-out of thought and tendencies, all, +however, subdued by the universal shadow in which +every thing was carried on. But in this the progress +was by a sudden leap from darkness into light. In +ancient times Europe was held together by certain +communities of interest and feeling, of which the chief +undoubtedly was the centralization of the spiritual +power in Rome. At the Papal Court all the nations +were represented, and Stockholm and Saragossa were +brought into contact by their common dependence on +the successor of St. Peter. The courtly festivals which +invited a knight of Scotland to cross blunted spears in +a glittering tournament with a knight of Sicily in the +court of an emperor of Germany was another bond of +union between remotest regions; and in the fourteenth +century the indefatigable Froissart, as we remarked, +conveyed a knowledge of one nation to another in the +entertaining chapters with which he delighted the +listeners in the different palaces where he set up his +rest. But all these lights, it will be observed, illumined +only the hill-tops, and left the valleys still obscure. +Ambitious Churchmen encountered their brethren of all +kindreds and tongues in the court of the Vatican; tiltings +were only for the high-born and rich, and Froissart<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span> +himself poured forth his treasures only for the delight +of lords and ladies. The ballads of the common people, +on the other hand, had had a strongly disuniting effect. +The songs which charmed the peasant were directed +against the exacting priest and oppressive noble. In +England they were generally pointed against the Norman +baron, with whose harshness and pride were contrasted +the kindness and liberality of Robin Hood and +his peers. The French ballads were hostile to the +English invader; the Scottish poems were commemorative +of the heroism of Wallace and the cruelties of the +Southern hordes. Literatures were thus condemned to +be hostile, because they were not lofty enough to overlook +the boundaries of the narrow circles in which they +moved. By slow and toilsome process books were multiplied,—carefully +copied in legible hand, and then +chained up, like inestimable jewels, in monastery or +palace, as too valuable to be left at large. A king’s +library was talked of as a wonder when it contained +six or seven hundred volumes. The writings of controversialists +were passed from hand to hand, and the publication +of a volume was generally achieved by its being +read aloud at the refectory-table of the college and then +discussed, in angry disputations, in the University Hall. +Not one man in five hundred could read, if the book had +been written in the plainest text; and at length the +running hand was so indistinct as to be not much plainer +than hieroglyphics. The discoveries, therefore, of one +age had all to be discovered over again in the next. +Roger Bacon, the English monk, in the eleventh century, +was acquainted with gunpowder, and had clear intimations +of many of the other inventions of more recent +times. But what was the use of all his genius? He +could only write down his triumph in a book; the book +was carefully arranged on the shelf of his monastery;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span> +clever men of his own society may have carried the +report of his doings to the neighbouring establishments; +but time passed on, those clever men died out, the book +on the monastery shelf was gradually covered with dust, +and Roger Bacon became a conjurer in popular estimation, +who foretold future events and took counsel from +a supernatural brazen head. But in this century the +art of printing was discovered and perfected. A thousand +copies now darted off in all directions, cheap +enough to be bought by the classes below the highest, +portable enough to be carried about the person to the +most distant lands, and in a type so large and clear that +a very little instruction would enable the most illiterate +to master its contents. Here was the lever that lifted +the century at its first appearance into the light of +modern civilization. And it came at the very nick of +time. Men’s minds were disturbed on many subjects; +for old unreasoning obedience to authority had passed +away. Who was to guide them in their future voyage? +Isolated works would no longer be of any use. Great +scholars and acute dialecticians had been tried and +found wanting. They only acted on the highly-educated +class; and now it was the people in mass—the worker, +the shopkeeper, the farmer, the merchant—who were +anxious to be informed; and what could a monk in a +cell, or even Chaucer with his harp in hand, do for the +edification of such a countless host? People would no +longer be fed on the dry crust of Aristotelianism or be +satisfied with the intellectual jugglery of the Schoolmen. +Rome had lost its guiding hand, and its restraining sword +was also found of no avail. Some rest was to be found +for the minds which had felt the old foundation slip +away from them; and in this century, thus pining for +light, thus thrusting forward eager hands to be warmed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374]</a></span> +at the first ray of a new-risen sun, there were terrible +displays of the aberrations of zeal without knowledge.</p> + +<p>Almost within hearing of the first motion of the press, +incalculable numbers of enthusiasts revived the exploded +sect of the Flagellants of former centuries, and perambulated +Europe, plying the whip upon their naked backs +and declaring that the whole of religion consisted in the +use of the scourge. Others, more crazy still, pronounced +the use of clothes to be evidence of an unconverted +nature, and returned to the nakedness of our first +parents as proof of their restoration to a state of innocence. +Mortality lost all its terrors in this earnest +search for something more than the ordinary ministrations +of the faith could bestow; and in France and +England the hideous spectacles called the Dance of +Death were frequent. In these, under the banner of a +grinning skeleton, the population danced with frantic +violence, shouting, shrieking, in the exultation of the +time,—a scene where the joyous appearance of the occupation +contrasted shockingly with the awful place in +which the orgies were held, for the catacombs of Paris, +filled with the bones and carcasses of many generations, +were the chosen site for these frightful exhibitions. Like +the unnatural gayety that reigned in the same city +when the guillotine had filled every family with terror +or grief, they were but an abnormal development of the +sentiment of despair. People danced the Dance of +Death, because life had lost its charm. Life had lost its +security in the two most powerful nations of the time. +England was shaken with contending factions, and +France exhausted and hopeless of restoration. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1451.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>The +peasantry in both were trampled on without remorse. +Jack Cade led up his famishing thousands +to lay their sufferings before the throne. They +asked for nothing but a slight relaxation of the burdens<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[375]</a></span> +that oppressed them, and were condemned without +mercy to the sword and gallows. The French “Jacques +Bonhomme” was even in a worse condition. There was +no controlling power on the throne to guard him from +the tyrannies of a hundred petty superiors. The Church +of his country was as much conquered by the Church +of England as its soil by the English arms. A cardinal, +bloated and bloody, dominated both London and Paris, +and sent his commands from the Palace at Winchester, +which were obeyed by both nations. <span class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1452. <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1483. +<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1492.</span>And all this on +the very eve of the introduction of the perfected +printing-press, the birth of Luther, and +the discovery of America! From the beginning +of the century till government became assured +by the accession of Henry VII. and Louis XI., the whole +of Europe was unsettled and apparently on the verge +of dissolution. In the absence of the controlling power +of the Sovereign, each little baron asserted his own +right and privileges, and aimed perhaps at the restoration +of his feudal independence, when the spirit of feudalism +had passed away. The nobility, even if it had +been united, was not now numerous enough to present +a ruling body to the State. It became despised as soon +as it was seen to be powerless; and at last, in sheer exhaustion, +the people, the churches, and the peerage of +the two proudest nations in the world lay down helpless +and unresisting at the footstool of the only authority +likely to protect them from each other or themselves. +When we think of the fifteenth century, let us remember +it as the period when mankind grew tired of the establishments +of all former ages, when feudalism resigned +its sword into the hands of monarchy, and when the +last days of the expiring state of society were distinguished +by the withdrawal of the death-grasp by France +and England from each other’s throats, and the establishment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[376]</a></span> +of respectful if not friendly sentiments between +them. By the year 1451, there was not one of +all the conquests of the Edwards and Henrys left to the +English except Calais. If that miserable relic had also +been restored, it would have prevented many a heart-burning +between the nations, and advanced, perhaps by +centuries, the happy time when each can look across +the narrow channel which divides them without a wish +save for the glory and prosperity of the other.</p> + +<p>It is like going back to the time of the Crusades to +turn our eyes from the end of this century to the +beginning, so great and essential is the change that has +taken place. Yet it is necessary, having given the +general view of the condition of affairs, to descend to +certain particulars by which the progress of the history +may be more vividly defined. And of these the principal +are the battle of Agincourt, the relief of Orleans, +the invention of Guttenberg, and the achievement of +Columbus. These are fixed on, not for their own intrinsic +merits, but for the great results they produced. +Agincourt unfeudalized France; Joan of Arc restored +man’s faith in human virtue and divine superintendence; +printing preserved forever the conquests of the human +intellect; and the discovery of America opened a new +world to the energies of mankind.</p> + +<p>We must return to the state of France when the Duke +of Orleans was so treacherously slain by the ferocious +Duke of Burgundy in 1407. For a time the crime was +successful in establishing the murderer’s power, and the +Burgundians were strengthened by obtaining the custody +of the imbecile king, Charles the Sixth, and the support +of his infamous consort, Isabeau of Bavaria. But authority +so obtained could not be kept without plunging into +greater excesses. So the populace were let loose, and +no man’s life was safe. In self-defence—burning with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[377]</a></span> +hatred of the slayer of his son-in-law and betrayer of +his country—the Count of Armagnac denounced the +dominant party. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1411.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Burgundy threw himself into +the arms of England, and was only outbidden +in his offers of submission by the Armagnacs in the following +year. Each party in turn promised to support +the English king in all his claims, and before he set foot +in France he already found himself in possession of the +kingdom. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1413.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Many strong places in the South +were surrendered to him as pledges of the +fidelity of his supporters. The whole land was the prey +of faction and party hate. The Church had repudiated +both Pope and Council; the towns were in insurrection +in every street; and Henry the Fifth was only twenty-six +years of age, full of courage and ambition, supported +by the love and gratitude of the national Church, and +anxious to glorify the usurpation of his family by a restoration +of the triumphs of Cressy and Poictiers. He +therefore sent an embassy to France, demanding his recognition +by all the States as king, though he modestly +waived the royal title till its present holder should be +no more. He declared also that he would not be content +without the hand of Catharine, the French king’s daughter, +with Normandy and other counties for her dowry; +and when these reasonable conditions, as he had anticipated, +were rejected, and all his preparations were +completed, he threw off the mask of negotiation, and +sailed from Southampton with an army of six thousand +men-at-arms and twenty-four thousand archers. A +beautiful sight it must have been that day in September, +1415, when the enormous convoy sailed or rowed +down the placid Southampton water. Sails of various +colours, and streamers waving from every mast, must +have given it the appearance of an immense regatta; +and while all France was on the watch for the point of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[378]</a></span> +attack, and Calais was universally regarded as the +natural landing-place for an English army, the great +flotilla pursued its course past the Isle of Wight, and +struck out for the opposite coast, filling up the mouth +of the Seine with innumerable vessels, and casting +anchor off the town of Harfleur. Prayers for its success +ascended from every parish in England; for the +clergy looked on the youthful king as their champion +against all their enemies,—against the Pope, who claimed +their tithes, against the itinerant monks, who denied +and resisted their authority, and against the nobles, +who envied them their wealth and territories. And no +wonder; for at this time the ecclesiastical possessions +included more than the half of England. Of fifty-three +thousand knightly holdings on the national register, +twenty-eight thousand belonged to mother Church! +Prayers also for its success were uttered in the workshops +and markets. People were tired of the long inaction +of Richard the Second’s time, and longed for the +stirring incidents they had heard their fathers speak of +when the Black Prince was making the “Mounseers” +fly. For by this time a stout feeling of mutual hatred +had given vigour to the quarrel between the nations. +Parliament had voted unexampled supplies, and “all the +youth of England was afire.”</p> + +<p>Meantime the siege of Harfleur dragged its slow +length along. Succours were expected by the gallant +garrison, but succour never came. Proclamations had +indeed been issued, summoning the <i>ban</i> and <i>arrière ban</i> +of France, and knights were assembling from all quarters +to take part in the unavoidable engagement. But +the counsels at head-quarters were divided. The masses +of the people were not hearty in the cause, and the +men of Harfleur, at the end of the fifth week of their +resistance, sent to say they would surrender <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[379]</a></span>“if they +were not relieved by a great army in two days.” “Take +four,” said Henry, wishing nothing more than a decisive +action under the very walls. But the time rapidly +passed, and Harfleur was once more an English town. +Henry might look round and triumph in the possession +of streets and houses; but that was all, for his usual +barbarity had banished the inhabitants. The richer +citizens were put to ransom; all the rest were driven +from the place,—not quite naked, nor quite penniless, +for one petticoat was left to each woman, and one +farthing in ready money. Generosity to the vulgar +vanquished was not yet understood, either as a Christian +duty or a stroke of policy. But courage, not unmixed +with braggadocio, was still the character of the +time. The English had lost many men from sickness +during the siege. No blow had been boldly struck in +open field, and a war without a battle, however successful +in its results, would have been thought no better +than a tournament. All the remaining chivalry of +France was now collected under its chiefs and princes, +and Henry determined to try what mettle they were of. +He published a proclamation that he and his English +would march across the country from Harfleur to Calais +in spite of all opposition; and, as the expedition would +occupy eight days at least, he felt sure that some attempt +would be made to revenge so cutting an insult. He +might easily have sent his forces, in detachments, by +sea, for there was not a French flag upon all the Channel; +but trumpets were sounded one day, swords drawn, +cheers no doubt heartily uttered, by an enthusiastic +array of fifteen thousand men, and the dangerous march +began. It was the month of October, the time of the +vintage: there was plenty of wine; and a French author +makes the characteristic remark, “with plenty of wine +the English soldier could go to the end of the world.” +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[380]</a></span> +When the English soldier, on this occasion, had got +through the eight days’ provisions with which he started, +instead of finding himself at Calais, he was only advanced +as far as Amiens, with the worst part of the +journey before him. The fords of the Somme were +said to be guarded; spies came over in the disguise of +deserters, and told the king that all the land was up in +arms, that the princes were all united, and that two +hundred thousand men were hemming them hopelessly +round. In the midst of these bad news, however, a ray +of light broke in. A villager pointed out a marsh, by +crossing which they could reach a ford in the stream. +They traversed the marsh without hesitation, waded +with difficulty through morass and water, and, behold! +they were safe on the other side. The road was now +clear, they thought, for Calais; and they pushed cheerily +on. But, more dangerous than the marsh, more impassable +than the river, the vast army of France blocked +up their way. Closing across a narrow valley which +lay between the castle of Agincourt and the village of +Tramecourt, sixty thousand knights, gentlemen, and +man-at-arms stood like a wall of steel. There were all +the great names there of all the provinces,—Dukes of +Lorraine, and Bar, and Bourbon, Princes of Orleans +and Berri, and many more. Henry by this time had +but twelve thousand men. He found he had miscalculated +his movements, and was unwilling to sacrifice his +army to the point of honour. He offered to resign the title +of King of France and to surrender his recent conquest +at Harfleur. But the princes were resolved not to negotiate, +but to revenge. Henry then said to the prisoners +he was leading in his train, “Gentlemen, go till this +affair is settled. If your captors survive, present yourselves +at Calais.” His forces were soon arranged. +Archers had ceased to be the mere appendages to a line<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[381]</a></span> +of battle: they now constituted almost all the English +army. All the night before they had been busy in preparation. +They had furbished up their arms, and put +now cords to their bows, and sharpened the stakes they +carried to ward off the attack of cavalry. At early +dawn they had confessed to the priest; and all the time +no noise had been heard. Henry had ordered silence +throughout the camp on pain of the severest penalties,—loss +of his horse to a gentleman, and of his +right ear to a common soldier. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1415.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>The 23d of October +was the great, the important day. Henry put a +noble helmet on his head, surmounted by a golden +crown, sprang on his little gray hackney, encouraged +his men with a few manly words, reminding them of Old +England and how constantly they had conquered the +French, and led them to a field where the grass was +still green, and which the rains had not converted into +mud; for the weather had long been unpropitious. +And here the heroic little army expected the attack. +But the enemy were in no condition to make an advance. +Seated all night on their enormous war-horses, +the heavy-armed cavaliers had sunk the unfortunate +animals up to their knees in the adhesive soil. Old +Thomas of Erpingham, seeing the decisive moment, +completed the marshalling of the English as soon as +possible, and, throwing his baton in the air, cried, +“Now, Strike!” A great hurrah was the answer to this +order; but still the French line continued unmoved. +If it had been turned into stone it could not have been +more inactive. Ranged thirty-two deep, and fixed to +the spot they stood on, buried up in armour, and +crowded in the narrow space, the knights could offer +no resistance to the attack of their nimble and lightly-armed +foes. A flight of ten thousand arrows poured +upon the vast mass, and saddles became empty without<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[382]</a></span> +a blow. There came, indeed, two great charges of +horse from the flank of the French array; but the inevitable +shaft found entrance through their coats of +mail, and very few survived. Of these the greater +part rushed, blind and wounded, back among their +own men, crashing upon the still spell-bound line and +throwing it into inextricable confusion. Horse and man +rolled over in the dirt, struggling and shrieking in an +undistinguishable mass. Meanwhile the archers, throwing +aside their stakes and seizing the hatchets hanging +round their necks, advanced at a run,—poured blows +without cessation on casque and shield, completing the +destruction among the crowded multitudes which their +own disorder had begun; and, as the same cause which +hindered their advance prevented their retreat, they +sat the hopeless victims of a false position, and were +slaughtered without an attempt made to resist or fly. +The fate of the second line was nearly the same. Henry, +forcing his way with sword and axe through the living +barrier of horse and cavalier, led his compact array to +the glittering body beyond. There the <i>mêlée</i> became +more animated, and prowess was shown upon either +side. But the rear-guard, warned by previous experience, +took flight before the middle lines were pierced, +and Henry saw himself victor with very trifling loss, +and only encumbered with the number of the slain, and +still more with the multitude of prisoners. Almost all +the surviving noblemen had surrendered their swords. +They knew too well the fate of wounded or disarmed +gentlemen even among their countrymen, and trusted +rather to the generosity of the conqueror than the +mercy of their own people. Alas that we must again +confess that Henry was ignorant of the name of generosity! +Alarmed for a moment at the threatening aspect +of some of the fugitives who had resumed their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[383]</a></span> +ranks, he gave the pitiless word that every prisoner was +to be slain. Not a soldier would lift his hand against +his captive,—from the double motive of tenderness and +cupidity. To tell an “archer good” to murder a great +baron, the captive of his bow and spear, was to tell him +to resign a ransom which would make him rich for life. +But Henry was not to be balked. He appointed two +hundred men to be executioners of his command; and +thousands of the young and gay were slaughtered in cold +blood. Was it hideous policy which thus led Henry to +weaken his enemy’s cause by diminishing the number +of its knightly defenders, or was it really the result of +the fear of being overcome? Whichever it was, the +effect was the same. Ten thousand of the gentlemen of +France were the sufferers on that day,—a whole generation +of the rich and high-born swept away at one +blow! It would have taken a long time in the course +of nature to supply their place; but nature was not +allowed to have her way. Wars and dissensions interfered +with her restorative efforts. Six-and-thirty years +were yet to be spent in mutual destruction, or in struggles +against the English name; and when France was +again left free from foreign occupation, when French +chivalry again wished to assume the chief rule in human +affairs, it was found that chivalry was out of place; a +new state of things had arisen in Europe; the greatest +exploit which had been known in their national annals +had been performed by a woman; and knighthood had +so lost its manliness that, when prosperity and population +had again made France a powerful kingdom, the +silk-clad courtiers of an unwarlike monarch thought it +good taste to sneer at the relief of Orleans and the +mission of Joan of Arc!</p> + +<p>Six years after Agincourt, the English conqueror and +the wretched phantom of kingship called Charles the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[384]</a></span> +Sixth descended to their graves. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1421.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Military +honour and patriotism seemed utterly at an end +among the French population, and our Henry the Sixth, +the son of the man of Agincourt, succeeded in the great +object of English ambition and was recognised from +the Channel to the Loire as King of France. In the +Southern provinces a spark of the old French gallantry +was still unextinguished, but it showed itself in the gay +unconcern with which the Dauphin, now Charles the +Seventh, bore all the reverses of fortune, and consoled +himself for the loss of the noblest crown in Europe by +the enjoyments of love and festivity. Perhaps he saw +that the whirligig of time would bring about its revenges, +and that the curse of envious faction would vex +the councils of the conquerors as it had ruined the +fortunes of the subdued. The warriors of Henry still +remained, but, without the controlling hand, they could +direct their efforts to no common object. The uncles of +the youthful king speedily quarrelled. The gallant +Bedford was opposed by the treacherous Glo’ster, and +both were dominated and supplanted by the haughty +prelate, the Cardinal Bishop of Winchester. Offence was +soon taken at the presumption of the English soldiery. +Religious animosities supervened. The Churches of +England and France had both made successful endeavours +to establish a considerable amount of national independence, +and the French bishops, who had withdrawn +themselves from the absolutism of Rome, were little inclined +to become subordinate to Winchester and Canterbury. +A court gradually gathered round the Dauphin, +which inspired him with more manly thoughts. His +feasts and tournaments were suspended, and, with his +hand on the hilt of his sword, he watched the proceedings +of the English. These proceedings were uniformly +successful when restricted to the operations of war.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[385]</a></span> +They defeated the men of Gascony and the reinforcements +sent over by the Scotch. They held a firm grasp +of Paris and all the strong places of the North, and +cast down the gauntlet to the rest of France by laying +siege to the beautiful city of Orleans in the +winter of 1428. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1428.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Once in possession of the Loire, +they would be able at their leisure to extend their conquests +southward; and all the loyal throughout the +country took up the challenge and resolved on the +defence of the beleaguered town. The English must have +begun by this time to despise their enemy; for, in spite +of the greatness of the stake, they undertook the siege +with a force of less than three thousand men. To make +up for the deficiency in numbers, they raised twelve +large bastions all round the walls, exhausting the troops +by the labour and finding it impossible to garrison +them adequately when they were finished. It seems +that Sebastopol was not the first occasion on which our +soldiers were overworked. To surround a city of several +thousand inhabitants, strongly garrisoned, and with an +open country at its back for the supply of provisions, +would have required a large and well-directed force. +But the moral effects of Agincourt, and even of Cressy +and Poictiers, were not yet obliterated. Public spirit +was dead, and very few entertained a hope of saving +the doomed place. Statesmen, politicians, and warriors, +all calculated the chances of success and decided against +the cause of France. But in the true heart of the +common people far better feelings survived. They were +neither statesmen, nor politicians, nor warriors; but +they were loyal and devoted Frenchmen, and put their +trust in God.</p> + +<p>A peasant-girl, eighteen years of age, born and bred +in a little village called Domremy, in Lorraine, was +famous for her religious faith and simplicity of character.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[386]</a></span> +Her name was Joan d’Arc,—a dreamy enthusiast, +believing with full heart all the legends of saints and +miracles with which the neighbourhood was full. She +rested, also, with a sort of romantic interest on the personal +fortunes of the young discrowned king, who had +been unjustly excluded by foreigners from his rights +and was now about to lose the best of his remaining +possessions. She walked in the woods and heard voices +telling her to be up and doing. She went to pray in the +dim old church, and had glorious visions of angels who +smiled upon her. One time she saw a presence with a +countenance like the sun, and wings upon his shoulders, +who said, “Go, Joan, to the help of the King of France.” +But she answered, “My lord, I cannot ride, nor command +men-at-arms.” The voice replied, “Go to M. de +Baudricourt at Vaucouleurs: he will take thee to the +king. Saint Catharine and Saint Marguerite will come +to thy assistance.” There was no voluntary deception +here. The girl lived in a world of her own, and peopled +it out of the fulness of her heart. She went to Vaucouleurs: +she saw M. de Baudricourt. He took her to +Poictiers, where the Dauphin resided, and when she +was led into the glittering ring an attempt was made +to deceive her by representing another as the prince; +but she went straight up to the Dauphin and said to +him, “Gentle Dauphin, my name is Joan the Maid. The +King of Heaven sends to you, through me, that you +shall be anointed and crowned at Rheims, and you shall +be lieutenant of the King of Heaven, who is King of +France.” All the court was moved,—the more pure-minded, +with sympathy for the girl, the more experienced, +with the use that might be made of her enthusiasm +to rouse the nation. Both parties conspired to +aid Joan in her design; and, clothed in white armour, +mounted on a war-horse, holding the banner of France<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[387]</a></span> +in her hand, and waited on by knights and pages, she +set forth on her way to Orleans. It was like a religious +procession all the way. She prayed at all the shrines, +and was blest by the clergy, and held on her path undismayed +with all the dangers that occurred at every +step. At length, on the 30th of April, she made her +entry into Orleans. Her coming had long been expected; +and, now that it had really happened, people +looked back at the difficulties of the route and thought +the whole march a miracle. Meantime Joan knelt and +gave thanks in the great church, and the true defence +of Orleans began. Into the hard-pressed city had +gathered all the surviving chivalry of France,—Dunois, +the bastard of Orleans, La Hire, Saintrailles, rough and +dissolute soldiers, yet all held in awe by the purity and +innocence of the Maid. With Joan at the head of the +column of assault, the English intrenchments fell one +after another. In spite of wounds and hardships, the +peasant-girl pushed fearlessly on; the knights and gentlemen +could not decline to follow where she led the +way; and ten days after her arrival old Talbot and Falstaff +gathered up the fragments of their troops and +made a precipitate retreat from the scene of their discomfiture. +But there was not yet rest for the dreamer +of Domremy. She hurried off to the Dauphin. “Gentle +Dauphin,” she said, “till you are crowned with the old +crown and bedewed with the holy oil, you can never +be King of France. Come with me to Rheims. There +shall no enemy hurt you on the way.” The country +through which they had to pass was bristling with +English castles and swarming with wandering troops. +Yet the counsel which appeared so hardy was in fact +the wisest that could be given. The faith in the sanctity +of coronations was still strong. Whoever was first +crowned would in the eye of faith be true king. Winchester<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[388]</a></span> +was bringing over the English claimant. All +France would be startled at the news that the descendant +of St. Louis was beforehand with his rival; +and the march was successfully made. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span>July 17, 1429.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>“Gentle king,” +said Joan, kneeling after the ceremony, and +calling him for the first time King,—“Gentle +King, Orleans is saved, the true king is crowned. My +task is done. Farewell.” But they would not let her +leave them so soon. The people crowded round her and +blest her wherever she appeared. “Oh, the good people +of Rheims!” she cried: “when I die I should like to be +buried here.” “When do you think you shall die?” inquired +the archbishop,—perhaps with a sneer upon his +lips. “That I know not,” she replied: “whenever it +pleases God. But, for my own part, I wish to go back +and keep the sheep with my sister and brothers. They +will be so glad to see me again!” But this was not +to be.</p> + +<p>If Talbot and Suffolk had been foiled and vanquished +by Dunois and La Hire, they would have accepted their +defeat as one of the mischances of war. A knightly +hand ennobles the blow it gives. But to be humbled by +a woman, a peasant, a prophetess, an impostor,—this +was too much for the proud stomachs of our steel-clad +countrymen. But far worse was it in the eyes of our +stole-clad ecclesiastics. Apparitions of saints and angels +vouchsafed to the recalcitrant Church of France!—voices +heard from heaven denouncing the claims of the +English king!—visible glories hanging round the head +of a simple shepherdess! It was evident to every clergyman +and monk and bishop in England that the woman +was a witch or a deceiver. And almost all the clergymen +in France thought the same; and after a while, +when the exploit was looked back upon with calmness, +almost all the soldiers on both sides were of the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[389]</a></span> +opinion. Nobody could believe in the exaltation of a +pure and enthusiastic mind, making its own visions, and +performing its own miracles, without a tincture of deceit. +It was easier and more orthodox to believe in the liquefaction +of the holy oil and the wonders wrought by the +bones of St. Denis: so, with a nearly universal assent +of both the parties, the humbled English and delivered +French, the most heroic and most feminine of women +was handed over to the Church tribunals, and Joan’s +fate was sealed. Unmanly priests, whose law prevented +them from having wives, unloving bishops, whose law +prevented them from having daughters,—how were +they to judge of the loving heart and trusting tenderness +of a girl not twenty years of age, standing before +them, with modesty not shown in blushes but in unabated +simplicity of behaviour, telling the tale of all +her actions as if she were pouring it into the ears of +father and mother in her own old cottage at home, unconscious, +or at least regardless, of scowling looks, and +misleading questions, directed to her by those predetermined +murderers? No one tried to save her. Charles +the Seventh, with the oil of Rheims scarcely dried upon +his head, made no attempt to get her from the hands of +her enemies. The process took place at Rouen. Magic +and heresy were the crimes laid to her charge; and as +generosity was magic in the eyes of those narrow-souled +inquisitors, and trust in God was heresy, there was no +defence possible. Her whole life was a confession. +First, she was condemned to perpetual imprisonment, +and to resume the dress of her sex. Then she was exposed +to every obloquy and insult which hatred and +superstition could pour upon her. A gallant “Lord” +accompanied the Count de Ligny in a visit to her cell. +She was chained to a plank by both feet, and kept in +this attitude night and day. The noble Englishman did<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[390]</a></span> +honour to his rank and country. When Joan said, “I +know the English will procure my death, in hopes of +getting the realm of France; but they could not do it, +no, if they had a hundred thousand <i>Goddams</i> more than +they have to-day;” the gallant visitor was so enraged +by those depreciating remarks, and perhaps at the nickname +thus early indicative of the national oath, that he +drew his dagger, and would have struck her, if he had +not been hindered by Lord Warwick. Another gentleman, +on being admitted to her prison, insulted her by +the grossness of his behaviour, and then overwhelmed +her with blows. It was time for Joan to escape her tormentors. +She put on once more the male apparel +which she had thrown off, and sentence of death was +passed. On the 30th of May, 1431, in the old fishmarket +of Rouen, the great crime was consummated. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1431.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>The +flames mounted very slowly; and when at last they enveloped +her from the crowd, she was still heard calling +on Jesus, and declaring, “The voices I heard +were of God!—the voices I heard were of +God!” The age of chivalry was indeed past, and the +age of Church-domination was also about to expire. +The peasant-girl of Domremy wrote the dishonoured +epitaph of the first in the flame of Rouen, and a citizen +of Mentz was about to give the other its death-blow +with the printing-press.</p> + +<p>This is one of the inventions apparently unimportant, +by which incalculable results have been produced. At +first it was intended merely to simplify the process of +copying the books which were already well known. +And, if we may trust some of the stories told of the +earliest specimens of the art, we shall see that there +was some slight portion of dishonesty mingled with the +talent of the Fathers of printing. These were Guttenberg +of Mentz, and his apprentice or partner Faust. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1455.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>The <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[391]</a></span> +first of their productions was a Latin Bible; and the +letters of this impression were such an exact +imitation of the works of the amanuensis that +they passed it off as an exquisite specimen of the copyist’s +art. Faust sold a copy to the King of France for seven +hundred crowns, and another to the Archbishop of Paris +for four hundred. The prelate, enchanted with his bargain, +(for the usual price was several hundred crowns +above what he had given,) showed it in triumph to the +king. The king compared the two, and was filled with +astonishment. They were identical in every stroke and +dot. How was it possible for any two scribes, or even +for the same scribe, to produce so undeniable a fac-simile +of his work? The capital letters of the edition +were of red ink. They inquired still further, and found +that many other copies had been sold, all precisely alike +in form and pressure. They came to the conclusion that +Faust was a wizard and had sold himself to the devil, +and that the initials were of blood. The Church and +State, in this case united in the persons of king and archbishop, +had the magician apprehended. To save himself +from the flames, the unhappy Faust had to confess the +deceit, and also to discover the secret of the art. The +whole mystery consisted in cutting letters upon movable +metal types, and, after rubbing them with ink when +they were correctly set, imprinting them upon paper +by means of a screw. A simple expedient, as it appeared +to everybody when the secret was spread abroad; +for there had been seals stamping impressions on wax +for many generations. Medals and coins had been +poured forth from the dies of every nation from the +dawn of history. In England, playing-cards had been +produced for several years, with the figures impressed +on them from wooden blocks; and in 1423 a stamped +book, with wood engravings, had made its appearance,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[392]</a></span> +which now, with many treasures of typography, is in +the library of Lord Spencer. Even in Nineveh, we +learn from recent discovery, the dried bricks, while in a +soft state, had been stamped with those curious-looking +inscriptions, by a board in which the unsightly letters +were set in high relief. Wooden letters had also long +been known; and yet it was not till 1440 that Guttenberg +bethought him of the process of printing, and only +after ten or twelve years’ labour that he brought his experiments +to perfection and with one crush of the completed +press opened new hopes and prospects to the +whole family of mankind. But things apparently unconnected +are brought together for good when the great +turning-points of human history are attained. There are +always pebbles of the brook within reach when the +warrior-shepherd has taken the sling in his hand. +Shortly before the invention of printing, a discovery +was made without which Guttenberg’s skill would have +been of no avail. This was the applicability of linen +rags to the manufacture of paper. Parchment, and preparations +of straw and papyrus, had sufficed for the +transcriber and author of those unliterary times, but +would have been inadequate to supply the demand of +the new process; and therefore we may say that, as +gunpowder was essential to the use of artillery, and +steam-power for the railway-train, linen paper was indispensable +to the development of the press. And the +development was rapid beyond all imagination. In the +remaining portion of the century, eight thousand five +hundred and nine books were published, of which the +English Caxton and his followers supplied one hundred +and forty-two,—a small contribution in actual numbers, +but valuable for the insight it gives us into the favourite +literature of the time. Among those volumes there are</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[393]</a></span></p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i-1">“Songs of war for gallant knight,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Lays of love for lady bright;”<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>“The Tale of Troy divine,” for scholars; “Tullie, of old +age,” and “of Friendship,” and “Virgil’s Æneid,” for the +classical; “Lives of Our Ladie and divers Saints,” for +the religious; and “The Consolation of Boethius,” for +the afflicted. But several editions prove the popularity +of the Father of English poetry; and we find the “Tales +of Cauntyrburrie,” and the “Book of Fame,” and +“Troylus and Cresyde, made by Geoffrey Chaucer,” the +great and fitting representatives of the native English +muse.</p> + +<p>We ought to remember, in judging of the paucity of +books produced in England, that the Wars of the Roses +broke out at the very time when Guttenberg’s labours +began. In such a season of struggle and unrest as the +thirty years of civil strife—for though Mr. Knight, in +his very interesting sketch of this date,<a name="FNanchor_A_6" id="FNanchor_A_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_6" class="fnanchor">[D]</a> has shown that +the period of actual and open war was very short, the +state of uneasiness and expectation must have endured +the whole time—there was small encouragement to the +peaceful triumphs of art or literature. And, moreover, +the pride of station was revolted by the prospect of the +spread of information among the classes to whom it had +not yet reached. The noble could afford to acknowledge +his inferiority in learning and research to the priest or +monk, for it was their trade to be wise and learned, and +their scholarship was even considered a badge of the +lowness of their birth, which had given them the primer +and psalter instead of the horse and sword. But those +high-hearted cavaliers could ill brook the notion of educated +clowns and peasants. And, strange to say, the +sentiment was shared and exaggerated by the peasants<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[394]</a></span> +and clowns themselves. Jack Cade is represented, by +an anachronism of date but with perfect truth of character, +as profoundly irritated at the invention of printing, +and the building of a paper-mill, and the introduction +of such heathenish words as nominatives and adverbs: +so that the press began its career opposed by the +two greatest parties of the State. Yet truth is mighty +and will prevail. No nobility in Europe gives such contributions +to the general stock of high and healthy +thought as the descendants of the men of Towton and +Bosworth, and no peasantry values more deeply, or would +defend more gallantly, the gifts poured upon it by a free +and sympathizing press. Warwick the King-maker, if +he had lived just now, would have made speeches in +Parliament and had them reported in the <i>Times</i>, and +Jack Cade would have been sent to the reformatory and +taught to read and write.</p> + +<p>But, with the peerages of Europe greatly thinned, +with mounted feudalism overthrown, with the press rejoicing +as a giant to run its course, something also was +needed in order to make a wider theatre for the introduction +of the new life of men. Another world lay +beyond the great waters of the Atlantic. Whispers had +been going round the circle of earnest inquirers, which +gradually grew louder and louder till they reached the +ears of kings, that great things lay hidden in the awful +and mysterious solitudes of the ocean; that westward, +to balance the preponderance of our used-up continent, +must be solid land, equal in weight and size, so that the +uninterrupted waters would conduct the adventurous +mariner to the farther India by a nearer route than +Bartholomew Diaz, the Portuguese, had just discovered. +<span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1487.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>This man sailed to the southern extremity +of Africa, passed round to the east without +being aware of his achievement, and penetrated as far<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[395]</a></span> +as Lagoa Bay. But the crew became discontented, and +the navigator retraced his steps. Alarmed at the commotion +of the vast waves of the Southern Ocean pouring +its floods against the Table Mountain, he had retired +from further research, and called the southern point of +his pilgrimage the Cape of Storms. It is now known to +us by a happier augury as the Cape of Good Hope. But, +whether perpetually haunted by tempests or not, the +truth was discovered that the land ceased at that promontory +and left an unexplored sea beyond. This was +cherished in many a heart; for in this century maritime +discovery kept pace with the other triumphs of mental +power. Wherever ship could swim man could venture. +The Azores had been discovered in 1439 and colonized +by the Portuguese in 1440. Already in possession of +Cape Verd, Madeira, and the Canaries, Portugal looked +forward to greater discoveries, for these were the nurseries +of gallant and skilful mariners. But the glory was +left for another nation,—though, by a strange caprice of +fortune, the chance of it had been offered to nearly all.</p> + +<p>The life of Columbus is more wonderful than a romance. +He hawked about his notion of the way to +India at all the courts of Europe. By birth a Genoese, +he considered the great ocean the patrimony of any +person able to seize it. When his services, therefore, +were rejected by his own country, he offered them successively +to Portugal, to Spain, and to England. Henry +the Seventh was inclined to venture a small sum in the +lottery of chances; but, while still in negotiation with +the brother of Columbus, the Spanish monarchs, Ferdinand +and Isabella, closed with the navigator’s terms, +and on the 3d of August, 1492, the squadron of discovery, +consisting of a vessel of some size, and two small pinnaces, +with a crew at most of a hundred persons in all +the three, sailed from the port of Palos, in Andalusia.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[396]</a></span> +Three weeks’ constant progress to the westward took +them far beyond all previous navigation. The men became +disheartened, discontented, and finally rebellious. +Against all, Columbus bore up with the self-relying +energy of a great mind, but was driven to the compromise +of promising, if they confided in him for three days +longer, he would return, if the object of his voyage was +yet unattained. But by this time his sagacious observation +had assured him of success. Strange appearances +began to be perceived from the ship’s decks. A +carved piece of wood floated past, then a reed newly +cut, and, best sign of all, a branch with red berries still +fresh. “From all these symptoms, Columbus was so +confident of being near land, that on the evening of +the 11th of October, after public prayers for success, he +ordered the sails to be furled, and the ships to lie to, +keeping strict watch, lest they should be driven ashore +in the night. During this interval of suspense and expectation +no man shut his eyes: all kept upon deck, +gazing intently towards that quarter where they expected +to discover the land, which had been so long the +object of their wishes. About two hours before midnight, +Columbus, standing on the forecastle, observed a +light at a distance, and privately pointed it out to Pedro +Guttierez, a page of the queen’s wardrobe. Guttierez +perceiving it, and calling to Salcedo, comptroller of the +fleet, all three saw it in motion, as if it were carried +from place to place. A little after midnight the joyful +sound of ‘<i>Land! land!</i>’ was heard from the Pinta, +which kept always ahead of the other ships. But, +having been so often deceived by fallacious appearances, +every man was now become slow of belief, and waited +in all the anguish of uncertainty and impatience for the +return of day. As soon as morning dawned, all doubts +and fears were dispelled. From every ship an island +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[397]</a></span> +was seen about two leagues to the north, whose flat and +verdant fields, well stored with wood, and watered with +many rivulets, presented the aspect of a delightful +country. The crew of the Pinta instantly began the +<i>Te Deum</i> as a hymn of thanksgiving to God, and were +joined by those of the other ships, with tears of joy +and transports of congratulation. This office of gratitude +to Heaven was followed by an act of justice to +their commander. They threw themselves at the feet +of Columbus, with feelings of self-condemnation mingled +with reverence. They implored him to pardon their +ignorance, incredulity, and insolence, which had created +him so much unceasing disquiet and had so often obstructed +the prosecution of his well-concerted plan; and, +passing in the warmth of their admiration from one +extreme to another, they now pronounced the man +whom they had so lately reviled and threatened to be a +person inspired by Heaven with sagacity and fortitude +more than human, in order to accomplish a design so +far beyond the ideas and conception of all former ages.”</p> + +<p>Many excellent writers have described this wondrous +incident, but none so well as the historian of America, +Dr. Robertson, whose eloquent account is borrowed in +the preceding lines. The great event occurred on Friday, +the 12th of October, 1492, and the connection between +the two worlds began. The place he first landed +at was San Salvador, one of the Bahamas; and after +attaching Cuba and Hispaniola to the Spanish crown, +and going through imminent perils by land and sea, he +achieved his glorious return to Palos on the 15th of +March, 1493. He brought with him some of the natives +of the different islands he had discovered, and their +strange appearance and manners were vouchers for the +facts he stated. The whole town, when he came into +the harbour, was in an uproar of delight. “The bells +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[398]</a></span> +were rung, the cannon fired, Columbus was received at +landing with royal honours, and all the people, in solemn +procession, accompanied him and his crew to the church, +where they returned thanks to Heaven, which had so +wonderfully conducted, and crowned with success, a +voyage of greater length, and of more importance, +than had been attempted in any former age.”<a name="FNanchor_A_7" id="FNanchor_A_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_7" class="fnanchor">[E]</a></p> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[399]</a></span> +<a name="SIXTEENTH_CENTURY" id="SIXTEENTH_CENTURY">SIXTEENTH CENTURY.</a></h2> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Emperors of Germany.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Maximilian I.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1519.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Charles V.</span>,(1st of Spain.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1558.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Ferdinand I.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1564.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Maximilian II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1576.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Rodolph II.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of England.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Henry VII.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1509.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Henry VIII.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1547.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Edward VI.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1553.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Mary.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1558.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Elizabeth.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of Scotland.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">James IV.</span> (<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1513.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">James V.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1542.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Mary.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1567.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">James Vi.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of France.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Louis XII.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1515.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Francis I.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1547.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Henry II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1559.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Francis II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1560.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Charles IX.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1574.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Henry III.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="2" align="left" class="dynast">(<i>The Bourbons.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1589.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Henry IV.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of Spain.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1512.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Ferdinand V.</span>, (the Catholic.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1516.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Charles I.</span>, (Emperor of Germany.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1556.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Philip II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1598.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Philip III.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="heading">Distinguished Men.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Leonardo Da Vinci</span>, <span class="smcap">Michael Angelo</span>, <span class="smcap">Raffaelle</span>, <span class="smcap">Correggio</span>, +<span class="smcap">Titian</span>, (Painters,) <span class="smcap">Sir Philip Sydney</span>, <span class="smcap">Raleigh</span>, <span class="smcap">Spenser</span>, +<span class="smcap">Shakspeare</span>, (1564-1616,) <span class="smcap">Ariosto</span>, <span class="smcap">Tasso</span>, <span class="smcap">Lope de Vega</span>, <span class="smcap">Calderon</span>, +<span class="smcap">Cervantes</span>, <span class="smcap">Scaliger</span>, (1484-1558,) <span class="smcap">Copernicus</span>, (1473-1543,) +<span class="smcap">Knox</span>, (1505-1572,) <span class="smcap">Calvin</span>, (1509-1564,) <span class="smcap">Beza</span>, (1519-1605,) +<span class="smcap">Bellarmine</span>, (1542-1621,) <span class="smcap">Tycho Brahe</span>, (1546-1601.)</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[401]</a></span> +<a name="THE_SIXTEENTH_CENTURY" id="THE_SIXTEENTH_CENTURY">THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.</a></h2> +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="sub-heading">THE REFORMATION — THE JESUITS — POLICY OF ELIZABETH</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the last two years of the preceding century the +course of maritime discovery had been accelerated by +fresh success. To balance the glories of Columbus in +the West, the “regions of the rising sun” had been explored +by Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese. This great +navigator sailed back into the harbour of Lisbon on the +16th of September, 1499, with the astonishing news that +he had doubled the Cape of Storms, which had so alarmed +Bartholomew Diaz, and established relations of amity +and commerce with the vast continent of India, having +traded with a civilized and industrious people at Calicut, +a great city on the coast of Malabar. Under these reiterated +widenings of men’s knowledge of the globe, +the human mind itself expanded. Familiar names meet +us from henceforth in the most distant quarters of the +world. All national or domestic history becomes mixed +up with elements hitherto unknown. The balance of +power, which is the new constitution of the European +States, depends on circumstances and places of the most +heterogeneous character. A treaty between France +and Spain, or between England and either, is regulated +by events occurring on the Amazon or Ganges. The +whole world gets more closely connected than ever it +was before, and we can look back on the proceedings of +previous ages as filling a very narrow theatre, and regulated +by very contracted interests, when compared with +the universal policies on which public affairs have now<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[402]</a></span> +to rest. At first, however, the great results of these +stupendous discoveries were naturally not observed. +Contemporaries are justly accused of magnifying the +small affairs of life of which they are witnesses; but +this observation does not hold good with respect to the +really momentous incidents of human history. A man +who saw Columbus return from his voyage, or Guttenberg +pulling at his press, could not rise to the contemplation +of the prodigious consequences of these two +events. He thought, perhaps, a quarrel between two +neighbouring potentates, or a battle between France +and Spain, the greatest incident of his time. His son +forgot all about the quarrel; his grandson had no recollection +of the battle; but widening in a still increasing +circle, expanding into still more wonderful proportions, +were the Discovery of America and the Art of Printing,—showing +themselves in combinations of events and +changes of circumstances where they were never expected +to appear,—the one threatening to overthrow +the freedom of every State in Europe by the supremacy +of the Spanish crown, the other in reality preventing +the chance of that consummation by raising up the +indomitable spirit of spiritual liberty. For there now +came to the aid of national independence the far more +elevating feelings of religious emancipation. Protestantism +was not limited in this century to denial of the +spiritual authority of popes, but embodied itself also in +resistance to the political ambition of kings. America +might have enabled Charles the Fifth to conquer all +Europe, if the Reformation had not strengthened men’s +minds with a determination to stand up against oppression.</p> + +<p>But the commencement of this century gave no intimation +of its tempestuous course. The first few years +saw the peaceable accession to the thrones of Spain and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[403]</a></span> +France and England of the three sovereigns whose contemporaneous +reigns, and also whose personal characters, +had the most preponderating influence on the succeeding +current of events. We have left Spain for a long time +out of these general views of a century’s condition and +special notices of individual incidents which affected +the condition of the world; for Spain for a long time +lay obscurely between the ocean and the Pyrenees and +carried on wars and policies which were limited by its +territorial bounds. But, if we take a hurried retrospect +of the last few years, we shall see that the different +nations contained in the Peninsula had amalgamated +into one mighty and strongly-cemented State. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1497.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Ferdinand +of Aragon, by marriage with Isabella +of Castile, united the various nationalities +under one homogeneous government, and by wisdom +and magnanimity—the wisdom being the man’s and +the magnanimity the woman’s—had rendered forever +famous the joint reign of husband and wife, had reconciled +the jarring factions of their respective subjects, +and seen with the triumphant faith of believers and the +satisfaction of sagacious rulers the reunion of the last +Mohammedan State to the dominion of the Cross and +of the crown. They watched the long, slow march of +the Moorish king and his cavaliers as they took their +way in poverty and despair from the towers and +meadows of Granada, which a possession of seven +hundred years had failed to make their own. This—the +conquest of Granada—took place in 1491; and 1516 +saw the supreme power over all united Spain descend +on the head of the grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella,—inheriting, +along with their royal dignity, the cautious +wisdom of the one and the wider intelligence of the +other. In three years from that time—it will be easy +to remember that Charles’s age is the same as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[404]</a></span> +century’s—he was elected to the Imperial crown, so that +the greatest dominion ever held by one man since the +days of Charlemagne now fell to the rule of a youth of +nineteen years of age. Germany, the Netherlands, +Naples, Sicily, and Spain, more than equalled the extent +and power of Charlemagne’s empire. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1520.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>But ere Charles +was a year older, vaster dominions than Charlemagne +had ever dreamt of acknowledged his royal sway; for +Montezuma, the Emperor of Mexico, whose +realm was without appreciable limit either in +size or wealth, professed himself the subject and servant +of the Spanish king.</p> + +<p>Henry the Eighth of England had also succeeded at +an early age, being but eighteen in 1509, when the +death of his father, the politic and successful founder of +the Tudor dynasty, left him with a people silent if not +quite satisfied, and an exchequer overflowing with what +would now amount to ten or twelve millions of gold. +This treasure had been accumulated by the infamous +exactions of the late sovereign, who was aided in the +ignoble service by two men of the names of Empson +and Dudley. These were spies and informers, not, as +in other climes and countries, about the religious or +political sentiments of the people, but about their titles +to their estates, the fines they were disposed to pay, or +the bribes they would advance to the royal extortioner +to avoid litigation and injustice. Henry had an admirable +opportunity of showing his hatred of these practices, +and availed himself of it at once. Before he had +been four months on the throne, Empson and Dudley +were ignominiously hanged; and with safe conscience, +after this sacrifice at the shrine of legality, he entered +into possession of the pilfered store. The people applauded +the rapid decision of his character in both these +instances, and scarcely grudged him the money when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[405]</a></span> +the subordinates were given up to their revenge. They +could not, indeed, grudge their young king any thing; +his manners were so open and sincere, his laugh so +ready, and his teeth so white; for we are not to forget, +in compliment to what is facetiously called the dignity +of history, the immense advantages a ruler gains by +the fact of being good-looking. Nobody feels inclined +to find fault with a lad of eighteen, if moderately endowed +with health and features; but when that lad is +eminently handsome, rioting in strength and spirits, +open in disposition, and, above all, a king, you need not +wonder at the universal inclination to overlook his +faults, to exaggerate his virtues, and even, after an +interval of two hundred and fifty years, to hear the +greatest tyrant of our history, and the worst man +perhaps of his time, talked of by the ordinary title of +Bluff King Hal. If he had been as ugly and hump-backed +as his grand-uncle Richard the Third, he would +have been detested from the first.</p> + +<p>But in the neighbouring land of France there reigned +at the same time a prince almost as handsome as Henry, +and nearly as popular with his people, with as little +real cause. In 1515, Francis the First was twenty +years of age, a perfect specimen of manly strength,—accomplished +in all knightly exercises,—generous and +magnificent in his intercourse with his nobility,—and +the greatest <i>roué</i> and debauchee in all the kingdom of +France. Here, then, at the beginning of the age we +have now to examine, were the three mightiest sovereigns +of Europe, all arriving at their crowns before attaining +their majority; and with so many years before +them, and such powerful nations obeying their commands, +great prospects for good or evil were opening on +the world. But in the early years of the century no +human eye perceived in what direction the future was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[406]</a></span> +going to pursue its course. People were all watching +for the first indication of what was to come, and kept +their eyes on the courts of Paris and London and +Madrid; but nobody suspected that the real champions +of the time were already marshalling their forces in far +different situations. There was a thoughtful monk in a +convent in Germany, and a Spanish soldier before the walls +of Pampeluna. These were the true movers of men’s +minds, of the great thoughts by which events are created; +and their names were soon to sound louder than those of +Henry or Charles or Francis; for one was Martin Luther, +the hero of the Reformation, and the other was Ignatius +Loyola, the founder of the Jesuits. Take note of them +here as mere accessories to the march of general history: +we shall return to them again as characteristics of the +century on which they placed their indelible mark. At +this time, in the gay young days of the three crowned +striplings, these future combatants are totally unknown. +Brother Martin is singing charming hymns to the Virgin, +in a voice which it was delightful to hear; and Don +Ignacio is also singing to his guitar the praises of one +of the beautiful maidens of his native land. Public +opinion was still stagnant with regard to home-affairs, +in spite of the efforts of the infant press. People, bowed +down by the claims of implicit obedience exacted from +them by the Church, accepted with wondering submission +the pontificate of such an atrocious murderer as +Alexander the Sixth; and some even ingeniously founded +an argument of the divine institution of the Papacy +upon its having survived the eleven years’ desecration +of that monster of cruelty and unbelief. Yet now it +happened by a strange coincidence that the chair of St. +Peter was to be filled by a gayer and more accomplished +ruler than any of the earthly thrones we have mentioned. +In 1513, Leo the Tenth, the most celebrated of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[407]</a></span> +the family of the Medicis of Florence, put on the tiara +at the age of thirty-six, a period of life which was considered +as youthful for the father of Christendom as +even the boyish years of the temporal kings. And Leo +did not belie the promise of his juvenility. None of the +dulness of age, or even the caution of maturity, was +perceived in his public or private conduct. He was a +patron of arts and sciences, and buffoonery, and infidelity; +and it is curious to observe how the pretensions +of Rome were more shaken by the frivolous magnificence +of a good-hearted, graceful voluptuary than they +had been by the crimes of his two immediate predecessors, +the truculent Borgia and the warlike Julius the +Second.</p> + +<p>This latter pontiff was intended by nature for a leader +of Free Lances, to live forever in “the joy of battle,” +and must have felt a little out of his element as the head +of the Christian Church. However, he rapidly discovered +that he was a secular prince as well as a +spiritual teacher, and cast his eyes in the former capacity +with ominous ill will on the industrious Republic +of Venice. The fishermen and fugitives of many centuries +before, who had settled among the Adriatic +lagoons, had risen into the position of princes and +treasurers of Europe. By their possessions in the East, +and their trading-factories established along the whole +route from India to the Mediterranean, they had made +themselves the intermediaries between the barbaric +pearls and gold, the silks and spices, of the Oriental +regions, and the requirements of the West. Their galleys +were daily bringing them the commodities of the +Levant, which they distributed at an exorbitant profit +among the nations beyond the Straits of Gibraltar. +Mercantile wealth and maritime enterprise elevated the +taste and confidence of those Venetian traffickers, till<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[408]</a></span> +their whole territory, amid the lifeless waters of their +canals, was covered with stately palaces, and their fleets +assumed the dominion of the inland seas. On the mainland +they had stretched their power over Dalmatia and +Trieste, and in their own peninsula over Rimini and +Ferrara and a great part of the Romagna. Two ruling +passions agitated the soul of Julius the Second: one was +to recover whatever territory or influence had once +belonged to the Holy See; the other was to expel the +hated barbarian, whether Frenchman, or Swiss, or +Austrian, from the soil of Italy. To achieve this last +object he would sacrifice any thing except the first; +and to unite the two was difficult. He made his approaches +to Venice in a gentle manner at first. He +asked her to restore the lands she had lately won, +which he claimed as appendages of his chair, because +they had been torn unjustly from the original holders +by Cæsar Borgia, the son of Alexander the Infamous; +and if she had agreed to this he would no doubt have +proceeded with his further scheme of banishing all +ultramontane invaders. But as the commercial council +of the great emporium hesitated at giving up what they +had entered in their books as fairly their own, he altered +his note in a moment, put on the insignia of his holy +office, and, denouncing the astonished republic as rebellious +and ungrateful to Mother Church, he called in the +aid of the very French whom he was so anxious to get +quit of, to execute his judgment upon the offending +State. Venice was rich, and France at that time was +poor and at all times is greedy. So preparations were +made for an assault with the readiness and glee with +which a party of freebooters would make a descent on +the Bank of England. The temptation also was too +great to be resisted by other kings and princes, who +were as hungry for spoil and as attached to religion as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[409]</a></span> +the French. So in an incredibly short space of time the +league of Cambrai was joined by Maximilian, the Emperor +of Germany, and Ferdinand of Spain, and dukes +and marquesses of less note. There were few of the +Southern potentates, indeed, who had not some cause +of complaint against the haughty Venetians. +<span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1508.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Some (as the German Maximilian) they had +humbled by defeat; others they had insulted by their +purse-proud insolence; others, again, by superiority in +commercial skill; and all, by the fact of being wealthy +and, as they fancied, weak.</p> + +<p>Louis the Twelfth of France was first in the field. He +conquered at Agnadello, and, forcing his way to the +shore, alarmed the marble halls of the Venetians with +the sound of his harmless cannonade. The Pope was +next, and took possession of the towns he wanted. The +Duke of Ferrara laid hold of some loose articles in the +confusion, and the Marquis of Mantua got back some +villages which his grandfather had lost. Maximilian +was disconsolate at not being in time for the general +pillage, and had to content himself with Padua and +Vicenza and Verona. Maximilian was a gentleman in +difficulties, who has the misfortune to be known in history +as Max the Penniless. The Venetians sent to tell +him they were ready to acknowledge his suzerainty as +emperor, and to pay him a tribute of fifty thousand +ducats. The man would have forgiven them a hundred +times their offences for half the money, and was anxious +to close with their offer. But they had made no similar +proposition to the French king, nor to Ferdinand, nor +even of a ten-pound note to the Mantuan Marquis or +the Magnifico of Ferrara. Wherefore they all began to +hate the emperor. Louis declined to give him any more +assistance. Julius sent a secret message to the Venetians +that Holy Church was not inexorable; and Venice,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[410]</a></span> +relying on the placability of Rome, hung out her flag +against her secular foes in prouder defiance than ever. +She knelt at the feet of the Pope, and allowed him to +retain his acquisitions in Romagna and elsewhere; and +as his first object, the enrichment of his domain, was +accomplished, he lost no time in carrying out the +second. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1510.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>By the fortunate possession of an unlimited +power of loosing mankind from unpleasant oaths +and obligations, he astonished his late confederates +by publishing a sentence releasing the Venetians +from the censures of the Church and the Allies from the +covenants of the Treaty of Cambrai. He then joined +the pontifical forces to the troops of Venice, and in hot +haste made a rush upon the French. He bought over +Ferdinand of Spain to the cause by giving him the investiture +of Naples, hired a multitude of Swiss mercenaries, +and, drawing the sword like a stout man-at-arms +as he was, he laid siege to Mirandola. In spite of his +great age,—he was now past seventy,—he performed all +the offices of an active general, visited the trenches, encouraged +his army, and after a two months’ bombardment +disdained to enter the city by the opened gate, +but was triumphantly carried in military pomp through +a breach in the shattered wall. His perfidy as a statesman +and audacity as a soldier were too much for the +Emperor and the King of France. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1511.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>They collected +as many troops as they could, and threatened +to summon a general council; for what excommunication +as an instrument of offence was to the popes, +a general council was to the civil power. The French +clergy met at Tours, and supported the Crown against +Julius. The German emperor was still more indignant. +He published a paper of accusations, in which the bitterness +of his penniless condition is not concealed. “The +enormous sums daily extracted from Germany,” he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[411]</a></span> +says, “are perverted to the purposes of luxury or +worldly views, instead of being employed for the service +of God or against the Infidels. So extensive a territory +has been alienated for the benefit of the Pope that +scarcely a florin of revenue remains to the Emperor in +Italy.” Louis and the French appeared triumphant in +the field; but their triumphs threw them into dismay, +for their protean adversary, when defeated as temporal +prince, thundered against them as successor of St. Peter, +and taught them that their victories were impiety and +their acquisitions sacrilege. A hard case for Louis, +where if he retreated his territories were seized, and if +he advanced his soul was in danger. The war, which +had begun as a combination against Venice, was now +converted into a holy league in defence of Rome. +Spaniards came to the rescue; and Henry, the youthful +champion of England, and all who either thought they +loved religion or who really hated France, were inspired +as if for a crusade. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1512.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>And Maximilian himself, +poor and friendless,—how was it possible for +him to continue obstinately to reject the overtures of +the Pope, the purse of the Venetians, or the far more +tempting whisperings of Ferdinand of Aragon, who said +to him, “Julius is very old. Would it not be possible +to win over the cardinals to make your majesty his successor?” +Such a golden dream had never suggested itself +to the pauperized emperor before. He swallowed +the bait at once. He determined to bribe the Sacred +College, and, to raise the necessary funds, pawned the +archducal mantle of Austria to the rich merchants, the +Fuggers of Antwerp, for a large sum, and wrote to his +daughter Margaret, “To-morrow I shall send a bishop +to the Pope, to conclude an agreement with him that I +may be appointed his coadjutor and on his death succeed +to the Papacy, that you may be bound to worship me,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[412]</a></span>—of +which I shall be very proud.” This may appear a +rather jocular announcement of so serious a design; but +there is no doubt that the project was entertained. +Matters, however, advanced at too rapid a pace for the +slow calculations of politicians. The French, by a noble +victory at Ravenna, established their fame as warriors, +and roused the fear of all the other powers. Maximilian +grasped at last the Venetian ducats which had +been offered him so long before, and turned suddenly +against his ally. Ferdinand and Henry pressed forward +on France itself on the side of the Pyrenees. +Foot by foot the land of Italy was set free from the +French invaders, and Julius the Second, dying before +the emperor’s plans were matured, left the tangled web +of European politics to be unravelled by a younger +hand.</p> + +<p>We have dwelt on this strange contest, where many +sovereign states combined to overthrow a colony of +traders, and failed in all their attempts, because it is the +last great appearance that Venice has made in the +general history of the world. From this time her power +rapidly decayed. Her galleys lay rotting at their +wharves, and the marriage of her Doge to the Sea was +a symbol without a meaning. The discovery of a passage +to India by the Cape, which we saw announced to +Europe by Vasco da Gama in the last year of the late +century, was a sentence of death to the carriers of the +Adriatic. Commerce sought other channels and enriched +other lands. Wherever the merchant-vessels +crowded the harbour, whether with the commodities of +the East or West, the war-ship was sure to follow, and +the treasures gained in traffic to be guarded by a navy. +All the ports of Spain became rallying-places of wealth +and power in this century. Portugal covered every sea +with her guns and galleons; Holland rose to dignity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[413]</a></span> +and freedom by her heavy-armed marine; and England +began the career of enterprise and liberty which is still +typified and assured by the preponderance of her commercial +and royal fleets. Questions are asked—which +the younger among us, who may live to see the answer, +may amuse themselves by considering—as to the chance +of Venice recovering her ancient commerce if the pathway +of Eastern trade be again traced down the Mediterranean, +when the Isthmus of Suez shall be cut +through by a canal or curtailed by a railway. In +former times the whole civilized world lay like a golden +fringe round the shores of that one sea, and the nation +which predominated there, either in wealth or arms, +was mistress of the globe. But the case is altered now. +If the Gates of Hercules were permanently closed, the +commerce of the world would still go on; and, so far from +a Mediterranean supremacy indicating a universal pre-eminence, +it is perhaps worthy of remark that the only +Mediterranean nations which have in later times been +recognised as of first-rate rank in Europe have had +their principal ports upon the Atlantic and in the +Channel.</p> + +<p>There is a circumstance which we may observe as +characteristic of many of the European states at this +time,—the desire of combination and consolidation at +home even more than of foreign conquest. In Spain +the cessation of the oligarchy of kingships had established +a national crown. The hopes of recasting the +separated and mutilated limbs of ancient Latium into a +gigantic Italy were rife in that sunny land of high resolves +and futile acts. In Germany, the official supremacy +of the emperor was insufficient to prevent the +strong definement of the corporate nationalities. Holland +secured its individuality by unheard-of efforts; and +in England the great thought took possession of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[414]</a></span> +political mind of a union of the whole island. Visions +already floated before the statesmen on both sides of +the Tweed of a Great Britain freed from intestine disturbance +and guarded by undisputed seas. But the +general intelligence was not yet sufficiently far advanced. +<span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1502.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>The Scotch were too Scotch and the English +too English to sink their national differences; and we +can only pay homage to the wisdom which by a marriage +between the royal houses—James the Fourth, +and Margaret of England—planted the promise +which came afterwards to maturity in the junction +of the crowns in 1603, and the indissoluble union +of the countries in 1707.</p> + +<p>Meantime, the wooing was of the harshest. The +last great battle, Flodden, that marked the enmity of +the kingdoms, was decided in this century, and has left +a deep and sorrowful impression even to our own times. +There is not a cottage in Scotland where “The Fight of +Flodden” is not remembered yet. And its effects were +so desolating and dispiriting that it may be considered +the death-bed to the feeling of equality which had +hitherto ennobled the weaker nation. From this time +England held the position of a virtual superior, regulating +her conduct without much regard to the dignity +or self-respect of her neighbour, and employing the arts +of diplomacy, and the meaner tricks of bribery and corruption, +only because they were more easy and less expensive +than the open method of invasion and conquest. +“Scotland’s shield” was indeed broken at Flodden, but +her character for courage and honour remained. It +was the treachery of Solway Moss, and the venality of +most of the surviving nobility, that were the real causes +of her weakness, and of the subordinate place which at +this time she held in Europe.</p> + +<p>Thus the object which in other nations had been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[415]</a></span> +gained by a union of crowns was attained also in our +island by the absence of opposition between the peoples. +Flodden and Pinkie may therefore be looked upon with +kindlier eyes if they are regarded as steps to the formation +of so great a realm. No nation retained its feudal +organization so long as Scotland, or so completely departed +from the original spirit of feudalism. Instead of +being leaders and protectors of their dependants, and attached +vassals of the kings, the barons of the North were +an oligarchy of armed conspirators both against the +crown and the people. Few of the earlier Stuarts died +in peaceful bed; for even those of them who escaped +the dagger of the assassin were hunted to death by the +opposition and falsehood of the chiefs. Perpetually +engaged in plots against the throne or forays against +each other, the Scottish nobility weakened their country +both at home and abroad. Law could have no authority +where mailed warriors settled everything by the sword, +and no resistance could be offered to a foreign enemy by +men so divided among themselves. Down to a period +when the other nations of Europe were under the rule +of legal tribunals, the High Street of Edinburgh was +the scene of violence and bloodshed between rival lords +who were too powerful for control by the civil authority. +A succession of foolishly rash or unwisely lenient sovereigns +left this ferocity and independence unchecked; +and though poetry and patriotism now combine to cast +a melancholy grace on the defeat at Flodden, from the +Roman spirit with which the intelligence was received +by the population of the capital, the unbiassed inquirer +must confess that, with the exception of the single +virtue of personal courage, the Scottish array was ennobled +by no quality which would have justified its success. +It was ill commanded, ill disciplined, and ill combined. +The nobility, as usual, were disaffected to the king and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[416]</a></span> +averse to the War. But the crown-tenants and commonalty +of the Lowlands were always ready for an +affray with England; and James the Fourth, the most +chivalrous of that line of chivalrous and unfortunate +princes, merrily crossed the Border and prepared for +feats of arms as if at a tournament. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1513.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>The cautious +Earl of Surrey, the leader of the English +army, availed himself of the knightly prepossessions of +his enemy, and sent a herald, in all the frippery of +tabard and cross, to challenge him to battle on a set +day, when Lord Thomas Howard would run a tilt with +him at the head of the English van. James fell into the +snare, and regulated his movements, in fact, by the +direction of his opponent. When, in a momentary +glimpse of common sense, he established his quarters +on the side of a hill, from which it would have been impossible +to dislodge him, Surrey relied on the absurd +generosity of his character, and sent a message to complain +that he had placed himself on ground “more like +a fortress or a camp than an ordinary battle-field.” +James pretended to despise the taunt, and even to refuse +admission to the herald; but it worked on his susceptible +and fearless nature; for we find that he allowed the +English to pass through difficult and narrow ways, +which were commanded by his guns, and when they +were fairly marshalled on level ground he set fire to his +tents and actually descended the hill to place himself on +equal terms with the foe. Such a beginning had the +only possible close. Strong arms and sharp swords are +excellent supports of generalship, but cannot always be +a substitute for it. Never did the love of fight so inherent +in the Scottish character display itself more +gallantly than on this day. Again and again the Scottish +earls dashed forward against the English squares. +These were composed of the steadiest of the pikemen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[417]</a></span> +flanked by the wondrous archers who had turned so +many a tide of battle. Fain would the veteran warriors +have kept their men in check; fain would the commanders +of the French auxiliaries have restrained the +Scottish advance. But the Northern blood was up. +Onward they went, in spite of generalship and all the +rules of discipline, and with a great crash burst upon +the wall of steel. It was magnificent, as the Frenchmen +said at Balaklava, but it was not war. Repelled by the +recoil of their own impetuous charge, they fell into +fragments and encumbered the gory plain. Very few +fled, very few had the opportunity of flying; for the +cloth-yard shaft never missed its aim. There was no +crying for quarter or sparing of the flashing blade. +Both sides were irritated to madness. James pushed +on, shouting and waving his bloody sword, and was +wounded by an arrow and gashed with a ponderous +battle-axe when he had forced himself within a few +paces of Surrey. Darkness was now closing in. The +king’s death was rapidly known, but still the struggle +went on. At length the wearied armies ceased to kill. +The Scotch retreated, and in the dawn of the next +morning a compact body of them was seen still threatening +on the side of a distant hill. But the day was lost +and won. The chivalry of Scotland received a blow +from which it never recovered. What Courtrai had +been to the French, and Granson and Nanci to the Burgundians, +and Towton and Tewkesbury to the English, +the 9th of September, 1513, was to the peerage of the +North. Thirteen earls were killed, fifteen barons, and +chiefs and members of all the gentle houses in the land. +Some were stripped utterly desolate by this appalling +slaughter; and from many a hall, as well as from humble +shieling, rose the burden of the tearful ballad, “The +flowers o’ the forest are a’ wedd awa’.” There were ten<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[418]</a></span> +thousand slain in the field, the gallant James cut off in +the prime of strength and manhood, and the sceptre +which required the grasp of an Edward the First left to +be the prize of an unprincipled queen-mother, or any +ambitious cabal which could conspire to seize it. James +the Fifth was but a year or two old, and the country +discouraged and demoralized.</p> + +<p>But Henry the Eighth was destined to some other +triumphs in this fortunate year. First there was the +victory which his forces won at Guinegate, near Calais, +where the French chivalry fled in the most ignominious +manner, and struck their rowels into their horses’ flanks, +without remembering that they carried swords in their +hands. This is known in history as the second Battle +of the Spurs,—not, as at Courtrai, for the number of +those knightly emblems taken off the heels of the dead, +but for the amazing activity they displayed on the heels +of the living. And, secondly, he could boast that the +foremost man in Christendom wore his livery and +pocketed his pay; for Maximilian the Penniless, successor +of Charlemagne and Constantine and Augustus, +enlisted and did good service as an English trooper at +a hundred crowns a day. Let Henry rejoice in these +achievements while he may; for the time is drawing +near when the old sovereigns of Europe are to be moved +out of the way and France and Spain are to be governed +by younger men and more ambitious politicians than +himself. Evil times indeed were at hand, when it +required the strength of youth and wisdom of policy to +guide the bark not only of separate states, but of settled +law and Christian civilization. For, however pleasant +it may be to trace Henry through his home-career and +Francis and Charles in their national rivalries, we are +not to forget that the real interest of this century is +that it is the century of the Reformation,—a movement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[419]</a></span> +before whose overwhelming importance the efforts of +the greatest individuals sink into insignificance,—an +upheaving of hidden powers and principles, which in +truth so altered all former relations between man and +man that it found the most influential personage in +Europe, not in the Apostolic Emperor, or the Christian +King, or the Defender of the Faith, but in a burly friar +at Wittenberg, whose name had never been heard +before.</p> + +<p>Let us see what was the general condition of the Romish +Chair before the outburst of its enemies at this time. One +thing is very observable: that its claims to supremacy and +obedience were, ostensibly at least, almost universally +acquiesced in. From Norway to Calabria the theory +of a Universal Church, divinely founded and divinely +sustained, in possession of superhuman power and uncommunicated +knowledge, governed by an infallible +chief, and administered by an uninterrupted line of +priests and bishops, who had given up the vanities of +the world, satisfier of doubts, and sole instrument of +salvation,—this seemed so perfect and so natural an +organization that it had been accepted from time immemorial +as incapable of denial. If a voice was heard +here and there in an Alpine valley or in a scholastic +debating-room impugning these arrangements or asking +proof from history or revelation, the civil power was +let loose upon the gainsayer, with the general consent +of orthodox men, and the Vaudois were murdered with +sword and spear and the inquiring student chained in +his monkish cell. The theory and organization of the +Universal Church were, in fact, never so well defined as +at the moment when its reign was drawing to a close. +Nobody doubted that a general Father, clothed in infallible +wisdom, and armed with powers directly committed +to him for the guidance or punishment of mankind,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[420]</a></span> +was the Heaven-sent arbiter of differences, the +rewarder of faithful kings, the corrector of unruly +nations; and yet the spectacle was presented, to the +believers in this ideal, of a series of wicked and abandoned +rulers sitting in Peter’s chair, and only imitating +the apostle in his furiousness and his denial; cardinals +depraved and worldly beyond the example of temporal +princes; a priesthood steeped, for the most part, in +ignorance and vice, and monks and nuns the <i>opprobria</i> +of all nations where they were found. Never were +claims and performances brought into such startling +contrast before. The Pope was the representative upon +earth of the Saviour of men; and he poisoned his guests, +like Borgia, slew his opponents, like Julius, or led the +life of an intellectual epicure, like Leo the Tenth. In +former times the contrariety between doctrine and +practice would have been slightly known or easily reconciled. +Few comparatively visited Rome; cardinals +were seldom seen; priests were not more ignorant than +their parishioners, and monks not more wicked than +their admirers. All believed in the miraculous efficacy +of the wares in which even the lower order of the +clergy dealt, and their rule in country places was so lax, +their penances so easily performed or commuted, their +relations with their people so friendly and on such equal +terms, that in the rural districts the voice of complaint +was either unheard or neglected. In Italy, the head-quarters +of the faith, the excesses of priestly rule were +the most glaring and wide-spread. Rome itself was +always the seat of turbulence and disaffection. The +lives of professedly holy men were known, and the vices +of popes and prelates pressed heavily on the people, who +were the first victims of their avarice or cruelty. But +the utmost extent of their indignation never reached to +a questioning of the foundation of the power from which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[421]</a></span> +they suffered. An Italian crushed to the earth by the +extortion of his Church, irritated perhaps by the personal +wickedness of his director, sought no escape from +such inflictions in disbelieving either the temporal or +spiritual authority of his oppressor. Rather he would +have looked with savage satisfaction on the fagot-fire of +any one who hinted that the principles of his Church +required the slightest amendment; that the absolution +of his sensual confessor was not altogether indispensable; +that the image he bowed down to was common +wood, or that the relics he worshipped were merely +dead men’s bones. Perhaps, indeed, in those luxurious +regions, a bare and unadorned worship would not seem +to be worship at all. With his impassioned mind and +glowing fancy, the Spaniard or Italian must pour out +his whole being on the object of his adoration. He +loves his patron saint with the warmth of an earthly +affection, and thinks he undervalues her virtues or her +claims if he does not heap her shrine with his offerings +and address her image with rapture. He must make +external demonstration of his inward feelings, or nobody +will believe in their existence. The crouchings +and kneelings, therefore, which our colder natures stigmatize +as idolatry, are to him nothing more than the +outward manifestation of affection and thankfulness. +He does the same to his master or his benefactor without +degradation in the eyes of his countrymen. Without +these bowings and genuflections his conduct would +be thought ungrateful and disrespectful. That this +amount of warm-hearted sincerity is wasted upon such +unworthy objects as his saints and relics is greatly to be +deplored; but wide allowances must be made for peculiarities +of situation and disposition; and we should remember +that whereas in the North a religion of forms +and ceremonies would be a body without a soul, because<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[422]</a></span> +there would be no inward exaltation answering to the +outward manifestation, the Southern heart sees a meaning +where there is none to us, is conscious of a sense of +trust and reverence where we only see slavishness and +imposture, and a feeling of divine consolation and hope +in services which to us are histrionic and absurd. Religious +belief, in the sense of a true and undivided faith +in the doctrines of Christianity, had no recognised +existence at the period we have reached. But this absence +of religious belief was combined, however strange +the statement may appear, with a most implicit trust in +the directions and authority of the Church. Sunny +skies might have shone forever over the political abasement +and slightly Christianized paganism of the inhabitants +of the two peninsulas and the Southeast of Europe, +but a cloud was about to rise in the North which dimmed +them for a time, but which, after it burst in purifying +thunder, has refreshed and cleared the atmosphere of +the whole world.</p> + +<p>The first book that Guttenberg published in 1451 was +the Holy Bible,—in the Latin language, to be sure, and +after the Vulgate edition, but still containing, to those +who could gather it, the manna of the Word. Two years +after that, in 1453, the capture of Constantinople by the +Turks had scattered the learning of the Greeks among +all the nations of the West. The universities were soon +supplied with professors, who displayed the hitherto-unexplored +treasures of the language of Pericles and +Demosthenes. Everywhere a spirit of inquiry began to +reawaken, but limited as yet to subjects of philosophy +and antiquity. Christianity, indeed, had so lost its hold +on the minds of scholars that it was not considered +worth inquiring into. It was looked on as a fable, and +only profitable as an instrument of policy. Erasmus +was alarmed at the state of feeling in 1516, and expressed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[423]</a></span> +his belief that, if those Grecian studies were +pursued, the ancient deities would resume their sway. +But the Bible was already reaping its appointed harvest. +Its voice, lost in the din of speculative philosophies and +the dissipation of courts, was heard in obscure places, +where it never had penetrated before. In 1505, Luther +was twenty-two years of age. He had made himself a +scholar by attendance at schools where his poverty +almost debarred him from appearing. At Eisenach he +gained his bread by singing at the richer inhabitants’ +doors. Afterwards he had gone to Erfurt, and, tired or +afraid of the world, anxious for opportunities of self-examination, +and dissatisfied with his spiritual state, he +entered the convent of the Augustines, and in two years +more, in 1507, became priest and monk. There was an +amazing amount of goodness and simplicity of life +among the brotherhood of this community. Learning +and devout meditation were encouraged, holy ascetic +lives were led, the body was kept under with fastings +and stripes. A Bible was open to them all, but chained +to its place in the chapel, and only to be studied by +standing before the desk on which it lay. All these +things were insufficient, and Brother Martin was miserable. +His companions pitied and respected him. Staupitz, +a man of great rank in the Church, a sort of inspector-general +of a large district, visited the convent, +and in a moment was attracted by the youthful monk. +He conversed with him, soothed his agitated mind, not +with anodynes from the pharmacopœia of the Church, +but from the fountain-head of the faith. He painted +God as the forgiver of sinners, the Father of all men; +and Luther took some comfort. But, on going away, +the kind-hearted Staupitz gave the young man a Bible,—a +Bible all to himself, his own property, to carry in +his bosom, to study in his cell. His vocation was at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[424]</a></span> +once fixed. The Reformer felt his future all before him, +like Achilles when he grasped the sword and rejected +the feminine toys. The books he had taken with him +into the monastery were Plautus and Virgil; but he +studied plays and epics no more. Augustin and the +Bible supplied their place. Hungering for better things +than the works of the law,—abstinence, prayer-repetitions, +scourgings, and all the wearisome routine of +mechanical devotion,—he dashed boldly into the other +extreme, and preached free grace,—grace without +merit, the great doctrine which is called, theologically, +“justification by faith alone.” This had been the main +theme of his master Augustin, and Luther now gave it +practical shape. In 1510 he was sent on some business +of his convent to Rome,—to Rome, the head-quarters of +the Church, the earthly residence of the infallible! +How holy will be its dwellings, how gracious the words +of its inhabitants! The German monk saw nothing but +sin and infidelity. In high places as in low, the taint +of corruption was polluting all the air. In terror and +dismay, he left the city of iniquity within a fortnight of +his arrival, and hurried back to the peacefulness of his +convent. “I would not for a hundred thousand florins +have missed seeing Rome,” he said, long afterwards. +“I should always have felt an uneasy doubt whether I +was not, after all, doing injustice to the Pope. As it is, +I am quite satisfied on the point.” The Pope was Julius +the Second, whose career we followed in the League of +Cambrai; and we may enter into the surprise of Luther +at seeing the Father of the Faithful breathing blood and +ruin to his rival neighbours. But the force of early +education was still unimpaired. The Pope was Pope, +and the devout German thought of him on his knees. +But in the year 1517 a man of the name of Tetzel, a +Dominican of the rudest manners and most brazen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[425]</a></span> +audacity, appeared in the market-place of Wittenberg, +ringing a bell, and hawking indulgences from the Holy +See to be sold to all the faithful. A new Pope was on +the throne,—the voluptuous Leo the Tenth. He had +resolved to carry on the building of the great Church +of St. Peter, and, having exhausted his funds in riotous +living, he sent round his emissaries to collect fresh +treasures by the sale of these pardons for human sin. +“Pour in your money,” cried Tetzel, “and whatever +crimes you have committed, or may commit, are forgiven! +Pour in your coin, and the souls of your friends +and relations will fly out of purgatory the moment they +hear the chink of your dollars at the bottom of the box.” +Luther was Doctor of Divinity, Professor in the University, +and pastoral visitor of two provinces of the empire. +He felt it was his duty to interfere. He learned for the +first time himself how far indulgences were supposed to +go, and shuddered at the profanity of the notion of +their being of any value whatever. On the festival of +All Saints, in November, 1517, he read a series of propositions +against them in the great church, and startled +all Germany like a thunderbolt with a printed sermon +on the same subject. The press began its work, and +people no longer fought in darkness. Nationalities +were at an end when so wide-embracing a subject was +treated by so universal an agent. The monk’s voice +was heard in all lands, even in the walls of Rome, and +crossed the sea, and came in due time to England. +“Tush, tush! ’tis a quarrel of monks,” said Leo the +Tenth; and, with an affectation of candour, he remarked, +“This Luther writes well: he is a man of fine +genius.”</p> + +<p>Gallant young Henry the Eighth thought it a good +opportunity to show his talent, and meditated an +assault on the heretic,—a curious duel between a pale<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[426]</a></span> +recluse and the gayest prince in Christendom. But the +recluse was none the worse when the book was published, +and the prince earned from the gratitude of the Pope the +name “Defender of the Faith,” which is still one of the +titles of the English crown. Penniless Maximilian looked +on well pleased, and wrote to a Saxon counsellor, “All +the popes I have had any thing to do with have been +rogues and cheats. The game with the priests is beginning. +What your monk is doing is not to be despised: +take care of him. It may happen that we shall have +need of him.” Luther’s own prince, the Elector of +Saxony, was his firm friend, and on one side or other +all Europe was on the gaze. Leo at last perceived +the danger, and summoned the monk to Rome. He +might as well have yielded in the struggle at once, +for from Rome he never could have returned alive. +He consented, however, to appear before the Legate +at Augsburg, attended by a strong body-guard furnished +by the Elector, and held his ground against +the threats and promises of the Cardinal of Cajeta. But +Maximilian carried his poverty and disappointment to +the grave in 1519; and when Leo saw the safe accession +of his successor Charles the Fifth, the faithful servant +of St. Peter, he pushed matters with a higher hand +against the daring innovator. Brother Martin, however, +was unmoved. He would not retreat; he even advanced +in his course, and wrote to the Pope himself an +account of the iniquities of Rome. “You have three or +four cardinals,” he says, “of learning and faith; but +what are these three or four in so vast a crowd of infidels +and reprobates? The days of Rome are numbered, +and the anger of God has been breathed forth upon her. +She hates councils, she dreads reforms, and will not +hear of a check being placed on her desperate impiety.” +This was a dangerous man to meet with such devices as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[427]</a></span> +bulls and interdicts. Charles determined to try harsher +measures, and summoned him to appear at a Diet of the +States held in Worms. The emperor was now twenty-one +years old. His sceptre stretched over the half of +Europe, and across the great sea to the golden realm of +Mexico. Martin begged a new gown from the not very +lavish Elector, and went in a sort of chariot to the appointed +city,—serene and confident, for he had a safe-conduct +from the emperor and various princes, and +trusted in the goodness of his cause. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1521.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Such +a scene never occurred in any age of the world +as was presented when the assemblage met. All the +peers and potentates of the German Empire, presided +over by the most powerful ruler that ever had been +known in Europe, were gathered to hear the trial and +condemnation of a thin, wan-visaged young man, dressed +in a monk’s gown and hood and worn with the fatigues +and hazards of his recent life. “Yet prophet-like that +lone one stood, with dauntless words and high,” and +answered all questions with force and modesty. But +answers were not what the Diet required, and retractation +was far from Luther’s mind. So the Chancellor of +Trèves came to him and said, “Martin, thou art disobedient +to his Imperial Majesty: wherefore depart +hence under the safe-conduct he has given thee.” And +the monk departed. As he was nearing his destination, +and was passing through a wood alone, some horsemen +seized his person, dressed him in military garb, and put +on him a false beard. They then mounted him on a led +horse and rode rapidly away. His friends were anxious +about his fate, for a dreadful sentence had been uttered +against him by the emperor on the day when his safe-conduct +expired, forbidding any one to sustain or shelter +him, and ordering all persons to arrest and bring +him into prison to await the judgment he deserved.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[428]</a></span> +People thought he had been waylaid and killed, or at all +events sent into a dungeon. Meantime he was living +peaceably and comfortably in the castle of Wartburg, +to which he had been conveyed in this mysterious +manner by his friend the Elector,—safe from the machinations +of his enemies, and busily engaged in his immortal +translation of the Bible.</p> + +<p>The movement thus communicated by Luther knew +no pause nor end. It soon ceased to be a merely +national excitement caused by local circumstances, and +became the one great overwhelming question of the +time. Every thing was brought into its vortex: however +distant might be its starting-point, to this great +central idea it was sure to attach itself at last. Involuntarily, +unconsciously, unwillingly, every government +found that the Reformation formed part of its scheme +and policy. One nation, and one only, had the clear +eye and firm hand to make it ostensibly, and of its deliberate +choice, the guide and landmark in its dangerous +and finally triumphant career. This was England,—not +when under the degrading domination of its Henry +or the heavy hand of its Mary, but under the skilful +piloting of the great Elizabeth, the first of rulers who +seems to have perceived that submission to a foreign +priest is a political error on the part both of kings and +subjects, and that occupation by a foreign army is not +more subversive of freedom and independence than the +supremacy of a foreign Church. Hitherto England had +been nearly divided from the whole world, and was +merely one of the distant satellites that revolved on the +outside of the European system, the centre of which +was Rome. She was now to burn with light of her +own. The Continent, indeed, at the commencement of +the Reformation, seemed almost in a state of dissolution. +In 1529 disunion had attained such a pitch in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[429]</a></span> +Empire that the different princes were ranged on hostile +sides. At the Diet of Spires, in this year, the name of +Protestant had been assumed by the opponents of the +excesses and errors of the Church of Rome. At the +same time that the religious unity was thus finally +thrown off, the Turks were thundering at the Eastern +gates of Europe, and Solyman of Constantinople laid +siege to Vienna. France was exhausted with her internal +troubles. Spain came to the rescue of the outraged +faith, and made heresy punishable with death +throughout all her dominions. While the Netherlands, +against which this was directed, was groaning under +this new infliction, disorder seemed to extend over the +solid earth itself. There were earthquakes and great +storms in many lands. Lisbon was shaken into ruins, +with a loss of thirty thousand inhabitants; and the +dykes of Holland were overwhelmed by a prodigious +rising of the sea, and four hundred thousand people +were drowned.</p> + +<p>Preparations were made in all quarters for a great +and momentous struggle: nobody could tell where it +would break forth or where it would end. And ever +and anon Luther’s rallying-cry was heard in answer to +the furious denunciations of cardinals and popes. Interests +get parcelled out in so many separate portions +that it is impossible to unravel the state of affairs with +any clearness. We shall only notice that, in 1531, the +famous league of Smalcalde first embodied Protestantism +in its national and lay constitution by the banding together +of nine of the sovereign princes of Germany, and +eleven free cities, in armed defence, if needed, of their +religious belief. Where is the fiery Henry of England, +with his pen or sword? A very changed man from +what we saw him only thirteen years ago. He has no +pen now, and his sword is kept for his discontented subjects<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[430]</a></span> +at home. In 1534, King and Lords and Commons, +in Parliament assembled, threw off the supremacy of +Rome, and Henry is at last a king, for his courts hold +cognizance of all causes within the realm, whether +ecclesiastical or civil. Everybody knows the steps by +which this embodied selfishness achieved his emancipation +from a dominant Church. It little concerns us +now, except as a question of historic curiosity, what his +motives were. Judging from the analogy of all his +other actions, we should say they were bad; but by +some means or other the evil deeds of this man were +generally productive of benefit to his country. He cast +off the Pope that he might be freed from a disagreeable +wife; but as the Pope whom he rejected was the servant +of Charles, (the nephew of the repudiated queen,) he +found that he had freed his kingdom at the same time +from its degrading vassalage to the puppet of a rival +monarch. He dissolved the monasteries in England for +the purpose of grasping their wealth; but the country +found he had at the same time delivered it from a swarm +of idle and mischievous corporations, which in no long +time would have swallowed up the land. Their revenues +were immense, and the extent of their domains almost +incredible. Before people had recovered from their +disgust at the hateful motives of their tyrant’s behaviour, +the results of it became apparent in the elevation +of the finest class of the English population; for the +“bold peasantry, their country’s pride,” began to establish +their independent holdings on the parcelled-out +territories of the monks and nuns. Vast tracts of +ground were thrown open to the competition of lay proprietors. +Even the poorest was not without hope of +becoming an owner of the soil; nay, the released estates +were so plentiful that in Elizabeth’s reign an act was +passed making it illegal for a man to build a cottage<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[431]</a></span> +“unless he laid four acres of land thereto.” The cottager, +therefore, became a small farmer; and small +farmers were the defence of England; and the defence +of England was the safety of freedom and religion +throughout the world. There were some hundred thousands +of those landed cottagers and smaller gentry and +great proprietors established by this most respectable +sacrilege of Henry the Eighth, and for the sake of these +excellent consequences we forgive him his pride and +cruelty and all his faults. But Henry’s work was done, +and in January, 1547, he died. The rivals with whom +he started on the race of life were still alive; but life +was getting dark and dreary with both of them. +Francis was no longer the hero of “The Field of the +Cloth-of-Gold,” conqueror of Marignano, the gallant +captive of Pavia, or the winner of all hearts. He was +worn out with a life of great vicissitudes, and heard +with ominous foreboding the news of Henry’s death. +<span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span>March 11, 1547.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>A fate seemed to unite them in all those years of +revelry and hate and friendship, and in a few weeks the +most chivalrous and generous of the Valois +followed the most tyrannical of the Tudors to +the tomb. A year before this, the Monk of Wittenberg, +now the renowned and married Dr. Martin Luther, had +left a place vacant which no man could fill; and now +of all those combatants Charles was the sole survivor. +Selfish as Henry, dissolute as Francis, obstinate as Martin, +his race also was drawing to a close. But the play +was played out before these chief performers withdrew. +All Europe had changed its aspect. The England, the +France, the Empire, of five-and-twenty years before +had utterly passed away. New objects were filling +men’s minds, new principles of policy were regulating +states. Protestantism was an established fact, and the +Treaty of Passau in 1552 gave liberty and equality to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[432]</a></span> +the professors of the new faith. Charles was sagacious +though heartless as a ruler, but an unredeemed bigot as +an individual man. The necessities of his condition, by +which he was forced to give toleration to the enemies +of the Church, weighed upon his heart. A younger +hand and bloodier disposition, he thought, were needed +to regain the ground he had been obliged to yield; and +in Philip his son he perceived all these requirements +fulfilled. When he looked round, he saw nothing to +give him comfort in his declining years. War was +going on in Hungary against the still advancing Turks; +war was raging in Lorraine between his forces and the +French; Italy, the land of volcanoes, was on the eve of +outbreak and anarchy; and, thundering out defiance of +the Imperial power and the Christian Cross, the guns +of the Ottoman fleet were heard around the shores of +Sicily and up to the Bay of Naples. The emperor was +faint and weary: his armies were scattered and dispirited; +his fleets were unequal to their enemy: so in 1556 +he resigned his pompous title of monarch of Spain and +the Indies, with all their dependencies, to his son, and +the empire to his brother Ferdinand, who was already +King of Hungary and Bohemia and hereditary Duke of +Austria; and then, with the appearance of resignation, +but his soul embittered by anger and disappointment, +he retired to the Convent of St. Just, where he gorged +himself into insanity with gluttonies which would have +disgraced Vitellius, and amused himself by interfering +in state affairs which he had forsworn, and making +watches which he could not regulate, and going through +the revolting farce of a rehearsal of his funeral, with his +body in the coffin and the monks of the monastery for +mourners. Those theatrical lamentations were probably +as sincere as those which followed his real demise in +1558; for when he surrendered the power which made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[433]</a></span> +him respected he gave evidence only of the qualities +which made him disliked.</p> + +<p>The Reformation, you remember, is the characteristic +of this century. We have traced it in Germany to its +recognition as a separate and liberated faith. In England +we are going to see Protestantism established and triumphant. +But not yet; for we have first to notice a +period when Protestantism seems at its last hour, when +Mary, wife of the bigot Philip, and true and honourable +daughter of the Church, is determined to restore her +nation to the Romish chair, or die in the holy attempt. +We are not going into the minutiæ of this dreadful time, +or to excite your feelings with the accounts of the burnings +and torturings of the dissenters from the queen’s +belief. None of us are ignorant of the cruelty of those +proceedings, or have read unmoved the sad recital of +the martyrdom of the bishops and of such men as the +joyous and innocent Rowland Taylor of Hadleigh. +Men’s hearts did not become hardened by these sights. +Rather they melted with compassion towards the dauntless +sufferers; and, though the hush of terror kept the +masses of the people silent, great thoughts were rising +in the general mind, and toleration ripened even under +the heat of the Smithfield fires. Attempts have been +made to blacken Mary beyond her demerits and to +whiten her beyond her deservings. Protestants have +denied her the virtues she unquestionably possessed,—truthfulness, +firmness, conscientiousness, and unimpeachable +morals. Her panegyrists take higher ground, +and claim for her the noblest qualifications both as +queen and woman,—patriotism, love of her people, fulfilment +of all her duties, and exquisite tenderness of disposition. +It will be sufficient for us to look at her +actions, and we will leave her secret sentiments alone. +We shall only say that it is very doubtful whether the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[434]</a></span> +plea of conscientiousness is admissible in such a case. +If perverted reasoning or previous education has made +a Thug feel it a point of conscience to put his throttling +instrument under a quiet traveller’s throat, the conscientious +belief of the performer that his act is for the +good of the sufferer’s soul will scarcely save him from +the gallows. On the contrary, a conscientious persistence +in what is manifestly wrong should be an aggravation +of the crime, for it gives an appearance of respectability +to atrocity, and, when punishment overtakes the +wrong-doers, makes the Thug an honoured martyr to +his opinions, instead of a convicted felon for his misdeeds. +Let us hope that the rights of conscience will +never be pleaded in defence of cruelty or persecution.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1554.</div> + +<p>The restoration of England to the obedience of the +Church, the marriage of Mary, the warmest partisan of +Popery, with Philip, the fanatical oppressor of +the reformed,—these must have raised the hopes +of Rome to an extraordinary pitch. But greater as a +support, and more reliable than queens or kings, was the +Society of the Jesuits, which at this time demonstrated +its attachment to the Holy See, and devoted itself +blindly, remorselessly, unquestioning, to the defence of +the old faith. Having sketched the rise of Luther, a +companion-picture is required of the fortunes of Ignatius +Loyola. We hinted that a Biscayan soldier, +wounded at the siege of Pampeluna in Spain, divided +the notice of Europe with the poor Austin Friar of +Wittenberg. Enthusiasm, rising almost into madness, +was no bar, in the case of this wonderful Spaniard, to +the possession of faculties for government and organization +which have never been surpassed. Shut out by the +lameness resulting from his wound from the struggles +of worldly and soldierly ambition, he gave full way to +the mystic exaltation of his Southern disposition. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[435]</a></span> +devoted himself as knight and champion to the Virgin, +heard with contempt and horror of the efforts made to +deny the omnipotence of the Chair of Rome, and swore +to be its defender. Others of similar sentiments joined +him in his crusade against innovation. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1540.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>A company of +self-denying, self-sacrificing men began, and, adding to +the previous laws of their order a vow of unqualified +submission to the Pope, they were recognised by a bull, +and the Society of Jesus became the strongest +and most remarkable institution of modern +times. Through all varieties of fortune, in exile and +imprisonment, and even in dissolution, their oath of uninquiring, +unhesitating obedience to the papal command +has never been broken. With Protean variety of appearance, +but unvarying identity of intention, these +soldiers of St. Peter are as relentless to others, and as +regardless of themselves, as the body-guard of the old +Assassins. No degradation is too servile, no place too +distant, no action too revolting, for these unreasoning +instruments of power. Wilfully surrendering the right +of judgment and the feelings of conscience into the +hands of their superior, there is no method by law or +argument of regulating their conduct. The one principle +of submission has swallowed up all the rest, and +fulfilment of that duty ennobles the iniquitous deeds by +which it is shown. Other societies put a clause, either +by words or implication, in their promise of obedience, +limiting it to things which are just and proper. This +limit is ostentatiously abrogated by the followers of +Loyola. The merit of obeying an order to slay an +enemy of the Church more than compensates for the +guilt of the murder. In other orders a homicide is +looked upon with horror; in this, a Jesuit who kills a +heretical king by command of his chiefs is venerated as +a saint. Against practices and feelings like these you<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[436]</a></span> +can neither reason nor be on your guard. In all kingdoms, +accordingly, at some time or other, the existence +of the order has been found inconsistent with the safety +of the State, and it has been dissolved by the civil power. +The moment, however, the Church regains its hold, the +Jesuits are sure to be restored. The alliance, indeed, is +indispensable, and the mutual aid of the Order and of +the Papacy a necessity of their existence. Incorporated +in 1540, the brothers of the Company of Jesus considered +the defections of the Reformation in a fair way of +being compensated when the death of our little, cold-hearted, +self-willed Edward the Sixth—a Henry the +Eighth in the bud—left the throne in 1553 to Mary, a +Henry the Eighth full blown. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1558.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>When nearly five years +of conscientious truculence had shown the earnestness +of this unhappy woman’s belief, the accession +of Elizabeth inaugurated a new system in this +country, from which it has never departed since without +a perceptible loss both of happiness and power. A +strictly home and national policy was immediately established +by this most remarkable of our sovereigns, and +pursued through good report and evil report, sometimes +at the expense of her feelings—if she was so little of a +Tudor as to have any—of tenderness and compassion, +sometimes at the expense—and here she was Tudor +enough to have very acute sensations indeed—of her +personal and official dignity, but always with the one +object of establishing a great united and irresistible bulwark +against foreign oppression and domestic disunion. +It shows how powerful was her impression upon the +course of European history, that her character is as +fiercely canvassed at this day as in the speech of her +contemporaries. Nobody feels as if Elizabeth was a +personage removed from us by three hundred years. +We discuss her actions, and even argue about her looks<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[437]</a></span> +and manners, as if she had lived in our own time. And +this is the reason why such divergent judgments are +pronounced on a person who, more than any other +ruler, united the opinions of her subjects during the +whole of her long and agitated life. Her acts remain, +but her judges are different. If we could throw ourselves +with the reality of circumstance as well as the +vividness of feeling into the period in which she moved +and governed, we should come to truer decisions on the +points submitted to our view. But if we look with the +refinements of the present time, and the speculative +niceties permissible in questions which have no direct +bearing on our prosperity and safety, we shall see much +to disapprove of, which escaped the notice, or even excited +the admiration, of the people who saw what tremendous +arbitraments were on the scale. If we were told that a +cold-blooded individual had placed on one occasion some +murderous weapons on a height, and then requested a +number of his friends to stand before them, while some +unsuspecting persons came up in that direction, and +then, suddenly telling his companions to stand on one +side, had sent bullets hissing and crashing through the +gentlemen advancing to him, you would shudder with +disgust at such atrocious cruelty, till you were told that +the cold-blooded individual was the Duke of Wellington, +and the advancing gentlemen the French Old Guard at +Waterloo. And in the same way, if we read of Elizabeth +interfering in Scotland, domineering at home, and +bellicose abroad, let us inquire, before we condemn, +whether she was in her duty during those operations,—whether, +in fact, she was resisting an assault, or capriciously +and unjustifiably opening her batteries on the +innocent and unprepared. Fiery-hearted, strong-handed +Scotchmen are ready to fight at this time for the immaculate +purity and sinless martyrdom of their beautiful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[438]</a></span> +Mary, and sturdy Englishmen start up with as bold +a countenance in defence of good Queen Bess. It is +not to be doubted that a roll-call as numerous as that of +Bannockburn or Flodden could be mustered on this +quarrel of three centuries ago; but the fight is needless. +The points of view are so different that a verdict can +never be given on the merits of the two personages +principally engaged; but we think an unprejudiced +examination of the course of Elizabeth’s policy in Scotland, +and her treatment of her rival, will establish +certain facts which neither party can gainsay.</p> + +<p>1st. From this it will result, that, to keep reformed +England secure, it was indispensable to have reformed +Scotland on her side.</p> + +<p>2d. That, in order to have Scotland either reformed +or on her side, it was indispensable to render powerless +a popish queen,—a queen who was supported as legitimate +inheritor of England by the Pope and Philip of +Spain, and the King and princes of France.</p> + +<p>3d. That Elizabeth had a right, by all the laws of self-preservation, +to sustain by every legal and peaceable +means that party in Scotland which was <i>de facto</i> the +government of the country, and which promised to be +most useful to the objects she had in view. Those objects +have already been named,—peace and security for +the Protestant religion, and the honour and independence +of the whole British realm.</p> + +<p>To gain these ends, who denies that she bribed and +bullied and deceived?—that she degraded the Scottish +nobles by alternate promises and threats, and weakened +the Scottish crown by encouraging its enemies, both +ecclesiastical and civil? In prudishly finding fault with +these proceedings, we forget the Scotch, French, Spanish, +popish, emissaries who were let loose upon England; the +plots at home, the scowling messages from abroad; the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[439]</a></span> +excommunications uttered from Rome; the massacre of +the Protestants gloried in in France, and the vast navies +and immense armies gathering against the devoted Isle +from all the coasts and provinces of Spain.</p> + +<p>In 1568, after the defeat of the queen’s party at +Langside, Mary threw herself on the pity and protection +of Elizabeth, and was kept in honourable safety +for many years. She did not allow her to collect partisans +for the recovery of her kingdom, nor to cabal +against the government which had expelled her. To +do so would not have been to shelter a fugitive, but to +declare war on Scotland. In 1848, Louis Philippe, +chased by the revolutionists of Paris, came over to +England. He was kept in honourable retirement. He +was not allowed to cabal against his former subjects, +nor to threaten their policy. To do so would not have +been to shelter a fugitive, but to declare war on France. +Even in the case of the earlier Bourbons, we permitted +no gatherings of forces on their behalf, and did not encourage +their followers to molest the settled government,—no, +not when the throne of France was filled by +an enemy and we were at deadly war with Napoleon. +But Mary was put to death. A sad story, and very +melancholy to read in quiet drawing-rooms with Britannia +ruling the waves and keeping all danger from +our coasts. But in 1804, if Louis the Eighteenth or +Charles the Tenth, instead of eating the bread of charity +in peace, had been detected in conspiracy with our +enemies, in corresponding with foreign emissaries, when +a thousand flat-bottomed boats were marshalling for +our invasion at Boulogne, and Brest and Cherbourg and +Toulon were crowded with ships and sailors to protect +the flotilla, it needs no great knowledge of character to +pronounce that English William Pitt and Scottish +Harry Dundas would have had the royal Bourbon’s<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[440]</a></span> +head on a block, or his body on Tyburn-tree, in spite of +all the romance and eloquence in the world.</p> + +<p>Mary’s guilt or innocence of the charges brought +against her in her relations with Darnley and Bothwell +has nothing to do with the treatment she received +from Elizabeth. She was not amenable to English law +for any thing she did in Scotland, nor was she condemned +for any thing but treasonable practices which +it was impossible to deny. She certainly owed submission +and allegiance to the English crown while she lived +under its protection. Let us indulge our chivalrous +generosity, and enjoy delightful poems in defence of +an unfortunate and beautiful sovereign, by believing +that the blots upon her fame were the aspersions of +malignity and political baseness: the great fact remains, +that it was an indispensable incident to the security of +both the kingdoms that she should be deprived of +authority, and finally, as the storm darkened, and derived +all its perils from her conspiracies against the +State and breaches of the law, that she should be deprived +of life. Far more sweeping measures were pursued +and defended by the enemies of Elizabeth abroad. +Present forever, like a skeleton at a feast, must have +been the massacre of St. Bartholomew in the thoughts +of every Protestant in Europe, and most vividly of all +in those of the English queen. That great blow was +meant to be a warning to heretics wherever they were +found, and in olden times and more revengeful dispositions +might have been an excuse for similar atrocity on +the other side. The Bartholomew massacre and the +Armada are the two great features of the latter part of +this century; and they are both so well known that it +will be sufficient to recall them in a very few words.</p> + +<p>This massacre was no chance-sprung event, like an +ordinary popular rising, but had been matured for many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[441]</a></span> +years. The Council of Trent, which met in 1545 and +continued its sittings till 1563, had devoted those eighteen +years to codifying the laws of the Catholic Church. A +definite, clear, consistent system was established, and +acknowledged as the religious and ecclesiastical faith of +Christendom. Men were not now left to a painful +gathering of the sentiments and rescripts of popes and +doctors out of varying and scattered writings. Here +were the statutes at large, minutely indexed and easy +of reference. From these many texts could be gathered +which justified any method of diffusing the true belief +or exterminating the false. And accordingly, a short +time after the close of the Council, an interview took +place between two personages, of very sinister augury +for the Protestant cause. Catherine de Medicis and the +Duke of Alva met at Bayonne in 1565. In this consultation +great things were discussed; and it was decided +by the wickedest woman and harshest man in Europe +that government could not be safe nor religion honoured +unless by the introduction of the Inquisition and a +general massacre of heretics in every land. A few +months later saw the ferocious Alva beginning his +bloodthirsty career in the Netherlands, in which he +boasted he had put eighteen thousand Hollanders to +death on the scaffold in five years. Catherine also pondered +his lessons in her heart, and when seven years +had passed, and the Huguenots were still unsubdued, +she persuaded her son Charles the Ninth that the time +was come to establish his kingdom in righteousness by +the indiscriminate murder of all the Protestants. An +occasion was found in 1572, when the marriage of Henry +of Navarre, afterwards the best-loved king of France, +with the Princess Margaret de Valois, held out a prospect +of soothing the religious troubles, and also (which +suited her designs better) of attracting all the heads of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[442]</a></span> +the Huguenot cause to Paris. Every thing turned out +as she hoped. There had been feasts and gayeties, and +suspicion had been thoroughly disarmed. Suddenly the +tocsin was sounded, and the murderers let loose over all +the town. No plea was received in extenuation of the +deadly crime of favouring the new opinions. Hospitality, +friendship, relationship, youth, sex, all were disregarded. +The streets were red with blood, and the +river choked with mutilated bodies. Upwards of seventy +thousand were butchered in Paris alone, and the metropolitan +example was followed in other places. The deed +was so awful that for a while it silenced the whole of +Europe. Some doubted, some shuddered; but Rome +sprang up with a shout of joy when the news was confirmed, +and uttered prayers of thanksgiving for so great +a victory. If it could have been possible to put every +gainsayer to death everywhere, the triumph would have +been complete; but there were countries where Catherine’s +dagger could not reach; and whenever her name +was heard, and the terrible details of the massacre were +known, undying hatred of the Church which encouraged +such iniquity mingled with the feelings of pity and +alarm. For no one henceforth could feel safe. The +Huguenots were under the highest protection known to +the heart of man. They were guests, and they were +taken unawares in the midst of the rejoicings of a +marriage. Rome lost more by the massacre than the +Protestants. People looked round and saw the butcheries +in the Netherlands, the slaughters in Paris, the +tortures in the Inquisition, and over all, rioting in hopes +of recovered dominion, supported by his priests and +Dominicans, a Pope who plainly threatened a repetition +of such scenes wherever his power was acknowledged. +Germany, the Netherlands, England, Scotland, and the +Northern nations, were lost to the Church of Rome<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[443]</a></span> +more surely by the scaffold and crimes which professed +to bring her aid, than by any other cause. Elizabeth +was now the accepted champion and leader of the Protestants, +and on her all the malice of the baffled Romanists +was turned. To weaken, to dethrone or murder the +English heretic was the praiseworthiest of deeds.</p> + +<p>But one great means of distracting England from her +onward course was now removed. In former days +Scotland would have been let loose upon her unguarded +flanks; but by this time the genius of Knox, running +parallel with the efforts of the Southern reformers, had +raised a religious feeling which responded to the English +call. Scotland, freed from an oppressive priesthood, did +manful battle at the side of her former enemy. Elizabeth +was kept safe by the joint hatred the nations entertained +to Rome, and, as regarded foreigners, the Union +had already taken place. On one sure ground, however, +those foreigners could still build their hopes. Mary, +conscientious in her religion, and embittered in her dislike, +was still alive, to be the rallying-point for every +discontented cry and to represent the old causes,—the +legitimate descent and the true faith. The greatest +circumspection would have been required to keep her +conduct from suspicion in these embarrassing circumstances. +But she was still as thoughtless as in her +happier days, and exposed herself to legal inquiries by +the unguardedness of her behaviour. The wise counsellors +of Elizabeth saw but one way to put an end to all +those fears and expectations; and Mary, after due trial, +was condemned and executed. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1587.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Hope was now +at an end; but revenge remained, and the great +Colossus of the Papacy bestirred himself to punish the +sacrilegious usurper. Philip the Second was still the +most Catholic of kings. More stern and bigoted than +when he had tried to restrain the burning zeal of Mary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[444]</a></span> +of England, he was resolved to restore by force a revolted +people to the Chair of St. Peter and exact vengeance +for the slights and scorns which had rankled in his +heart from the date of his ill-omened visit. He prepared +all his forces for the glorious attempt. Nothing +could have been devised more calculated to bring all +English hearts more closely to their queen. Every +report of a fresh squadron joining the fleets already +assembled for the invasion called forth more zeal in behalf +of the reformed Church and the undaunted Elizabeth. +Scotland also held some vessels ready to assist +her sister in this great extremity, and lined her shores +with Presbyterian spearmen. Community of danger +showed more clearly than ever that safety lay in combination. +Chains, we know, were brought over in those +missionary galleys, and all the apparatus of torture, +with smiths to set them to work. But the smiths and +the chains never made good their landing on British +ground. The ships covered all the narrow sea; but the +wind blew, and they were scattered. It was perhaps +better, as a warning and a lesson, that the principal +cause of the Spaniard’s disaster was a storm. If it +had been fairly inflicted on them in open battle, the +superior seamanship or numbers or discipline of the +enemy might have been pleaded. But there must have +mingled something more depressing than the mere +sorrow of defeat when Philip received his discomfited +admiral with the words, “We cannot blame you for +what has happened: we cannot struggle against the +will of God.”</p> + +<hr class="chap" /></div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[445]</a></span> +<a name="SEVENTEENTH_CENTURY" id="SEVENTEENTH_CENTURY">SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.</a></h2> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of France.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Henry IV.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1610.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Louis XIII.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1643.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Louis XIV.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Emperors of Germany.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Rodolph II.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1612.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Matthias.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1619.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Ferdinand II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1637.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Ferdinand III.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1658.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Leopold I.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of England and Scotland.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Elizabeth.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td align="left" class="dynast">(<i>House of Stuart.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1603.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">James I.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1625.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Charles I.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1649.</td><td class="sovereign">Commonwealth.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1660.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Charles II</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1685.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">James II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1689.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">William III.</span> and <span class="smcap">Mary</span>.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of Spain.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Philip III.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1621.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Philip IV.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1665.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Charles II.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="heading">Distinguished Men.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bacon</span>, <span class="smcap">Milton</span>, <span class="smcap">Locke</span>, <span class="smcap">Corneille</span>, <span class="smcap">Racine</span>, <span class="smcap">Molière</span>, <span class="smcap">Kepler</span>, +(1571-1630,) <span class="smcap">Boyle</span>, (1627-1691,) <span class="smcap">Bossuet</span>, (1627-1704,) <span class="smcap">Newton</span>, +(1642-1727,) <span class="smcap">Burnet</span>, (1643-1715,) <span class="smcap">Bayle</span>, (1647-1706,) +<span class="smcap">Condé</span>, <span class="smcap">Turenne</span>, (1611-1675,) <span class="smcap">Marlborough</span>, (1650-1722.)</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[447]</a></span> +<a name="THE_SEVENTEENTH_CENTURY" id="THE_SEVENTEENTH_CENTURY">THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.</a></h2> +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="sub-heading">ENGLISH REBELLION AND REVOLUTION — DESPOTISM OF +LOUIS THE FOURTEENTH.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">We</span> are apt to suppose that progress and innovation +are so peculiarly the features of these latter times that +it is only in them that a man of more than ordinary +length of life has witnessed any remarkable change. +We meet with men still alive who were acquainted with +Franklin and Voltaire, who have been presented at the +court of Louis the Sixteenth and have visited President +Pierce at the White House. But the period we have +now to examine is quite as varied in the contrasts presented +by the duration of a lifetime as in any other age +of the world. Of this we shall take a French chronicler +as an example,—a man who was as greedy of news, and +as garrulous in relating it, as Froissart himself, but who +must take a very inferior rank to that prose minstrel +of “gentle blood,” as he limited his researches principally +to the scandals which characterized his time. +We mean the truth-speaking libeller Brantôme. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1616.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>This +man died within a year or two of Shakspeare, +and yet had accompanied Mary to Scotland, +and given that poetical account of the voyage from +Calais, when she sat in the stern of the vessel with her +eyes fixed on the receding shore, and said, “Adieu, +France, adieu! I shall never see you more;” and again, +on the following morning, bending her looks across the +water when land was no longer to be seen, and exclaiming, +“Adieu, France! I shall never see you more.” The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[448]</a></span> +mere comparison of these two things—the return of +Mary to her native kingdom, torn at that time with all +the struggles of anarchy and distress, and the death of +the greatest of earth’s poets, rich and honoured, in +his well-built house at Stratford-on-Avon—suggests a +strange contrast between the beginning of Brantôme’s +literary career and its close: the events filling up the +interval are like the scarcely-discernible heavings in a +dark and tumultuous sea,—a storm perpetually raging, +and waves breaking upon every shore. In his own +country, cruelty and demoralization had infected all +orders in the State, till murder, and the wildest profligacy +of manners, were looked on without a shudder. +Brantôme attended the scanty and unregretted funeral +of Henry the Third, the last of the house of Valois, +who was stabbed by the monk Jacques Clement for +faltering in his allegiance to the Church. A sentence +had been pronounced at Rome against the miserable +king, and the fanatic’s dagger was ready. Sixtus the +Fifth, in full consistory, declared that the regicide was +“comparable, as regards the salvation of the world, to +the incarnation and the resurrection, and that the +courage of the youthful Jacobin surpassed that of +Eleazar and Judith.” “That Pope,” says Chateaubriand, +the Catholic historian of France, “had too little +political conviction, and too much genius, to be sincere +in these sacrilegious comparisons; but it was of importance +to him to encourage the fanatics who were ready +to murder kings in the name of the papal power.” +Brantôme had seen the issuing of a bull containing the +same penalties against Elizabeth, the death of Mary on +the scaffold, and the failure of the Armada. After the +horrors of the religious wars, from the conspiracy of +Amboise in 1560 to the publication of the edict of toleration +given at Nantes in 1598, he had seen the comparatively<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[449]</a></span> +peaceful days of Henry the Fourth, till fanaticism +again awoke a suspicion of a return to his original +Protestant leanings, as shown in his opposition to the +house of Austria, and Ravaillac renewed the meritorious +work of Clement in 1610. Last of all, the spectator of +all these changes saw England and Scotland forever +united under one crown, and the first rise of the master +of the modern policy of Europe, for in the year of +Brantôme’s death a young priest was appointed Secretary +of State in France, whom men soon gazed on with +fear and wonder as the great Cardinal Richelieu.</p> + +<p>In England the alterations were as great and striking. +After the troubled years from Elizabeth’s accession to +the Armada, a period of rest and progress came. Interests +became spread over the whole nation, and did +not depend so exclusively on the throne. Wisdom and +good feeling made Elizabeth’s crown, in fact, what laws +and compacts have made her successors’,—a constitutional +sovereign’s. She ascertained the sentiments of +her people almost without the intervention of Parliament, +and was more a carrier-through of the national +will than the originator of absolute decrees. The +moral battles of a nation in pursuit of some momentous +object like religious or political freedom bring forth +great future crops, as fields are enriched on which +mighty armies have been engaged. The fertilizing +influence extends in every direction, far and near. If, +therefore, the intellectual harvest that followed the +final rejection of the Pope and crowning defeat of the +Spaniard included Shakspeare and Bacon, and a host of +lesser but still majestic names, we may venture also to +remark, on the duller and more prosaic side of the question, +that in the first year of the seventeenth century a +patent was issued by which a commercial speculation +attained a substantive existence, for the East India<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[450]</a></span> +Company was founded, with a stock of seventy-two +thousand pounds, and a fleet of four vessels took their +way from the English harbours, on their first voyage to +the realm where hereafter their employers, who thus +began as merchant adventurers, were to rule as kings. +The example set by these enterprising men was followed +by high and low. During the previous century people +had been too busy with their domestic and religious disputes +to pay much attention to foreign exploration. +They were occupied with securing their liberties from +the tyranny of Henry the Eighth and their lives from +the truculence of Mary. Then the plots perpetually +formed against Elizabeth, by domestic treason and +foreign levy, kept their attention exclusively on home-affairs. +But when the State was settled and religion +secure, the long-pent-up activity of the national mind +found vent in distant expeditions. A chivalrous contempt +of danger, and poetic longing for new adventure, +mingled with the baser attractions of those maritime +wanderings. The families of gentle blood in England, +instead of sending their sons to waste their lives in pursuit +of knightly fame in the service of foreign states, +equipped them for far higher enterprises, and sent them +forth to gather the riches of unknown lands beyond the +sea. Romantic rumours were rife in every manor-house +of the strange sights and inexhaustible wealth to +be gained by undaunted seamanship and judicious treatment +of the natives of yet-unexplored dominions. Spain +and Portugal had their kingdoms, but the extent of +America was great enough for all. Islands were everywhere +to be found untouched as yet by the foot of +European; and many a winter’s night was spent in +talking over the possible results of sailing up some of +the vast rivers that came down like bursting oceans +from the far-inland regions to which nobody had as yet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[451]</a></span> +ascended,—the people and cities that lay upon their +banks, the gold and jewels that paved the common soil. +Towards the end of Elizabeth’s reign, these imaginings +had grown into sufficing motives of action, and gentlemen +were ready from all the ports of the kingdom to +sail on their adventurous voyages. In addition to the +chance those gallant mariners had of realizing their +day-dreams by the tedious methods of discovery and +exploration, there was always the prospect of making +prize of a galleon of Spain; for at all times, however +friendly the nations might be in the European waters, a +war was carried on beyond the Azores. Not altogether +lost, therefore, was the old knightly spirit of peril-seeking +and adventure in those commercial and geographical +speculations. There were articles of merchandise in +the hold, gaudy-coloured cloths, and bead ornaments, +and wretched looking-glasses, besides brass and iron; +but all round the captain’s cabin were arranged swords +and pistols, boarding-pikes, and other implements of +fight. Guns also of larger size peeped out of the port-holes, +and the crew were chosen as much with a view +to warlike operations as to the ordinary duties of the +ship. The Spaniards had made their way into the +Pacific, and had established large settlements on the +shores of Chili and Peru. Scenes which have been +reacted at the diggings in modern times took place +where the Europeans fixed their seat, and ships loaded +with the precious metals found their way home, exposed +to all the perils of storm and war. Drake had pounced +upon several of their galleys and despoiled them of their +precious cargo. Cavendish, a gentleman of good estate +in Suffolk, had followed in his wake, and, after forcing +his way through the Straits of Magellan, had reached +the shores of California itself and there captured a +Spanish vessel freighted with a vast amount of gold.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[452]</a></span> +All these adventures of the expiring sixteenth century +became traditions and ballads of the young seventeenth. +Raleigh, the most accomplished gentleman of his time, +gave the glory of his example to the maritime career, +and all the oceans were alive with British ships. While +Raleigh and others of the upper class were carrying on +a sort of cultivated crusade against the monopoly of the +Spaniards, others of a less aristocratic position were +busied in the more regular paths of commerce. We +have seen the formation of the India Company in 1600. +Our competitors, the Dutch, fitted out fleets on a larger +scale, and established relations of trade and friendship +with the natives of Polynesia and New Holland, and +even of Java and India. But the zeal of the public in +trading-speculations was not only shown in those well-conducted +expeditions to lands easily accessible and +already known: a company was established for the purpose +of opening out the African trade, and a commercial +voyage was undertaken to no less a place than +Timbuctoo by a gallant pair of seamen of the names of +Thomson and Jobson. It was not long before these +efforts at honest international communication, and even +the exploits of the Drakes and Cavendishes, who acted +under commissions from the queen, degenerated into +lawless piracy and the golden age of the Buccaneers. +The policy of Spain was complete monopoly in her own +hands, and a refusal of foreign intercourse worthy of +the potentates of China and Japan. All access was prohibited +to the flags of foreign nations, and the natural result +followed. Adventurous voyagers made their appearance +with no flag at all, or with the hideous emblem of a +death’s head emblazoned on their standard, determined to +trade peaceably if possible, but to trade whether peaceably +or not. The Spanish colonists were not indisposed to +exchange their commodities with those of the new-comers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[453]</a></span> +but the law was imperative. The Buccaneers, +therefore, proceeded to help themselves to what they +wanted by force, and at length came to consider themselves +an organized estate, governed by their own laws, +and qualified to make treaties like any other established +and recognised power. Cuba had been nearly depopulated +by the cruelties and fanaticism of its Spanish +masters, and was seized on by the Buccaneers. From +this rich and beautiful island the pirate-barks dashed +out upon any Spanish sail which might be leaving the +mainland. Commanding the Gulf of Mexico, and with +the power of crossing the Isthmus of Panama by a +rapid march, those redoubtable bandits held the treasure-lands +of the Spaniards in terrible subjection. And up +to the commencement even of the eighteenth century +the frightful spectacle was presented of a powerful confederacy +of the wildest and most dissolute villains in +Europe domineering over the most frequented seas in +the world, and filling peaceful voyagers, and even well-armed +men-of-war, with alarm by their unsparing +cruelty, and atrocities which it curdles the blood to +think of.</p> + +<p>Eastward as far as China, westward to the islands +and shores of the great Pacific, up the rivers of Africa, +and even among the forests of New Holland and Tasmania, +the swarms of European adventurers succeeded +each other without cessation. The marvel is, that, with +such ceaseless activity, any islands, however remote or +small, were left for the discovery of after-times. But +the tide of English emigration rolled towards the mainland +of North America with a steadier flow than to any +other quarter. The idea of a northwest passage to +India had taken possession of men’s minds, and hardy +seamen had already braved the horrors of a polar +winter, and set examples of fortitude and patience<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[454]</a></span> +which their successors, from Behrens to Kane, have +so nobly followed. But the fertile plains of Virginia, +and the navigable streams of the eastern shore, were +more alluring to the peaceful and unenterprising settlers, +whose object was to find a new home and carry on a +lucrative trade with the native Indians. In 1607, a +colony, properly so called,—for it had made provision +for permanent settlement, and consisted of a hundred +and ten persons, male and female,—arrived at the mouth +of the Chesapeake. The river Powhatan was eagerly +explored; and at a point sufficiently far up to be secure +from sudden attack from the sea, and on an isthmus +easily defended from native assault, they pitched their +tents on a spot which was hereafter known as Jamestown +and is still honoured as the earliest of the +American settlements. Our neighbour Holland was +not behindhand either in trade or colonization, and +equally with England was excited to fresh efforts by its +recovered liberty and independence. In all directions +of intellectual and physical employment those two +States went boundingly forward at the head of the movement. +The absolute monarchies lay lazily by, and +relied on the inertness of their mass for their defence +against those active competitors; and Spain, an unwieldy +bulk, showed the intimate connection there will +always exist between liberal institutions at home and +active progress abroad. The sun never set on the +dominions of the Spanish crown, but the life of the +people was crushed out of them by the weight of the Inquisition +and despotism. The United Provinces and combined +Great Britain had shaken off both those petrifying +institutions, and Englishmen, Scotchmen, and Dutchmen +were ploughing up every sea, presenting themselves +at the courts of strange-coloured potentates, in +regions whose existence had been unknown a few years<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[455]</a></span> +before, and gradually accustoming the wealth and commerce +of the world to find their way to London and +Amsterdam.</p> + +<p>To go from these views of hardihood and enterprise, +from the wild heaving of unruly vigour which animated +the traffickers and tyrants of the main, to the peaceful +and pedantic domestic reign of James the First, shows +the two extremes of European character at this time. +The English people were not more than four millions in +number, but they were the happiest and most favoured +of all the nations. This was indeed the time,</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i14">“Ere England’s woes began,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">When every rood of land maintain’d its man;”<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>for we have seen how the division of the great monastic +properties had created a new order in the State. All +accounts concur in describing the opening of this century +as the period of the greatest physical prosperity +of the body of the people. A great deal of dulness +and unrefinement there must still have been in the +boroughs, where such sage officials as Dogberry displayed +their pomp and ignorance,—a great deal of +clownishness and coarseness in country-places, where +Audreys and Autolycuses were to be found; but among +townsmen and peasantry there was none of the grinding +poverty which a more unequal distribution of +national wealth creates. There were great Whitsun +ales, and dancings round the Maypole; feasts on village +greens, and a spirit of rude and personal independence, +which became mellowed into manly self-respect when +treated with deference by the higher ranks, the old +hereditary gentry and the retired statesmen of Queen +Bess, but bristled up in insolence and rebellion when +the governing power thwarted its wishes, or fanaticism +soured it with the bitter waters of polemic strife. The +sturdy Englishman who doffed his hat to the squire, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[456]</a></span> +joined his young lord in sports upon the green, in the +beginning of James’s reign, was the same stout-hearted, +strong-willed individual who stiffened into Puritanism +and contempt of all earthly authorities in the unlovely, +unloving days of the Rump and Cromwell. Nor should +we miss the great truth which lies hidden under the rigid +forms of that period,—that the same noble qualities which +characterized the happy yeoman and jocund squire of +1620—their earnestness, energy, and intensity of home +affections—were no less existent in their ascetic short-haired +descendants of 1650. The brimfulness of life +which overflowed into expeditions against the Spaniards +in Peru, and unravellings of the tangled rivers of Africa, +and trackings of the wild bears among the ice-floes of +Hudson’s Bay, took a new direction when the century +reached the middle of its course, and developed itself in +the stormy discussions of the contending sects and the +blood and misery of so many battle-fields. How was this +great change worked on the English mind? How was it +that the long-surviving soldier, courtier, landholder, of +Queen Elizabeth saw his grandson grow up into the hard-featured, +heavy-browed, keen-sworded Ironside of Oliver? +A squire who ruined himself in loyal entertainments to +King James on his larder-and-cellar-emptying journey +from Edinburgh to London in 1603 may have lived to +see his son, and son’s son, rejoicing with unholy triumph +over the victory of Naseby in 1644 and the death of +Charles in 1649.</p> + +<p>Great causes must have been at work to produce this +astonishing change, and some of them it will not be +difficult to point out. Perhaps, indeed, the prosperity +we have described may itself have contributed to the +alteration in the English ways of thought. While the +nation was trampled on by Henry the Eighth, with +property and life insecure and poverty universally diffused,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[457]</a></span> +or even while it was guided by the strong hand +of Elizabeth, it had neither power nor inclination to +examine into its rights. The rights of a starving and +oppressed population are not very great, even in its own +eyes. It is the well-fed, law-protected, enterprising +citizen who sees the value of just and settled government, +because the blessings he enjoys depend upon its +continuance. The mind of the nation had been pauperized +along with its body by the life of charitable dependence +it had led at the doors of church and monastery +in the olden time. It little mattered to a gaping +crowd expecting the accustomed dole whether the great +man in London was a tyrannical king or not. They did +not care whether he dismissed his Parliaments or cut +off the heads of his nobility. They still found their +“bit and sup,” and saw the King, and Parliament, and +nobility, united in obedience to the Church. But when +this debasing charity was discontinued, independence +came on. The idle hanger-on of the religious house +became a cottager, and worked on his own land; by +industry he got capital enough to take some additional +acres; and the man of the next generation had forgotten +the low condition he sprang from, and had so sharpened +his mind by the theological quarrels of the time +that he began to be able to comprehend the question of +general politics. He saw, as every population and potentate +in Europe saw with equal clearness, that the +question of civil freedom was indissolubly connected +with the relation between Church and State; he perceived +that the extent of divergence from the old faith +regulated in a great measure the spirit, and even the +constitution, of government where it took place,—that +adhesion to Rome meant absolutism and dependence, +that Calvinism had a strong bias towards the republican +form, and that the Church he had helped to establish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[458]</a></span> +was calculated to fill up the ground between those two +extremes, and be the religious representative of a State +as liberal as Geneva by its attention to the interests of +all, and as monarchical as Spain by its loyalty to an +hereditary crown. Now, the middle ground in great +and agitating affairs is always the most difficult to +maintain. Both sides make it their battle-field, and try +to win it to themselves; and according as one assailant +seems on the point of carrying his object, the defender +of that disputed territory has to lean towards the other. +Both parties are offended at the apparent inconsistency; +and we are therefore not to be surprised if we find the +Church accused of looking to both the hostile camps in +turn.</p> + +<p>James was a fatal personage to every cause he undertook +to defend. He had neither the strength of will of +Henry, nor the proud consistency of Elizabeth; but he +had the arrogance and presumption of both. Questions +which the wise queen was afraid to touch, and left to the +ripening influence of time, this blustering arguer dragged +into premature discussion, stripped them of all their +dignity by the frivolousness of the treatment he gave +them, and disgusted all parties by the harshness and +rapidity of his partial decisions. Every step he took in +the quelling of religious dissension by declarations in +favour of proscription and authority which would have +endeared him to Gregory the Seventh, he accompanied +with some frightful display of his absolutist tendencies +in civil affairs. The same man who roared down the +modest claims of a thousand of the clergy who wished +some further modification of the Book of Common +Prayer threw recusant members of Parliament into +prison, persecuted personal enemies to death, with +scarcely a form of law, punished refractory towns with +loss of franchises and privileges, and made open declaration<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[459]</a></span> +of his unlimited power over the lives and properties +of all his subjects. People saw this unvarying alliance +between his polemics and his politics, and began to consider +seriously whether the comforts their trade and industry +had given them could be safe under a Church +calling itself reformed, but protected by such a king. +If he was only suspected in England, in his own country +he was fully known. Dearer to James would have been +a hundred bishops and cardinals seated in conclave in +Holyrood than a Presbyterian Synod praying against +his policy in the High Kirk. He had even written to +the Pope with offers of accommodation and reconcilement, +and made no secret of his individual and official +disgust at the levelling ideas of those grave followers of +Knox and Calvin. Those grave followers of Knox and +Calvin, however, were not unknown on the south side +of the Tweed. The intercourse between the countries +was not limited to the hungry gentry who followed +James on his accession. A community of interest and +feeling united the more serious of the Reformers, and +visits and correspondence were common between them. +But, while a regard for their personal freedom and the +security of their wealth attracted the attention of the +English middle class to the proceedings of King James, +events were going on in foreign lands which had an +immense effect on the development of the anti-monarchic, +anti-episcopal spirit at home. These events +have not been sufficiently considered in this relation, +and we have been too much in the habit of looking at +our English doings in those momentous years,—from the +end of James’s reign to the Restoration,—as if Britain +had continued as isolated from her Continental neighbours +as before the Norman Conquest. But a careful +comparison of dates and actions will show how intimate +the connection had become between the European States,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[460]</a></span> +and how instantaneously the striking of a chord at +Prague or Vienna thrilled through the general heart in +Edinburgh and London.</p> + +<p>The Reformation, after achieving its independence +and equality at the Treaty of Augsburg in 1555, had +made great though silent progress. Broken off in Germany +into two parties, the Lutheran and the Calvinist, +who hated each other, as usual, in exact proportion to +the smallness of their difference, the union was still +kept up between them as regarded their antagonism to +the Papists. With all three denominations, the religious +part of the question had fallen into terrible abeyance. +It was now looked on by the leaders entirely as a matter +of personal advancement and political rule. In this +pursuit the fanaticism which is generally limited to +theology took the direction of men’s political conduct; +and there were enthusiasts among all the sects, who saw +visions, and dreamed dreams, about the succession to +thrones and the raising of armies, as used to happen in +more ancient times about the bones of martyrs and the +beatification of saints. The great object of Protestants +and Catholics was to obtain a majority in the college of +the Prince Electors by whom the Empire was bestowed. +This consisted of the seven chief potentates of Germany, +of whom four were secular,—the King of Bohemia, +the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Duke of +Saxony, and the Marquis of Brandenburg; and three +ecclesiastic,—the Archbishops of Mentz, Trèves, and +Cologne. The majority was naturally secured to the +Romanists by the official adhesion of these last. But +it chanced that the Elector of Cologne fell violently in +love with Agnes of Mansfeldt, a canoness of Gerrestein; +and having of course studied the history of our Henry +the Eighth and Anne Boleyn, he determined to follow his +example, and offered the fair canoness his hand. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[461]</a></span> +was unwilling, however, to offer his hand without the +Electoral crozier, and, by the advice of his friends, and +with the promised support of many of the Protestant +rulers, he retained his ecclesiastical dignity and made +the beautiful Agnes his wife. This would not have been +of much consequence in a lower rank, for many of the +cathedral dignitaries in Cologne and other places had +retained their offices after changing their faith; but all +Germany was awake to the momentous nature of this +transaction, for it would have conveyed a majority of +the Electoral voices to the Protestants and opened the +throne of the empire itself to a Protestant prince. Such, +however, was the strength at that time of the opposition +to Rome, that all the efforts of the Catholics would have +been ineffectual to prevent this ruinous arrangement +but for a circumstance which threw division into the +Protestant camp. Gebhard had adhered to the Calvinistic +branch of the Reformation, and the Lutherans +hated him with a deadlier hatred than the Pope himself. +With delight they saw him outlawed by the Emperor +and excommunicated by Rome, his place supplied by a +Prince of Bavaria, who was elected by the Chapter of +Cologne to protect them from their apostate archbishop, +and the head of the house of Austria strengthened by +the consolidation of his Electoral allies and the unappeasable +dissensions of his enemies. While petty interests +and the narrowest quarrels of sectarianism +divided the Protestants, and while the Electors and +other princes who had adopted their theological opinions +were doubtful of the political results of religious freedom, +and many had waxed cold, and others were discontented +with the small extent of the liberation from +ancient trammels they had yet obtained, a very different +spectacle was presented on the other side. Popes and +Jesuits were heartily and unhesitatingly at work. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[462]</a></span>“No +cold, faint-hearted doubtings teased them.” Their object +was incommoded by no refinements or verbal differences; +they were determined to assert their old supremacy,—to +trample out every vestige of resistance to +their power; and they entered upon the task without +scruple or remorse. Ferdinand the Emperor, the prop +and champion of the Romish cause, was as sincere and +as unpitying as Dominic. When he had been nominated +King Elect of Bohemia, in 1598, while yet in his +twentieth year, his first thought was the future use he +might make of his authority in the extermination of the +Protestant faith. The Jesuits, by whom he was trained +from his earliest years, never turned out a more hopeful +pupil. His ambition would have been, if he had had it +in his power, to become a follower of Loyola himself; +but, as he was condemned by fate to the lower office of +the first of secular princes, he determined to employ all +its power at the dictation of his teachers. He went a +pilgrimage to Loretto, and, bowing before the miraculous +image of the Virgin, promised to reinstate the true +Church in its unquestioned supremacy, and bent all his +thoughts to the fulfilment of his vow. Two-thirds of +his subjects in his hereditary states were Protestant, but +he risked all to attain his object. He displaced their +clergy, and banished all who would not conform. He +introduced Catholics from foreign countries to supply +the waste of population, and sent armed men to destroy +the newly-erected schools and churches of the hateful +heretics. This man was crowned King of Bohemia in +1618, and Emperor of Germany in the following year.</p> + +<p>The attention of the British public had been particularly +directed to German interests for the six years preceding +this date, by the marriage of Frederick, Elector +Palatine of the Rhine, with Elizabeth, the graceful and +accomplished daughter of King James. Frederick was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[463]</a></span> +young and ambitious, and was endeared to the English +people as leader of the Protestant cause against the +overweening pretensions of the house of Austria. That +house was still the most powerful in Europe; for though +the Spanish monarchy was held by another branch, for +all the purposes of despotism and religion its weight +was thrown into the same scale. Spanish soldiers, and +all the treasures of America, were still at the command +of the Empire; and perhaps Catholicism was rather +strengthened than weakened by the adherence of two +of the greatest sovereigns in the world, instead of +having the personal influence of only one, as in the +reign of Charles the Fifth. All the Elector’s movements +were followed with affectionate interest by the subjects +of his father-in-law; but James himself disapproved of +opposition being offered to the wildest excesses of royal +prerogative either in himself or any other anointed +ruler. Besides this, he was particularly hostile to the +young champion’s religious principles, for the latter was +attached to the Calvinistic or unepiscopal party. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1619.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>James +declined to give him any aid in maintaining his right to +the crown of Bohemia, to which he was elected by the +Protestant majority of that kingdom on the accession +of Ferdinand to the Empire, and managed to +show his feelings in the most offensive manner, +by oppressing such of Frederick’s co-religionists as he +found in any part of his dominions. The advocates of +peace at any price have praised the behaviour of the +king in this emergency; but it may be doubted whether +an energetic display of English power at this time +might not have prevented the great and cruel reaction +against freedom and Protestantism which the victory +of the bigoted Ferdinand over his neglected competitor +introduced. A riot, accompanied with violence against +the Catholic authorities, was the beginning of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">[464]</a></span> +troubles in Bohemia; and Ferdinand, as if to explain +his conduct to the satisfaction of James, published a +manifesto, which might almost be believed to have been +the production of that Solomon of the North. “If +sovereign power,” he says, “emanates from God, these +atrocious deeds must proceed from the devil, and therefore +must draw down divine punishment.” This logic +was unanswerable at Whitehall, and the work of extermination +went on. Feeble efforts were forced upon the +unwilling father-in-law; for all the chivalry of England +was wild with sympathy and admiration of the Bohemian +queen. Hundreds of gallant gentlemen passed +over to swell the Protestant ranks; and when they returned +and told the tale of all the horrors they had +seen, the remorseless vengeance of the triumphant +Church, and all the threatenings with which Rome and +the Empire endeavoured to terrify the nations which +had rebelled against their yoke, Puritanism, or resistance +to the slightest approach towards Popery either in +essentials or externals, became patriotism and self-defence; +and at this very time, while men’s minds were +inflamed with the descriptions of the torturings and +executions which followed the battle of Prague in 1620, +and the devastation and depopulation of Bohemia, +James took the opportunity of forcing the Episcopal +form of government on the Scottish Presbyterians.</p> + +<p>“The greatest matter,” he says, in an address to the +prelates of the reluctant dioceses,—“the greatest matter +the Puritans had to object against the Church government +was, that your proceedings were warranted by no +law, which now by this last Parliament is cutted short. +The sword is now put in your hands. Go on, therefore, +to use it, and let it rest no longer till ye have perfected +the service trusted to you; or otherwise we must use it +both against you and them.” While the people of both<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">[465]</a></span> +nations were willing to sink their polemic differences of +Calvinist and Anglican in one great attempt to deliver +the Protestants in Germany from the power of the house +of Austria,—while for this purpose they would have +voted taxes and raised armies with the heartiest good +will,—the king’s whole attention was bestowed on a set +of manœuvres for the obtaining a Spanish-Austrian +bride for his son. To gain this he would have humbled +himself to the lowest acts. At a whisper from Madrid, +he interfered with the German war, to the detriment of +his own daughter; and England perceived that his +ineradicable love of power and hatred of freedom had +blinded him to national interests and natural affections. +If we follow the whole career of James, and a great +portion of his successor’s, we shall see the same remarkable +coincidence between the events in England and +abroad,—unpopularity of the king, produced by his +apparent lukewarmness in the general Protestant cause +as much as by his arbitrary acts at home. Whatever +the nation desired, the king opposed. When Gustavus +Adolphus, the Lion of the North, began his triumphant +career in 1630, and re-established the fallen fortunes of +Protestantism, Charles concluded a dishonourable peace +with Spain, without a single provision in favour of the +Protestants of the German States, and allowed the +Popish Cardinal Richelieu first to consolidate his forces +by an unsparing oppression of the Huguenots in France, +and then to almost compensate for his harshness by a +gallant support of the Swedish hero in his struggle +against the Austrian power.</p> + +<p>There was no longer the same content and happiness +in the towns and country districts as there had been at +the commencement of the century. Men had looked +with contempt and dislike on the proceedings of James’s +court,—his coarse buffoonery, and disgraceful patronage<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">[466]</a></span> +of a succession of worthless favourites; and they continued +to look, not indeed with contempt, but with +increased dislike and suspicion, on the far purer court +and dignified manners of his unfortunate son. A +French princess, though the daughter of Henry the +Fourth, was regarded as an evil omen for the continuance +of good government or religious progress. Her +attendants, lay and clerical, were not unjustly considered +spies, and advisers with interests hostile to the +popular tendencies. And all this time went on the +unlucky coincidences which distinguished this reign,—of +Catholic cruelties in foreign lands, and approaches to +the Catholic ceremonial in the reformed Church. While +Tilly, the remorseless general of the Emperor, was +letting loose the most ferocious army which ever served +under a national standard upon the inhabitants of +Magdeburg, heaping into the history of that miserable +assault all the sufferings that “horror e’er conceived or +fancy feigned,”—and while the echo of that awful +butchery, which has not yet died out of the German +heart, was making sorrowful every fireside in what was +once merry England,—the king’s advisers pursued their +blind way, torturing their opponents with knife and +burning-brand upon the pillory, flogging gentlemen +nearly to death upon the streets, and consecrating +churches with an array of surplice, and censer, and +processions, and organ-blowings, which would have done +honour to St. Peter’s at Rome. People saw a lamentable +connection between the excesses of Catholic cruelty and +the tendency in our sober establishment to Catholic +traditions, and became fanatical in their detestation of +the simplest forms.</p> + +<p>In ordinary times the wise man considers mere forms +as almost below his notice; but there are periods when +the emblem is of as much importance as the thing it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">[467]</a></span> +typifies. Church ceremonies, and gorgeous robes, and +magnificent worship, were accepted by both parties as +the touchstone of their political and religious opinions. +Laud pushed aside the Archbishop of Glasgow, who +stood at Charles’s right hand on his visit to Scotland in +1633, on the express ground that he had not the orthodox +fringe upon his habit,—a ridiculous ground for so +open an insult, if it had not had an inner sense. The +Archbishop of Glasgow professed himself a moderate +Churchman by the plainness of his dress, and Laud +accepted it as a defiance. Meanwhile the essential insignificance +of the symbol threw an air of ridicule over +the importance attached to it. Dull-minded men, who +had not the faculty of seeing how deep a question may +lie in a simple exposition of it, or frivolous men, who +could not rise to the real earnestness which enveloped +those discussions, were scandalized at the persistency of +Laud in enforcing his fancies, and the obstinacy of a +great portion of the clergy and people in resisting them. +But the Puritans, with clearer eyes, saw that a dance, +according to proclamation, on the village green on Sunday, +meant not a mere desecration of the Sabbath, but +a crusade against the rights of conscience and an assertion +of arbitrary power. Altars instead of communion-tables +in churches meant not merely a restoration of the +Popish belief in the real sacrifice of the mass, but a +placing of the king above the law, and the abrogation +of all liberty. They could not at this time persuade the +nation of these things. The nation, for the most part, +saw nothing more than met their bodily eyes; and, in +despair of escaping the slavery which they saw the +success of Ferdinand in Germany was likely to spread +over Europe, they began the long train of voyages to +the Western World, which times of suffering and uncertainty +have continued at intervals to the present day.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">[468]</a></span> +It is said that a vessel was stopped by royal warrant +when it was on the point of sailing from the Thames +with emigrants to America in 1637. On board were +various persons whose names would probably never +have been heard of if they had been allowed in peace +and safety to pursue their way to Boston, but with +which in a few years “all England rang from side to +side.” They were Oliver Cromwell, and Hampden, and +Haselrig, Lord Brook, and Lord Saye.</p> + +<p>Affairs had now reached such a crisis that they could +no longer continue undecided. A Parliament was +called in 1640, after an unexampled interval of eleven +years, and, after a few days’ session, was angrily dissolved. +Another, however, was indispensable in the +same year, and on the 3d of November the Long Parliament +met. The long-repressed indignation of the +Commons broke forth at once. Laud and Wentworth, +the principal advisers of the king, were tried and executed, +and precautions taken, by stringent acts, to +prevent a recurrence of arbitrary government. Everywhere +there seemed a rally in favour of the Protestant +or liberal cause. The death of Richelieu, the destroyer +of French freedom, opened a prospect of recovered independence +to the Huguenots; the victories of Torstenson +the Swede, worthy successor of Gustavus Adolphus, +brought down the pride of the Austrian Catholics; and +Puritans, Independents, and other outraged sects and +parties, by the restoration of the Parliament, got a terrible +instrument of vengeance against their oppressors. +A dreadful time, when on both sides the forms of law +were perverted to the most lawless purposes; when +peacefully-inclined citizens must have been tormented +with sad misgivings by the contending claims of Parliament +and King,—a Parliament correctly constituted +and in the exercise of its recognised authority, a King<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">[469]</a></span> +with no flaw to his title, and professing his willingness +to limit himself to the undoubted prerogatives of his +place. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1642.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>It was probably a relief to the undecided when +the arbitrament was removed from the court +of argument to the field of battle. All the +time of that miserable civil war, the other states of +Europe were in nearly as great confusion as ourselves. +France was torn to pieces by factions which contended +for the mantle of the departed cardinal; Germany was +traversed from end to end by alternately retreating and +advancing armies. But still the simultaneousness of +events abroad and at home is worthy of remark. The +great fights which decided the quarrel in England were +answered by victories of the Protestant arms in Germany +and the apparent triumph of the discontented in +France. The young king, Louis the Fourteenth, carried +from town to town, and disputed between the +parties, gave little augury of the despotism and injustice +of his future throne. There were barricades in Paris, +and insurrections all over the land. But at last, and +at the same time, all the combatants in England, and +France, and Germany—Huguenot, Puritan, Calvinist, +Protestant, and Papist—were tired out with the length +and bitterness of the struggle. So in 1648 the long +Thirty Years’ War was brought to a close by the Peace +of Westphalia. Kingly power in France was curtailed, +the house of Austria was humbled; and Charles was +carried prisoner to Windsor. The Protestants of Germany, +by the terms of the peace, were replaced in their +ancient possessions. They had freedom of worship and +equality of civil rights secured. A general law preserved +them from the injustice or aggressions of their +local masters; and the compromise guaranteed by so +many divergent interests, and guarded by such equally-divided +numbers, has endured to the present time. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[470]</a></span> +English conquerors would be contented with no less +than their foreign friends had obtained. But the blot +upon their conduct, the blood of the misguided and +humbled Charles, hindered the result of their wisest +deliberations. Moderate men were revolted by the violence +of the act, and old English loyalty, delivered from +the fear of foreign or domestic oppression, was awakened +by the sad end of a crowned and anointed +King. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1649.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Nothing compensates in an old hereditary +monarchy for the want of high descent in its +ruler. Not all Cromwell’s vigour and genius, his glory +abroad and energetic government at home, attracted +the veneration of English squires, whose forefathers +had fought at Crecy, to the grandson of a city knight, +or, at most, to the descendant of a minister of Henry +the Eighth. Charles the Second rose before them with +the transmitted dignity of a hundred kings. He counted +back to Scottish monarchs before the Norman Conquest, +and traced by his mother’s side his lineal ancestry up to +Charlemagne and Clovis. English history presents no +instance of the intrusion of an unroyal usurper in her +list of sovereigns. Cromwell stands forth the solitary +instance of a man of the people virtually seizing the +crown; and the ballads and pamphlets of the time +show how the comparative humility of his birth excited +the scorn of his contemporaries. And this feeling was +not limited to ancient lords and belted cavaliers: it +permeated the common mind. There was something +ennobling for the humblest peasant to die for King and +Cause; but, however our traditions and the lapse of two +hundred years may have elevated the conqueror at +Worcester and Dunbar, we are not to forget that, in the +estimation of those who had drunk his beer at Huntingdon +or listened to his tedious harangues in Parliament, +there would be neither patriotism nor honour in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">[471]</a></span> +dying for bluff Old Noll. But there were more dangerous +enemies to bluff Old Noll than the newness of his +name. The same cause which had made the nation dissatisfied +with the arbitrary pretensions of James and +Charles was at work in making it intolerant of the rule +of the usurpers.</p> + +<p>The great soldier and politician, who had overthrown +an ancient dynasty and crushed the seditions of the +sects, had increased the commercial prosperity of the +three kingdoms. Wealth poured in at all the ports, and +was rapidly diffused over the land; internal improvements +kept pace with foreign enterprise; and the England +which long ago had been too rich to be arbitrarily +governed was now again too rich to be kept in durance +by the sour-faced hypocrisies of the Puritans. Those +lank-haired gentlemen, whose conduct had not quite +answered to the self-denying proclamations with which +they had begun, were no longer able to persuade the +well-to-do citizen, and the high-waged mechanic, and +the prosperous farmer, that religion consisted in speaking +through the nose and forswearing all innocent enjoyment. +The great battle had been fought, and the +fruits of it, they thought, were secure. Were people to +be debarred from social meetings and merry-makings at +Christmas, and junketings at fairs, by act of Parliament? +Acts of Parliament would first have been required +strong enough to do away with youth and health, +and the power of admiring beauty, and the hopes of +marriage. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1641-49.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>The troubles had lasted seven or +eight years; and all through that period, and +for some time before, while the thick cloud was gathering, +all gayety had disappeared from the land. But by +the middle of Cromwell’s time there was a new generation, +in the first flush of youth,—lads and lasses who +had been too young to know any thing of the dark<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">[472]</a></span> +days of Laud and Wentworth. They were twenty +years of age now. Were they to have no cakes and ale +because their elders were so prodigiously virtuous? +They had many years of weary restraint and formalism +to make up for, and in 1660 the accumulated tide of +joyousness and delight burst all barriers. A flood of +dancing and revelry, and utter abandonment to happiness, +spread over the whole country; and merriest of +the dancers, loudest of the revellers, happiest of the +emancipated, was the young and brilliant king. Never +since the old times of the Feasts of Fools and the +gaudy processions of the Carnival had there been such +a riotous jubilee as inaugurated the Restoration. The +reaction against Puritanism carried the nation almost +beyond Christianity and landed it in heathenism again. +The saturnalia of Rome were renewed in the banquetings +of St. James’s. Nothing in those first days of +relaxation seemed real. King and courtiers and cavaliers +in courtly palaces, and enthusiastic townsfolk and +madly loyal husbandmen, seemed like mummers at a +play; and it was not till the candles were burned out, +and the scenes grew dingy, and daylight poured upon +that ghastly imitation of enjoyment, that England came +to its sober senses again. Then it saw how false was +the parody it had been playing. It had not been +happy; it had only been drunk; and already, while +Charles was in the gloss of his recovered crown, the +second reaction began. Cromwell became respectable +by comparison with the sensual debauchee who sold the +dignity of his country for a little present enjoyment +and soothed the reproaches of his people with a joke. +Give us a Man to rule over us, the English said, and not +a sayer of witty sayings and a juggler with such sleight +of hand. And yet the example of the court was so contagious, +and the fashion of enjoyment so wide-spread,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">[473]</a></span> +that on the surface every thing appeared prosperous +and happy. The stern realities of the first recusants +had been so travestied by the exaggerated imitation of +their successors that no faith was placed in the serious +earnestness of man or woman. Frivolity was therefore +adopted as a mark of sense; and if the popular literature +of a period is to be accepted as a mirror held up to +show the time its image, the old English character had +undergone a perfect change. Thousands flocked every +day to the playhouses to listen to dialogues, and watch +the evolvement of plots, where all the laws of decency +and honour were held up to ridicule. Comus and his +crew, which long ago had held their poetic festival in +the pure pages of Milton, were let loose, without the +purity or the poetry, in every family circle. And the +worst and most disgusting feature of the picture is that +those wassailers who were thus the missionaries of vice +were persecutors for religion. While one royal brother +was leading the revels at Whitehall, surrounded by +luxury and immorality as by an atmosphere without +which he could not live, the other, as luxurious, but +more moodily depraved, listened to the groans of tortured +Covenanters at Holyrood House. Charles and +James were like the two executioners of Louis the +Eleventh: one laughed, and the other groaned, but both +were pitilessly cruel. A recurrence to the dark days of +the Sects, the godly wrestlings in prayer of illiterate +horsemen, and the sincere fanaticism of the Fifth-Monarchy +men, would have been a change for the better +from the filth and foulness of the reign of the Merry +Monarch and the blood and misery of that of the gloomy +bigot.</p> + +<p>But happier times were almost within view, though +still hid behind the glare of those orgies of the unclean. +From 1660 to 1688 does not seem a very long time in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">[474]</a></span> +the annals of a nation, nor even in the life of one of +ourselves. Twenty-eight years have elapsed since the +Revolution in Paris which placed Louis Philippe upon +the throne; and the young man of twenty at that time +is not very old yet. But when men or nations are +cheated in the object of their hopes, it does not take +long to turn disappointment into hatred. The Restoration +of 1660 was to bring back the golden age of the +first years of James,—the prosperity without the +tyranny, the old hereditary rule without its high pretensions, +the manliness of the English yeoman without +his tendency to fanatical innovation. And instead of +this Arcadia there was nothing to be seen but a kingdom +without dignity, a king without honesty, and a +people without independence. England was no longer +the arbiter of European differences, as in the earlier +reigns, nor dominator of all the nations, as when the +heavy sword of Cromwell was uneasy in its sheath. It +was not even a second-rate power: its capital had been +insulted by the Dutch; its monarch was pensioned by +the French; its religion was threatened by the Pope; +the old animosities between England and Scotland were +unarranged; and the point to be remembered in your +review of the Seventeenth Century is that in the years +from the Restoration to the Revolution we had touched +the basest string of humility. We were neither united +at home nor respected abroad. We had few ships, little +commerce, and no public spirit. France revenged Crecy +and Poictiers and Agincourt, by dressing our kings in +her livery; and the degraded monarchs pocketed their +wages without feeling their humiliation. Therefore, as +the highest point we have hitherto stood upon was when +Elizabeth saw the destruction of the Armada, the lowest +was undoubtedly that when we submitted to the buffoonery +of Charles and the bloodthirstiness of James.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">[475]</a></span></p> + +<p>But far more remarkable, as a characteristic of this +century, than the lowering of the rank of England in +relation to foreign states, is the rise, for the first time +in Europe, of a figure hitherto unknown,—a true, unshackled, +and absolute king, and that in the least likely +of all positions and in the person of the least likely +man. This was the appearance on the throne of France +of Louis the Fourteenth. Other monarchs, both in +England and France, had attained supreme power,—supreme, +but not independent. No one had hitherto +been irresponsible to some other portions of the State. +The strongest of the feudal kings was held in check by +his nobility,—the greatest of the Tudors by Parliament +and people. Declarations, indeed, had frequently been +made that God’s anointed were answerable to God +alone. But of the two loudest of these declaimers, +John, who said,—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i-1">“What earthly power to interrogatory</span> +<span class="i0">Can tax the free breath of a Christian king?”</span> +</div></div> + +<p>had shortly after this magnificent oration surrendered +his crown to the Pope; and James the First, who blustered +more fiercely (if possible) about his superiority to +human law, was glad to bend before his Lords and +Commons in anticipation of a subsidy, and eat his leek +in peace.</p> + +<p>But this phenomenon of a king above all other +authority occurred, we have observed, in the most +unlikely country to present so strange a sight; for nowhere +was a European throne so weak and unstable as +the throne of the house of Bourbon after the murder of +Henry the Fourth. The moment that strong hand was +withdrawn from the government, all classes broke loose. +The nobles conspired against the queen, Marie de Medicis, +who relied upon foreign favourites and irritated the +nation to madness. Paris rose in insurrection, and tore<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">[476]</a></span> +the wretched Concini, her counsellor, whom she had +created Marshal D’Ancre, to pieces; and, to glut their +vengeance still more, the judges condemned his innocent +wife to be burned as a sorceress. Louis the Thirteenth, +the unworthy son of the great Henry, rejoiced +in these atrocities, which he thought freed him from all +restraint. But he found it impossible to quell the wild +passions by which he profited for a while. Civil war +raged between the court and country factions, and soon +became embittered into religious animosities. +<span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1622.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>The sight of a king marching at the head of a +Catholic army against a portion of his Reformed subjects +was looked upon by the rapidly-increasing malcontents +in England with anxious curiosity. For year +by year the strange spectacle was unrolled before their +eyes of what might yet be their fate at home. Perhaps, +indeed, the success of the royal arms, and the policy of +strength and firmness introduced by Cardinal Richelieu, +may have contributed in no slight degree to the measures +pursued by Wentworth and Laud in their treatment of +the English recusants. With an anticipative interest in +our Hull and Exeter, the Puritans of England looked on +the resistance made by Rochelle; and we can therefore +easily imagine with what feelings the future soldiers of +Marston Moor received the tidings that the Popish +cardinal had humbled the capital of the Huguenots by +the help of fleets furnished to them by Holland and +England! Richelieu, indeed, knew how to make his +enemies weaken each other throughout his whole career. +<span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1627.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Those enemies were the nobility of France, the +house of Austria, and the Reformed Faith. When +Rochelle was attacked the second time, and England +pretended to arm for its defence, he contrived to win +Buckingham, the chief of the expedition, to his cause, +and procured a letter from King Charles, placing the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">[477]</a></span> +fleet, which apparently went to the support of the +Huguenots, at the service of the King of France! +After a year’s siege, and the most heroic resistance, +Rochelle fell at last, in 1628. And, now that the Huguenots +were destroyed as a dangerous party, the eyes of +the great minister were turned against his other foes. +He divided the nobles into hostile ranks, degraded them +by petty annoyances, terrified them by unpitying executions +of the chiefs of the oldest families, showed their +weakness by arresting marshals at the head of their +armies, and during the remaining years of his authority +monopolized all the powers of the state. To weaken +Spain and Austria, we have seen how he assisted the +Protestants in the Thirty Years’ War; to weaken England, +which was only great when it assumed its place as +bulwark and champion of the Protestant faith, he encouraged +the court in its suicidal policy and the +oppressed population in resistance. Ever stirring up +trouble abroad, and ever busy in repressing liberty at +home, the ministry of Richelieu is the triumph of unprincipled +skill. But when he died, in 1643, there was +no man left to lift up the burden he threw off. The +king himself, Louis the Thirteenth, as much a puppet +as the old descendants of Clovis under their Mayors of +the Palace, left the throne he had nominally filled, +vacant in the same year; and the heir to the dishonoured +crown and exhausted country was a boy of +five years of age, under the tutelage of an unprincipled +mother, and with the old hereditary counsellors and +props of his throne decimated by the scaffold or impoverished +by confiscation. The tyranny of Richelieu +had at least attained something noble by the high-handed +insolence of all his acts. If people were to be trampled +on, it was a kind of consolation to them that their oppressor +was feared by others as well as themselves.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">[478]</a></span> +But the oppression of the doomed French nation was to +be continued by a more ignoble hand. The Cardinal +Mazarin brought every thing into greater confusion +than ever. In twenty millions of men there will always +be great and overmastering spirits, if only an opportunity +is found for their development; but civil commotion +is not the element in which greatness lives. All +sense of honour disappears when conduct is regulated +by the shifting motives of party politics. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1648-1654.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>The +dissensions of the Fronde, accordingly, produced +no champion to whom either side could look with unmingled +respect. The Great Condé and the famous +Turenne showed military talent of the highest order, +but a want of principle and a flighty frivolity of character +counterbalanced all their virtues. The scenes of +those six years are like a series of dissolving views, or +the changing combinations of a kaleidoscope: Condé and +Turenne, always on opposite sides,—for each changed +his party as often as the other; battles prepared for by +masquerades and theatricals, and celebrated on both +sides with epigrams and songs; the wildest excesses of +debauchery and vice practised by both sexes and all +ranks in the State; archbishops fighting like gladiators +and intriguing like the vulgarest conspirators; princes +imprisoned with a jest, and executions attended with +cheers and laughter; and over all an Italian ecclesiastic, +grinning with satisfaction at the increase of his wealth,—caballing, +cheating, and lying, but keeping a firm +grasp of power:—no country was ever so split into +faction or so denuded of great men.</p> + +<p>It seemed, indeed, like a demoniacal caricature of our +British troubles: no sternness, no reality; love-letters +and witty verses supplying the place of the Biblical language +and awful earnestness of the words and deeds of +the Covenanters and Independents; the gentlemen of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">[479]</a></span> +France utterly debased and frivolized; religion ridiculed; +nothing left of the old landmarks; and no Cromwell +possible. But, while all these elements of confusion +were heaving and tumbling in what seemed an +inextricable chaos, Mazarin, the vainest and most selfish +of charlatans, died, and the young king, whom he had +kept in distressing dependence and the profoundest +political inactivity, found himself delivered from a +master and free to choose his path. This was in 1661. +Charles and Louis were equally on their recovered +thrones; for what exile had been to the one, Mazarin +had been to the other. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1641-1660.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Charles had had the +experience of nineteen years and of various +fortunes to guide him. He had seen many men and +cities, and he deceived every expectation. Louis had +been studiously brought up by his mother and her +Italian favourite in the abasement of every lofty aspiration. +He was only encouraged in luxury and vice, and +kept in such painful vassalage that his shyness and +awkwardness revealed the absence of self-respect to the +very pages of his court; and he, no less than Charles, +deceived all the expectations that had been formed +of his career. He found out, as if by intuition, how +brightly the monarchical principle still burned in the +heart of all the French. Even in their fights and quarrellings +there was a deep reverence entertained for the +ideal of the throne. The King’s name was a tower of +strength; and when the nation, in the course of the +miserable years from 1610 to 1661, saw the extinction +of nobility, religion, law, and almost of civilized society, +it caught the first sound that told it it still had a king, +as an echo from the past assuring it of its future. It +forgot Louis the Thirteenth and Anne of Austria, and +only remembered that its monarch was the grandson of +Henry the Fourth. Nobody remembered that circumstance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">[480]</a></span> +so vividly as Louis himself; but he remembered +also that his line went upwards from the Bourbons, and +included the Saint Louis of the thirteenth century and +the renewer of the Roman Empire of the ninth. He +let the world know, therefore, that his title was Most +Christian King as well as foremost of European powers. +He forced Spain to yield him precedence, and, for the +first time in history, exacted a humiliating apology from +the Pope. The world is always apt to take a man at +his own valuation. Louis, swelling with pride, ambitious +of fame, and madly fond of power, declared himself the +greatest, wisest, and most magnificent of men; and +everybody believed him. Every thing was soon changed +throughout the land. Ministers had been more powerful +than the crown, and had held unlimited authority in +right of their appointment. A minister was nothing +more to Louis than a <i>valet-de-chambre</i>. He gave him +certain work to do, and rewarded him if he did it; if +he neglected it, he discharged him. At first the few +relics of the historic names of France, the descendants +of the great vassals, who carried their heads as lofty as +the Capets or Valois, looked on with surprise at the +new arrangements in camp and court. But the people +were too happy to escape the oligarchic confederacy of +those hereditary oppressors to encourage them in their +haughty disaffection. Before Louis had been three +years on the unovershadowed throne, the struggle had +been fairly entered on by all the orders of the State, +which should be most slavish in its submission. Rank, +talent, beauty, science, and military fame all vied with +each other in their devotion to the king. He would +have been more than mortal if he had retained his +senses unimpaired amid the intoxicating fumes of such +incense. Success in more important affairs came to the +support of his personal assumptions. Victories followed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">[481]</a></span> +his standards everywhere. Generals, engineers, and administrators, +of abilities hitherto unmatched in Europe, +sprang up whenever his requirements called them forth. +Colbert doubled his income without increasing the +burdens on his people. Turenne, Condé, Luxembourg, +and twenty others, led his armies. Vauban strengthened +his fortifications or conducted his sieges, and the dock-yards +of Toulon and Brest filled the Mediterranean and +the Atlantic with his fleets. Poets like Molière, Corneille, +and Racine ennobled his stage; while the genius +of Bossuet and Fénélon inaugurated the restoration of +religion. For eight-and-twenty years his fortunes knew +no ebb. He was the object of all men’s hopes and fears, +and almost of their prayers. Nothing was too great or +too minute for his decision. He was called on to arbitrate +(with the authority of a master) between sovereign +States, and to regulate a point of precedence between +the duchesses of his court. Oh, the weary days +and nights of that uneasy splendour at Versailles! when +his steps were watched by hungry courtiers, and his +bed itself surrounded by applicants for place and favour. +No galley-slave ever toiled harder at his oar than this +monarch of all he surveyed at the management of his +unruly family. It was the day of etiquette and form. +The rights of princesses to arm-chairs or chairs with +only a back were contested with a vigour which might +have settled the succession to a throne. The rank +which entitled to a seat in the king’s coach or an invitation +to Marly was disputed almost with bloodshed, +and certainly with scandal and bitterness. The depth +of the bows exacted by a prince of the blood, the +number of attendants necessary for a legitimated son +of La Vallière or Montespan, put the whole court into +a turmoil of angry parties; and all these important +points, and fifty more of equal magnitude, were formally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">[482]</a></span> +submitted to the king and decided with a gravity befitting +a weightier cause. Nothing is more remarkable in +the midst of these absurd inanities than the great fund +of good common sense that is found in all the king’s +judgments. He meditates, and temporizes, and reasons; +and only on great occasions, such as a quarrel about dignity +between the wife of the dauphin and the Duchess +of Maine, does he put on the terrors of his kingly frown +and interpose his irresistible command. It would have +been some consolation to the foreign potentates he +bullied or protected—the Austrian and Spaniard, or +Charles in Whitehall—if they had known what a +wretched and undignified life their enslaver and insulter +lived at home. It was whispered, indeed, that he was +tremendously hen-pecked by Madame de Maintenon, +whom he married without having the courage to elevate +her to the throne; but none of them knew the pettinesses, +the degradations, and the miseries of his inner +circle. They thought, perhaps, he was planning some +innovation in the order of affairs in Europe,—the destruction +of a kingdom, or the change of a dynasty. +He was devoting his deepest cogitations to the arrangement +of a quarrel between his sons and his daughters-in-law, +the invitations to a little supper-party in his private +room, or the number of steps it was necessary to advance +at the reception of a petty Italian sovereign. The +quarrels between his children became more bitter; the +little supper-parties became more dull. Death came into +the gilded chambers, and he was growing old and desolate. +Still the torturing wheel of ceremony went round, +and the father, with breaking heart, had to leave the +chamber of his deceased son, and act the part of a +great king, and go through the same tedious forms of +grandeur and routine which he had done before the +calamity came. Fancy has never drawn a personage<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">[483]</a></span> +more truly pitiable than Louis growing feeble and friendless +in the midst of all that magnificence and all that +heartless crowd. You pardon him for retiring for consolation +and sympathy to the quiet apartment where +Madame de Maintenon received him without formality +and continued her needlework or her reading while he +was engaged in council with his ministers. He must +have known that to all but her he was an Office and not +a Man. He yearned for somebody that he could trust +in and consult with, as entering into his thoughts and interests; +and that calm-blooded, meek-mannered, narrow-hearted +woman persuaded him that in her he had found +all that his heart thirsted for in the desert of his royalty. +But in that little apartment he was now to find refuge +from more serious calamities than the falsehood of +courtiers or the quarrels of women. Even French +loyalty was worn out at last. Victories had glorified +the monarch, but brought poverty and loss to the population. +Complaints arose in all parts of the country of +the excess of taxation, the grasping dishonesty of the +collectors, the extravagance of the court, and even—but +this was not openly whispered—the selfishness of the +king. He had lavished ten millions sterling on the +palace and gardens of Versailles; he had enriched his +sycophants with pensions on the Treasury; he had +gratified the Church with gorgeous donations, and with +the far more fatal gift of vengeance upon its opponents. +The Huguenots were in the peaceful enjoyment of the +rights secured to them by the Edict of Nantes, granted +by Henry the Fourth in 1598. But those rights included +the right of worshipping God in a different +manner from the Church, and denying the distinguishing +doctrines of the Holy Catholic faith. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1685.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>The Edict of +Toleration was repealed as a blot on the purity +of the throne of the Most Christian King.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">[484]</a></span> +Thousands of the best workmen in France were banished +by this impolitic proceeding, and Louis thought he +had shown his attachment to his religion by sending the +ingenuity and wealth, and glowing animosity, of the most +valuable portion of his subjects into other lands. Germany +calculated that the depopulation caused by his +wars was more than compensated by the immigration. +England could forgive him his contemptuous behaviour to +her king and Parliament when she saw the silk-mills of +Spitalfields supplied by the skilled workmen of Lyons. +Eight hundred thousand people left their homes in consequence +of this proscription of their religion, and Germany +and Switzerland grew rich with the stream of +fugitives. It is said that only five thousand found their +way to this country,—enough to set the example of +peaceful industry and to introduce new methods of +manufacture.</p> + +<p>But the full benefit of the measures of Louis and +Maintenon was denied us, by the distrust with which +the Protestant exiles looked on the accession to our +throne of a narrower despot and more bigoted persecutor +than Louis; for in this same year James the Second +succeeded Charles. Relying on each other’s support, +and gratified with the formal approval of the repeal of +the Edict of Nantes pronounced by the Pope, the two +champions of Christendom pursued their way,—dismissals +from office, exclusion from promotion, proscription +from worship in France, and assaults on the Church, +and bloody assizes, in England,—till all the nations felt +that a great crisis was reached in the fortunes both of +England and France, and Protestant and Romanist +alike looked on in expectation of the winding-up of so +strange a history. Judicial blindness was equally on +the eyes of the two potentates chiefly interested. James +remained inactive while William Prince of Orange, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">[485]</a></span> +avowed chief of the new opinions, was getting ready +his ships and army, and congratulated himself on the +silence of his people, which he thought was the sign of +their acquiescence instead of the hush of expectation. +All the other powers—the Papal Chair included—were +not sorry to see a counterpoise to the predominance of +France; and when William appeared in England as the +deliverer from Popery and oppression, the battle +was decided without a blow. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1688.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>James was a +fugitive in his turn, and found his way to Versailles. +It is difficult to believe that any of the blood of Scotland +or Navarre flowed in the veins of the pusillanimous +king. He begged his protector, through whose councils +he had lost his kingdom, to give it him back again; and +the opportunity of a theatrical display of grandeur and +magnanimity was too tempting to be thrown away. +Louis promised to restore him his crown, as if it were +a broken toy. It was a strange sight, during the remainder +of their lives, to see those two monarchs keeping +up the dignity of their rank by exaggerations of +their former state. No mimic stage ever presented a +more piteous spectacle of poverty and tinsel than the +royal pair. Punctilios were observed at their meetings +and separations, as if a bow more or less were of as +much consequence as the bestowal or recovery of Great +Britain; and in the estimation of those professors of +manners and deportment a breach of etiquette would +have been more serious than La Hogue or the Boyne. +In that wondrous palace of Versailles all things had +long ceased to be real. Speeches were made for effect, +and dresses and decorations had become a part of the +art of governing, and for some years the system seemed +to succeed. When the king required to show that he +was still a conqueror like Alexander the Great, preparations +were made for his reception at the seat of war,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">[486]</a></span> +and a pre-arranged victory was attached lo his arrival, +as Cleopatra wished to fix a broiled fish to Anthony’s +hook. He entered the town of Mons in triumph when +Luxembourg had secured its fall. He appeared also +with unbounded applause at the first siege of Namur, +and carried in person the news of his achievement to +Versailles. Every day came couriers hot and tired with +intelligence of fresh successes. Luxembourg conquered +at Fleurus, 1690; Catinat conquered Savoy, 1691; Luxembourg +again, in 1692, had gained the great day of +Steinkirk, and Nerwinde in 1693. But the tide now +turned. William the Third was the representative at +that time of the stubbornness of his new subjects’ +character, who have always found it difficult to see that +they were defeated. He was generally forced to retire +after a vigorously-contested fight; but he was always +ready to fight again next day, always calm and determined, +and as confident as ever in the firmness of his +men. Reports very different from the glorious bulletins +of the earlier years of the Great Monarch now came +pouring in. Namur was retaken, Dieppe and Havre +bombarded, all the French establishments in India +seized by the Dutch, their colony at St. Domingo captured +by the English, Luxembourg dead, and the whole +land again, for the second time, exhausted of men and +money. It was another opportunity for the display of +his absolute power. France prayed him to grant peace +to Europe, and the earthly divinity granted France’s +prayer. Europe itself, which had rebelled against him, +accepted the pacification it had won by its battles and +combinations, as if it were a gift from a superior being. +<span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1697.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>He surrendered his conquests with such grandeur, and +looked so dignified while he withdrew his pretensions, +acknowledging the Prince of Orange to be King of +England, and the King of England to have no claim on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487">[487]</a></span> +the crown he had promised to restore to him, that it +took some time to perceive that the terms of the +Peace of Ryswick were proofs of weakness and +not of magnanimity. But the object of his life had +been gained. He had abased every order in the State +for the aggrandizement of the Crown, and, for the first +time since the termination of the Roman Empire, had +concentrated the whole power of a nation into the will +of an individual. And this strange spectacle of a possessor +of unlimited authority over the lives and fortunes +of all his subjects was presented in an age that had +seen Charles the First of England brought to the block +and James the Second driven into exile! The chance +of France’s peacefully rising again from this state of depression +into liberty would have been greater if Louis, +in displacing the other authorities, had not disgraced +them. He dissolved his Parliament, not with a file of +soldiers, like Cromwell or Napoleon, but with a riding-whip +in his hand. He degraded the nobility by making +them the satellites of his throne and creatures of his +favour. He humbled the Church by secularizing its +leaders; so that Bossuet, bishop and orator as he was, +was proud to undertake the office of peacemaker between +him and Madame de Montespan in one of their lovers’ +quarrels. And the Frenchmen of the next century +looked in vain for some rallying-point from which to +begin their forward course towards constitutional improvement. +They found nothing but parliaments contemned, +nobles dishonoured, and priests unchristianized.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489">[489]</a></span> +<a name="EIGHTEENTH_CENTURY" id="EIGHTEENTH_CENTURY">EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</a></h2> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of France.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Louis XIV.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1715.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Louis XV.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1774.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Louis XVI.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1793.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">LOUIS XVII.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Emperors of Germany.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Leopold I.</span>—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1705.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Joseph I.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1711.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Charles VI.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1740.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Maria-Theresa.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1742.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Charles VII.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1745.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Francis I.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1765.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Joseph II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1790.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Leopold II.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1792.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Francis II.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="4" class="big">Kings of England and Scotland.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td colspan="3" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">William III.</span> and <span class="smcap">Mary</span>.—(<i>cont.</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1702.</td><td colspan="2" class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Anne.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td colspan="3" class="sovereign">(<i>Great Britain</i>, 1707.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="year-list">1714.<br />1727.<br />1760.</td> +<td class="sovereign-list"> +<span class="smcap">George I.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">George II.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">George III.</span> +</td> +<td class="mustache3">}</td> +<td style="width:100%">House of Hanover.</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="rulers"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td align="left" colspan="2" class="big">Kings of Spain.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><span class="small">A.D.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1700.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Philip V.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1724.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Louis I.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1724.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Philip V.</span> again.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1745.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Ferdinand VI.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1759.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Charles III.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1788.</td><td class="sovereign"><span class="smcap">Charles IV.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="heading">Distinguished Men.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Addison</span>, <span class="smcap">Steele</span>, <span class="smcap">Swift</span>, <span class="smcap">Pope</span>, <span class="smcap">Robertson</span>, <span class="smcap">Hume</span>, <span class="smcap">Gibbon</span>, +<span class="smcap">Voltaire</span>, <span class="smcap">Rousseau</span>, <span class="smcap">Lesage</span>, <span class="smcap">Marmontel</span>, <span class="smcap">Montesquieu</span>, <span class="smcap">Franklin</span>, +(1706-1790,) <span class="smcap">Johnson</span>, (1709-1784,) <span class="smcap">Goldsmith</span>, (1728-1774,) +<span class="smcap">Wolfe</span>, (1726-1759,) <span class="smcap">Washington</span>, (1732-1799.)</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491">[491]</a></span> +<a name="THE_EIGHTEENTH_CENTURY" id="THE_EIGHTEENTH_CENTURY">THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</a></h2> +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="sub-heading">INDIA — AMERICA — FRANCE.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> characteristic feature of this period is constant +change on the greatest scale. Hitherto changes have +occurred in the internal government of nations: the +monarchic or popular feeling has found its expression in +the alternate elevation of the Kingly or Parliamentary +power. But in this most momentous of the centuries, +nations themselves come into being or disappear. +Russia and Prussia for the first time play conspicuous +parts in the great drama of human affairs. France, +which begins the century with the despotic Louis the +Fourteenth at its head, leaves it as a vigorous Republic, +with Napoleon Buonaparte as its First Consul. The +foundations of a British empire were laid in India, +which before the end of the period more than compensated +for the loss of that other empire in the West, +which is now the United States of America. It was the +century of the breaking of old traditions, and of the +introduction of new systems in life and government,—more +complete in its transformations than the splitting +up into hitherto unheard-of nationalities of the old +Roman world had been; for what Goth and Vandal, +and Frank and Lombard, were to the political geography +of Europe in the earlier time, new modes of +thought, both religious and political, were to the moral +constitution of that later date. The barbarous invasions +of the early centuries were the overflowing of +rivers by the breaking down of the embankments; the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492">[492]</a></span> +revolutionary madness of France was the sudden detachment +of an avalanche which had been growing +unobserved, but which at last a voice or a footstep was +sufficient to set in motion. In all nations it was a period +of doubt and uneasiness. Something was about to happen, +but nobody could say what. The political sleight-of-hand +men, who considered the safety of the world to depend +on the balance of power, where a weight must be cast +into one scale, exactly sufficient, and not more than sufficient, +to keep the other in equilibrio, were never so much +puzzled since the science of balancing began. A vast +country, hitherto omitted from their calculations, or +only considered as a make-weight against Sweden or +Denmark, suddenly came forward to be a check, and +sometimes an over-weight, to half the states in Europe. +Something had therefore to be found to be a counterpoise +to the twenty millions of men and illimitable +dominions of the Russian Czars. This was close at the +conjurer’s hand in Prussia and her Austrian neighbour. +Counties were added,—populations fitted in,—Silesia +given to the one, Gallicia added to the other; and at +last the whole of Poland, which had ceased to be of any +importance in its separate existence, was cut up into +such portions as might be required, with here a fragment +and there a fragment, till the scales stood pretty +even, and the three contiguous kingdoms were satisfied +with their respective shares of infamy and plunder. If +you hear, therefore, of robberies upon a gigantic scale,—no +longer the buccaneering exploits of a few isolated +adventurers in the Western seas, but of kingdoms deliberately +stolen, or imperiously taken hold of by the right +of the strong hand; of the same Titanic magnitude +distinguishing almost all other transactions; colonies +throwing off their allegiance, and swelling out into +hostile empires, instead of the usual discontent and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_493" id="Page_493">[493]</a></span> +occasional quarrellings between the mother-country and +her children; of whole nations breaking forth into +anarchy, instead of the former local efforts at reformation +ending in temporary civil strife; of commercial +speculations reaching the sublime of swindling and +credulity, and involving whole populations in ruin; and +of commercial establishments, on the other hand, vaster +even in their territorial acquisitions than all the conquests +of Alexander,—you are to remember that these +things can only have happened in the Eighteenth Century; +the century when the trammels of all former +experiences were thrown off, and when wealth, power, +energy, and mental aspirations were pushed to an unexampled +excess. This exaggerated action of the age is +shown in the one great statement which nearly comprehends +all the rest. The Debt of this country, which +at the beginning of this century was sixteen millions +and a half and tormented our forefathers with fears of +bankruptcy, had risen at the end of it, in the heroic +madness of conquest and national pride, to the sum of +three hundred and eighty millions, without a doubt of +our perfect competency to sustain the burden.</p> + +<p>If the tendency of affairs on the other side of our +encircling sea was to pull down, to destroy, to modify, +and to redistribute, the tendency at home was to build +up and consolidate; so that in almost exact proportion +to the wild experiments and frantic strugglings of other +nations after something new—new principles of government, +new theories of society—there arose in this +country a dogged spirit of resistance to all alterations, +and a persistence in old paths and old opinions. The +charms which constitution-mongers saw in untried +novelties and philosophic systems existed for John Bull +only in what had stood the wear and tear of hundreds +of years. The Prussians, Austrians, Americans, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_494" id="Page_494">[494]</a></span> +finally the French, were groping after vague abstractions; +and Frederick the Soldier, and Joseph the Philanthropist, +and Citizen Franklin, and Lafayette and Mirabeau, +were each in their own way carried away with +the delusion of a golden age; but the English statesmen +clung rigidly to the realities of life,—declared the +universal fraternity of nations to be a cry of knaves or +hypocrites,—and answered all exclamations about the +dignity of humanity and the sovereignty of the people +with “Rule Britannia,” and “God save the King.” +How deeply this sentiment of loyalty and traditionary +Toryism is seated in the national mind is proved by +nothing so much as by the dreadful ordeal it had to go +through in the days of the first two Georges. It certainly +was a faith altogether independent of external +circumstances, which saw the divinity that hedges +kings in such vulgar, gossiping, and undignified individuals. +And yet through all the troubled years of their +reigns the great British heart beat true with loyalty to +the throne, though it was grieved with the proceedings +of the sovereigns; and when the third George gave it a +man to rally round—as truly native-born as the most +indigenous of the people, as stubborn, as strong-willed, +and as determined to resist innovation as the most consistent +of the squires and most anti-foreign of the citizens—the +nation attained a point of union which had +never been known in all their previous history, and +looked across the Channel, at the insanity of the perplexed +populations and the threats of their furious +leaders, with a growl of contempt and hatred which +warned their democrats and incendiaries of the fate +that awaited them here. There are times in all national +annals when the narrowest prejudices have an amazing +resemblance to the noblest virtues. When Hannibal +was encamped at the gates of Rome, the bigoted old<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_495" id="Page_495">[495]</a></span> +Patricians in the forum carried on their courts of law +as usual, and would not deduct a farthing from the value +of the lands they set up for sale, though the besieger +was encamped upon them. When a king of Sicily +offered a great army and fleet for the defence of Greece +against the Persians, the Athenian ambassador said, +“Heaven forefend that a man of Athens should serve +under a foreign admiral!” The Lacedemonian ambassador +said the Spartans would put him to death if he +proposed any man but a Spartan to command their +troops; and those very prejudiced and narrow-minded +patriots were reduced to the necessity of exterminating +the invaders by themselves. Great Britain, in the year +1800, was also of opinion that she was equal to all the +world,—that she could hold her own whatever powers +might be gathered against her,—and would not have +exchanged her Hood, and Jervis, and Nelson, for the +assistance of all the fleets of Europe.</p> + +<p>Nothing seems to die out so rapidly as the memory +of martial achievements. The military glory of this +country is a thing of fits and starts. Cressy and Poictiers +left us at a pitch of reputation which you might +have supposed would have lasted for a long time. But +in a very few years after those victories the English +name was a byword of reproach. All the conquests +of the Edwards were wrenched away, and it needed +only the short period of the reign of Richard the +Second to sink the recollection of the imperturbable +line and inevitable shaft. Henry the Fifth and Agincourt +for a moment brought the previous triumphs into +very vivid remembrance. But civil dissensions between +York and Lancaster blunted the English sword upon +kindred helmets, and peaceful Henry the Seventh loaded +the subject with intolerable taxes, and his son wasted +his treasures in feasts and tournaments. The long reigns<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_496" id="Page_496">[496]</a></span> +of Elizabeth and James were undistinguished by British +armies performing any separate achievements on the +Continent; and again civil war lavished on domestic +fields an amount of courage and conduct which would +have eclipsed all previous actions if exhibited on a +wider scene. We need not, therefore, be surprised, if, +after the astonishing course of Louis the Fourteenth’s +arms, the discomfiture of his adversaries, the constant +repulses of the English contingent which fought under +William in Flanders, and at last the quiet, looking so +like exhaustion, which ushered in the Eighteenth Century, +the British forces were despised, and we were confessed, +in the ludicrous cant which at intervals becomes +fashionable still, to be not a military nation. How this +astounding proposition agrees with the fact that we +have met in battle every single nation, and tribe, and +kindred, and tongue, on the face of the whole earth, in +Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, and have beaten +them all; how it further agrees with the fact that no +civilized power was ever engaged in such constant and +multitudinous wars, so that there is no month or week +in the history of the last two hundred years in which it +can be said we were not interchanging shot or sabre-stroke +somewhere or other on the surface of the globe; +how, further still, the statement is to be reconciled with +the fact, perceptible to all mankind, that the result of +these engagements is an unexampled growth of influence +and empire,—the acquisition of kingdoms defended +by millions of warriors in Hindostan, of colonies ten +times the extent of the conqueror’s realm, defended by +Montcalm and the armies of France,—we must leave to +the individuals who make it: the truth being that the +British people is not only the most military nation the +world has ever seen, not excepting the Roman, but the +most warlike. It is impossible to say when these pages<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_497" id="Page_497">[497]</a></span> +may meet the reader’s eye; but, at whatever time it may +be, he has only to look at the “Times” newspaper of that +morning, and he will see that either in the East or the +West, in China or the Cape, or the Persian Gulf, or on +the Indus, or the Irrawaddy, the meteor flag is waved +in bloody advance. And this seems an indispensable +part of the British position. She is so ludicrously +small upon the map, and so absorbed in speculation, so +padded with cotton, and so sunk in coal-pits, that it is +only constant experience of her prowess that keeps the +world aware of her power. The other great nations +can repose upon their size, and their armies of six or +seven hundred thousand men. Nobody would think +France or Russia weak because they were inactive. +But with us the case is different: we must fight or fall.</p> + +<p>Twice in the century we are now engaged on, we +rose to be first of the military states in Europe, and +twice, by mere inaction, we sank to the rank of Portugal +or Naples.</p> + +<p>Charles the Second of Spain died in November, 1700,—a +person so feeble in health and intellect that in a lower +state of life he would have been put in charge of guardians +and debarred from the management of his affairs. +As he was a king, these duties were performed on his +behalf by the priests, and the wretched young man—he +succeeded at three years old—was nothing but the slave +and plaything of his confessor. Yet, though his existence +was of no importance, his decease set all Europe +in turmoil. By his testament, obtained from him on his +death-bed, he appointed the grandson of Louis the +Fourteenth his heir. A previous will had nominated +Charles of Austria. A previous treaty between Louis +and William of England and the States of Holland had +arranged a partition of the Spanish monarchy for the +benefit of the contracting parties and the maintenance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_498" id="Page_498">[498]</a></span> +of the balance of power. But now, when a choice was +to be made between the wills and the treaty, between +the balance of power and his personal ambition, the +temptation was too great for the cupidity of the Grand +Monarque. He accepted the throne of Spain and the +Indies for his grandson Philip of Anjou, and sent him +over the Pyrenees to take possession of his dignity. The +stroke was so sudden that people were silent from surprise. +A French prince at Madrid, at Milan, and Naples, +was only the lieutenant in those capitals for the French +king. The preponderance of the house of Bourbon was +dangerous to the liberties of Europe, and when the +house of Bourbon was represented by the haughtiest, +and vainest, and most insulting of men, the dignity of +the remaining sovereigns was offended by his ostentatious +superiority; and the house of Austria, which in +the previous century had been the terror of statesmen +and princes, was turned to as a shelter from its successful +rival, and all the world prepared to defend the cause +of the Austrian Charles. The affairs of Europe, which +were disturbed by the death of an imbecile king in +Spain, were further complicated by the death of a still +more imbecile king at St. Germain’s. James the Second +brought his strange life to a close in 1701; and, though +the advisers of Louis pointed out the consequence of +offending England at that particular time by recognising +the Prince of Wales as inheritor of the English crown, +the vanity of the old man who could not forego the +luxury of having a crowned king among his attendants +prevailed over his better knowledge, and one day, to the +amazement of courtiers and council, he gave the royal +reception to James the Third, and threw down the +gauntlet to William and England, which they were not +slow to take up. William of Orange was not popular +among his new subjects, and was always looked on as a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_499" id="Page_499">[499]</a></span> +foreigner. Perhaps the memory of Ruyter and Van +Tromp was still fresh enough to make him additionally +disliked because he was a Dutchman. But when it was +known over the country that the bigoted and insulting +despot in Paris had nominated a King of England, while +the man the nation had chosen was still alive in Whitehall, +the indignation of all classes was roused, and found +its expression in loyalty and attachment to their deliverer +from Popery and persecution. Great exertions +were made to conduct the war on a scale befitting the +importance of the interests at stake. Addresses poured +in, with declarations of devotion to the throne; troops +were raised, and taxes voted; and in the midst of these +preparations, the King, prematurely old, in the fifty-third +year of his age, died of a fall from his horse at +Kensington, in March, 1702, and the powers of Europe +felt that the best soldier they possessed was lost to the +cause. Rather it was a fortunate thing for the confederated +princes that William died at this time; for he never +rose to the rank of a first-rate commander, and was so +ambitious of glory and power that he would not have +left the way clear for a greater than himself.</p> + +<p>This was found in Marlborough. Military science was +the characteristic of this illustrious general; and no one +before his time had ever possessed in an equal degree +the power of attaching an army to its chief, or of regulating +his strategic movements by the higher consideration +of policy and statesmanship. For the first time, in +English history at least, a march was equivalent to a +battle. A change of his camp, or even a temporary retreat, +was as effectual as a victory; and it was seen by +the clearer observers of the time that a campaign was +a game of skill, and not of the mere dash and intrepidity +which appeal to the vulgar passions of our nature. Not +so, however, the general public: their idea of war was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_500" id="Page_500">[500]</a></span> +a succession of hard knocks, with enormous lists of the +killed and wounded. A manœuvre, without a charge +of bayonets at the end of it, was little better than cowardice; +and complaints were loud and common against +the inactivity of a man who, by dint of long-prepared +combinations, compelled the enemy to retreat by a mere +shift of position and cleared the Low Countries of its +invaders without requiring to strike a blow. “Let them +see how we can fight,” cried all the corporations in the +realm: “anybody can march and pitch his camp.” And +it is not impossible that the foreign populations who had +never seen the red-coats, or, at most, who had only +known them acting as auxiliaries to the Dutch and +often compelled to retire before the numbers and impetuosity +of the French, had no expectation of success +when they should be fairly brought opposite their former +antagonists. Friends and foes alike were prepared for +a renewal of the days of Luxembourg and Turenne. +In this they were not disappointed; for a pupil of +Turenne renewed, in a very remarkable manner, the +glories of his master. Marlborough had served under +that great commander, and profited by his lessons. He +had fifty thousand British soldiers under his undivided +command; and, to please the grumblers at home and +the doubters abroad, he made the reign of Anne the +most glorious in the English military annals by thick-coming +fights, still unforgotten, though dimmed by the +exploits of the more illustrious Wellington. The first +of these was Blenheim, against the French and Bavarians, +in 1704. How different this was from the hand-to-hand +thrust and parry of ancient times is shown by +the fate of a strong body of French, who were so posted +on this occasion that the duke saw they were in his +power without requiring to fire a gun. He sent his aid-de-camp, +Lord Orkney, to them to point out the hopelessness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_501" id="Page_501">[501]</a></span> +of their position; and when he rode up, accompanied +by a French officer, to act, perhaps, as his +interpreter, a shout of gratulation broke from the unsuspecting +Frenchmen. “Is it a prisoner you have brought +us?” they asked their countryman. “Alas! no,” he +replies: “Lord Orkney has come from Marlborough to +tell you you are his prisoners. His lordship offers you +your lives.” A glance at the contending armies confirmed +the truth of this appalling communication, and +the brigade laid down its arms. The tide of victory, +once begun, knew no ebb till the grandeur of Louis +the Fourteenth was overwhelmed. Disgraces followed +quickly one upon the other,—marshals beaten, towns +taken, conquests lost, his wealth exhausted, his people +discontented, and the bravest of his generals hopeless +of success. Prince Eugene of Savoy, equal to Marlborough +in military genius, was more embittered against +the French monarch, to whom he had offered his services, +and who had had the folly to reject them. France, +on the side of Germany and the Low Countries, was +pressed upon by the triumphant invaders. In Spain, +the affairs of the new king were more desperate still. +Gibraltar was taken in 1704. Lord Peterborough, a wiser +Quixote, of whose victories it is difficult to say whether +they were the result of madness or skill, marched +through the kingdom at the head of six or seven thousand +English and conquered wherever he went.</p> + +<p>When the war had lasted eight or nine years, the +reputation of Marlborough and the British arms was at +its height. Our fleets were masters of the sea, and the +Grand Monarque sent humble petitions to the opposing +powers for peace upon any terms. People tell us that +Marlborough rejected all overtures which might have +deprived him of the immense emoluments he received +for carrying on the war. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1711.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Perhaps, also, he was inspired<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_502" id="Page_502">[502]</a></span> +by the love of fame; but, whether meanness or ambition +was his motive, his warlike propensities were finally +overcome,—for his wife, the imperious duchess, +quarrelled with Queen Anne,—the ministry was +changed, and the jealousies of Whitehall interfered with +the campaigns in Flanders. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1713.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Marlborough was displaced, +and a peace patched up, which, under the name of the +Peace of Utrecht, is quoted as showing what +small fruits British diplomacy sometimes derives +from British valour. Louis the Fourteenth, conquered +at all points, his kingdom exhausted, and all his reputation +gone, saw his grandson in possession of the crown +which had been the original cause of the war, and Great +Britain rewarded for all her struggles by the empty glory +of filling up the harbour of Dunkirk, and the scarcely +more substantial advantage, as many considered it at +the time, of retaining Gibraltar, a barren rock, and Minorca, +a useless island. After this, we find a long period +of inaction on the continent produce its usual effect. +When thirty years had passed without the foreign populations +having sight of the British grenadiers, they either +forgot their existence altogether, or had persuaded themselves +that the new generation had greatly deteriorated +from the old.<span class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1743. <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1745.</span> +It needed the victory of +Dettingen, and the more glorious repulse of Fontenoy, +to recall the soldiers of Oudenarde and Malplaquet.</p> + +<p>In the interval, amazing things had been going on. +Even while the career of Marlborough was attended +with such glory in arms, a peaceful achievement was +accomplished of far more importance than all his victories. +An Act of Union between the two peoples who +occupied the Isle was passed by both their Parliaments +in 1707, and England and Scotland disappeared in their +separate nationalities, to receive the more dignified appellation +of the Kingdom of Great Britain. This was a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_503" id="Page_503">[503]</a></span> +statesman’s triumph; for the popular feeling on both +sides of the Tweed was against it. Scotland considered +herself sold; and England thought she was cheated. +Clauses were introduced to preserve, as far as possible, +the distinctions which each thought it for its honour to +keep up. National peculiarities exaggerated themselves +to prevent the chance of being obliterated; and Scotchmen +were never as Scotch, nor Englishmen ever so +English, as at the time when these denominations were +about to cease. As neighbours, with the mere tie between +them of being subjects of the same crown, they +were on amicable and respectful terms. But when the +alliance was proposed to be more intimate, their interests +to be considered identical and the Parliaments to be +merged in one, both parties took the alarm. “The preponderating +number of English members would scarcely +be affected by the miserable forty-five votes reserved for +the Scotch representatives,” said Caledonia, stern and +wild. “The compact phalanx of forty-five determined +Scotchmen will give them the decision of every question +brought before Parliament,” replied England, with equal +fear,—and equal misapprehension, as it happily turned +out. When eight years had elapsed after this great +event in our domestic history, with just sufficient experience +of the new machinery to find out some of its defects, +it was put to the proof by an incident which might have +been fatal to a far longer established system of government. +This was a rebellion in favour of the exiled +Stuarts. James the Third, whom we saw recognised by +Louis the Fourteenth on the death of his father in 1701, +made his appearance among the Highlanders of the +North in 1714, and summoned them to support his +family claims.</p> + +<p>But the memory of his ancestors was too recent. +Men of middle age remembered James the Second in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_504" id="Page_504">[504]</a></span> +his tyrannical supremacy at Holyrood. The time was +not sufficiently remote for romance to have gathered +round the harsh reality and hidden its repulsive outlines. +A few months showed the Pretender the hopelessness +of his attempt; and the tranquillity of the +country was considered to be re-established when the +adherents of the losing cause were visited with the +harshest penalties. The real result of these vindictive +punishments was, that they added the spirit of revenge +for private wrong to the spirit of loyalty to the banished +line. Many circumstances concurred to favour the defeated +candidate, who seemed to require to do nothing +but bide his time. The throne was no longer held, even +under legalized usurpation, as the discontented expressed +it, by one of the ancient blood. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1714.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>A foreigner, old and +stupid, had come over from Hanover and claimed +the Parliamentary crown, and the few remaining +links of attachment which kept the high-prerogative +men and the Roman Catholics inactive in the reign of +Queen Anne, the daughter of their rightful king, lost all +their power over them on the advent of George the +First, who had to trace up through mother and grandmother +till he struck into the royal pedigree in the reign +of James the First. It was thought hard that descent +from that champion of monarchic authority and hereditary +right should be pleaded as a title to a crown dependent +on the popular choice. As years passed on, the +number of the discontented was of course increased. +Whoever considered himself neglected by the intrusive +government turned instinctively to the rival house. A +courtier offended by the brutal manners of the Hanoverian +rulers looked longingly across the sea to the descendant +of his lineal kings. The foreign predilections, and +still more foreign English, of the coarse-minded Georges, +made them unpopular with the weak or inconsiderate,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_505" id="Page_505">[505]</a></span> +who did not see that a very inelegant pronunciation +might be united with a true regard for the interests of +their country.</p> + +<p>The commercial passions of the nations succeeded to +the military enthusiasm of the past age, and brought +their usual fruits of selfish competition and social degradation. +Money became the most powerful principle of +public and private life: Sir Robert Walpole, a man of +perfect honesty himself, founded his ministry on the +avowed disbelief of personal honesty among all classes +of the people; and there were many things +which appeared to justify his incredulity. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1720.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>There +was the South-Sea Bubble, a swindling speculation, to +which our own railway-mania is the only parallel, where +lords and ladies, high ecclesiastics and dignified office-bearers, +the highest and the lowest, rushed into the +wildest excesses of gambling and false play, and which +caused a greater loss of character and moral integrity +than even of money to its dupes and framers. There +was the acknowledged system of rewarding a ministerial +vote with notes for five hundred or a thousand pounds. +There were the party libels of the time, all imputing the +greatest iniquities to the object of their vituperation, +and left uncontradicted except by savage proceedings +at law or by similar insinuations against the other side. +There were philosophers like Bolingbroke and clergymen +like Swift. But let us distinguish between the performers +on the great scenes of life, the place hunter at +St. James’s, and the great body of the English and Scottish +gentry, and their still undepraved friends and neighbours, +whom it is the fashion to involve in the same condemnation +of recklessness and dishonour. We are to +remember that the dregs of the former society were not +yet cleared away. The generation had been brought up +at the feet of the professors of morality and religion as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_506" id="Page_506">[506]</a></span> +they were practised in the days of Charles and James, +with Congreve and Wycherly for their exponents on the +stage and Dryden for their poet-laureate.</p> + +<p>It seems a characteristic of literature that it becomes +pure in proportion as it becomes powerful. While it is +the mere vehicle for amusement or the exercise of wit +and fancy, it does not care in what degrading quarters +its materials are found. But when it feels that its voice +is influential and its lessons attended to by a wider audience, +it rises to the height of the great office to which it +is called, and is dignified because it is conscious of its +authority. In the incontestable amendment visible in +the writings of the period of Anne and the Georges, we +find a proof that the vices of the busy politicians and +gambling speculators were not shared by the general +public. The papers of the <i>Spectator</i> and <i>Tatler</i>, the +writings of Pope and Arbuthnot, were not addressed to +a depraved or sensualized people, as the works of Rochester +and Sedley had been. When we talk, therefore, +of the Augustan age of Anne, we are to remember that +its freedom from grossness and immorality is still more +remarkable than its advance in literary merit, and we +are to look on the conduct of intriguing directors and +bribed members of Parliament as the relics of a time +about to pass away and to give place to truer ideas of +commercial honesty and public duty. The country, in +spite of coarseness of manners and language, was still +sound at heart. The jolly squire swore at inconvenient +seasons and drank beyond what was right, but he kept +open house to friend and tenant, administered justice to +the best of his ability, had his children Christianly and +virtuously brought up, and was a connecting link in his +own neighbourhood between the great nobles who affected +almost a princely state, and the snug merchant in the +country town, or retired citizen from London, whom he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_507" id="Page_507">[507]</a></span> +met at the weekly club. The glimpses we get of the +social status of the country gentlemen of Queen Anne +make us enamoured of their simple ways and patriarchal +position. For the argument to be drawn from the character +and friends of Sir Roger de Coverly and the delightful +Lady Lizard and her daughters, is that the great +British nation was still the home of the domestic affections, +that the behaviour was pure though the grammar +was a little faulty, and the ideas modest and becoming +though the expression might be somewhat unadorned. +Hence it was that, when the trial came, the heart of all +the people turned to the uninviting but honest man who +filled the British throne. George the Second became a +hero, because the country was healthy at the core.</p> + +<p>A son of the old Pretender, relying on the lax morality +of the statesmen and the venality of the courtiers, forgot +the unshaken firmness and dogged love of the right +which was yet a living principle among the populations +of both the nations, and landed in the North of Scotland +in 1745, to recover the kingdom of his ancestors by force +of arms. The kingdoms, however, had got entirely out +of the habit of being recovered by any such means. The +law had become so powerful, and was so guarded by forms +and precedents, that Prince Charles Edward would have +had a better chance of obtaining his object by an action +of ejectment, or a suit of recovery, than by the aid of +sword and bayonet. Everybody knows the main incidents +of this romantic campaign,—the successful battles +which gave the insurgents the apparent command of the +Lowlands,—the advance into England,—the retreat from +Derby,—the disasters of the rebel army, and its final extinction +at Culloden. But, although to us it appears a +very serious state of affairs,—a crown placed on the arbitrament +of war, battles in open field, surprise on the part +of the Hanoverians, and loud talking on the part of their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_508" id="Page_508">[508]</a></span> +rivals,—the tranquillity of all ranks and in all quarters +is the most inexplicable thing in the whole proceeding. +When the landing was first announced, alarm was of +course felt, as at a fair when it is reported that a tiger +has broken loose from the menagerie. But in a little time +every thing resumed its ordinary appearance. George +himself cried, “Pooh! pooh! Don’t talk to me of such +nonsense.” His ministers, who probably knew the state +of public feeling, were equally unconcerned. A few +troops were brought over from the Continent, to show +that force was not wanting if the application of it was +required. But in other respects no one appeared to believe +that the assumed fears of the disaffected, and the +no less assumed exultation of the Jacobites, had any +foundation in fact. Trade, law, buying and selling, +writing and publishing, went on exactly as before. The +march of the Pretender was little attended to, except +perhaps in the political circles in London. In the great +towns it passed almost unheeded. Quiet families within +a few miles of the invaders’ march posted or walked +across to see the uncouth battalions pass. Their strange +appearance furnished subjects of conversation for a +month; but nowhere does there seem to have been the +terror of a real state of war,—the anxious waiting for +intelligence, “the pang, the agony, the doubt:” no one +felt uneasy as to the result. England had determined +to have no more Stuart kings, and Scotland was beginning +to feel the benefit of the Union, and left the defence +of the true inheritor to the uninformed, discontented, +disunited inhabitants of the hills. When the tribes +emerged from their mountains, they seemed to melt like +their winter snows. No squadrons of stout-armed cavaliers +came to join them from holt and farm, as in the +days of the Great Rebellion, when the royal flag was +raised at Nottingham. Puritans and Independents took<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_509" id="Page_509">[509]</a></span> +no heed, and cried no cries about “the sword of the Lord +and of Gideon.” They had turned cutlers at Sheffield +and fustian-makers at Manchester. The Prince found +not only that he created no enthusiasm, but no alarm,—a +most painful thing for an invading chief; and, in fact, +when they had reached the great central plains of England +they felt lost in the immensity of the solitude that +surrounded them. If they had met enemies they would +have fought; if they had found friends they would have +hoped; but they positively wasted away for lack of either +confederate or opponent. The expedition disappeared +like a small river in sand. What was the use of going +on? If they reached London itself, they would be swallowed +up in the vastness of the population, and, instead +of meeting an army, they would be in danger of being +taken up by the police. So they reversed their steps. +Donald had stolen considerably in the course of the foray, +and was anxious to go and invest his fortune in his native +vale. An English guinea—a coin hitherto as fabulous +as the <i>Bodach glas</i>—would pay the rent of his holding +for twenty years; five pounds would make him a +cousin of the Laird. But Donald never got back to display +the spoils of Carlisle or Derby. He loitered by the +road, and was stripped of all his booty. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1746.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>He was imprisoned, +and hanged, and starved, and beaten, and +finally, after the strange tragi-comedy of his +fight at Falkirk, had the good fortune, on that +bare expanse of Drummossie Moor, to hide some of the +ludicrous features of his retreat in the glory of a warrior’s +death. Justice became revenge by its severity +after the insurrection was quelled. The followers of the +Prince were punished as traitors; but treason means +rebellion against an acknowledged government, which +extends to its subjects the securities of law. These did +not exist in the Highlands. All those distant populations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_510" id="Page_510">[510]</a></span> +knew of law was the edge of its sword, not the +balance of its scales. They saw their chiefs depressed, +they remembered the dismal massacre of Glencoe in +William’s time, and the legal massacres of George the +First’s. They spoke another language, were different in +blood, and manners, and religion, and should have been +treated as prisoners of war fighting under a legal banner, +and not drawn and quartered as revolted subjects. It is +doubtful if one man in the hundred knew the name of +the king he was trying to displace, or the position of the +prince who summoned him to his camp. Poor, gallant, +warm-hearted, ignorant, trusting Gael! His chieftain +told him to follow and slay the Saxons, and he required +no further instruction. He was not cruel or bloodthirsty +in his strange advance. He had no personal enmity to +Scot or Englishman, and, with the simple awe of childhood, +soon looked with reverence on the proofs of wealth +and skill which met him in the crowded cities and cultivated +plains. He was subdued by the solemn cathedrals +and grand old gentlemen’s seats that studded all the +road, as some of his ancestors, the ancient Gauls, had +been at the sight of the Roman civilization. And, for all +these causes, the incursion of the Jacobites left no lasting +bitterness among the British peoples. Pity began +before long to take the place of opposition; and when +all was quite secure, and the Highlanders were fairly +subdued, and the Pretender himself was sunk in sloth +and drunkenness, a sort of morbid sympathy with the +gallant adventurers arose among the new generation. +Tender and romantic ballads, purporting to be “Laments +for Charlie,” and declarations of attachment to +the “Young Chevalier,” were composed by comfortable +ladies and gentlemen, and sung in polished drawing-rooms +in Edinburgh and London with immense applause. +Macaulay’s “Lays of Ancient Rome,” or Aytoun’s <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_511" id="Page_511">[511]</a></span>“Lays +of the Scottish Cavaliers,” have as much right to be +called the contemporary expression of the sacrifice of +Virginia or the burial of Dundee as the Jacobite songs +to be the living voice of the Forty-Five. Who was there +in the Forty-Five, or Forty-Six, or for many years after +that date, to write such charming verses? The Highlanders +themselves knew not a word of English; the +blue bonnets in Scotland were not addicted to the graces +of poetry and music. The citizens of England were too +busy, the gentlemen of England too little concerned in +the rising, to immortalize the landing at Kinloch-Moidart +or the procession to Holyrood. The earliest song which +commemorates the Pretender’s arrival, or laments his +fall, was not written within twenty years of his attempt. +By that time George the Third was on the safest throne +in Europe, and Great Britain was mistress of the trade +of India and the illimitable regions of America. It was +easy to sing about having our “rightful King,” when +we were in undisputed possession of the Ganges and the +Hudson and had just planted the British colours on +Quebec and Montreal.</p> + +<p>This rebellion of Forty-Five, therefore, is remarkable +as a feature in this century, not for the greatness of the +interest it excited, but for the small effect it had upon +either government or people. It showed on what firm +foundations the liberties and religion of the nations +rested, that the appearance of armed enemies upon our +soil never shook our justly-balanced state. The courts +sat at Westminster, and the bells rang for church. +People read Thomson’s “Seasons,” and wondered at +Garrick in “Hamlet” at Drury Lane.</p> + +<p>Meantime, a great contest was going on abroad, which, +after being hushed for a while by the peace of 1748, broke +out with fiercer vehemence than ever in what +is called the Seven Years’ War. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1756-1763.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>The military<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_512" id="Page_512">[512]</a></span> +hero of this period was Frederick the Second of Prussia, +by whose genius and skill the kingdom he succeeded +to—a match for Saxony or Bavaria—rapidly assumed +its position as a first-rate power. A combination of +all the old despotisms was formed against him,—not, +however, without cause; for a more unprincipled remover +of his neighbour’s landmarks, and despiser of +generosity and justice, never appeared in history. But +when he was pressed on one side by Russia and Austria, +and on the other by France, and all the little German +potentates were on the watch to pounce on the unprotected +State and get their respective shares in the general +pillage, Frederick placed his life upon the cast, and +stood the hazard of the die in many tremendous combats, +crushed the belligerents one by one, made forced marches +which caught them unawares, and, though often defeated, +conducted his retreats so that they yielded him all the +fruits of victory. In his extremity he sought and found +alliances in the most unlikely quarters. Though a self-willed +despot in his own domains, he won the earnest +support and liberal subsidies of the freedom-loving English; +and though a philosopher of the most amazing +powers of unbelief, he awakened the sympathy of all the +religious Protestants in our land. All his faults were +forgiven—his unchivalrous treatment of the heroic <i>King</i> +of Hungary, Maria-Theresa, the Empress-Queen, his assaults +upon her territory, and general faithlessness and +ambition—on the one strong ground that he opposed +Catholics and tyrants, and, though irreligious and even +scoffing himself, was at the head of a true-hearted Protestant +people.</p> + +<p>It is not unlikely the instincts of a free nation led us +at that time to throw our moral weight, if nothing more, +into the scale against the intrusion of a new and untried +power which began to take part in the conflicts of Europe;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_513" id="Page_513">[513]</a></span> +for at this period we find the ill-omened announcement +that the Russians have issued from their deserts a +hundred thousand strong, and made themselves masters +of most of the Prussian provinces. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1758.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Though defeated in +the great battle of Zorndorf, they never lost the +hope of renewing the march they had made +eleven years before, when thirty-five thousand of them +had rested on the Rhine. But Britain was not blind +either to the past or future. At the head of our affairs +was a man whose fame continues as fresh at the present +hour as in the day of his greatness. William Pitt had +been a cornet of horse, and even in his youth had attracted +the admiration and hatred of old Sir Robert Walpole +by an eloquence and a character which the world has +agreed in honouring with the epithet of majestic; and +when war was again perplexing the nations, and Britain, +as usual, had sunk to the lowest point in the military +estimate of the Continent, the Great Commoner, as he +was called, took the government into his hands, and the +glories of the noblest periods of our annals were immediately +renewed or cast into the shade. Wherever the +Great Commoner pointed with his finger, success was +certain. His fleets swept the seas. Howe and Hawke +and Boscawen executed his plans. In the East he was +answered by the congenial energy of Clive, and in the +West by the heroic bravery of Wolfe. For, though the +war in which we were now engaged had commenced +nominally for European interests, the crash of arms between +France and England extended to all quarters of +the world. In India and America equally their troops +and policies were opposed, and, in fact, the battle of the +two nations was fought out in those distant realms. +Our triumph at Plassey and on the Heights of Abraham +had an immense reaction on both the peoples at home. +And a very cursory glance at those regions, from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_514" id="Page_514">[514]</a></span> +middle of the century, will be a fitting introduction to +the crowning event of the period we have now reached,—namely, +the French Revolution of 1789. The rise of +the British Empire in the East, no less than the loss of +our dominion in the West, will be found to contribute to +that grand catastrophe, of which the results for good +and evil will be felt “to the last syllable of recorded +time.”</p> + +<p>The first commercial adventure to India was in the +bold days of Elizabeth, in 1591. In the course of a +hundred years from that time various companies had +been established by royal charter, and a regular trade +had sprung up. In 1702 all previous charters were consolidated +into one, and the East India Company began +its career. Its beginning was very quiet and humble. +It was a trader, and nothing more; but when it saw a +convenient harbour, a favourable landing-place, and an +industrious population, it bent as lowly as any Oriental +slave at the footstool of the unsuspecting Rajah, and +obtained permission to build a storehouse, to widen the +wharf, and, finally, to erect a small tower, merely for +the defence of its property from the dangerous inhabitants +of the town. The storehouses became barracks, +the towers became citadels; and by the year 1750 the +recognised possessions of the inoffensive and unambitious +merchants comprised mighty states, and were +dotted at intervals along the coast from Surat and Bombay +on the west to Madras and Calcutta on the east and +far north. The French also had not been idle, and +looked out ill pleased, from their domains at Pondicherry +and Chandernagore, on the widely-diffused settlements +and stealthy progress of their silent rivals. +They might have made as rapid progress, and secured +as extensive settlements, if they had imitated their +rivals’ stealthiness and silence. But power is nothing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_515" id="Page_515">[515]</a></span> +in the estimation of a Frenchman unless he can wear it +like a court suit and display it to all the world. The +governors, therefore, of their factories, obtained honours +and ornaments from the native princes. One went so +far as to forge a gift of almost regal power from the +Great Mogul, and sat on a musnud, and was addressed +with prostration by his countrymen and the workmen +in the warerooms. Wherever the British wormed their +way, the French put obstacles in their path. Whether +there was peace between Paris and London or not, +made no difference to the rival companies on the Coromandel +shore. They were always at war, and only +cloaked their national hatred under the guise of supporters +of opposite pretenders to some Indian throne. +Great men arose on both sides. The climate or policies +of Hindostan, which weaken the native inhabitant, +only call forth the energies and manly virtues of the +intrusive settler. No kingdom has such a bead-roll of +illustrious names as the British occupation. That one +century of “work and will” has called forth more self-reliant +heroism and statesmanlike sagacity than any +period of three times the extent since the Norman Conquest. +From Clive, the first of the line, to the Lawrences +and Havelocks of the present day, there has +been no pause in the patriotic and chivalrous procession. +Clive came just at the proper time. A born general, +though sent out in an humble mercantile situation, he +retrieved the affairs of his employers and laid the foundation +of a new empire for the British crown. Calcutta +had been seized by a native ruler, instigated by the +French, in 1756. The British residents, to the number +of one hundred and forty-six, were packed in a frightful +dungeon without a sufficiency of light or air, and, after +a night which transcends all nights of suffering and +despair, when the prison-doors were thrown open, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_516" id="Page_516">[516]</a></span> +twenty-two of the whole number survived. But these +were twenty-two living witnesses to the tyranny and +cruelty of Surajah Dowlat. Clive was on his track ere +many months had passed. Calcutta was recovered, +other places were taken, and the battle of Plassey +fought. In this unparalleled exploit, Clive, with three +thousand soldiers, principally Sepoys, revenged the +victims of the Black Hole, by defeating their murderer +at the head of sixty thousand men. This was on the +23d of June, 1757; and when in that same year the +news of the great European war between the nations +came thundering up the Ganges, the victors enlarged +their plans. They determined to expel the French +from all their possessions in the East; and Admiral +Pococke and Colonel Coote were worthy rivals of the +gallant Clive. Great fleets encountered in the Indian +seas, and victory was always with the British flag. +Battles took place by land, and uniformly with the +same result. Closer and closer the invading lines converged +upon the French; and at last, in 1761, Pondicherry, +the last remaining of all their establishments, +was taken, after a vigorous defence, and the French +influence was at an end in India. These four years, +from 1757 to 1761, had been scarcely less prolific of +distinguished men on the French side than our own. +The last known of these was Lally Tollendal, a man of +a furious courage and headstrong disposition, against +whom his enemies at home had no ground of accusation +except his want of success and savageness of manner. +Yet when he returned, after the loss of Pondicherry +and a long imprisonment in England, he was attacked +with all the vehemence of personal hatred. He was +tried for betraying the interests of the king, tortured, +and executed. The prosecution lasted many years, and +the public rage seemed rather to increase. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1766.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Long after<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_517" id="Page_517">[517]</a></span> +peace was concluded between France and England, +the tragedy of the French expulsion from India +received its final scene in the death of the unfortunate +Count Lally.</p> + +<p>Quebec and its dependencies, during the same glorious +administration, were conquered and annexed by Wolfe; +and already the throes of the great Revolution were +felt, though the causes remained obscure. Cut off from +the money-making regions of Hindostan and the patriarchal +settlements of Canada, the Frenchman, oppressed +at home, had no outlet either for his ambition or discontent. +The feeling of his misery was further aggravated +by the sight of British prosperity. The race of +men called Nabobs, mercantile adventurers who had +gone out to India poor and came back loaded with +almost incredible wealth, brought the ostentatious habits +of their Oriental experience with them to Europe, and +offended French and English alike by the tasteless profusion +of their expense. Money wrung by extortion from +native princes was lavished without enjoyment by the denationalized +<i>parvenu</i>. A French duke found himself outglittered +by the equipage of the over-enriched clove-dealer,—and +hated him for his presumption. The Frenchman +of lower rank must have looked on him as the lucky and +dishonourable rival who had usurped his place, and +hated him for the opportunity he had possessed of winning +all that wealth. Ground to the earth by taxes and +toil, without a chance of rising in the social scale or of +escaping from the ever-growing burden of his griefs, +the French peasant and small farmer must have listened +with indignation to the accounts of British families of +their own rank emerging from a twenty years’ residence +in Madras or Calcutta with more riches than +half the hereditary nobles. It was therefore with a +feeling of unanimous satisfaction that all classes of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_518" id="Page_518">[518]</a></span> +Frenchmen heard, in 1773, that the old English colonies +in America were filled with disaffection,—that Boston +had risen in insurrection, and that a spirit of resistance +to the mother-country was rife in all the provinces.</p> + +<p>The quarrel came to a crisis between the Crown and +the colonies within fourteen years of the conquest of +Canada. It seemed as if the British had provided themselves +with a new territory to compensate for the approaching +loss of the old; and bitter must have been +the reflection of the French when they perceived that +the loyalty of that recent acquisition remained undisturbed +throughout the succeeding troubles. Taxation, +the root of all strength and the cause of all weakness, +had been pushed to excess, not in the amount of its +exaction, but in the principle of its imposition; and the +British blood had not been so colonialized as to submit +to what struck the inhabitants of all the towns as an +unjustifiable exercise of power. The cry at first, therefore, +was, No tax without representation; but the cry +waxed louder and took other forms of expression. The +cry was despised, whether gentle or loud,—then listened +to,—then resented. The passions of both countries +became raised. America would not submit to dictation; +Britain would not be silenced by threats. Feelings +which would have found vent at home in angry speeches +in Parliament, and riots at a new election, took a far +more serious shape when existing between populations +separated indeed by a wide ocean, but identical in most +of their qualities and aspirations. The king has been +blamed. “George the Third lost us the colonies by his +obstinacy: he would not yield an inch of his royal +dignity, and behold the United States our rivals and +enemies,—perhaps some day our conquerors and oppressors!” +Now, we should remember that the Great +Britain of 1774 was a very narrow-minded, self-opinionated,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_519" id="Page_519">[519]</a></span> +pig-headed Great Britain, compared to the cosmopolitan, +philanthropical, and altogether disinterested +Great Britain we call it now. If the king had bated +his breath for a moment, or even spoken respectfully +and kindly of the traitors and rebels who were firing +upon his flags, he would have been the most unpopular +man in his dominions. Many, no doubt, held aloof, and +found excuses for the colonists’ behaviour; but the influence +of those meditative spirits was small; their voice +was drowned in the chorus of indignation at what +appeared revolt and mutiny more than resistance to +injustice. And when other elements came into the +question,—when the French monarch, ostensibly at +peace with Britain, permitted his nobles and generals +and soldiers to volunteer in the patriot cause,—the sentiments +of this nation became embittered with its hereditary +dislike to its ancient foe. We turned them out +of India: were they going to turn us out of America? +We had taken Canada: are they going to take New +York? We might have offered terms to our own +countrymen, made concessions, granted exemptions from +imperial burdens, or even a share in imperial legislation; +but with Lafayette haranguing about abstract freedom, +and all the young counts and marquises of his expedition +declaring against the House of Lords, the +thing was impossible. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1778-1780.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>War was declared upon +France, and upon Spain, and upon Holland. We fought +everywhere, and lavished blood and treasure in this +great quarrel. And yet the nation had gradually accustomed +itself to the new view of American wrongs. +The Ministry, by going so far in their efforts at accommodation, +had confessed the original injustice of their +cause. So we fought with a blunted sword, and hailed +even our victories with misgivings as to our right to +win them. But it was the season of vast changes in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_520" id="Page_520">[520]</a></span> +the political distribution of all the world. Prussia was +a foremost kingdom. Russia was a European Empire. +India had risen into a compact dominion under the +shield of Britain. Why should not America take a +substantive place in the great family of nations, and +play a part hereafter in the old game of statesmen, +called the Balance of Power? In 1783 this opinion +prevailed. France, Spain, and Holland sheathed their +swords. The Independence of the United States was +acknowledged at the Peace of Versailles, and everybody +believed that the struggle against established +governments was over.</p> + +<p>France seemed elevated by the results of the American +War, and Great Britain humiliated. Prophecies were +frequent about our rapid fall and final extinction. Our +own orators were, as usual, the loudest in confessions +of our powerlessness and decay. Our institutions were +held up to dislike; and if you had believed the speeches +and pamphlets of discontented patriots, you would have +thought we were the most spiritless and down-trodden, +the most unmerciful and dishonest, nation in the world. +The whole land was in a fury of self-abasement at the +degradation brought upon our name and standing by the +treachery and iniquities of Warren Hastings in India; +our European glory was crushed by the surrender at +Paris. It must be satisfactory to all lovers of their +country to know that John Bull has no such satisfaction +as in proving that he is utterly exhausted,—always +deceived by his friends, always overreached by his enemies, +always disappointed in his aims. In this self-depreciating +spirit he conducts all his wars and all his +treaties; yet somehow it always happens that he gets +what he wanted, and the overreaching and deceiving +antagonist gives it up. His power is over a sixth of the +human race, and he began a hundred years ago with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_521" id="Page_521">[521]</a></span> +population of less than fourteen millions; and all the +time he has been singing the most doleful ditties of the +ill success that always attends him,—of his ruinous losses +and heart-breaking disappointments. The men at the +head of affairs in the trying years from the Peace of +Versailles to 1793 were therefore quite right not to be +taken in by the querulous lamentations of the nation. +We had lost three millions of colonists, and gained three +million independent customers. We were trading to +India, and building up and putting down the oldest +dynasties of Hindostan. Ships and commerce increased +in a remarkable degree; the losses of the war were compensated +by the gains of those peaceful pursuits in a +very few years; and we were contented to leave to Paris +the reputation of the gayest city in the world, and to +the French the reputation of the happiest and best-ruled +people. But Paris was the wretchedest of towns, and +the French the most miserable of peoples. When anybody +asks us in future what was the cause of the French +Revolution, we need not waste time to discuss the +writings of Voltaire, or the unbelief of the clergy, or +the immorality of the nobles. We must answer at once +by naming the one great cause by which all revolutions +are produced,—over-taxation. The French peasant, sighing +for liberty, had no higher object than an escape from +the intolerable burden of his payments. He cared no +more for the rights of man, or the happiness of the +human race, than for the quarrels of Achilles and Agamemnon. +He wanted to get rid of the “taille,” the +“corvée,” and twenty other imposts which robbed him +of his last penny. If he had had a chicken in his pot, +and could do as he liked with his own spade and pick-axe, +he never would have troubled his head about codes +and constitutions. But life had become a burden to him. +Everybody had turned against him. The grand old<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_522" id="Page_522">[522]</a></span> +feudal noble, who would have protected and cherished +him under the shadow of his castle-wall, was a lord-chamberlain +at court. The kind old priest, who would +have attended to his wants and fed him, if required, at +the church-door, was dancing attendance in the antechamber +of a great lady in Paris, or singing improper +songs at a jolly supper-party at Versailles. There were +intendants and commissaries visiting his wretched hovel +at rapidly-decreasing intervals of time, to collect his +contributions to the revenue. These men farmed the +taxes, and squeezed out the last farthing like a Turkish +pasha. But while the small land-owner—and they were +already immensely numerous—and the serf—for he was +no better—were oppressed by these exactions, the gentry +were exempt. The seigneur visited his castle for a month +or two in the year, but it was to embitter the countryman’s +lot by the contrast. His property had many +rights, but no duties. In ancient times in France, and +at all times in England, those two qualities went together. +Our upper classes lived among their tenants and dependants. +They had no alleviation of burdens in consequence +of their wealth, but they took care that their poorer +neighbours should have alleviation in consequence of +their poverty. Cottages had no window-tax. The pressure +of the public burdens increased with the power to +bear them. But in France the reverse was the case. +Poverty paid the money, and wealth and luxury spent +it. The evil was too deep-rooted to be remedied without +pulling up the tree. The wretched millions were +starving, toiling, despairing, and the thousands were +rioting in extravagance and show. The same thing occurred +in 1789 as had occurred in the last glimmer of +the Roman civilization in the time of Clovis. The +Roman Emperor issued edicts for the collection of his +revenue. Commissioners spread over the land; the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_523" id="Page_523">[523]</a></span> +miserable Gaul saw the last sheaf of his corn torn away, +and the last lamb of his flock. But when the last property +of the poorest was taken away, the imperial exchequer +could not remain unfilled. You remember the +unhappy men called Curials,—holders of small estates +in the vicinity of towns. They were also endowed with +rank, and appointed to office. Their office was to make +up from their own resources, or by extra severity among +their neighbours, for any deficiency in the sum assessed. +Peasant, land-owner, curial,—all sank into hopeless +misery by the crushing of this gold-producing machinery. +They looked across the Rhine to Clovis and +the Franks, and hailed the ferocious warriors as their +deliverers from an intolerable woe. They could not be +worse off by the sword of the stranger than by the +ledger of the tax-collector. In 1789 the system of the +old Roman extortion was revived. The village or district +was made a curial, and became responsible in its +aggregate character for the individual payments. If the +number of payers diminished, the increase fell upon the +few who were not yet stripped. The Clovis of the present +day who was to do away with their oppressors, +though perhaps to immolate themselves, was a Revolution,—a +levelling of all distinctions, ranks, rights, exemptions, +privileges. This was the “liberty, equality, fraternity” +that were to overflow the worn-out world and +fertilize it as the Nile does Egypt.</p> + +<p>Great pity has naturally been expressed for the nobility +(or gentry) and clergy of France; but, properly +considered, France had at that time neither a nobility +nor a clergy. A nobility with no status independent of +the king—with no connection with its estates beyond +the reception of their rents—with no weight in the +legislature; with ridiculously exaggerated rank, and +ridiculously contracted influence; with no interest in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_524" id="Page_524">[524]</a></span> +local expenditure or voice in public management; a +gentry, in short, debarred from active life, except as +officers of the army—shut out by monarchic jealousy +from interference in affairs, and by the pride of birth +from the pursuits of commerce—is not a gentry at all. +A clergy, in the same way, is a priesthood only in right +of its belief in the doctrines it professes to hold, and the +attention it bestows on its parishioners. Except in some +few instances, the Christianity both of faith and practice +had disappeared from France. It was time, therefore, +that nobility and clergy should also disappear. The +excesses of the Revolution which broke out in 1789, and +reached their climax in the murder of the king in 1793, +showed the excesses of the misgovernment of former +years. If there had been one redeeming feature of the +ancient system, it would have produced its fruits in the +milder treatment of the victims of the reaction. In one +or two provinces, indeed, we are told that hereditary +attachment still bound the people to their superiors, and +in those provinces, the philosophic chronicler of the fact +informs us, the centralizing system had not completed +its authority. The gentry still performed some of the +duties of their station, and the priests, of their profession. +Everywhere else blind hatred, unreasoning hope, +and bloody revenge. The century, which began with +the vainglorious egotism of Louis the Fourteenth and +the war of the Spanish Succession,—which progressed +through the British masterdom of India and the self-sustaining +republicanism of America,—died out in the +convulsive strugglings of thirty-one millions of souls on +the soil of France to breathe a purer political air and +shake off the trammels which had gradually been riveted +upon them for three hundred years. Great Britain had +preceded them by a century, and has ever since shown +the bloodless and legal origin of her freedom by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_525" id="Page_525">[525]</a></span> +bloodless and legal use she has made of it. We emerged +from the darkness of 1688 with all the great landmarks +of our country not only erect, but strengthened. We +had king, lords, and commons, and a respect for law, +and veneration for precedents, which led the great Duke +of Wellington to say, in answer to some question about +the chance of a British revolution, that “no man could +foresee whether such a thing might occur or not, but, +when it did, he was sure it would be done by Act of +Parliament.”</p> + +<p>War with France began in 1793. Our military reputation +was at the lowest, for Wolfe and Clive had had +time to be forgotten; and even our navy was looked on +without dismay, for the laurels of Howe and Boscawen +were sere from age. But in the remaining years of the +century great things were done, and Britannia had the +trident firmly in her hand. Jervis, and Duncan, and +Nelson, were answering with victories at sea the +triumphs of Napoleon in Italy. And while fame was +blowing the names of those champions far and wide, a +blast came across also from India, where Wellesley had +begun his wondrous career. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1798.<span class="hidev">|</span></span>Equally matched the belligerents, +and equally favoured with mighty men of +valour to conduct their forces, the feverish energy of +the newly-emancipated France being met by the healthful +vigour of the matured and self-respecting +Britain, the world was uncertain how the great +drama would close. But the last year of the century +seemed to incline the scale to the British side. <span class="sidenote"><span class="hidev">|</span><span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1799.<span class="hidev">|</span></span> +Napoleon, +after a dash at Egypt, had been checked +by the guns of Nelson in the great battle of the +Nile. He secretly withdrew from his dispirited army, +and made his appearance in Paris as much in the character +of a fugitive as of a candidate for power. But all +the fruits of his former battles had been torn from his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_526" id="Page_526">[526]</a></span> +countrymen in his absence. Italy was delivered from +their grasp; Russia was pouring her hordes into the +South; confusion was reigning everywhere, and the +fleets of Great Britain were blocking up every harbour +in France.</p> + +<p>Napoleon was created First Consul, and the Century +went down upon the final preparations of the embittered +rivals. Both parties felt now that the struggle was for +life or death, and “the boldest held his breath for a +time,” when he thought of what awful events the Nineteenth +Century would be the scene.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<p class="fn-header">Footnotes</p> +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> The following is a carefully compiled table of the forces of Europe in +the year 1854-55. Since that time the Russian fleet has been destroyed, but +the diminution has been more than counterbalanced by the increased navies +of the other powers. +</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Military Forces of Europe in 1855.</span></p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="" class="table-center"> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">Men.</td><td></td><td align="right">Ships.</td><td align="right">Guns.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Austria</td><td align="right">650,000</td><td></td><td align="right">102</td><td align="right">752</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Bavaria</td><td align="right">239,886</td><td></td><td align="right">...</td><td align="right">...</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Belgium</td><td align="right">100,000</td><td></td><td align="right">...</td><td align="right">...</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Denmark</td><td align="right">75,169</td><td></td><td align="right">120</td><td align="right">880</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">France</td><td align="right">650,000</td><td></td><td align="right">407</td><td align="right">11,773</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Germany</td><td align="right">452,473</td><td></td><td align="right">...</td><td align="right">...</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Great Britain</td><td align="right">265,000</td><td class="fncell"><a name="FNanchor_1_2" id="FNanchor_1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_2" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></td><td align="right">591</td><td align="right" style="padding-left:1em;">17,291</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Greece</td><td align="right">10,226</td><td></td><td align="right">25</td><td align="right">143</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Ionian Isles</td><td align="right">3,000</td><td></td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">...</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Modena and Parma</td><td align="right">6,302</td><td></td><td align="right">...</td><td align="right">...</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Netherlands</td><td align="right">58,647</td><td></td><td align="right">84</td><td align="right">2,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Papal States</td><td align="right">11,274</td><td></td><td align="right">...</td><td align="right">...</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Portugal</td><td align="right">33,000</td><td></td><td align="right">44</td><td align="right">404</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Prussia</td><td align="right">525,000</td><td></td><td align="right">50</td><td align="right">250</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Russia</td><td align="right">699,000</td><td></td><td align="right">207</td><td align="right">9,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Sardinia</td><td align="right">48,088</td><td></td><td align="right">40</td><td align="right">900</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Sicilies</td><td align="right">106,264</td><td></td><td align="right">29</td><td align="right">444</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Spain</td><td align="right">75,000</td><td></td><td align="right">410</td><td align="right">1530</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Sweden</td><td align="right">167,000</td><td></td><td align="right">...</td><td align="right">...</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Switzerland</td><td align="right">108,000</td><td></td><td align="right">...</td><td align="right">...</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Tuscany</td><td align="right">16,930</td><td></td><td align="right">...</td><td align="right">...</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Turkey</td><td align="right">310,970</td><td></td><td align="right">...</td><td align="right">...</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td><hr class="full" /></td><td></td><td><hr class="full" /></td><td><hr class="full" /></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">4,611,229</td><td></td><td align="right">2113</td><td align="right">45,367</td><td class="fncell"><a name="FNanchor_2_3" id="FNanchor_2_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_3" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></td></tr> +</table> +</div> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1_2" id="Footnote_1_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_2"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Indian army 250,000, and militia 145,000, not included; making a total of 660,000</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2_3" id="Footnote_2_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_3"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Taking an average of ten men to each gun, the sailors will be 453,670; which gives +a total of fighting-men, 5,064,899!!!</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_A_4" id="Footnote_A_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_4"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> He was called Le Grand Bâtisseur.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_A_5" id="Footnote_A_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_5"><span class="label">[C]</span></a> Wickliff’s English Bible, 1383.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_A_6" id="Footnote_A_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_6"><span class="label">[D]</span></a> Popular History—Henry VI.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_A_7" id="Footnote_A_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_7"><span class="label">[E]</span></a> Dr. Robertson</p></div>. +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_527" id="Page_527">[527]</a></span> +<a name="INDEX" id="INDEX">INDEX.</a></h2> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Abdelmalek the caliph, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> + +<li>À-Beckett, the elevation and career of, <a href="#Page_290">290</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Abelard, rise of free inquiry with, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> + +<li>Abou Beker, the exploits, &c. of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—chosen Mohammed’s successor, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> +<li>—his exploits, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Absolutism, rise of, in France under Louis XIV., <a href="#Page_475">475</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Abu Taleb, uncle of Mohammed, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + +<li>Academies, establishment of, by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + +<li>Adrian, the emperor, accession and reign of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a> <i>et seq.</i> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his death, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Adrian IV., Pope, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> + +<li>Africa, progress of the Saracens in, <a href="#Page_166">166</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—trading-company to, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Agincourt, battle of, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> + +<li>Agriculture, state of, in seventh century, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> + +<li>Agrippina, the empress, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + +<li>Alans, the, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + +<li>Alaric the Goth, first appearance of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—hostilities with, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li>—sack of Rome, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li>—his death and burial, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Albigenses, tenets, &c. of the, <a href="#Page_299">299</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the crusade against them, <a href="#Page_302">302</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Albinus, a candidate for the empire, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li>Alboin, King of the Lombards, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + +<li>Alcuin at the court of Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_194">194</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—as Abbot of Tours, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Aleppo taken by the Saracens, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + +<li>Alexander VI., character, &c. of, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li> + +<li>Alexandria, the monks of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—taken by the Saracens, and destruction of the library, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Alexis, the emperor, and the Crusaders, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> + +<li>Alfred, rise and exploits of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> + +<li>Ali becomes caliph, <a href="#Page_167">167</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the exploits &c. of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Alva, the Duke of, the St. Bartholomew massacre planned with, <a href="#Page_441">441</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his cruelties in the Netherlands, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Amadis de Gaul, the romance of, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> + +<li>America, the discovery of, <a href="#Page_396">396</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—growing importance of its discovery, <a href="#Page_402">402</a></li> +<li>—progress of British power in, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Amru, the Saracen conqueror, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + +<li>Anagni, the arrest of Boniface VIII. at, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li> + +<li>Anglican Church, the, under Henry II., <a href="#Page_289">289</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Anglo-Saxons, establishment of the, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + +<li>Anne, the literature of the reign of, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li> + +<li>Anselm, learning, &c. of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> + +<li>Antharis, conquest of Italy by, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + +<li>Antioch, the capture of, by the Crusaders, <a href="#Page_264">264</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the battle of, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Antoninus Pius, the emperor, his character and reign, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + +<li>Aquileia, siege of, by Maximin, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—taken by Attila, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Aquitaine, power of the Dukes of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> + +<li>Arcadius, the emperor, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> + +<li>Architecture, advancement of, during the eleventh century, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li> + +<li>Argentine, Sir Giles d’, death of, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> + +<li>Arians, enmity between, and the orthodox, <a href="#Page_94">94</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—quarrels between, and the Athanasians, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Aristocracy, the Roman, their decay, <a href="#Page_32">32</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Aristotle, supremacy given to, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> + +<li>Armagnac, the Count of, <a href="#Page_364">364</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—struggle between, and Burgundy, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Armies, the modern, of Europe, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li>Arnold of Brescia, the revolt of, <a href="#Page_278">278</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his death, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Arteveldt, James Van, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> + +<li>Asia, stationary condition of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + +<li>Asti, siege of, by Alaric, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> + +<li>Ataulf the Goth, career of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + +<li>Athanasians, division between the, and the Arians, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + +<li>Attila the Hun, career of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Augustin, influence of, on Luther, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> + +<li>Augustus, the supremacy of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his reign, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Aulus Plautius, landing of, in England, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>. +</li> + +<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_528" id="Page_528">[528]</a></span> +Aurelian, the emperor, <a href="#Page_72">72</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his triumph, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Austrasia, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> + +<li>Austria, the power of, in the seventeenth century, <a href="#Page_463">463</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the seven years’ war, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Auvergne, the Marquises of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + +<li>Avars, junction of the Lombards with the, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + +<li>Avignon, acquired by the Pope, <a href="#Page_306">306</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the residence of the Popes at, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Azores, discovery of the, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Bacon, Roger, gunpowder known to, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li> + +<li>Badby, John, martyrdom of, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li> + +<li>Bahuchet, a French admiral, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> + +<li>Balbinus, appointment of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his death, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Baldwyn, Count of Flanders, <a href="#Page_263">263</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—habits of, in the East, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Baliol, maintained by Edward I., <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> + +<li>Ballads, influence of, on the common people, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li> + +<li>Bannockburn, the battle of, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> + +<li>Barbarians, first appearance of the, <a href="#Page_25">25</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—their increased incursions, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li>—their continued progress, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> +<li>—their increasing strength, <a href="#Page_79">79</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Barbavara, a Genoese admiral, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> + +<li>Barcho-chebas, the rebellion of the Jews under, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + +<li>Bedford, the Duke of, in France, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li> + +<li>Belisarius, exploits of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—disgraced, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Bells, the invention of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + +<li>Benedict. <i>See</i> St. Benedict.</li> + +<li>Benedict XI. poisoned, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> + +<li>Benedictine monks, industry, &c. of the, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> + +<li>Berenger, transubstantiation assailed by, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> + +<li>Bernard de Goth, elevated to the papacy as Clement V., <a href="#Page_331">331</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Beziers, massacre of Albigenses in, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li> + +<li>Bible, Wickliff’s translation of the, <a href="#Page_342">342</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the first book printed by Guttenberg, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Bishops, increasing alarm of the, in the ninth century, <a href="#Page_205">205</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—warlike, of the eleventh century, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Black Hole of Calcutta, the tragedy of the, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li> + +<li>Blanche, mother of Louis IX., urges the persecution of the Albigenses, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> + +<li>Blenheim, the battle of, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li> + +<li>Boccaccio, the works of, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> + +<li>Bohemund, the Crusader, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> + +<li>Boniface VII., Pope, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> + +<li>Boniface VIII., bull against Edward I. by, <a href="#Page_315">315</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—jubilee celebrated by, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li> +<li>—contest with Philip le Bel, <a href="#Page_326">326</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—his arrest, <a href="#Page_329">329</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—his death, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Boniface, Archbishop of Mayence, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + +<li>Books, early value of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—multiplied by printing, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Borgia, elevation of, to the Papacy, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li> + +<li>Brantôme, the memoirs of, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li> + +<li>Bribery, prevalence of, under Walpole, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</li> + +<li>Brittany, power of the Dukes of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—acquired by Rollo the Norman, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Bruce, the victory of, at Bannockburn, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> + +<li>Bruges, defeat of the townsmen of, at Cassel, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> + +<li>Brunehild, cruelties and career of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—her death, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Brunissende de Périgord, mistress of Clement V., <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> + +<li>Buccaneers, rise of the, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li> + +<li>Burghers, increasing importance of the, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> + +<li>Burgundians, conquest of Gaul by the, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + +<li>Burgundy, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> + +<li>Busentino, burial of Alaric in the, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Cade, the insurrection of, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li> + +<li>Cadijah, wife of Mohammed, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + +<li>Calais, taken by Edward III., <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> + +<li>Caligula, the character, &c. of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + +<li>Caliphs, habits of the, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> + +<li>Calvinists and Lutherans, hatred between, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li> + +<li>Cambrai, the league of, <a href="#Page_409">409</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Canada, the conquest of, by the British, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li> + +<li>Cannon, first employment of, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> + +<li>Capetian line, commencement of the, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li> + +<li>Caracalla, character of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his accession and reign, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Carausius, the revolt of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + +<li>Carlovingian line, close of the, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li> + +<li>Carthage, subdued by the Saracens, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> + +<li>Cassel, the battle of, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> + +<li>Cassius, the rebellion of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li>Cathedrals, building of, during the eleventh century, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> + +<li>Catherine de Medicis, the massacre of St. Bartholomew planned by, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li> + +<li>Catholicism, resemblances between, and Mohammedanism, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li> + +<li>Cavendish, the naval exploits of, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li> + +<li>Caxton, books printed by, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li> + +<li>Celibacy, priestly, neglect of, during the eleventh century, <a href="#Page_252">252</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—enforced by Hildebrand, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Centuries, characters of different, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Chæreas, assassination of Caligula by, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> + +<li>Châlons, the battle of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> + +<li>Change, prevalence of, during eighteenth century, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li> + +<li>Charlemagne, accession and reign of, <a href="#Page_186">186</a> <i>et seq.</i> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his conquests, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> +<li>—crowned Emperor of the West, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> +<li>—his era, <a href="#Page_188">188</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—his polity, &c., <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> +<li>—his court, &c., <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—his encouragement of literature, &c., <a href="#Page_195">195</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—his death, and disruption of his empire, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Charles, son of Louis the Debonnaire, <a href="#Page_201">201</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—character and reign of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Charles the Simple and Rollo the Norman, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> + +<li>Charles VI., decline of the French nobility under, <a href="#Page_360">360</a> <i>et seq.</i> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—death of, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Charles VII., accession of, <a href="#Page_384">384</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the Maid of Orleans, <a href="#Page_386">386</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—his desertion of her, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Charles IX., the massacre of St. Bartholomew, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_529" id="Page_529">[529]</a></span> +Charles V., the emperor, extent of his dominions, <a href="#Page_404">404</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—and Luther, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></li> +<li>—close of his career, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Charles I., unpopularity of, <a href="#Page_465">465</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the execution of, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Charles II., England under, <a href="#Page_472">472</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Charles II. of Spain, death of, and his will, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li> + +<li>Charles Edward, the rising under, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li> + +<li>Charles Martel, the defeat of the Saracens by, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Chatham, the ministry of, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li> + +<li>Chaucer, the works of, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> + +<li>Childeric III., the last of the Merovingians, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> + +<li>Chivalry, rise of the orders of, <a href="#Page_344">344</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—principles inculcated by, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Chosroes, King of Persia, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li>Christ, the birth of and its influence, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + +<li>Christian Church, progressive development of the, <a href="#Page_76">76</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—its organization, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> +<li>—corruption of the, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> +<li>—divisions in it, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> +<li>—persecutions, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Christians, persecution of the, by Nero, <a href="#Page_23">23</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—policy of Adrian towards, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Christianity, influence of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the first effects of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> +<li>—progress of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> +<li>—establishment of, by Constantine, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> +<li>—commencing struggle of, with Mohammedanism, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Church, the privileges conferred on, and its advantages, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—corruptions, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> +<li>—at variance with the nobility, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> +<li>—its unity, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> +<li>—state of, in England during eighth century, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> +<li>—monarchical principle established in the, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> +<li>—effects of the Crusades on, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li> +<li>—increasing pretensions and power of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> +<li>—possessions, &c. of, in France in the tenth century, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li> +<li>—resistance to it, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> +<li>—policy of Hugh Capet, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> +<li>—state of, during the tenth century, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> +<li>—during the eleventh century, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> +<li>—in England under Henry II., <a href="#Page_292">292</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—conditions of Magna Charta regarding, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li> +<li>—changed position of, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li> +<li>—state of, in the fifteenth century, <a href="#Page_368">368</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—before the Reformation, <a href="#Page_419">419</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Church of England, the, and its influence and tendencies, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li> + +<li>Churches, schism between the Eastern and Western, <a href="#Page_133">133</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—rebuilding, &c. of the, in the eleventh century, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> +<li>—their objects, &c., <a href="#Page_244">244</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Churchmen, warlike, during the eleventh century, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> + +<li>Citeaux, the Abbot of, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li> + +<li>Claudius, reign and character of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his death, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Clement V., election of, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his rapacity, &c., <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li> +<li>—the persecution of the Templars, <a href="#Page_337">337</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Clergy, the, privileges conferred on, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—corruption of the higher, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> +<li>—increasing claims of, in the ninth century, <a href="#Page_204">204</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—claims of, in the tenth century, and resistance to them, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> +<li>—policy of Hugh Capet, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> +<li>—the higher character of, during the twelfth century, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> +<li>—character of, in Provence, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li> +<li>—taxed in England by Edward I., <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li> +<li>—support Henry IV. in England, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li> +<li>—the French at the time of the Revolution, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Clive, the exploits of, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li> + +<li>Clotaire, overthrow of Brunehild by, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> + +<li>Clothilde, anecdote of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> + +<li>Clovis, accession of, in France, <a href="#Page_119">119</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the descendants of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> +<li>—set aside, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Cobham, Lord, martyrdom of, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li> + +<li>Colonies, the first English and Dutch, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li> + +<li>Colonna, the arrest of Boniface VIII. by, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li> + +<li>Columbus, the career of, and his discovery of America, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> + +<li>Commerce, progress of, in England under Elizabeth, <a href="#Page_449">449</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Commodus, accession and character of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Commons, rise of the, in England, <a href="#Page_306">306</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—House of, first constituted in England, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Condé, the Great, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li> + +<li>Conrad, the emperor, heads the second Crusade, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> + +<li>Conservatism, strength of, in England during eighteenth century, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li> + +<li>Constantine, accession of, and removal to Constantinople, <a href="#Page_84">84</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his character, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> +<li>—establishes Christianity, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> +<li>—his system of government, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> +<li>—nobility founded by him, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> +<li>—his system of taxation, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> +<li>—death, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Constantinople, removal of the seat of empire to, <a href="#Page_84">84</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—subordination of the Bishop of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> +<li>—supremacy claimed for the Bishop of, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> +<li>—assailed by the Saracens, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> +<li>—early subordination of the Popes to, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> +<li>—pretensions of the emperors, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> +<li>—the Crusaders at, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li> +<li>—diffusion of learning by capture of, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Convents, state of the, during the tenth century, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> + +<li>Coote, Sir Eyre, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li> + +<li>Cornelius and Novatian, the schism between, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> + +<li>Council of Toledo, the, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> + +<li>Count, origin of the title of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + +<li>Courtrai, the battle of, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> + +<li>Covenanters, persecutions of the, in Scotland, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li> + +<li>Crecy, battle of, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> + +<li>Cromwell, the rise &c. of, <a href="#Page_470">470</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—England under, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Crown, position of the, in England and France during the tenth century, <a href="#Page_230">230</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—new position given to the, under Hugh Capet, <a href="#Page_233">233</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—its increasing power, <a href="#Page_359">359</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Crusades, first suggestion of the, <a href="#Page_242">242</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the first, <a href="#Page_260">260</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—losses in it, and its effects on Europe, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> +<li>—of children, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> +<li>—the second, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li> +<li>—the third, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li> +<li>—influence of, on the distribution of wealth, &c., <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li> +<li>—end of, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Crusading spirit, first rise of the, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> + +<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_530" id="Page_530">[530]</a></span> +Cuba, the buccaneers at, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li> + +<li>Culloden, the battle of, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li> + +<li>Cunimond, defeat and death of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + +<li>Curials, the, under the Roman emperors, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>.</li> + +<li>Cyrene, conquest of, by the Saracens, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Dagobert, King, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> + +<li>Dance of Death, the, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li> + +<li>Danes, the invasions of the, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—their invasions of England, <a href="#Page_212">212</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—their settlements, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> +<li>—continued incursions into England, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Dante, the works of, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> + +<li>Democracy, early alliance of the Church with, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> + +<li>Dettingen, the battle of, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>.</li> + +<li>Diaz, Bartholomew, discovery of the Cape of Good Hope by, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> + +<li>Didius, purchase of the empire by, <a href="#Page_59">59</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his death, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Diocletian, accession and reign of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—abdicates, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> +<li>—system introduced by him, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Dominic, originates the crusade against the Albigenses, <a href="#Page_301">301</a> <i>et seq.</i> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—establishment of the Inquisition under, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Domitian, the reign of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + +<li>Dorylæum, the battle of, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> + +<li>Drake, the expeditions of, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li> + +<li>Dress, distinctions from, among the Franks, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> + +<li>Dudley, the informer, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li> + +<li>Duncan, the victories of, <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li> + +<li>Dunois, bastard of Orleans, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li> + +<li>Dutch, the maritime settlements of the, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>East India Company, founding of the, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li> + +<li>Eastern Church, schism of the, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> + +<li>Eastern empire, falling supremacy of the, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li>Ecclesiastical power, decay of, in the thirteenth century, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li> + +<li>Edessa, the Crusaders at, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> + +<li>Education, measures of Charlemagne for, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> + +<li>Edward I., taxation of the clergy by, <a href="#Page_315">315</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—character of the reign of, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li> +<li>—his attempts on Scotland, <a href="#Page_319">319</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Edward II., the defeat of, at Bannockburn, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> + +<li>Edward III., the Garter instituted by, <a href="#Page_344">344</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—policy of, his alliance with Flanders, &c., <a href="#Page_354">354</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—war with France, <a href="#Page_355">355</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—battles of Helvoet Sluys and Crecy, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li> +<li>—of Poictiers, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Edward the Black Prince, his treatment of John, <a href="#Page_349">349</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his character, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li> +<li>—his victory at Poictiers, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Egbert, subjugation of the Heptarchy by, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> + +<li>Eginhart, the life of Charlemagne by, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> + +<li>Egypt, surrender of Louis IX. in, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li> + +<li>Eleanor, wife of Louis VII., <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> + +<li>Elizabeth, policy of, with regard to the Reformation, <a href="#Page_428">428</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the policy and measures of, and their results, <a href="#Page_436">436</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—the Armada, <a href="#Page_444">444</a></li> +<li>—papal bull against, <a href="#Page_448">448</a></li> +<li>—changes in England under, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Elizabeth, daughter of James I., married to the Elector of Palatine, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li> + +<li>Ella, King of Northumberland, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> + +<li>Eloisa, influence of, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> + +<li>Empire of the West, restoration of, under Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> + +<li>Empson, the creature of Henry VII., <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li> + +<li>England, conquest of, by the Romans, and its effects, <a href="#Page_21">21</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—severance of, from the Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> +<li>—formation of the Heptarchy in, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> +<li>—state of, in the sixth century, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> +<li>—divided state of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> +<li>—state of, in the eighth century, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> +<li>—the Church and clergy, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> +<li>—union of, under Egbert, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> +<li>—state of, in the ninth century, <a href="#Page_211">211</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—the invasions of the Danes, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> +<li>—its divided state, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> +<li>—settlements of the Danes, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> +<li>—rise and career of Alfred, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> +<li>—the Church and the Crown in, during the tenth century, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> +<li>—state of, during the tenth century, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li> +<li>—origin of the wars with France, <a href="#Page_285">285</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—subservience to the papacy in, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> +<li>—position of the Church, and feeling towards the Normans, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> +<li>—state of, under John, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> +<li>—rise of the Commons, &c. in, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li> +<li>—Magna Charta and its effects, <a href="#Page_308">308</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—reign of Henry III., <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li> +<li>—supremacy of the papacy in, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li> +<li>—independence of the Church, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li> +<li>—the reign of Edward I. in, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li> +<li>—the battle of Bannockburn, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li> +<li>—the policy of Edward III., <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li> +<li>—decline of the nobility in, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li> +<li>—divided state of, on accession of Henry IV., <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li> +<li>—the ballads of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li> +<li>—state of, during fifteenth century, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li> +<li>—loss of her French possessions, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li> +<li>—conquests of Henry V. in France, <a href="#Page_378">378</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—accession of Henry VIII., <a href="#Page_404">404</a></li> +<li>—increasing commerce of, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li> +<li>—first idea of union with Scotland, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li> +<li>—battle of Flodden, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li> +<li>—the reformation in, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></li> +<li>—the reign of Mary in, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></li> +<li>—the policy of Elizabeth and its results, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></li> +<li>—progress of, under Elizabeth, <a href="#Page_450">450</a></li> +<li>—the colonization of America by, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></li> +<li>—under James I., <a href="#Page_455">455</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—state of parties, &c. on accession of Charles I., <a href="#Page_465">465</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—political and religious parties, <a href="#Page_466">466</a></li> +<li>—the great rebellion, <a href="#Page_468">468</a></li> +<li>—the reaction against Puritanism in, <a href="#Page_472">472</a></li> +<li>—under Charles II., <a href="#Page_472">472</a></li> +<li>—its degraded position, <a href="#Page_473">473</a></li> +<li>—ingress of French Protestants into, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li> +<li>—reign of James II., <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li> +<li>—William III., <a href="#Page_486">486</a></li> +<li>—state, &c. of, during eighteenth century, <a href="#Page_493">493</a></li> +<li>—state of, under the Georges, <a href="#Page_494">494</a></li> +<li>—is she a military nation? <a href="#Page_496">496</a></li> +<li>—the war of the succession, <a href="#Page_498">498</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—the peace of Utrecht, <a href="#Page_502">502</a></li> +<li>—the ministry of Walpole, &c., <a href="#Page_505">505</a></li> +<li>—the Pretender in, <a href="#Page_509">509</a></li> +<li>—supports Frederick the Great, <a href="#Page_512">512</a></li> +<li>—the rise of her Indian empire, <a href="#Page_514">514</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—the revolt of the United States, <a href="#Page_518">518</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—her progress, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>, <a href="#Page_521">521</a></li> +<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_531" id="Page_531">[531]</a></span>—her revolution and freedom contrasted with those of France, <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Episcopacy, James’s attempt to force, on Scotland, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li> + +<li>Ethelbald, the reign of, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> + +<li>Ethelwolf, the reign of, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> + +<li>Etiquette, supremacy of, under Louis XIV., <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li> + +<li>Eugene, Prince, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> + +<li>Eugenius III., Pope, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> + +<li>Eunapius, character of the early monks by, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> + +<li>Europe, modern, compared with ancient Rome, <a href="#Page_56">56</a> <i>et seq.</i> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—state of, in the seventh century, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> +<li>—in the eighth, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> +<li>—rise of the modern kingdoms of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> +<li>—state of, during the tenth century, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> +<li>—effects of the first Crusade on, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> +<li>—progressive advances of, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li> +<li>—state of, during fifteenth century, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li> +<li>—changed aspect of, in sixteenth century, <a href="#Page_431">431</a></li> +<li>—sensation caused by massacre of St. Bartholomew, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></li> +<li>—changes in, during eighteenth century, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a></li> +<li>—the seven years’ war, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Famines, frequency of, during the tenth century, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> + +<li>Faust and the mention of printing, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li> + +<li>Favorinus the Grammarian, anecdote of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> + +<li>Ferdinand of Spain, a party to the league of Cambrai, <a href="#Page_409">409</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—declares war against France, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Ferdinand, the emperor, character and policy of, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li> + +<li>Ferdinand and Isabella, union of Spain under, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> + +<li>Feudal organization, long retention of, in Scotland, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> + +<li>Feudal system, origin of the, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> + +<li>Feudalism, progress of, in the ninth century, <a href="#Page_210">210</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—full establishment of, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li> +<li>—decay of, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li> +<li>—continued decline of, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Fields of May or March in France, the, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> + +<li>Fine arts, encouragement of, by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + +<li>Flagellants, tenets, &c. of the, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li> + +<li>Flanders, power of the Dukes of, <a href="#Page_232">232</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—rise of the towns of, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> +<li>—the alliance of Edward III. with, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Flodden, battle of, and its effects, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Fontenelle, the abbey of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> + +<li>Fontenoy, the battle of, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>.</li> + +<li>France, accession of Clovis in, <a href="#Page_119">119</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—accession of Pepin to crown of, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> +<li>—position of, under Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> +<li>—loses the boundary of the Rhine, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> +<li>—power of the great nobles, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> +<li>—state of, during the tenth century, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> +<li>—settlement of Rollo in, <a href="#Page_222">222</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—possessions of the clergy in, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li> +<li>—accession of Hugh Capet, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> +<li>—his policy, <a href="#Page_232">232</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—its separation from the empire, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li> +<li>—monasteries in, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li> +<li>—origin of the English wars, <a href="#Page_285">285</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—the kings of, contrasted with the Plantagenets, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li> +<li>—acquisitions of, in Languedoc, &c., <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li> +<li>—reign of Louis IX. in, <a href="#Page_311">311</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—the parliaments of, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li> +<li>—supremacy of the papacy in, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li> +<li>—degeneracy of the clergy, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li> +<li>—independence of the church, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li> +<li>—subserviency of the Popes to, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li> +<li>—title of King of, assumed by Edward III., <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li> +<li>—depressed state of, at close of fourteenth century, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li> +<li>—decline, of the nobility in, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li> +<li>—state of, during fifteenth century, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li> +<li>—expulsion of the English from, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li> +<li>—its history during the century, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li> +<li>—career of Joan of Arc, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></li> +<li>—accession of Francis I., <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li> +<li>—a party to the league of Cambrai, <a href="#Page_409">409</a></li> +<li>—the massacre of St. Bartholomew in, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></li> +<li>—changes witnessed by Brantôme in, <a href="#Page_448">448</a></li> +<li>—rise of absolutism under Louis XIV. in, <a href="#Page_475">475</a> et seq.</li> +<li>—policy of Richelieu and reign of Louis XIII., <a href="#Page_476">476</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, <a href="#Page_483">483</a></li> +<li>—changes in, during eighteenth century, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></li> +<li>—contests in India and America with, <a href="#Page_513">513</a></li> +<li>—the policy and overthrow of, in India, <a href="#Page_514">514</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—depression and discontent before the Revolution, <a href="#Page_517">517</a></li> +<li>—aids the North American colonies, <a href="#Page_519">519</a></li> +<li>—causes of the Revolution, <a href="#Page_522">522</a></li> +<li>—general discontent, <a href="#Page_523">523</a></li> +<li>—the Revolution, <a href="#Page_524">524</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Francis I., accession and character of, <a href="#Page_405">405</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—death of, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Franks, tribes composing the, <a href="#Page_71">71</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—state of the, in the sixth century, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> +<li>—institutions, &c. of the, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> +<li>—divisions of their kingdom, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Frederick the Great, the career of, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li> + +<li>Frederick, Elector Palatine, marriage of, to Elizabeth of England, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li> + +<li>Frederick Barbarossa, capture, &c. of Rome by, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> + +<li>Free lances, the rise, &c. of the, <a href="#Page_350">350</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Freedom, rise of, in England, <a href="#Page_306">306</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>French ballads, the early, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li> + +<li>French Revolution, the, <a href="#Page_524">524</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Fritigern, defeat of Valens by, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + +<li>Froissart, the writings of, and their influence, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> + +<li>Fronde, the wars of the, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Galba, the emperor, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + +<li>Garter, institution of order of, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> + +<li>Gaul, severance of, from the Roman empire, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + +<li>Gebhard, Elector of Cologne, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li> + +<li>Genoa, prosperity of, during the Crusades, <a href="#Page_272">272</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—greatness of, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Genseric, sack of Rome by, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + +<li>George I. and II., characters of, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li> + +<li>George III., loyalty to, in England, <a href="#Page_494">494</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the alleged loss of the United States by his obstinacy, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Georges, England under the, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li> + +<li>Germans, defeat of the, by Probus, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> + +<li>Germany, state of, in the sixth century, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—divided state of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> +<li>—separation between France and the Empire, and reign <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_532" id="Page_532">[532]</a></span>of Otho the Great, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li> +<li>—progress, &c. of the Reformation in, <a href="#Page_460">460</a></li> +<li>—ingress of French Huguenots into, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Geta, murder of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + +<li>Gibraltar, cession of, to England, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> + +<li>Gladiatorial shows, passion of the Romans for, <a href="#Page_34">34</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Glo’ster, the Duke of, uncle of Henry VI., <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li> + +<li>Godfrey of Bouillon, <a href="#Page_263">263</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—chosen King of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li> +<li>—his death, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Good Hope, Cape of, discovered, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> + +<li>Gordian, appointed emperor, <a href="#Page_69">69</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his reign, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li>—his death, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Goths, first appearance of the, <a href="#Page_98">98</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—admitted within the empire, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Gothia, the Marquises of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + +<li>Granada, loss of, by the Moors, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> + +<li>Great Britain, the union of, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>, <i>See</i> England.</li> + +<li>Great Rebellion, origin and history of the, <a href="#Page_467">467</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Greek fire, the, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> + +<li>Gregory the Great, Pope, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> + +<li>Gregory VII., (Hildebrand,) career, &c. of, <a href="#Page_249">249</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a> <i>et seq.</i> <i>See</i> Hildebrand.</li> + +<li>Gregory IX., persecution of the Albigenses under, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li> + +<li>Guienne, how acquired by England, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> + +<li>Guinegate, the battle of, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> + +<li>Gunpowder, influence of discovery of, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> + +<li>Guthrum, alliance of, with Alfred, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> + +<li>Guttenberg, the invention of printing by, <a href="#Page_390">390</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—printing of the Bible by, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Hadrian. <i>See</i> Adrian.</li> + +<li>Hair, distinction from the, among the Franks, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> + +<li>Harfleur, siege of, by Henry V., <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> + +<li>Harold of the Fair Hair, the reign of, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> + +<li>Hastings the Dane, defeated by Alfred, <a href="#Page_216">216</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—enters the service of France, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Heathenism, Julian’s attempt to restore, <a href="#Page_95">95</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Hegira, the, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> + +<li>Helena, the mother of Constantine, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + +<li>Heliogabalus, the reign of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> + +<li>Helvoet Sluys, battle of, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> + +<li>Henrietta Maria, unpopularity of, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li> + +<li>Henry I., acquisition of Normandy by, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li> + +<li>Henry II., claims of, on France, <a href="#Page_286">286</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—character of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li> +<li>—and À-Beckett, <a href="#Page_289">289</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—his death, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Henry III., reign of, in England, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li> + +<li>Henry IV., divided state of England under, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li> + +<li>Henry V., persecution of the Lollards under, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—invasion of France by, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li> +<li>—captures Harfleur, <a href="#Page_378">378</a></li> +<li>—battle of Agincourt, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li> +<li>—his death, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Henry VI. recognised as King of France, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li> + +<li>Henry VII., character, &c. of, <a href="#Page_371">371</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—treasure accumulated by, and how, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Henry VIII., accession and character of, <a href="#Page_404">404</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—declares war against France, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li> +<li>—triumphs of, in 1513, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li> +<li>—controversy of, with Luther, <a href="#Page_426">426</a></li> +<li>—throws off the papal supremacy, <a href="#Page_430">430</a></li> +<li>—death of, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Henry III. of France, the murder of, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li> + +<li>Henry, the emperor, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + +<li>Henry IV. of Germany, attacks of Hildebrand on, <a href="#Page_256">256</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the struggle between them, <a href="#Page_257">257</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—the death of, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Heptarchy, the, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—subjugation of the, by Egbert, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Heraclius, Emperor of the East, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li>Heresies, various, of the thirteenth century, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> + +<li>Heretics, first crusade against the, <a href="#Page_302">302</a> <i>et seq.</i> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—first law against, in England, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Highlanders, the, in the Forty-Five, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>.</li> + +<li>Hildebrand, the career, &c. of, <a href="#Page_249">249</a> et seq., <a href="#Page_255">255</a> <i>et seq.</i> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his struggle with the emperor, <a href="#Page_257">257</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—his death, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Hippo subdued by the Saracens, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> + +<li>Hira subjugated by the Mohammedans, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + +<li>History, uses of, and difficulties of studying it from its extent, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> + +<li>Holland, increasing commerce of, <a href="#Page_412">412</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the colonies of, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Holy Land, the first Crusade to the, <a href="#Page_262">262</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—and last, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Honorius, the emperor, <a href="#Page_101">101</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—besieged by Alaric, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> +<li>—murders Stilicho, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Hugh Capet, accession of, to the French throne, <a href="#Page_231">231</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his policy, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Hugh the Great, Count of Vermandois, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> + +<li>Huguenots, the, the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li> + +<li>Huns, first appearance of the, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> + +<li>Huss, the martyrdom of, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Iconoclast emperor, the, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li>Images, defence, &c. of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Immaculate conception, dogma of the, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> + +<li>India, Vasco da Gama’s voyage to, <a href="#Page_401">401</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—effect of the new route to, on Venice, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li> +<li>—rise of the British power in, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Indulgences, protest of Luther against, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> + +<li>Innocent III., originates the crusade against the Albigenses, <a href="#Page_302">302</a> <i>et seq.</i> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—excommunication of John by, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Innovation, general tendency to, during eighteenth century, <a href="#Page_493">493</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Inquiry, commencement of, with Scotus Erigena, <a href="#Page_207">207</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—rise of, with the Crusades, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Inquisition, the, established under Dominic, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> + +<li>Intellect, direction of, in the present century, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> + +<li>Invention, the present century distinguished by, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> + +<li>Investiture, claims of Hildebrand regarding, <a href="#Page_257">257</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Irish Church, the early, its state, &c., <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> + +<li>Isabella, queen of Charles VI., profligacy of, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> + +<li>Italy, ravaged by Attila, <a href="#Page_110">110</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—irruption of the Lombards into, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> +<li>—state of, in seventh century, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> +<li>—divided state of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_533" id="Page_533">[533]</a></span></li> +<li>—state of, during the tenth Century, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> +<li>—conquests of the Normans in, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li> +<li>—rise of the republics of, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> +<li>—state of, before the Reformation, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Jacobite songs, the, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>.</li> + +<li>Jacques de Molay, death of, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> + +<li>James I., England under, <a href="#Page_455">455</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—influence of his character, &c., <a href="#Page_458">458</a></li> +<li>—his conduct towards the Elector Palatine, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li> +<li>—his attempt to introduce Episcopacy into Scotland, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>James II., persecution of the Covenanters by, <a href="#Page_473">473</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—accession of, in England, and his dethronement, <a href="#Page_485">485</a></li> +<li>—death of, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>James III., the rebellion in favour of, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.</li> + +<li>James IV. of Scotland married to Margaret of England, <a href="#Page_414">414</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the battle of Flodden, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Jamestown, the first English settlement in America, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li> + +<li>Jerome, the martyrdom of, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li> + +<li>Jerusalem, importance given by Christianity to, <a href="#Page_17">17</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the capture and destruction of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—named Ælia Capitolina by Adrian, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li>—taken by the Saracens, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>—commencement of pilgrimage to, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> +<li>—the capture of, by the Crusaders, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li> +<li>—the kingdom of, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Jervis, the victories of, <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li> + +<li>Jesuits, institution and influence of the, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li> + +<li>Jews, the dispersion of the, <a href="#Page_30">30</a> <i>et seq.</i> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—their rebellion against Adrian, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> +<li>—crusade against the, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> +<li>—spoliation of, by Philip le Bel, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Joan of Arc, history of, <a href="#Page_386">386</a> <i>et seq.</i> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—her death, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>John, (of England,) character of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—state of England under, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> +<li>—excommunication, &c. of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li> +<li>—signs Magna Charta, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li> +<li>—his attempt to evade the charter, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>John, (of France,) the treatment of, by Edward the Black Prince, <a href="#Page_349">349</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his capture at Poictiers and ransom, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>John XII., Pope, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> + +<li>John, Duke of Burgundy, <a href="#Page_361">361</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—murders Louis of Orleans, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li> +<li>—assumes the regency, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li> +<li>—rule of, in France, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>John, Bishop of Constantinople, supremacy claimed by, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> + +<li>Jovian, the emperor, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + +<li>Jubilee, the, in 1300, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li> + +<li>Julian the Apostate, reign and character of, <a href="#Page_93">93</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Julius II., character of, <a href="#Page_408">408</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—acquisitions from Venice, <a href="#Page_410">410</a></li> +<li>—declares war against France, &c., <a href="#Page_410">410</a></li> +<li>—impression made on Luther by, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Justinian, efforts of, to recover Italy, <a href="#Page_124">124</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—internal government of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> +<li>—his law-reforms, <a href="#Page_135">135</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—re-introduction of code of, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Khaled, the lieutenant of Mohammed, <a href="#Page_158">158</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his exploits, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>—and death, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Kieff, the kingdom of, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> + +<li>Kilmich, murder of Alboin by, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + +<li>Kingdoms, modern, rise of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> + +<li>Klodwig or Clovis, accession of, in France, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>. <i>See</i> Clovis.</li> + +<li>Knight, position, &c. of the, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> + +<li>Knighthood, decay of, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Lally, Count, the execution of, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li> + +<li>Land, grants of, and system these originate, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> + +<li>Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, <a href="#Page_247">247</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—defends transubstantiation, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Languedoc, the Albigenses in, <a href="#Page_299">299</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—extirpation of the Albigenses in, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li> +<li>—peace of, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Laud, Archbishop, <a href="#Page_467">467</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—execution of, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Law, the reform of, by Justinian, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> + +<li>Laws, great increase of, in Rome, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> + +<li>Lea, defeat of the Danes at the, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> + +<li>Learning, advancement of, during the eleventh century, <a href="#Page_246">246</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Leo the Iconoclast, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li>Leo, Pope, Rome saved from Attila by, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> + +<li>Leo X., character of, <a href="#Page_407">407</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—influence of, on the Reformation, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Leuds or Feudatories, the, <a href="#Page_149">149</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—their struggle with the crown, <a href="#Page_150">150</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Libraries, early, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li> + +<li>Liege, massacre at, by John the Fearless, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> + +<li>Literature, revival of, with Dante, &c., <a href="#Page_344">344</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the modern, of England, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li> +<li>—slow diffusion of, before printing, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li> +<li>—French, under Louis XIV., <a href="#Page_481">481</a></li> +<li>—English, during the eighteenth century, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Lombards, or Longobards, irruption of the, <a href="#Page_129">129</a> <i>et seq.</i> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—character and polity of the, <a href="#Page_131">131</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Long Parliament, the, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li> + +<li>Lothaire, son of Louis the Debonnaire, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—emperor, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Louis, origin of name of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + +<li>Louis the Debonnaire, reign of, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> + +<li>Louis, son of Louis the Debonnaire, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> + +<li>Louis VII. heads the second Crusade, <a href="#Page_284">284</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—divorces his wife, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Louis VIII., crusade against the Albigenses under, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> + +<li>Louis IX., crusade against the Albigenses under, <a href="#Page_304">304</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—character and reign of, <a href="#Page_311">311</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—seventh Crusade under, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li> +<li>—prisoner and ransomed, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li> +<li>—his death, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Louis XI., first despotic King of France, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li> + +<li>Louis XII., a party to the league of Cambrai, <a href="#Page_409">409</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—war with the Pope, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></li> +<li>—expelled from Italy, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Louis XIII., reign of, in France, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li> + +<li>Louis XIV., accession of, <a href="#Page_469">469</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—rise of, as the absolute King, <a href="#Page_475">475</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—the accession, policy, and reign of, <a href="#Page_479">479</a></li> +<li>—private life of, <a href="#Page_482">482</a></li> +<li>—the revocation or the Edict of Nantes, <a href="#Page_483">483</a></li> +<li>—his reception, &c. of James II., <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a></li> +<li>—his successes in war, <a href="#Page_486">486</a></li> +<li>—peace of Ryswick, <a href="#Page_487">487</a></li> +<li>—the war of the Succession, <a href="#Page_489">489</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—the peace of Utrecht, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Louis XVI., the execution of, <a href="#Page_524">524</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_534" id="Page_534">[534]</a></span> +Louis of Orleans, struggle of, with John of Burgundy, <a href="#Page_361">361</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his murder, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Lower classes, how regarded by the Crusaders, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li> + +<li>Loyola, the founder of the Jesuits, <a href="#Page_406">406</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—character of, and institution of the Jesuits by, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Luitprand, King of Lombardy, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + +<li>Luther, early life of, <a href="#Page_406">406</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the rise and career of, <a href="#Page_423">423</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—death of, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Lutherans and Calvinists, hatred between, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li> + +<li>Luxembourg, the marshal, <a href="#Page_481">481</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the victories of, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Macrinus, the emperor, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> + +<li>Magdeburg, the sack of, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li> + +<li>Magna Charta, effects of, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—its conditions, <a href="#Page_308">308</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Magyars, first appearance of the, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> + +<li>Mahomet. <i>See</i> Mohammed.</li> + +<li>Maid of Norway, the, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> + +<li>Maintenon, Madame de, married to Louis XIV., <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.</li> + +<li>Marcus Aurelius, accession and reign of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Marlborough, the victories of, <a href="#Page_499">499</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Martin V., Pope, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li> + +<li>Mary, the reign of, in England, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li> + +<li>Mary of Scotland, policy of Elizabeth toward, <a href="#Page_437">437</a> <i>et seq.</i> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—defence of her execution, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Mary de Medicis, position of, in France, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li> + +<li>Matilda, the countess, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + +<li>Maximilian, the emperor, a party to the league of Cambrai, <a href="#Page_409">409</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—hostilities with the Pope, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></li> +<li>—proposed as his successor, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></li> +<li>—turns against the French, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li> +<li>—in the pay of Henry VIII., <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li> +<li>—and Luther, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Maximian, the emperor, <a href="#Page_75">75</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—abdicates, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Maximin, the accession and reign of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + +<li>Maximus, appointment of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his death, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Mayors of the palace, origin of the, <a href="#Page_150">150</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—powers, &c. of the, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Mazarin, the cardinal, the policy, &c. of, <a href="#Page_478">478</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his death, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Mecca, capture of, by Mohammed, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li>Mediterranean, supremacy of Rome over the, <a href="#Page_56">56</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—diminished importance of the, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Meroveg, King of the Franks, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> + +<li>Messalina, the empress, <a href="#Page_20">20</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—her death, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Mexico, conquest of, by the Spaniards, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li> + +<li>Michelet, picture of France in the ninth century by, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> + +<li>Middle Ages, commencement of the, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> + +<li>Middle class, destruction of the, under the Roman emperors, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> + +<li>Milan, sack of, by the Franks, &c., <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> + +<li>Military spirit, strength of the, in England, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li> + +<li>Military strength, the, of ancient Rome and modern Europe, <a href="#Page_56">56</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Minorca ceded to England, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>.</li> + +<li>Mirandola, Julius II. at siege of, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> + +<li>Mohammed, birth and career of, <a href="#Page_138">138</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—death of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> +<li>—his successors, <a href="#Page_159">159</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Mohammedanism, commencing struggle of, with Christianity, <a href="#Page_141">141</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—progress of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—first arrested by battle of Tours, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> +<li>—resemblances between, and Catholicism, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Monarchical principle, restoration of the, with Pepin, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + +<li>Monasteries, influence of, on agriculture, <a href="#Page_143">143</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—their intelligence, &c., <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> +<li>—commencement of corruption, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> +<li>—the early English, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> +<li>—reformation of, by St. Benedict, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> +<li>—state of the, during the tenth century, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li> +<li>—number of, in France, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li> +<li>—dissolution of the, in England, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Monks, the early, <a href="#Page_115">115</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—industry, &c. of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—the early English, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> +<li>—gluttony, &c. of the, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> +<li>—degeneracy of in the thirteenth century, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Moors, final loss of Spain by the, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> + +<li>Municipalities, rise of the <a href="#Page_277">277</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—their growing importance, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Murder, fines for, among the Franks, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> + +<li>Music, encouragement of, by Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Nantes, edict of, its revocation, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li> + +<li>Napoleon, the rise, &c. of, <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li> + +<li>Narses, exploits of, in Italy, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> + +<li>National debt, the English, its growth, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li> + +<li>Navareta, the battle of, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li> + +<li>Navies of Modern Europe, the, <a href="#Page_57">57</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Nelson, the victories of, <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li> + +<li>Netherlands, Alva’s cruelties in the, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li> + +<li>Nero, character and reign of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + +<li>Nerva, the emperor, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> + +<li>Neustria, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> + +<li>Nice, the Council of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> + +<li>Nicea taken by the Crusaders, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> + +<li>Nicene creed, the, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> + +<li>Nicholas Breakspear becomes pope, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> + +<li>Niger, a candidate for the empire, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li>Nobility, new, originated by Constantine, <a href="#Page_87">87</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—collision between, and the Church, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> +<li>—policy of Hugh Capet towards the, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> +<li>—effects of the Crusades on the, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li> +<li>—conditions of Magna Charta regarding the, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li> +<li>—decline of the, <a href="#Page_359">359</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—policy of Richelieu against the, <a href="#Page_476">476</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—the French, at the time of the Revolution, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Nogaret, Chancellor of France, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li> + +<li>Nominalists, rise of the, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> + +<li>Normans, the conquest of England by the, <a href="#Page_253">253</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—feeling against the, in England, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Norman kings, character of the, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + +<li>Normandy, settlement of the Normans in, <a href="#Page_222">222</a> <i>et seq.</i> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—power of the dukes, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Norsemen, Charlemagne’s prescience regarding the, <a href="#Page_197">197</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—progress of the, in the ninth century, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> +<li>—their invasions of England, <a href="#Page_212">212</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—results of the settlements of the, in France, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> +<li>—settlement under Rollo, <a href="#Page_222">222</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>North America, the English colonization of, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_535" id="Page_535">[535]</a></span> +Novellæ of Justinian, the, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> + +<li>Novatian and Cornelius, the schism between, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> + +<li>Novgorod, the kingdom of, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> + +<li>Nunneries, reformation of, by St. Benedict, <a href="#Page_200">200</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—of the twelfth century, the, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Odoacer, King of Italy, <a href="#Page_111">111</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—overthrow of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Omar, the lieutenant of Mohammed, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—chosen caliph, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>—destruction of the Alexandrian library, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> +<li>—his habits, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Orleans, the siege of, <a href="#Page_385">385</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—relieved by Joan of Arc, <a href="#Page_387">387</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Ostrogoths, overthrow of the, in Italy, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> + +<li>Otho, the emperor, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + +<li>Otho the Great, the emperor, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Padua, destroyed by Attila, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> + +<li>Palos, the return of Columbus to, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> + +<li>Palestine, eagerness for news from, during the Crusades, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> + +<li>Pandects of Justinian, the, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> + +<li>Pantheism, form of, in the thirteenth century, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> + +<li>Papacy, the, state of, during the tenth century, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—supremacy of, under Hildebrand, <a href="#Page_250">250</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—general subjection to, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> +<li>—triumphs of, in the thirteenth century, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li> +<li>—diminished consideration of, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li> +<li>—struggle of Philip the Handsome with, <a href="#Page_326">326</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—the schism in, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li> +<li>—state of, in the fifteenth century, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Papal supremacy, the, abjured by England, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li> + +<li>Paper, first manufacture of, from rags, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li> + +<li>Paris, state of, under John the Fearless, <a href="#Page_364">364</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the massacre of St. Bartholomew in, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Parliament, first summoned in England, <a href="#Page_313">313</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—concessions wrung from Edward I. by, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Parliaments, the French, what, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> + +<li>Party libels, prevalence of, under Walpole, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</li> + +<li>Passau, the treaty of, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li>Peasantry, the, insurrection of, during fourteenth century, <a href="#Page_356">356</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—state of, during fifteenth century, <a href="#Page_374">374</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—the French, before the Revolution, <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>People, state of the, under the early emperors, <a href="#Page_34">34</a> <i>et seq.</i> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—conditions of Magna Charta regarding the, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Pepin, accession of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—crowned king, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Persia, new monarchy of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—subdued by the Mohammedans, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Pertinax, accession and murder of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + +<li>Pestilence, frequency of, during the tenth century, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> + +<li>Peter the Hermit, preaches the first Crusade, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> + +<li>Peterborough, Lord, the victories of, in Spain, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li> + +<li>Petrarch, the works of, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> + +<li>Philip, the emperor, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> + +<li>Philip I. of France, attacks of Hildebrand on, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> + +<li>Philip le Bel, struggle of, with Boniface VIII., <a href="#Page_326">326</a> <i>et seq.</i> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—arrests the latter, <a href="#Page_329">329</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—poisons Benedict XI., <a href="#Page_331">331</a></li> +<li>—secures election of Bernard de Goth, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></li> +<li>—the persecution of the Templars, <a href="#Page_337">337</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Philip VI., war with Edward III., <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> + +<li>Philip II., accession of, <a href="#Page_432">432</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the Spanish Armada, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Philip of Valois, the victory of, at Cassel, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> + +<li>Philip Augustus, conquest of the English possessions by, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li> + +<li>Pinkie, the battle of, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> + +<li>Pitt, (Lord Chatham,) the ministry of, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li> + +<li>Plague of Florence, the, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> + +<li>Plantagenets, character of the, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + +<li>Plassey, the battle of, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li> + +<li>Pococke, Admiral, exploits of, in the East, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li> + +<li>Poictiers, the battle of, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> + +<li>Poitou, how acquired by England, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> + +<li>Poland, the partition of, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li> + +<li>Polemo, a philosopher, anecdote of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + +<li>Pompeia Plotina, wife of Trajan, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> + +<li>Pondicherry, the capture of, by the English, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li> + +<li>Poor, relations of the Church to the, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> + +<li>Pope, the claims to supremacy of, <a href="#Page_132">132</a> <i>et seq.</i> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—efforts of the early English monks on behalf of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> +<li>—his position in the eighth century, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> +<li>—alliance, &c. between Charles Martel and, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> +<li>—crowns Pepin, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> +<li>—supremacy of, after Hildebrand, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> +<li>—the revolt of Arnold of Brescia against, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li> +<li>—his supremacy denied by the Albigenses, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li> +<li>—position, &c. of, before the Reformation, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Popes, the, the claims of supremacy by, <a href="#Page_148">148</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—increasing supremacy of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> +<li>—increasing pretensions of, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> +<li>—subservience of, to France, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li> +<li>—the rival, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Popular assemblies, early, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> + +<li>Portugal, maritime discoveries of, <a href="#Page_395">395</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—increasing naval power of, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Prætorian Guards, sale of the empire by the, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + +<li>Printing, influences of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—discovery of, and its effects, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a></li> +<li>—growing importance of discovery of, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Probus, the emperor, <a href="#Page_72">72</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his conquests and policy, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Protestantism, influence of, <a href="#Page_402">402</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—establishment of, by treaty of Passau, <a href="#Page_431">431</a></li> +<li>—established in England under Elizabeth, <a href="#Page_436">436</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Protestants, the, expelled from France, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li> + +<li>Provençal dialect, disappearance of the, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> + +<li>Prussia, rise of, during eighteenth century, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the seven years’ war, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Puritanism, origin, &c. of, in England, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_536" id="Page_536">[536]</a></span><a href="#Page_456">456</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—growing tendency to, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Quebec, the battle of, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Raleigh, the naval exploits of, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li> + +<li>Ravenna, the Exarch of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the exarchate of, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> +<li>—transferred to the Pope, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Raymond of Toulouse, the leader of the Albigenses, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li>Raymond VII., Count of Toulouse, <a href="#Page_303">303</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—deprived of his possessions, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Realists, rise of the, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> + +<li>Rebellion of 1715, the, <a href="#Page_504">504</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—and of 1745, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Reformation, influences of the, <a href="#Page_14">14</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—supreme importance of, <a href="#Page_419">419</a></li> +<li>—state of the Church before it, <a href="#Page_419">419</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—the rise of the, <a href="#Page_422">422</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Regner Lodbrog, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> + +<li>Relics, the system of, <a href="#Page_262">262</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—passion for, during the Crusades, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Religion, state of, during the tenth century, <a href="#Page_219">219</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—in the thirteenth century, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li> +<li>—before the reformation, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Republics, the Italian, rise of, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li> + +<li>Revolution of 1688, the, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li> + +<li>Rheims, coronation of Charles VII. at, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li> + +<li>Richard Cœur de Lion, character of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—heads the third Crusade, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Richelieu, Cardinal, <a href="#Page_449">449</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the policy of, and its results, <a href="#Page_476">476</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—the death of, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Robert of Normandy, the Crusader, <a href="#Page_263">263</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—loss of Normandy by, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li> +<li>—a prisoner in England, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Robert, son of Hugh Capet, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + +<li>Robert Guiscard, conquests of, in Italy, <a href="#Page_254">254</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—sack of Rome by, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Rochelle, the capture of, from the Huguenots, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li> + +<li>Rois fainéants, the <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + +<li>Rollo, settlement of, in Normandy, <a href="#Page_222">222</a> <i>et seq.</i> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—created Duke of Normandy, <a href="#Page_225">225</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Romans, the conquest of England by, and its effects, <a href="#Page_21">21</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—passion of, for gladiatorial shows, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Roman empire, first broken in on by the barbarians, <a href="#Page_51">51</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—its extent and forces, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> +<li>—compared with modern Europe, <a href="#Page_57">57</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—divided into East and West, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Roman law, reintroduction of, in Europe, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> + +<li>Rome, the supremacy of, the characteristic of the first century, <a href="#Page_16">16</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—power of the emperor, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> +<li>—state of, during the first century, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> +<li>—increasing weakness of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—removal of the seat of empire from, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li>—the sack of, by Alaric, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li>—sacked by the Vandals, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> +<li>—causes of her fall, <a href="#Page_111">111</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—recovered by Belisarius, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> +<li>—taken, &c. by Totila, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> +<li>—supremacy of the Bishop of, <a href="#Page_126">126</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—fallen state of, in the sixth century, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> +<li>—the Bishops of, claim supremacy, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> +<li>—influence of the unity of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> +<li>—state of during the tenth century, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> +<li>—sack of, by the Normans, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> +<li>—the Crusaders at, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li> +<li>—Arnold of Brescia in, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li> +<li>—jubilee at, 1300, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li> +<li>—state of, before the Reformation, <a href="#Page_420">420</a></li> +<li>—Luther at, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Romish Church, influence of the Jesuits on, <a href="#Page_434">434</a> <i>et seq.</i> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—rejoicings of, on massacre of St. Bartholomew, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Romulus Augustulus, the emperor, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + +<li>Rosamund, wife of Alboin, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + +<li>Roses, the wars of the, <a href="#Page_393">393</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—effect of, on the nobility, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Rouen, occupied by the Normans, <a href="#Page_222">222</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—execution of Joan of Arc at, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Royal power, general consolidation of, in the fifteenth century, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> + +<li>Russia, the Danes in, <a href="#Page_213">213</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—rise of, during eighteenth century, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a></li> +<li>—the seven years’ war, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>St. Bartholomew, the massacre of, <a href="#Page_442">442</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—its effects, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>St. Benedict, industry, &c. inculcated by, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the second, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>St. Bernard on the luxury, &c. of the clergy, <a href="#Page_274">274</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—discussions of, with Abelard, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li> +<li>—the second Crusade originated by, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>St. Boniface, coronation of Pepin by, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + +<li>St. Columba, and Brunehild, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> + +<li>St. Dominic. <i>See</i> Dominic.</li> + +<li>St. Francis of Assisi, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li> + +<li>St. Louis. <i>See</i> Louis IX.</li> + +<li>St. Remi, Clovis baptized by, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> + +<li>Sapor, the capture of Valerian by, <a href="#Page_72">72</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—death of Julian in war with, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Saracens, the, the conquests of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a> <i>et seq.</i> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—their defeat by Charles Martel, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—in Spain, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> +<li>—crusade against, in Italy, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> +<li>—in Palestine, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Sarmatians, the, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + +<li>Sassanides, dynasty of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + +<li>Saxons, feeling of the, towards the Normans in England, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> + +<li>Saxony, the Elector of, and Luther, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> + +<li>Scholastic philosophy, rise of the, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> + +<li>Schools, establishment of, under Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> + +<li>Scotland, state of, in the eighth century, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—resistance to the papacy in, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li> +<li>—Edward I.’s attempt on, <a href="#Page_319">319</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—the battle of Bannockburn, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li> +<li>—the ballads of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li> +<li>—effects of battle of Flodden in, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li> +<li>—its subsequent state, <a href="#Page_415">415</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—the policy of Elizabeth in, <a href="#Page_437">437</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>—James’s attempt to force Episcopacy on, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li> +<li>—persecution of the Covenanters in, <a href="#Page_473">473</a></li> +<li>—the Union Act, <a href="#Page_502">502</a></li> +<li>—the rebellion of 1715, <a href="#Page_504">504</a></li> +<li>—and of 1745, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Scotus Erigena, career, &c. of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + +<li>Septimania, power of the Dukes of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + +<li>Serfs, conditions of Magna Charta regarding the, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> + +<li>Seven years’ war, the, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li> + +<li>Severus, Alexander, accession and reign of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_537" id="Page_537">[537]</a></span> +Severus, Septimius, accession and reign of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Sicily, conquest of, by the Normans, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li> + +<li>Simon de Montfort, the crusade against the Albigenses under, <a href="#Page_302">302</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his death, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Simon de Montfort, summoning of parliament by, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li> + +<li>Sixtus V., approval of the murder of Henry III. by, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li> + +<li>Slaves, state of the, under the Romans, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> + +<li>Smalcalde, the Protestant league of, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> + +<li>Society, state of, under James I., <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li> + +<li>Solway Moss, the battle of, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li> + +<li>South Sea bubble, the, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</li> + +<li>Spain, severance of, from the Roman empire, <a href="#Page_108">108</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the Saracens in, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> +<li>—threatened predominance of, in sixteenth century, <a href="#Page_402">402</a></li> +<li>—its increasing importance, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li> +<li>—increasing naval power of, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li> +<li>—consolidation of, in the sixteenth century, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li> +<li>—continued hostilities with, at sea, <a href="#Page_451">451</a></li> +<li>—the attacks of the buccaneers on her colonies, &c., <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Spanish Armada, the, and its defeat, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li> + +<li>Spanish Succession, the war of the, <a href="#Page_498">498</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Spurs, the battle of the, at Courtrai, <a href="#Page_336">336</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—at Guinegate, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Staupitz, connection of, with Luther, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> + +<li>Stephen, the wars of, in England, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> + +<li>Stilicho, opposed to Alaric, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his murder, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Strafford, execution of, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li> + +<li>Succession, the war of the, <a href="#Page_498">498</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Sulpician, a candidate for the empire, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + +<li>Supino, betrayal of Anagni by, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li> + +<li>Surenus, minister of Trajan, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> + +<li>Surrey, the Earl of, at Flodden, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li> + +<li>Switzerland, ingress of French Protestants into, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li> + +<li>Sylvester II., Pope, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his character, &c., <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Syria, progress of Mohammedanism in, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Talbot, raises the siege of Orleans, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li> + +<li>Tancho, the invention of bells by, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + +<li>Taxes, system of collecting, under Constantine, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> + +<li>Taylor, Rowland, the martyr, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li> + +<li>Tchuda, check of the Saracens at, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> + +<li>Templars, the destruction of the, <a href="#Page_337">337</a> <i>et seq.</i> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the charges against them, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Tetzel, the sale of indulgences by, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> + +<li>Theodora, wife of Justinian, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + +<li>Theodoric the Goth, at the battle of Châlons, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> + +<li>Theodoric, the reign of, <a href="#Page_119">119</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his supremacy, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> +<li>—his death, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Theodosius, the emperor, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> + +<li>Tiberius, the reign of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his character, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Tilly, the sack of Magdeburg by, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li> + +<li>Timbuctoo, expedition by Englishmen to, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li> + +<li>Tinchebray, the battle of, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> + +<li>Titus, the reign of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the siege and capture of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_30">30</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Torstenson, the victories of, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li> + +<li>Totila, King of the Goths, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> + +<li>Toulouse, the Marquises of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—power of the Dukes of, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> +<li>—the Albigenses in, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Tours, the battle of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Towns, effect of the Crusades on the, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—increasing power of the, in the fourteenth century, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Trajan, the accession and reign of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Transubstantiation, doctrine of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> + +<li>Trebonian, the Justinian code drawn up by, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> + +<li>Tripoli, conquered by the Saracens, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> + +<li>Troubadours, attacks on the clergy by the, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> + +<li>Truce of God, the, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> + +<li>Tunis, crusade of Louis IX. against, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li> + +<li>Turenne, the victories of, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Union Act, passing of the, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>.</li> + +<li>United States, the revolt of the, <a href="#Page_518">518</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Universal church, belief in a, before the Reformation, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li> + +<li>Urban II. and the first Crusaders, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> + +<li>Utrecht, thy peace of, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Valens, the emperor, <a href="#Page_97">97</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his defeat and death, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Valentinian, the emperor, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + +<li>Valerian, the emperor, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> + +<li>Vandals, conquest of Africa by the, <a href="#Page_108">108</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—sack of Rome by the, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> +<li>—overthrow of the, by Belisarius, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Vasco da Gama, the discovery of the route to India by, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li> + +<li>Venaissin, acquisition of, by the Pope, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li> + +<li>Venice, rise of, <a href="#Page_277">277</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—power, &c. of, <a href="#Page_407">407</a></li> +<li>—attacked by Julius II., <a href="#Page_408">408</a></li> +<li>—league of Cambrai, <a href="#Page_409">409</a></li> +<li>—decay of the power of, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Verona destroyed by Attila, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> + +<li>Versailles, Louis XIV. at, <a href="#Page_481">481</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—its cost, <a href="#Page_483">483</a></li> +<li>—the peace of, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Vespasian, accession of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + +<li>Vicenza, taken by Attila, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> + +<li>Vidius Pollio, anecdote of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li>Vikinger, the, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> + +<li>Virginia, settlement of, by the English, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li> + +<li>Visigoths, settlements of the, in Spain, &c., <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> + +<li>Vitellius, the emperor, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Wales, early state of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + +<li>Wallace, the victories, &c. of, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li> + +<li>Walpole, Sir R., the ministry of, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</li> + +<li>Wartburg, seclusion of Luther at, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> + +<li>Wealth, influence of the Crusades on, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> + +<li>Wellington, the victories of, in India, <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li> + +<li>Wenilon, Bishop of Sens, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + +<li>Wentworth, execution of, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li> + +<li>Western Church, severance of the Eastern from, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> + +<li>Wickliff, his translation of the Bible, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> + +<li>Wickliffites, persecution of the, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li> + +<li>William of Normandy, churches, &c. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_538" id="Page_538">[538]</a></span>erected by, <a href="#Page_244">244</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—the conquest of England by, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> +<li>—character of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>William Rufus, character of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + +<li>William III., accession of, in England, <a href="#Page_485">485</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his reign, <a href="#Page_486">486</a></li> +<li>—the death of, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Winchester, the Bishop of, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li> + +<li>Winifried, the monk, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + +<li>Witig, King of the Ostrogoths, <a href="#Page_124">124</a> +<ul class="index"> +<li>—his overthrow, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> +</ul> +</li> + +<li>Wittenagemot, the, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> + +<li>Wolfe, the conquest of Canada by, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li> + +<li>Woman, increased respect paid to, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> + +<li>Worms, the Diet of, Luther before, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Yeomanry, rise of, in England, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> + +<li>Yezdegird, King of Persia, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Zorndorf, the battle of, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<p class="center spaced-above">THE END.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_539" id="Page_539">[539]</a></span></p> + +<p class="newpage">“<i>A great and noble work, rich in information, eloquent and scholarly in style, +earnestly devout in feeling.</i>”—<span class="smcap">London Literary World.</span></p> + +<p class="center">D. APPLETON & CO., NEW YORK,</p> + +<p class="small center">HAVE JUST PUBLISHED</p> + +<p class="ad-title">The Life and Words of Christ.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>By CUNNINGHAM GEIKIE, D.D.</i></p> + +<p class="center">With Twelve Engravings on Steel. In 2 vols. Price, $8.00.</p> + +<div class="from-container"> +<p><i>From Dr. <span class="smcap">Delitzsch</span>, the Commentator.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>“A work of gigantic industry, noble in outward form, of the highest rank in +its contents, and, what is the chief point, it breathes the spirit of true faith in +Christ. I have read enough of it to rejoice at such a magnificent creation, and +especially to wonder at the extent of reading it shows. When I shall have occasion +to revise my Hebrew New Testament, I hope to get much help from it.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="from-container"> +<p><i>From Bishop <span class="smcap">Beckwith</span>, of Georgia.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>“The book is of value not merely to the theological student or student of +history, but the family. It furnishes information which every one should possess, +and which thoughtful people will be glad to gain from so agreeable a teacher.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="from-container"> +<p><i>From Dr. <span class="smcap">John Hall</span>.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>“The author has aimed at producing book of continuous, easy narrative, in +which the reader may, as far as possible, see the Saviour of men live and move, +and may hear the words he utters with the most vivid attainable idea of his circumstances +and surroundings. The result is a work to which all Christian hearts +will respond.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="from-container"> +<p><i>From Bishop <span class="smcap">Littlejohn</span>, of Long Island.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>“Dr. Geikie has performed his task—the most difficult in biographical literature—with +great ability. His pages evince abundant and accurate learning, and, +what is of even more consequence, a simple and cordial faith in the Gospel narratives. +The more the work shall circulate, the more it will be regarded as a most +valuable addition to a branch of sacred literature which ought in every age to +absorb the best fruits of sacred scholarship, and to command the highest gifts of +human genius.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="from-container"> +<p><i>From Rev. Dr. <span class="smcap">Adams</span>, President of the Union Theological Seminary.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>“Another invaluable contribution in proof of historical Christianity. It is a +beautiful specimen of typography, and we anticipate for it an extensive circulation, +to which it is entitled for its substantial worth, its erudition, its brilliant +style, and its fervent devotion.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="from-container"> +<p><i>From the Rev. <span class="smcap">W. Lindsay Alexander, D.D., S.T.P.</span>, Edinburgh, Member of +the Old Testament Company of Revision, Editor of Kitto’s “Cyclopædia of +Biblical Literature,” etc.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>“Dr. Geikie’s work is the result of much thought, research, and learning, and +it is adorned with many literary excellences. It cannot fail to become a standard, +for its merits are substantial, and its utility great.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="from-container"> +<p><i>From the Rev. Dr. <span class="smcap">Curry</span>.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>“A careful examination of Dr. Geikie’s work seems to prove, what might before +have been doubted, that just such a work was needed to meet a real want; +it successfully indicates its own right to be, by responding to the necessity that +it discovers.”</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_540" id="Page_540">[540]</a></span></p> + +<p class="ad-title newpage">Dr. Geikie’s Life and Words of Christ.</p> + +<p class="center">OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>“These fresh volumes are marked throughout by a humane and devout spirit. +The work is sure to make for itself a place in popular literature.”—<i>New York +Times.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>“In Dr. Geikie’s volumes the person and works of Christ receive the chief +attention, of course; but the background is so faithfully and vividly drawn, that +the reader is given a fresher idea of the central figure.”—<i>New York Independent.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>“A monument of industry and a mine of learning. The students of our theological +colleges, ministers, and others, will find much of the information here +given of great worth and novelty.”—<i>Nonconformist.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>“Dr. Geikie’s paraphrases are generally most excellent commentaries.</p> + +<p>“An encyclopædia upon the life and times of Jesus Christ, but an encyclopædia +which has an organic unity, pulsating with a true and devout spirituality +of thought and feeling.”—<i>London Christian World.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>“His style is always clear, rising sometimes into majestic beauty. His most +steady point of view is the relation of Christ to the elevation of the race, and he +struggles to make clear the amazing richness of Christ’s new things—the profound +character of his philosophy, and the practical humanity that wells up out +of these great deeps.”—<i>New York Methodist.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>“The ‘Life of Christ’ may be fitly compared to a diamond with many facets. +From every point of view, the light that streams forth upon us is beneficent. +No two observers will probable ever catch precisely the same ray, but, for all +who look with unclouded eye (whatever their angle of vision may be), there shines +forth ‘the light of the glory of God in the face of Jesus Christ.’ Without disparaging +in any sense the noble labors of his predecessors, we think Dr. Geikie +has caught a new ray from the ‘Mountain of Light,’ and has added a new page to +our Christology which many will delight to read.”—<i>New York Evangelist.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>“The chief merit of Dr. Geikie’s volumes lies in the attention paid to the +surroundings of our Saviour’s earthly life; so that the reader is presented with +a picture of the Jewish people, national characteristics, social customs, and +religious belief and ritual.</p> + +<p>“It is with reluctance that we take leave of these splendid volumes, for it is +an enjoyment to examine and a pleasant duty and privilege to commend them. +We feel sure we could desire no more valuable and useful addition to Christian +libraries.”—<i>Episcopal Recorder</i> (Philadelphia).</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>“If any one desires a reliable and intelligent guide in the study of the Gospel +history, he cannot, we think, do better than take the graphic pages of Dr. Geikie. +The American edition is got up most elegantly; the binding is very handsome, +the paper good, the type large and clear; the engravings and maps are excellent. +They are, indeed, two beautiful volumes.”—<i>Evangelical Churchman</i> (Toronto).</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>“Of all that has been written hitherto on that life, nothing seems to us to +equal in beauty that which we find in the two magnificent volumes before us. +They bring to view the social conditions in which Jesus made his appearance. +They give us a vivid portraiture of those who were about him—both the friends +and the enemies—the parties, the customs, the influences that prevailed.”—<i>Episcopal +Register</i> (Philadelphia).</p> +</div> + +<p class="right" style="padding-right:4em;"> +<i>D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers,</i> +</p> +<p class="right"> +<span class="smcap">549 & 551 Broadway, New York.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="transnote"> +<p class="trans-heading">Transcriber’s Notes</p> +<p class="covernote">The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p> +<p> +Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation +in the original document have been preserved. +</p> +<p class="covernote"> +The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain. +</p> +</div> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44703 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/44703-h/images/cover.jpg b/44703-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6535cf4 --- /dev/null +++ b/44703-h/images/cover.jpg |
